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WORKERS OF
THE NATION

AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE OCCUPATIONS OF THE
AMERICAN PEOPLE AND A RECORD OF BUSINESS,
PROFESSIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL ACHIEVEMENT AT
THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

GILSON WILLETS

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE FOLLOWING

BOARD OF EDITORS

HON. ROBERT J. TRACEWELL

Comptroller of the U. S. Treasury

S. N. D. NORTH

niri*i:>n of M«H,,/.irt>,r.s, ('. R. Census Office

HON. JOHN R. PROCTOR

fr. ,<?. Civil Service Commission

FRANK J.SARGENT

Preaidi nt Brotherhood of Locomotive Fir

DAVID T. DAY

U. S. Geological Survey

HUGH M. SMITH

U. f>. Commission of Fish and Fisheriet

MARTIS S. DECKER

Interstate Gunnierre Commission

GEORGE H. DANIELS

ATew York Central Railroad

DR. CYRUS EDSON

Former President New York Board of Health

ARCHBISHOP JOHN IRELAND

Member National Civic Federation

ILLUSTRATED WITH EIGHT FULL PAGES IN COLOR BY FREDERIC

REMINGTON, H. REUTERDAHL, W. R. LEIGH, C. M. RELYEA,

AND THIRTY-TWO FULL-PAGE HALF-TONES

IN TWO VOLUMES-VOLUME TWO

NEW YORK

P-F- COLLIER AND

. MCMIII .

SON

MACHINE HARVESTING AND THRESHING IN THE WEST

DRAWN BY W. R. LEIGH

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME Tll'O

COLORED PLATES

SWITCHING TRAIN'S IN* THE YARDS OF A GREAT RAILROAD TERMIXAL. Drawn ly W. R. Leiql\.

THE TRAIXIXG OF A SOLDIER — UNITED STATES TROOPS ox THE MARCH. Jiruicit, bij Frederic

Remington ................

MACHINE HARVESTING AND THRESHIXG ix THE WEST. Drawn ly W. R. Leiyli ....

BEHIND THE SCENES — ACTORS A \VAITIXG THEIR TCRX. Drawn by Everett Shinn

BLACK AND WHITE

TRANSPORTATION ox THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER

A CONGESTED FREIGHT YARD

COAL MIXERS AT THE BOTTOM OF A PIT . . .

"HYDRAULICK1XG"' OX THE YlJBA RlVKR

ICE HARVESTING ox THE HUDSON RIVER

THE SALT INDUSTRY — NEW YORK STATE RESERVATION

PICKING COTT'QX IN MISSISSIPPI

Ax AMERICAN TEA PLANTATION

HARVESTING ix THE GREAT WESTERN WHEAT FIELDS — COMBINED HARVESTER, CUTTING, THRESH-
ING AND SACKING MACHINE

CIIIXESE PICKING OLIVES IN CALIFORNIA '

THE PRODUCE MARKET, PHILADELPHIA

COWBOYS AFTER THE ROUND-UP ox THE PLAINS

Ax OPERATING ROOM .

TRAINED NURSES AT WORK

THE WAR CORRESPONDENTS MR. RICHARD HARDING DAVIS AND MR. STEPHEN BOXSAL TALK-
ING TO COLONEL ROOSEVELT .

NEWS PHOTOGRAPHERS WITH CAMERAS READY TO SNAP AT A PASSING PROCESSION .

IN AN ART SCHOOL— FREE-HAND CLASS AT WORK

IN A CAMERA FACTORY — TESTING THE LENSES

LARGEST CAMERA ix THE WORLD — EXPOSING THE PLATE .

THE BOY CHOIR — A RECESSIONAL

ARMY RECRUITING OFFICE — ADMINISTERING THE OATH

CADETS AT THE WEST POIXT MILITARY ACADEMY — SKIRMISH LINE DRILL

GUN PRACTICE ABOARD A MAX-OF-WAR ...........

BLUE JACKETS AT SWORD PRACTICE , . . .

POSTAL SERVICE — SKINNING THE CASES, CIIICACO POST-OFFICE

LIFE-SAVING SERVICE -THROWING OUT THE LIFE-LIXE

STEAMER GOING TO FIRE

MOUNTED POLICEMAN STOPPING RUNAWAY

CONTENTS

PART I

TRA NSPOR TA TION BY LA ND A ND WA TER

CHAPTER I
TRANSPORTATION BY LAND

Railroads of the United States — Statistics of Railways — Improvements in Railway Ser-
vice— Subsidized Railroads — Railroad Combinations— The Greatest Railroad Com-
bination— "Community of Interest" Among Railroads — Railroad Accidents . . 507

CHAPTER II
THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT RAILROAD

Organization of a Railway System — The Railroad President — The General Manager —
The Traffic Department — The Operating Department — The System of Signals —
The Train Despatcher — The Train Despatcher's Duties — Locomotive Firemen —
Locomotive Engineers — Railway Brakemen — Railway Conductors — Parlor, Sleep-
ing and Dining Car Service — "Braking" a Train — Making a Railroad Time-Table 518

CHAPTER III
THE RAILROAD MAN

Railroading as an Occupation — Opportunities in the Railway Service — The Training
of Railroad Men — Earnings of Railroad Men — Qualifying as a Railroad Employe —
Promotion in the Railway Service — Discipline in the Railway Service — Reprimands
and Suspensions — Methods of Discharge — Working Hours of Railroad Men —
Sunday Work — Railway Apprentices 535

CHAPTER IV
RAILWAY LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

Railway Brotherhoods and Orders — The Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers — The
Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen — The Order of Railway Conductors — The
Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen — Order of Railway Telegraphers — Brotherhood
of Railway Trackmen — Brotherhood of Railway Carmen — Railway Benefit, Pension
and Relief Departments 552

CHAPTER V

STREET RAILWAYS

Electric Railways in the United States — Opportunities for Street Railway Employes —
Management of a Street Railway — The Motorman — The Training of the Motor-
man — Promotion of Motormen — New York Street Railway Employes — Metro-
politan Street Railway Association — Amalgamated Association of Street Railway
Employes 5^°

,-VoL a (i)

ii CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI
TRANSPORTATION BY WATER

The Merchant Fleets of the World— The Merchant Fleet of the United States— The
Atlantic and Pacific Fleets — The American Coasting Fleet — The Great Lakes Fleet
— Ore Steamers on the Great Lakes — Lake Carriers' Association — The Mississippi
River Fleet— The Canal Fleet— The Fleet of Yachts— Harbor Craft— The Fleet
of Tug Boats 569

CHAPTER VII
THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT STEAMSHIP LINE

Organization of a Steamship Line — Operations when a Ship is in Port — Cargoes of
Ocean Steamships — The Navigating Department — Firemen and Stokers Aboard
Ship — Ship's Surgeons and Pursers — Ocean Steamships as Hotels — The Steward's
Department 582

CHAPTER VIII

THE SEAMAN

The Education of the Navigator — Ships' Crews in the Merchant Marine — The Kind of
Men Who "Go to Sea" — The Life of a Sea-faring Man — Ships' Officers in the Mer-
chant Marine — Wages on American Vessels — The Sailor's Creature Comforts —
Conditions on American and Foreign Ships — The Hours of Labor on the Water
— Method of Employing Sailors — The Crimping System — Crews of Coasting Ves-
sels— Crews of Great Lake Vessels — Crews of Mississippi River Craft — Seamen's
Unions — Seamen's Institutions 590

CHAPTER IX
PILOTS, DIVERS, LONGSHOREMEN, AND EXPRESS SERVICE

Pilots and Their Organization — The Pilot at Sea — The Pilot's Power and His Fees
— Divers — Equipment and Methods of Divers — Pearl Divers — Stevedores and
Longshoremen — Longshoremen on the Great Lakes — The Express Service — Em-
ployment as Expressmen and Express Agents — Expressing Money and Perishable
Goods 605

PART II
MINING, AGRICULTURE, AND THE FISHERIES

CHAPTER I

THE MINING INDUSTRIES

The Mines of the United States — Summary of Gold, Silver and Copper Production —
Summary of Iron and Coal Production— Summary of Petroleum and Aluminium
Production — American Miners — Mine Superintendents — The Company Store Sys-
tem at Mines — The Company Tenement System at Mines — Child Labor in Mines —
Accidents in Mines — Profits in Mining Industries — The Largest Mining Exchange 616

CHAPTER II

THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY

Coal Production — Anthracite vs. Bituminous Coal Mining — The Total Number of Coal
Miners — The Coal Miner's Life — Foreigners in American Coal Mines — The Coal

CONTENTS iii

Miner's Training — The United Mine Workers of America — Conditions in the
Anthracite Coal Fields — The Great Coal Strike of 1902 626

CHAPTER III
THE IRON MINING INDUSTRY

The Iron Age — Iron Ore Production — Methods of Iron Mining — The Magnetic Proc-
ess of Iron Ore Reduction — Machinery in Iron Ore Reducing Works — The Iron
Miner's Life — Labor Conditions in Iron Mines — Lake Superior Iron Mining Region 638

CHAPTER IV
COPPER, LEAD AND ZINC MINING INDUSTRIES

The Copper Mining Industry — Butte, the World's Greatest Copper Camp — The Lead
Mining Industry — The Zinc Mining Industry — Novel Features of Zinc Mining —
Marketing the Product of Zinc Mines — Labor Conditions at Western Ore Mines —
Copper, Lead and Zinc Smelting and Refining 645

CHAPTER V
GOLD AND SILVER MINING INDUSTRIES

Production and Consumption of Gold and Silver — Gold and Silver Mining in Rocky
Mountain States — Mining in the Cripple Creek Region — Mining in the Klondike
— Cape Nome "Diggings" — Processes of Extracting Precious Metals — Methods
of Placer Mining — Hydraulic Mining— Gold Mine Prospectors and Speculators 653

CHAPTER VI
PETROLEUM AND MISCELLANEOUS MINING INDUSTRIES

The Petroleum Industry — The Production of Petroleum — Petroleum Refineries — The
Standard Oil Company — The Coke Industry — The Natural Gas Industry — Natural
Gas Industry in Kansas — Mica Mining — Diamond Mining — The Precious Stone
Industry — The Asphalt Industry — The Man Who Gave Asphalt to Commerce
— Production of Asphaltum 662

CHAPTER VII
QUARRYING, AND SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES

The Quarries of the United States — Marble Quarries — Marble Quarry Employes —
Granite Quarries — Slate Quarries — Quarriers at Work — Organization of Granite
Cutters — Stone Monuments — The Salt Industry — The Salt Combination — Salt De-
posits and Production — Processes of Salt Manufacture — The New York State Salt
Reservation — The Ice Industry — The Manufacture of Ice — Mechanical Refrigera-
tion as a Trade 674

CHAPTER VIII

THE FARMER

Agriculture in the United States — The Status of the Farmer — Modern Agricultural
Pursuits — General Statistics of Farms — Farming as a Business Enterprise — Or-
ganization and Co-operation Among Farmers — The Farmer and the Commission
Merchant — Mortgages on Farms and Crops — Farmers as Tenants — Farm Labor —
Chinese and Negroes as Farm Hands — Prosperity of "Hired Help" on Farms —
Earnings of Farm Hands — Agricultural Education — Agricultural Colleges — Gov-
ernment Employment for Agricultural Students and Experts — Home Study for
Farmers — Farmers' Reading Courses 690

iv CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX

THE CROPS

Summary of the Great Crops— The Cotton Crop— Negro Labor in the Cotton Fields—
The Cotton Planter — The Cotton Picker— Mechanical Methods of Handling Cot-
ton— Marketing the Cotton Crop— The Sugar and Sorghum Cane Crops — The
Sugar Beet Crop — The Tobacco Crop — The Tobacco Planter — Harvesting the
Tobacco Crop — Growing Tobacco Under Cover — The Tobacco Market — Raising
Tobacco for Export — The Rice Crop — The Rice Planter — Lowland Rice Culture
— Harvesting and Marketing the Rice Crop — Upland or Dry Rice Culture — The
Hop Crop— Hop Planters and Pickers— Harvesting and Marketing the Hop Crop
—The Seed Crop— Tea Culture in America 712

CHAPTER X
MACHINE FARMING AND THE CONDUCT OF GREAT FARMS

Development of Machine Farming — How Machinery Increased the Size and Value of
Farms — The Farmer's Dependence on Machinery — How Machinery Reduced the
Cost of Farming — Summary of Results of Machine Farming — The Western
Farms — Farms on the Pacific Coast — Conduct of a Great Wheat Farm — Manage-
ment of a "Bonanza" Farm — How a Wheat Crop is Raised — Labor on a Great
Farm — The Training of Machine Farm Hands 730

CHAPTER XI
FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE

The Fruit Industry — Classification of Fruit — Fruit Transportation and Cold Storage
— Ocean Carriage of Fruit — The New York Fruit Market — Fruit Auction Sales
and Pushcart Men — California Fruit — The Watermelon Industry — The Apple In-
dustry— The Berry Industry — The Grape Industry — The Grape Basket Industry —
The Raisin Industry — The Prune Industry — The Nut Industry — The Flower
Industry — Florists — Florists' Exchanges and Organizations — The Vegetable In-
dustry— Market Gardening and Truck Farming — The Truck Fanners' Associations
— Market Men 741

CHAPTER XII
THE DAIRY, POULTRY, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES

The Dairy Industry— Milch Cows— The Milk Trade— The Milkman— The Condensed
Milk Industry — Process of Condensed Milk Manufacture — Cheese Factories and
Creameries — Butter Manufacture — The Butter Trade — Oleomargarine Manufacture
—Cheese Manufacture— The Poultry Industry— The Incubator and Its Work— The
Egg Trade — Bee Keeping — The Honey Industry 759

CHAPTER XIII
THE STOCK RAISING INDUSTRY

Live Stock in the United States — Organizations of Cattlemen — Conditions in the
Grazing Business — Areas of Production of Live Stock — The Principal Live
Stock Markets — Domestic Animals in Cities and Towns — Cattle Raising — The
Modern Cowboy — Horse Raising — Hog Raising — Sheep Raising — The Wool
Supply — Foreign Wool — The Woo! Trade — Goat Raising 773

CHAPTER XIV

HOMESTEADERS, PUBLIC LANDS AND ABANDONED FARMS
Unappropriated Lands in the United States — Rules Governing Entry — How the
United States Land Office Conducts a Drawing — Public Lands in Oklahoma —

CONTENTS v

Public Lands in Missouri — Public Lands in Idaho — Public Lands in the State of
Washington — Public Lands in Oregon and New Mexico — Irrigated Land and the
Home Seeker — Increase of Homes and Farms by Irrigation — Irrigation by Cor-
porations and the Government — Colonies in the Irrigated Sections — Summary of
the Irrigation Problem — Abandoned Farms 785

CHAPTER XV
THE FISHING INDUSTRIES

The Piscatorial Resources of America — Functions and Work of the United States Fish
Commission — Employment in the Fisheries Department — The General Extent of
the Fishing Industry— The Utilization and Preparation of Fish as Food— Dif-
ferent Methods of Preserving Fishery Products — Fisheries of the New England
States — Fisheries of the Middle Atlantic States — Fisheries of the South Atlantic
and Gulf States — Fisheries of the Pacific States — Fisheries of the Great Lakes and
Interior Waters — Pearl Fishery — Mussel Fishery — The Lobster Fishery — The
Oyster Fishery — The Sponge Fishery — The Whale Fishery — Miscellaneous Fish-
eries . . . . 798

PART III

THE PROFESSIONS

CHAPTER I
THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS

Engineering as a Profession — Achievements of Engineers — Classification of Engineer-
ing— Specialization in Engineering — Engineering Schools and Employment for
Graduates — The Training of an Engineer — Conditions of Success in Engineering
— Earnings of Engineers — Engineers as Business Men — Institutes of Engineers —
The Surveyor — The Civil Engineer — Railroad Engineering — Structural Engineer-
ing— Municipal Engineering— Sanitary Engineering — The Mining Engineer —
Qualifying as a Mining Engineer — Mining Schools — The Mechanical Engineer-
Qualifying as a Mechanical Engineer — Mechanical Engineering Schools — Steam
Engineering — Gas Engineering — The Electrical Engineer — Qualifying as an Elec-
trical Engineer — Training and Earnings of Electrical Engineers — Telephone
Engineering — Marine Engineering 815

CHAPTER II

CHEMISTS AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERS

Chemistry as a Profession — The Training of a Chemist — The Chemist in the Law
Courts — Chemists in Agriculture — Chemical Engineering — Training for Chemical
Engineering . . . . . . .......... 838

CHAPTER III
INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC PROFESSIONS

Americans as Inventors — The Training of the Inventor — Achievements of Inventors —
Inventions in the Electrical Field — The Reward of the Inventor — Opportunities
for Inventors — The Patent System — How to Protect an Invention — How to Sell
a Patent — How to Market a New Invention — Astronomers — The Night's Work
of an Astronomer — Explorers — Metallurgy as a Profession — Forestry, a New Pro-
fession— Positions for Trained Foresters — Preparation for Forestry Work —
Positions for Foresters' Assistants — The Farmer and the Bureau of Forestry —
Scientists in Government Employ 845

vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV
THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS

The Ministry as a Profession — Qualifying as a Preacher — Number of Ministers and
Vacant Pulpits — Ministers' Salaries — Theological Schools — Theological Students
— Sunday- School Teachers — The Catholic Church and Clergy — Training for the
Priesthood — Sisters of Charity — The Jewish Church and Clergy — Missionaries —
The Achievements of Missionaries — The Practical Side of Missionary Work —
The Educational Work of Missionaries — Medical Missionaries — Missionaries as
Printers and Publishers — Candidates for Missionary Work — Churches as Employ-
ment Agencies — The Practical Work of the Salvation Army — The Practical
Work of the Volunteers of America 862

CHAPTER V
THE LEGAL PROFESSION

Conditions of Practice at the Bar — The Specialist in Law — The Law Office — Title and
Guarantee Companies — "Ambulance Chasers" — Practice in the Criminal Courts —
Practice in the Civil Courts — -The Lawyer's Fees — Corporation Counsel — Law
Schools — Law School Graduates — Studying Law in a Law Office — Studying Law
at Home — Women in the Legal Profession — The Judiciary — The United States
Supreme Court 878

CHAPTER VI
THE MEDICAL PROFESSION

Conditions of the Practice of Medicine — Specialists in the Medical Profession — The
General Practitioner — The Country Doctor — Physicians as Business Men — The
Physician in Public Life — Physicians in Court — Surgeons — Electro-Therapeutics
— A Medical Education — The Hospital Service — The Beginner in Medicine —
Women in the Medical Profession — Organization among Physicians . . . 890

CHAPTER VII
NURSES, PHARMACISTS, DENTISTS AND VETERINARIANS

Nursing as a Profession — Training for the Profession of Nursing — Pharmacists —
Druggists — Drug Clerks — Dentistry as a Profession — Dental Education — The
Veterinary Profession — Openings for Veterinary Surgeons — The Education of
the Veterinarian 901

CHAPTER VIII
EDUCATION AND TEACHING

Schools and Colleges in the United States — The Public School System — Work of a
Board of Education — Conduct of a University — University Extension — Education
by Mail — Teaching as a Profession — A Teacher's Qualifications — The Training of
Teachers — Cost of a Teacher's Training — How a Teacher Secures an Engage-
ment— Earnings of Teachers — College Professors and Their Earnings . . . 909

CHAPTER IX

LITERATURE AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS

The Profession of Literature — The Author and the Publisher — Authors' Earnings —
Book Writing — Novelists — Poetry as a Marketable Product — Short Stories and
Magazine Articles — Qualifying as a Short-Story Writer — The Market for Short
Stories — Special or "Hack" Writers — Literary Agencies and "Co-operative" Pub-
lishers— Libraries — Travelling Libraries — Librarians 916

CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER X
THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM

The Newspaper Fraternity — The "New Journalism" — Journalistic Education — Re-
porters— Newspaper Correspondents — Staff and War Correspondents — The Local
Correspondent — Special Correspondents — The Washington Correspondent — Women
Reporters — The Woman Reporter's Assignments — Earnings of Women Reporters
— Newspaper Editors — The Making of a Newspaper — The Day's Work in a News-
paper Office — The Night's Work in a Newspaper Office — The Evening Edition —
The Sunday Edition — The Country Newspaper — The Press Associations — Opera-
tions of the Associated Press — The Circulation of a Newspaper — Weekly Jour-
nalism— Monthly Journalism 928

CHAPTER XI

ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND PHOTOGRAPHY

American Arts and Crafts — The Earnings of Artists — Portrait Painters — The Painter
of Miniatures — Sculptors — Illustrators — The Mechanical Side of Illustrating —
Illustrations for Advertisements — Designers — Designers of Book-Covers — Art
Education in the United States — The Art Students' League and Its Branches —
The National Academy and Its Schools — The Profession of Architecture — The
Architect's Training — Earnings of Architects — An Architect's Expenses — Photog-
raphy as a Profession — The Training of a Studio Photographer — A Photo-
graphic Studio — News- Photographers — Color Photography — Various Uses of the
Camera — Artists' Models — The Life of Professional Models 949

CHAPTER XII
DRAMA, ENTERTAINMENT AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS

American Dramatists — The Making of a Play — The Dramatization of Novels —
Women Dramatists — Theatrical Managers — Combination of Theatrical Managers
— Acting as a Profession — Conditions of Stage Success — Vaudeville Managers —
Continuous Performance Houses — Organization of Vaudeville Performers — Dra-
matic Schools and Training for the Stage — The Professional Dancer — The Train-
ing of Stage Dancers — Scene Painters — Lecturers and Entertainment Bureaus —
Circus Managers — Circus Performers — Circus "Followers" — The American Turf 968

CHAPTER XIII
THE MUSICAL PROFESSIONS

American Musicians and Composers — Musical Education in the United States —
Earnings of Musicians — Singing as a Profession — The Singer in Opera — Quali-
fying as a Prima Donna — Staging an Opera — The Chorus Girl — The Chorus Man
— Writing a Comic Opera — The Singer in Concert — In the Choir — Song Writers
—The Orchestra— The Band. . . . .983

viii CONTENTS

PART IV
PUBLIC SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS PURSUITS

CHAPTER I
POLITICAL, DIPLOMATIC, AND CONSULAR SERVICE

Politics as a Profession — Politics as a Business — The Political Machine — Methods of
Securing Political Office — Salaries of Federal Officeholders — Holding Office Under
the Fee System — The Diplomatic Service — Method of Appointing Diplomats —
The Consular Service — Method of Appointing Consuls — How the Consuls Help
Business Men 993

CHAPTER II
THE ARMY AND NAVY

The Regular Army — Organization of the Army — The Training of Army Officers — Gen-
eral Conditions at the Military Academy — The Private Soldier — Promotion in
the Army — Volunteers and Militiamen — The Navy, Preparing a Warship for Ser-
vice— The Personnel of the Navy — The Ships of the Navy — General Conditions at
the Naval Acrdemy — The Training of Naval Officers — The Enlisted Force in the
Navy — The Naval Apprentice — The "Jackie" and Promotion in the Navy — The

. Landsman — The Marine Corps 1001

CHAPTER III

CIVIL SERVICE AND GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT

Positions Under the Civil Service — Competition for Civil Service Positions — Civil
Service Examinations — Prospect of Employment and Salaries — The Classified
Civil Service — The Postal Service — Organization of the Postal System — Post-
masters and Postmen— The Railway Postal Service— The Star Postal Routes—
The Lighthouse Service — Lighthouse Keepers — The Life-Saving Service — Life-
Saving Station Keepers — Life- Saving Crews — The Revenue 'Cutter* Service — The
Marine Hospital Service — The Quarantine Service — The Custom House Service 1015

CHAPTER IV
POLICEMEN, DETECTIVES AND FIREMEN

The Policeman — The New York Police Force — Occupations that Make the Best Po-
licemen— The Mounted and Bicycle Police — The Detective and Detective Agencies
— The Training of a Detective — Modern Detective Methods — The Fireman —
The New York Fire Department — Methods of Promoting Firemen — The Train-
ing of a Fireman 1027

CHAPTER V
DOMESTIC SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS PURSUITS

Domestic Service as an Occupation — Wages of Servants — General Conditions of
Domestic Service — Disadvantages of Domestic Service — Instruction in Domestic
Science — Dangerous Occupations — Employment Agencies — The Auctioneer — The
Pawnbroker — The Undertaker 1035

VOLUME TWO
INDUSTRIAL AND PROFESSIONAL PURSUITS

(505)

PART I
TRANSPORTATION BY LAND AND WATER

CHAPTER I
TRANSPORTATION BY LAND

Railroads of the United States — Statistics of Railways — Improvements in Railway Service
— Subsidized Railroads — Railroad Combinations — The Greatest Railroad Combina-
tion— "Community of Interest" Among Railroads — Railroad Accidents j

RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES

THOSE States and nations are rich, powerful, and enlightened whose
transportation facilities are best and most extended. The dying na-
tions are those with little or no transportation facilities.

A few years ago, two Imperial governments of Europe — Germany and
Russia — gave to the world their indorsement of the idea that modern trans-
portation facilities form the surest foundation upon which to build and sus-
tain a nation. The Emperor of Germany in a speech to the Prussian Diet
impressed upon his hearers the great importance of extending the railroads
and the navigable canals. Moreover, in order that the German nation might
have knowledge of the most advanced theories and practice in the construc-
tion and operation of railways, an Imperial German Commission was sent to
the United States for the purpose of examining American railways and
making such recommendations as their investigation should suggest. In the
report of this Commission one of the first sentences is, "Lack of speed,
lack of comfort, lack of cheap rates, are the charges brought against the
German Empire's railways, as compared with those of the United States."
The immense sums which the Russians are devoting to the extension of their
railways entirely overshadow the demands of both the army and navy.
They have in Japan more than one hundred locomotives that were built in
the United States. In Russia, they have nearly one thousand American lo-
comotives, and practically every railway in Great Britain has ordered loco-
motives in this country since the war with Spain.

But it is not alone our locomotives that have attracted the attention of
foreigners who have visited our shores. Our railway equipment generally
has commanded admiration, and is now receiving the highest compliment,
namely, imitation by many of our sister nations.

Some general statement concerning the growth and present magnitude
of the railway as an industry is essential to an understanding of railway
operation as an occupation. We may even profitably reflect a moment upon

(So?)

508 WORKERS OF THE NATION

the origin and application of the motive power which has, up to the present,
been used in conducting railway transportation. Although steam as an in-
dustrial force was recognized and variously applied prior to 1769, when
Watt patented his engine, we are accustomed to refer to his invention as the
real source of progressive industry. Subsequently, in 1807, Fulton first
successfully demonstrated the feasibility of using a steamboat to carry pas-
sengers and freight; and Stephenson followed in 1829 as inventor of the
railway locomotive.

STATISTICS OF RAILWAYS

Few believed until Stephenson proved, sixty years after Watt and
twenty years after Fulton, that the inland factory could be made to thrive,
or that the harvest of the farm or product of the mine could be profitably
distributed throughout the country by other means than wagon or vessel.
And yet to-day, hardly more than an average lifetime since the locomotive
became an understood reality, we have, in the United States alone, 40,000
locomotives hauling more than one and a half million of cars over 200,000
miles of railway, and carrying annually about 600,000,000 tons of freight
and more than 500,000,000 passengers, for which service an aggregate of
$1,500,000,000 is paid to the railways, and from which sum over $577,000,-
ooo is disbursed to 1,000,000 railway employes. These are statistics in
round numbers for the year ending June 30, 1900, except the total railway
mileage which is estimated by expert authority to have reached the figure
given above.

Estimate, if you can, the tremendous industrial energy and enterprise
producing a commerce in one year which pays simply for its movement a
sum equal to three times the total revenues of the Federal Government,
three-fourths of the entire public debt of the nation, or three-fourths of all
the circulating currency, both coin and paper, of the country. Consider,
also, what must be the value of that yearly internal commerce moved as
freight, of which there are unfortunately no figures to set a mark for the
imagination.

Proceeding further with comparison between railways and the Gov-
ernment, we find that the yearly operating expenses of the railways are
about two and a half times the ordinary expenditures of the United States,
and that as compared to the amount of money paid annually by the rail-
ways only to their employes the Government expenses are less by fully one
hundred million dollars.

In 1830 there were only about twenty-three miles of railway in the
United States, and by 1840 the mileage had risen to 2,818 miles. Ten years
later it had become 9,021, and in 1860 the mileage had again been tripled,
the figures standing then at 30,635. The succeeding decade covered the
period of the Civil War, but the mileage in 1870 had nevertheless reached
52,914 miles. During the ten years to 1880 an increase of more than 40,000
miles brought the total to 93,296, but that phenomenal building record was

TRANSPORTATION BY LAND 509

broken in the following decade by an addition of nearly 70,000 miles, giv-
ing the country an aggregate of 163,597 miles; and in 1900 this had been
raised to 193,345. The estimated increase brings the total in 1902 up to
200,000 miles.

It is also instructive to note that the number of railway miles per 10,000
inhabitants in 1890 was 25.44, and in 1900 it was 25.99, indicating that
population and railway mileage increased at practically the same rate during
the period covered by the last census. Another way of presenting the re-
sults of later railway construction is found in the statement that in 1890
we had 5.51 miles of line, and that in 1900 we had 6.51 miles of line for
every 100 square miles of territory, showing an increase of exactly one mile
per 100 square miles in the ten years.

The total capital of railways, including both stocks and funded debt,
was nearly eleven and one-half billion dollars in June, 1900, and the capi-
tal per mile of line was $61,490. The aggregate value of railways as rep-
resented by their reported capital is about 12 per cent,, that is to say, nearly
one-eighth, speaking roughly, of the entire wealth of the nation, which
has been estimated at $94,300,000,000.

There were 2,023 railway companies in the United States in the year
ending June 30, 1900, of which 1,067, about half, were operating com-
panies, 157 were companies owning private lines, and the remainder were
companies owning roads but not operating them. Each of the companies
must have a corps of officials, ranging from Chairman of the Board of
Directors or President down to those occupying the lower subordinate
positions, and every operating road must employ, according to its mileage
and traffic, a large or small force of employes.

The figures given above in regard to railway mileage are those for sin-
gle track only. The total mileage of all tracks, first, second, third, fourth,
yard and siding, is about 260,000 miles. The railway mileage of the world
given in Archiv fur Eisenbahnwesen (May- June, 1901), as existing at the
end of 1899, was 479,900 miles, of which Europe had 172,621; Asia, 35,-
938; Africa, 12,502; Australasia, 14,675; South America, 27,874; United
States, 189,295, and all remaining North America, 26,995. The mileage
given for the United States seems to have been a little understated.

IMPROVEMENTS IN RAILWAY SERVICE

The construction and management of railways operate to overcome the
natural tendency of population to concentrate in a few large cities or else
distribute itself among a great number of small hamlets and villages or
upon farms in sections where the hamlet or village constitutes the source
of merchandise supply. The railway enables the little village to establish
and maintain factories, elevators and mills, makes mining profitable, and
provides many markets for grain, live stock, lumber and all products of the
mine, forest and field ; it induces the building of villages and transforms the
village into the town, and the town into the city.

5io WORKERS OF THE NATION

A people possessing industrial enterprise sufficient to eventually supply
a railway with adequate traffic will in these days soon hear the whistle of the
locomotive and see their produce speed swiftly forth to myriad points of
distribution and sale, and every mile of railway track through open country
generally renders the surrounding section capable of being utilized for
numerous purposes of industry and habitation which, with the railway
absent, could not be attempted. The railway opens all markets to existing
localities and multiplies producing localities throughout every section. It
draws population to its line, but distributes the people along its line, and
such distribution necessarily results ultimately in the growth of a large num-
ber of populous cities and towns. This is the marvellous agency whereby
we travel to-day in every comfort between New York and Philadelphia in
two hours, whereas our fathers spent two days at least, in comparative dis-
comfort, to accomplish the same journey.

It is by this magical facility that an ordinary family dinner can be
served, which includes, without special effort or unusual cost, oysters grown
in eastern waters, fresh salmon caught in the State of Washington, beef
from cattle raised in Texas, and early vegetables produced in Georgia or
California. And all this has become changed from dream to reality by en-
gineering skill in construction and reconstruction, locomotive and car build-
ing, and methods of practical operation which have improved from time
to time to an extent fully as great as from decade to decade the mileage it-
self has increased. The first "Pullman car" was constructed in 1865, but the
commodious and elegant drawing-room car or sleeper of to-day is as far
ahead of the original pattern as the modern hotel is beyond the country inn.
The first practicable vestibule train, doing away with the jolting together
of the cars, and providing safe passage through the entire length of the
train, was run in 1887, and now vestibuled trains are common means of
first-class travel. The dining car, another feature of long-distance travel,
which, indeed, is also patronized during short journeys covering meal hours,
no longer excites comment ; and nearly all limited trains are now provided
with library, buffet and observation cars. The air-brake, whereby the train
is controlled by the engineer instead of half a dozen trainmen using hand-
brakes at a signal whistle from the locomotive, is an appliance with which
all freight and passenger trains must be equipped under national law.

Improvements in the cars themselves and the size and power of the lo-
comotives have brought about such changed conditions that, instead of the
usual train of ten cars, we often see forty or more (and one as high as
eighty has been reached), loaded with articles of many kinds or freight of
one kind, consigned to this hamlet or that city, or "clear across the sea,"
as the meeting minds of sellers and buyers have ordained.

To carry on this enormous business through transportation must be pro-
vided. Forty years ago this branch of railway operation had received but
little attention. To-day you ride from New York to California in" the same
car, and your shipment from Portland, Maine, to Portland, Oregon, is upon

TRANSPORTATION BY LAND 511

a through bill of lading and a through rate over half a dozen or more lines.
Any railway agent can name you a rate of fare or freight through from any
point in the United States to any other point in the United States, and if you
think the rate given is incorrect you can verify it by a telegram to the
Interstate Commerce Commission, which has all railway tariffs on file in its
office.

SUBSIDIZED RAILROADS

The following railroads receive subsidies or other aid from the Federal
Government :

Union Pacific ; Central Pacific ; Central Branch ; Sioux City and Pacific ; Atchison, To-
peka and Santa Fe; Chicago and Northwestern; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago,
Milwaukee and St. Paul ; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific ; Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis
and Omaha; Choctaw, Oklahoma and Gulf; Dubuque and Sioux City; Missouri, Kansas
and Texas ; Missouri Pacific ; Northern Pacific ; Oregon and California ; St. Joseph and
Grand Island ; St. Louis and San Francisco ; St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern ; Santa
Fe Pacific; Southern Pacific of California; Texas and Pacific, and Wisconsin Central.

The report of the United States Commissioner of Railroads states the
following facts :

The marvellous and steady increase of railroad traffic over the land grant and bond-
aided roads, as shown in the report of this bureau, is a striking evidence of the prosperity
of the people, and especially of the growth of the West.

The physical conditions of the roads in question have improved in fully equal ratio
with their great financial increase. Substantial improvements have been made in the main
lines ; heavy steel rails have taken the place of lighter quality ; iron and steel bridges have
replaced wooden, and the ballasting has been materially improved.

RAILROAD COMBINATIONS

During the past few years we have witnessed numerous consolidations
or confederations of railway lines, some of which have been of such magni-
tude, both in mileage and amount of capital affected, as to startle the world.
Even while this is being written the public press is telHng of the practical
absorption of the great Louisville & Nashville System by its rival, the
Southern Railway Company, or by interests which control the latter com-
pany, thus extending the management or direction of 7,000 miles of railway
to an additional 5,000 miles. Another pending merger is that of the Plant
System of railways with the Atlantic Coast Line, each having about 2,000
miles. We are all more or less familiar with the changes made not long
ago in the management of what have been known as Vanderbilt roads,
which resulted in the greater unification of those lines, and with the exten-
sion of the Pennsylvania influence through acquirement of control of the
Baltimore & Ohio, and changes in the stock ownership of the Norfolk &
Western, resulting in the harmonious working of that railway with the
Pennsylvania. It is also understood that the Chesapeake & Ohio is domi-
nated by the Vanderbilt and Pennsylvania interests. With these latter con-
solidations and communities of interest it is understood that the Pennsyl-
vania and New York Central Systems practically control the trunk line rail-
roads to all that portion of the Atlantic Seaboard from Norfolk and New-
port News to Boston. There have been numerous other consolidations or

5i2 WORKERS OF THE NATION

unifications of existing interests, among which is the device adopted by
what is known as the Northern Securities Company incorporation, and
which has been since its organization the subject of strong attack in the
Federal courts. The object, of course, is economical administration, and
that includes not merely reduction of operating cost and cutting off needless
miscellaneous items of expense, but the elimination of that form of com-
petition which has always resulted in reducing the revenues of the roads
through secret concessions made to shippers to secure business.

The accomplishment of these great financial schemes is hardly part of
the occupation of a railway official, though the inception and many of the
details of such a scheme probably lie with the Presidents or Chairmen of
Boards of Directors, and they are here mentioned with a view of indicating
the current tendency to common control of railways, which is now arousing
widespread interest, and the effect of such combinations upon railway
operation and railway occupations. That they do affect railway occupations
is shown by the fact that consolidation of two lines means usually the doing
away of one of two sets of officers, and when such mergers involve large
systems they cause a new division of the labor of administration, some-
times creation of the office of General Traffic Manager or a new Vice-
President, and the employment of additional division agents.

The following arrangement or table is based upon operating control
and not merely upon ownership. Operating control may be based upon
ownership, or an arrangement effected between owners, or by common con-
sent. Thus the Vanderbilts do not own a majority interest in either the
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western or the Chicago & Northwestern, but
both are operated in accordance with their policies. Neither does the Penn-
sylvania system own the control of either the Chesapeake & Ohio or the
Norfolk & Western. In the former the Vanderbilts own an important inter-
est. In some cases the unity of operating amounts to little. Thus there is
no evidence that in traffic matters the western lines of the so-called Morgan-
Hill system favor, or are favored by, the Erie. As the present railway
mileage of the United States is about 200,000 miles the statement repre-
sents something like seventy-five per cent of the whole.

VANDERBILT SYSTEM

MILES

Boston & Albany 394

New York Central & Hudson River 3,357

Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 947

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 1,411

Michigan Central 1,635

New York, Chicago & St. Louis 513

Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis 2,287

Lake Erie & Western 890

Indiana, Illinois & Iowa 306

Chicago & Northwestern 8,624

Pittsburg & Lake Erie '180

Total 20,544

TRANSPORTATION BY LAND 513

PENNSYLVANIA SYSTEM MILES

Pennsylvania Railroad 4,932

Baltimore & Ohio 4,208

Long Island 392

Western New York & Pennsylvania 549

Pennsylvania Company 1,865

Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis 1,601

Cleveland, Akron & Columbus 197

Grand Rapids & Indiana 582

Terre Haute & Indianapolis ( Vandalia) 599

Chesapeake & Ohio 1,562

Norfolk & Western 1,697

Total 18,184

MORGAN SYSTEM MILES

Central of New Jersey 680

Philadelphia & Reading 1,454

Lehigh Valley 2,178

Southern Railway 7,572

Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific 336

Mobile & Ohio 874

Central of Georgia 1,845

Total 14,939

MORGAN-HILL SYSTEM MILES

Erie 2,554

Great Northern 5,451

Northern Pacific 5,649

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 8,171

Total 21,825

HARRIMAN SYSTEM MILES

Illinois Central 5,357

Chicago & Alton 918

Union Pacific 3,033

Southern Pacific 9,586

Oregon Railway & Navigation Company 1,136

Oregon Short Line 1,480

Total 21,510

GOULD-ROCKEFELLER SYSTEM

Wabash 2,502

Wheeling & Lake Erie 469

Missouri Pacific 3,551

St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern 1,773

St. Louis Southwestern 1,293

Texas & Pacific 1,690

International & Great Northern 935

Denver & Rio Grande 1,722

Rio Grande & Western . . 662

Total 14,597

2— Vol. 2

5i4 WORKERS OF THE NATION

BELMONT SYSTEM MILES

Louisville & Nashville 3,758

Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis

Georgia Railroad 624

Total 5,324

SEPARATE LINES (The more important) MILES

Boston & Maine 3,278

New York, New Haven & Hartford 2,037

Seaboard Air Line 2,600

Atlantic Coast Line 2,233

Plant System 2,178

Pere Marquette T>821

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul 6,597

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific 3,8iQ

Chicago Great Western 93°

Wisconsin Central I,°43

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe 7,86o

St. Louis & San Francisco 3,200

Colorado & Southern 1,142

Total 38,738

As before stated, the Atlantic Coast and Plant Systems are or are
about to be merged, and the Louisville & Nashville, with its subsidiary or
affiliated roads, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis and the Georgia,
composing the "Belmont System," are to be considered as part of the "Mor-
gan System."

THE GREATEST RAILROAD COMBINATION

The Northern Securities Company, formed in the latter part of 1901, is
the first billion-dollar railroad combination in history. This company is a
union of the great northwestern railways, and is the greatest example of
the "community of interest" idea.

Immediately upon his return to St. Paul, after the great Northern Se-
curities deal, Mr. J. J. Hill made the following statement :

The Northern Securities Company is organized to deal in high-class securities to hold
the same for the benefit of its shareholders and to advance the interests of the corporations
whose securities it owns. Its powers do not include the operation of railways, banking,
mining, nor the buying or selling of securities or properties for others on commission ; it
is purely an investment company, and the object of its creation was simply to enable those
who hold its stock to continue their respective interests in association together and to pre-
vent such interests from being scattered by death or otherwise ; to provide against such
attacks as has been made upon the Northern Pacific by a rival and competing interest whose
main investment was hundreds of miles from the Northwest, and whose only object in
buying control of the Northern Pacific was to benefit their southern properties by restrain-
ing the growth of the country between Lake Superior and Puget Sound, and by turning
away from the northern lines the enormous oriental traffic which must follow placing on
the Pacific Ocean of the largest ships in the world.

A staid financial journal, as little given to superlatives as a book of
logarithms, called the Northern Pacific panic of May, 1901, "the most extra-
ordinary event in Wall Street history." That event subsequently found a

TRANSPORTATION BY LAND 515

fitting sequel in the organization of the second largest corporation in the
world, a corporation which will regulate, if not control, most of the traffic,
by land or sea, in the hemisphere between Chicago and China. A fact so
big with meaning as this conies slowly to the understanding. We must
patiently add millions to millions, ships to ships, railroad lines to railroad
lines, and even then we have only an unmeaning statistical skeleton, dim and
overpoweringly huge. But presently we begin to feel the animating spirit,
the hidden life, of all these great things.

It is not of so much importance that this corporation owns three rail-
road systems with twenty thousand miles of track, and many ships, and has
gross earnings beyond a hundred millions a year, as it is that it has prac-
tically no competitor, that it is absolute dictator in its own territory, with
monarchical powers in all matters relating to transportation. Nor does
even this indicate the full significance of the facts. The most cursory ex-
amination will show that the men behind the new corporation are of those
who control a large proportion of the other railroads of America, that the
same influences sway the greatest corporation in the world, the United
States Steel Corporation, which, in its turn, is closely intimate with that
other financial power, the Standard Oil Company.

"COMMUNITY OF INTERESTS" AMONG RAILROADS

The following statement of the origin and application of the com-
munity of interest idea as related to railroad affairs is taken from the testi-
mony before the Industrial Commission, of Mr. Jacob H. Schiff, the New
York financier and member of the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. :

As I take it, this community of interest idea arose in the desire of the railroads, or the
owners of railroads, to protect themselves against the demoralization, and, as a conse-
quence, depression in the value of their properties, which was brought about by antipooling
legislation. It is human nature that a producer and shipper wants at all times to get some-
thing better, to get ahead of his neighbor; so the practical consequence has been that when
a shipper made a certain rate of transportation with the railroad company his neighbor
went to the competing road and, by straight or crooked means, endeavored to get lower
rates than his neighbor received.

That naturally brought about demoralization of rates, and it damaged both the trans-
portation interests and the producing interests. It is evident that there is little safety to
the products if he is not certain that his competitor pays exactly the same charge for trans-
porting his goods or products that he pays himself. There is just as much danger to him
as there is to the railroad if it does not get just exactly the same rate that the competing
railroad receives. This unsettled condition produced a state of affairs which, in my opinion,
has been more dangerous to the vital interests of the country than any benefits that could
have possibly been derived from antipooling legislation. It demoralized both the shipper
and transporter alike, and property of all kinds suffered by it ; not only property suffered,
but labor suffered.

It is evident that when rates are depressed the railroads cannot pay to the working
forces the same compensation or remuneration that they can in times when they get full
rates for their transportation.

This state of affairs brought about a gradual coming together of the railroad inte
and induced them to buy into one another's properties. For instance, if I held st
"A" company and you held stock in "B" company, and my shares were depressed
because you were competing with me — each of us cutting the rates of the other-
tcrests would evidently be better served if you owned some of the stock in my co

516 WORKERS OF THE NATION

and I owned some of the stock in your company. In other words, if we had a community
of interest.

That is, in simple words, the process which has been going on on a large scale among
the railroads, and which, in my opinion, while it is not completed yet, will naturally bring
about some protection, as the way to perfect peace is always through war. I believe when
brought to an entire completion, it will be a blessing to the laboring man, it will be a secur-
ity to the shipper, and it will be a benefit to the owners of railroad property. I believe the
community of interest will not only result in the community of interest between railroad
property, but it will be community of interest between railroads, shippers, and labor.

RAILROAD ACCIDENTS

How to prevent accidents is probably the most serious and difficult of
the numerous operating problems which railway managers are called upon
to solve. The many improvements which have been added to railway equip-
ment and the high degree of efficiency which has been attained in the man-
agement of trains render railway travel in the United States comparatively
safe. Passengers now give scarcely any thought to the possibility of acci-
dent when they undertake a railway journey. The chance of losing life
while on the rail, or even of being injured, is so slight that it can hardly be
said to exceed the risk run in going from point to point in any city or
town. In 1900, out of about 576,865,230 passengers carried, only 249 were
killed and 4,128 were injured. That means, if you travelled by rail in
1900, your chance of being killed was one in 2,316,648, and your liability
to injury, great or slight, was one in 139,740. With greater density of
traffic upon railways the liability to accident is increased, and this accounts
for the greater number of casualties than in the year preceding. For that
year 239 passengers were killed and 3,442 were injured. In 1895 the fig-
ures were 170 killed and 2,375 injured, while in 1892 there were 376 killed
and 3,227 injured.

On the other hand, the railway employe engaged in conducting trans-
portation or in yard or switch work is performing labor of a character
which must be termed exceedingly hazardous. While of all the hundreds of
millions of passengers who rode on railways in 1900 only 249 were killed,
2,550 railway employes lost their lives in railway service during the same
year, and 39,463 of those employes were injured. One employe out of
every 399 was killed and one out of every 26 was injured. Taking the
trainmen alone, the ratio of killed was one to every 137 employed, and of
injured it was one in eleven.

The railways, of course, are deeply interested in preventing these acci-
dents to employes and in reducing the number, but their efforts thus far
have been unavailing. A fruitful source of accidents to the employes has
been the coupling and uncoupling of cars. Formerly this was done by hand,
a man going between the cars to guide the coupling apparatus or to pull out
the pin in uncoupling. This practice has been abolished through the intro-
duction and general use of the automatic coupler, which was adopted as a
standard by the railway car builders fifteen or twenty years ago. But al-
though such standard coupling mechanism was adopted the railways did not

TRANSPORTATION BY LAND 517

at once equip all cars with it, and it was not until the Safety Appliance Act
was passed by Congress in March, 1893, tnat anv serious attempt to com-
pletely reform all equipment in this respect was undertaken. This law came
into full operation on August I, 1900, and since that date it has been un-
lawful for any railway company engaged in interstate traffic to use any car
for that traffic not equipped with a coupler coupling automatically by im-
pact, and by which the car may be uncoupled without the necessity of men
going between the ends of the cars. Another change required by this law
was the placing of the couplers a uniform height from the tops of the rails,
and still another was that each car should have grab-irons or handholds at
the sides and ends. A further requirement in the Safety Appliance Act is
that every train shall have in it a sufficient number of cars fitted with the
air-brake to enable the engineer to control the train, thus avoiding the ne-
cessity of stopping the train by means of hand-brakes on the different cars.
Some of the beneficent results of this law are found in the decreased num-
ber of accidents from coupling and uncoupling cars. In 1893 there were
433 men killed and 11,277 injured in coupling and uncoupling; in 1900
there were only 282 killed and 5,229 injured.

Another law, passed by Congress March 3, 1901, requires monthly re-
ports of all railway accidents through collisions or derailments to the Inter-
state Commerce Commission. The principal purpose of this Act is to fur-
nish a basis for more satisfactory accident statistics.

CHAPTER II
THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT RAILROAD

Organization of a Railway System — The Railroad President — The General Manager — The
Traffic Department — The Operating Department — The System of Signals — The Train
Despatcher — The Train Despatcher's Duties — Locomotive Firemen — Locomotive En-
gineers— Railway Brakemen — Railway Conductors — Parlor, Sleeping and Dining Car
Service — "Braking" a Train — Making a Railroad Time Table

ORGANIZATION OF A RAILWAY SYSTEM

VERY few persons comprehend the organization and management of
the large railway systems which are now such an important factor
in the commercial affairs of the country. The general organization
is about the same in all the large systems, there being, however, some dif-
ferences in the titles of department officers and matters of detail, according
to the fancies of the directors or president, or the peculiar necessities of each
line ; but as the railroad properties in this country are held in private owner-
ship, it is presumable that their owners try to operate them so as to obtain
the best service at the least cost, and that therefore no extravagant or un-
necessary positions or departments are provided.

The business of a railroad is generally carried on by these departments ;
viz., the accounting department, sometimes presided over by a comptroller,
who may report either to the general manager or the president, according
to the road's scheme of organization ; the traffic department, which may have
for its head a traffic manager, assisted by general freight agents and gen-
eral passenger agents; the operating department, in charge of a general
superintendent.

The accounting department is the one in which the accounts are kept,
and the auditor, who either assists the comptroller, or, where there is no
comptroller, is responsible to the general manager, receives an impression
copy of each "way-bill," which shows the name of the shipper, the point of
shipment, the name of the consignee, the destination, the marks and the
weights and the freight charges on each consignment of freight carried
over the road. This way-bill he scrutinizes, or causes to be examined
very carefully, and sees that the charges are in accordance with the rates
announced by the general freight agent. If they are found correct, he
makes from them numerous records, crediting agents or connecting rail-
roads or charging others. The ticket agents send him either daily or weekly
or monthly reports of their sales, which are checked with the tickets for-
warded to him by the conductors when taken up on the trains.

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT R'AILRO\D 519

As a rule the heads of departments are comparatively young men, and
the demands on the brains and strength of these officers are so severe that
they seldom die in the service from old age. They are generally well, but
not extravagantly, paid, the salary varying, according to the importance of
the road. The clerks in the departments are usually men of ability and are
well informed. Each is fitted by talents, experience and education for some
particular kind of work assigned to him.

The personnel of a great railroad system is like that of an army: the
president is the general-in-chief ; the vice-presidents are major-generals;
heads of departments are brigadier-generals; and division superintendents,
assistant superintendents of motive power, assistant engineers, etc., etc., are
colonels ; while the officers and men employed in the various departments are
made up like so many regiments. The employes of the system constitute,
indeed, a veritable industrial army, and among them are representatives of
every country on the globe, from the original American — the Indian — to
natives of India, China and Japan.

THE RAILROAD PRESIDENT

It is generally supposed that the president of a large railway system
has an easy place to fill, and gets a large salary for doing comparatively
nothing. In some cases this may be true, and in such cases it may be true
also that that dignitary is nothing more than a figurehead, whose real
duties are performed by a vice-president or a general manager, and who
may not have a very intimate idea of the manner in which the business is
carried on, except that at the annual stockholders' meetings he will present
them an elaborate statement of the earnings and expenditures which have
been prepared for him. Such railroad presidents, however, are rare, and it
is safe to say that most of them, in this day at least, earn their salaries.
The president of a railroad should be, and generally is, the financial head of
the company, and it is usual for him to delegate to the general manager the
management of the operations of the road in all its details. The general
manager is, therefore, necessarily a practical railroad man, and from him
the officers of all departments of the road having to do with its operations
usually receive their instructions.

It may be believed that the modern tendency in railroad companies is to
concentrate all of the power in the hands of the president, to the belittling
of minor officials. This is not always the case. In fact, the contrary is
true. Fewer details are now controlled by the president of a great rail-
road. His powers are curtailed. He is bound by his own rules. While
his field of action may be larger than that of the president of a small road,
nevertheless he is much more trammelled in the scope of his authority. As to
the duties of a railroad president and the serious problems he has con-
tinually to face, it would be difficult to frame any statement including them
all. The field of action is very large, and the duties verv numerous. When
the fact is considered that it is only the important things that ever come

520 WORKERS OF THE NATION

before him to be settled, it may be seen that his responsibilities are enormous.
A railroad being a quasi public affair, the president must not only suit the
directors of the road, but must run the road satisfactorily to the public, or
the different legislatures will take him to task. The public is very exact-
ing, and this makes the president's position all the more onerous. In spite
of the abuse of demagogues, the moral tone of the railway business is as
high as that of any other branch of industry. Railroad managers are fre-
quently misrepresented. The portion of the public, however, having the
largest dealings with railroads places implicit trust in the officials, oral
agreements often taking the place of written contracts. To please every-
body is a difficult matter. Unfounded attacks often worry the president.
But he must cultivate patience and imperturbability, and keep the road up to
the highest possible standard. Much is demanded of a railroad president.
His position is hemmed in with perplexities. If he is the man for the
place he must conduct affairs smoothly yet rigidly. Among the many in-
terests which he has to consider are the problems of keeping earnings up
and expenses low, of satisfying the taxing power, of meeting the demands of
the legislatures, of pleasing the public, of keeping contentment among the
employes, to say nothing of satisfying the stockholders. Compromises must
often be made, and the president must do the best he can for the interests
of his road, although he may often not get full justice for his company.

THE GENERAL MANAGER

A general manager must know every process of railroad construction
and operation and their principles. The incumbent of this office on a West-
ern railway, desiring to have his son follow the profession of railroading,
resorted to a very practical method. The young man received the best
of training in a good technological school. This, however, was merely a
preliminary step. After graduation, he was not "jumped" into a high
office on his father's road! On the contrary, he joined a surveying party
in the humblest capacity, "carrying chain" for a good while. As he was
well posted in engineering, his next step was to assist in laying out a new
line of railroad. He then went into the shops, and, with apron, lathe
and bench worked as hard as any artisan. By this means he gained an
invaluable, practical knowledge of the building of cars and locomotive
engines. The personal contact with the men in all these branches of the
service was of immeasurable benefit to him in later years. He was enabled
to sympathize with their points of view, and to see how they looked upon
life and work. After this he took service as road master of a line in a dif-
ferent section of the country, where he had a chance to show his executive
ability in managing other men. When, finally, he was appointed division
superintendent on his father's road, he had worked his way up, and was
fully and practically equipped for the place. This is the judgment of an
important officer on a great railroad as to the making of a railroad man,
and may be taken as final.

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT RAILROAD 521

In order to make a good railroad manager, certain special qualities are
requisite. In the first place, the desire to do full justice to the humblest
employe is necessary. Equity and fairness to all must be the foundation.
Nothing makes men so discontented and rebellious as open injustice, and
a reputation for the possession of this characteristic will spoil the career of
any railway official. The men must respect and trust their officers. The
complaint of no employe, however humble, should be ignored or cavalierly
dismissed. The work of each man is important to the safety and welfare
of the road, and each man is entitled to a hearing, from motives of general
policy, if nothing else.

A vital necessity in the make-up of a railroad manager is quickness of
decision. In the questions arising in the operation of a railroad there is
no time for delay. Everything must be "rushed" and accomplished on
"schedule time." The problems of the hour brook no procrastination nor
hesitation. The general manager who deliberates is out of his proper sphere.
He must think and decide as quickly as a general in action, when war is
raging.

The good railway manager must have an unerring judgment of human
nature. His employes are to be intrusted with great responsibilities. Even
the work of the humblest railroad worker is important to the safety of the
public. Rail-spikers, switchmen, yardmen and trainmen — none can be ig-
nored. The lives of multitudes are dependent upon their faithful and intel-
ligent service. To choose these men is a great responsibility, and no one
without a good knowledge of human nature and great skill in reading
character is qualified for a position of authority upon a railroad. The gen-
eral manager has to use this choice in the selection of men for the higher
positions. He must always back up and support the men who have given
him reason for satisfaction.

THE TRAFFIC DEPARTMENT

The traffic department of a railroad is really the commercial depart-
ment. It is divided between a general freight agent and a general passen-
ger agent, both of whom report to and receive their instructions from a
general traffic manager, or where there is no traffic manager, from the gen-
eral manager. The general freight agent has charge of the fixing of rates
for the transporation of freight, and under his supervision soliciting agents
and travelling agents watch the movement of traffic and secure the road
such of it as can be controlled. All claims for loss, damage or overcharges
on freight transported are adjudged by him or the agent acting under him.

The general passenger agent supervises the passenger traffic in the same
manner that the general freight agent supervises the freight business, and ic
is his duty to see that his road is properly and sufficiently advertised, that it
is properly represented in the ticket offices of all connecting lines and to
supervise the printing and supply of such tickets to the agents of his line
as the needs of his patrons demand.

522 WORKERS OF THE NATION

If any Thursday night you should place a letter on the mail train leaving
New York at 9.15, you may be sure that your correspondent in San Fran-
cisco will be reading it the following Monday night — four days from New
York. The framers of our Constitution would have considered a man en-
tirely beside himself who would have suggested such a possibility.

In the United States the first-class passenger fares paid in averaged 1.98
cents per mile, although on some large railways the average was several
miles less than two cents per mile ; in England, the first-class fare is four
cents per mile; third-class fare, for vastly inferior service, is two cents per
mile, but only on certain parliamentary trains. In Prussia, the first-class
fare is three cents per mile; in Austria 3.05 cents per mile, and in France
3.36 cents per mile. Our passenger cars excel those of foreign countries in
all that goes to make up the comfort and convenience of a journey. Our
sleeping and parlor-car system is vastly superior to theirs ; our baggage sys-
tem is infinitely better than theirs and arranged upon a much more liberal
basis. American railroads carry 150 pounds of baggage free, while the
German roads carry only 55 pounds free. And to-day two regal trains are
making the run between New York and Chicago in twenty hours, enabling
business men to go from one city to the other and return, losing but one day
from business in the operation.

These are some of the achievements of American railways in passenger
service that have not been approached in any other country on the globe,
and it is achievements of this character that have made it possible for the
United States to expand their commerce with such astounding rapidity.

In the traffic department, business knowledge and a salesman's skill are
necessary, and not a technical expertness in railroad operation. Firmness
and justice are requisite for the traffic man, with ability to develop business
and create it. He must be well posted in mercantile matters, values, meth-
ods, and trade channels.

THE OPERATING DEPARTMENT

The operating department is one of the most important departments of
a railroad, and the success of the whole depends on its efficiency. It is in
charge of the general superintendent, assisted by a superintendent of road-
way, a superintendent of machinery, and a superintendent of transportation.
The superintendent of roadway has charge of all tracks, and usually all
bridges and buildings pertaining to the track department, although some
roads provide another officer, who looks after bridges and buildings alone.
The superintendent of roadway is assisted by roadmasters, who have charge
of divisions, varying according to the physical features of the track. These
roadmasters direct all work performed on their divisions by section foremen
and trackmen. The superintendent of machinery has charge of all locomo-
tives, and is responsible for the performance of proper service. He has
also charge of enginemen, firemen and machinists.

The superintendent of transportation has charge of the movement of

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT RAILROAD 523

trains over the line, appoints conductors, brakemen, agents and train de-
spatchers, sees to the distribution of cars and equipment where needed, and
is generally responsible for the safe and speedy movement of passengers
and freight. He is assisted by trainmasters, whose duties vary on many
lines, but who are generally immediately under the direction of the super-
intendent of transportation.

Regarding the actual operation of trains — the organization that keeps
the "wheels going round," and which, above all, looks to the safety of pas-
sengers— one may begin by saying that the movement of every train is
watched more closely, more carefully, than the suspect who is being shad-
owed by detectives. From the time a train leaves the Grand Central Sta-
tion, in New York, for instance, until it arrives at the end of its run, its
progress is not only watched, but its exact location is reported every few
minutes by telegraph. It is as a continuous line of men, each with his
finger on a telegraph key, stretched along the track — a fence of human
beings — from the starting to the terminal point.

At the home office sits the train despatcher, under a green-shaded light,
bending over his "train sheet," on which he records the movements of every
train on any part of the track on his division. At the Grand Central Station
the train despatcher has charge of every train, north or south bound, be-
tween New York and Albany. There are about one hundred such trains
each way every day. The telegraph operator at each station, as a train
passes, clicks off the time and number of the train, his message being re-
ceived in the train despatcher' s offce. Thus, as if drawn upon canvas before
his very eyes, the train despatcher sees exactly where each train is. If one
train is delaying another, if a freight train is in the way of a special, the
despatcher wires the blocking trains to move out of the way, naming the
exact spot to which it shall move. And it must be emphasized, that as care-
ful an eye is kept upon a cattle train or a freight train as upon the most
luxurious limited or the most important express.

Thus, in sunshine or rain or blizzard, at noon or midnight, with every
passing second, with every turn of the wheels, the train you are riding in
is safeguarded. When the passenger stretches comfortably between sheets
in his berth in the sleeping-car, when he turns over to pleasant dreams,
does he ever think of the men, unseen, unheard, who are watching his
travelling bedroom every inch of the way as it rushes over the track ? Re-
sponsibility for that passenger's life and limb lies every second with some
one, somewhere. The number of persons employed in looking after the
traveller's comfort is but a corporal's guard in comparison with the legion
which has the traveller's safety in custody.

THE SYSTEM OF SIGNALS

"Asleep at the Switch" could not have been written if the great railroad
systems of the poet's time had been what they are now. The melodramatic
situation used to such advantage — the switchman snoring at his post, the

524 WORKERS OF THE NATION

train coming madly on through the night and saved in the very nick of time
by a maiden with her hair standing on end — would not be true to life in these
days. The fate of a trainload of passengers is no longer left to a single
man who may or may not snuggle up to his switch and take a nap.

With the "block" system now in operation on the main lines, a man
"asleep at the switch" would practically stop the running of trains for miles
back. The sleeper, in other words, would virtually tie up the operation of
the road until some one woke him up. For the object of the block system
is to block trains, to keep them a certain distance apart. A block is the
distance between towers — the distance varying all the way from less than
fifteen hundred feet to over three miles. Only one train is allowed in a
block at a time.

The system is so simple that it can be described in a few words. The
signals at each tower are controlled by the man in the tower ahead. That
is, no towerman can give the signal "All clear" until that signal is un-
locked by his co-laborer in the next tower. Thus, a train leaving the Grand
Central Station in New York is controlled as follows: On approaching
tower one the towerman asks tower two for an unlock by ringing three
bells. If block is clear between towers one and two, towerman at tower
two unlocks tower one by pushing a plunger in a cabinet. Tower one then
clears signals, and after the train has passed he announces the train approach-
ing tower two by riging four bells. And this method is carried out all the
way to the end of the line.

Still, the block system does not alter the old rule for trainmen. When
a train stops at an unusual place, the trainman, as in former days, must
hurry back over the track for at least three-quarters of a mile, and place a
torpedo on the track. Then he must continue further back one mile and
place two torpedoes. If his train pulls away before another train comes
along, he picks up the torpedo nearest the train, leaving the others on the
track.

Torpedoes are called audible signals. When the engineer strikes the first
torpedo he slows up, and if he does not strike a third he knows then that
the track has been cleared and again goes ahead full speed. If he strikes
two torpedoes, however, he slows up and proceeds with extreme caution,
knowing there is danger within one mile ahead. At night, in addition to
the torpedoes, the trainman must light a fusee, a red light, which burns ex-
actly ten minutes. An engineer coming upon one of these fusees knows that
a train is ahead within ten minutes, and does not proceed until the fusee has
burned out.

THE TRAIN DESPATCHER

It may be truthfully said that there are few subjects so directly affecting
the safety of millions of people who travel by railroad of which so little is
known by the general public as train despatching. Nor is the safety of
those who travel the only important factor in this branch of railroad service,
for in its successful working is involved to a great extent the safe and quick

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT RAILROAD 525

despatch of the millions of tons of freight transported daily over the rail-
roads, an accident by collision or otherwise to a single train of which would
entail a loss of thousands of dollars, aside from that sustained by the rail-
roads in damage to motive power and equipment. And as it can also be
said that only a very small proportion of the railroad fraternity understands
the magnitude and importance, as well as the complexity of the train de-
patcher's duties, it is not surprising that so little is known or understood of
them by others. Indeed, with the exception of conductors, telegraph opera-
tors and such of the superintendents as have given the matter special study,
there are few in the railroad corps who, at best, but imperfectly understand,
in its entirety, the peculiarly intricate nature of the business ; and there are
perhaps none, except those who have been in the "harness," who can ade-
quately appreciate its responsibilities.

The train despatcher on a railroad has entire charge of the movement
of all trains and of engines without trains, and conductors and engineers
while in charge of trains and engines must obey his orders. It is in the first
of these — namely, the movements of all trains and engines — that his chief
and most exacting duties originate. Every road has, of course, a schedule
of the trains, both passenger and freight, which it is deemed necessary to
run for the proper transaction of business. This schedule is changed from
time to time as the varying conditions of business on the line require. The
time each train is due at every station is shown on it, as are also the points
and times when and where trains meet and pass each other. It gives, too,
the rules and regulations by which conductors and engineers running these
trains are to be governed. Conductors and engineers are each provided with
one of these schedules, and are supposed to thoroughly understand them in
all their details. They must know that such and such trains have absolute
right to the roads over all others, and that all others must, therefore, be kept
out of their way ; they must know that other trains have a right to the roads
over some others for thirty minutes or an hour, as the case may be, beyond
their time, and must govern themselves accordingly; they must know that
certain trains going in one direction have varying rights over those going in
the opposite direction, and must be ruled thereby ; in short, they must know
what rights the trains they are in charge of have as against other trains, how
those rights are affected by the rights of other trains, and how the rights of
other trains are affected by their trains rights. All these they are supposed
to learn from the "laid down" rules and regulations, which, it would be sup-
posed, are always as clear and as terse as English language makes possible.
Candor compels the statement, however, that such is not always the fact,
and that in many cases action, based upon a literal construction of them,
would be almost opposite to that in practice.

THE TRAIN DESPATCHER'S DUTIES

If every thing worked satisfactorily in accordance with the plans of the
schedule, the train despatcher's duties would be light, but by reason of the

526 WORKERS OF THE NATION

daily irregularities of the surrounding factors that so largely enter into
these plans, the variations in the volume of business and a thousand other
things incidental to such a large operation as the running of a railroad, this
is rendered utterly impossible. The schedule may be likened to a theory on
a grand scale, which can only be put into operation with anything like success
by the utmost care, watchfulness and untiring efforts of the train despatcher.
He must understand the rights of all trains under every varying circum-
stance, and must see that each conductor and engineer understands them as
he does; for, in order to facilitate the business, he may find it necessary at
any moment to suspend, in part or in whole, the rights of given trains, and
confer greater rights upon some others, and this is because it frequently hap-
pens that by holding one train five or ten minutes he may be able to avert a
delay of one or two hours to some other train. The conductor has his own
individual train to look after, and is concerned only for it, but the train de-
patcher is concerned for all the trains on the line — thirty or forty, perhaps,
at one time, as the case may be — and must, as it were, exercise a sort of
paternal protection over them, giving each the attention its importance de-
serves, now holding No. i to help No. 2 along, and perhaps again holding
No. 2 to allow No. 3, of more importance, to proceed without detention, and
so on. His orders supersede the rules and regulations governing the move-
ment and time of trains, and must be obeyed to the letter.

The chief and the trick despatchers are never very far from the ends of
their wires. Sundays, holidays, nights and noons they are ever near the
telegraph sounder. As a rule, they stay where they work, the "trick" de-
patcher doing his turn of so many hours, the chief despatcher being theo-
retically always on duty, sleeping or waking. The train wire is never for
a single moment, from January first to December thirty-first, without a
despatcher at the end of it. The chief train despatcher must know the
speed of each engine, her pulling capacity, the diameter of the driving-
wheels, the size of her cylinders, how many cars each side track will hold,
how many cars can be stalled in the yard without blockading, the average
amount of business at each station and the number of cars needed. All
this and hundreds of other matters — even the dispositions of every train-
man, engineman and operator in his division, the train despatcher learns by
experience.

All orders emanate from him, and he is the sole judge, until they are
executed, of their reasonableness, their judiciousness, their correctness and
their effectiveness. While checks on all others engaged in the train service
may be devised, he stands alone without a monitor. The conductor has
simply, as the head of one train, to act in accordance with his instructions,
which are always either printed or written. In case of doubt they are easy
of access for reference, and if, through forgetfulness, he was about to run
counter to them, the engineer, who has been provided with the same instruc-
tions, would be apt to remind him. The train despatcher is not provided
with this safeguard ; he must rely solely on the verity of his own conscious-

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT RAILROAD 523

ness to save him from mistakes, and forgetfulness must be a vagary un-
known to him. Notwithstanding the oft-repeated assertions of specu-
lative philosophers that we can never know anything with certainty, he
must have a full and complete conviction that he knows what he knows, or
he will be plunged into such suspense and anxiety at times as will make him
"desire his mother had never borne him." If he makes a mistake, unlike the
conductor, he has no chance to rectify it. After the trains have once left
the station, they are then beyond the power of recall, and his only hope that
a collision, with its consequent horrors, will be averted, is that the engi-
neers may see each other in time to stop, a rather uncertain probability, if
the road should happen to be curved.

Train despatching is a scientific system, and is practically uniform on
all roads. The scientist makes the time-table according to the laws of pro-
portion, and according to the rights and privileges of the different classes
of trains. But upon the ability of the train despatcher the railroad com-
pany depends for the successful operation "as per the working time-table."

LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN

The engineer and fireman hold important and responsible positions. They
are better informed and receive better pay than their predecessors. The
field is enlarging constantly, and with the prospect of a new motive power
in place of steam, only well equipped and capable men will be sure of re-
tention as engineers in the employ of the roads. To become an engineer
a young man must serve an apprenticeship. There is surely sufficient in-
ducement for him to do this, for a locomotive engineer of some experience
often earns two thousand dollars a year, working only half the week, and
being sure of keeping his place for life, unless something extraordinary
occurs. If well equipped he is also in the direct line of promotion, in fre-
quent instances becoming a master mechanic, a division superintendent, a
superintendent of motive power, etc.

The apprenticeship for a locomotive engineer is served as fireman. So
well are these firemen chosen from the numbers of applicants that more than
ninety per cent of them become engineers. A young man of fair education,
writing a good plain hand, neat in person and dress, and sound in health,
will have little difficulty in having his name placed upon the waiting list.
So extensive and so rapidly expanding is the railroad business of to-day
that men are in demand, and the applicant generally has but a short time
to wait before securing an engagement as fireman. The beginner is gen-
erally placed on a switch engine, although sometimes on a freight train,
serving on the extra list until he gets a regular engine. The engineer is
his teacher. The fireman must keep the engine clean and see that the fire
is just right. He must especially be economical of fuel. Careless firing on
several engines would mean a large loss to the company. A fireman gets
very good pay for a beginner, the salaries amounting to about fifty-seven
dollars a month for switch engine firemen, seventy-five dollars for through

528 WORKERS OF THE NATION

freight firemen, and as much as ninety dollars on passenger trains. The
fireman's work is hard, and men who have done manual labor are of course
best fitted for it. The fireman must know his engine thoroughly, and
should be able to run it, if emergency requires, in place of the engineer.

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS

As to the locomotive engineer, he should examine every part of his engine
before each trip, not detailing this duty to any one else. If he spends an
hour or an hour and a half in this inspection he is not doing too much.
Most particularly true in railroading is the old adage to the effect that "pre-
vention is better than cure." The engineer, when his train has started, must
be continually alert. He can not be idle or indifferent for an instant.
There are many details for his attention. The water in the boiler must be
kept at a proper height. The air-brakes must be in the correct condition
for immediate action. There must always be steam enough to run the train
and to heat the cars. Grade crossings must be watched, with proper sound-
ing of the whistle, and a constant lookout must be maintained for block
signals. The engineer must be able to detect instantly any failure or defect
in the machinery, and must know how to make repairs, when occasion arises.
The coolness and judgment of some locomotive engineers really amounts
almost to a sixth sense. Long experience gives them a certain intuition,
for which no rules can be given, which often saves hundreds of lives. To
do the proper things in the proper order, with instantaneous decision, this
is the characteristic of a good engineer. When a train is moving at the
rate of ninety feet a second there is no time for delay in emergencies.

Of course there are disagreeable experiences occasionally to be faced by
the locomotive engineer. It is very trying, for example, to be put in charge
of some inferior old engine and be expected to make as good time with it
as with a perfect modern machine. Then, again, there are bad weather
conditions. In great snow-storms, when drifts cover the track and the cold
is terrific, the resourceful engineer often has to do fourfold his usual work.
He must know when not to slow down for a drift, and what to do when
stalled by snow. Long hours are sometimes his fate under these trying
circumstances, especially in the through freight service. Railroading, how-
ever, is not nearly so hazardous as it was formerly. As a rule, railroad
men live as long as other men, and most of the life insurance companies in-
sure firemen and engineers at a slightly advanced premium. They are not
considered bad "risks." Such has been the improvement in roadbeds and
management that the loss of life is very slight.

The locomotive engineer works under orders. The rules of the road
govern all his actions, except in emergencies. As for pay, the engineer's
salary is a very good one. The best roads pay their switch engineers about
$100 a month, their freight engineers from $140 to $150, while a passenger
engineer gets from $150 to $175. These rates will certainly compare very
favorably with earnings in other professions. The hours of work varv

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT RAILROAD 529

somewhat. Ten hours every day in the week, with one hour's nooning, is
the stint for switch engineers ; ten hours a day for freight engineers, and an
average of eight hours a day for local passenger engineers, with three Sun-
days off in the month. For through passenger engineers the hours are
from fourteen to sixteen hours every other day. The "lay off" at the end
of the trip is included in their working time.

As a general principle, the better the education, the better the engineer.
All young men who think of becoming locomotive engineers should take a
course in mechanics and electrical engineering. The best informed engi-
neers are trusted and consulted by the company, and this is in itself a reward
of efficiency. The better educated the engineer, the broader his vision.
Officers and men trust each other, and thus disputes are quickly settled.

RAILWAY BRAKEMEN

Men who seek employment as brakemen, with the view to become con-
ductors, are of a much higher class now than formerly. As in the case of
firemen, the brakemen are no longer hired by their immediate superiors, and
subject to discharge by them. The conductor does not now employ or dis-
miss the brakeman, nor wholly regulate his promotion. The superinten-
dent has the power of hiring and dismissing brakemen at present. Of course,
if the brakeman constantly offends the conductor by badly performed work,
his reported delinquencies will speedily result in his discharge. As in other
first appointments, the character and fitness of the applicant for the posi-
tion of brakeman is carefully scrutinized. But that the selections are we1!
made is proved by the fact that about the same proportion of brakemen re-
main in the service and are promoted as is the case among the firemen —
that is to say, about ninety per cent remain. In former days brakemen be-
gan with freight trains and went, later, to the same service on passenger
trains, then going back to freight trains as conductors, and next being pro-
moted to the conductorship of passenger trains. The brakeman's work was
very hard in the days of the hand-brakes, but all that is changed now.
Men had to be of great strength and endurance to stand the work. They
had less ambition, and an appointment as freight conductor was the zenith
of their hopes. The present applicant for engagement as a brakeman fills
out a blank which contains examination questions as to the two hundred
rules of the road, and he must have a five years' reference as to character.
The superintendent thus has something on which to base his judgment in
appointing the young man. As is very natural, preference is given to the
sons of conductors and engineers of the road, and an effort is made also to
secure young men who live in towns along the line, so that they will be con-
tented to remain in the service, home ties restraining them from leaving for
employment on some other road.

The conditions favoring the applicant for work as a brakeman are
essentially the same as with applicants for engagement in other branches.
Strong, healthy, sober, willing and active — that is about it. He should also

3— Vol. 2

53o WORKERS OF THE NATION

be able to write a good hand. Good spelling will help him immensely. He
begins as an "extra," in the freight service, and is regularly hired when his
conductor reports him proficient. Not only must he be willing to work,
but he must be ready to do more than he is paid for. These little additional
services are always remembered in his favor, and often determine his ad-
vancement. While on the list as an "extra" the brakeman is not required
to report at the yards except when summoned, but he must always be acces-
sible to call, leaving his address with the company. Like the fireman and
engineer, he must take nothing for granted, but must attend to every duty
personally, trusting none of his work to others. The brakeman has a good
deal to do. He must see that the brakes are in perfect working order. The
car seals must be inspected. He must record the car numbers and seal con-
ditions. Then he must look after the "equipment" for the trip. In the
"caboose," he must keep a supply of lanterns, frogs, chains, waste, oil, tools,
torpedoes, etc., and see that they are all "fit." He must couple the cars
and examine the state of the wheels. He must help the conductor in "prov-
ing" the seals and numbers of all the cars, just before starting on a trip,
calling out the numbers on his side of the train while the conductor inspects
them on the other side. Or he must carefully look after the equipment,
brakes, coupling and running gear. This last is very important, and often
prevents accidents and delays. No small part of a brakeman's work is keep-
ing guard against tramps and thieves. Robbery is a constant menace, and
vigilance is required.

The capable brakeman is generally very soon promoted, and as conduc-
tor he must be more self-reliant than ever. He must perform or personally
oversee absolutely everything which comes within his province. He should
not take it for granted that his brakeman has cut off cars, for example, but
should see for himself that it has actually been done. In case of accident
a good conductor will not lose his presence of mind. He must instantan-
eously set his men to flagging approaching trains, placing torpedoes, and,
if it is dark, swinging the lanterns in signals. A careful watch must be kept
of the cars against fire or water or thieves. He must be ready to make
repairs up to a certain extent, in case of breakdown, or if he can not clear the
track, he must at once inform the nearest telegraph station.

On the great roads the pay of a freight brakeman is $2.10 a day, while
passenger brakemen receive salaries of from forty-five to fifty-five dollars
a month.

With the evolution, of railroading, and the introduction of air-brakes
and other improvements, the brakeman has developed into the "train man."
He is no longer porter, cleaner, train boy, and brakeman combined. He
never uses the hand brakes save when the air brakes fail.

His duties in the new service are, however, sufficiently arduous. He
still' has to see that the train is in proper shape, and to protect it from rear
collisions, in case of accidental stoppage. He comes closely into contact with
the passengers, if on a passenger train, and must learn patience and good

SWITCHING TRAINS IN THE YARDS OF A GREAT RAILROAD

TERMINAL

DRAWN BY W. R. LEIGH

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT RAILROAD 531

manners. He should remember that passenger trains are run for passen-
gers. His experience in dealing with all kinds of people will be one of his
best assets when there is talk of his promotion.

RAILWAY CONDUCTORS

As conductor, his responsibility is enormously increased. He must re-
member .that the company is behind him, and liable in civil suits for damages
for his mistakes in putting persons off the train, for example. He is master
of the train, and all are under his orders. The engineer is the only one
else who has any responsibility apart from him. The conductor must save
time at the stations by getting away quickly. He must take especial care of
the passengers, telegraphing to the next station for a physician in case of
illness, adjusting quarrels without losing his own temper, and using his judg-
ment at all times. Better carry a dead beat occasionally than to put him off
the train by force. Tact is invaluable.

The prospects of promotion and of a good continuous livelihood for a
young man beginning as a brakeman are as good as in any other business.
As in other positions on the railroad, the better his education, the better his
chances. And faithfulness always counts.

PARLOR, SLEEPING, AND DINING CAR SERVICE

TEe comfort of passengers on parlor, sleeping, and dining cars has been
reduced to a science. The modern sleeper costs thirty thousand dollars.
The dining cars may not always pay the railroads, but they are maintained
at the very height of the car builder's art, and are as well equipped as the
best hotels. Every house must have a housekeeper, and the dining car is
nothing but a house on wheels. So there is a housekeeper, or superinten-
dent. He takes care to give people seats which he thinks will please them,
knowing, for instance, that few ladies like to ride backward on the cars.
This superintendent makes it his object to see that passengers are suited.
In the car-yard the "diners," "sleepers" and day coaches are put into proper
condition for the journey. They are first stripped bare of everything de-
tachable. The carpet is taken up, beaten, and then cleansed with hot air.
The berths are opened and emptied, and the blankets, pillows and curtains
are thoroughly cleansed with hot air, after being brushed and beaten, and
are kept in a wholesome and sanitary state. Fresh linen is, of course, used
with every passenger. The mattresses also receive their share of attention.
The car itself is cleaned by a blast of compressed air, conveyed through a
long hose with a pressure of eighty pounds. All seats and chairs are
touched by its cleansing breath, and not an inch of velvet escapes. Scrub-
women finish the cleaning process, and the car is again ready to be ar-
ranged for the road. Disinfectants are used at frequent intervals, and cases
of contagious diseases are always immediately reported. Before starting
on its trip, the car is dressed for the journey. The freshly cleaned carpets
are put down. All the paraphernalia of the berths is replaced, the tanks
are filled, and the porter assumes his neat uniform.

532 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The dining car is stocked with edibles. Felt covers the bare tables, and
over this the snowy tablecloths and shining glasses make their appearance.
The kitchen affords not as much room as a galley on a steamship. It is a
very tiny place, only about fifteen feet long, with a narrow aisle, but it is
equipped with the latest and best of ranges, steam heating tables, and sev-
eral refrigerators, with a plentiful supply of hot and cold water. Fish,
meats and game are kept in separate refrigerators, in perfect condition for
cooking, as desired. There is also an iced "wine-cellar," which is kept
locked, save when some of its contents may be demanded by a passenger.
There are generally three cooks to a kitchen. They earn good salaries,
the head cook getting about seventy-five dollars a month, the second cook
receiving forty-five dollars, while the third cook bides his time and expects
promotion. They wear white uniforms. There is a pantry from which the
waiters are in contact with the kitchen only through a small window.

The buffet-car contains a kitchen in a nutshell, and the bill of fare is
extremely limited, with one man as cook and waiter.

The porter of the sleepers and parlor cars is an important personage,
who can do much to make or mar the comfort of the passenger. His
duties are multitudinous. He does fifty different things a day for fifty dif-
ferent people, and is generally rewarded with a fair-sized fee, or ought to
be. So is life on the rail made easy, and so is the great American travel •
ling public accommodated.

"BRAKING" A TRAIN

A party of railroad men were making a journey in a special train
through Pennsylvania. They came to a town where mammoth factories
were built in a row more than half a mile long. "Hats off to Westing-
house," cried one of the party, and every man doffed his travelling cap.

In the factories, past which the train was speeding, thousands of men
were employed making a device which has reduced to the minimum the
slaughter of railroad employes — the air-brake.

Just previous to the year 1868, George Westinghouse conceived the air-
brake which has since revolutionized the speed of railway travel. Since the
first brake was introduced it has been developed to such an extent that pas-
senger trains run with safety at speeds of sixty and seventy miles an hour,
and freight trains are controlled down grades exceeding two hundred feet
per mile. The quick-action brake, with which passenger, baggage, mail, and
express cars are equipped, has been modified so that, if desired, a high-speed
reducing valve can be added to each equipment ; this valve makes it possible
to use a higher cylinder pressure at fast speeds, where the danger of wheel
sliding is at minimum, and this pressure is automatically reduced as the
speed of the train is decreased and the danger of wheel sliding is greater.
Without changing the quick-action freight equipment from the standard,
the engine equipment has been so changed that the engineer has at his
command a device by means of which the braking power on the train can

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT RAILROAD 533

be readily changed to meet the conditions presented in either a light or
loaded train, a higher braking power being used with a loaded train where
the danger of wheel sliding is slight. With this form of brake a passenger
train of three hundred tons, travelling at sixty miles an hour, can be
stopped in about 4,500 feet, or in about ninety seconds, and in case of an
emergency, in 1,200 feet, or in thirty-one seconds. A freight train of eight
hundred tons, running at thirty miles an hour, can by an emergency applica-
tion be stopped in 300 feet, or eleven seconds.

Up to the present time about one and a half million of air-brakes have
been applied to freight cars in this country, while practically all engines,
tenders, and cars in passenger, mail, baggage, and express service have
been equipped with air-brakes. Ninety per cent of the air-brakes now in
use are the product of the Westinghouse establishment. The capacity
of the plant is one thousand sets of brakes a day. The company also has
plants in Canada, England, France, Germany, and Russia.

A special instruction car, equipped with complete sets of all air-brake
and signal appliances, is furnished gratuitously by the air-brake company
to any road desiring it. The car is fitted up to meet the conditions encoun-
tered in practical railway service as illustrated by thirty operative brakes.
It is in charge of a chief instructor and an assistant, whose business it is
to instruct engineers, conductors, firemen, and repairmen in the operation
and maintenance of the different appliances. After a propeV amount of in-
struction, each pupil is required to pass a satisfactory examination, and is
given a certificate bearing his rating. When this car is en route over a rail-
road system, the officers usually require that each employe pass a satisfac-
tory examination, and that the men continue their attendance at the car until
they obtain a certificate which has at least a standard rating. These re-
quirements tend to procure greater protection to the travelling public, as well
as to the railroad property. Up to the present time the annual mileage of
the instruction car is about 70,000 miles, and the number of railway em-
ployes instructed and examined is about 170,000. The air-brake instruc-
tion car has been in service more than twelve years. The principal lecturer
in the faculty of this modern college of applied science claims that his in-
stitution has more alumni than any other college in the world.

MAKING A RAILROAD TIME-TABLE

Preparation of the time-table which governs the running of trains on
any road of considerable length is one of the most particular of railway
details, and the arrangement is very ingenious and simple, though the work
itself is a decidedly intricate and difficult task. The instruments employed
are of the simplest sort, merely very sharp pins, with large round black or
colored heads, spools of colored silk thread in connection with a large smooth
pine board, like a blackboard, covered with white paper, securely pasted to
the board. These are the instruments by which are worked out the sche-
dules of all the trains, freight and passenger, of the roads, and this is how

534 WORKERS OF THE NATION

the schedules are constructed : The chart on the "blackboard" is ruled with
lines certain distances (representing five minutes) apart, using generally
a space of two inches to the hour ; and the chart thus ruled for twenty- four
hours would be four feet in width. The first hour on the left-hand side of
the chart is six o'clock A.M., and the last hour on the opposite side is also
six o'clock A.M., thus bringing the hour of six o'clock P.M. in the middle
of the chart. The hours are represented by heavy lines, each five minutes
are represented by light lines, and quarter hour lines are usually ruled with
a different colored ink. The hours are shown by figures at the top and bot-
tom of these lines. Horizontal lines showing stations are ruled on the chart,
and carefully scaled according to distances between the stations, the name of
the station and its distance from the starting point of the schedules under
preparation being shown at both ends of these horizontal lines. A thread of
a certain color represents a passenger train, another color means a freight
train, and the color of the threads also indicates in which direction the train
is to move.

Now, as to the construction of the time-table. It is agreed that the run-
ning time of a train shall be, say, forty miles an hour, and to illustrate the
tracing of one train will show the general manner of running all of them.
A passenger train leaves the first station, or starting point, for instance, at
eight o'clock A.M., a pin is placed on the horizontal line representing the
starting station at the eight A.M. time or vertical line, and the end of the
thread fastened to it. If the division over which the train runs is 160 miles
another pin would be placed on the chart at the twelve o'clock noon time line
on the horizontal or station line at which the train completes its run. If its
run is over a division of eighty miles, the pin would be placed on the hori-
zontal line at ten o'clock, and so on. If this train is to stop, as is most
likely, say? ten minutes at some station for coal or water, the thread repre-
senting the train is stretched on two pins ten minutes, or two time spaces
apart on the station line at which the train is to make the stop; the thread is
then drawn tightly, and by following it closely the time lines will give the
time of the train at every station on the line. When the train has a heavy
grade to climb, on which it can not run at the rate of forty miles per hour,
a pin is put in at the station at each end of the grade, and the thread slanted
to allow for slow time between those points.

Wherever threads running in opposite or in the same directions
cross each other, trains must meet, and the pins and thread are so ad-
justed as to make the trains meet or pass each other at stations. On time-
tables used by employes the figures at meeting or passing stations are printed
in heavy type, so that they are easily distinguished from other figures of
smaller type at stations where trains do not meet or pass. The printer's
proof of the time-table, after it has been constructed, has to be carefully
compared with the chart to see that the time at all stations and the meeting
or passing points of all trains are correctly shown. This is the way a rail-
road time-table looks weeks before it gets into the passenger's hands.

CHAPTER III
THE RAILROAD MAN

Railroading as an Occupation — Opportunities in the Railway Service — The Training of
Railroad Men — Earnings of Railroad Men — Qualifying as a Railroad Employe — Pro-
motion in the Railway Service — Discipline in the Railway Service — Reprimands and
Suspensions — Methods of Discharge — Working Hours of Railroad Men — Sunday
Work — Railway Apprentices

RAILROADING AS AN OCCUPATION

WITH over a million employes of all classes engaged in railway
transportation in the United States, each person so employed af-
fects the interests of at least four more. Here, then, are five
millions whose welfare depends upon railroads. But five millions are not
all. Many more millions, employed in kindred industries are affected. As
shown in previous chapters, there are thousands engaged in locomotive
works, more thousands in car shops, still more in the manufacture of steel
and iron rails and in many other industries and professions upon which
railroads depend for supplies and for services. It is plain, therefore, that
railroading as an occupation affects the present and future of more persons
in the United States than any other avenue of employment excepting agri-
culture.

Railway labor is of general interest because upon it the prosperity and
growth of the country becomes more and more dependent. Suspend opera-
tions on a single railroad system for one day, and a thousand industries suf-
fer, and much money is lost. Railway employment has taken the lead in
meeting nearly all the problems of the wage-earner. Organized labor has
here accomplished more than in any other department, for here it has
learned its most helpful lessons, here suffered its worst defeats, here
achieved its most glorious victories. In respect to the relations of employer
to employes, in the railway world, many good ends have been attained.
Provision for the uncertainties of life has been made. The old age prob-
lem in occupations has been met.

Many of the greater railroad corporations pride themselves upon the es-
tablishment of a system or a method of management, which enables them to
retain employes in their service. In their turn, the men are as proud of their
uniforms and service stripes as are the men who wear the cloth of blue in
the army or navy. It is a fact that the roads which have developed the
highest degree of esprit de corps among their employes, are the most suc-
cessful. The development of esprit de corps depends principally upon these

(535)

536 WORKERS OF THE NATION

two things : conditions of promotion ; and causes and methods of discharge.
The majority of employes are influenced by these considerations in one of
two ways: either abandoning railroad life altogether or quitting service
with a particular road; or in adopting railroading as a permanent occupa-
tion.

It is said that the general manager of ten thousand miles of railroad
wields a power more absolute than that of the government of any State in
the Union. In the railway service each man's power increases as he climbs
upward. When he was only a trainmaster, he was a power. Even a section
foreman is a power ; for he has at least six men under him. The conductor is
the boss of the trainmen ; the engine-driver is the boss of the fireman ; and
the trainmasters, yardmasters, division superintendents, all are bosses, all
have power. It is their opportunity to gratify a love of power that draws
so many young men into the business or profession of railroading.

OPPORTUNITIES IN THE RAILWAY SERVICE

The chances for young men in the railroad business are these: plenty
of work; strict attention to duty; working overtime cheerfully whenever
occasion demands; good living wages or liberal salaries the reward; posi-
tions secure as long as the man is faithful to requirements; promotion the
prize for ability and intelligence.

Railroad men can rise from the ranks to positions of great responsibility
as do men in the army, or in any great industrial enterprise. Many of the
heads of departments and high officials of more than one great railroad sys-
tem of to-day worked their way up from the ladder's lowest round. One
was a brakeman, one an office boy, several were messengers, and one or two
were station agents. These men had no honors thrust upon them; they
had to earn their laurels step by step, inch by inch, by harder and more in-
telligent work day after day, year after year. It is a fact not generally
known that the two men who are nearest to the Czar of Russia, and who,
perhaps, have a greater influence than any others in shaping the commercial
policy of the present government of that great empire, are M. de Witte, the
Imperial Minister of Finance, who, sixteen years ago, was a station agent at
a small town on one of the railways of Russian Poland, and Prince Michel
Hilkoff, who, when little more than a boy, left St. Petersburg to seek his
fortune, learned mechanical engineering in the city of Philadelphia, and who
is to-day the Imperial Minister of Railways of the Russian Empire and a
member of the Cabinet of the Czar.

If even in Russia a man can rise from the position of station agent to
that of Minister of Finance, what glorious opportunities for advancement
are to be found in the United States !

On the point of the early retirement of railroad men, it may be said that,
as a rule, some lighter employment is found for them when they grow old.
The men are not retired earlier than in other businesses. It is true, how-
ever that only young men are hired for the service.

THE RAILROAD MAN 537

The personal life of employes should be free from dissipation, as noth-
mg will so injure their prospects. Faithful service is sure to be noticed
by the heads of departments, and is the best way to secure promotion.
Favoritism in promotions has almost disappeared. As to the line of service
which a young man should enter, with a view to holding, some day, a high
position, the "personal equation" must in every case be considered. It is not
so much a matter of departments as of the man. Physical strength counts
for a good deal. Robustness and vigor are necessary for the railroad man,
as the business is very exacting and arduous.

THE TRAINING OF RAILROAD MEN

Few of the higher railroad officials of to-day have had the benefit of a
technological school education. Practically without exception they all
began at the bottom rounds of the ladder, and worked up, step by step,
through arduous labor, to their present positions. The young man of the
present time who goes into the profession of railroading, will, in many
cases, have had a technical training in a good professional school. Just the
same, no one can step from the classroom of a technological school directly
to a high office in the service of a railroad. Practical, every-day experience
will be as necessary in the future as it has been in the past. Promotion may
be quicker, owing to the preliminary school training, that is all. Book-lore
is a good thing, but first-hand knowledge is indispensable, and no one will
ever occupy a high position in operating a railroad without this equipment of
personal, practical experience ; nothing can take its place.

The conditions of modern railroad travel, involving the use and repair of
highly elaborate machinery, particularly air-brakes and locomotive attach-
ments, demand in the average train hand a considerable degree of accurate
mechanical information. This is necessarily the case, since in even the
most subordinate position he is invested with the utmost responsibility, as
regards both the operation of the train and the safety of the passengers.
Railroad companies, therefore, require that each man shall pass a satisfactory
examination in the details of operation and repair of the apparatus he must
be called upon to handle. Many of them, also, provide special instruction
for their employes, to supplement such knowledge as they may have derived
from practical experience. Most of the subjects are so involved, however,
that it is generally difficult, if not quite impossible, to meet the needs of
each man, as they should be met : hence both employers and employes wel-
come any attempt at systematic education. As has been amply demonstrated
in recent years, the instruction requisite for a well-equipped railroad
man, as also for the practical worker in a number of other trades and
callings, can be eminently well furnished by the correspondence method,
now such a prominent feature of American education. One of the lead-
ing correspondence schools in the country has, of late years, undertaken to
meet the needs of railway employes by systematic courses in the details of
locomotive and air-brake construction, operation, and repair; imparting the

538 WORKERS OF THE NATION

information, not only by correspondence, but also by direct demonstration,
lectures, etc., in specially-built instruction cars that periodically make a tour
of nearly all railroads. Many of the largest railway companies have dele-
gated the instruction of their employes to this institution, while the majority
of them offer every facility to the progress of the instruction cars, and to the
men attending the demonstrations.

In addition to six air-brake instruction cars, there are twelve special
lecture cars, constantly traversing the country and affording technical in-
struction to nearly 25,000 men. On each of these cars there is a complete
equipment of railroad apparatus which is thoroughly explained, both as re-
gards general principles and as applied in the practice of each particular
road. The more difficult facts are set forth by stereopticon lectures. In the
meantime, the students are thoroughly trained by correspondence, receiving
a lesson at a time to be learned, and forwarding answers by mail for cor-
rection and revision. By these methods locomotive engineers are enabled to
obtain a clearer and more thorough knowledge of their engines ; the theory
and construction of all the working parts, including the familiar troubles and
accidents affecting them, and the methods of repair — the operation of high-
speed air-brakes, steam-heating apparatus, air signaling systems, and all the
details of his daily routine of duty. Firemen are also instructed as to the
methods of feeding the furnace, so as to economize coal and obtain the best
effect of the heat. This is desirable, since as has been well said, "an un-
skilful fireman can do more to decrease the efficiency of a locomotive than
the most skilful designer can do to improve it." An ambitious fireman may
thus be trained to take an engineer's position, in due course ; trainmen, by ac-
quiring a thorough understanding of the apparatus with which they have to
deal, are enabled to fit themselves for such promotions as are offered. The
records achieved by correspondence schools amply demonstrate the fact that
the average railroad employe is only too eager to obtain thorough informa-
tion on the details of his apparatus and on general technical points.

EARNINGS OF RAILROAD MEN

There are two questions in railway employment which statistics under-
take to answer. The first pertains to the number of men employed in trans-
portation and the relation which this number holds to the length of line
operated and to the traffic carried. The other pertains to the classification
of railway employes and the average amount paid for their service in the
several classes of employment. From the point of view of the railway
manager, these data, kept in a uniform manner from year to year, are sig-
nificant when placed in comparison with the amount received for traffic;
and it is of importance to the railway employe as indicating the trend of
average wages in the railway service. The general public is also interested,
of course, in knowing the number of persons employed from year to year in
this great branch of industry, the amount of wages received by them, and
how such wages are distributed.

THE RAILROAD MAN 539

The following table, taken from a Statistical Report of the Interstate
Commerce Commission shows eighteen classes of employes, the number em-
ployed in each class, and, approximately, the number employed per hundred
miles of line in the United States at the present time :

Num- Per 100 m.

ber of line

General officers 4,916 3

Other officers 4,669 2

General office clerks 32,265 17

Station agents 31,610 16

Other station men 89,851 47

Enginemen 42,837 22

Firemen 44,130 23

Conductors 29,957 16

Other trainmen 74,274 39

Machinists 32,831 17

Carpenters 46,666 24

Other shopmen 114,773 60

Section foremen 33,085 17

Other trackmen 226,799 1 18

Switchmen, flagmen and watchmen 50,789 26

Telegraph operators and despatchers 25,218 13

Employes — account floating equipment 7,597 4

All other employes and laborers 125,386 65

Totals 1,017,653 529

The same report shows that 36,451 are employed in the service of "Gen-
eral Administration"; 324,946 in "Maintenance of Way and Structures";
and 197,799 m "Maintenance of Equipment" ; and 450,063 in "Conducting
Transportation," and 8,394 are stated as "Unclassified."

The same authority furnishes the following information as to the aver-
age daily compensation: General officers, $10.45; other officers, $5.22; gen-
eral office clerks, $2.19; station agents, $1.75; other station men, $1.60; en-
ginemen, $3.75; firemen, $2.14; conductors, $3.17; other trainmen, $1.96;
machinists, $2.30; carpenters, $2.04; other shopmen, $1.73; section fore-
men, $1.68; other trackmen, $1.22; switchmen, flagmen, and watchmen,
$1.80; telegraph operators and despatchers, $1.96; employes — account float-
ing equipment, $1.92; all other employes and laborers, $1.71

Before Mr. Samuel R. Calloway left the presidential chair of the New
York Central Railroad, for a similar position as the head of the American
Locomotive Company, he was called by the Industrial Commission as a wit-
ness. The following paragraphs are from his testimony :

After being employed it depends upon the railroad employe himself as to his remain-
ing. So long as he faithfully discharges his duty, there is no reason why an employe
should not remain in the service and be in line for promotion when opportunity offers,
which promotion is dependent upon such performance and further capacity for increased
responsibility. There are no physical conditions required, except in case of employes who
are required to take signals, such as enginemen, firemen, conductors, and trainmen; such
employes have to pass an examination as to their eyesight and hearing.

As to rates of wages of different classes of employes : Most of our men are paid for
the number of hours' work and for the number of miles made, the average pay of em-
ployes being as follows: Telegraph operators, $52.50; block-signal men, $46.50; other sig-
nal men, $49.00, which includes baggagemen, station clerks, etc.; enginemen, $114, al-

540 WORKERS OF THE NATION

though their wages vary from $90.00 to $175.00; firemen and wipers, 59.00, firemen getting
from $50.00 to $84.00; conductors, $86.00, their baggagemen and trainmen's wages varying
from $40.00 to $70.00 ; mechanics and helpers in shops, $49.00 ; other shopmen, $40.00 ; road-
masters and track foremen, $49.50; roadmasters being paid on an average from $100.00 to
$125.00 per month, and track foremen from $40.00 to $50.00; track laborers, $35-50 ; switch-
men, flagmen, watchmen, etc., $40.00; mechanics and helpers on road, $56.00; employes of
floating equipment, $58.00.

We have no reductions and no deductions, except for value received, such as rent,
board, uniform. For instance, if a man puts an order in that his rent is to be deducted
from his wages and gives it to the person from whom he rents or boards, we take that
out; otherwise there are no deductions, except by arrangements with the employes them-
selves.

Part of the testimony given before the Industrial Commission by Grand
Master Sargent, of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen upon this mat-
ter of wages is as follows :

The employes in the principal organized branches of the railway service are quite
generally employed at rates of compensation and under terms of employment mutually
agreed upon between the officers of the railway company and committees representing the
men. In addition to these rules, the men are subject to the rules of the company relative
to movement of trains, conduct of men, and property entrusted to their care.

The basis for pay for enginemen and for trainmen in freight service is the number of
miles run, with a premium allowance as agreed upon. The trainmen in passenger service
are generally paid by the month, although on many important roads they are paid by the
mile or the trip.

The standard for engineers in passenger service is three and one-half cents per mile ;
in freight service, four cents per mile ; for firemen fifty-eight per cent of the engineer's pay.
The standard rate for conductors in freight service is three cents per mile ; for brakemen,
sixty-six and one-half per cent of the conductors' pay. Passenger conductors get from
$100 to $125 per month, and passenger brakemen from $50 to $70 per month. The
standard pay for yard foremen is twenty-seven cents per hour for day work and
twenty-nine cents per hour for night work, and for yard switchmen is twenty-five cents
per hour for day work and twenty-seven cents per hour for night work. In the Southern
States colored men are used a great deal as firemen and brakemen. This practice has a
strong tendency to unfavorably affect the rates of pay of men on neighboring roads, for
the colored men work much more cheaply than white men.

Telegraphers, train despatchers, and station agents are generally paid by the month, and
it is but of comparatively recent date that the unfavorable and unsatisfactory conditions
which have surrounded them in their work have been ameliorated to an appreciable degree.
The rates of pay in this service varies with the importance of the station at which the men
are employed.

The standard rate for train despatchers is $125 per month, working eight hour tricks.
The standard for station agents and telegraphers is fixed by establishing a minimum salary,
and adding thereto as is proper in consideration of the responsibility assumed and the
work performed. The pay of station agents and telegraph operators runs from $40 to $85
per month. As a rule the rates of wages are quite stable, the wages of the men who work
by the mile or the trip being affected by the volume of business.

QUALIFYING AS A RAILROAD EMPLOYE

There is in the railroad service of this country an increasing tendency
to systematic methods in the selection of railroad employes, in marked con-
trast to the somewhat haphazard methods of even the larger corporations of
a decade or so ago, when methods of employment closely analogous to the
methods in use in establishments of much less importance and scope of ser-
vice prevailed. The past decade has witnessed an important change in this
respect and existing conditions foreshadow still greater changes in the near
future. The railroad service, it is now realized, is essentially a public ser-

THE RAILROAD MAN 541

vice, and when a man enters it he may with proper capacity and behavior ex-
pect to remain in it for life. It is a continuous service no matter what rank
he occupies or in what branch of the service he may be placed. It is a dig-
nified and useful life-work, worthy of all the toil and training necessary to
make one competent to the tasks it brings him. A large proportion, proba-
bly twenty-five per cent, of the million men employed on the railroads of
the United States are unskilled laborers. For these the conditions of em-
ployment are naturally the same as those of other industries — physical health
and willingness and ability to perform manual labor.

When one speaks of the qualifications demanded bythe railroad service he
usually refers to the skilled employes in the shops, in the train service or in
the general offices or at stations. For these places the railroad corporations
are generally anxious to secure men having first of all a good common
school education, who are willing to begin at the bottom or with the lowest
paid work in either of the subdivisions of the transportation business, and
work their way into that department of the service, and that position for
which experience and demonstrated ability may seem to best fit them. In
this industry, as in most others, the better general training and education a
man has the more likely he is to rise rapidly, but however good a man's
general education, it is none the less necessary that he should begin at the
bottom and work himself up through every detail of the complex business of
transportation. Experience is indispensable, no matter how thorough the
groundwork of general theory may be laid.

It is a growing custom with the more important companies to require
formal applications from those who desire to enter their service. This appli-
cation must be filled out in the handwriting of the applicant, give general
information as to his age, previous employment, and be accompanied by a
certificate of character ; and if the position applied for is such as to demand
it, a certificate of physical condition also. The conditions for admission to
certain classes of employment demand physical examination of the most
searching character, including tests of sight and hearing, and for nearly all
departments of the service on a large proportion of the more important rail-
roads, except unskilled laborers, some technical examinations are required.
Thus, for example, an applicant must pass an examination upon the rules of
the branch of service for which he applies, and after being admitted to the
service all employes must undergo frequent tests of familiarity with the
rules. Classes are held from time to time by superior officers charged with
the duty of examining employes, at which test cases are submitted and dis-
cussed for the purpose of illustrating the applications of the rules. It may
be remarked here that the rules of railway operation are very generally uni-
form, and are now largely based upon standard codes adopted by the Ameri-
can Railway Association and other railway technical organizations made up
of representatives of nearly all the leading roads. The standard codes for
the various departments of service are at least taken as a basis, though some-
times modified to suit special needs and the experience of different roads.

542 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The gradual extension of standard codes of rules will tend to facilitate the
transfer of men .from one system to another and unify the conditions of rail-
way employment.

The application blanks of many roads state that for positions above that
of laborer, no person will be employed w7ho can not read and write the
English language, or who does not possess a knowledge of the rudiments of
arithmetic. Minors are not employed in train, yard, or engine service. Em-
ployes dismissed from the service are not re-employed without the consent
of the head of the department or division from which dismissed, and the
approval of the assistant general superintendent. Applicants for employ-
ment or reinstatement are obliged to undergo the same examinations as
applicants for employment.

The majority of the employes in the road department are common la-
borers, and there are no special requirements for admission to the service
other than physical ability to perform the labor required, and to be of the
age of twenty-one. In selecting men for the higher grades of service, those
are selected who have a technical education to fit them for the requirements
of the position, and they are also usually required to begin in the lower
ranks, which, of course, gives them the necessary experience.

Many roads demand a "clearance card," a paper giving the record of the
applicant, and the cause of his discharge from the road for wrhich he pre-
viously worked. The card must be signed by an official of the company.

The methods of application given in the foregoing paragraphs and the
qualifications mentioned, apply in a general way to about forty per cent of
all railway employes.

The qualifications demanded in the grades of the service comprising th?
remaining sixty per cent of railway employes are about the same as in tlr?
ordinary business world — that is, for such grades as general officers, office
clerks, and skilled mechanics.

As in all modern fields of endeavor, the better a man is educated the
more rapid his rise in railway service.

Certain railway companies have joined in the war on cigarettes, by re-
fusing to employ habitual cigarette smokers, assuming from experience in
many instances, that such men suffer from a disordered nervous system and
are therefore physically disqualified as railroad men. Excessive use of in-
toxicating liquors by any of its employes is not tolerated by any road, and
many roads demand their hands to be white ribbon men absolutely.

Age qualification is more of a factor than it used to be. To-day a man
over thirty-five years old finds it difficult to secure employment with any
railroad, unless he is an experienced hand. Many roads will not employ any
man, experienced or not, who has passed his thirty-fifth birthday.

PROMOTION IN THE RAILWAY SERVICE

It has been said that railroad service is a profession. It would be more
proper, perhaps, to say that it embraces all the professions. Proficiency in

THE RAILROAD MAX 543

any branch leads to promotion. Except upon very small railroads, however,
it is not expected that the head of a department must be entirely proficient in
other branches of the service. The Superintendent of Motive Power, for
instance, need not be an expert Traffic Manager or General Freight Agent.
The small roads, therefore, are the best for beginners, the best schools for
general education in the business. The beginner, learning at first a little of
everything, may select the branch of the service for which he is best adapted,
and may thus lay the foundation of special knowledge and develop into spe-
cialists.

The young man entering the railroad service, if he really wishes to ad-
vance, must choose a particular branch of the service, rivet his attention to
this and stick to it until he wins his prize. Here, as well as in every other
department of modern work, specialization is the rule. Any one of several
roads leads to the office of division superintendent and from there to the
office of the general manager, and even to the presidential chair the track is
straight.

There are, as has been elsewhere said, fully a million employes in the
railway service, but not more than ten thousand of these are general officers.
In other words, in every hundred employes there is only one general officer.
Apparently, the competition for the high places is so great that only by a
miracle can the young man hope to reach the top. But this is only apparent,
for the proportion of mediocrity, dullness, feebleness of character, weak-
ness of morals and inattention to duty is so large that the superior officers
of the railroads are ever on watch for men worth promoting. To have
"worked his way up from the ranks" is the very best that can be said of the
officer of a great railroad corporation. Promotion in this line of industry
depends, as a general rule, entirely upon demonstrated ability and not upon
"influence," or what may be termed, "politics." Sentiment plays no part,
and favoritism very little, unless the recipient of it can show substantial
qualities as well.

On a large proportion of American railroads the "Civil Service" prin-
ciple is recognized. Men are employed only in the lower ranks in the vari-
ous departments, and are encouraged to keep in constant training for the
next higher grade.

Examinations are held periodically under the direction of responsible
officers. Freight train men are promoted to the passenger train service,
firemen to enginemen, brakemen to conductors, and thus through all grades
from track-walker to general manager.

The Illinois Central Railroad system now regulates promotions as
follows :

All employes are regarded as in the line of promotion, advancement depending upon
their loyalty to the company's interests, faithful discharge of duty and capacity for in-
creased responsibility. Examinations for promotion are held from time to time as re-
quired. Examinations for promotion in train service include physical condition, rules of
transportation department, air-brake practice, and such special examination as the regula-
tions of other departments require. For promotion to the position of conductor, the appli-

544 WORKERS OF THE NATION

cant must have had two years' experience in train service. Employes desiring promotion
to conductors must make application in their own handwriting for examination, stating
age, experience and general qualifications for the positions. Applicants for the position
of engineman must, in addition to the requirements of the machinery department, pass
examination as to their physical condition, and the rules of the transportation department.
Applicants who fail on the first examination must, within one year, make written applica-
tion for re-examination. Those who fail on the second examination are dropped from the
service. Flagmen, brakemen or firemen who do not apply for examination within five
years may be dropped from the service.

Another road makes promotions in this manner :

In case of a vacancy, either by death, resignation, dismissal or promotion, or in case
of a new position being created or additional employes being required in any position above
the lowest rate of pay, the most capable man in any lower position is promoted to fill the
vacancy, no matter in what branch of the service he may be. In order to have material in
every branch of the service, heads of offices, departments and divisions are instructed to
select only the best applicants for such positions as students, apprentices, office boys, clerks,
operators, switchmen, brakemen, firemen, section foremen, etc., these being the classes from
which promotions are usually made; the heads of departments are also instructed to make
it a rule to employ no new men for any position that can be as well filled by promoting a
man already in the company's employ. Promotions from one branch of the service to
another are looked upon as being desirable, and every employe is encouraged to acquire a
general knowledge of the business, especially of that branch toward which he has a natural
inclination. To this end, heads of offices, departments and divisions are instructed to no-
tify the general superintendent, the general traffic manager or general manager of em-
ployes who are especially worthy of promotion to other departments.

Nearly all railroad companies are as anxious to promote their employes
as are the men themselves to receive promotion. The higher the position
the more important it becomes that the incumbent be experienced. Hence it
is that most roads engage new men only in the lower grades of service. The
system may be compared to that followed in the organization of an army.
The newly enlisted man must enter as a private, and the newly commis-
sioned officer must begin his army career as a second lieutenant. Just as the
enlisted man and the officer can work their way upward, so can the railway
employe forge ahead, even to the very top. Many of the highest officials of
the greatest railroad companies began as trainmen. Many college graduates*
work their way upward in the service from the cabs of freight engines, be-
ginning as firemen.

The man who looks upon "railroading" as merely temporary employ-
ment is not wanted. Railroading should be looked upon as a permanent
occupation and adhered to as a career, a life work.

DISCIPLINE IN THE RAILWAY SERVICE

Discipline in railroad service is as important as in the regular army.
Obedience — that is the chief support of discipline, and upon obedience the
success of a railroad, no less than that of an army, depends. But for a rail-
road employe to merely obey is not enough. He must obey promptly, even
on the instant. Next to obedience, he must possess the qualities of constant
watchfulness, must be ever reliable and steady.

On its part, in order to secure discipline, the road must have managers
who are born leaders, and the organization must have as few flaws as pos-

THE RAILROAD MAN 545

sible. This is especially true in the case of great railroads employing large
armies of men.

The best disciplinary rules for the railway service that have yet been de-
vised are those contained in the Brown system. This system of administer-
ing discipline has been adopted by fifty-seven different railroad lines, em-
bracing about one-third of the entire mileage of the country. Of course,
it has been modified or extended to meet the requirements and conditions on
each particular road. In general, however, it may be described as a merit
and demerit record system. It took its name from that of its inventor, Mr.
George R. Brown, general superintendent of the Fall Brook Railroad, New
York. The foundation of the whole system is a record book, in which is
entered a personal record of every employe.

Next in importance to the record book comes the bulletin. Whenever
an "irregularity" occurs, one of these bulletins is posted in a conspicuous
place, where all who are connected with the department in which the irregu-
larity occurred may read it. Names are not mentioned, but the men usually
know to whom the remarks refer. These three classes are comprised in
nearly every bulletin : First, the description of the "irregularity" ; second,
how the accident could have been avoided ; third, how it affects the com-
pany's interest.

The record book and the bulletin together comprise what is some-
times called "discipline without suspension." Mr. Brown describes the
record book as follows : "In it I write down a brief statement of every ir-
regularity for which a man is responsible. This record takes the place of the
"lay off/ and is dreaded nearly as much. The man goes to work at once and
no one but himself suffers, and he only in reputation at headquarters. When
a man commences to make a record in the book we call him in and talk with
him. He is reminded that if this gets too long we shall have to consider
him a failure for our service, show him his weakness, and give him another
chance. But he understands that it will not be entirely for the last offence
that he is dismissed ; the 'suspended sentence' cases are against him. When
the page is full of irregular circumstances the judgment is usually written at
the bottom in two words : 'Discharged, incompetent'."

The record and the bulletin together, serve :

1. To secure a higher state of efficiency. Strict discipline is essential to success.ul
operation ; no continuous service performed by man can be perfect, but a high state of dis-
cipline and a careful selection of men will produce a high class of service, and successful
operation will be the result.

2. To avoid loss of time and wages of employes, resulting in possible suffering of
those dependent upon their earnings, as well as demoralization of employes by enforced
idleness.

3. To avoid unnecessary severity in the dismissal of an employe, or requiring him to
serve an actual suspension for a single offence that does not injuriously reflect upon his
reputation, conduct, capacity, or future usefulness in the service.

4. To remove the false, but too common, impression in the minds of employes who
have served actual suspension, that the amount lost to them in wages is a payment to the
company for the loss and trouble caused it, and that in the future settlements can be made
in the same manner.

4— Vol. 2

546 WORKERS OF THE NATION

5. To avoid frequent service changes by considering each case of an erring employe
on its merits, weighing his character, previous record, and future availability, without
regard to parallel cases of other employes.

6. To advance the education of employes through the medium of bulletin notes, en-
abling them to avoid the mistakes made by others.

7. To establish in the service a feeling of security, in the confidence that faithful ser-
vice will be recognized and rewarded by uninterrupted employment, and the certainty that
reward and promotion will not follow indifferent service.

And to these seven objects of the system, the railroad companies add :

To avoid the dismissal of an employe for a single violation of the rules, or of good
practice, that does not injuriously reflect on his reputation, conduct, capacity or future
usefulness.

To judge each case of an erring employe on its merits, with due regard to his previous
record and future availability, considered with reference to the interests of the company
and its duty to its patrons.

That all may become acquainted with each case for which discipline is imposed, and
learn something from the failure of others.

To encourage and stimulate all employes to co-operate with the officers of the company
in all matters tending to produce harmony, economy, safety and efficiency, and thereby
secure better service, resulting both in profit and credit to the company and to its em-
ployes, as well as increased satisfaction to the public. Each employe can work with the
knowledge that the excellence of his record, the prospect of his continued employment, his
promotion, and final success, depend on his own good conduct and exertions. By notably
good and faithful work, he can accumulate a stock of credits that will practically ensure
him against dismissal in case of some oversight or error that otherwise would deprive him
of employment. The most efficient men will be encouraged, developed, benefited and re-
tained ; while those who prove to be unfit for the railroad service, though dismissed, will
be dealt with fairly and justly.

To enable the employe to gain in purse, in self-respect, in manliness, in interest in his
work, in permanence of employment, in loyalty to the company, and in solicitude for its
interests ; and by which the company expects to gain a man more contented, more intelli-
gent, more courteous, more watchful and zealous for its interests, realizing that they are
practically his own, thus securing a more harmonious, economical and efficient service, in
which the element of force is not predominant.

REPRIMANDS AND SUSPENSIONS

Circulars relating to reprimands and suspensions issued to employes by
the various railroads which have adopted the system accord more or less
with the following :

Reprimands will be noted on the records of employes who may receive same. Suspen-
sion, though for a certain number of days, will be nominal. Instead of actual suspension,
the employe at fault will be allowed to continue at work. A charge will be made on the
record in the book in the superintendent's office of every case of neglect of duty, violation
of the rules or of good practice, accidents, improper conduct, etc., resulting in discipline of
an employe, with the penalty imposed, as may be determined by the superintendent.

Record bulletins will be issued by the superintendent not oftener than fortnightly, and
posted at division terminals on a special board. These bulletins will be educational ; they
will be issued for, and give a brief account of, each case that has resulted in discipline,
and state how it could have been avoided, but will omit all reference that would identify
the person at fault.

Such acts as disloyalty, dishonesty, desertion, intemperance, insubordination, wilful
neglect, gross carelessness, immorality, violation of rules whereby the company's property
is endangered or destroyed, making false reports or statements, or concealing facts concern-
ing matters under investigation, etc., will subject the offender to summary dismissal.

Credit will be given on the record and may also be bulletined, for notably excellent

THE RAILROAD MAN 547

conduct, deeds of heroism and loyalty, good judgment in emergencies, etc. These special
credits will be given full consideration in connection with any charges entered.

An accumulation of poor records, showing that any employe is not a desirable man for
the service, will call for the special consideration of the superintendent, and may, after a
hearing, bring dismissal, though he may not have committed any offence that of itself
would have warranted dismissal.

It is expected that the system of "Discipline by Record" will prove of great advantage
alike to the company and to its employes and their families. Wages will not be lost by
disciplined employes who are not dismissed, except for such time as may be required for
satisfactory investigation, in attendance at the office of the superintendent, or by themselves
looking up facts, witnesses, etc., after which the employe will return to his work. It is
also expected that it will encourage and stimulate all employes to co-operate heartily with
the officers of the company in matters pertaining to harmony, economy, safety and efficiency,
thereby securing better service; and increasing benefits, security, and satisfaction to the
public and to all.

METHODS OF DISCHARGE

The station master, the section foreman, the yard master, the round-
house superintendent, the division superintendent, all these and others who
are responsible for the work of men under them, have the first "say" in the
matter of discharge. If the man thus discharged has grounds for objections,
he enters his protest formally, and his case in due time comes before the
board of inquiry.

The latest method of discharge in railroad service is administered in
three forms : First, reprimand and record of deficiencies ; second, suspension
from work and pay for a period of from ten to sixty days; third, dismis-
sal under the conditions named above. These three forms are comprised in
the "Brown system," or "Discipline by Record."

Gross carelessness or neglect, insubordination while on duty, dishonesty
— these flagrant violations of rules, on many roads, lead to the instant dis-
charge of the offending employe without appeal. On the plan, however, that
to err sometimes is but human, and that the most intelligent or most reliable
man may make a mistake despite his own best effort, some roads are inclined
to take a lenient view of a first blunder, basing punishment upon the of-
fender's past record.

Formerly, the causes of instant dismissal comprised a formidable list.
Now, however, this list has been greatly shortened. All the greater roads
have a kind of a court of appeals called a "board of inquiry," before which
it is possible for even a track-walker to place a grievance. Such boards of
inquiry usually include employes of the same grade as the person under in-
dictment, and their vote is of equal value with that of the highest officer
on the board. This practice has served to place a check on the arbitrary dis-
charge of an employe by hot-headed, unreasonable bosses or foremen.

Generally speaking, it is no longer possible for even trackmen and day
laborers to be unjustly discharged by the section foreman. Before a man is
discharged, under the present method, these three points are considered :
The relative seriousness of the offence, the man's past record, his promise of
future usefulness.

The methods of discharging employes vary with different railroads.

548 WORKERS OF THE NATION

One road, which has 8,000 employes, refers such matters to a board of in-
quiry. This board consists of three or more officers. It is their duty to
investigate violations of rules, and reports of misconduct and neglect. The
punishment for minor offences is a reprimand, which is written in the books
and forms a part of the employe's record. Several of these reprimands will
amount to an "accumulated bad record." Graver offences are punished by
suspension for thirty days or more. "Unpardonable offences," such as in-
competence, intoxication, gross neglect and an "accumulated bad record"
are punished by this board with dismissal.

All superintendents, division officers, shop foremen, etc., of another
road, employing about 4,000 men, are required to keep personal records of
all employes in their charge. Delinquencies, such as forgetfulness, obsti-
nateness, carelessness, laziness, extravagance, disagreeableness, quarrelsome-
ness or intemperance, are written in these records. Investigations are made
in certain cases, and dismissal will follow when a man's record falls below
the general average.

Another road has a rule by which such acts as disloyalty, intemperance,
dishonesty, gross carelessness and similar offences are made punishable with
dismissal. Entries in the record-book are made of cases of neglect, viola-
tion of the regulations, etc. Credits as well as demerits are recorded. Thus
a man's record determines his retention or discharge.

The question of discharge has always been very seriously considered by
all the labor unions. They have always fought against the practice of arbi-
trary discharges. Officers long in the railway service have observed that
discharges made in haste or in temper or excitement are very often unjust.
The strictest disciplinarian on a railroad is apt to be the lower grade of
foreman, just promoted. Unused to authority, he employs it badly. The
next rank of foreman comes next as a "headsman." He is very often from
some other road, and will not take time to become acquainted with the men
and their methods. Many railroad men condemn the discharge of employes
for the so-called "unpardonable sins." It is, they claim, merely a system of
discharging on account of a single error men of good character, habits and
capacities, for new men, unknown and untried. Drunkenness, of course,
can not possibly be condoned. The old railroad officer knows that the most
undesirable man on a road is the man who is shiftless and "unlucky." Such
a man never does anything quite right. He is always ill on stormy days.
He is not strong enough for a long run. He is always getting into minor
difficulties. His train breaks in two, or gets off the track when switching.
Unmeaningly, he is incompetent, and "a detrimental" to the road, causing
the company much loss.

The power of discharge is a grave one. Its enforcement in special
cases may work great hardship to the employe, who may, perhaps, have to
move his family to another town, and may be out of employment for a
month or two. Railroad people claim that a good foreman should possess
sufficient intelligence and force of character to command obedience. It is

THE RAILROAD MAN 549

erroneous to suppose that obedience is given solely through fear of dis-
charge. This is not the case. Firemen and brakemen work just as faith-
fully now as they did when they were subject to discharge by engineers and
conductors. One might almost say, the better the foreman the fewer the
discharges.

WORKING HOURS OF RAILROAD MEN

In New York, Ohio and Minnesota the legal day's work of all classes of
railroad men is ten hours. In many States laws have been passed in which
the maximum number of hours a railroad man may work, if necessary, on
any one day, is specified. The number of hours of rest that must be al-
lowed after a maximum day's work, is also specified. New York allows the
railway employes to work twenty-four hours at a stretch when the public
service requires it, but he must then have eight hours rest. In Michigan the
law is the same as in New York ; in Minnesota, twenty and eight ; in Ohio,
fifteen and eight ; in Colorado and Nebraska, eighteen and eight ; in Florida,
thirteen and eight. Every railroad company, however, seeks to avoid keep-
ing any employe on duty beyond the normal period of ten hours. Public
welfare demands that the men responsible for the safety of a train be in good
health and in normal physical condition while on duty. Still the very nature
of railroad operation renders the number of hours of work necessarily ir-
regular. Storms, washouts, accidents, any unusual conditions of weather
or traffic, keep men on their posts beyond the time fixed as a regular day's
work. Men have worked continuously twenty-five to thirty hours, and cir-
cumstances have sometimes demanded the services of a train crew continu-
ously for thirty-six hours.

Trackmen in the South and West usually toil from sunrise to darkness.
In the North and East the day's work of a trackman is not often pro-
longed beyond ten or eleven hours. In bad weather, trackmen often have to
leave their beds in the middle of the night to make repairs. For the track
foreman is responsible for the condition of the track at all hours, and in
case of necessity he must call out his entire gang regardless of time or cir-
cumstance. Some roads pay for this overtime at regular rates, if occurring
in the day-time on ordinary working days, and at time and a half rates if at
night or on Sunday. Other roads pay nothing at all. Where the pay is on
the piecework basis, the question of pay on overtime is seldom brought up.

The general rule is that overtime at the regular rates of all employes
outside of the general office force is allowed on all the great railway sys-
tems.

The average day's work throughout the country at present is eight to
ten hours for trainmen, engineers and firemen, and ten to twelve hours for
telegraphers and yardmen. All other grades, both indoors and out-of-doors,
work from eight to ten hours. Trainmen on fast express trains, making
good wages on the mileage basis, often work only five or six hours a day.
On this subject Grand Master Sargent, of the Order of Locomotive Fire-

550 WORKERS OF THE NATION

men. in his testimony before the Industrial Commission gave the following
facts :

Road, train, and engine men have little or no complaint as to hours of service. They
are generally paid for all excess hours, and the necessity for their being awake acts as a
protection against unreasonable demands upon them. Ten hours for one hundred miles is
the standard rule in freight service for road men. Yard men are frequently required to
work twelve hours for a day, which we consider as excessive when compared with the
requirements in other occupations. The number of hours for these men should be but
eight, and certainly not over ten. The telegraphers have much to complain of in this
direction, as they are frequently required to remain on duty long hours.

Train and engine men, as a rule, are paid overtime on a very fair basis. Telegraphers
are allowed overtime on many roads, but on many more they are not. Twelve consecutive
hours is considered a sufficiently long day for them, and, in our opinion, telegraphers who,
having worked twelve consecutive hours, are called for duty during the next succeeding
twelve hours, should be allowed extra pay for time so used.

SUNDAY WORK

About one-half of the total number of railway employes in the United
States are obliged to work on Sunday. The manufacturing, supply, clerical
and other departments not absolutely necessary to the safe movement of
trains, must work all or part of Sunday. Sunday traffic, both freight and
passenger, amounts to about fifty per cent of the traffic on week days.
Where excursion trains are run, the passenger traffic, of course, is oftentimes
greater than on other days.

From the nature of things there must be some Sunday work on rail-
roads. But a glance at the records of several companies will show that pro-
portion of employes who have to work on Sundays is often comparatively
small. The Boston and Maine Railroad operates about twenty-three hun-
dred miles of track. Of its twenty-two thousand employes, ten per cent of
those engaged in the car department, twenty-five per cent of those in the
transportation department, and twenty per cent of those in the motive power
department work on Sunday. A road employing eight thousand men works
twenty per cent of its enginemen, firemen, conductors and brakemen on
Sunday, fifty per cent of its station agents, ten per cent of its clerks, and
ninety-five per cent of its telegraph operators.

Of the four thousand men employed by the Chicago and Great Western
Railroad Company about thirty-five per cent have to do Sunday work. The
Illinois Central Railroad Company employs about thirty-two thousand men.
On this road all stations, warehouses, and places for receiving or delivering
freight are closed on Sunday. Thus hardly any of the employes in this de-
partment have to work on Sunday. In the engine, train and yard service,
fifty per cent of the men work on Sunday sometimes. In the road de-
partment about ten per cent of the men have Sunday work.

RAILWAY APPRENTICES

Formerly the status of an apprentice was a legal one, and he was obliged
to serve out his time with his employer. All this has long been a dead
letter. The railroads have had to face this matter of apprentices, and some

THE RAILROAD MAN

551

of tfiem have endeavored to develop a sort of an apprenticeship system.
Some shops have sets of "helpers," without much training. The so-called
"graded" or "preferred apprenticeship" obtains on some railroads. The
"preferred apprentice," because of more natural ability, or the fact that he
has had a technological school training, is marked for rapid promotion. He
begins at the bottom, but is soon advanced. Although many roads do not
like this system of apprenticeship, yet it has worked well on the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad, in the great Altoona shops. In these shops the apprentices
are registered in the general manager's office, and a record is kept of their
progress. On these reports their promotion is based. These apprentices are
expected to have a diploma from some good technological school. The sys-
tem of "preferred apprentices" was tried with excellent effect in the roadway
department of a division of the Southern Pacific Railway, in 1894. A
dozen young engineers were employed as trackwalkers. The trackwalker
has to pass over three to ten miles of the road daily, keeping the bolts tight,
and reporting defects in the track, helping in general section work when not
otherwise engaged. These young men were regarded as assistant foremen,
and were promoted to section foremanships and to roadmasterships when
vacancies occurred. When qualified, they were advanced to assistant cn-
gineerships in the track department. Plenty of capable young civil en-
gineers were ready to take up this work with the expectation and promise of
speedy advancement. The experiment was a complete success. It met with
so much opposition from certain sources, however, that it was discontinued.

CHAPTER IV
RAILWAY LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

Railway Brotherhoods and Orders— The Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers— The
Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen — The Order of Railway Conductors — The"
Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen— Order of Railway Telegraphers— Brotherhood
of Railway Trackmen— Brotherhood of Railway Carmen— Railway Benefit, Pension
and Relief Departments

RAILWAY BROTHERHOODS AND ORDERS

THE railway men of the country are to a large extent enrolled in one or
another of orders or brotherhoods as follows : i. The Grand Inter-
national Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers. 2. The Order of
Railway Conductors of America. 3. The Brotherhood of Locomotive Fire-
men. 4. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen. 5. The Order of Rail-
road Telegraphers. 6. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trackmen of America.
7. The Brotherhood of Railway Carmen of America. 8. The Brotherhood
of Railroad Bridgemen. 9. The Switchmen's Union of North America.

In breadth of scope, and in thoroughness of organization as well as in
businesslike methods in Avhich they are conducted, the leading brotherhoods
and railway orders compare quite favorably with any business enterprise.
Most of the organizations have been in operation for several years — the old-
est, the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers dating back to the time of the
Civil War. All of them are fashioned after the same model, generally
speaking, though the differences in the way in which emphasis is laid on one
or another of their chief features explains in a measure their unusual success
as labor organizations are estimated. There is also the Brotherhood of Rail-
road Bridgemen, composed of the men employed in the bridge and building
departments of the railways which was recently organized on lines substan-
tially similar to the other Brotherhoods and Orders before mentioned, and
the Switchmen's Union of North America, a re-organization of the Switch-
men's Mutual Aid Association, which was at one time a large and flourish-
ing organization. Besides these organizations, the Brotherhood of Loco-
motive Engineers, the Order of Railway Conductors and the Order of Rail-
way Telegraphers and the Railroad Trainmen and Firemen have Ladies'
Auxiliaries similar in plan to the orders themselves in which the wives and
sisters of the railway employes work for the betterment of their own in-
tellectual and material conditions, and endeavor to assist in the relief work
of the Brotherhoods in looking after their members and their families.
(552)

RAILWAY LABOR ORGANIZATIONS 553

THE BROTHERHOOD OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS

The oldest of these organizations, the Brotherhood of Locomotive
Engineers, and its work is well described by the Grand Chief, in his testi-
mony before the Industrial Commission :

The object of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers is to promote the welfare
and interests of locomotive engineers, elevate their standing and character in society as
men, provide for the widows and orphans of their members, and protect their labor. Those
who are not familiar with the conditions of railroad men prior to the organization of the
Brotherhood, cannot form any just estimate of our work. It may not be generally known
that railroad men in the early days, speaking of them as a whole, were given to habits of
dissipation and vice. Intoxication was quite general ; habits were generally so bad that
they led to the formation of this brotherhood for the purpose of bettering the condition
of the men. That was the primary' object. It is the great mission of the brotherhood. At
that time the question of wages was not raised at all. After awhile that question came up.

An effort had been made some ten years before the brotherhood was established, on
a road where I was employed, to obtain a slight increase of pay. At that time the wages
of locomotive engineers throughout the country were $60 a month, firemen, $30, freight
brakemen, $25, freight conductors, $40, passenger conductors, $60. Those were the almost
uniform rates of pay for that class of service up to the formation of the brotherhood.
After that we appointed committees on the roads where our brotherhood was established.
They were known as general boards of adjustment, whose duties were, if any difference
came up between the company and the men, to investigate and ascertain the facts. If they
found, upon investigation, that the grievances were just, they waited upon the officers of
the road. If they went to effect a settlement with the general manager of the road, and
they were not satisfied and wanted the protection of the organization, they were required
to send for the chief executive. It was his duty, on receipt of the communication from
the committee, to proceed at once to the road and seek a conference with the general man-
ager, and president if necessary, and use all honorable means to effect a peaceable and
amicable adjustment of the differences that he found existing between the men and the
company.

In nearly every case, with few exceptions, during my administration of twenty-five
years, we succeeded in effecting an amicable adjustment, establishing what we call writ-
ten agreements between the company and the men ; so that to-day we have written agree-
ments embodying the rate of pay, the rules for the government and protection of the men,
with ninety per cent of the roads in the country.

We have succeeded, through the efforts of our organization, in increasing the wages
of locomotive engineers from $60 per month to three and one-half cents in passenger ser-
vice, and four cents in freight, per mile run. The firemen, through their organization,
increased their wages in proportion.

A hundred miles or less constitutes a day's work, three and one-half cents in passenger
service and four cents in freight, through, I might say, the Middle and Western States.
In the Southern States the rate is three and four for the same class of service. There has
always been a difference between the South and the North in that respect. One hundred
miles or less constitutes a day's work ; ten hours or less constitutes a day's work.

In 1867 we established an insurance department. It is conducted on the assessment
plan ; it was patterned after the Metropolitan Police Force of the city of New York at that
time. Through this insurance department we have paid to the widows and orphans nearly
$8,000,000.

We issue four policies ; we may take one of the four, $750, $1,500, $3,000, and $4,500 is
the limit. A large number of our subdivisions also have what they call weekly beneficial
assessments, which pay ten and twelve dollars a week in case of sickness or injury. It is
a rare thing now to find a locomotive engineer, a member of our brotherhood, xvho indulges
in anything intoxicating. The laws of the organization prohibiting excessive drinking are
very strict. In order to become a member of our brotherhood, a man must be a man of
good moral character, temperate habits, able to read and write, and have had one year's
experience as a locomotive engineer.

He fills out an application, which is referred to an investigating committee, which in-

554 WORKERS OF THE NATION

quires into the character and standing of the applicant, and upon their recommendation
he is admitted. One year we expelled from our organization one hundred and seventy-two
members for intoxication. That was about the fifth year of the existence of our organiza-
tion. It becomes the duty of the division, when they expel a member for intoxication, to
notify the company, so if they retain him in their service they do it on their own respon-
sibility; and I have known the company to retain an engineer after they were so notified.
Other railroad companies, however, co-operated with us in ridding the service of that class
of men.

Men employed in railway service differ very much from men engaged in other pur-
suits, from the fact that they are subject to so many different masters. You may commence
with the roundhouse foreman, if you please ; then comes your yard master, your train de-
spatcher, your master mechanic, the division superintendent, general manager ; the ordinary
employe is subject to them all.

We have never dictated to a railroad whom they shall or shall not employ. We have
asked the railroad companies to give the oldest men in the service, if competent and worthy,
a preference of engines and runs. We have succeeded in many places in having that em-
bodied in our written agreements, but we have never resorted to coercive measures to bring
it about. We have never attempted to interfere in any way with the railroad company em-
ploying men, whether they belonged to our organization or not.

THE BROTHERHOOD OF LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN

The Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen was organized at Port Jervis,
New York, in 1873. When first organized it was merely a benevolent so-
ciety, commonly known as an insurance society, and its mission was to
organize the firemen into a brotherhood for advancement and improvement
socially and educationally. It was not until some years after its organiza-
tion that it assumed what is now one of its leading functions, the protection
of its members and the promotion of closer and more beneficial relations
between employer and employe, and the formulation and enforcement of
rules and rates of pay governing the callings of its members. The Brother-
hood of Locomotive Firemen has, it is estimated, some 40,000 members
distributed throughout the United States. Along with its efforts in the
direction of uplifting its members the Brotherhood constitution provides
for the temporary suspension of any member guilty of using intoxicating*
liquors to excess on the first offence and expulsion for the second of-
fence. Similar penalties are provided for other immoralities. Among
other provisions of the same character is one prohibiting any lodge
from deriving revenue from the sale of liquors at picnics or entertainments
held by any lodge. The beneficiary department of the Brotherhood is com-
pulsory for all members who are entitled to participate in its benefits. The
grand lodge has power to levy assessments to provide for such benefits,
which assessments range from two dollars (payable as often as is necessary
to meet outstanding claims) for a $1,500 beneficiary certificate to seventy-
five cents for a $500 certificate. In case of total disability beneficiary cer-
tificates are paid in full the same as in case of death. The protective de-
partment of the Brotherhood provides that any member who considers that
he has been unjustly dealt with by his employer may refer his case to the
protective board of the lodge having jurisdiction, and if his grievance is
real this protective board endeavors by peaceful methods to adjust the diffi-
culty, and is pretty generally successful. The order maintains a protective

RAILWAY LABOR ORGANIZATIONS 555

fund of $100,000 by assessment of seventy-five cents per quarter on each
member as long as this fund remains below $100,000. The order conducts
for its members a prosperous and well-edited monthly magazine, which dis-
cusses matters connected with the order and with labor matters in general,
and furnishes at will a large amount of general literature suitable to its
clientage. The Brotherhood has an employment bureau also, and endeavors
to find employment for members out of work.

THE ORDER OF RAILWAY CONDUCTORS

The Order of Railway Conductors of America is also one of the oldest
and most prosperous of the railway employe's organizations. It was formed
in 1878, and had in 1900 a membership of about 25,000, which maintains
something more than 400 local unions. Any person actually employed as a
conductor on a steam surface railroad outside of yard limits, and who has
had at least twelve months' actual experience, is eligible to membership. The
order has an insurance mutual benefit department in which members under
thirty years of age may insure for sums varying from one to five thousand
dollars ; members from fifty to sixty years of age may insure for one thou-
sand dollars, but members over sixty years of age are not permitted to join
the mutual benefit department. Regular monthly assessments aggregating
sixteen dollars on each $1,000 of insurance are collected, and when this does
not prove sufficient additional assessments may be levied by the insurance
committee.

It is the general policy of this order to obtain written agreements with
employers fixing wages, hours and conditions of employment. Most rail-
way companies have made such agreements with their men.

The organization has also the usual grievance committees, both local
and general, and has also the customary protective fund, which is kept en-
tirely separate from the insurance funds of the order. A well edited and
prosperous monthl)%nagazine is the official organ of the order.

THE BROTHERHOOD OF RAILWAY TRAINMEN

The Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen has a membership of some
45,000. It was organized in 1883, and its field is the entire United States
and the Dominion of Canada, its membership embracing men in the train
and yard service of the railroads in this territory. Like the orders already
described, its objects are the promotion of the general welfare of its mem-
bers, and the advancement of their social, moral and intellectual interests,
the protection of their families by the exercise of systematic benevolence so
needful in the unusually hazardous calling of the members of the order. The
order has also a system of insurance against death and total disability under
proper safeguard as to admission, as in the case of the other Brotherhoods,
provision for which is made by assessment, and it also accumulates in the
same manner a fund for the protection and relief of the members, which may

556 WORKERS OF THE NATION

not be used for any other purpose, except by a two-thirds vote of the grand
lodge in convention assembled.

Its methods of adjusting grievances between its members and their em-
ployers are substantially similar to those of the orders already mentioned.
This Brotherhood also makes provision for legislative boards, which serves
in any state for which they are selected during a session of the legislature
in which the Brotherhood is interested. The duty of this board is to use its
influence by co-operation with the representatives of other labor organiza-
tions or otherwise, to secure the enactment of such laws as will promote the
interests of its constituents.

ORDER OF RAILROAD TELEGRAPHERS

Of still later date than the Brotherhood above referred to is the Order of
Railroad Telegraphers, which was organized in 1886, and whose territory
includes the United States, Canada and Mexico. This order had a mem-
bership in 1900 of between 15,000 and 20,000 members constituting 77 sub-
divisions or local lodges. Women as well as men are eligible to member-
ship in this order, the broad conditions of membership being. good moral
character and three years' experience at some time as a telegrapher. The use
of alcoholic liquors as a beverage is sufficient cause for rejection of any ap-
plication for membership. The Order has a mutual benefit department
which was established in 1898. Any member of the Order in good standing
and in satisfactory physical condition is compelled to be a member of the
benefit department. It issues three classes of certificates, viz. : Series A,
limited to $300 on which bi-monthly payments of 35 cents are required;
Series B, limited to $500, on which the payments are 50 cents every two
months, and Series C, limited to $1,000, on which the dues are $i every two
months. Members eighteen years of age and not over forty-five may hold
either of the three classes of certificates, but members forty-five years of
age and not over fifty are restricted to series A and B. forfeiture of mem-
bership in the mutual benefit department carries with it suspension from the
order without notice until reinstated. Whenever assessments thus provided
prove insufficient to meet the death claims, extra assessments to meet the
deficit may be made. Like the other orders this order makes written agree-
ments with the employers of its members fixing wages and hours and con-
ditions of labor.

It has also local and general committees for the investigation and adjust-
ment of the disagreements or grievances arising between its members and
their employers. The order has its official magazine.

BROTHERHOOD OF RAILWAY TRACKMEN

The Brotherhood of Railway Trackmen came into existence in 1891 as
an educational and fraternal society to which only roadmasters and fore-
men of gangs of road workers were eligible, but in 1898 its scope was en-
larged to include all employes assigned to the work of maintenance of way.

RAILWAY LABOR ORGANIZATIONS 557

territory is the United States and Canada. The membership of the or-
der was estimated at 3,000 in 1900, and these were comprised in 142 subdi-
visions. Members of the order between the ages of eighteen and fifty-five in
good physical condition may be admitted to the insurance department of the
Brotherhood by complying with its rules and paying one dollar monthly on
a certificate of insurance for $1,000 or 50 cents a month on one for $500.
In case of total disability, which is defined as the loss of both legs or both
arms, or both eyes or one leg and one arm, the member is entitled to the
full value of his insurance certificate the same as in the case of death. All
members are compelled to contribute to the protective fund of the Brother-
hood to the extent of 50 cents per quarter.

BROTHERHOOD OF RAILWAY CARMEN

Another organization of railroad workers is the Brotherhood of Railway
Carmen of America, which was organized in 1890 to include all the men en-
gaged in building, inspecting, repairing, oiling and cleaning railway cars
in the United States, Canada and Mexico. The organization as now exist-
ing was formed by consolidation of the Brotherhood of Railway Car Re-
pairers, organized at Cedar Rapids, la., in 1888, and other similar organiza-
tions formed about the same time. The membership of this order is not
large, it being estimated that it had a membership in 1900 of about 3,500
in 90 local unions. A member of this Brotherhood who has no visible means
of support and makes no effort to obtain support for himself or family may
be suspended or expelled at the discretion of the lodge, and any member of
the Brotherhood engaging in the sale of intoxicating liquors or in any unlaw-
ful business must withdraw from the order. The beneficiary department of
the Brotherhood is separately organized, but with the same officers as those
of the grand lodge. Any member in good standing, not over sixty years of
age, is eligible to membership in the insurance department. Certificates are
issued for $250, $500 and $1,000, on which periodical assessments are re-
quired at the rate of twenty-five cents, fifty cents and one dollar, respectively.

RAILWAY BENEFIT, PENSION AND RELIEF DEPARTMENTS

The various railway benefit, pension and general relief departments are:
(i) Accident Insurance, (2) Hospital Relief, (3) General Relief Depart-
ments, (4) Pensions, (5) Savings Funds, and (6) Young Men's Christian
Associations.

Certain railway companies have made arrangements with accident in-
surance companies whereby the most favorable rates are obtained for their
employes. Many railway companies urge their employes to carry such poli-
cies. In some cases the companies collect the premiums by deducting the
amounts from the wages of the employes. A few corporations require all
employes in the train service to carry accident policies. To aid their em-
ployes to secure the best accident insurance at the lowest rates, many com-
panies bear a large proportion of the premium paid for insurance.

558 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Hospital relief is the oldest form of relief and the most general. It is
often organized by the employes, but frequently the companies aid the enter-
prise. The Association is usually formed under the direction of the com-
pany, and its object is to provide hospital accommodations for sick and
injured employes. A specific deduction from the wages of employes is
made to which is added the aid given by the company. Sometimes the
company gives land and buildings, and sometimes makes up the annual de-
ficit to provide the amount of relief actually needed.

Under the guidance of railroad officials some railway systems have
formed what is called railway relief departments. These departments
usually form part of the railway service and are organized for the purpose
of enabling employes to contribute definite sums from their monthly wages
to a fund administered by the department for the benefit of its members.
Membership in these departments used to be compulsory, but now it is
voluntary.

Pension relief is now provided for by a few American railways. Such
form of relief sprang from the same thought, and evolved naturally from
the experience of the companies in the other relief features just described.
Pension features as a rule rest upon a more truly humanitarian or philan-
thropic basis than do the general relief departments. They are not to the
same extent open to the charge that they are instituted for the purpose of
holding employes in the service or preventing them from joining labor or-
ganizations which provide their own schemes of insurance. It would
hardly be possible for any labor organization to undertake unaided the
heavy financial responsibility of guaranteeing pensions or superannuation
allowances.

The Pennsylvania Railroad superannuation plan and pension depart-
ment went into effect on January I, 1900. It has for its purpose the payment
of regular allowances, from the funds of the company, to two classes of em-
ployes relieved from active service: (a) all officers and employes who shall
have attained the age of seventy years, and (b) all officers and employes
sixty-five to sixty-nine years of age, inclusive, who shall have been thirty
or more years in the service, and shall, in the opinion of the board of officers,
have become physically disqualified.

It is said that no other railway company in the world, whether under
State or private control, possesses a joint fund whose direct and general
beneficial features present the admirable system and thoroughness so mani-
fest in the Pennsylvania Railroad system.

Many railroads have a savings feature, together with the pension feature
and relief feature, as part of the relief department. Some roads have also
a special savings fund for their employes. The object of the savings "feat-
ure" is to provide a savings bank for employes and their near relatives, and
to provide a method for lending them money on easy terms for the purpose
of acquiring or improving their homesteads. The object of the special sav-
ings fund is restricted to the work of an ordinary savings bank. The rate

RAILWAY LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

559

of interest allowed by the Pennsylvania Railroad, for example, on all de-
posits made by its employes is three and a half per cent. The agents at over
one hundred stations on the lines east of Pittsburg act as depositories of the
fund.

Closely allied to the other relief associations are the railroad depart-
ments of the Young Men's Christian Association, which have been an im-
portant factor in the industrial betterment of railroad employes. These As-
sociations are now organized at over 150 division points, with a member-
ship of over 37,000 railroad employes. The railroad corporations now con-
tribute annually over $180,000 toward the support of this work.

These Associations offer many attractions which are peculiarly valued by
railroad men, because of the nature of their employment, which deprives
them of many opportunities easily enjoyed by the average workingman in
other occupations.

The Associations form a common meeting ground for capital and labor,
employer and employe, and for the promotion of mutual understanding and
sympathy. This is an ideal that has been realized in greater measure than
is found in any other organization where employers and employes come to-
gether. The Association throws around railroad men a strong arm of pro-
tection from moral dangers peculiar to their calling, and extends to them a
sympathetic hand in many cases of difficulty.

CHAPTER V
STREET RAILWAYS

Electric Railways in the United States — Opportunities for Street Railway Employes — Man-
agement of a Street Railway — The Motorman — The Training of the Motorman —
Promotion of Motormen — New York Street Railway Employes — Metropolitan Street
Railv/ay Association — Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employes

ELECTRIC RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES

ELECTRICITY is the successor of horse and cable power for street
railways. Its adaptability to long as well as short distance traction
roads has also led to its use in suburban and interurban trans-
portation. The first commercially successful electric street railway was
operated at Lichterfelde, near Berlin, in 1881. In the year 1884 elec-
tric lines were constructed in Cleveland, Ohio, and Kansas City, Mis-
souri. The greater economy and efficiency of electric roads were quickly
recognized, and to such extent that while we had but 89 miles of such road
in 1888, the mileage had grown to 9,008 miles in 1894. There were 20,-
442 miles of electric railway in the United States in 1900, and this is esti-
mated to have increased to nearly 25,000 miles at the beginning of 1903.
The total stock and funded debt of electric roads in the United States Jan-
uary i, 1903, far exceed $2,000,000,000.

So rapid has been the development and extension of electric railways that
they are now serious rivals of the steam railroads. Coming into vogue
only about fifteen years ago, as street railways, the steps of evolution to
the suburban, interurban and combination systems were soon taken. We
have now, by the combination of interurban companies, continuous lines, in
many cases more than a hundred miles long, operating very often in direct
competition with the steam railways. Almost every village now has its
electric road. There are 2,224 steam railways and 1,218 street railways.
There will be undoubtedly a growth and increase of city electric lines. But
this will probably not compare with the development of interurban electric
roads. These long-distance routes will generally be competitors of steam
railways. Some few, of course, will be feeders. This paralleling of steam
railways by electric systems has already become common.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR STREET RAILWAY EMPLOYES

Street railroading the country over, considered as a pursuit for young
men, now compares most favorably with any other calling. The right sort
(560)

STREET RAILWAYS

of young man may find in it a pursuit in which he can start in at the bottom
with every prospect of gaining a good, a permanent and an honorable liveli-
hood. The pay is very good, from the beginning. Even the switchman
is paid as a member of a trade, getting two dollars per day, where, for
similar work, boys used to get fifty cents per day. The street railway busi-
ness is said to be positive proof of the absurdity of the claims that con-
solidations of capital are injurious to the best interests of the working men.
Much has been said holding up to popular condemnation these vast consoli-
dations, as destroying competition and reducing the number of workmen.
But in New York, for example, the result has been quite the contrary.
Many roads have been merged into one, but by this consolidation the num-
ber of employes has been increased instead of diminished.

The efficiency of a street railway system, indeed, depends not only upon
its mechanical equipment, but also upon the staff of employes, upon the
personnel, from the president down to the humblest workman. The business
presents inducements to those who enter it, and there are good chances of
rising to high positions of responsibility for those who begin at the bottom.
The motorman or conductor who properly fulfils his duties has a better
chance of promotion to a responsible and well-paid position than the clerks
in a department store. To rise in the business, a young man must take it
seriously, and not use it as a mere makeshift. He must have the idea of re-
maining in it permanently, and of doing his best to work up from the ranks.
Certain men enter the service only temporarily. In the New England
States the Maine lumbermen come down to the cities and take work on the
street railways for the summer. In many sections college students spend
their vacations in this service, returning to college when the term begins.
Farm hands out of work occupy their winters by acting as conductors or
motormen, or filling .other subordinate positions in connection with the
roads. These men, by reason of their sporadic and uncertain service, can
not expect promotion.

The vast majority of employes, however, expect to stay. And to these
advancement comes. The young man entering the street railway service
will find certain attractions in it. In the first place, the work is un-
doubtedly healthy. Compared with other classes of work, the hours are
reasonable. The permanency of the work is also to be considered. The
efficient and faithful employe is sure of remaining as long as he wishes,
and of improving his position. Young men should remember that all well-
managed companies throughout the country select their higher officials from
the employes who have been found worthy of promotion. Vacancies occur
from time to time, and they are promptly filled by the appointment of some
employe to the place. On one of the largest street railways in New Eng-
land, for example, the superintendent of transportation and all of the divi-
sion superintendents are men who have risen from the ranks of
and conductors, or stable hands. In positions of the next grad;

eral hundred men who began at the foot of the ladder, some oi

S— Vol. 2

562 WORKERS OF THE NATION

now earning salaries of five thousand dollars a year. The vast expansion
of the street railway system causes a demand for skilled workmen. The
field is continually broadening, with the construction of new surface, sub-
way and elevated systems.

Of course there are certain necessary conditions which applicants for
street railway employment must fill. In the first place, a young man must
be physically capable to endure the hours of standing incident to the work.
His nerves must be steady, his eyesight and hearing must be good. He
must have a normal vision. Color-blindness is a disqualification. As in
other callings, good character is an essential. Tact is absolutely neces-
sary to the conductor; for who comes in contact with more kinds of men?
He must have a large stock of patience. He must not be deficient in firm-
ness. Ignorant, stupid and boorish people are to be handled, and the con-
ductor who can always keep his temper, and maintain an unruffled mind, is
a prize to the company, and is soon pushed ahead. These men know that
the company stands loyally behind them in any difficulty in which they are
not at fault and is ready to defend them and protect them from abuse.

MANAGEMENT OF A STREET RAILWAY

The Metropolitan Street Railway system of New York controls what were
formerly twenty distinct roads, separately managed, yet the new company
employs five times as many men as all the old roads taken together. Glanc-
ing at particular lines under this management, the Fourth Avenue line,
formerly running 120 horse cars per day, now runs 265 electric cars, each
making the transit in less than half the time required by horse power. In the
matter of pay, wages formerly ran from fifty cents per day for switchmen
to $1.75 for drivers. Instead of this scale we find that at present the
switchman earns $2 and the motorman $2.25. The gross earnings of this
road have mounted from $750,000, when horses were used, to $2,300,000
under electricity. The entire staff of employes is upon a much better and
higher basis. Electricians and mechanics find steady employment and good
pay. The superintendent ranks with other professional men.

A great concern like this naturally divides itself into departments, each
of which is of great importance. For example, the president has origi-
nated a department for the Maintenance of Way, which supervises the con-
dition of the roadbeds; a Maintenance of Equipment Department, En-
gineering, Motive Power, Financial, Accounting and other departments,
with expert and high-salaried men as heads of each. They are always
on the lookout for bright and able assistants, who are very well paid,
and who have every opportunity to advance themselves. So nicely is
everything adjusted that the whole enterprise moves along smoothly. A boy
beginning at the bottom has a sure future, if he is energetic and faithful.
Improved service creates new traffic, with more places for workmen to fill.
In the new order of management, stockholders will not tolerate nepotism.
They want, and get, good men from the ranks.

STREET RAILWAYS 563

The capitalist in the new regime is willing that the executive work
should be done by the experienced man who has proved his fitness. So that
consolidation does not restrict opportunity for the poor man. Quite the
contrary is the fact ; it creates new opportunities. Looking at the railroads,
we see at the head of the New York Central a former freight clerk, at the
head of the Southern Pacific also a former railway clerk. In former days
the conductor was more important than the driver. But with the general
introduction of electric power, the position of the motorman has become
quite as important.

THE MOTORMAN

A motorman's position is no sinecure. He must be very well balanced
and ready for any contingency. He must not only think quickly, but he
must have the habit of acting quickly. And he must not get confused, no
matter what the circumstances may be. It may be seen, therefore, that the
motorman requires a very good mind, as well as a strong, enduring body.
The motorman must not forget that the company is always looking for com-
petent men with whom to fill the higher positions, as the business of the road
increases. Men who are trained in the service, who have begun at the
bottom, are absolutely necessary.

A grade above the conductor and the motorman comes the starter, and
his position is the first step in their promotion. After the starter comes
the inspector, chief inspector, division superintendent, and the other officers.
The starter is in the direct line of promotion to these places. Individual
excellence is more readily recognized in these positions, as the men who fill
them are so much less in number. The starter knows that he is in the line
of promotion, and at once endeavors to learn all about the operation of the
system on which he is engaged. Electricity, mechanics, civil engineering,
track construction, car repairing, general equipment, the handling of great
crowds on special occasions — the starter must learn a little or a good deal
of all these things. The larger the range of subjects on which he is posted,
the better an official he makes and the greater his chances of promotion to
the next grade of service.

The street railway service is recruited from all classes. Many of the
employes come from the country. And for a farmer's boy this business
affords a very good opportunity to begin life in the city. He is very well
equipped for the work. He is not afraid of summer's heat nor winter's
cold. He is used to an outdoor life. He has a strong constitution and
abundant health. On some of the New England street railway systems
the majority of employes in charge of the handling of cars and the manage-
ment of traffic were country boys, who have won their way to these good
positions by faithful work.

Those who intend to become motormen should, if possible, read some
good books on electricity. There are several in the market. Electrical
magazines should also be read. There are also two or three good street

564 WORKERS OF THE NATION

railway periodicals which should be perused. Every accession to a street
railway man's knowledge of the business is sure to be of benefit. It may
be seen that this calling is worthy of ambitious work, and that it certainly
offers good prospects to energetic young men.

THE TRAINING OF THE MOTORMAN

In certain cities the motorman receives a special training. He is edu-
cated to meet physical emergencies. In some cities there are regular schools
for the training of motormen. The men are taught the routes of the various
roads. They learn all the signals used by the different companies in their
city or vicinity. They acquire the knack of running the cars properly, and
are instructed in their mechanism. They are informed as to their proper
course in case of accident. They are thus fully equipped for their duties,
and are ready to run a car.

Presence of mind, good judgment, and a cool head are qualifications
which every street car motorman must possess. And he is not given a car
until he has convinced an instructer that he really has the "motorman's
head." The "motorman's hand" is, of course, of equal importance, but
unless the candidate for the front platform of the car first displays the
requisite mental qualities, the utmost skill with his hands counts for
naught.

The modern car driver in New York begins his education in a quiet
school room. When President Vreeland, of the Metropolitan Street Rail-
way, established a school for the training of motormen, street railway men
laughed at the idea, declaring it impracticable and prophesying that it would
have the life of a mere fad. But within a few weeks after the school was
opened, its practical usefulness was proven.

As in the army and in all fields of service requiring physical endurance,
the applicant for position of motorman must first pass the doctor. This test
of physique is as rigid as any examination for life insurance. If the appli-
cant passes the supreme test, that of eyesight, he then enters the training
school. It is here that he must display a cool head, here he acquires me-
chanical knowledge of the machine he is to control, here he is given pre-
liminary lessons in electrical engineering. In the class room, instead of
desks, are thirty dummy car platforms, each fully equipped with the neces-
sary electrical apparatus — controller, brake, ground switch, fuse box and
all. But before he takes his place on a dummy platform, the novice is given
a book of rules, which henceforth is to be his testament. He must know
these rules as an actor knows his lines — so thoroughly that the book may be
thrown away. To forget a rule once may be forgiven. To forget twice,
thrice, may result in his discharge as incompetent. The most important of
these rules, the one most rigidly enforced, is : "Never leave the car platform
even for a second without removing the handle of the controller." The
wisdom of this rule is familiar to any person who has ever ridden on an
electric car. The passenger who might be tempted to touch that handle in

STREET RAILWAYS 565

the absence of the motorman sets the car in motion and endangers the lives
of all aboard.

Now on this dummy platform the novice learns how to start a car and
how to "down- brakes" without throwing the passengers in a heap on the
floor. On the other hand, he is shown how to bring the car to a stop in the
shortest possible time in case of emergency, or to avoid an accident, regard-
less of inconvenience to passengers. These lessons are rehearsed over and
over again, the instructor playing the part of a conductor on a car in actual
motion, giving signals with the regulation number of "bells." Then to the
pupil are revealed the mysteries of the apparatus. He is shown the mecha-
nism that yields obedience to every movement of his hands. At the same
time he is shown what to do in the event of the failure of the installation
to act.

The next grade in this school, the highest, is the most interesting. The
pupil is now in the senior class. He takes his place on the platform of a
skeleton of a full-sized, fully equipped car. As the car is supported on
jacks, the wheels spin round harmlessly. Here the motorman must prove
that he is ready to take a car from the Battery to Harlem unaided. It is
supposed that at Union Square the car suddenly comes to a standstill, re-
fuses to budge. The motorman turns on the light to see if the current is
flowing. If so, then something about the car itself is the cause of the
breakdown. Seizing his controller handle, the motorman jumps off and pro-
ceeds to investigate. He examines the overhead switches, the fuse boxes,
and so on, until he finally discovers the seat of trouble, and begins at once
the labor of repair. Such is the advantage of this preliminary training in
electrical engineering. By being able to make repairs without awaiting the
arrival of an electrical engineer, he avoids a blockade of the entire system.

After this school work comes the crucial test — that of actually running
a car the entire distance of the road. An expert motorman accompanies the
new man, superintending the movements of his hands, with all the care a
teacher of driving would lavish upon the pupil on the box of a coach with
a spirited four-in-hand to control. If on the trial trip the new man is not
satisfactory to the instructor, back he goes to the training school. If upon
a second trial trip he is still found wanting, he is dismissed. If he has
proven himself proficient, he is given a uniform, a number and a car, and the
safety of human life is intrusted to his care.

PROMOTION OF MOTORMEN

The field of electricity is already so immense and is growing so rapidly
that it affords ample opportunity for any and every class of thoroughly
trained man. The student from the technical school, thoroughly trained
in the theory and operative principles of every type of electrical apparatus,
but with little or no practical experience in applying his knowledge to
actual working conditions, is in a certain sense in about the same position
as the man whose practical experience is exhaustive, but who knows nothing

566 WORKERS OF THE NATION

particular of theories. It is, of course, the happy blending of the two that
makes the well-trained electrician. A natural law, apparently applicable
to most human affairs as well, ordains that where there is a well-defined
demand an adequate supply must meet it sooner or later. In this time of
great opportunities there is no reason why an intelligent and ambitious man
should pass his life in a subordinate and ill-paid calling, because "his early
training was deficient." Indeed, if he realize the fact, he will understand
that, to do even a minor duty well, he must understand what he is doing
and why. Thus, the motorman on a street railway car by beginning a sys-
tematic and careful study of the theory and working of the electric motor,
not only is able to better fill his present position, but has actually taken the
first step toward a larger and more profitable field of employment. By
mastering the theory of the street-car motor, he is on the way to fit himself
as engineer in some stationary power plant, or for any one of the numerous
positions in which electric motors are used. He is, moreover, able to repair
such common mishaps as burning out in a controller connection or blowing
out a fuse; thus avoiding many of the familiar causes of delay that often
block traffic on electric lines. Such employes as conductors, inspectors and
barnmen find vast opportunities offered, by technical knowledge, both for
advancement in their own positions and for changes for the better in other
connections.

Formerly, in order to obtain the necessary technical knowledge, a sub-
ordinate employe in any mechanical line was obliged either to attend some
day or night school, which he frequently could not do, or else to pursue a
course of independent reading, which seemed equally hopeless, even when the
books were available. Now, there are the best possible advantages offered to
intelligent men by the correspondence method of instruction, which, begin-
ning at the simplest principles, is able to carry him through to the most ad-
vanced knowledge, under the careful instruction of experienced teachers.
This plan, which can not be too often mentioned with approval, has enabled
many a man who has begun at the proverbial "foot of the ladder," to advance
himself to almost any position that his intelligence and industry wrill war-
rant. Men who have begun as motormen have been qualified as electri-
cians, while others have materially advanced themselves to various inter-
mediate grades in the street-railway industry, or obtained good positions
as motor engineers in other connections. In the field of electricity, as in
other branches, there is "plenty of room at the top," and the man in the
ranks stands as good a chance of promotion, if he will improve his time, as
any graduate of a technical school.

NEW YORK STREET RAILWAY EMPLOYES

When President H. H. Vreeland took charge of the twenty odd street
railroads making up the present Metropolitan Street Railway system in
New York, he found a singular lack of community of interest among the
men employed on the various lines throughout the city, due to the slipshod

STREET RAILWAYS 567

manner in which this force was recruited, and to the lack of any means of
social intercourse. To both of these causes was largely due an inefficiency
that called for immediate correction.

In reviewing the matter, it was apparent that among men brought to-
gether by the recruiting methods then in existence social intercourse was
practically impossible, on account of the brevity and uncertainty of the
tenure of employment, and Mr Vreeland's first efforts were directed to cor-
recting this instability. He found that the men were employed, in the
majority of instances, through political influence, and with very little ref-
erence to their capacity or adaptability to the work they were expected to
perform, with the natural result that discharges among about 4,000 men
amounted to about 300 a month.

Immediately a reformation in the recruiting methods was inaugurated,
and the Metropolitan began to recruit its labor in the open market, where it
selected the best that was offered, making character, health and intelligence
the only qualifications necessary to enter the ranks. Within a year the re-
sults of this reform began to manifest themselves in all directions. While
the number of operatives was very rapidly increased, the number of dis-
charges steadily decreased, until they were diminished to as many in a
month as had previously occurred in a single day. Coincident with the
reform in recruiting, there was developed a system of discipline at once
rigid and equal. No man was to be deprived of his employment without a
hearing and for reasons which were explained to him. The arbitrary power
of small officials was curtailed and centralized. The men grew in dignity,
responsibility and efficiency, and the day was ripe for furnishing some means
for social amusement and benefit.

METROPOLITAN STREET RAILWAY ASSOCIATION

Then came into existence, through the motion of the men themselves,
the Metropolitan Street Railway Association, which is justly regarded as
the most unique labor union in existence. It is not patronized by the cor-
poration whose property it operates; it pays its own bills, nurses its own
sick, and buries its dead, on a system devised by its board of trustees, and
is, in fact, the cheapest and promptest insurance of the kind now in ex-
istence. It has collected, distributed and invested, during the brief term of
its existence (1897-1902), over $100,000, at an expense of administra-
tion that is so insignificant as to surprise even insurance experts. Its main
objects are to secure for its members free medical attendance, one-half of
their wages when illness overtakes them, and $300 in case of death. These
purely material benefits, to say nothing of monthly entertainments, the-
atrical, athletic, musical, and instructive in character, are secured at an
expense of fifty cents per month. It pays no salary, and its members are
consequently entitled to receive a larger actual cash percentage of the dues
paid than in any other known mutual assessment association. Its member-
ship has grown in six years from a little over two to five thousand. It in-

568 WORKERS OF THE NATION

vests its surplus in the securities of the properties its members operate. It
has a library of 1,500 books and furniture, pool tables, and other means of
recreation, representing an outlay of about $8,000.

As evidence of the purely voluntary character of this natural develop-
ment under free conditions, it is necessary to state that employment on the
company's property is in no way influenced by membership in this associa-
tion. The men exercise their own free will in the matter of joining or re-
maining aloof, and the discipline of the company is exercised impartially as
to demerits and promotion alike on members and non-members of the asso-
ciation. Membership in the association secures no man immunity, and re-
fusal to join in no way affects the recognition of his merit as an efficient
employe. The gradual progress of the association is best told by the table
following, which furnishes at a glance its growth year by year, the sources
and amount of its revenue, and the sums annually disbursed for sick benefits
and death claims :

1897 1897-98 1898-99 1899-00 1900-01 Total

Dues and Initiation Fees, $7,877.99 $14,711.50 $15,100.00 $19,636.00 $20,070.00 $77,39549
Entertainments,Interest, etc, 2,356.52 5,283,91 5,742.68 8,399.44 21,782.55

Sick Benefits paid 1,666.00 9,255.00 10,870.00 10,225.00 14,193.00 46,209.00

Death Claim paid 450.00 3,547-50 3,600.00 4,302.50 3,099.00 14,099.00

Membership 2,263 2,604 2,620 3,312 4,071

The history of this association furnishes further evidence, if that be
needed, that freedom and opportunity with working men will inevitably
bear more fruit than sympathetic patronage. In this case the opportunity
was furnished by steadying the employment in a single community of over
10,000 able-bodied wage-earners. Anxiety concerning to-morrow being
removed, first by steadying the employment, and next by the security against
disease and death, a growth like this was demanded and made possible. If
one considers the fact that every able-bodied man has several individ-
uals depending upon him for support, some idea may be had of the immense
civic service brought about in the City of New York by the Metropolitan
Street Railway in unifying the street car service of the city, and affording
an opportunity for the free development of such an institution as this
association.

AMALGAMATED ASSOCIATION OF STREET RAILWAY EMPLOYES

This organization has been instrumental in improving the condition of
street railway employes on two important counts : first, the reduction in
working hours from fifteen, sixteen, even seventeen, hours a day to a maxi-
mum of twelve; second, and increase in wages from $1.25 a day to from
eighteen to twenty-two cents an hour. The association has 15,000 mem-
bers in several large cities. The local initiation fee is one dollar, and the
dues fifty cents a month. A death benefit of $75 is paid, and sick benefits
of from $3 to $5 a week.

CHAPTER VI
TRANSPORTATION BY WATER

The Merchant Fleets of the World — The Merchant Fleet of the United States — The At-
lantic and Pacific Fleets — The American Coasting Fleet — The Great Lakes Fleet — Ore
Steamers on the Great Lakes — Lake Carriers' Association — The Mississippi River
Fleet— The Canal Fleet— The Fleet of Yachts— Harbor Craft— The Fleet of Tug Boats

THE MERCHANT FLEETS OF THE WORLD

NEVER before in the world's history has so much money been invested
in shipping as at the beginning of this century. Never before have
the nations of the world exchanged by water such enormous quan-
tities of their respective products. Never has travel by sea been so general.
Never has the sea furnished occupation and a livelihood the world round for
so many men.

The aggregate value of the seagoing merchant steamers of all nations
is about one billion of dollars, and of sail vessels about $150,000,000. Be-
sides the fleet thus valued are, of course, thousands of small craft of less
than one hundred tons, which ply on navigable rivers, canals, bays and
sounds, and are never out of sight of land, though employing many thou-
sand men. A billion one hundred million dollars fully represents the
amount of the world's capital afloat in the various forms of salt water ves-
sels. The capital and funded debt of the railroads of the United States
alone is ten times larger than this total. In a year of prosperity these ves-
sels will earn about $700,000,000, though at the present time ocean freights
are at a low point. Of these gross earnings, only a moderate share, less than
seven per cent at this time, will represent clear profits. The steamers when
fully employed burn during the year nearly 50,000,000 tons of coal, which,
taking prices the world round, means an expense of over $200,000,000. The
wages of 600,000 men who officer and man these vessels amount to $100,-
000,000 more, and to the wages must be added about $35,000,000 for the
provisions the crews consume. Marine and fire insurance, interest on capi-
tal and a fair allowance for the amortization or liquidation of bonded debt
require about $140,000,000 more, and repairs and renewals will carry that
total to $200,000,000. Port charges doubtless count about $100,000,000,
the tolls collected for the Suez Canal alone reaching $18,000,000. When
the expenses incurred for the passenger trade, for accidents and losses, for
handling cargo, for rent, taxes and administration, and the score of minor
details of the ocean carrying business are considered, it will be evident

(569)

570 WORKERS OF THE NATION

that the ship-owner at present who secures a clear profit of six per cent on
his investment has reason to felicitate himself. The dividends paid by the
railroads of the United States in a single year are doubtless double the
amount of the dividends paid to all the ship-owners of the world.

THE MERCHANT FLEET OF THE UNITED STATES

The merchant marine of the United States is now the greatest in tonnage
in the country's history, reaching nearly 6,000,000 tons. No other word is
so often misunderstood as the word ton when applied to merchant vessels.
It is not a i.ieasure of weight (2,240 or 2,000 pounds) but a measure of
capacity, and had its origin in the tun of olden times. The ton nowadays
means 100 cubic feet when applied to a merchant ship. When applied to
a steel man-of-war, on the other hand, it means the weight of water dis-
placed by the vessel with her armament, coal, crew and supplies all on
board.

In the United States, as elsewhere, while tonnage increases, the number
of vessels grows steadily smaller with the increase in their size. Just as "de-
partment stores" in the large cities are taking the place of scores of small
retail shops, so on the water, one great cargo steamer at present will per-
form during a year the work of thirty or more of the square-rigged ships,
once the glory of the United States and of the seas. This change has, of
course, materially affected the opportunities for employment on the ocean.
The thirty ships wrould have had thirty different masters, where now one
man is supreme. They would have had sixty or seventy officers, where now
less than a dozen will suffice. Where formerly there would have been five
hundred men, who could "hand, reef and steer," now perhaps there will be
thirty able-bodied seamen, and fifty or sixty men shovelling coal and direct-
ing the engines in the hold of the ship. The United States, for various rea-
sons, has clung to sail vessels longer than other nations, but even with us
the full-rigged ship has steadily disappeared, and there are now less than
100 left of the types which were the scenes of the history and romance of
half a century ago.

In round numbers 24,000 vessels of all sizes and descriptions, from the
cat-boat to the transatlantic or transpacific liner, are entitled to carry the
Stars and Stripes. Of these about one-third are propelled by steam, elec-
tricity or naphtha. About 3,500 are canal boats or barges, and the balance
rely on canvas and the "unbought wind" for propulsion.

On the ocean our country does not play an important part, except as our
Navy, on which several hundred millions of dollars have been spent in
twenty years, renders us a formidable naval power. We have, however, an
exceptionally fine fleet of steel passenger and freight steamers on the
Great Lakes, a large tonnage on the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Hud-
son, and other rivers, and on the great bays and sounds along our coasts
American craft of every description find profitable occupation. Thus in
tonnage we rank next to Great Britain, though the ships of Germany,

TRANSPORTATION BY WATER 571

France, Norway and other countries are seen more frequently than Ameri-
can ships in foreign ports.

THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC FLEETS

The Atlantic passenger service from New York alone requires a fleet of
over one hundred steamers, of three-quarters of a million tons. They carry
some years nearly a million passengers of all descriptions. The aggregate
number of persons employed by the companies having terminals in the
Metropolis is about 100,000, afloat and ashore, and if the steamers sailing
from other American ports are included the number of employes is easily
200,000.

The Pacific passenger service employs a fast growing fleet of fine steam-
ers belonging to companies having terminals at San Francisco, Puget Sound
and Vancouver. Two American companies operate eight steamers between
the United States and Asia, and another American company has a line of
three steamers to Australia.

Traffic on the Atlantic was a subject of importance in 1902 in the world
of commerce, owing to the merging of several great lines, forming a so-
called "Steamship Trust." One result of the combination was the prepara-
tion of a schedule whereby steamers would leave New York for Europe
every day, except Fridays and Sundays, throughout the months of greatest
traffic. Fridays are excepted because superstitious sailors refuse to start on
a voyage on that day of supposed ill luck.

The Atlantic "ferry" of to:day is an interesting contrast to the steamship
that crossed the Atlantic in 1819. That first Atlantic ferryboat was an
American craft — the Savannah, from New York to Liverpool. Eighteen
days out, her engines consumed the last of her pitch-pine fuel and she had to
finish the voyage under sail, entering the Mersey on the thirty-second day.
To-day, as before stated, there are more than a hundred "ferryboats" rep-
resenting fourteen or fifteen lines, and burning, not pitch-pine, but — many
of them — a ton of coal every five minutes, or 300 tons a day. These steam-
ers plying between New York and European ports bring to this country
every summer some 100,000 cabin passengers, of whom fully 80,000 are
home-coming Americans.

Sea captains, generally, believe that ocean travel in steamships is safer
than in the old sailing vessels. Navigators can control steamers more readily
than "sailers." Gone, perhaps, are the days dear to mariners, of sailing
vessels that were all silence and cleanliness as compared to the thump of
engine and soot of funnel of the steamers of to-day; and gone may be the
days when the mariner "shifted his quid," and said "shiver my timbers,"
and "hitched" up his tarry trousers. But now when the traveller starts for
somewhere on a steamship, he knows that he will get there, "as per
schedule," and no mere calm can delay the ship.

In the matter of size and carrying capacity, combined with speed, the
steamship is a far more important factor in the development of commerce

572 WORKERS OF THE NATION

than the sailing ship. The White Star steamship Celtic, for example, is
many feet longer than was the Great Eastern, fourteen feet longer than the
Deutschland, and in the matter of flotation could transport any two modern
battleships, with space still left for cargo. In exact figures, the Celtic is
seven hundred feet long, seventy-five feet wide, and forty-nine deep. Im-
agine a building nine stories high, and nearly as long as three ordinary city
blocks, and you have some idea of the dimensions of the Celtic. The New
York City Hall could be hidden, all except the tower, inside her hull. One
of the officers of the ship has estimated that 360,000 men could stand on her
nine decks — fifty lines of men and eight hundred in each line, or forty thou-
sand in all, on each deck. She has accommodations for 2,859 passengers,
besides a crew of 335, which means that any town with a population of 3,149
could live aboard the Celtic with almost as much comfort as in a hotel. The
Celtic can carry over 18,000 tons of actual cargo, her gross tonnage is 20,-
904, and her displacement at load draught is 38,220, or a displacement
double that of the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, and 10,300 tons more than the
Great Eastern. Accepting Sir Isaac Newton's estimate and the Bible figures,
we may conclude that Noah, his family and living cargo, would be better
accommodated on the Celtic than on the Ark.

In the matter of speed, it is hardly necessary to dwell here upon the
superiority of the modern steamship over any sailing vessel. Marine en-
gineers are even now talking of steamers that will make the voyage from
New York to Southampton in four days. The power developed by the
modern ocean steamship is also a feature of comparative interest. Does the
reader realize what 20,000 horsepower is? This is the horsepower of the
St. Louis and the St. Paul. A distinguished Englishman recently compared
a vessel propelled by such engines with an ancient galley propelled by oars.
"Take her length as being 600 feet, and assume that place be found for as
many as 400 oars on each side, each oar worked by three men, or 2,400 men
in all; and allow that six men under these conditions could develop work
equal to one horsepower ; we should have 400 horsepower as the result of the
work of 2,400 men. Double the number of men, and we should have 800
horsepower, with 4,800 men at work, and at least the same number in re-
serve if the journey is to be carried on continuously." Contrast the puny
result thus obtained with the power of the engines of the St. Paul, which are
capable of developing, on the above mode of calculation, a power equal to
that of 117,000 men, and that is without allowing- for constant relays.

THE AMERICAN COASTING FLEET

All foreign vessels for a century have been excluded by Act of Congress
from engaging in the coasting, or coastwise, trade. Passengers and cargo,
accordingly, can be carried only in American vessels from one port of the
United States to another. This law has recently been extended to include
Porto Rico and Hawaii. By this peculiar enactment an American traveller
can sail from Key West to Havana, a distance of only ninety miles in any

TRANSPORTATION BY WATER 573

foreign vessel which may be available, but if he wishes to make the voyage
from New York to Honolulu, a distance of about 16,000 miles, or more than
half the distance around the world, he must travel on a vessel under the
Stars and Stripes. This law was enacted primarily as a protective measure
to develop the shipbuilding industry, and it has been quite effective in this
direction. Indeed our present shipbuilding establishments on the seaboard
owe their existence to that law and to naval contracts. Many lines of coast-
ing steamers have been established connecting New York, Boston, Balti-
more, Philadelphia, Brunswick, Charleston, Savannah, St. Johns, New
Orleans and Gal vest on, and on the Pacific coast, San Francisco with Ameri-
can ports south and north to Alaska. An American line of coasting steam-
ers now runs from New York around Cape Horn to Honolulu and San
Francisco.

A large freight business is also carried on by schooners along the coast.
This particular type of vessel is especially American, and of late years
wooden schooners have been built in Maine with five and six masts, in ton-
nage equalling full rigged ships. The limit of construction in wood appears
to have been reached, and our builders next year will launch steel schooners
that in carrying capacity will excel the greatest ocean steamers of quarter of
a century ago. These large schooners are as a rule equipped with small en-
gines so that sails are hoisted and lowered by machinery, and much of the
work of loading and unloading cargo is similarly done. As only ten men
are needed to man a vessel so rigged and equipped, these schooners are
among the most economical types of vessels afloat. The trades in which
they can engage, however, are restricted by structural conditions, and they
are seldom to be met with far from the coast.

THE GREAT LAKES FLEET

Modern American shipping and shipbuilding have attained extraordinary
development on the Great Lakes. Those bodies of fresh water, virtually
excluded from connection with the sea and from the foreign competition
which obtains there, seem to have furnished special opportunities for the
display of American characteristics. The season is short and business must
be done with a rush. The period of Lake navigation is generally from
April to November, and within seven or eight months must be crowded the
work which on the seaboard is performed throughout the year. In no
other places in the world have mechanical processes for the quick loading
and unloading of cargo been brought to such perfection. In a single day
steamers have discharged cargo of 6,000 tons or more and taken on another
cargo nearly as large. The season of navigation, limited, of course, by the
ice-bound condition of narrow channels and harbors during the winter, has
its effects on wages which are higher on the Lakes even than on other
American vessels. While severe storms visit these waters, labor is less
arduous than on the North Atlantic. Consequently during the Lake season
there is always a considerable migration of seamen from foreign vessels on

574 WORKERS OF THE NATION

the seaboard to work on American Lake vessels, and at the end of the season
these men return to the ocean. This is one cause for the frequent desertion
of seamen from foreign vessels in the United States. The yachting season
on the Atlantic and the Alaska fishing season on the Pacific are almost
simultaneous with the season of Lake navigation, so that during the warmer
months of every year foreign ships in our harbors often find it difficult to
prevent their seamen from leaving to enjoy temporarily at least the special
advantages offered by the United States. American tonnage on the Great
Lakes exceeds the entire merchant fleet of Italy or Spain.

Distinctive, indeed, and in a class by itself, is the modern ship of the
Great Lakes. It differs both from the ocean freighter and from its prede-
cessor in the Lake carrying trade. Methods and conditions are suited by the
Lake craft of the present day. These Lake boats do not draw so much water,
that is to say, they are not so deep as the ocean vessels. In length and beam,
or breadth, however, they are not far behind. The Lake boats are modelled
strictly with a view to their carrying capacity, with little depth of hull,
and with the idea of loading and discharging cargoes with the greatest
speed. So successful has this modelling become, that length for length, and
beam for beam, the Lake boat will carry more freight than an ocean steamer.

Since the first tentative lines, the commerce of the Great Lakes has
grown enormously. Channels and harbors have constantly been improved
by the United States Government. The depth of water in many channels
has been only sufficient for vessels with a draught of seventeen feet. Dredg-
ing is expected to increase this depth to about nineteen feet in the near
future. In fact, the latest boats are modelled for a full cargo draught of
about twenty feet. The lines of these boats are not very graceful. The
decks display a great many hatchways. The bottoms are flat. The strong
construction necessary for ocean freighters is not deemed obligatory; and
thus these boats are cheaper in proportion to their tonnage than the ocean
craft. There generally is no deck between the spar-deck and the water bot-
tom. The engines are at the stern, and are not of very high power. The
coal bunkers are small, and the boats do not carry many winches and der-
ricks. There are few bulkheads, the spaces between them being large. These
boats are loaded with extraordinary rapidity. Whatever figure the United
States cuts upon the ocean, in the carrying trade, more than 89 per cent of
the tonnage of the Great Lakes is American. More than half the surface of
the Lakes is within our boundaries. The distance from one end of the sys-
tem to the other is not paltry. From Duluth to Ogdensburg the distance is
1,235 mites. With a deeper canal to tidewater, this trade could be quintri-
pled in extent. The Erie Canal is not more than eight feet deep, which does
not suffice. Projects for a canal of the adequate depth are under consid-
eration.

Ferry lines have been established by railways, carrying loaded cars be-
tween ports. One of these ferries plying at Mackinac carries thirty cars.

Mention should be made, of the so-called "whale-back" boats, designed

TRANSPORTATION BY WATER 575

for great capacity combined with economy in construction. It is said that
the sailors do not like them, as they are uncomfortable in bad weather.

The navigation season is only two-thirds of the year. Speed in load-
ing and unloading is necessary to make many trips. Such are the facilities,
that a cargo of wheat may be taken aboard at the rate of a thousand bushels
a minute.

There are some fine passenger boats on the Lakes, two of these measuring
383 feet over all, and having a speed of more than 21 miles an hour.
Another Lake passenger steamer measures 295 feet over all.

The Lake sailor deems his life a harder one than that of his comrade
on the ocean steamer. There is really some reason for this. In case of
storm there is nothing a sailor likes more than sea room. On the ocean
there is either open sea, or, at the worst, land only on one side. On the
Lakes this is different. A lee shore is never very far away. The waters are
also more crowded, and the channels are often narrow. The harbors, like-
wise, are very much more difficult to enter. Storms arise with startling
suddenness, and there is no scudding under bare poles for any distance with-
out danger of striking the shore.

The Lake captain does not sail by dead reckoning, but rather by the com-
pass and the shore line. He must make one or two ports a day. He is his
own pilot. In fact, his duties are extremely arduous.

Lake freight rates are very low, with the prospect of further reduction.

ORE STEAMERS ON THE GREAT LAKES

One of the most interesting craft on the Great Lakes are the ore steam-
ers. Vessels of this type cost on an average about $350,000. For a trip
of ten days they require about $1,000 worth of fuel. The insurance for this
time is about $500. Not many men are needed on these boats, officers and
crew not numbering more than twelve. The salaries vary from $1,200 to
$1,800 for the captains. The first mate and the chief engineer get about
$1,200. There is a profit for these boats in shipping ore at fifty cents a ton.
The price often reaches $1.25 a ton, and there is a fortune in the business.
The gross receipts of some of these ships have amounted to more than
$11,000 for a single trip, the craft paying for themselves in a few sea-
sons. It costs only about one-quarter as much to ship ore by water as by
rail. Very often a steamer will tow one or two schooners, which are really
nothing but barges, although they carry sails. These barges have enormous
tonnage, and can carry even more ore than the steamers can hold. Shipping
offices are maintained in all the principal ports by the Lake Carriers' Associa-
tion, an organization of Lake boat owners. A shipping master is employed
by the association. His duties are to supervise the work of all the branch
offices, transferring men back and forth from port to port, as they are needed
for the service. The "whale-backs," which are mentioned in another con-
nection, are both steamers and barges. They have not been especially suc-
cessful as ore carriers, in spite of first expectations. The regular ships are

576 WORKERS OF THE NATION

growing larger in type. The only handicap is the shallowness of some of
the channels, which prevents great depth of hull. A deepening of the vari-
ous channels is under consideration by both the American and Canadian
governments.

The unloading of the ore steamers is a science in itself. Much ore is un-
loaded at Chicago, within a few yards of the pig-iron furnaces. The
greater part of the ore, however, is unloaded at ports on the south shore of
Lake Erie, for transportation to the foundries in and near Pittsburg. There
are three different methods of handling this raw material. Wheelbarrows
and trestles were long ago discarded. "Whirlers," or revolving derricks,
are still used to some extent, with buckets carrying more than a ton. By
another method a huge bucket travels along a little elevated railroad, dump-
ing into cars on tracks beneath. The direct unloaders simply travel a fixed
distance from the boat to a railroad track at the dock. Six or seven thou-
sand tons of ore may be unloaded by this process in nine or ten hours. The
latest method of unloading will, however, soon replace all the others. This
system makes use of the "automatic unloader." This extraordinary machine
weighs many tons. A huge iron arm runs out over the vessel. At its end,
as it descends, is a huge clambshell bucket, which opens and scoops out a load
of ore. The great bucket is then raised and run back to the waiting railroad
cars.

The hardest manual labor in the world is done by the ore shovellers, fill-
ing the old-fashioned buckets. They are mostly foreigners. The red ore
covers their hair, clothing and skin. They work in gangs of two or three
dozen. Although the work is arduous, the pay is good, many workmen
earning from five to seven dollars a day, for the season. They are gener-
ally thrifty, and live comfortably in little homes of their own.

LAKE CARRIERS' ASSOCIATION

The Lake Carriers' Association is a consolidation of the Cleveland Ves-
sel-Owners' Association with the Old Lake Carriers' Association, founded
fifteen or sixteen years ago. Members of the Lake Carriers' Association
own about 600 out of the 3,162 Lake vessels, the tonnage they control being
more than 1,000,000 tons out of 1,400,000 tons all told, including four-
fifths to nine-tenths of the freight carrying tonnage. It is one of the most
influential commercial bodies in the United States. The association is
active in presenting the needs of the navigation interests to Congress. Chan-
nel improvements are striven for, many private lights are maintained, and
shipping offices are kept open. In the lower Detroit River, for example, the
association has maintained six lights for ten years. Congress always gives
consideration to the association's suggestions. The shipping offices of the
association, at Chicago, South Chicago, Milwaukee, Cleveland, Toledo,
Ashtabula and Buffalo, are of immense advantage both to the men and to the
owners. Vessels are not owned by the association, as such, nor does it at-
tempt to control freight rates.

TRANSPORTATION BY WATER 577

THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER FLEET

The Mississippi, with its tributaries, extending over 4,000 miles, is the
greatest river system in the world, and has a navigation peculiar to itself,
its own types of vessels, and crews in many respects different from those to
be found elsewhere. It has been asserted that while the traffic by railroad
has been rapidly increasing, that by the river is correspondingly decreasing,
and it is believed by some that the railroad has already practically displaced
the steamboat, but officials of the Steamboat Captains' and Owners' Ex-
change, of New Orleans, declare that neither of these propositions is cor-
rect. It is true that there has been a partial diversion of traffic from locali-
ties, while at other places there remain perhaps as much, and maybe more,
traffic than ever before, and all this where the railroads parallel and cross
the navigable streams. There is a loss of through traffic from such im-
portant points as St. Louis, the Ohio River, Memphis and Vicksburg to New
Orleans. The Government has contributed liberally for the improvement of
Mississippi navigation. Without it the steamboats might vanish from the
face of the waters. The appropriations have been honestly and not waste-
fully spent, but often the results have not been what the steamboat men had
hoped for or expected.

It is the difficulties of navigation, the shoals, bars and snags, which inter-
fere with the transportation business on the Missouri and Mississippi more
than the competing railroads. The tributary streams are also hampered with
bridges, which are a constant peril to floating craft. Such are the dangers of
the route that insurance rates are so high as to be almost prohibitive. What-
ever decline there may be in the tonnage, these facts are at the bottom of it.
And yet Mississippi transportation is a large factor in the commercial life of
the country. Steamboats to the number of 189 ran on the river in a recent
year with a net tonnage of 62,314 tons, the gross tonnage being 1,590,004
tons. These boats made 6,2 1 2 trips. The value of the boats was $4,33 1 ,000.
There were 1,635 barges, towed by steamers. These barges made 2,470
trips. The yalue of the barges was $2,003,000. This made a total of 1,824
vessels in a year. Their net tonnage amounted to 1,471,128 tons, while
their value reached $6,334,000. The harbor boats, the ferries, the railroad
transfer boats, and the Government steamers are excluded from this recapit-
ulation. The total amount of tons from Cairo to New Orleans was 4,708,-
355, with a valuation of $94,605,762. From New Orleans to the Gulf, via
the river, the coastwise and foreign tonnage was 2,985,643 tons, valued at
$144,704,136. This makes the grand total of 7,693,998 tons, with a valu-
ation of $239,309,898. Chief among the merchandise carried on the river
that year were 612 bales of cotton, 166,049 tons of cotton seed, 153,664 tons
of sugar, and 444,539,180 feet of logs and lumber. The cost of a river
steamer ranges from $20,000 up to $100,000.

The traffic on the Mississippi has become largely local. Formerly the
greater part of the freight was carried straight from St. Louis to New

6— Yd. 2

578 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Orleans, and thence re-distributed back to local points along the river.
Now, however, the bulk of the freight going from St. Louis is unloaded at
these various points, so that the boat arrives at New Orleans with two-
thirds of its load gone. The fine passenger boats, familiar to river travellers
years ago, are no longer seen. Local packets operate in conjunction with
railroads, from many points along the river, such as Memphis, Vicksburg,
Natches, and Baton Rouge, carrying freight up and down the stream. The
traffic on the river has thus been changed in its distribution.

THE CANAL FLEET

The navigable portion of the inland rivers and canals of the United
States aggregate 18,000 miles. On the Atlantic seaboard a modern torpedo
boat can pass from Newport, Rhode Island to a point one hundred miles
south of Cape Hatteras without being obliged to leave the inland passage.
The inland coast waterways could be made further navigable by a system of
canal connections with rivers and bays so that large steamers and torpedo
boats could run all the way from Rhode Island to Texas, from Providence to
Galveston, Narragansett Bay to the Rio Grande, without once going "out-
side."

The greatest and the most wonderful ship canal in the world is the
American canal, Sault Ste. Marie, or St. Mary's Falls, often called the
"Soo." This is the great gateway between the North and Northwest, and
the markets of the -East. This canal is open for business only eight months
in the year, and yet in that time the tonnage that passes through it is greater
than that which traverses the Suez Canal in an entire year. Indeed, the
tonnage which enters this canal in its comparatively short season is even in
excess of the annual tonnage that enters the port of New York, or the port
of London. Through this canal, a thousand miles from the nearest tide-
water, passes an average of one hundred and fifty vessels daily, carrying
breadstuffs for the world, carrying the ore from the rrjines of the North-
west to the great blast furnaces of Pennsylvania and Ohio.

The vast importance of this canal was illustrated when there was a
stoppage of traffic, caused by the sinking of a large steamer in the St.
Mary's River at the entrance of the canal. Traffic was blocked for only
five days, but the congestion of vessels at that point presented a spectacle
never before seen in the marine world. It was said that a man could have
walked for miles from steamer to steamer. Vesselmen estimated that that
five days' blockade cost them a million dollars. In this canal, too, are the
most wonderful locks in the world. In these locks vessels carrying cargoes
of 8,000 tons can drop eighteen feet in half an hour. The traffic through
Sault Ste. Marie canals (United States and Canadian) in the eight months
of navigation season of 1902 was nearly 30,000,000 net tons.

In 1902 it was proposed to enlarge the famous Erie Canal, in New York
State. All the canals of this State, indeed, have reached a point where they
must either be abandoned or adequately improved. As a factor in through

TRANSPORTATION BY WATER " 579

traffic the canals have lost their importance, and while in their present con-
dition they still serve a useful purpose in carrying on local traffic and in
regulating to some extent local freight rates, their importance to business in
the State is decreasing yearly. The old boats are wearing out, and there is
no inducement on the part of their owners or any one else to build new ones.
An official of the Merchants' Exchange of Buffalo declares that before 1905
there will be practically no boats left on the Erie Canal capable of carrying
grain or other high-class freight. In 1902 one of the principal owners
had his canal boats and steam consorts "knocked down" — that is, taken to
pieces — and put on board two ocean steamers to be carried to the Philip-
pines. At Manila they were to be put together again and employed in the
lighterage business on the Pasig River and Manila Bay.

In marked contrast to the gay pleasure craft in New York Harbor are
the villages of canal boats, away to the south, along the shores of the East
River. On these boats there is a home life of a modest kind. Clothes flutter
from the line on wash-day. Accordions and melodions are heard. The
skipper of a canal boat has been known to refer to his daughter's melodion as
a "groan-box." Chickens and children are seen and heard, and visits are
made from one boat to another, to keep up the social tone of the floating
community. The ice gives these boats a long vacation.

THE FLEET OF YACHTS

Of the 454 yachts chartered by the persons mentioned in the directories,
198 are steamers, 187 sloops, and 69 schooners. But the number of yachts
mentioned in the blue book does not begin to comprise the number owned by
all sorts and conditions of men and women up and down the coast. The
number presses close to 2,000 — 7O-footers, 3O-footers, 21 -footers, as well as
steam yachts.

Among the smaller boats, the regular season-in, season-out kind, that has
maintained its popularity the longest, showing no sign of falling off in
favor, but rather an increase in esteem, is the 3O-footer. These boats are all
made from the same model, same lines, same sail plans. They are wonder-
fully well built and have all the properties of the larger racers with more
stability. They are extraordinary sail carriers. So popular are they with
their owners that they are raced almost daily for sweepstakes or valuable
cups offered by various members of the Newport summer colony. They are,
too, the seamen's favorites, for prize money is given in every race. A suc-
cessful skipper can show more for his skill, at the end of the season, and
actually does get a higher aggregate of pay, than some of those connected
directly with the great Cup racers.

The yachting world offers countless opportunities for young sailors and
seamen. These young men receive for their four months' or season's
service more than a man receives for a year's voyages in the regular mer-
chant marine. Persons pay for their pleasure, it seems, much more than
they would think of paying when the boat must earn dollars and cents.

58o WORKERS OF THE NATION

Pleasure boats have no profits, no losses, to be considered, no dividends to
be yielded to their owners, and the fo'castle benefits thereby.

Besides the 30- footer sloops, there are various classes known as 70-
footers, 43-footers, and 21 -footers. These boats are for racing only.
Seventy- footers carry a crew of nineteen, and every season a number of
skippers have to be brought over from England, the supply of American
skippers not being equal to the demand. The competent American skipper
can usually secure employment by applying at any yacht club station on
the coast.

Yachts play so great a part in national marine life, that the Government
has passed special laws for their control. Every yacht of over five tons'
burden, for instance, must be licensed. If an American purchases a foreign-
built yacht that has been wrecked in United States waters, and expends upon
her in repairs three times as much as he paid for her as a wreck, she can
then be documented as an American yacht. The name and port of a yacht
on her stern are there because of law, not simply because of owner's choice.
And the letters of the names must be at least three inches in length. On
steam yachts, the name must be also on each side of her pilot-house, in let-
ters not less than six inches long. No steam yacht, large or small, is per-
mitted to be navigated without a licensed pilot and engineer, under penalty
of a fine of one hundred dollars. Yachts belonging to any regularly organ-
ized foreign yacht club can come into any port of the United States without
entering or clearing at the Custom House, providing that the country from
which the yacht hails reciprocates in kind. This rule, however, does not
apply to boats built outside of the United States, or to foreign boats char-
tered or used by an American citizen.

HARBOR CRAFT

The harbor facilities of nearly all American ports are unequalled by
those of any European city. New York Harbor is perhaps the greatest, in
many respects, in the world. The bay, East River, the Hudson, or, as New
Yorkers call it, the North River, here is water enough to float the navies of
the world. And the argosies of commerce that visit these waters, the flotil-
las of trade, continually calling at this hospitable port, include the ships of
all nations, manned by men of all races. All sorts of craft abound. There
are deep-sea ships from every quarter of the globe, with varied cargoes.
There are coasters, generally sailing vessels. There are fruit steamers, and
oil boats, and river craft making ready for their little trips. Above them
all tower the great Atlantic liners. These leviathans are distinguished by
special bands of color around the smoke stack. Tiny, beside these monsters,
seem the oyster and ice boats, the brick or cotton barges, the lumber
schooners, and the dashing little tugs. There are several channels by which
the New York Harbor may be entered. Gedney Channel is lighted by electric-
ity from double rows of spar buoys. The Sandy Hook and Scotland light
ships and the beacons of the Jersey and Staten Island coast guide the ships in

TRANSPORTATION BY WATER 581

their entrance into the Narrows. In spite of the constant passing of ships at
the Battery, there are almost no accidents in the way of collisions.

In the summer season the excursion boats are very prominent features of
harbor life. Some of them are of enormous size, and carry thousands of
people. The great Sound steamers are larger still. They run through Hell
Gate to the Sound, all glass, and brass, and lights, and music. They even
approach the stately liner in size. Less beautiful but fully as useful are the
city fireboats. These boats are thoroughly equipped for fire-fighting.
Standpipes and nozzles, fire-plugs, hose and pumps and an unearthly steam
siren, make up their outfit. Fires along the river front are their especial prey,
and they are almost immediately at the scene of danger.

The Harlem River, north of the city, is the home of boat clubs and
oarsmen. The "racing shells" are watched with great interest from the
bridges and the shore. The dainty and cranky "single sculls," and bigger
"shells," are numerous upon a holiday. There are police boats to look after
river thieves. The ferry-boats we have with us always. Some of the new
ones, owned by the railroads, are most commodious, and very fast. The
railroads also run transfer floats, carrying whole trains of cars at once.

THE FLEET OF TUG BOATS

Among the swiftest boats in our harbors are the tugs. The prices for
towing are not so large in New York Harbor as they are in some other
ports. Here a schooner will pay from $50 to $75 to be towed up the bay
in good weather. During periods of very stormy weather the charges are
doubled. But at Hampton Roads, for instance, the ordinary charges are very
high, running from $500 to $1,000. The price is a matter of special agree-
ment, and the oral contract of a tug captain is sufficient evidence to sue on
in the admiralty courts. Tugs, as a rule, are built much stronger than they
were formerly. Heavy salvage is sometimes paid to tug captains who pick
up drifting craft. But the business at present requires a large amount of
capital, and most of the tugs are owned by companies. Independent tugs
exist, however, and are very alert for business. There have been cases in
which a tug has demanded and received relatively enormous sums for mere
towing. One instance is recalled where the tug captain brought in a bark
with a sick crew and a listed cargo, and received $2,500 for the work.

CHAPTER VII
THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT STEAMSHIP LINE

Organization of a Steamship Line— Operations When a Ship is in Port — Cargoes of Ocean

Steamships — The Navigating Department — Firemen and Stokers Aboard

Ship— Ocean Steamships as Hotels — The Steward's Department

ORGANIZATION OF A STEAMSHIP LINE

THE organization of a steamship company is much the same as that of
a railroad. First comes the chief executive officer, the president,
who acts for the stockholders and the board of directors. To the
president report the treasurer, comptroller, traffic and operating managers.
In the traffic department are freight and passenger agents ; the freight agent
having officers under him in charge, respectively, of East bound and West
bound freight; the passenger agent having subordinates, who divide the
work of looking after the first and second cabins and steerage. The operat-
ing department is naturally the largest in point of numbers, for it includes a
superintendent of engineers, who is responsible for the engineering depart-
ment on shipboard ; a marine superintendent, who looks after the deck de-
partment on shipboard ; a dock superintendent, who sees to the loading and
unloading of passengers and cargo; and a port steward, who has charge
of the stewards' department on shipboard. At least, these are the principal
human wheels in the intricate machinery known as organization, which does
the work of the great ocean lines.

The American Line may be cited as an excellent example of the possi-
bilities for earning a livelihood in the steamship world. The line employs
an aggregate of about 9,000 men, a number equal to three entire army bri-
gades. Nearly 5,000 of these are employed at sea. The company has five
steamers that carry, each, a maximum crew of 400 ; two carrying 250, eight
carrying 200, and six carrying 100. In addition, the company has four new
ships, requiring from 200 to 250 men each. The employes on shore are
chiefly those who work under stevedores at the terminals in New York,
Philadelphia, Southampton and Antwerp — from 300 to 500 in each city.
Quite as many more employes in each of these places, too, are kept busy in
the company's repair shops.

Two-thirds of all the men on the pay-rolls of this line are Americans —
this being the result of the rule not to hire foreigners save when absolutely
necessary. Why is it that American lines can not bring the percentage of

(582)

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT STEAMSHIP LINE 583

Americans in their employ up to the full hundred? The answer is, first,
that there is no element in the social make-up of our population that can be
called a steward class; and, second, that the American-born citizen refuses
to go down into a stoke-hole and work as a fireman. The forty per cent
of foreigners in the employ of the American Line, therefore, comprises
principally stewards and firemen. The stewards are English, the stokers
German. Generations of stewards in England have produced a steward
class, and it is from this element that the transatlantic companies must draw
waiters.

OPERATIONS WHEN A SHIP is IN PORT

The value of organization is demonstrated when a steamer is in port, no
less than when she is at sea. Suppose a ship, for example, arrives at ten
o'clock Sunday evening. She is scheduled to leave again at ten o'clock on
Wednesday morning. All the evening hundreds of the stevedore's men
have been waiting near the dock, knowing that within the next fifty hours
the steamer must be unloaded arid loaded again. For a ship's schedule is
like a railroad time-table; it is a promise publicly given, and faith must be
kept: moreover, a ship in port is an idle investment, she represents non-
earning capital ; so the more she is at sea, the better. Hence the moment
the ship pokes her nose into the dock, the stevedores pounce upon her cargo,
loading and unloading taking place at the same time. This simultaneous
manipulation of the incoming and outgoing cargo is very important. Not
infrequently a ship will list and sink at a dock, simply because a stevedore
unloaded too much in one place without loading a corresponding amount
in another place.

Other things besides cargo must be attended to during the sixty hours
the steamer is in port. While the stevedores attack the steamer from the
dock, barges come in from the river and coal is fed into the capacious jaws
of the vessel, thousands of tons in all, enough to carry the ship twice the
distance to Southampton. All this part of the work is in charge of the
dock department.

At the same time the engineer, deck and steward departments are putting
the ship in a condition as perfect as when she first came from the builders.
The engines are dissected and vivisected, as it were, and then put together
again, every inch of the wonderful mechanism having been inspected down
to the last screw-head. "Spares" are at hand for everything; in other words,
any part of the machinery that shows the least sign of wear is replaced by a
similar part, brand new and faultless.

Meantime the deck department is looking after the appearance of the
ship, cleaning, painting, overhauling, and putting in new fittings where the
old ones are damaged. Down in the storerooms an inventory is being taken
of the amount of food on hand and the amount that will be needed on the
voyage; this work, of course, going on under the direction of the chief
steward.

584 WORKERS OF THE NATION

•

The rapidity with which ships are sometimes handled in port leads to
the doubt in some minds that such a vessel has not been properly repaired
or prepared for a voyage. Experience has shown that it is thoroughly
practical to discharge, load, clean, overhaul and repair even the largest of
liners in twenty-four hours. Some years ago one of the American Line
ships was in constant service for a whole year. She was at sea three hun-
dred out of the three hundred and sixty-five days of that year. She aver-
aged between ten and eleven knots for every hour in the year, including her
time in port, and concluded the service without mishap or breakdown of any
kind. The point to be emphasized is that frequently during that time the
ship discharged and loaded four thousand tons of cargo and coal in twenty-
four hours, besides having been overhauled at the same time, and went to
sea in a condition as perfect as could have been attained if she had been a
week, instead of a day, in port.

Moreover, the underwriters and the governments employ inspectors,
whose duty it is to see that no vessel leaves port unless she is in unim-
peachable condition; so that, in addition to the natural interest and desire
of the companies to have everything right, there is this double check by the
representatives of insurance and law. Again, nine ships in every ten are laid
up twice a year for general overhauling and repairs. Thus every six months
each ship is really born again.

A ship's annual overhaul and repairs in dry-dock usually require about
twenty-one days, this being the time in which she would make one round
trip to Europe. Her captain is, therefore, allowed one trip, and sometimes
two trips off, while his steamer is undergoing her semi-annual renovation —
giving him, in other words, three or six weeks' vacation, with pay, each year.

CARGOES OF OCEAN STEAMSHIPS

It is a mistake to suppose that the fast boats carry but a mite in the way
of cargo. The passenger traffic, of course, is the feature most familiar to
the general public ; but at the same time freight is of very great importance.
Fast boats carry quality in merchandise rather than quantity. Every time
the St. Paul or the St. Louis, for instance, leaves port, the actual value of
the cargo of either boat is far in excess of the much larger cargo in one of
the regular freight boats in the "accommodation" class, like the Friesland
or Vaterland, which carry a huge cargo as well as a great number of pas-
sengers. Stevedores call the cargoes of the fast boats "toothpick cargoes,"
because of the vast number of small packages, in contradistinction to bulky
packages, like cotton bales and hogsheads, which swell the loads in slower
ships. Express steamers, like express trains, naturally get what may be
called "hurry trade." They get perishable goods, such as dressed beef and
provisions, together with manufactured articles of high grade, typewriters,
sewing machines, etc., upon which shippers can afford to pay fast freight
rates. Specie in gold, silver as well as bullion, constitute a part of the
cargo of almost every ship of the "greyhound" class leaving port. So that

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT STEAMSHIP LINE 585

a ship's captain, outward bound, or inward bound for that matter, with any
of the faster boats, may hold in the hollow of his hand, as it were, property
to the value of many millions — three or four millions being the value of the
ship itself, a million more for the cargo, and still another million in specie.

THE NAVIGATING DEPARTMENT

On the great ocean steamships the captain and navigating officers have
their quarters on the awning deck adjacent to the bridge. This deck is as
high as a church-tower above the keel, and is reserved exclusively for the
officers mentioned, so that they may be secluded from every distraction in
working the ship, and may have a full view of her from stem to stern in all
circumstances. The bridge is equipped with a telegraph system, communicat-
ing with every other department of the ship — with the engine-room, with the
after wheel-house, with the bows, and with every point to which it may be
necessary to send an order.

It is on this bridge, seventy feet above the keel-plates, that the captain
spends his most anxious hours — in foggy weather and foul, in sunshine, too,
and by starry night as well as when gales are bawling, spray flying, icy seas
pounding, when the night is so dark that the lookout can not see a ship-
length ahead, when derelicts or towering icebergs may lie in the path just
ahead — in middle watch or dog watch, any watch is the captain's — all for
the honor of the company he serves and for love of "Molly and the Babies"
at home. Nowadays, too, the captain is the host of the ship. He is no
longer the gruff, rough sea-dog in the pea-jacket of years gone by. He
must observe some of the social amenities. He must talk to the passengers
now and then, when the weather is fine. He must take his seat at table
when he may. He must be a kind of diplomat, also, and possess wit and
tact and a fund of patience. He must see that no jealousies develop among
the passengers. The captain has upon his shoulders not only the responsi-
bility of human life — often to the extent of over 2,000 souls: 350 in the
first cabin, 200 in the second cabin, and 800 in the steerage, and nearly 400
crew — but he has the fate in his hands, besides, of the several millions of
dollars' worth of property represented by the ship and its cargo. With life
and property on a wholesale scale, as it were, thus intrusted to his keeping,
what does a voyage across the Atlantic mean for the ship's captain? A
mental and physical strain from the moment the steamer leaves her dock
on one side till she reaches her pier on the ocean's opposite side — a strain of
which the passengers have no adequate conception.

Deeper, broader and higher than ever before must be the professional
attainments of the modern mariner. It is necessary that a sea captain be
not only versed in the science of navigation, but that he understand each in-
tegral part of his ship, considered mechanically. He must know everything
about her, even to the laying of her keel at the beginning. He must under-
stand exactly how she was constructed. He must know all about her en-
gines and other machinery. On some of the foreign lines, the captains are

586 WORKERS OF THE NATION

naval officers, and, in case of war, would retain their commands. On the
German steamers the officers must serve a year or so in the Naval Reserve.
On the French steamers each member of the crew must have served for a
time on a vessel of war. On the majority of ships, however, the officers
are men of the sea who have fought their way up, step by step, entirely by
merit and not at all by favor.

On ships of the American Line, even after a man has reached the rank
of captain, he must pass a rigid examination every five years. He must have
a certificate of competency not only from the country in which his ship is
registered, but, in the transatlantic service, from the country to which he
is regularly taking his vessel ; so that the captains in this service must have
papers from England (and from Belgium too, if possible) as well as from
the United States.

In ships like the St. Paul and St. Louis, of the American Line, twelve
cadets are carried, one for every thousand tons of the ship's measurement.
A well behaved class of boys is secured to be turned into good officers, be-
ginning with the rank of quartermaster. It is the opinion of officials of the
American Line that American boys do not take to the sea as eagerly as in
former years. Promotions, from captains down to office boys, are made in
this line by the rule of seniority, as in the navy, providing the candidates
pass the examination according to requirements, and have proven to the com-
pany's satisfaction not only that they are thorough seamen and discipli-
narians, but are courteous to the patrons of the lines. As for pensions, re-
tired officers draw an annuity from the particular seaman's fund to which
they have contributed during active service, thus making it unnecessary for
steamship companies to assume responsibility in this direction.

FIREMEN AND STOKERS ABOARD SHIP

Americans as firemen, as has been said, can not be secured. Obliged to
rely upon Germans, the majority of stokeholes on the Atlantic are so many
"Little Germanys." The passenger's idea is that the stoker lives in a kind
of purgatory, from the beginning to the end of the voyage. Tourists on
steamer decks tell stories of how the poor men down in the bowels of the
vessel never make but one voyage, a single trip being sufficient for a life-
time. Further, how firemen oftentimes rush on deck stark mad, and either
jump into the sea, preferring the ocean's to the ship's bottom, or plead to be
put in irons if in that way they can be saved from the terrors of shovelling
coal in the Hades below. The experience of officials of steamship lines does
not bear witness to these tales. After every voyage every stoker on the
steamers of the American Line is given a certificate of good behavior, if he
is entitled to it, and when he can present four of these certificates to the pay-
master, showing that he has made four consecutive voyages, he receives
extra pay in the shape of a five dollar gold piece. Hardly ever in the his-
tory of the company has less than fifty per cent of all the stokers in the com-
pany's employ come forward to get the gold piece, first proving, of course,

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT STEAMSHIP LINE 587

that they have fed furnaces through four consecutive voyages. Moreover,
after each voyage, every member of the crew, except the captain, is, accord-
ing to law, paid off and nominally dismissed from the service. Here would
be the fireman's chance to quit. Instead, more than seventy-five per cent,
with their pay in the left hand, sign papers for the next voyage with their
right hand. If statistics were gathered, they would show that firemen of
the sea stick to their jobs just as long as the firemen of locomotives. Ex-
cept stewards and stokers, then, the rank and file of the crews of American
steamers are Yankees.

SHIP'S SURGEONS AND PURSERS

In the great Atlantic and Pacific fleets the position of surgeon — or
"ship's doctor," as he is called— is applied for annually by scores of mem-
bers of the medical fraternity. These are usually young practitioners with
both hospital and private practice, and of first class standing in the profes-
sion. In the American Line fleet of twenty-one vessels, positions are open,
of course, to only twenty-one surgeons, yet the company has a waiting list
of applicants five hundred strong. Many ship's doctors have themselves
been ordered to sea for their health, or have chosen to practice on shipboard
because of a natural fondness for salt water, for adventure or travel or
change. Some of them have contributed to medical science knowledge of
a most important character, which they have taken the trouble to acquire,
at times at the risk of life, in foreign ports.

Applicants for position of purser are less numerous than for a surgeon's
berth, and yet these, too, run into the hundreds. The purser is the clerk
of an ocean hotel, and as such he must perform all the duties of a hotel
clerk on shore. He is allowed one or more assistants, and these, in turn,
may work their way up to the post of purser. The pay is good, excellent
board and lodgings are included, the incumbent must be in closer touch with
the passengers than any other officer of the ship.

OCEAN STEAMSHIPS AS HOTELS

Nearly all the great passenger steamers on the Atlantic or the Pacific may
be aptly compared to hotels. They are, indeed, the great inns of the sea.
For example, in New York you register at one of these great floating hostel-
ries, you are given a room, you live for five, six, seven or ten days, enjoying
meantime the comforts of a great inn ashore, and you land in Europe. You
have been rocked across the ocean in that modern cradle of the deep — a hotel.

Many of these great inns of the sea are larger, more costly, and accom-
modate more guests than a Fifth Avenue hotel. A first-class hotel can be
built for $1,000,000. But ocean hotels of the first-class cost from $2,500,-
ooo to $4,000,000. Again, many of these hotels of the sea consume more
food in six days than the Fifth Avenue hotel uses in six weeks. In a single
voyage the ocean hotel serves 36,000 individual meals. Fifteen hundred

588 WORKERS OF THE NATION

souls, passengers and crew, are lodged and fed, and to each of these is
served an average of four meals a day.

As the guest of an ocean hotel one can have an ordinary room for ten
dollars a day, or a suite of apartments with a private bath for one hundred
dollars a day. In either room or suite of rooms the bed is just as com-
fortable— in the room a berth, in the suite a brass bedstead and a little
extra fresh air, this is all the difference. The ten-dollar man may push the
electric button, summoning the room steward as often as he chooses, and
receive the same degree of attention as the hundred-dollar man on the deck
above. At table, the same, and so, too, on deck and in the smoking-room.
There is a barber shop, a bar, a cigar stand, and the bootblack's chair.
Cares the guest for a stroll, he can walk nearly an eighth of a mile without
turning as on the piazza of a great hotel at a watering place. For his family
and friends there are a library of good books, two pianos, a full-sized church
organ, and all sorts of games, deck sports and amusements. An orchestra
plays during dinner, there is a concert in the evening, and in fine weather
the captain incloses the deck in canvas and bunting, lights it with a hun-
dred lanterns and gives a ball.

THE STEWARD'S DEPARTMENT

In some minds, and according to many appetites, the most important
official aboard ship is the chief steward. Hungry passengers think the
steward quite as important a personage as the captain. The steward can
estimate to an egg how many eggs one thousand people will eat in six days.
Long experience has taught him that he will use eggs at the rate of two a
minute. Hence, whenever the hotel sets out to sea, the steward has a store
of not less than 17,000 eggs. With similar nicety he can estimate the
exact needs in the way of chickens, ducks, lobsters, crabs, oranges, and so
on through the bill of fare.

While in port the chief steward makes out his order for supplies, and
more than one caterer is necessary to fill his orders ; for here are requisi-
tions for food enough for 1,500 persons for two or three weeks — 20,000 to
30,000 pounds of meat, fifty to one hundred barrels of flour, five tons of
potatoes, 1,000 quarts of ice cream, etc. Seasonable products and provisions
of a perishable nature are purchased in whichever port the vessel happens to
be; meats, however, with most groceries and canned goods, are bought on
this side, together with many other things to eat, not only because they are
cheaper, but far better than on the other side. Wines and cigars, of course,
are always bought at the British end of the route. There is a fiction that
the track of ocean steamers could easily be traced by the champagne bottles
on the bottom of the sea ; but, as a matter of fact, every empty bottle is care-
fully garnered and resold to the dealers for whatever it will bring.

In a given time in a single ocean hotel more crockery and glassware is
smashed than in all the hotels on Broadway. The breakage aboard the
Philadelphia, for example, on a recent run from Southampton to New York,

THE CONDUCT OF A GREAT STEAMSHIP LINE 589

included 1,000 plates, 280 cups, 438 saucers, 1,213 tumblers, 200 wine
glasses, 27 decanters, and 63 water bottles — a breakage costing about $600
for the voyage, or $100 a day.

At sea, regardless of weather and wind and wave, the steward remains
simply a housekeeper in what is, to him, a rolling, pitching, tossing hotel.
His duties do not end with the mere supplying and serving of food and
drink. He must look after the comfort of more than a thousand guests —
in the first, second and third cabins. A passenger finds his hair mattress
too hard and asks for an air mattress, which the steward must supply. He
must have ready for a single passage 14,000 napkins and twice that number
of towels, as they will be called for. These first-class guests are paying each
an average of twenty dollars a day for their room and board, and they must
have each day twenty dollars' worth of food, comfort and attendance. To
meet the requirements of his position, the steward divides his hotel into
departments. He sometimes has a laundry where the towels, sheets, napkins,
and so on, are washed and dried by machinery, and ironed in a big machine
that looks like a printing-press. He has a printing-office, where are printed
the menus, the wine lists, and the programmes for the various concerts.
Sometimes one of these ocean hotel printing rooms turns out a neat little
newspaper daily, enterprising passengers furnishing the "copy."

The most important department under the steward is, of course, the
kitchen, or rather the kitchens. For, besides the main kitchens in the first
and second cabins and in the steerage, there are separate distributing kitchens
for the smoking-room, the ladies' cafe, and for meals served in room and
on deck. The chef, who is directly responsible to the steward, has under
him twenty to thirty cooks, two bakers and eight assistants, besides a num-
ber of dishwashers and special "hands," who prepare vegetables, open
oysters, and look after other minor details.

There is never a time in New York when there is not a dearth of stew-
ards, so far, at least, as ocean-going ships are concerned. New York
hotels, in an emergency, can go to a kind of headquarters maintained for
the purpose, and engage as many waiters as may be needed. Not so the
hotels of the sea. If the latter, at the last moment, carry an unexpected
number of guests, they must either borrow stewards from other ships or go
to sea short-handed. Occasionally, of course, qualified stewards can be
found in New York who have deserted their own ships or have come here,
thinking to better themselves. One would suppose that our coastwise
steamers would have produced a steward class from which liners could be
recruited. But we are cut off in this direction by the fact that the coast
steamers employ chiefly colored help, and to mix the crews of ocean pas-
senger steamers would mean the introduction of naval battles, as it were, in
the race war. The situation, therefore, compels the companies to see that
each ship from the European side of the water brings over enough stewards
for the expected number of passengers on the return voyage from New
York.

CHAPTER VIII
THE SEAMAN

The Education of the Navigator — Ships' Crews in the Merchant Marine — The Kind of
Men Who "Go to Sea" — The Life of a Sea-faring Man — Ships' Officers in the Mer-
chant Marine — Wages on American Vessels — The Sailor's Creature Comforts — Condi-
tions on American and Foreign Ships — The Hours of Labor on the Water — Method
of Employing Sailors — The Crimping System — Crews of Coasting Vessels — Crews of
Great Lake Vessels — Crews of Mississippi Craft — Seamen's Unions — Seamen's In-
stitutions

THE EDUCATION OF THE NAVIGATOR

THE life of a sailor has always been peculiar from the fact that the few-
est possible opportunities for advancement were available. A man
who has shipped before the mast has been doomed hitherto to occupy
a subordinate position, so long as he follows the sea; such promotions as
were possible to him being dependent rather on his reliability and other good
traits than on his knowledge of the theory and practice of navigation. Nor
could he obtain the instruction necessary to qualify him for promotion from
the forecastle, without interrupting the calling at which he earned his liveli-
hood, and attending some school ashore. Thus it is that many a man having
the natural capacities for the highest positions, had he a corresponding degree
of education, has remained a common seaman his life through, and ended
his days in the shelter of the Snug Harbor. Of course, in order to be-
come an officer on shipboard, a man must be educated to a high degree : in
other words, he must be a navigator, thoroughly familiar with several
branches of the higher mathematics, including astronomy, and an expert in
the use of ship's instruments. These subjects, difficult even to trained minds,
present an almost hopeless situation to the general run of seamen, whose
education has probably been limited to the "three r's" of the common school.
For the seaman, as for toilers in many another sphere, industry alone de-
termines the limits of advancement. No better opportunities were ever of-
fered to an ambitious seaman than are afforded at the present day, when
the awakening activity in founding and carrying out an extensive merchant
marine, as well as the numerous desirable positions made available by the
creation of the National Naval Reserve Corps, have produced a large and
constant demand for well-equipped navigators from every branch of the
naval service and from merchant vessels. Furthermore, a career in the
United States Navy is opened to competent enlisted men by the Act of Con-
gress authorizing the appointment of six ensigns yearly on successful com-

THE SEAMAN 591

petitive examination. On obtaining" such an appointment, the successful
candidate is in line for further promotion.

In order to acquire the knowledge essential to promotion, many young
men enroll as cadets or apprentices in the merchant marine, hoping to benefit
by the instruction of their superior officers in the mysteries of navigation.
This method, however, has proved none too rapid in the majority of cases,
since, unless specially paid for the work of teaching, few officers are willing
to devote the time that would be required for the work. The apprentice is
thus little better advantaged, except for occasional suggestions and explana-
tions, than the man who essays to struggle single-handed with the mys-
teries of logarithms, trigonometry and nautical astronomy. Few books,
moreover, are calculated to enable the novice to pursue his studies alone,
and without the supervision of a competent instructor. The same condi-
tions apply to men in the lake and coast service, in the navy and in the em-
ploy of the Lighthouse Board. In the last year or two, however, ex-
cellent courses in navigation, to be pursued and conducted by correspond-
ence, as the student-sailor moves around the world, have been offered by re-
liable institutions, which guarantee to lead the learner from the most rudi-
mentary principles to their most advanced applications, and at the same time
give him a thorough acquaintance with the most recent signal codes and
practical details of sailing. A sailor's life would seem to afford the leisure
necessary for the prosecution of such a line of study, and its inauguration
opens up new possibilities for the ambitious and earnest worker.

SHIP'S CREWS IN THE MERCHANT MARINE

One person out of every 750 of the earth's population earns a living from
the water. And those who earn a living thus range from an "admiral of the
blue," with thousands of fighting men under his command, to the bare-
footed boy who drives along the towpath of the Erie Canal the patient mule.
If numbers alone counted, the population of any one of the states of Georgia,
Iowa, or Wisconsin would suffice to man all the vessels afloat. Switzerland
has more souls than trust themselves to Providence to labor on the surface
or in the depth of all the waters of the globe, and the island of Manhattan
could at one time comfortably accommodate the population of the oceans,
lakes -and rivers, if the present tenants of its dwellings would make way for
the motley crews of earth.

Great Britain's navy is manned by about 90,000 men, and her merchant
fleets by about 250,000 men. Her merchant shipping at sea is about half
of the world's tonnage, and it is her aim to keep her navy equal to that of
three other powers in possible combination. At the same time all forms of
water transportation in the United States give employment to about 130,000
men.

But while only one person out of about every 750 of the world's popula-
tion is employed on the water, the men who go to sea are a oicked corps,
standing for more in the way of physical strength and endurance, courage,

592 WORKERS OF THE NATION

and the venturesome spirit which produces great results, than many times
this number who are content to remain on the solid ground.

First, those who go to sea are all men. The life seems to have little
temptations for women. Occasionally one reads of a Grace Darling, and,
in 1902, France was agitated over the project to secure a pension for a
brave old pilot-woman of St. Malo, a matelotte en jupon. Sometimes the
master of an American schooner takes his wife on a voyage, and on the two-
years' cruise of American whalers, it is not unusual for the master to take
his wife and daughter to give them a glimpse of the world. All the passen-
ger liners carry stewardesses, and especially on the great English and Ger-
man lines to Asia and Australia these positions are eagerly sought by
women of good education and breeding. Nevertheless, the water popula-
tion of the world is a male population.

Furthermore it is made up of men and boys in their physical prime.
Apprentices may be taken at twelve years of age on American merchant
ships, but the apprentice system is practically extinct. The boys who go to
sea are from fourteen to sixteen years, seeking this employment on their
own responsibility. From this age up to the period between twenty-five and
thirty, the number of those who live the sailor's life shows an unbroken in-
crease for each year of age.

Then begins a sharp decline. In a given number of seamen the num-
ber who are between thirty-five and forty is very much less than those be-
tween thirty and thirty-five. Over forty-five comparatively few remain in
the service except those who have attained officer's rank, and over fifty the
number shrinks to small proportions. The great majority of those who man
the world's ships are between twenty and thirty-five years of age, and the
average age of all is barely thirty years.

The causes are not recondite, though various. They are not to be found in
the dangers or physical discomforts of sea-faring, considerable as these are.
From the necessities of his employment, the man who goes to sea is almost
wholly barred from the comforts of domestic life. He may have a "sweet-
heart in every port," but a wife and a home with children are not usually
the important interests of the seaman as of the landsman. The rapid substi-
tution of steamers for sail vessels, the absorption of tramp steamers into
lines, and the regularity with which steamers now ply between fixed -termi-
nals have, however, worked great changes in this respect. His stay from
home will be longer, his intervals "about the house" less frequent, with the
sailor than with the railroad employe, but it is beginning to be possible for
the engineer or fireman on an ocean steamer to say that he will be back in
two weeks or three weeks, almost naming the hour of his return. A very
large proportion of the crews on British steamers which leave Southampton
for the United States or Africa are married men with little homes in the
suburbs, and the same domestic transition is in progress in the crews of
American coasting steamers. We have so few American steamers in foreign
trade that the change is not yet appreciable.

THE SEAMAN 593

Broadly speaking, however, a man must choose between a wife and home
or the sea, and at about the time of life at which he chooses the former, he
gives up the latter and turns his hand to some other method of earning a
living. With an officer this is not usually possible or indeed necessary. His
special training in navigation does not avail him in other pursuits and he
accordingly sticks to the sea. The men in the firerooms, who constitute the
majority of those who man the world's vessels can, however, readily obtain
employment and establish for themselves homes ashore. It is an undoubted
fact that labor on steamers is, as a rule, more grinding and monotonous,
though less perilous than on a sail vessel, yet there is relatively little com-
plaint of conditions on the former as compared with the latter. One reason
for this peculiar fact is undoubtedly the restraining and cheering influence
which domestic relations exert on the crews of steamers — an influence al-
most wholly wanting on the crews of square-rigged vessels.

THE KIND OF MEN WHO "Go TO SEA"

About half of those who go to sea are between twenty and thirty years of
age, and this is true of foreign as well as American vessels. The reason lies
close to the surface of things. At that time of life the spirit of restlessness,
the desire to change, to see the world, is strongest, and the ocean offers the
point of least resistance to these impulses. It is an interesting sociological
fact that in proportion there are more boys and young men under twenty-
five on square-rigged ships which visit remote ports than on the schooners
which sail up and down our coasts, and a greater proportion still in the deck
force of ocean steamers. The desire to move about, so strong in young man-
hood, naturally yields in time to the more settled purposes of life. By the
time a seaman is thirty-five, one of three things has occurred. He has
proved his aptitude for the sea and is standing, it may be at the foot, in the
line of promotion of a permanent career ; he has exhausted its novelties and
is ready to adopt the gregarious life of the multitude of men ashore, or he
has worn out ambition by the dissipations to which sea life is subject, and
remains afloat hopeless and discontented. The last named class is fortu-
nately as small in proportion to the total at sea as it is in any occupation
ashore. These observations apply especially to the deck force or sailors in
the old-fashioned meaning of the word.

Fully one-half of the world's crews of ocean vessels do their daily work
deep in the hold of the ship — in the engine-room, before the furnaces or at
the coal bunkers — and the percentage steadily increases. This great body of
men is the product, of course, of different influences, and works under dif-
ferent conditions from those which create and environ the force of sailo
proper. It is quite closely assimilated in the nature of its work w
large bodies of men employed in heavy manufacturing processes such
cruder forms of iron and steel.

7— Vol.

594 WORKERS OF THE NATION

THE LIFE OF A SEA-FARING MAN

The secretary of the Seamen's Union of the Pacific is Mr. Andrew
Furuseth, of San Francisco. In his youth he was an able seaman on sail-
ing vessels of various foreign nations, and also worked at times on American
vessels. About ten years ago he became the leader of the sailors' organiza-
tion at San Francisco. His views of sea life, accordingly, may be accepted
as representing the thoughts of many men on the sailing fleets of the world.
In the course of his testimony before the Industrial Commission at Washing-
ton, Mr. Furuseth said :

Now a boy may go to sea out of romance ; he may read Captain Marrayat and the rest
of the writers, and get into his head that he wants to be a sailor ; and he goes to sea and
makes one or two trips, and he finds out what the sea is, what kind of a life it is, what kind
of work he has to do, what kind of wages he is likely to receive when is a grown man, and
he says : "There is nothing in this for me," and he quits and looks around for something
else to do. And it is the same not only in the United States, but in other countries.

Norway used to furnish an enormous amount of seamen. When I first went to sea the
wages of the seamen in purchasing power were such that he was really better off than the
ordinary mechanic on shore. Ninety per cent of the men were married, and had little
homes of their own in the little gullies along the seacoast, or wherever they might happen
to be, and their homes were neater and usually a little better furnished than those of the
ordinary mechanic. Now, the condition of shore employment has increased in that coun-
try to such an extent that the standard of living of the shore mechanic has risen vastly
above that of the seaman, and the boy does not go to sea any more as he used to. The
Norwegian vessels are now very largely filled with Swedes and Finns.

A man can make more wages and be at home with his family, if he has one; or he can
afford to furnish himself with one and stay home and get better wages by working at some-
thing ashore. The boy who has the stuff in him to be a sailor must be healthy physically,
and must have a fair average intelligence, or else he is no good at sea; and in order that
he may remain at sea, or be willing to go to sea, the conditions of sea life must be such
as to give him the inducement, or at least give him the ability to live in the same way as
his neighbors do. Now sea life will not do it.

There is much less drunkenness among sailors than is commonly supposed. People
ashore are inclined to say that any man they see drunk around the water front of a seaport
city is a sailor. In a majority of cases he is not. The sailor goes ashore and looks
around; he goes into the employment offices and other places to find out whether there is
anything else to do, and if there is any work on shore he is glad to quit the sea. He be-
comes a bridge builder ; he becomes an architectural iron worker. I suppose that seventy-
five per cent of the architectural iron workers in New York, Philadelphia, Boston and
Chicago were sailors. Or the sailor becomes a bridge builder on the railways ; or a grip-
man on the street cars. Going to sea, he learns certain things ; he learns to keep his head
cool and his feet warm, as we call it at sea; to have his presence of mind with him. He
works with both hands ; or he steadies himself with one hand, works with the other, and
balances his body with his feet. And all the time he thinks. If he cannot do that he is
no good at sea ; he is a burden on the vessel instead of a really efficient man.

Well, a man who becomes accustomed to that — to think and work at the same time —
receives a certain training that makes him a valuable man in other employments, particularly
in such employment as street cars. It is very much like the steering of a vessel ; very much
like it. And so it is with all kinds of work in a vessel, where you must use your hands
and your brain and meet new conditions all the time. The real training of the sailor con-
sists in these things, and that makes him capable of doing other work. He comes ashore
in New York and he finds that architectural iron workers get $3.50 a day, and he gets em-
ployment among them, and he says, "Good-by, Sea ; I am done with you."

An "able seaman" is a healthy man in his active years, who has received the peculiar
training that makes it possible for him to apply his wits to conditions as they come. The
Seaman's Union desires a law providing that an able seaman must be more than eighteen
years of age, and must have three years' experience at sea.

THE SEAMAN 595

SHIP'S OFFICERS IN THE MERCHANT MARINE

rith the sudden and rapid increase in the number of great ocean grey-
hounds, the steamship companies have not found it easy to secure a suffi-
cient number of "ready-made" deck officers. The American line began train-
ing cadets on the New York, the Philadelphia, the St. Paul, and the St.
Louis, and its other regular steamers, and from the ranks of these fifty young-
men, always on duty, officers will probably be chosen for the company's new
ships.

Meanwhile, the North German Lloyd Company hit upon a plan of train-
ing its own cadets on a ship devoted to this special purpose. The manage-
ment selected a large sailing ship, and fitted her as a training school for
deck officers of the line. From this ship, therefore, will graduate the future
commanders of the Bremen fleet.

In selecting a sailing vessel as a cadet school-ship, the argument was the
same as that put forward by the Navy Department of the United States,
namely : that on a sail vessel a youth acquires courage, quickness of percep-
tion, rapidity of execution, and bodily vigor to a greater degree than on a
steam practice-ship. The company further determined to combine the com-
mercial with the educational, thrift with science; therefore the vessel se-
lected was one with a carrying capacity sufficient to pay her own way about
the world — the Her so gin Sophie Charlotte, four-masted bark, of steel, 276
feet long and 43 feet beam; her depth 25 feet and her gross tonnage 2,395.

"To gain admission to the ship," says an official of the company," the
youth must have attended school in Germany and have graduated with a
diploma giving him the privilege of serving only one year in the German
army. About fifty cadets are admitted each year, and the course lasts three
years. During the first year the cadet is classed as a boy, the following year
he is graded as a seaman, and after two years of satisfactory service be-
comes an able seaman. At the close of the third year the cadet is transferred
to one of the steamships of the company, and there performs the duty of
quartermaster. At the close of this period afloat the cadet is admitted to
the school of navigation at Bremen for a four-months' course of study. He
is then eligible for the examination for mate, and if successful is appointed
a fourth officer on one of the North German Lloyd steamships. It has been
the experience of the company, that a more desirable class of officers is se-
cured in this way than could be had by the old haphazard process of selection
from apprentices of the regular merchant marine."

The source of supply of officers for the American merchant fleets of the
future is a serious problem. On our square-rigged merchant ships less than
5,000 men are now employed. More than half of these are foreigners, who,
under our laws, are not eligible to be captains or watch officers of American
vessels. By co-operation of the Federal and State Governments several
school ships have been maintained for some years with varying degrees of
success. It is probable that in a few years several of the principal American

596 WORKERS OF THE XATIOX

steamship companies will find it to their interest to follow the example of
the North German Lloyd, and buy and maintain a large square-rigged ship
as a training school for their future officers.

WAGES ON AMERICAN VESSELS

To compensate for its perils the seafaring life offers a regularity and
continuity of employment such as is afforded by few other occupations. It
is to a great extent the seaman's own fault if he does not obtain full ten
months' steady employment out of every twelve. His pay begins from the
time he appears on board and is continuous until the vessel has returned
home from a foreign port and he is discharged. Pay and provisions con-
tinue while the ship is in a foreign port. On the return home at the end of
the voyage the seaman is usually discharged, and remains without pay until
the ship is again ready to sail. Some steamers remain at the home port only
three or four days, so that during a year from five to six weeks' labor is thus
necessarily lost. Again, every well-managed vessel has its annual overhaul
and repairs, which may take two or three weeks more, when the services of
the crew are not required.

The average pay on American vessels, including men in all the many
ratings is a trifle over $36 a month, or for ten months, $360 — a dollar a day
the year round. Out of this pay the sailor must clothe himself, but his
needs in this respect are modest, though requiring the best of materials.
The charitably inclined in this and other countries have devised various and
successful plans for the improvement of the sailor's conditions. Singularly
enough, however, this matter of clothing has not received the attention it
deserves. Some of the large steamship companies in this and other coun-
tries require uniforms, which are made of good materials and may be bought
at fixed prices at regular establishments. Often, however, the seaman's
"tailor" sells him shoddy at exorbitant prices, or makes a pretended sale
of clothing the occasion for plunder. The law of the United States under-
takes to protect the sailor by requiring the master of every vessel to carry
a supply of clothing which is to be sold to seamen on board at a profit of
not over ten per cent on the wholesale price of the articles.

Besides his clothing, the sailorman, out of his $360 a year, must meet
his expenses ashore during the intervals, aggregating about two months,
when he is not employed. He may, of course, during these periods obtain
odd jobs ashore, if he so desires, but such work is not usual. The incidental
expenses for tobacco, for visits ashore in foreign parts, for charity — a con-
siderable item — will draw upon the total of $360, according to the tastes of
the individual.

THE SAILOR'S CREATURE COMFORTS

From the time he goes on board until he is discharged at the home port,
the sailor receives his meals at the expense of the ship. In the American
merchant marine a bill of fare is fixed by law, and for any deviation from

THE SEAMAN 597

this bill, without the sailor's consent, the owner becomes liable to a heavy
penalty. This bill of fare was prepared by a body of Marine Hospital sur-
geons in 1898, and besides the staple articles of sea food, includes fresh
bread instead of hard-tack, canned fruits and vegetables, coffee, tea and
sugar ; in shcrt, it is designed to satisfy amply all the cravings of a healthy
appetite. In this respect, as in many others, seamen on American vessels are
much better cared for than on foreign vessels. In the quantity of food
alone, the American bill of fare is double the British bill of fare, and in
variety it surpasses both the British and German menus.

Of course, the workingman on shipboard has no rent to pay. His
quarters are not spacious, but they are regulated by law. They must be
"securely constructed, properly lighted, drained, heated and ventilated,
properly protected from weather and sea, and, as far as practicable, shut
off from the effluvium of cargo or bilge water."

If the sailor is injured or taken ill in the performance of his duty, the
ship is legally bound to take care of him during the voyage. If, from
these causes it becomes necessary to discharge him in a foreign port, the
Treasury of the United States pays to bring him home, and in our own
country Marine Hospitals, maintained at an annual cost of nearly $1,000,-
ooo, undertake to restore him to health.

Out of his $360 a year on the average, the seaman can save $250, and
that amount is more than whole families have to show for a year's work
after meeting necessary expenses.

All the maritime nations have a law under which contracts between a
master of a vessel and the crew for service on shipboard must be made in the
presence of an officer of that Government — a shipping commissioner. It is
thus possible to keep an official record in the various ports of wages paid
to men in the various ratings on board of ships of different countries.

CONDITIONS ON AMERICAN AND FOREIGN SHIPS

The most interesting phase of the wage question in the merchant marine
is that the rate of pay on American vessels is considerably higher than on
foreign vessels. The most important labor factor in modern ocean naviga-
tion is the force in the stokehole. The usual rate of pay for a fireman on
an American vessel is from $30 to $45 a month. On a British steamer of
exactly the same size and for exactly the same work, the firemen receive only
$19 to $24. It should be emphasized that for twice the amount of pay the
fireman on an American vessel does not do twice the amount of work per-
formed by his brother in the stokehole of a British vessel. Each handles
substantially the same amount of coal under substantially the same con-
ditions. Physical endurance is the quality most required in this form of
labor, and there is little or no chance for the display of mental qualities.

These general statements regarding firemen do not hold good where
steamers remain for a long time in tropical waters. Ships plying between
Europe or the United States and Hong Kong and other ports in southern

598 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Asia, for instance, do not employ Caucasians as firemen. The white man
has not the physical endurance necessary to shovel coal for hours at a time
in the firerooms of a steamer making voyages covering a period of many
weeks in the tropics. Regardless of nationality, regardless of the flag that
flies from their stern, merchant steamers in the southern Asiatic service em-
ploy either Chinese or Lascars as stokers. About 700 Chinese are thus em-
ployed on American steamers, while the trade of Great Britain with the
Orient is so great that her ships employ 36,000 Lascars and Chinese alone.

The pay of engineers in merchant vessels varies according to the degree
of responsibility, the size and power of the engines, the number of engineers,
and oftentimes with the length of service of the engineer himself. Individual
efficiency, too, is an important consideration in determining pay. Engineers
hold their berths, therefore, on a kind of merit system. It is generally
agreed that American and English engineers on shipboard are of equal
efficiency. And yet, for precisely the same qualities, same intelligence and
same service, American engineers are paid a much higher rate of wages than
their British cousins. A first engineer of a merchant vessel under the Stars
and Stripes receives $125 per month, while a first engineer in the British
merchant marine is paid only $87 a month. The same with the second en-
gineers, the pay on Yankee vessels being $75 a month, on an English ship
only $60 a month.

In the case of mates and able seamen on steamers, here again far better
wages are paid in the American service than in the British. The usual pay
of a first mate on board an American steamer is $75 a month. The same
officer on an English steamer is paid $55. Second mates, American, $50;
second mates, English, $38; able seamen American, $25, the same in En-
glish ships, $21.

Even in sailing vessels the American owner is much more liberal on
pay day than the master of an English ship. First mates on American
sailers get $45 a month; on English sailers, only $34; second mates, Ameri-
can, $35 ; the same on English sailing vessels only $23 ; able seamen, Ameri-
can, $25; able seamen, British, only $14. So while the average American,
taking into account all ratings, may hope to earn about $360 a year, the
average seaman on a British vessel will not earn over $250, and the man
who serves on a German vessel is fortunate if his wages for the year reach
$200. Norwegian, Italian and Dutch vessels pay about the same wages as
the Germans.

The difference in wages becomes all the more noticeable by a glance at
the complete pay rolls of three transatlantic mail steamers of different na-
tionalities, but nearly equal size and speed. Take for example such steam-
ers as the American St. Paul, the British Oceanic and the German Kaiser
Wilhelm der Grosse. It must be pointed out, first that the St. Paul is
smaller than the two foreign ships and that her engines are of only two-
thirds the horsepower of the others. Hence the St. Paul burns less coal
and requires a smaller crew than either of the foreigners. Excluding

THE SEAMAN 599

masters and their salaries the St. Paul carries a pay roll of 380 men, with
total wages amounting to $11,300; the Oceanic carries 427 men, total
wages, $9,900; and the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, 500 men, with total
wages of, $7,700. If these three steamers were exactly alike, were three
Oceanics, for instance, carrying the same number of men performing identi-
cally the same service, the one flying the English flag would have a monthly
pay roll as now of $9,900; and the pay roll of the one flying the flag of
Germany would amount to only $6,800, while the paymaster on board the
American ship would divide $12,500 among the crew. The moral is that
of all the jack tars in the merchant marine of the earth, sailing under what-
ever flag, the officers and seamen serving under the Stars and Stripes are
the best paid.

THE HOURS OF LABOR ON THE WATER

At sea, the day's work is divided into watches, of four hours each, except
the hours between 4 p. M. and 8 p. MV divided into two dog watches of two
hours each. The day's labor thus consists of twelve hours, four hours of
watchfulness and work, alternating with four hours of rest. - The dog
watches, of course, serve to shift the actual hours of work on alternate days.
Without them, for example, the same man would always be on duty from
4 A. M. until 8 A. M., and so on. By means of the dog watch one day he
works those hours, the next day rests. The rule before the furnaces for fire-
men and trimmers or coal passers is different. Their work is the most ardu-
ous and monotonous on shipboard. While the work on deck is of almost
infinite variety, is performed in the fresh air, and usually with the stimulus
of sunshine and the motion of the ship, in the fireroom the unchanging task
is to dump coal and deliver it over the grates, performed, too, in a high tem-
perature in spite of the best appliances for supplying fresh air. Here the
rule is four hours on duty and eight hours' rest, so that the day's labor
consists of eight hours. In this time, however, each fireman or trimmer
handles on the average about three tons of coal. In voyages to equatorial
climates the average is about two and a half tons.

METHOD OF EMPLOYING SAILORS

The conditions surrounding the employment of seamen have always been
subject to exceptional laws and peculiar customs. Even during the Na-
poleonic wars the sailors for His Majesty's Navy were recruited by "press
gangs" who seized sailors and some who were not and carried them bodily
aboard the fleets which fought Aboukir, Copenhagen and Trafalgar. The
United States went to war with England in 1812 to resent the practice fol-
lowed by British men-of-war of boarding American merchantmen and
forcibly removing seamen claimed to be British subjects, and the treaty of
peace left unsettled the matter of impressment. By France and Germany
service at sea is accepted as a substitute for compulsory military service.

Out of the "press gang" grew the so-called "crimping system" in the

600 WORKERS OF THE NATION

world's merchant navies. In the days of sailing ships, seamen were ashore
so long that they usually ran more or less in debt in the intervals between
voyages, and boarding-house keepers, seeking to make the most from this
temporary sojourn, resorted to every device to swell this debt. The sailor
thus went to sea with a large part of his future wages mortgaged, for the
boarding-house keeper would prevent his departure until the money to pay
the debt had been advanced by the ship on which he was to serve. So gen-
eral was this practice in both the navy and the merchant marine that until
a few years ago the salary of a British naval officer, though paid after it
had been fully earned, was still called his "advance."

Between the boarding-house keeper on the one hand and the ship desir-
ing a crew, on the other, grew up a class of intermediaries in all maritime
countries, whose profit was made out of supplying seamen from boarding-
houses to vessels.

THE CRIMPING SYSTEM

The crimp has been broadly defined as a trafficker in seamen. When
the business is conducted respectably the crimp or shipping agent undertakes
to supply a crew or part of a crew to the master of a vessel, and charges the
master a stated sum for his services in bringing the men to the vessel. In
practice the crimp usually undertakes to obtain from the seaman himself as
large a sum as possible for obtaining him employment, taking his pay in
the form of an allotment note to be almost immediately cashed, payable out
of the wages which the seaman is yet to earn.

The maximum allotment now allowed in the United States is one
month's wages on very long voyages — as from the Atlantic to the Pacific, or
vice versa — while for shorter voyages the allotment is graded on a diminish-
ing scale, according to week's and day's wages. The crimps have resorted to
two devices in attempting to evade this provision of law. In some in-
stances they have endeavored to bring about a nominal increase in seamen's
wages and in others to bring about a reduction in those wages in order to
extract from seamen sums as great as formerly. The former method was
abandoned after short and unsuccessful trials, and the latter method is em-
ployed at present where evasion is attempted. In its original form the
plan adopted by the crimps was substantially as follows :

The monthly wages of the seaman for this example may be taken at
$20, and the voyage from the Atlantic coast to Europe, for which the allot-
ment can not exceed fifteen days' wages, or ten dollars. The crimp, desiring
to obtain more than this sum, induces the seaman to ship for the first month
at $i or $2, and for each month after the first at the regular wages of $20,
the voyage in fact being ended in the first month. The difference between
the full month's wages of twenty dollars and the nominal wages, one dollar
or two dollars, is pocketed by the crimp. The scheme would require the
connivance of the seaman himself, the master or owner, and the officer of
the government, United States shipping commissioner or foreign consul,

THE SEAMAN 601

before whom articles are signed. It was, of course, promptly checked as
soon as attempted in the case of American vessels. It was continued for
some time, however, in the case of British vessels, but instructions were
issued by the British Foreign Office which put an end to the practice where
it was likely to become most prevalent.

What has thus far been accomplished has been done gradually and with-
out any disturbance of trade, so far as is known. Testimony as to the im-
proved conditions under the new law is general, and no complaints have
been received from the owners or masters of vessels, who seem, as a rule,
disposed to promote the enforcement of the allotment law. There have been
complaints in the mercantile-marine press of Great Britain as to the opera-
tions of the law on the Pacific Coast in the case of British vessels. It has
been alleged, and is probably true, that crimps on the Pacific Coast have
charged British shipmasters sixty and seventy dollars a man to furnish
crews for British vessels. Wages in the United States and on American
vessels are so much higher than on British vessels that there is a temptation
for the British seaman to desert in the United States.

More potent than any law in checking the evils of the crimping system
has been the change from sail vessels to steamers and the regularity which
it has introduced into all forms of maritime life. The great majority of men
employed on ocean liners ship for another voyage as soon as one has been
completed, and thus remain in the constant service of the same employer
throughout the year. The crimp's opportunity depended chiefly on the long
and irregular sojourn in port of sail vessels. But since 1890 the tonnage of
the world's seagoing sail craft has decreased from 9,000,000 to about 6,000,-
ooo tons, while the tonnage of steamers has increased from 13,000,000 to
26,000,000 tons.

CREWS OF COASTING VESSELS

While, generally speaking, more than 60 per cent of the crews of
American vessels are foreigners, in the coasting trade American citizens are
probably in a majority. This is probably due to the fact that coasting voy-
ages as a rule are short and do not interfere so much with domestic life.
Then, too, coasting voyages are often to ports of the Southern States where
colored men perform the bulk of the labor. They make up a considerable
portion of the crews of schooners, and on steamers they often serve as
stewards, firemen and coal passers. In the early days of the Republic,
when the law required the greater part of the crews of American vessels to
be citizens, an exception was made in favor of the negro, and some of that
race served with credit under John Paul Jones and in the naval battles of
the War of 1812. The race, however, does not endure very cold weather,
and its employment is accordingly restricted, though not by law. The
British law forbids the employment of Lascars, who are accustomed to the
mild climate of India, north of the thirty-fifth parallel of north latitude.
Within the last few years a considerable Spanish element has served as fire-

602 WORKERS OF THE NATION

men on American coasting steamers. Many of these were Spanish miners
who were thrown out of employment by the closing of the Cuban iron
mines during the years of trouble in that island, and others have from time
to time left Spanish steamers, which American steamers are supplanting in
the trade of the West Indies and the Gulf of Mexico.

In the coasting trade men are employed by the month. The shipping
articles, however, stipulate that they are engaged for the voyage. They
have the right to leave at any port. With the sailor's right to leave at any
port is attached the company's right of dismissal. The seaman must quit
immediately on the arrival of the vessel at a port, if he wishes to leave the
boat there. If he continues working till the ship is about to sail, he is
deemed to have shipped for the next voyage.

In the way of discipline there is, in case of wrong-doing, first a warn-
ing, next a suspension, and, lastly, dismissal. There is a method of appeal
in case the seaman thinks himself unjustly treated. He is furnished with a
copy of the entry made in the log book. His defence is then entered in the
book, and complete record of the affair is thus secured. Masters are re-
quired by the companies to see that the dismissal power is not used without
good cause, and that the offender shall have a reasonable chance to return to
the port from which he sailed.

CREWS OF LAKE VESSELS

The officers and crews of steamers on the Great Lakes are a very su-
perior class of men. As to the commanders, they are nearly all American-
born. With hardly an exception they have worked their way up from the
lower ranks of the service. They have comfortable homes in the Lake cities,
in which they spend their three months' vacation, when navigation is in-
terrupted by ice. A few passengers are carried, and occasionally the com-
mander will take his wife with him on his trips. These commanders are
fortunate in their employers. Several of the large fleet owners were mas-
ters of Lake vessels. They know every phase of the service, and can appreci-
ate good work. Prizes are offered by some of the ship-operating companies
for captains who are the most free from accidents, and who show the most
economy and proficiency in the service. Handsome uniforms are usually
provided for the officers. The Lake service is benefited by the prevailing
custom of engaging or "shipping" sailors. These men do not contract for a
single voyage, but rather for the whole season, on good conduct.

CREWS OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER CRAFT

Although the officers of Mississippi boats are all white men, the labor
is all negro. White men do not stand the roustabout's work very well.
The negroes are paid good wages. There are mixed crews on the upper
rivers, or even crews made up altogether of white men. But not on the
lower river. The men making up the crews get from $30 to $40 a month.

In the packet trade, the conditions are different, and the crews earn from

THE SEAMAN 603

$40 to $110 a month. There is a difference in nomenclature between the
upper and lower rivers. The men are called "deck-hands" in the North, and
roustabouts in the South. The roustabout is a happy-go-lucky individual,
with strong objections to saving money. He changes his boat at every
chance. Petty gambling, called craps, is his favorite occupation. This
game is prohibited in Louisiana, without much effect on the practice. Three
or four men will have all the money of the whole crew shortly after the
wages are paid, as they are entering port. The roustabouts include in their
number no old men nor weaklings. The steamboat men try to better the
conditions of the hands with little avail. The men will not use the mess-
room tables, for instance, with knives and forks, tin plates and cups. But
they prefer to have the food served in a dishpan on the deck, and to help
themselves with their fingers, which recalls the old saying that "ringers
were made before forks." Neither will the roustabouts make use of the
proper sleeping quarters. They like to dodge work when a landing is to
be made, so they will hide among the freight and sleep there, or even be-
neath the boilers, where a white man would roast. As these men are an
absolute necessity their peculiarities are overlooked.

SEAMEN'S UNIONS

There have been organizations of the seamen on the Lakes with short
intermissions, since 1868; on the Pacific Coast since 1885; and on the At-
lantic Coast since 1890. In 1892 the local unions were organized into an in-
ternational union, and were affiliated with the American Federation of
Labor. The membership is nearly 5,000. The general objects are to im-
prove the condition of the seamen, industrially and socially, and to improve
the maritime law. There is a funeral benefit for the burial of dead mem-
bers, and in case of shipwreck and loss of clothing the organization pays a
sum not exceeding $50 to buy a new outfit. The three local organizations,
on the Lakes, on the Atlantic and on the Pacific, deal with matters of wages
each for itself. There is a national card transferrable from one local union
to another, and men engaged in the Lake trade can pass to either of the
ocean organizations, and vice versa. There is no travelling benefit. There
are no rules as to apprenticeship. The national body has had four con-
ventions. The convention formulates a legislative programme, and gives
instructions to the legislative committees; but there is full co-operation
between the legislative committees and the executive committees.

SEAMEN'S INSTITUTIONS

The sailor's separation from religious life is almost as complete as from
domestic life. While on many of the great passenger liners religious exer-
cises at which the crew may attend are held on Sunday, still the seaman has
little acquaintance with the "sky-pilot," as the clergyman or priest is dubbed
at sea. In all the great ports of the world religious organizations maintain
missions for seamen which, as a rule, perform practical work. Government

604 WORKERS OF THE NATION

enterprise and private philanthropy were never more active than at present
for the good of seamen. The Government of the United States in this re-
spect especially is an example to civilized nations. Though our sea-inter-
ests are relatively small, the United States spends more money to promote
safety of life on the water than does any other Power. The annual expendi-
ture of about $1,000,000 for maintaining Marine Hospitals has been men-
tioned. Besides that, about $1,500,000 is devoted annually to the Life Sav-
ing Service, which every year rescues hundreds of lives and millions of
property from destruction, and warns hundreds of vessels away from threat-
ening perils. The coasts of the United States are lighted at an annual cost
of about $4,000,000. For river and harbor improvements on alternate years
the appropriations of Congress range from $20,000,000 to $40,000,000, and
promise soon to reach $60,000,000. All these great annual expenditures are
met by the American people directly, for the only national charges on ship-
ping are the tonnage taxes, which amount to less than a million dollars
annually. Private and religious beneficence assumes manifold forms both
here and abroad in the sailor's interest. The Sailor's Snug Harbor, at New
York, is one of the best-known institutions of its kind in the world.

CHAPTER IX

PILOTS, DIVERS, LONGSHOREMEN, AND EXPRESS

SERVICE

Pilots and Their Organization — The Pilot at Sea — The Pilot's Power and His Fees —
Divers — Equipment and Methods of Divers — Pearl Divers— Stevedores and Longshore-
men—Longshoremen on the Great Lakes — The Express Service — Employment as
Express Agents — Expressing Money and Perishable Goods

PILOTS AND THEIR ORGANIZATION

TO BE a pilot a man must serve, first, two years before the mast, then
six years as an apprentice on a pilot-boat, then one or two years as
a pilot with an eighteen-foot license, allowing him to pilot boats of
a draught not exceeding eighteen feet ; then one or two years with a twenty-
two-foot license. Usually twelve years pass before a pilot gets a full license.
Two or three rooms on an upper floor of a State Street office building —
sitting-room, dining-room, library — this is the clubhouse of New York's
one hundred and six pilots. A telephone wire connects it with the Pilot
Commissioners' office upstairs, where a big blackboard is covered with the
names of pilots. In the morning the pilot looks at the board. If his name
is far down the list he knows he can safely return to his home, as he will
not have to go to sea that day. If his name is half-way down the board, he
does not go more than one hour from the building — his turn may come be-
fore the day is over. If his name is near the top of the board, he may be
called any minute. He may possibly get as far away from the board as the
clubroom downstairs, but even here he keeps an ear on the telephone. So
the Pilots' Club is a sort of greenroom, where the pilots await their turn on
the marine stage. The club is, of course, only to promote social welfare.
The business end of the pilots' co-operative scheme is the United New York
and Sandy Hook Pilots' Benevolent Organization, incorporated in 1896.
This association works under the Pilot Commissioners, as a body, just as
the pilots used to, individually. The five commissioners are officers of the
State of New York. Three are members of the Chamber of Commerce,
and two are officials of the marine insurance companies.

In the old days it was each pilot for himself and poverty for the hind-
most. In those days, on shore or at sea, the pilot, like an actor or a free
lance reporter, had to hustle for an engagement or assignment. At sea,
he who first sighted a ship got the job. When a very big steamer was
expected, he thought nothing of going as far as the Banks of Newfoundland

(605)

6o6 WORKERS OF THE NATION

in order to be the first to sight the greyhound. Sometimes two pilot-boats
sighted a vessel at the same time, and then — what a race! On shore, the
pilot had to go from captain to captain, office to office, till he got a vessel
to take out. And when at last he did go out, his coming in was a matter
of any time from a day to a month or more.

To-day, pilots are not competitors. That he will get a boat is no longer
a pilot's chance, but a certainty. Every one of the one hundred and six
New York pilots, in turn, gets an "out" boat, and then an "in" boat. In-
stead of each pilot pocketing the entire fee, as in the old days, the fees are
pooled and, after expenses are paid, the profits are divided among all. It
no longer matters whether a pilot gets a large steamer or a small one, a
liner or a tramp — he makes just as much for himself.

THE PILOT AT SEA

Now with these friends of Neptune let us go to sea. Off a point of
Staten Island, not far from Quarantine, we board our ninety-foot pilot boat.
Up goes the mainsail, out spreads the figure i. The wind fills the sail, and
Number One, with six pilots aboard, starts east'ard toward the Sandy Hook-
Lightship.

Now we pass the "station boat," the New York, first and only steamer
owned by Sandy Hook pilots, stationed there permanently to take off pilots
from outgoing vessels. We arrive at our station, just east of Sandy Hook
Lightship. We are now one of a string of pilot-boats — three east'ard along
the Long Island shore, three south'ard along the Jersey shore.

In addition to tl}e one hundred and six Sandy Hook pilots, there are
forty Jersey pilots. The Jersey boats — which hail all vessels from South-
ern ports — are stationed, one off Scotland Lightship, one off Barnegat,
twenty miles away, and one half-way between the two. The Long Island
boats — which pick up European vessels — are stationed, one off Sandy Hook
Lightship, one off Fire Island, twenty miles away, and one half-way between
the two. And between the two lightships, which are perhaps twenty miles
apart, is the steam pilot-boat New York. Draw a line from Fire Island on
the east to Barnegat on the south, and you have a crescent sixty miles long
patrolled by seven pilot-boats, one of them the steamer at the mouth of the
harbor, the other six being sailers. The vessel that tries to pass this cordon
of boats must be very cunning and very swift. But even if a vessel gets
by the pilot-boats, and comes into the harbor, her commander or owner
will have to pay the pilotage just the same. For the only vessels which, by
law, are not obliged to take a pilot or to pay pilot fees are private yachts,
coastwise vessels from American ports, and United States ships of war.

The three boats on stations between Sandy Hook and Fire Island work
this way : The Fire Island boat puts out all her pilots first. When empty
of pilots she starts for New York for a fresh load, notifying the boat half-
way between Fire Island and Sandy Hook that the Fire Island station is
vacant. The boat so notified moves out to Fire Island, the Sandy Hook boat

PILOTS, DIVERS, AND LONGSHOREMEN 607

sails up to the midway station, and a new boat comes on at Sandy Hook.
The operation is like a class of boys at school, the Fire Island boat being at
the head of the class, and the Sandy Hook boat at the foot : when the head
boy goes away, the others move up. So we are now at the foot of the class,
at Sandy Hook.

As night approaches, a passing pilot-boat signals that she is empty of
pilots, that she is on her way to New York, and our boat must move on to
the midway station.

All night long our boat cruises up and down the midway station like
a sentinel on his beat. Every fifteen minutes we burn a huge torch, for
whom it might concern — somewhat for the same reason that a night watch-
man records his rounds by pushing a button of an electric indicator.

The next morning we move on to our third and last station. Here the
real work begins. With spyglass to eye, one captain or another — all pilots
are captains — scan the horizon. We have not long to wait, for ships arrive
at the port of New York at the rate of one hundred a week, or fourteen or
fifteen a day.

THE PILOT'S POWER AND His FEES

Aboard ship a pilot is in supreme power, unless a captain happens to
choose to take his ship in himself. On such rare occasions, instead of re-
taining his post by force and coming to blows, the pilot steps to one side,
and then the whole responsibility rests upon the captain, just as at sea.
Only with the captain instead of the pilot in command, if an accident hap-
pens, the owners will not get one cent of insurance. The pilot, on the
other hand, is the representative of the marine insurance companies and
acts for them. When a ship comes to grief with a pilot at the helm, the
insurance holds good.

As a rule, ship captains sigh with relief when the pilot steps on the
bridge. He has brought his ship through a hurricane, perhaps, but the
placid waters of a harbor, which to the passenger seem so harmless, are full
of menace and terrors for the captain. The passenger finds it hard to
realize the presence of dangers he can not see ; but the captain knows there
are rocks and bars unseen beneath those waters. The pilot knows the
geography of that unseen harbor bed, knows it as if he had traversed every
inch of it in a diver's suit. That's what he was learning during those
twelve years of probation, and that's why his services are worth something
like from thirty to forty dollars an hour. The charge for pilotage is ac-
cording to the vessel's draught. The Denitschland, of the Hamburg- Ameri-
can Line, for example, draws thirty feet, at $4.88 a foot. In winter, four
dollars extra is added to the total charge. It should be added that the out-
ward rate is less than the inward ; the Deutschland, for instance, going out
is charged only $106.80, or at the rate of only $3.56 per foot of draught,
while the total charge for bringing her in is $146.40.

Sometimes on outgoing vessels the pilot misses the take-off boat, and

6o8 WORKERS OF THE NATION

he is carried to sea, willy-nilly, and has to make the voyage to Europe and
back, the owner of the vessel carrying him having to pay $100 per month
for the time he is away from New York. Again, when a vessel is detained,
with a pilot, at Quarantine, or by ice, the owners must pay the pilot three
dollars a day during detention.

DIVERS

There is something weird and fascinating, if not uncanny, to the average
person in the work of the submarine diver. Probing the mysteries of
sunken ships, rescuing property, and often establishing the identity of the
dead, the diver is clothed with a certain attraction and interest. His work
is, of course, very hazardous. Yet the applications for employment in this
industry are always numerous. There are plenty of men who are willing
to risk their lives for money. The main difficulty is to select those who
may develop skill in the business. When the Brooklyn Bridge caissons were
sunk, several workmen lost their lives. This did not deter men from apply-
ing for work in sinking the caissons of the second East River bridge. These
men had to work in air-tight chambers for about $1.75 to $2.75 a clay. The
working day was eight hours at the start, and six when a depth of over
fifty-five feet was reached. These men, digging dirt or shovelling con-
crete at a depth of from seventy-five to one hundred feet, must have cool
heads and good judgment. The submarine worker is greatly assisted by
modern improvements. Electric lights are a great advantage in caisson
work, and telephonic communication is of great use. The ventilation sys-
tem has been vastly improved.

Of course, the diver considers himself a peg above a caisson worker.
Unlike the caisson worker, the diver must be a skilled mechanic. Be-
sides his pluck and courage and iron nerve, he must be enough of a mechanic
to take apart and rescue a ship's fittings, and to raise the ship, if required.
The diver can work safely at a depth of 120 feet, but the pressure is enor-
mous. The average depth of the waters in New York Harbor is sixty
feet, although work has been done in Hell Gate at a depth of one hundred
feet. The diver's work day is about one-half as long as that of the caisson
workman; but the diver works alone, with no companionship. If divers
worked together there would be danger of the entanglement of the air and
signal tubes. Under present conditions the work has been rendered com-
paratively safe, when its nature is considered. There are very few losses
of life. Probably there are one hundred divers in New York, and of these
many have been at work at their trade for twenty-five years.

The deep-sea divers, again, consider themselves of a higher class than
those who work in rivers or along the coast. Their pay is much higher.
They receive great shocks by coming into contact with dead bodies, but
even to this horror they become inured in time. Divers state that as a
rule corpses of drowned people are found floating against the ceiling, and
not sitting or standing in natural attitudes. There is danger, in some lati-

PILOTS, DIVERS, AND LONGSHOREMEN 609

tudes, from sharks. If a school of these man-eaters arrives on the scene,
the diver is in a dilemma whether to stay below or to come to the surface.
If he stays below the sharks may snap the air-hose. If he comes up, he may
arrive in time to get killed or wounded by one of them.

A narrow escape was that of a diver who was employed to put some
copper plates on the bottom of a steamer which lay in tide-water. After he
had passed beneath the bottom of the ship, the tide changed, and the vessel
was left almost on the ground, shutting off the supply of air by pressing
against the hose. The ship rose almost instantly, but for an instant the
diver was in deadly peril. Several weeks' illness and a partial deafness fol-
lowed this experience. Some divers are superstitious, and refuse to handle
dead bodies. It has been said by divers, especially those working in tropi-
cal waters, that the bottom of the sea is often beautiful. There are forests
of kelp and seaweed, waving with the tide. There are bright colored fish,
inquisitively examining the diver, as if to ask the reason of his presence
in those depths.

EQUIPMENT AND METHODS OF DIVERS

A glance at the equipment and methods which make submarine diving
safe may be of interest. There have been devised from time to time in the
past all sorts of diving bells and pumps. But the Augustus Siebe apparatus
is the foundation of the present diving suit. This equipment is in two parts.
There is, first, the metal helmet. The rest of the body is covered by a dress
in one piece. The helmet is made of tinned copper. It is firmly attached to
the breastplate, which, in turn, is secured by twelve screws to the collar of
the water-proof covering of the whole body. In the helmet are two little
oval side windows. They are fitted in brass frames, with guards. There
is another little window in front. These windows can not become dimmed
by the diver's breath, because they are in a current of air from the "inlet
valve," from which the fresh air is admitted at the back of the helmet.
This diver's dress weighs about 170 pounds. In detail, it includes the
heavy weight of the helmet, thirty-five pounds. At the breast and back are
weights amounting to eighty pounds. The boots have heavy leaden soles
and brass heel and toe guards, and weigh thirty-two pounds. The wate:--
proof all-in-one-piece dress weighs fourteen pounds. The stockings,
guernsey and other underclothing make up an additional weight of eight
and a half pounds. All this is rather expensive, costing about $500. An
electric lamp and telephone have been added to complete the outfit. There
is another equipment, designed for very deep-sea diving. This dress is
made in two parts, the upper part consisting of the helmet and body, and
made of copper. The arms and lower half consist of metallic rings,
covered with a water-proof material. An exception is made of the section
of the dress about the thighs, which is also of copper. This construction
is needed for the resistance to the great pressure of the water at extreme
depths. The maximum depth for safe working is 150 feet, although work

8— Vol. 2

6io WORKERS OF THE NATION

has been done at a depth of 204 feet. The pressure at that depth is about
SSy2 pounds to the square inch.

Among the varied duties of a diver may be mentioned scraping ship
bottoms of incrustations, to increase the speed of the vessel, or ''salving"
a wreck, or working in land tunnels, or delving in a flooded mine.

The various navies of the world are now considered incomplete in equip-
ment if their warships are not provided with divers.

One method of raising a sunken ship is as follows : Two old wooden
ships with a superior percentage of buoyancy when combined, are moored
over the wreck. A tackle of steel hausers is arranged, with powerful
winches. The vessel is lifted off the bottom as the tide rises, and hulks,
submerged burden and all are towed toward the shore. At every high tide
this is repeated, and the wreck is finally beached. Another way. of salvage
is to make air-tight the sunken craft, and pump her out. Cargoes are often
"salved" when the sunken ships are abandoned. Treasure is frequently
rescued, a diver receiving as his commission for such work the sum of
$22,500 not many years ago. In many cases specie has been thus recovered
by the efforts of divers. Cargoes also have been saved. Invoices of wool,
silk, indigo, quicksilver, wine, silver, lead and other precious stuff have been
rescued in good condition. There is much sunken treasure which can not
be rescued because it lies at too great a depth.

Much work is done by divers in making harbors and piers. The diving
bell is sometimes used for this purpose. A very large diving bell in present
use measures 13 feet, by n feet, by 11^/2 feet in size. It weighs twenty-six
tons. A huge wire rope is attached to it. The bell's equipment includes
a telephone and electric lighting. But the diving apparatus is generally
preferred.

In submarine blasting there is an immense amount of work done by
divers. One rock recently blown up had been pierced by the boring of
16,000 holes. The amount of dynamite used amounted to 76,000 pounds,
the cost of the operations being about $350,000.

PEARL DIVERS

The specialty of pearl diving is an interesting feature of the occupation.
The pearl diver must eat sparingly before his work begins. The length of
time he may remain under water depends on various contingencies, such as
the nature of the work, the speed of the tide, and the depth of the water.
The exertion varies with the depth at which the diver works. He can
with impunity remain under water for several hours at a depth of from three
to five fathoms. At a depth of twenty fathoms, however, a stay below water
of only ten minutes can be endured. When the water is clear, a diver can
see forty or fifty feet. But if the water is "roiled," he can hardly see at
all. There are many risks incidental to the pearl diver's work. The un-
screwing of the face-glass is fatal. Sharp rocks or corals may tear his
dress. The air-pump may develop some defect, and become uncoupled, or

PILOTS, DIVERS, AND LONGSHOREMEN 611

burst. The pearl diver may get entangled at the bottom of the sea, in the
sponge growths or coral -cups. The air-pipe may get fouled beneath some
jutting rock or coral cup.

Presence of mind is an absolutely necessary quality for a diver. Pearl
divers catch enough turtles to keep them in food. Fishing under water is
also one of their sports.

In northern waters the sea bed is unattractive, whereas in tropical seas
there are sea-flowers, ferns, palms, shells, corals and sponges to vary the
monotony. The pearl diver's dangers do not lie wholly beneath the sea.
Hurricanes occasionally wreck an entire fleet, and the cyclone proves a more
formidable enemy than the depths of the ocean.

STEVEDORES AND LONGSHOREMEN

The modern cargo steamer represents a large investment of capital, often
over $1,000,000. It earns money only when it is under way. Every un-
necessary hour spent at the dock means a loss of interest on capital and de-
preciation of property, without any compensating gain. Any profit from the
safe transportation of cargo from port to port thus depends on the speed
with which that cargo has first been put aboard and then has been dis-
charged. While on the smaller sailing vessels, as a rule, the crew still takes
a part in loading and unloading cargo, with steamers that work nowadays
is almost wholly performed by longshoremen and stevedores. The system
promotes the efficiency of the crew, whose work is thus done only while the
vessel is under way, and also secures the prompter despatch of the ship.
This division of labor is one of the economies of modern ocean transporta-
tion which have effected such reduction in freights and made possible the
enormous development of the agricultural West, which is so dependent on
export trade. In nearly all countries the stevedores and marine freight
handlers are well organized into labor unions. In the United States, at
the beginning, in 1892, the organization was made up of locals of lumber
handlers only; but in 1897 tne International Longshoremen's Association was
formed, and included every dock worker on the chain of Lakes, Atlantic and
Pacific Coasts, and rivers, and the ports of Canada. The present member-
ship is estimated at 40,000, including the Lakes, Atlantic, Pacific, the Gulf,
Canada and Costa Rica.

The testimony given before the Industrial Commission shows that the
situation with regard to stevedores and longshoremen is somewhat as fol-
lows : The organization includes lumber loaders and unloaders ; also the
coal shovellers and trimmers, unloaders and loaders. Then there are the ore
shovellers and trimmers, loaders and unloaders in general, and package
freight handlers ; loaders and unloaders of salt and grain, trimmers and
scoopers, dock hoisters, and engineers, millmen, and all men employed in
lumber yards ; dock firemen and marine firemen, and all other men that are
engaged in working along and around docks on the Great Lakes, the coasts
and rivers.

612 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Some of the men work in two shifts. Hoisters and engineers are paid,
from May i to December 15, $80 and $85 per month. The average wage
for coal handlers is sixty cents per hour; that is, in the unloading ports.
The average wage for lumber loaders per hour is fifty cents. In some ports
it is forty cents, some forty-five, some fifty, some sixty ; but the average is
fifty cents for a ten-hour work day. There are cases where men work over
ten hours. Average wage per hour for lumber handlers — that is, at the un-
loading ports — is fifty cents per hour.

The average wage of grain scoopers per hour is sixty cents. The aver-
age wages per hour 'for grain trimmers is sixty cents and upward. There
are a few cases where they make more. The average wage per hour for
marine package freight handlers is thirty cents per hour. They work ten
and twelve hours, and as high as twenty-four hours at a stretch, with no
shifts. Ore trimmers get sixty cents per hour, and they work all hours.
At some ports they regulate their gangs and take their turns about, but they
work pretty much all the time ; they have no certain hours.

LONGSHOREMEN ON THE GREAT LAKES

The organization of longshoremen on the Great Lakes is one of the
most striking instances of the way in which organization overcomes the dis-
advantages of race competition. Formerly, under a system which was sub-
stantially that of subcontracting or sweating, a man received very low. pay
for very irregular work, but since the organization of their international
union, in which they became their own contractors, their year's earnings
have doubled. Their local branches are often organized by races, each with
its own representation in the central council, which conducts business in
English, and has jurisdiction over the several branches. The same arrange-
ment exists at Newport News between the white and colored races.

"Our organization has effected a complete revolution in the condition that existed on
the chain of Lakes for a great many years," says the Secretary of the International Long-
shoremen's Association. "Instead of the drunken, poor, dissipated fellow that used to work
on the docks, to-day the good sober man is prominent. We have many places where they
own their homes and have built their own meeting halls and have temperance societies.
There is one place in Ohio where there are Finns who organized a temperance society,
built a hall, and then gave a deed of the hall to the organization. At another port our
men built a hall and paid cash for it. There they meet and have entertainments. I know
of one instance where our men got together, had a banquet, and invited all the leading busi-
ness men, the mayor of the city, their employers, master mechanics, and superintendents
of the docks, and they enjoyed themselves very much."

THE EXPRESS SERVICE

The express companies of the United States were the pioneers in opening
the great West. They established their stage lines and mail service. They
started banks, and were among the very first agencies to develop the coun-
try. Their competition has perfected the mail service of to-day, and the
post-office has been forced by their system of issuing money-orders 'to pay,
more attention to that function of business. From their activity in being
middlemen in the matter of transportation, they have enlarged their scope

THE EXPRESS SERVICE 613

until all sorts of middleman's work is within their range. They act as
agents in purchases and sales, and have their attorneys for all kinds of law
work pertaining to business, cuch as searching a title or collecting a debt.
Stores make use of their C.O.D. department in delivering goods to cus-
tomers. The usefulness of express companies have not been curtailed by
the fast freights, or by the parcel-post.

The organization of the express companies is at the same time complex
and simple. Their huge business is so systematized that it works with
perfect smoothness. Their contracts with the railroads give them great
facilities. The steamships and long trolley lines are also pressed into their
service. The cable, telephone and telegraph are in frequent use by them.
They have their own piers and terminals. Duties on importations may be
paid in their own brokerage offices. They are continually on the lookout
for new inventions in transportation, and quick to take advantage of every
improvement. Looking, for a moment, at the methods by which the ex-
press business is conducted, we find that in small towns their agents take
orders which are forwarded to the large centres for fulfilment. In the great
cities the office will have a dozen different departments. Among these may
be enumerated the C.O.D. department, the money-order department, the
commission department, the custom brokerage department, and the insur-
ance department. Each department has its manager and staff of clerks.
The companies now have special refrigerator cars for perishable goods, such
as meats and fruits. Their special cars for carrying horses and stock are
largely patronized. The heavy safes in their cars protect bullion and
jewelry from robbery. The combination of the safe is known only to the
transferring agents at great centres. Robberies are rare. The express em-
ployes are well armed, good shots, and shoot to kill when attacked.

The methods by which express companies collect merchandise and par-
cels are familiar. Regular patrons are called upon by the wagons at
regular intervals. Wagons have regular routes. In the great cities the
companies distribute large cards on which their names appear, and these
cards are displayed at the door or window when an express wagon is
needed. It would be a low estimate to say that there are seven hundred
express wagons on the streets of New York at all hours of the day.

At present there are sixteen large express companies in the United
States. There are also two in Canada and the same number m Mexico.
Their capitalization amounts to one hundred millions of dollars and more.
The question has been agitated of a reduction by the government of ex-
press charges. The companies claim, however, that their margin of profit
is very narrow, it being only 5.46 per cent. Be this as it may, they cer-
tainly are an enormous convenience to the public.

EMPLOYMENT AS EXPRESSMEN AND EXPRESS AGENTS

Sixty thousand persons are employed by the express companies the year
round. They earn all the way from $2 a day for the driver of a one-horse

6i4 WORKERS OF THE NATION

wagon to $5,000 or $6,000 a year for general superintendents, and more for
presidents and other officials. The highest wages paid to the "express-
man"— the man who calls at your house and receives your packages, and
likewise the man who ships the packages, and the man who delivers it at its
destination — :varies in different States. In New York, Pennsylvania and
Illinois the expressman's highest wage is $3.33 ; in Kansas $1.33; in Mary-
land $1.67; in Ohio $1.50. The American Express Company alone em-
ploys about 14,000 persons, very nearly one- fourth of the number employed
by all the companies. The total number of drivers employed is about 7,000,
as about that number of wagons are in use. Thousands of men find employ-
ment in the stables of the various companies, caring for a total of nearly
20,000 horses.

If all the routes covered by the express companies, by rail, boat and
stage, could be extended in a continuous line, they would wind nine times
around the earth, a total distance of 225,000 miles. To refer again to the
data concerning one particular company, the American, as a basis of knowl-
edge of the express business in general — this one concern covers 42,000
miles of railroad, or one-fifth of the total distance covered by all the com-
panies. The territory reached by this single company extends from Hali-
fax, Nova Scotia, in the East, to Wyoming in the West. Over 30,000
stations are on the railroad routes thus covered, which means that this one
company can take packages destined for 30,000 different places in the
United States and Canada. There are about 50,000 express offices, or
agencies., throughout the country, a figure which in itself conveys the story
of the thorough organization of the express business. The American
Company alone has 7,500 fully equipped agencies in 6,000 cities and towns.

EXPRESSING MONEY AND PERISHABLE GOODS

The fact that the express has so many agencies is of great importance
to shippers of money or valuables. The banks of the United States are
located at only 8,000 points, while the express has agencies at nearly six
times that number of points. Hence the express is able to offer banking
accommodations to a much larger extent than the banks themselves. To
clinch this statement with actual figures, the amount carried by the express
the country over, in a single year, aggregates $4,000,000,000. This stu-
pendous figure would not be raised by so much as one dollar, if in the course
of a year every man, woman and child in the United States were to transmit
$5.00 by express.

Thus, by means of the express money-order system, the express reaches
localities remote from banks. It is even superior in this respect to the postal
system, for postal money-orders can be cashed only at large, important
offices, while an express money-order is good at any express office. About
7,000,000 express money-orders are issued annually. Of the $4,000,-
000,000 which changed hands through the medium of the express in a recent
year, the shippers lost not one cent, notwithstanding the fact that the

THE EXPRESS SERVICE

archives of the Pinkerton Detective Agency for the same year would proba-
bly show that there had been several great express robberies, including
perhaps the murder of express messengers, each case having been a nine-
day wonder. Of the total of $4,000,000,000 shipped by express, the gov-
ernment shipped $1,500,000,000, and the general public, banks and rail-
roads $2,500,000,000. Besides acting as banker, by means of money-orders,
besides acting as carrier and transporting the actual cash, the express com-
panies also act as collectors of money. That is, a merchant can send goods
by express C.O.D., and the express company will collect the amount of the
merchant's bill from the consignee, and forward the money back to the
shipper; or, in the event of the consignee refusing to pay, the express will
bring the goods back to the shipper's very door.

To speak of an "express train" nowadays means literally a special train
for the rapid transportation of express packages. All the companies — and
it should be stated that all the companies, by agreement on important points
practically operate as one system — have special cars, and oftentimes special
trains travelling at a high rate of speed, between the principal centres of
trade, in order to give the most efficient service. Because of rapid trans-
portation by express, perishable foods can be safely sent between points
distant from one another. Tons of fresh vegetables, oysters, fish, game,
poultry and fruit are thus shipped annually to places which otherwise would
be denied such luxuries. Such is the story of the express, a story that
begins in the days of the stage-coach and the "Pony Express" of Wells,
Fargo & Co., to the modern service by trains rushing at lightning speed,
carrying annually 150,000,000 packages of merchandise and 25,000,000
packages of money.

PART II

MINING, AGRICULTURE, AND THE FISHERIES

CHAPTER I
THE MINING INDUSTRIES

The Mines of the United States — Summary of Gold, Silver and Copper Production — Sum-
mary of Iron and Coal Production — Summary of Petroleum and Aluminium Produc-
tion— American Miners — Mine Superintendents — The Company Store System at Mines
— The Company Tenement System at Mines — Child Labor in Mines — Accidents in
Mines — Profits in Mining Industries — The Largest Mining Exchange

THE MINES OF THE UNITED STATES

THE pages that follow show the unparalleled advances which have been
made in the United States in the development of its mineral wealth.
It must be borne in mind that the annual product of all kinds of min-
erals in the United States aggregates more than $1,700,000,000. That is
a matter of vital interest to show the phenomenal skill by which our min-
eral resources have been so developed and mining methods perfected as to
make this great product possible. And more interesting still to the people
at large are the statements given as to the men who mine these minerals
and the conditions under which they live and work.

From the mines of the United States, ninety-two different products are
obtained, including sixty ores and minerals, sixteen metals, and sixteen sec-
ondary mineral and chemical products. The total value of this entire min-
eral product during 1902 amounted to the enormous sum of $1,700,000,-
ooo. In addition to this must be mentioned $125,000,000, produced by our
smelting and refining works from gold, silver, copper and lead ores, imported
from Mexico, British Columbia and other countries.

SUMMARY OF GOLD, SILVER AND COPPER PRODUCTION
The statistics show that the United States possesses its full share of
minerals. We produce twenty-nine per cent of the world's coal, beating
Great Britain by two per cent. We contribute forty-three per cent of the
petroleum, Russia producing more than one-half. We may boast of pro-
ducing thirty-one per cent of the gold and thirty-three per cent of silver,
leading the nations in these metals. Our production of copper is fifty-six
per cent, Spain coming next. Our output of quicksilver forms twenty-nine
per cent of the world's product, Spain yielding nearly forty per cent. One-
fourth of the zinc comes from our country. Of tin we do not supply
much. Taken all together, we produce about thirty-nine per cent of the
(616)

THE MINING INDUSTRIES 617

mining products of the earth, leading all the other nations in the grand
total.

Of all our productions, gold, which has for ages been a symbol and a
synonym for wealth, is most attractive to the popular mind. In real economic
importance it ranks below several of the more prosaic metals. Our output
of gold in 1902 reached a total of about $85,000,000, showing a consider-
able increase over the $79,171,000 produced in 1900. The chief contribu-
tors to this product were the mines of Cripple Creek and other camps in
Colorado, those of South Dakota, California, Idaho, Montana, Oregon,
Arizona, and New Mexico and the mines of the far north. After the mines
of Cripple Creek the most productive treasure-troves within our jurisdic-
tion are those of Cape Nome, the American Yukon, and Douglas Island,
off the coast of Alaska.

Although silver has ceased to be a metal of absorbing political interest,
it is still a metal of vast commercial importance. It is, therefore, interest-
ing to note that our mines produced, in 1902, some 60,000,000 ounces of the
white metal, although few mines are worked now for silver alone. Two-
thirds of the output of silver in the United States is obtained as a by-product
from mines that would be worked regardless of the price of silver. In
addition to the amount of silver actually produced at home, our smelters re-
duced about 45,000,000 ounces from Mexican and Canadian ores. By far
the greater part of this was used in the arts and manufactures, while nearly
all the rest was absorbed by the Far East, where China and India still show
undiminished preference for silver coin.

The United States has long led the world in the production of copper,
its mines supplying from forty-five to sixty per cent of the total output. The
production of 1902 rose to more than 610,000,000 pounds. That the pro-
duction will be largely increased in 1903 is probable from the fact that
many old copper properties have been opened and new properties developed
in the last two years that are sure to add to the sum total of next year's
production. The chief contributors for 1902 were the old mines of Michi-
gan and the newer ones of Montana and Arizona, while the mines of Utah,
Colorado, California and Vermont did well their part. The mines of the
Lake Superior region outdid themselves, producing no less than 170,000,-
ooo pounds of copper, an amount heretofore beyond the dreams of avarice.

Whether or not the production of copper may come to exceed the demand
beyond the point of profit to the producer is a question. Owing to the rapid
increase in the number of electrical plants all over the civilized world, a
sudden demand for copper arose, a few years ago, which sent the price from
less than twelve cents a pound in 1897 and 1898 up to nearly eighteen cents.
These inflated prices, which culminated in 1900, lasted long enough to
stimulate the working of copper mines all over the world, and bring the
total production of the metal in that year up to more than 1,000,000,000
pounds.

The mines and smelters of the United States turned out more than

6i8 WORKERS OF THE NATION

280,000 tons of lead in 1902, and 130,000 tons of zinc. Of minor metals
there were 27,000 flasks (each holding 76 pounds) of quicksilver, 8,000,-
ooo pounds of aluminium, 3,200,000 pounds of antimony, and a long list of
smaller products.

SUMMARY OF IRON AND COAL PRODUCTION

The most important metal produced by the United States is iron, which
went far ahead of all its previous records in 1902, scoring a total of fully
16,000,000 tons of pig iron. This is nearly 2,000,000 tons more than in
1900, and as much as the combined product of Great Britain and Germany.
To make this required the mining of 30,000,000 tons of iron ore and the
quarrying of 5,000,000 tons of limestone for flux. The value of the pig
iron at the furnaces was about $190,000,000; its ultimate value, when
worked up into steel in all its varied forms, and the many finished products
of the iron trade, was nearly ten times as great.

Our most important mineral product, upon which all the rest really de-
pend, is coal. In the production of this useful commodity the United
States bettered in 1901 all previous records. Over 300,000,000 tons of coal
were mined, of which 60,000,000 tons were anthracite and over 240,000,-
ooo tons bituminous. The production in 1902 fell far below the figure just
given, on account of the great strike. "Carrying coals to Newcastle" was
once considered synonymous for the height of folly, but the Westmoreland
Coal Company boasts of having done so as a proud distinction. Great Bri-
tain was, for many years, considered the greatest producer of coal in the
world, but four years ago the United States exceeded Great Britain's pro-
duction, and since then has easily held first place. As said before, an Amen -
can company has even exported coal to Newcastle.

SUMMARY OF PETROLEUM AND ALUMINIUM PRODUCTION

Fully 70,000,000 barrels of petroleum were produced in 1902. To the
oil fields of the East are now added the oil wells of Texas and California,
the product of which is destined to make important industrial changes in the
Southwest and on the Pacific Coast. The base of this oil is asphalt rather
than petroleum, so that it promises to be of greater value as a fuel than as
an illuminant, a fact that would seem to be almost providential in a region
where the absence of coal and timber has prevented the development of
manufacturing industries.

The increasing demand for alumina makes the mining of aluminium ore
a profitable business. The State of Georgia was the first in the market in
supplying the demand for bauxite, and the product of the empire State of
the South has won a first place as to quality and quantity. In fact, Georgia
ore is preferred to that imported from France. Alabama also holds a lead-
ing place, and these States are supplying the home market with bauxite.
The value of bauxite is regulated by the price of the imported ore, which
can be delivered in Philadelphia or New York at about $6.50 per ton. But

THE MINING INDUSTRIES

619

the Georgia-Alabama bauxite commands a higher price on account of its
easier solubility compared with French ores. It has been sought for
shipment to Germany. As much as $8.50 to $13 per ton have been paid
for Georgia bauxite in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and Syracuse, New York.
The deposits of ore on the Southern Railway are located in Floyd County,
Georgia, and near Piedmont and Rock Run Station, Alabama. With the in-
creasing demand a largely augmented business is assured in the near future.

AMERICAN MINERS

Figures alone can not tell the whole story. The conditions of mining in
America are the wonder of the industrial world. The captains of industry
in Europe regard the achievements and the relations of American operators
and miners with undisguised amazement. They marvel at the apparently
irreconcilable facts that, although miners are paid higher wages in America
than in any other country, the American minerals and metals are produced
at a lower cost per ton or measure than in any country in Europe. To the
genius of American engineering is due this happy combination of results.
The American miner is indeed more fortunate than his fellow workers of
other lands, and the American operator is apparently more successful than
others in the same field of endeavor.

The total number of men employed in all the coal mines of the United
States at the present time is over 450,000. They work, on an average, 212
days in a year. The total number of iron miners is about 200,000. The
number of men working in all the other mines of the country is easily 350,-
ooo, making the total number of miners equal to the total number of railway
employes — about one million.

The law regarding coal miners' duties provides that every miner must
examine his working place before beginning work and must take down all
dangerous slate, or otherwise make it safe by properly timbering the same
before commencing to dig or load coal. In mines where fire bosses are em-
ployed, he must examine his place to see whether the fire boss has left the
proper marks, indicating his examination, and he must at all times be very
careful to keep his working place in a safe condition during the working
hours. Should he at any time find his place becoming dangerous, either
from gas or roof, or from any unusual condition which may have arisen,
he must at once cease working, and inform the mine foreman or his assistant
of the danger, and before leaving he must place some plain warning at the
entrance of the place to warn others from entering into the danger.

It is the duty of every miner to mine his coal properly, and to set sprags
under the coal while undermining the roof. When places are liable to
generate sudden volumes of fire-damp, or where locked safety lamps are
used, no miner is allowed to fire shots except under the supervision and with
the consent of the mine foreman, or his assistant, or some other competent
person, designated by the mine foreman for that purpose.

620 WORKERS OF THE NATION

MINE SUPERINTENDENTS

The profits of a mine depend largely on the character of the man who
superintends it. With a man of ability in charge a poor mine may yield
more to its owners than a rich mine in the hands of an incompetent. One
State labor official reports that many mines have been abandoned be-
cause their owners have been unable to secure managers of sufficient intel-
ligence and training to economically develop the property. A technical edu-
cation is not the only qualification indispensable to a successful mine super-
intendent. His practical experience must include a thorough knowledge
of ventilation, drainage, explosive gases, illuminating oils, dangerous damps,
safety lamps, timbering, brattices and doors. The manager who would
command the highest salary must know how to turn an entry safely and
economically, and yet in such a way as to cause the mine to yield the largest
output with the least expense. It is essential that his knowledge of the min-
ing laws of his State be accurate and up to date, and it is eminently desirable
that he be enough of a technologist to understand and adopt the newest min-
ing devices and the most improved methods of mine management. It is
especially worthy of note that only a man who is just, generous, self-con-
trolled, watchful and brave can attain the highest measure of success in this
profession, for it is through the possession of these qualities that he wins the
confidence of his subordinates on whom the actual development of the mine
must depend. A little technical training, assimilated with considerable in-
telligence, a certain amount of practical experience, and a well-developed
moral nature, are the essential qualifications for a satisfactory mine super-
intendent. A man thus endowed is always sure of a remunerative position
in any of the States where mining is a prominent industry.

THE COMPANY STORE SYSTEM AT MINES

The rise and fall of the company store system is an interesting incident
in the history of mining in the United States. It is a system that has been
decidedly unpopular in the majority of places where it has been tried. Tim~
and again it has caused dissension between operators and miners, and both
parties are probably to be congratulated on the fact that it is no longer in
general vogue. The reasons given for its decline are the growth of popula-
tion and the consequent increase of trading facilities, together with the de-
termined opposition of the labor organizations.

At the time of the coal strike in Pennsylvania in 1900, company stores
had an absolute monopoly of the coal miners' trade, which they conducted
entirely for their own unreasonable and unholy profit. Miners of the
anthracite coal regions were compelled, for instance, to buy all their powder
at company stores, and to pay for it $2.75 a keg, although it was commonly
known that the operators themselves only paid $1.50 a keg for the same
commodity. The miners arose en masse in righteous wrath at the impo-
sition put upon them, and as a result of their organized protest, otherwise

THE MINING INDUSTRIES 621

called "a strike," the retail price of powder has since corresponded to the
cost price of $1.50 a keg. The reduction in the price of this single item
was soon followed by a sweeping reduction in the price of provisions and
general merchandise. This meant a steep and speedy decline in the profit
of the company stores, which naturally led to the operators' ultimate re-
jection of the whole system. Company stores still exist, however, but their
prices are not now more than twenty or twenty-five per cent in advance
over those of other stores. In West Virginia, where the organization of
miners is not so well developed, the company store system still holds unas-
saulted sway.

The operators contend that company stores are necessary for the reason
that mines are usually opened in out-of-the-way places, where supplies can
not be obtained from other sources. This is true in exceptional cases, but
the necessity is seldom more than temporary. The company store system
has been enthusiastically maintained for the simple reason that it was prof-
itable to the operators. By barring outside dealers and by compelling the
miners, on pain of dismissal, to trade at their stores, many companies suc-
ceeded in building up an exclusive monopoly for their own sole aggrandize-
ment. Miners declare that even when outsiders were permitted to open a
store in a mining town, the company was sure to demand a percentage of
their sales. It is known that, in at least one instance, even pedlers and de-
livery wagons have been prohibited from approaching the miners' houses.

THE COMPANY TENEMENT SYSTEM AT MINES

The days of the company store are numbered, but the company tenement
house is still found in the land. Operators say that it is necessary for them
to build these houses, as otherwise the miners would be homeless. The
mines are usually remote from human habitations, and unless the company
provided homes for their workmen it would be unable to secure their
services.

The miners, on their part, seldom object to the company ownership of
dwellings. They confine their criticisms to the kind of dwelling furnished.
It is usually characterized by a pitiful absence of all the charms and comforts
belonging to an ideal home. As a rule, company houses are not only mean
and small, but are usually built of the cheapest possible materials, and their
absolute lack of all conveniences is primitive in the extreme. Frequently
the water supply of the little settlement is poor, and unsanitary conditions
often prevail that are a menace to the health of the community. Rude and
inadequate as these houses are, the rental charged for them is usually out
of all proportion to the accommodations furnished. At one mine in Ohio,
houses which cost only $gq each, rent for five or six dollars a month. The
rental at most mines in West Virginia is two dollars a room. In some
mining centres, conditions are somewhat improved by the fact that a six
dollar rental includes a monthly ton of coal. Operators usually declare that
their houses are the best that can be furnished for the rents paid, and that

622 WORKERS OF THE NATION

the only reason private individuals build better ones is because they charge
higher rentals.

Among the companies that have taken the initiative in improving the
condition of their employes, the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron
Company has been especially conspicuous. Although this company owns
many houses at its mines, it encourages the men to live in towns and vil-
lages, and transports them to and from their homes, sometimes a distance of
ten or fifteen miles, at a merely nominal charge. This liberal treatment is,
however, quite exceptional, as it is a general complaint among miners that
they are compelled to occupy the company's tenements or look elsewhere for
work, and that in time of strike they are dispossessed.

Judging from all reports, the company tenement system shows greatest
improvement in the anthracite region where the miners' organizations are
strongest. With the company store, its worst features are most in evidence
in the dark coal valleys of West Virginia, where the miners have not yet
fully appreciated the force of that ancient saying that "in union there is
strength."

CHILD LABOR IN MINES

The number of children at work in mines in the United States has greatly
decreased since the passage of beneficent laws which compel all children to
attend school until fifteen years of age. In some States, the employment of
children under sixteen years of age is forbidden. It is even proposed now to
pass laws which will close the mine shafts, and especially the doors of
breakers in coal regions, against all persons under eighteen years of age.
Unfortunately, the laws already on the statute books are too often evaded.
Even in Pennsylvania, where the number of children employed has been
greatly lessened by the sixteen-year limit, there are nevertheless many hun-
dreds of boys still working in the mines. It is the highly specialized char-
acter of the latest machinery that makes possible the effective use of child
labor in coal mines. So simple are the duties of the person attendant on
one of the new machines in the breakers of the anthracite coal region that
a child can discharge them as satisfactorily as a grown man.

There is nothing to be said in favor of the employment of child labor in
any mining industry. The competition of children with men in any field
undoubtedly depresses wages and increases the number of the unemployed.
Saddest of all, it blights the lives of the children themselves, checking their
physical growth and retarding their mental development. Those respon-
sible for this hideous wrong to childhood make short-sighted calculations, for
they only gain the abnormal profits of the present by heavily discounting the
future usefulness of their fellow-citizens, a policy that is conceded to be a
bad commercial transaction for the whole community.

The general law pertaining to the employment of children in mines
states that no boy under the age of twelve years, and no woman or girl of
any age, shall be employed or permitted to be in the workings of any

THE MINING INDUSTRIES 623

bituminous coal mine for the purpose of employment. No boy under the
age of fifteen is permitted to mine or load coal in any room, entry, or other
working place, unless in company with a person over sixteen years of age.
If the mine inspector or mine foreman has reason to doubt the fact of any
particular boy being as old as the law requires for the service which the
boy is performing in the mine, it is his duty to report the fact to the super-
intendent, and the superintendent must at once discharge the boy.

Great numbers of such children are employed in the anthracite re-
gion. They are deprived of schooling, and greatly overworked. This
abuse has become flagrant. The toil of these little lads is appallingly mo-
notonous and hard. Although they are all supposed to be at least twelve,
most of them are under that age. After the coal is blasted or hewn, it is
hoisted in large lumps from the bottom of the shaft in cars, from which it
is dumped into the crushing machines, and thence emerges in the various
marketable sizes. The broken coal falls from the top of the "breaker" into
large revolving sieves beneath the crusher, then passing through chutes,
circuitously descending to the ground floor, ready for transportation. With
all this vast mass of coal there is mixed much slate, dirt, and rock. As the
coal slides through the chutes, boys and men pick out these undesired sub-
stances. They sit in little seats from morning till night — that is, from
seven o'clock till six, with half an hour at noon. The children begin with
forty cents a day, and may earn finally as much as eighty cents. For this
pittance their fathers, generally foreigners, who are getting good wages,
permit them to toil in this fashion, giving false affidavits of their age, and
breaking the laws of the State, which require children to be sent to
school.

The breakers are cold in winter, having no heating facilities, save some-
times a few steam pipes, generally without steam. The clouds of coal dust
are incessant and very irritating to the eyes and throat. These able-bodied
and wage-earning fathers are not content with working their small boys in
the breakers, but, with the same disregard of American laws and institu-
tions, they compel their ten and eleven-year-old daughters to work in the
stocking factories, in or near mining towns, for from $1.50 to $3 a week, in
their cases also not hesitating at perjury in the age affidavits. If the chil-
dren's wages were put in a saving's bank and allowed to accumulate for the
benefit of the young folks, there might be the shadow of an excuse for
compelling them to work at such a tender age. But the able-bodied, wage-
earning father appropriates their earnings for the general use.

ACCIDENTS IN MINES

Despite all precautionary measures, accidents will inevitably occur in
mining operations, so long as human nature remains what it is. To the
carelessness of the employes themselves may be attributed the majority of
mining disasters. Among them are numerous men of limited intelligence
or stolid indifference to danger, who seem unable to realize the importance

624 WORKERS OF THE NATION

of heeding warnings and instructions, and they are without doubt directly
responsible for a large percentage of the accidents which occur.

The Minnesota Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that in 1898 there
were 226 more or less serious accidents reported from nineteen mines which
employed 3,587 men. Eighteen of these accidents were fatal. How many
resulted in death at a later period is not known, but some of them certainly
did. This record shows one killed to every 193 employed, and one injured,
more or less seriously, out of every fifteen. In 1899, 421 accidents were re-
ported from twenty-eight mines which employed a total of 6,486 men. The
number killed outright was thirty- four, or one out of each 190, while the
proportion of injured was one to every fifteen employes. Reports for the
year 1900 show that during the first nine months of the year there were
forty-six accidents, of which twenty-nine were fatal. Forty per cent of
these accidents were due to the falling or caving of earth, rock or ore;
twenty-five per cent were caused by premature or accidental explosions;
twenty per cent resulted from falls into chutes or from ladders ; nine per cent
from collisions or accidents to tramway cars; and six per cent from mis-
cellaneous causes.

PROFITS IN MINING INDUSTRIES

To the rapid development of its mineral resources is undoubtedly due the
marvellous progress of the great West in the last half of the nineteenth
century. Ever since the famous California discovery of '49, poor men have
been giving their accumulated savings as well as their energy and brains
to the exploitation of a country which has in return enriched them with its
wealth. Out of small investments in mines many great fortunes have been
made. It is a matter of record that most of the large consolidations have
been started by small investors. The stock is usually put upon the market,
where it is purchased by hundreds of individuals, each of whom receives his
profits from the investment according to the proportion of stock which he
holds. It has happened not once, but many times, that small investments
in mining stock has made millionaires of people who had previously been
struggling along on only a meagre competence.

It is true that not all who invest in mining stock make money, for there
is always more or less doubt about the success of any business enterprise.
Where the management of a mining company is, however, in the hands of
experienced men of affairs of recognized ability and integrity, who invest
their own money along with that of other people, there is no business which
pays so well on the investment. The average results show immense gains
to offset the comparatively few losses ; certainly, there is no business which
offers to people of limited means opportunities for such large returns on their
money as does mining.

The promotion of mining interests is generally conducted to-day in an
entirely honorable and business-like manner, and the men who are making
a marked success in that field of activity are necessarily distinguished for

THE MINING INDUSTRIES 625

their practical abilities and incorruptible honesty. Mining companies do
exist which have nothing more substantial to their credit than fraudulent
or worthless stocks and a weak or dishonest management, but these are ex-
ceptions to the general rule. It is easy enough for the careful investor to
learn the past history and present standing of those who manage any min-
ing enterprise in which he is tempted to become interested.

From the Comstock lode, for example, more than $300,000,000 in silver
has been produced. Some of the African mines pay five hundred per cent
dividends. With aluminium at from thirty-five to fifty cents a pound, there
is much wealth in this product. Suitable machinery and proper methods
would turn the mica dikes of North Carolina to profit. There are many
undeveloped zinc mines. From one acre in Galena, Kansas, $250,000 was
taken. The clay deposits of Missouri are valuable for the making of sewer
pipes, several companies now working to great advantage. In North Caro-
lina and in Oregon are large deposits of nickel, for which there is a constant
demand. There are vast iron mines in Mexico, near Durango, entirely
unworked. In Tennessee there is a vast extent of limestone rock. As a
fertilizer, pulverized limestone is worth eighteen dollars a ton. About half
the world's copper is in the United States and Canada. Material contain-
ing even one per cent of copper pays for working, under proper conditions,
and many mines pay fifty per cent. Sapphires are found in Georgia, at
Laurel Creek, Rylang County, some worth twenty-five dollars each. As-
bestos ought to be found in the serpentine rocks of North Carolina, Cali-
fornia and Oregon. Oil fields will constantly be discovered, and oil is the
coming fuel. Gold deposits are discovered all the time. Near the Yukon
River are a hundred creeks, all of which perhaps contain gold in their beds.
It may easily be seen that there are millions still lying in undeveloped mines
of various metals.

THE LARGEST MINING EXCHANGE

Of the numerous mining stock exchanges in the United States, that at
Colorado Springs is the largest, wealthiest, and most active. This associa-
tion, which was founded by former members of the New York Stock Ex-
change, follows very closely the rules of the latter well-known institution.
Its listing regulations are particularly strict. Although Cripple Creek stocks
naturally receive special prominence in this Exchange, the best known stocks
of other districts, including even those of Old Mexico, are here listed. It
is the aim of the Exchange to cover the entire Western mining field, giving
particular preference to gold and silver properties. Since February, 1902,
the Exchange has been installed in a handsome new home, which is probably
the finest building of its kind in the country.

9 — Vol. 2

CHAPTER II
THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY

Coal Production — Anthracite vs. Bituminous Coal Mining — The Total Number of Coal
Miners — The Miner's Life — Foreigners in American Coal Mines- -The Coal Miner's
Training — The United Mine Workers of America — Conditions in the Anthracite Coal
Fields— The Great Coal Strike of 1902

COAL PRODUCTION

IN 1895 a mining expert predicted that in 1900 the United States, with an
annual production of 200,000,000 tons of coal, would "pass Great
Britain and hold from that time forward the first place as the producer
of this foundation of modern civilization." The production of 200,000,000
tons of coal became a fact not only a year sooner than was prophesied —
1899 — but the figure was exceeded by fully a quarter of a million.

The production of coal in the United States as far back as 1889 placed
this country in unquestioned supremacy at the head of the coal-producing
countries of the world. In 1900, according to the United States Geological
Survey, the production of the United States exceeded that of Great Britain
by more than 17,500,000 short tons. In this connection, it is interesting to
know that practically all of the coal produced in the United States is con-
sumed in this country for domestic, transportation, or manufacturing pur-
poses. The exports of coal from the United States in 1900 were less than
9,000,000 short tons, only a little more than three per cent of the total
product.

During the year 1901, the marketed output of American coal, anthracite
and bituminous, aggregated over 300,000,000 short tons of 2,000 pounds
each. This represented from 33 per cent to 35 per cent of the entire product
of the world. The production in 1902 fell far below the figures just given
because of the great strike. Because of excessive competition and frequent
strikes, coal mining in the East, especially in Pennsylvania and Illinois has
not been very profitable during the last ten years. Most of the mines in
Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania are now owned by railroads.

Pennsylvania, of course, ranks as 'the first in the list of coal States.
Illinois second. West Virginia is third in amount of coal produced, but
fourth in value of product, while Ohio, which is fourth in production, takes
precedence of West Virginia in value of its product. Alabama ranks fifth
both in amount and value. Indiana holds sixth place in amount of produc-
tion, but is displaced in value by Iowa, which ranks eighth in point of pro-
(626)

THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY

duction. Colorado advanced from ninth place in 1899 to seventh place in
1901, but also falls behind Iowa in value of product. Changes in the stand-
ing of each of the other States have occurred nearly every year, without,
however, exercising much effect upon the total or altering materially the
percentage contributed by each.

A large part of the coal used for steam and domestic purposes in the
Rocky Mountain States, comes from the mines of Utah and Colorado.
Thick veins of coal underlie large areas in these two States, but the coal is
of an inferior grade. One of the principal firms operating the coal mines
in Colorado is the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, which has a capital of
$13,000,000. It owns or controls eleven coal mines and four iron mines. It
employs 6,000 men and produces yearly over 2,500,000 tons of coal. The
coal fields in the State of Washington are a boon to the people of the Pa-
cific Coast, and represent a large proportion of the developed mineral wealth
of the Pacific Coast States.

ANTHRACITE vs. BITUMINOUS COAL MINING

The estimated tonnage of anthracite coal mined and sent to market dur-
ing the year 1901 made it the banner year for this great industry. The es-
timate was that about 60,000,000 tons were produced, which was not only
an increase of about 8,400,000 tons over 1900, but also the largest annual
production of the trade. The product was valued at about $90,000,000.
Practically all the anthracite coal produced in the United States comes from
the rich deposits in the State of Pennsylvania lying in the hills and valleys
of the Blue Ridge Mountains, from the headwaters of the Schuylkill and the
Lehigh rivers northward and westward to the Susquehanna. These deposits
occupy in area of a little less than 500 square miles, chiefly in the counties of
Schuylkill, Carbon, Luzerne, Lackawanna and Northumberland. Originally
one vast bed of coal, the area has been broken by geological action into three
distinct fields, known in trade circles as the southern Schuylkill field, the
middle or Lehigh field, and the northern or Wyoming field.

The total product of bituminous coal, which included lignite or brown
coal, cannel, splint, semi-anthracite, and semi-bituminous, and the small
anthracite product of Colorado and New Mexico, amounted in 1901 to fully
240,000,000 tons, which had a value of hundreds of millions of dollars. A
feature in connection with the coal mining industry in the United States is
the continued increase in the percentage of bituminous coal mined by me-
chanical methods. During 1901 there were under-cut by the use of ma-
chines, 53,000,000 short tons, or 24 per cent of the total bituminous product.
The total product of bituminous coal in 1901 increased a little less than 10
per cent over the preceding year, while the machine-mined product increased
over 20 per cent.

Basing their calculation on the present rate of consumption, experts be-
lieve that the eastern bituminous coal supply will not last longer than
seventy-five years, while estimates of the duration of the anthracite supply

628 WORKERS OF THE NATION

vary from eighty to two hundred years. This matter is, however, in the
minds of the operator and the miner, one for speculation rather than anxiety.

THE TOTAL NUMBER OF COAL MINERS

The whole number of coal miners in the bituminous and anthracite fields
is estimated at 400,000, divided nearly equally between the two fields. Con-
servative official estimates, however, place the number of men actually em-
ployed in the anthracite fields at only 144,000. Of these over 94,000 are in-
side employes, including about 37,000 miners, nearly 25,000 miners' laborers,
and over 10,000 drivers and runners. Of the outside employes, numbering
not quite 50,000, there are over 20,000 slate-pickers, 4,500 engineers and
firemen, 2,250 blacksmiths and carpenters. In the inside work there are
over 500 foremen and over 800 fire bosses, who have more or less supervis-
ion of the employes already mentioned, in addition to over 3,000 door boys
and helpers and 18,000 other workers of various descriptions. In the out-
side work there are nearly 400 foremen ; nearly 800 department superin-
tendents, clerks, etc., and over 21,000 unclassified workers.

THE COAL MINER'S LIFE

As a hazardous occupation that of the coal miner ranks with that of the
railway employe. Only those familiar with statistics of coal mining are
aware of the fact that of every 450 men employed in the mines one is killed
and five are injured each year. A total of nearly 1,000 miners lose their
lives each year, and nearly 5,000 are seriously injured. It is obvious that,
the total number of fatalities, in proportion to the total number of employes,
exceeds the record for any other industry in this country.

All these fatalities each year give ample chance for a display of heroism
among the miners, for among the 400,000 men, one-third of whose life is
spent in darkness in the bowels of the earth, are found heroes as worthy of
medals of honor as those whose heroism is displayed on the battle field in
the face of the enemy. In the case of the miner the enemy is falling rock,
coal, or slate, and the explosion of gas; and this enemy the miner must fight
in a place that teems with dampness and other subtle dangers, where not a
single day in the year passes without seeing the death of at least one miner.
The average number of deaths for each day is thirty. Often the accidents
are such as to appall a nation, accidents in which humble homes are bereft of
their supporting head, in which wives are made widows and children sud-
denly become orphans.

Mr. John Mitchell, President of the United Mine Workers, says:

"In my own experience I have many times witnessed acts of such heroism and self-
sacrifice among the coal miners as to make the valorous deeds of our soldiers at home and
abroad pale into insignificance by comparison. There are innumerable instances that can
be cited in which mine workers, in the cave-ins which every now and then befall, have
knowingly and willingly surrendered their lives in an effort to rescue their entombed fel-
low-workmen."

"If there is any man in existence," says Wm. B. Wilson, Secretary of the United
Mine Workers, "who is entitled to all the necessaries of life and as many of the luxuries

THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY 629

as he cares to partake of, it is the miner, who, taking his life in the one hand and his din-
ner pail in the other, kisses his wife and little ones good-by in the morning and goes forth
with a strong heart to meet the dangers of a most dangerous occupation, with the chances
great that he may never meet his loved ones again. Not only does he meet the dangers
that come to himself in the regular pursuit of his labor, but no man ever heard of a miner
shrinking from the danger of rescuing his fellow-men in distress. When accident has be-
fallen any of their number, when a caving in of the roof, a flooding of the mines, or an ex-
plosion of firedamp, has cut off all avenues of escape, the courage of the miner asserts
itself, and he will dare any danger, take any risk to reach the entombed men or recover
their bodies, if dead."

One feature of the mining industry which seriously affects the interests
of every coal miner, and one which all would like to see eliminated, is the
fact that more than 150,000 men are employed in excess of the number re-
quired to produce all the coal which the nation can consume. As the total
consumption of coal in this country, together with the export trade, amounts
to only 300,000,000 tons annually, and as the miners employed in the country
could produce 125,000,000 tons of coal more than would be needed, if kept
at work all the year round, it is evident that all the miners must be laid off
part of the year. As a matter of fact, therefore, the coal miner works an
average of only two-thirds of the time, or about 200 days in the year ; hence
he only earns two-thirds of the amount of wages that would accrue to him
if he were steadily employed. Mining communities, moreover, are, as a
rule, located in remote sections where it is impossible for a man to find
work to do when his labors in the mine cease ; the coal miner has, therefore,
no opportunity to make his one hundred days of enforced idleness yield him
a profit.

Such being the conditions, no wonder the stranger often finds the aver-
age mining town, especially in the anthracite region, a place where his eyes
are confronted with sights that give rise to pity. It sometimes consists
merely of rows of unpainted houses, each comprising only two or three
rooms, and all so exactly alike in external appearance that the only mark to
distinguish one from the other is the number over the front door. These
houses are usually blackened by coal dust and rains, though within they are
usually as clean as one would expect them to be made by neat, hard-working
housekeepers. Most of these houses are built on a level with the sidewalk,
leaving a space in the rear which the miners dignify with the name of
vegetable garden. In some instances, however, as in Wilkes Barre, the
houses are set back from the sidewalk, giving the miner an opportunity to
display his taste in making a garden in front of his home and of trimming
his porch with vines and otherwise improving his surroundings. In other
towns double houses are set down in utterly barren regions, desolate to the
last degree. These houses are often built two or three feet from the ground,
the space underneath being utilized as a shelter for the family cow or goat.
In the anthracite region, indeed, most of the people keep goats instead of
cows ; for the ground is extremely uneven and therefore perilous for animals
running at large. The nimble goat, however, is able to avoid these danger-
ous places.

630 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Oftentimes the miner's face is written over with stoicism, or rather with
hopelessness, for in his life there is no incentive to ambition. He knows that
he is destined never to rise to a place of eminence or wealth. Only two
miners in every thousand can be given the position of foreman or superin-
tendent. He starts upon his career as a mine worker when still a boy of
tender age, and after forty or fifty years of toil, he ends his life in exactly
the same place and at precisely the same employment in which he started
when a lad. Only those who have lived among coal miners can appreciate
the tragedy that fills the life of some of these workers.

President Mitchell, of the United Mine Workers, sums up the story of
the anthracite miner's life in these few words :

First, the boy of eight or ten is sent to the breaker to pick the slate and other im-
purities from the coal which has been brought up from the mine; from there he is pro-
moted and becomes a door-boy, working in the mine; as he grows older and stronger, he
is advanced to the position and the pay of a laborer ; there he gains the experience which
secures him a place as a miner's helper; and as he acquires skill and strength he becomes
a full-fledged miner. If he is fortunate enough to escape the falls of rock and coal, he
may retain this position as a miner for a number of years ; but as age creeps on and he is
attacked by some of the many diseases incident to work in the mines, he makes way for
those younger and more vigorous following him up the ladder whose summit he has
reached. He then starts on the descent, going back to become a miner's helper, then a
mine laborer, now door-boy; and when old and decrepit, he finally returns to the breaker
where he started as a child, earning the same wages as are received by the little urchins
who work at his side.

FOREIGNERS IN AMERICAN COAL MINES

The coal mining industry of the United States, as reported by the In-
dustrial Commission, is a field peculiarly affected by the influx of fresh im-
migrants. In the earlier days they were mainly from the British Isles —
Englishmen, Scotchmen, Welshmen, and Irishmen. Within the past twenty
years these earlier nationalities have been displaced by immigrants from
Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia. According to the census of 180,0 the
foreign-born miners constituted 58.1 per cent of the total in Pennsylvania,
57.4 per cent in Illinois, and 59 per cent in Ohio. In the mines of the
Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company, in 1896, one-fourth were
Polish, one-fifth were Irish, one-fifth Americans, and one-tenth were, respec-
tively, Germans and Hungarians. In the mines of Illinois in 1899 the for-
eign-born miners in the order of precedence were Germans, English, Ital-
ians, Polish, Irish, Scotch, Austrians, Bohemians, and Hungarians. The
principal complaint arising from the presence of foreigners is the alleged
over-supply of labor. This is shown in the diminished number of days for
which employment is obtainable in the course of the year.

THE COAL MINER'S TRAINING

A certain notable person, commenting on the strike of 1902 in the
anthracite coal region, remarked that the "labor unions of the present day
represent an immense power largely going to waste, because misdirected by
insufficient intelligence." In this eminently true statement he really touched

THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY 631

the very root of all labor troubles and furnished a virtual solution of the
difficulty. What is true in every branch of industry applies with particular
emphasis to the coal miner : the struggle between muscle and brain is a hope-
less one, the brain being the greater power that must inevitably achieve
ascendency. If the worker in any line could devote his energies to the
acquisition of superior intelligence and technical information, he could cope
with his employer on his own ground, and also fulfil the foremost require-
ment in bettering his own condition. This is true because that in every
branch of industry at the present day, the unskilled worker must compete
with cheap foreign labor and with improved machinery, both of which seem
to be practical fixtures. On the other hand, the man who will improve his
spare time in acquiring an intelligent idea of the theories and conditions in-
volved in his calling will find his possibilities of advancement limited only
by his own industry and capability. The solution of the so-called "labor
problem," both for the individual and the mass, lies only in raising the
standard of trained intelligence in the worker.

Business life at the present day is a struggle for existence, in which the
"fittest," which is to say the most resourceful, alone survive. The coal
operator, under stress of competition, must cut down the price of coal, and,
as a consequence, must exercise numerous economies in running his mine.
Such a course naturally affects the worker, whose demand for advanced
wages, and other desirable conditions, must ever be met with the now
famous rejoinder that "the business of coal mining is not a- benevolent or
charitable enterprise." If, however, he is a thoroughly skilled and well-
informed worker, he can make his labor tell to better advantage, and com-
mand better wages on his deserts alone. This is true because mining is a
science, as surely as is machine designing and construction, and the better
it is understood, the more profitable it becomes. Furthermore, the miner,
who will devote his leisure to mastering his calling, stands in line for pro-
motion to the posts of "boss" or "foreman," and later to that of superin-
tendent or inspector, all of which are awarded to candidates successfully
passing the examinations prescribed by law. He may devote himself to
studying coal mining alone, or to mastering the requirements for a fully-
equipped mining engineer, even acquiring the scientific knowledge essential
to the work of locating and surveying a mine; determining the extent and
value of the mineral or metal deposit, and preparing the ore. In any such
position he possesses the advantages of practical experience, while pur-
suing his studies, a thing which the average graduate of a college or techni-
cal school usually lacks wofully. Such advantages for educational improve-
ment are offered by the modern method of correspondence instruction that
has proved so helpful to workers in nearly every branch of industry. The
fact that one of the foremost correspondence schools in the United States
was started as an institution to train miners is a sufficient answer to the
query, "How shall I obtain my education ?"

632 WORKERS OF THE NATION

THE UNITED MINE WORKERS OF AMERICA

The strongest labor organization among coal miners is the United Mine
Workers, which started in 1890, with only a few thousand members. Its
growth within the last few years has been phenomenal. As late as January,
1897, it nacl only 11,000 members, but a year later the membership had
grown to 25,000. In January, 1901, it had 189,000 members, and in Janu-
ary, 1902, no less than 250,000. Its remarkable development since 1897 is
due to the impulse it received from the interest which was so thoroughly
aroused by the great strike in 1897 °f workers in the bituminous mines.
The strike of the anthracite miners in 1900 brought still more thousands into
the fold, while the strike of 1902 is said to have reduced the membership.

Miners and operators both agree that the United Mine Workers have
been wonderfully successful as an organization, in advancing wages. In Il-
linois the increased wages of the miner in 1900 caused the price of coal to
rise 22 1-2 cents. In all the Central States, where the Union is strongest,
wages increased forty per cent between the years 1897 and 1901. Operators
themselves admit that this organization is managed by capable, conservative
men, in a way that has proven as satisfactory to owners as employes. It is
not their policy to make membership a prerequisite of employment, and
only just and legitimate means are employed to bring in non-union men.
Colored miners are admitted as freely as white men; colored men, indeed,
are even permitted to hold office in the local unions.

Trie desirability of formal agreements between organizations of employ-
ers and organizations of employes, determining wages and hours and other
conditions of labor for fixed periods, wras generally conceded by all the wit-
nesses who testified on this subject before the Industrial Commission. The
United Mine Workers promotes the formation of such agreements whenever
they can, and has been successful in establishing them in most places where
they have influence. The most notable of the joint conferences at which
such agreements are periodically made is the interstate conference of the
so-called competitive district, including Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and the west-,
ern region of Pennsylvania, which settles the conditions of labor of perhaps
100,000 workers. These conferences are attended by many operators and
by representatives of each local union of the United Mine Workers. Each
side and each State, however, has the same number of votes — the miners of
each State four, and the operators of each State four. Every important de-
cision must be reached by a unanimous vote — not by a mere majority. The
actual formation of the scale of wages is referred, after general discussion,
to a committee consisting of four miners and four operators from each
State. If an agreement is not reached, questions in dispute are referred to a
sub-committee.

In Illinois and Indiana the operators have State organizations each of
which employs a paid executive officer called a commissioner, whose chief
duty is to deal with the officers of the miner's organization. Whenever

THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY 633

a dispute arises, the "pit" committee of the men and the "pit" boss meet
and try to settle the difficulty. If they cannot agree, the matter is appealed
to successively higher authorities on each side until the State officials of the
United Mine Workers and the commissioner of the operators' association
are called in. The national officers of the United Mine Workers are not
often asked to help. State agreements have been formed and State con-
ferences established between the operators and the miners in Alabama, Ken-
tucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa and Michigan.

CONDITIONS IN THE ANTHRACITE COAL FIELDS

One of the greatest difficulties in the way of reaching a uniform wage
scale for the miners in the anthracite region lies in the diversity of condi-
tions met in mining coal. No two veins are alike in thickness, purity of coal
and other features; hence to adopt a time or load scale, irrespective of the
difficulties encountered in the day's work, would be manifestly unjust and
impracticable. On the other hand, such a uniform scale would be inequi-
table, since experienced and inexperienced men frequently work in neighbor-
ing chambers, each being an independent contractor with the company for
the sale of his labor. While such conditions may not cover all the points
complained of by the miners, it is evident that no adjustment can be reached
apart from careful and intelligent review of the situation. The operators,
without exception, state that the demands for shorter hours are unreason-
able, because few, if any, of the miners now work for the full period of a
working day; the majority of them, according to accounts kept at the mines,
being underground only about one-half breaker time. Thus, to shorten
the period per day during which the breaker is working would involve the
employment of additional men, miners, laborers, drivers, runners, etc., and
to open up new chambers at considerable expense. To briefly state the posi-
tion from the operators' point of view, the miners work by contract for as
many hours in the working day as their industry and ambition determines
them.

In the majority of cases a miner's duties consist simply in drilling and
blowing down his coal, leaving his laborer to clean and load it. This work
occupies, at most, but a few hours of his time, after which he generally takes
an airing above ground. In this respect the mining of anthracite coal differs
from work in bituminous mines, where the miner has generally thinner veins
to dig, frequently working, with a pick, on his side or back, then blowing
down his coal, cleaning and loading it himself : he thus spends more time in-
side at much harder work.

Although the anthracite miner pays his laborer for his services, generally
at a rate of one-third his own earnings, he receives from 35 cents to 90 cents
per hour, according to skill and work accomplished. The averages vary in
the several districts between 45 cents and 65 cents per hour. According to
these figures, as has been pointed out, an anthracite miner receives on the
average a higher compensation than many responsible employes of the rail-

634 WORKERS OF THE NATION

roads carrying the coal. Thus, the wages of locomotive engineers working
around the mines is given as 27.5 cents per hour, or $3.25 per day of twelve
hours, which shows that four or five hours of work frequently yields a
miner as much in a day as the locomotive engineer receives for full time.
Accepting the estimated average of 50 cents per hour for the industrious
miner, we find that his condition compares favorably with that of the
plumber at 37.5 cents; with the carpenter at 30 cents; with the molder at
27.5 cents, and with the blacksmith at 25 cents. A representative mining
and railroad company operating in the anthracite fields reports for 1901 an
average of 1,985 working hours, which is equivalent to 1985^ ten-hour days,
or 248 eight-hour days, although the actual average per day was 7.83 hours.
These figures are quoted as disposing of the "long-hour argument," and
probably do so, unless that be regarded as a plea for more steady work.

The miner's high hour-rate of pay may be considered in the light of com-
pensation for the difficulties and dangers necessarily encountered in his call-
ing, although these are so immensely reduced by modern appliances for
pumping, ventilating and hoisting that, as a rule, serious accidents are to
be attributed to the fault of the victim himself. Another probable reason
for valuing his time at a higher figure than that of others is that the laws of
the State of Pennsylvania allow only men with a specified period of experi-
ence to work as miners, thus keeping the number of available workers within
fixed limits. The irregularity of the work may be another explanation.
However, according to the figures of the operators, many of the other col-
liery employes are paid at a higher rate of wages than railroad workers.
Thus the driver boys receive from 13 to 18 cents per hour; laborers, from
1 8 to 22 cents; pumpmen, track-layers and helpers, from 19 to 22 cents;
timbermen from 21 to 24.5 cents; and trackmen, 24.5 cents. These figures
compare favorably with those representing the wages of men employed by
the railroads in similar capacities, their pay averaging between $1.25 and
$1.50 per day. Firemen employed at the colliery receive, on the average
14.5 cents per hour, or $1.72 per day of twelve hours, and when obliged to
work in the night during every other week, are paid full-day rates on either
of two seven-hour shifts. Hoisting engineers receive between $75 and $78
per month, working twelve hours daily, with alternate seven-hour night
shifts every other week.

All coal miners are desirous of a change in the methods of payment. The
change they most desire is one which will cause pay-day to come around once
a week. It seems, however, that the law is unable to meet the demands of
miners. A weekly-payment law was passed in Illinois, but was later declared
unconstitutional as interfering with the liberty of contract. In West Vir-
ginia, the law requiring semi-monthly payments is not enforced. In Penn-
sylvania, the law requires semi-monthly payments "on demand," and as
the operators of that State do not favor the law, it is said that many a miner
has been dismissed for seeking to take advantage of the words "on demand."
In Ohio, the semi-monthly payment law is observed.

THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY 635

To maintain the standard of their production, and to prevent carelessness
and dishonesty among miners, operators in both the bituminous and anthra-
cite regions are obliged to resort to the practice of docking wages when im-
purities are found in the coal. Otherwise, the miner working on contract,
could throw in many pounds of slate or dirt and receive payment for it as
if it were "honest" coal. The workers at some mines have been docked 7^
cars out of 57 mined, and as many as 144 out of 1,750. One operator de-.
clares that he has seen car after car come out of the mine with from 1,200
to 2,200 pounds or rock topped off wTith coal. This particular operator,
however, has found a method of punishing this form of dishonesty, more ef-
fective than docking. He gives the miner two notices that his coal must be
cleaner. If the man pays no heed, and continues to send up large quantities
of dirt, rock or slate, he is discharged.

THE GREAT COAL STRIKE OF 1902

In order to get a clear idea of the situation involved in the memorable
strike of 1902 in the anthracite coal region, it will be necessary to outline the
conditions of the miners. These work and receive pay on either one of two
bases ; for time work, by the hour, and for piece work, by the ton, as de-
livered on cars at the mouth of the mine. About forty per cent of all the
miners are in the latter class, and a large part of the complaint issued by the
Union authorities relates to the question of weighing the coal and estimating
the waste and impurities. The conditions of work in the mines certainly
seem hard in a number of particulars, and much sympathy has been ex-
pressed, but, if the statements of the operators and mine-owners be accepted,
many of the hardships seem unavoidable; others quite incapable of being
remedied by the measures proposed by the Union. The miners, however,
demanded an increase of 20 per cent in the rates paid for coal mined by the
ton ; a decrease of the working day for time workers from ten to eight hours,
without increase in the rates per day; that all coal mined be weighed,
2,240 pounds always constituting a ton, as the basis of the miner's pay. The
allegations upon which these demands were based were that miners working
by the ton produced were deprived of a good part of their just dues by the
practice of deducting a certain percentage, to cover impurities, stone and
foreign substances, inevitably finding their way into the coal cars. This rate
of deduction, they claimed, was excessive, and was frequently fixed on a
load arbitrarily by the accountants. It was also claimed that the size and
capacity of the cars supposed to contain a ton were constantly being in-
creased. According to their estimates all these abuses could be rectified by
weighing all loads of coal and increasing the miner's dues by 20 per cent,
or practically dividing the loss, usually estimated at a figure between 20 and
30 per cent. Regarding the decrease of the working day, it was claimed
that the proposed changes would benefit the miners by giving them 240 or
250 days of work per year at 8 hours, instead of only 200 days at IO hours,
while not materially increasing the output of the operators.

636 WORKERS OF THE NATION

These demands were rejected by the operators for several reasons: In
the first place, they claimed, that the question of miner's wage rates had
already been adjusted, acceding to demands in September, 1900, and that
there had been no just occasion for dissatisfaction since that date. In the
second place, they argued that the weighing of loads from the mines was not
always practicable, and that, in any case, it would add materially to the
running expenses to install and maintain the proper plants. Regarding
the allegations as to the increase in the size of cars used, it was stated
that the system was to pay for loads in accordance with the labor neces-
sary to mine the coal in particular veins; hence, where there is a
large thick vein a larger car may be used, the cubic capacity of the
car being gauged by the nature of the working in each case. Thus, in
order to figure the returns properly, in accordance with the miners' sug-
gestions, different car rates must necessarily be adopted, with little, if any,
benefit to the miners. On the basis of these facts, the operators refused to
concede the claim that if coal is sold by the ton the miner should be paid by
the ton ; since, properly speaking, the coal is not purchased from the miners,
they being merely paid for their labor, on as carefully adjusted a scale as
possible, while the product coming from the mines must necessarily be
cleaned of impurities before fitted for market, with a varying percentage of
clear loss by weight and the involved necessity of employing slate pickers to
handle it. According to estimates of the operators, the cost per ton of min-
ing coal was in 1900 about $1.67, out of which $1.12 was credited to labor;
in 1901, about $1.82, with $1.26 to labor; and to April 30, 1902, about
$1.99, with $1.38 credited to labor. The wage accounts of one of the
largest companies shows that the average earnings of miners and assistants
of all grades runs from $2.08 to $3.01, while the slate pickers receive $1.20;
the several classes of laborers from about $1.30 to $1.60. An authoritative
estimate gives the total of annual wages in the anthracite region at about
$66,000,000, while the president of one of the largest operating companies
claims a total of $10,500,000 for "wages of all kinds," and only $1,750,000
to be distributed as dividends among the stockholders. Another large com-
pany divides its total annual receipts as follows : For wages, 58 per cent ; for
supplies, repairs, etc., over 12 per cent; for taxes, insurance and royalty
nearly 9 per cent ; for general expenses, not quite i per cent, and for "fixed
charges," over 21 per cent, which showing involves, of course, that no divi-
dends were paid.

It would seem from these figures that the business of coal mining must
be conducted with reference to conditions of demand and supply, like all
other enterprises. At one time the demand falls so far that it is not profit-
able to work the mines, while at another, the full force must be employed.
Thus, the proposition to reduce the working day to eight hours and operate
the mines more days in the year was met by the answer that, as only about
60 per cent of the capacity of the mines is required to fill market orders, and
that, as expenses continue throughout the year, the fixed rate of wages must

THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY 637

be maintained, or the advances be deducted from the total for general ex-
penses, or by reduction of the output. The increase of 20 per cent in wages
would amount to about 46 cents per ton increase on the average, which,
with the increased cost through reduction of output would make a total of
60 cents per ton over the present market price. Several of the operators
conceded that the men had substantial grievances during IQOO, on account
of the necessarily frequent stoppages of work, but they added that, an extra
demand for labor found many of the men unwilling to respond, while con-
stant picnics, excursions and the like still further interrupted the work on
numerous occasions. Furthermore, several operators claimed that time-
contract miners do not work for the full period of one working day, many
miners working only five hours daily, few, if any of them working as long
as the breaker runs, which is seven and a half hours daily. On the basis of
these facts it was claimed that the demand for shorter hours was very ill-
founded.

The refusal of the operators to accede to the demands of the strikers
brought forth a compromise proposition of 10 per cent increase in pay per
ton and 10 per cent decrease in the working day, which, also being refused,
resulted in a proposition to arbitrate. The operators' position was that
there was "nothing to arbitrate ;" hence the strike was declared, which seri-
ously affected the fuel supply of the country for several months. The diffi-
culty of settling the dispute on any basis was very largely increased by the
unwillingness of the operators to recognize the Miners' Union, although, ac-
cording to their own statements, the fundamental difficulty was that the
organization was founded in the bituminous coal fields, and officered by men
from thence, and that they were unwilling to deal with strangers. Although
this position was bitterly criticised in many quarters, the operators insisted
that they would favor a union among the anthracite men alone, if its offi-
cers could be depended on not to interfere with discipline. They further
complained that, while this "bituminous body" could combine to force up
running expenses, the operators were restrained by law from combining to
raise the price of coal, in order to meet the greater expenditure.

In November, 1902, a Strike Commission was appointed by President
Roosevelt to receive testimony and settle the strike "by arbitration."

CHAPTER III
THE IRON MINING INDUSTRY

The Iron Age — Iron Ore Production — Methods of Iron Mining — The Magnetic Process
of Iron Ore Reduction — Machinery in Iron Ore Reducing Works — The Iron Miner's
Life — Labor Conditions in Iron Mines — Lake Superior Iron Mining Region

THE IRON AGE

THE nineteenth century has, with justice, been called the Iron Age of
the world's history. The discovery of vast bodies of iron ore and
mineral fuel, together with the invention of many mechanical devices,
and also certain improved processes for the manufacture of steel, were the
beginning of the complicated civilization in which we now live. In the early
part of the last century there was little demand for iron and steel, and only
a trifling production of either in any country. The railroad era began at
the close of the first quarter of the century, and the consumption of iron and
steel at once increased. The general use of iron and steel bridges and iron
and steel steamships came later. Steel in the construction of large buildings,
especially those of great height, was next introduced. Steel cars for general
freight purposes became popular. Inventions in the line of agricultural
machinery, textile machinery, mining machinery, electrical machinery and
machine tools rapidly increased the demand for iron and steel.

The invention of the Bessemer process for making steel, and its com-
panion, the Siemens open-hearth process, would have availed comparatively
little to enrich mankind had not an abundance of iron ore and coal been
obtainable to make practicable the merits of these inventions. In the United
States, Nature has been particularly lavish in her supply of the raw mate-
rials needed in the manufacture of steel. The anthracite coal of Pennsyl-
vania, the bituminous coal of numerous other States, and the Connellsville
and Pocahontas coke afford all the fuel necessary for our blast furnaces.
Iron ore was early found in many States, but the discovery, in the second
quarter of the century, of immense bodies of iron ore in the Lake Superior
region, which are particularly adapted to the manufacture of steel by the
Bessemer process, eventually put this country at the head of the list in the
world's production of iron and steel. The rapid manufacture of iron and
steel rails made possible the miraculous extension of railroads, the discovery
and development of our mineral and agricultural resources, and the new
homes all over the country.
(638)

THE IRON MINING INDUSTRY 639

IRON ORE PRODUCTION

The history of iron mining in the United States is one of the wonder
tales of the century. This statement applies particularly to the State of
Minnesota, where ore shipments began from the Vermilion Range in 1884,
with a consignment of 62,124 tons. The first shipment of the Mesabi Range
was only a matter of 4,245 tons in 1892. The ore shipments from both
ranges in 1900 amounted to no less than 10,000,000 tons. Had that ore
been loaded into twenty-ton cars, it could have filled a train that would have
reached from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Canada to Mexico.
Since 1894, Minnesota has ranked second among the iron-producing States,
finally passing in 1901 and 1902 above Michigan, her only rival, to the
place at the head of the line. The total number of mines in Minnesota is
fifty-six, nearly all in St. Louis County. Four of the mines are owned by
the State, but only one of these is worked at present. Seventy-five hundred
men are employed in the iron ore industry in this single State. About five
per cent of these may be classed as "skilled labor" ; they are engineers, car-
penters, blacksmiths, machinists, pump and pipe men, skip tenders, loaders
and oilers. Thirty per cent are the regular miners, twelve per cent the
trammers, sixteen per cent the underground common laborers, and thirty-
seven per cent the surface common laborers.

The Labor Commissioner of Minnesota states that while a few iron
mines operate very nearly the whole year, a large number of them are idle
during part of the time. Thus, although five mines were operated more
than three hundred days each during a recent year, yet, because of the idle-
ness of the rest, the average working time for all was but a trifle over eight
months. In another year the average for all reached ten months. As the
average daily wages for all mine workers in the same year was $1.89, or
$49.14 per month, and the average time worked was ten months, it will be
seen that the yearly earnings of all the men averaged only $491.40 each.

In the first year of the present century the Lake Superior region, embrac-
ing iron ore mines in the States of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin,
produced nearly 21,000,000 long tons, or more ore than was mined in the
United States in any one year previously, with the exception of 1899, and
more than has been reported as produced in any year by a foreign country.

After Minnesota and Michigan, as reported by the Geological Survey, comes Alabama,
third in the list of iron-producing States. The large installation of basic open-hearth fur-
naces promises a still greater utilization of Alabama's iron-ore resources in the future.
Virginia ranked fourth, Pennsylvania fifth, Wisconsin sixth, and Tennessee seventh in the
iron-producing States for 1901. New York, which stood eighth in the general production,
shared with Pennsylvania the unique distinction among the States of producing, in 1900,
all four general classes of iron ore; that is, magnetite, brown hematite, red hematite, and
carbonate ores. Colorado, which ranks sixth among the iron-producing States, obtained
a considerable amount of brown hematite from its silver mines, and much of it, carrying
manganese, was used in blast furnaces in Colorado and Illinois to produce spiegeleisen.
The Rocky Mountain States, which are low in actual production of iron, possess, however,
some deposits which may properly be considered important iron ore reserves.

The total value at the mines of the 27,553,161 long tons of iron ore produced in the

640 WORKERS OF THE NATION

calendar year 1900 was $66,590,504, an average of $2.42 per long ton. The lowest average
value reported per ton was eight-two cents in the State of Texas, where convict labor is
employed in some of the mining operations. The highest value was $3.71 per ton in Colo-
rado. The production for 1900, as for 1898 and 1899, was a record-breaker, not only for
this country, but the outputs of iron ores during these years have never been equalled
by any other country, the nearest approach to our output being in 1900 by the German
empire, when 18,667,950 long tons were produced.

METHODS OF IRON MINING

There are several distinct methods of iron mining in vogue, the use of any
one of which is determined by the nature and conditions of the particular
formation. Where the deposit of iron ore is superficial, being found just
below the surface soil, it may be readily worked by the "open-pit" method,
by which steam shovels dig down the ore and load it into cars, until a large
open pit is excavated, after the manner familiar in stone quarries. The
working of the mine is easy in such formations in the middle Northwest
iron region, since the ore is loose, having a consistency resembling that of
earth or bank sand, and may be readily taken out by the steam shovel.
Where the ore is situated far beneath the surface, or in the interior of a
mountain formation, it is necessary to dig long tunnels, or shafts, and to
extract the ore by either one of the three methods, known, respectively, as
"overhead stopping," "caving," or "milling." The first method consists
in sinking a timber-lined shaft about 2,000 feet or more into the earth, and
driving tunnels horizontally through the deposit of ore, which is mined
out, and conveyed through, to the central shaft, being thence hoisted to
the surface. The caving method is much like this in many respects, also
using a central shaft and side tunnels; the principal difference being that,
as the ore is taken out to the shaft, the ground is allowed to cave in, form-
ing an immense pit. The "milling" method is used where the deposits of
ore occur in a high hill, gravity being employed to bring down the ore.
The essential feature is a tunnel, usually twelve or fifteen feet square, the
roof of which is connected to shafts sunk down from the summit of the
hill, so that, when the ore is blown down into any of them, it falls into cars
waiting in the tunnel to receive it. This method saves timber for roofing
and propping. The open pit is preferred wherever the deposit is sufficiently
near the surface, or where the ore can be conveniently reached by the steam
shovel, since it permits the greatest quantity to be taken out with the least
trouble, danger and expense.

THE "MAGNETIC" PROCESS OF IRON ORE REDUCTION

One of the most important and significant innovations in the domain of
iron mining and manufacture is the process of extracting the ore from the
magnetic rock of New Jersey and other places in the Eastern and Middle
States. This process, which was devised and carried to practical perfection
by the genius of Thomas A. Edison, has made available to trade vast de-
posits of iron, quite inaccessible by older methods of mining and smelting,
and has given a new lease of life to the Bessemer steel industry in the

THE IRON MINING INDUSTRY 641

East. Although it has long been known that iron was plentiful in New
Jersey, Connecticut and several other Atlantic States, the ore is of such a
"low grade" as to render its profitable treatment almost impossible. Mr.
Edison, however, conceived the brilliant idea that this rock could be crushed
and pulverized, and the iron extracted by magnetism. This method, which
had already proved successful in treating ferruginous sea sand, consists
essentially in allowing the ground rock to fall from a hopper before a series
of electro-magnets, which attract the particles of iron, causing them to be
deflected into the receptacle prepared for them, but leaving the sand and
other mineral grains unaffected. Although apparently an extremely simple
matter to crush the rock and extract the ore, there were a large number of
practical difficulties in the way, particularly such as applied to the crushing
process and the preparation of the ore for the blast furnace. All of these
problems Mr. Edison met and solved most effectively.

The deposits of iron in the mountains of New Jersey are located by the
use of a delicately adjusted magnetic needle ; the course of the veins being
carefully mapped out and the surface soil cleared away with a steam shovel.
The iron-bearing rock is then drilled and blasted with dynamite, the frag-
ments being conveyed in five-ton skips on cars to the crushing mill. Here
the largest rocks blown down in the quarry may be reduced to powder in a
remarkably short period, with the smallest percentage of friction and lost
power ever realized in any manufacturing machinery. The crushers con-
sist of a series of double rollers, or revolving cylinders, or immense weight,
the peripheries of which are set with great teeth. In the construction of
these machines a troublesome problem is overcome in the fact that, when
engaged in crushing the ore, an automatic clutch disconnects the engine,
leaving the crushing process to be performed solely by the momentum of
the vast rotating weights, thus saving the powerful engine from the great
strains that must, otherwise, be encountered. This clutch is thrown as soon
as the resistance of a rock tends to impede the motion of the rolls, although
their weight alone, about seventy tons, is amply sufficient at high momen-
tum to batter the obstacle to pieces between the protruding teeth. The first
pair of rollers are set about eighteen inches apart, another pair below them
being somewhat closer together, so that the masses of rock, emerging from
between their serrated surfaces, are reduced to about the size of a man's
head. These fragments are then caught in steel baskets on an endless
belt conveyer, which carries them to another part of the building, to pass
through other sets of rolls, until, at the last stage, nothing but a fine powder
remains.

The powdered ore is conveyed by an automatic carrier to the refining
house, where it is elevated to the sixth story and allowed to fall, under the
force of gravity, through a series of screens and sieves, and past three sets,
or in all about 480, magnets of regular increasing strength, or "pull," until
practically all the iron particles are deflected into the hoppers reserved for
them. The sand is then conveyed to the sand tower, from which an endless

10 — Vol. 2

642 WORKERS OF THE NATION

belt of buckets carries it to a great craneway and deposits it in piles out-
side. It is a valuable commodity for masons, builders and others, who
consider it superior to sea or bank sand, as being composed of sharp points
that give better adhesion to cement, mortar, etc. The iron powder, on the
other hand, is carried by a belt-conveyer to the blower-house, where foreign
substances are separated from it by a blast of air, after which another belt-
conveyer carries it to the mixing house, to be mingled with a special ad-
hesive substance, formed into "briquettes," or round lumps, baked and
loaded into cars for shipment to the founder and steel manufacturer.

The object of forming the iron into briquettes is to render it available
for commercial use, since, in the form of powder, a large part of it would
be blown out in the powerful furnace blast, while the remainder would
prevent the gases of combustion from circulating freely in the process of
smelting. The adhesive mixture used is another contribution of Mr. Edi-
son's genius, being of such a character as to give the briquettes the very
essential qualities of porosity, hardness, resistance to temperatures below
the fusing point, thus preventing premature disintegration, while, at the
same time, being inexpensive and sufficiently powerful to allow of the
smallest quantities being used. In mixing with the adhesive material the
iron powder is drawn on endless belt-conveyers through long cylinders, in
which revolve constantly a series of curved iron paddles or dashers. An-
other belt-conveyer carries the sticky mass of ore to the briquetting ma-
chines, which, briefly described, consist of a plunger that forces a portion
at each stroke into a small round chamber, thus forming it, under enormous
pressure, into a smooth, regularly shaped lump, either two and a half or three
and a half inches in diameter. From these machines the briquettes are con-
veyed on another belt through a series of ovens, in which they are heated
to a sufficiently high temperature to make them hard enough to withstand
moisture, jolting and other disintegrating influences met in transportation.
They are also able to retain their solidity up to the melting point of iron,
and, although porous, will not absorb moisture. By the process thus de-
scribed about 6,000 tons of rock are daily reduced to sand and briquettes,
the output of iron being about 1,500 tons, or twenty-five per cent of the
total weight of the virgin rock.

MACHINERY IN IRON ORE REDUCING WORKS

Apart from perfecting a process which is of the greatest importance in
the industrial and commercial world, Mr. Edison has, in this plant, pro-
duced several marvels of mechanical skill. Among these may be mentioned
the lubricating device used on all bearings, which not only protects the
moving parts from the abrasion of the sand and dust, but actually depends
for its proper action on the presence of dust and grit. The method of
crushing large masses of rock by the momentum of heavy, rapidly-moving
rollers is another improvement worthy of mention, since it is a complete
departure from previous styles of crushing machinery, and will doubtless

THE IRON MINING INDUSTRY 643

prove valuable in sugar refining and other branches of manufacture. In
the process of pulverizing the iron-bearing rock, the atmosphere of all build-
ings is, of course, filled with fine dust. This would prove extremely in-
jurious to the lungs and eyes of the workmen, were it not for the patent
breathing masks and goggles all of them are obliged to wear. As it is,
their clothing is so covered with the dust that they resemble millers.

THE IRON MINER'S LIFE

The average lot of an iron miner is a great improvement over that of his
brother in the coal region. Iron miners are probably the hardiest and
thriftiest, as well as the most inedependent, set of men employed in the
mines of this country. This is especially true of the iron miners of the
Lake Superior region. Many of them own their own pretty homes, and
some of them have small sums of money to their credit in the savings banks.

The conditions under which they work are such as to stimulate them to
their best endeavors. Owing to the peculiar condition of the labor market
in this region, they are able, through their labor organizations, to regulate
somewhat the amount of their wages and the number of hours they shall
work each day. In the great iron mines of Minnesota and Michigan, the
ore is generally worked in the "Chamber system," a form of quarrying
rather than mining, so that iron miners escape the close confinement under-
ground that is the curse of the coal miners' existence. Although their
duties are arduous, the conditions under which they are performed are
healthful. Finally, if not satisfied with their surroundings, the iron miners
know that they can always get work on the nearest farm.

Between 350,000 and 400,000 men are engaged in the mining and trans-
portation of iron ore. This great army of workers handles yearly about
one hundred million dollars' worth of raw material, receiving for their labor
an aggregate annual wage of fifty million dollars.

LABOR CONDITIONS IN IRON MINES

Methods of work in the great iron mines have greatly altered in the
course of recent years. The efficiency of the miner has been so wonder-
fully increased by the introduction of labor-saving and time-saving devices
that a single miner in an underground mine, by the use of machinery, can
now turn out five or six tons of ore a day, while at the open mines, which
are immense basins hollowed out of the earth, the output has often been
as high as eighty tons for each man employed. An authority cites the case
of the Tower Mine in Minnesota, one of the most wonderful iron-producing
properties in the world. In the caverns of this great mine, less than ten
years ago, 1,800 men produced daily an average of only one ton of ore for
each man, at a cost of about one dollar and a half. To-day, by the use of
machinery, it requires only half as many men, namely, 750, to produce the
same quantity of ore. That is to say, each miner now sends to the surface
two tons of ore a day, reducing the cost of production one-half.

644 WORKERS OF THE NATION

So vast are these great iron mines that a whole day is required to travel
through a single one of them with a mine foreman as pilot. Such a journey
reveals the wonderful extent to which machinery has replaced the hand of
the miner. Hammer and drill in the hands of the primitive miner have
been entirely superseded by machine drills driven by compressed air.
Monster steam shovels take the place of the hand shovel and wheelbarrow
of the original miner. A single one of these steam shovels loads two hun-
dred cars a day from the stock piles, doing the work which formerly re-
quired the labor of two hundred men.

The greatest danger to the iron miner comes from the constant use of
explosives. Ahead of the shovels the ore is shaken up by the use of
powder. The men whose duty it is to do the blasting use pointed steel
bars, with which they drive holes many feet deep and several inches in
diameter. Into this hole a dynamite stick is dropped, and thus a cavity
is made sufficient to hold five or six kegs of black powder. By exploding
this powder the ore is loosened in sufficient quantities to feed the ever-indus-
trious shovels. From the fact that even the smallest mine consumes an
average of thirty-five or forty kegs a day, it is apparent that there is a
constant upheaval of earth in these localities.

LAKE SUPERIOR IRON MINING REGION

The Lake Superior mining region might be called the Promised Land of
organized labor. There the labor unions are able to enforce any reasonable
demand relating to wages and hours. The secret of their power lies in the
fact that labor here is scarce and high-priced, and operators will make almost
any concession rather than cease work altogether. No matter what the
industrial conditions in other parts of the country may have been, the labor
supply in the iron region has always been inadequate. This is explained by
the fact that the iron mines are in the centre of a great agricultural region,
where the miner can always secure work if he cares to leave the mines.

In their endeavor to secure miners, operators of iron mines have fre-
quently offered monetary premiums in the form of a -bonus given as a
reward after a certain period of service. When they hire men from distant
sections of the country, it is always understood that they shall pay their rail-
road fare to the mines. In order to hold them permanently, the mine owners
use every opportunity to encourage their men to save their money and build
their own homes. Therein they show shrewd business judgment, for no
matter how humble the habitation, it serves as an anchor for the miner and
holds him fast to his first allegiance. As the ownership of the homes in-
creases, the danger of the miners deserting the mines for the wheat fields
decreases.

Even the unskilled laborer in the iron mines is paid at the rate of two
dollars a day. The principal nationalities represented among these workers
are the German, the Hun, the Irishman, and the Italian, who form a Babel-
like aggregation of energies.

CHAPTER IV
COPPER, LEAD AND ZINC MINING INDUSTRIES

The Copper Mining Industry — Butte, the World's Greatest Copper Camp — The Lead Min-
ing Industry — The Zinc Mining Industry — Marketing the Product of Zinc Mines —
Labor Conditions at Western Ore Mines — Copper, Lead and Zinc Smelting and
Refining

THE COPPER MINING INDUSTRY

THE United States now leads the world in the production of copper,
and regulates the copper market. Europe depends upon the copper
mines of Montana and Michigan for the bulk of her copper. Ameri-
can mines produced, in 1900, 270,588 tons of copper, an amount that is
more than equal to the combined production of all other similar mines in
the world, as shown by the fact that the world's production of copper in
1900 only amounted to 487,331 tons.

The deepest copper mines in the world and the oldest in this country are
in Michigan, where shafts like that of the Calumet and Hecla pierce the
earth to the depth of nearly a mile. This same mine, the Calumet and
Hecla, has more than once paid one hundred and fifty per cent on the invest-
ment. The Quincy copper mine in the same district has paid annual divi-
dends of one hundred per cent. .

An unusual increase in the copper output of the Lake Superior region
characterized the production of 1901. It is estimated that the output of that
year reached the unparalleled figure of 170,000,000 pounds. The total re-
turns for the same region, in 1900, were 145,461,498 pounds. The Calu-
met and Hecla, and also the Quincy, produced more in 1901 than in any pre-
vious year, whereas in 1900 the Calumet and Hecla output was less than
normal, owing to the fact that that mine was then developing the Osceola
lode. The production of the Lake mines, in 1902, nearly reached the enor-
mous sum of 200,000,000 pounds, which is twice their output in 1890, and
four times that of 1880.

The copper mines of Montana alone, "The Treasure State," yield over
one quarter of the world's supply of that useful metal. The number of per-
sons who find there direct employment in mining and reducing copper ores,
reaches into the tens of thousands. An equal number of persons are indi-
rectly benefited by the manufacture and sale of the necessary supplies for
those employed in the mines. The towns of Butte, Anaconda, and Great
Falls, which have a combined population of more than eighty-five thousand

(645)

646 WORKERS OF THE NATION

people, exist largely to minister to the mining and smelting industries con-
nected with copper mining.

The mines of this State have, through their output of copper, made pos-
sible the expansion of the electrical industry. Especially have they assisted
the manufacture of installations for power transmissions, and contributed
to the development of shipbuilding and of marine engineering, besides many
other industries, among which are the manufacture of structural materials
and conveniences for domestic and public use.

BUTTE, THE WORLD'S _ GREATEST COPPER CAMP

Because of its apparently inexhaustible copper mines, Silverbow, the
smallest county in the State of Montana, is one of the richest mineral dis-
tricts in the world. In this little county is the City of Butte, the City of
Great Future, founded on a mountain of copper, and rightly called the great-
est copper camp on earth. Within the little area described by a radius of
two miles from the centre of Butte, more mineral wealth is produced every
twelve months than is yielded by the whole State of Colorado in the same
length of time. Under this remarkable town, at once a noisy, bustling min-
ing camp and a splendid metropolitan city, exists the very core of one of
the most remarkable copper deposits ever discovered. Upon this copper
foundation Butte is built.

The Butte copper mines are, indeed, the wonder of the world. During
twenty years of development their production has increased to such an enor-
mous extent that the district now furnishes more than twenty-five per cent
of the world's entire supply of copper. Should 'the copper mines of the
Butte district shut down for three months, there would be a copper famine
in Europe and America, and every industrial centre on the globe would be
affected thereby to an almost revolutionary extent.

The report of the Montana Bureau of Industry tells how millions upon
millions of dollars have been invested in the copper industry in the Butte
district. The bureau further shows how millions of dollars are paid out
each year in wages to the men employed in the mines, while millions more
go into the pockets of the Eastern capitalists. Mammoth hoisting plants,
splendidly equipped with the latest and most improved machinery, dot the
hillsides about the city. Reduction plants of amazing size, supplied with
everything that the genius of two continents could devise for the economical
treatment of ore, are located within convenient distances of the mines ; while
every appliance that would tend to lessen the cost of mineral production
without diminishing the wages of the workers, can be found in successful
operation here. Copper will be the chief production of the Butte district
for the next quarter of a century. That is the judgment of geologists and
mining experts, founded on a thorough examination of the ore deposits of
the district. The State Labor Commissioner reports that the deepest shafts
have only reached a depth of two thousand two hundred feet. It has been
demonstrated at every copper mine in the district that the ore improves and

COPPER, LEAD AND ZINC MINING INDUSTRIES 647

is enriched with depth. In not a single copper mine in the district is there
the slightest indication to show that the bottom of the ore deposit has been
reached. The annual production of copper in this district is valued at
$50,000,000.

Butte disburses more money to the men and women employed in its
various industrial interests than any town of twice its size in the country,
chiefly because labor here receives the highest rates of wages in the United
States. Each of the various mining companies pays more than a million
dollars in wages to the men employed at the mines. Add to this the amount
paid by the smelters and the various mercantile and manufacturing houses,
and the total is not far from $2,000,000 per month.

The Chief of the Montana Labor Bureau reports that the money on de-
posit in the banks of Butte amounts to more than twelve millions of dollars.
By far the greater portion of this belongs to the men who go down into the
mines, who work in the mills and smelters, and who assist in turning into
the channels of the world the constant stream of wealth that flows from
the hills.

THE LEAD MINING INDUSTRY

The lead industry of the United States is chiefly in the hands of the
National Lead Company and the American Smelting and Refining Com-
pany. The National Lead Company, a combination of the majority of the
principal lead companies, was organized in 1891 with a capital of $30,000,-
ooo, and now controls seventeen plants. In the production of more than
300,000 tons of metallic lead in 1902, about nine thousand men were em-
ployed. Throughout the whole of the year 1900 the lead markets in the
United States were practically under the control of the American Smelting
and Refining Company. During 1900, negotiations were begun which cul-
minated in the spring of 1901, in the fusion of the interests of this com-
pany with that of M. Guggenheim's Sons.

As indicated by the report of the United States Geological Survey, the lead that comes
into the market is drawn from various sources. From southeastern Missouri come lead
ores, the bulk of which are treated in smelting works controlled and owned by the min-
ing companies themselves. A part of these ores and some furnace material are purchased
by outside smelters, chiefly those of the St. Louis district. Eastern desilverizers have also,
at times, drawn upon this district for smelting material. Lead ores are obtained from the
zinc lead mines of southwestern Missouri and southeastern Kansas, which is known as
the Joplin-Galena district. Some of these are smelted in local works.

In Iowa a small quantity of lead ore, which is the product of the Dubuque district, is
also smelted locally. This lead, being practically free from silver, is directly marketable.
It is known as "soft lead." The same kind of product is also mined, in small quantities,
in Virginia and Tennessee. A growing percentage of lead ores from Missouri, Kansas,
Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, is purchased by desilverizers, who use it in connection with
the production of hard lead. Leal smelters also employ it as a carrier for silver. The
"soft lead" does not, therefore, represent the entire output to be credited to the Mississippi1
valley.

By far the greatest quantity of lead, however, is obtained by the smelting of argentif-
erous lead ores mined in the Rocky Mountain region in mixture with ores of the precious
metals free from lead. These are called "dry ores," and can be handled more economically

648 WORKERS OF THE NATION

by lead smelters than they can be treated locally by amalgamation or by other processes
used for the extraction of gold and silver. Practically, the lead in these ores has become
the carrier for the precious metals in the "dry" ores, and, generally speaking, it may be
stated that the offerings of "dry" ores have been so heavy for many years that suitable lead
ores always find eager buyers.

The census reports show a steady increase during the last few years in
the quantity of lead produced in the United States. The net American
product for 1900 is calculated to have been 270,824 short tons. The "Metall-
gesellschaft" of Frankfort on the Main estimates the total production of the
world for that year to have been 826,070 metric tons, of which the United
States produced 244,770 tons or more than twenty-five per cent.

The practice of using lead as the carrier for the precious metals and thus
extracting them more cheaply than by the olden methods, has largely in-
creased the quantity of the precious metal products. The value of the gold and
silver, both smelted and refined, included in the $175,466,304 shown in the
census as products, amounted to $130,205,375, or seventy- four per cent of
the total. The value of fine gold and silver included in the total value of
products is $94,153,824, the difference of $36,051,551 being the value of
gold and silver in base bullion of smelters in which refining and desilverizing
is not a part of the process.

THE ZINC MINING INDUSTRY

The United States produced, during the year 1900, 23.5 per cent of the
zinc mined in the world, or 1 10,612 long tons out of a total of 470,937. The
record is not equal to that of the previous year, a falling off that is largely
the result of labor strikes in Illinois during the second half of the year. The
home consumption of spelter was small in 1900, and for the first time the
United States became an important contributor to the world's market of
zinc, exporting both metal and ore.

The great zinc mining region of the United States, situated in a district
at the junction of Kansas with Missouri, and of Missouri with Arkansas,
and including several counties in each State, produces annually nearly one-
quarter of the world's supply of this metal. So far as the production is
concerned, the other zinc districts of the country are practically insignifi-
cant. The zinc is found almost always near to the formations of lead ore,
or galena, and occurs as sulphide, silicate and carbonate, the first named
being the most plentiful. In most cases the lead ore is found near the sur-
face, generally very near to the soil, and seldom more than ten feet down;
while the zinc occurs at depths varying from fifty to two hundred feet. This
fact is probably accountable for a curious incident connected with the his-
tory of this region. It was formerly considered a particularly rich lead dis-
trict, and the mining of this metal was its leading industry. The zinc ore
taken from the mines was for years discarded as worthless, the miners being
ignorant of its real character, which was discovered only by accident.

When, however, the extent and value of the zinc deposits were deter-
mined, the character of the local industry was changed so greatly that lead

COPPER, LEAD AND ZINC MINING INDUSTRIES 649

is regarded as a kind of by-product, while the zinc yields an annual profit of
about $15,000,000. Furthermore, so great has the demand become in re-
cent years, that the value per ton has frequently risen above $30. The lands
occupied by the zinc mines are leased by the owners for a ten per cent share
in the profits, while the contractors or companies so securing them sublet
small tracts on a twenty per cent basis, thus clearing ten cents on each dol-
lar realized. Large fortunes have been accumulated in a few years by these
methods, and virtually every one in the vicinity, who has an available capital,
invests in it to some extent. Persons taking sub-leases sink shafts and work
the ore, selling their product direct to the agents of American or foreign
smelters who are ready to purchase all "jack," as the zinc ore is called.
This is found in the mines in the form of thin sheets in crevices of lime-
stone, in chambers or in breccia rock, which must be blasted down. Occa-
sionally, also, it occurs in clay deposits in the form of loose material that
may be loosened with pick and shovel. It also runs in all grades to nearly
pure zinc sulphide, consisting of between sixty-two and sixty-six per cent
metal. This compound is also known as "sphalerite," and, according to its
general qualities, is popularly called "jack," "rosin jack," and "black jack."
The average cost of mining and preparing the ore for market is about $14
per ton, although it has been done as cheaply as $10 per ton. The price is
constantly rising on account of the various new uses for the metal, also from
the large and constant foreign demand for the ore. This has led to the
installation of improved machinery that greatly facilitates the process of
mining, and, within the last two years, has nearly doubled the output.

NOVEL FEATURES OF ZINC MINING

Zinc mining presents some features wholly different from those that
characterize mining in the ordinary gold, silver, or copper region of the
West. In the localities where the latter metals are found, the country is
mountainous, with here and there a mine extending several hundred feet
into the mountain side. In the zinc country, however, the land is as level
as farming land, and the mines are mere holes in the ground. In the prin-
cipal zinc section of the United States, which, as before stated, is in south-
western Missouri, the man who digs out lead or zinc is usually a farmer or
farm hand, and seldom follows mining as a permanent profession.

Formerly, when zinc was discovered on a farm, the owner and his fam-
ily worked the find, in a primitive way, selling the ore as best they could.
Latterly, however, Eastern capitalists, have interested themselves in this re-
gion, and mining operations are now conducted not only on a larger scale,
but in a more systematic and business-like manner. The region now pro-
duces, at surprisingly small cost, more than a million dollars' worth of ore
each month, and hence southwestern Missouri seems destined to become, in
a very short time, one of the greatest mining centres of the world. This
centre is called the Joplin district, taking its name, probably, from the town
of Joplin, which is the trade centre of the mineral belt.

650 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Immense profits are made in the Joplin district in zinc mining, as the
conditions are such that a ton of ore can be mined, cleaned, and made ready
for sale at a cost of only $ioor$i4a ton. Again, more than one zinc mine,
with a plant that cost less than $5,000, has been sold for $100,000, and in
one instance for $200,000. Many of the owners of zinc-producing land
prefer to lease it, accepting in payment a royalty of ten per cent of the ore
the land produces. Owners of leased land, therefore, have refused prices
as high as $10,000 an acre.

MARKETING THE PRODUCT OF ZINC MINES

The method in which the product of the mines is disposed of and paid
for is the most novel characteristic of this district. Instead of shipping the
zinc ore to smelters, the mine owner sells his "jack," as it is called, to "jack"
buyers who represent American and European smelters. One week's output
comprises the extent of the ordinary transaction between buyer and seller.
The buyers come to the mines in person and make their bids. If one mine
owner declines the bid for his week's output, the buyer drives to the next
mine and makes a similar bid. Of course his offer is a certain price per ton.
As soon as he meets with an acceptance of his proposition, the "jack" buyer
sends his wagons to the mines and hauls the ore to the nearest railroad for
shipment to the smelters which he represents.

All settlements are made Saturday night, and miners, mine owners, and
ore buyers gather in town for this purpose. Hence each mining town on
Saturday evening is a scene of gayety and even revelry. Tradesmen do a
lively business, for thousands of men, women and children throng the
streets. Even the banks open their doors on Saturday evening for the ac-
commodation of the mining men. Money, or its equivalent, is then passed
from hand to hand in novel fashion. The check is made payable to the land-
owner upon whose property the ore was mined. He takes out his ten per
cent royalty, and passes the balance to the original leaseholder, who takes
out his ten per cent royalty and gives what remains to the mine operator,
who pays his operating expenses out of the eighty per cent he receives. In
paying the miners themselves, the prevailing custom is to settle in town, and
every available place is used for that purpose. The mine operators gather
in the hotel corridors and the back rooms of saloons, and every place where
chairs and tables are convenient, and employes come there to receive their
pay.

LABOR CONDITIONS AT A WESTERN ORE MINE

In the practical conduct of the various kinds of ore mines, tin, lead and
zinc, in the Far West and Northwest, there are numerous points of resem-
blance to a lumber camp, in so far as concern the housing and boarding of
the workers. This is necessarily true, since many of the richest mining
districts are situated in wild and mountainous regions, far from civilization.
In such mining camps a wide variety of workers is rerpresented ; miners,

COPPER, LEAD AND ZINC MINING INDUSTRIES 651

blacksmiths, tool repairers, timbermen, carpenters, cooks and assayers. The
men are lodged and boarded by the companies at cost, and are provided with
good food and the best available living accommodations. Necessary sup-
plies, such as shoes, clothing, tobacco, etc., are also furnished at the com-
pany warehouse, which is a veritable department store on a small scale.
Labor under such conditions is, of course, well paid, the miner receiving,
on an average, $3.50 per day, the greater part of which he saves, on account
of the lack of opportunities for spending. Cooks receive about $90 per
month, while their helpers, popularly known as "flunkies" and "slingers,"
are paid between $50 and $60. Living and boarding accommodations are
provided in a building known as the "bunk house," at the average rate of
$i per day, although when a profit is made in one month the men get the
advantage of a reduction of charges in the next. It is, in fact, to the inter-
est of companies operating ore mines in sequestered regions, that the men
be as well housed and fed as possible, since they are liable to change their
working place as often as possible, simply for the sake of variety, and the
aim is to keep them contented as long as possible.

COPPER, LEAD AND ZINC SMELTING AND REFINING

In former times the high cost of transportation made local metallurgical
treatment a necessity. The mining of ores and the working of them were
often carried on by the same firm or corporation. The crushing and milling
of quartz, the separation of gold and silver from the ore, in concentrating
and separating plants, under the cyanide or other processes, are allied with
the mining industry. Copper and lead ores frequently contain paying quan-
tities of gold and silver. A large amount of the dry ores of gold and silver
free from base metals is smelted with the lead and copper ores, the base
metals being merely "carriers." In a number of cases of smelting and re-
fining the value of the precious metals exceeded the value of the base metals.
In others the smelting of lead is only incidental to the extraction of the pre-
cious metals and the subsequent operations. The copper and lead smelters
and refiners, in a recent year, produced 83,650,828 fine ounces of silver and
2,739,188 fine ounces of gold. During the same year there were 54,764,500
ounces of silver and 3,437,210 ounces of gold produced, not including the
product of foreign ores and furnace materials treated in bond. The gold
reported by the smelters does not, on the other hand, include the products
of placer mining or products that do not pass through the smelter.

Lead smelting and refining is carried on in thirty-nine establishments,
the greater number of which are located in Missouri, Colorado and Mon-
tana. Smelters and refineries are, ordinarily, conducted independently ; just
as, in the copper industry, the products of the smelters reach the refineries
as raw material. The majority of the establishments in operation are en-
gaged in smelting only ; one is devoted exclusively to refining and desilveriz-
ing ; a few engage in both branches of the industry. Ten thousand wage-
earners are employed.

652 WORKERS OF THE NATION

There are a few lead smelting plants, relatively unimportant, in Idaho,
Montana, New Mexico, and California, built to reduce the ores locally
mined. The great mass of the ores are hauled often great distances to meet
the fuel and to encounter ores carrying the precious metals. The principal
large plants are in Colorado, Utah, and Montana. An excellent illustra-
tion of this movement is afforded by the famous Coeur d'Alene district in
Idaho, which yields over one-quarter of the lead mined in the United States.
Not a pound is smelted locally, the concentrates and ore being shipped for
reduction to the smelters in Colorado, Montana, Utah, Nebraska, Illinois
and Puget Sound.

A large expenditure is necessary for the establishment of a fully equipped
plant for the smelting and refining of lead, and this, combined with the loca-
tion and character of the raw materials, has resulted in confining the indus-
try to a few huge establishments. Of the thirty-nine establishments re-
ported, fifteen are owned by one company, which thus controls a large per-
centage of the product.

In zinc smelting and refining thirty-one establishments are in operation,
located principally in Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Pennsylvania,
and employing altogether about five thousand wage earners. Kansas is the
leading State in the production of spelter.

A significant movement is reported by the Census as having taken place in recent
years in the districts close to the famous Joplin-Galena ore fields. Before the discovery of
the Kansas natural gas belt, the ores were worked at plants located either in the immediate
vicinity of the ore mines, or in the Kansas coal field, or close to coal in the Chicago dis-
trict, or finally at the principal primary market for the metal, St. Louis. But very rapid
change followed the successful drilling for natural gas at lola, Cherry vale, and adjacent
points in Kansas, large works being located in this district to take advantage of the cheap
and metallurgically advantageous fuel.

The latest Census returns show a capital of no less than $139,354,138
invested in one hundred and seventeen establishments for the reduction of
copper, lead, and zinc ores. This sum represents the value of land, build-
ings, machinery, tools, and implements, and the live capital utilized, but does
not include the capital stock of any of the corporations. The value of the
ores when reduced, in 1900, was $358,786,472. To secure this value in-
volved an outlay of $2,150,018 for the salaries of officials and clerks, $15,-
973,626 for wages, $3,088,007 for miscellaneous expenses, including rent
and taxes; and $279,655,350 for materials used for mill supplies, freight
and fuel.

CHAPTER V
GOLD AND SILVER MINING INDUSTRIES

Production and Consumption of Gold and Silver — Gold and Silver Mining in Rocky Moun-
tain States — Mining in the Cripple Creek Region — Mining in the Klondike — Cape
Nome "Diggings" — Processes of Extracting Precious Metals — Methods of Placer Min-
ing— Hydraulic Mining — Gold Mine Prospectors and Speculators

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF GOLD AND SILVER

THE value of the world's production of gold and silver amounts annu-
ally to about $400,000,000, of which the United States produces
about one-quarter. Of gold alone the world's production in 1900
amounted to 12,457,287 ounces, with a value of $257,514,700. This
showed a loss in value from the previous year of $49,070,200, a loss
ascribed to the war in the Transvaal, one of the world's most productive
gold fields. The extent to which the war there had influenced the produc-
tion of gold is shown by a comparison of the figures of production for
1899 and 1900. From a value of $73,277,100 it fell off to only $9,671,000.
The principal gains in production were made by the United States and
Canada, the former showing an increase in production of $8,118,000, the
latter an increase of $6,600,000. The United States headed the list of
gold-producing countries. The gains in production made by Alaska, Ari-
zona, Colorado and Utah were chiefly instrumental in securing that su-
premacy for this country.

The world's silver output in 1900 amounted to 178,796,796 fine ounces,
the high-water mark of production. The United States again led all other
producers, with Mexico following close behind.

The total gold produced from ores mined in the United States in 1900
was 3,829,897 fine ounces, which had a value of $79,171,000. This amount
is an increase of 392,687 ounces over the production of the previous year.
The gold output of the United States has been steadily increasing for a
number of years. The production of gold in 1902 was valued at $78,-
666,000. r

The total production of silver in 1900 from ores mined in the United
States was 57,647,000 fine ounces, which had a commercial value of $35,-
741,000. This was the largest output noted for several years, exceeding
that of 1899 by 2,434,963 ounces. It was the first time in four years when
any considerable change has been shown. Notwithstanding the fact that
the price of silver has fallen from ninety to sixty cents within the last

(6J

654 WORKERS OF THE NATION

thirty years, the silver mines of Utah, thanks to the improved methods cf
extraction, are making larger profits than ever before.

The industrial consumption of gold in the United States in 1900 is esti-
mated to have been $16,667,500, and in the world, approximately $75,-
000,000. Although the United States leads the world in the production of
gold, our imports of that metal exceed our exports by the sum of $12,866,-
oio. The stock of gold coin in the country, including bullion in the mints,
at the beginning of the twentieth century, was estimated at $1,124,652,-
8i8? and the stock of silver coin at $610,447,025.

GOLD AND SILVER MINING IN ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES

Considerably more than one-third of all the gold and silver mined in the
United States is produced by the mines of Colorado. The value of silver
produced in the United States in 1899 was> f°r example, $34,000,000, of
which Colorado claimed $13,000,000. The total value of the gold output
for the whole United States in the same year was $71,053,400, of which
Colorado produced $25,982,800.

In a State which boasts of an annual mineral production of nearly $50,-
000,000, in addition to its gold and silver, the occupation of mining is prop-
erly among the more highly paid classes of labor. The Colorado State
Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that the wages of miners vary accord-
ing to locality and circumstance, but run from $2.50 to $4 per day, $3
being considered fair wages for a miner in most mining camps. The
number of miners in the State working for less than $3 per day is probably
greater than the number of those receiving more than that amount. The
average wage paid, if all the miners in the State be considered, is slightly
less than $3 per day. At some of the more isolated mines, the men are
paid as high as $4.50 a day. The number of hours' work for a shift is from
eight to ten, by far the greater majority of men working ten hours. Engi-
neers, firemen, pumpmen, and sometimes others, frequently have twelve-
hour shifts. Trammers receive from $2.50 to $2.75 ; cagers, from $2.50 to
$3,25; nippers, from $i to $2; timbermen, from $3 to $4; topmen, from
$2 to $3 ; laborers, from $2 to $2.50; engineers, from $3 to $4.50; pumpmen,
from $3.50 to $4.50; ore sorters, from $2 to $3; blacksmiths, from $3 to
$5 per day.

In many mines a system of compulsory insurance obtains. Men work-
ing in and around mines are insured upon such terms and under such con-
ditions as the management may make with the insurance company assuming
the risk. The consent of the workman is neither requested nor required.
He becomes insured by reason of his becoming an employe of the company.

The miners of Utah seldom receive more than $2.50 a day, but living is
cheaper in Utah than it is in Colorado. The mines are drier and the ex-
pense of rubber clothing is saved. In Montana and Idaho, the average
daily earnings of the miners amount to $3.25. The miners of Colorado,
Montana, Utah, and Idaho are employed about 250 days in the year.

GOLD AND SILVER- MINING INDUSTRIES 655

The Leadville district in Colorado showed in 1900 a gain of $504,280
in gold over the production of 1899. The notable feature of this camp is
the enormous outlay necessary for pumping water. It is done under an
agreement by which the several companies divide the cost on the basis of
the value of their output. The cost in 1900 was $1.14 for each ton of ore
raised. Over twenty-eight tons of water was raised for each ton of ore.

MINING IN THE CRIPPLE CREEK REGION

Since the discovery of gold at Cripple Creek, in 1891, that district has
developed as under the touch of a magician's wand. Towns have literally
sprung up there in a night. The camp now covers more than one hundred
and thirty square miles, and in it are numerous towns, besides the cities
of Cripple Creek and Victor, which have populations of twenty thousand
and eight thousand, respectively. The smaller towns are Altman, Ana-
conda, Elkton, Lawrence, Goldfield, Gillett, Mound City, Cameron and
Requa. With each development of a new part of the camp another town
has sprung up, meeting some special need. These are now closely con-
nected by straggling lines of cabins and dwellings, and the larger towns are
joined by steam railroads and electric street car lines.

The visitor to Cripple Creek who counts upon seeing a camp of the
"rip-roaring" type, made familiar by Bret Harte, will be thoroughly dis-
appointed. It can not be denied that he will behold many features char-
acteristic of the life of "boom" places in the West, but he will also see a
very sober, earnest population, engaged in the business of extracting
precious metals from the mountains. He will find the names of eight thou-
sand miners on the pay-rolls of companies that altogether disburse each
month the sum of nearly $1,000,000. He will also find that the estimated
total investment of $50,000,000 in the camp is represented by valuable real
estate, railroads, business blocks, and magnificent mine equipments. That
all this has been a wise and paying investment is sufficiently attested by the
figures in the case. During the year 1901 Cripple Creek produced $25,-
500,000 in gold, bringing the total gold production up to a sum exceeding
$100,000,000. In that one year the mines paid nearly $5,000,000 in
dividends.

Development work in this district, as reported by the Geological Survey,
has been heavy during the past few years, but the area of good gold-bearing
territory has not been materially widened. Nearly all gold producers keep
development work ahead of production; and the reserves in sight are
enormous. Twelve shafts, on as many different properties, are down over
twelve hundred feet, and the ore bodies at this depth are very promising.

Perhaps the most significant feature of progress is the tendency to con-
solidate small properties by the organization of large companies and by the
outright purchase of single claims on the part of heavy investors. A large
amount of valuable territory has by this means passed into strong hands,
and extensive development operations are certain to result. The new mills

656 WORKERS OF THE NATION

and reduction works constructed during recent years, with the additions
made to old works, give an increased capacity of about 1,200 tons of ore
a day.

MINING IN THE KLONDIKE

Though experienced miners declare that it will take until 1910, at least,
at the present rate of production, to work out the gold creeks of the Klon-
dike, yet certain it is that the boom period is at an end. Gone are the
days of abnormally high wages and of exorbitant prices. The mining
industry in this region, like all ordinary business, is now conducted on a
normal basis. The one thing that may cause a half-hearted revival of old
times in the Klondike 'is the discovery of gold in the hillsides above the
beds of the creeks. It is believed that, in nearly all cases, when the pay
streak gives out in the creek, it can be found again in the hillside bordering
the creek. It is estimated that the number of men still engaged in mining
in the Dawson regions of Alaska is about fifteen thousand. One-half of
this number are working for wages. The others are engaged on "lays" ore,
working individual claims, or prospecting.

The wages paid during 1902 cut the old rate in half: that is, from $1.50
an hour in 1898 to seventy cents an hour in 1902, or five dollars a day with
board. The old rate of $1.50 an hour, however, is still observed in paying
for mechanical labor, such as woodworking and blacksmithing. Cooks are
still paid as much as ten dollars a day, and waiters receive from twenty-five
to forty dollars a week, with board.

CAPE NOME "DIGGINGS"

Gold was discovered in the beach sands of Cape Nome in 1898, and the
yield from beach and tundra in that locality was $2,400,000 for that season.
A shovel, a pick, and a rocker were all that was required to equip an able-
bodied man for profitable operations, and the handsome results gained by
hundreds caused a tremendous influx of gold hunters in the spring of 1899.
By the time the outsiders arrived, however, the beach was practically
worked out, and those who did not abandon the territory scattered over the
interior and up and down the peninsula, searching the creek beds and tundra.
Valuable claims were developed in a number of localities, as shown by the
fact that the total yield credited to this territory, which is about three hun-
dred and fifty miles long by one hundred miles wide, for the year 1900
was $5,100,000.

The output of the creeks alone has amounted to more than $1,000,000
annually ever since the discovery of gold in the Nome district. With the
remarkable developments of beach diggings, since 1899, however, the output
for the next few years promises to come nearer to $3,000,000. Four men
working eight days with one rocker have taken from a space twenty-four
by thirty feet, and three feet deep, $5,200, or more than $162 a day for
each man.

GOLD AND SILVER MINING INDUSTRIES 657

The beach claims are found where streams empty into the ocean, bringing
gold from the placers above. The gold, black sand, and garnets are con-
centrated in layers, or "pay streaks," from one- fourth of an inch to two
inches in thickness. In spots they are very rich, as at the mouth of Daniels
Creek, where the action of the waves has concentrated values to such an ex-
tent that miners in the spring of 1900 took out from $10,000 to $15,000
with a single rocker. It has been commonly thought that the black sand
which is associated with the gold is itself gold-bearing, but careful inves^
tigation determines that this is not the case. The high specific gravity of the
sand has caused it to be deposited by action of the water with the gold.

The tundra claims are of value only where they are located upon the
bed of an old stream. These claims might properly be called beach claims,
as they are commonly above the present water level of adjacent streams.
The most productive claims are located on Anvil Creek, Glacier and Snow
Gulches, Dexter Creek, Dry Creek, Nikola Gulch, Topkak and Daniels
Creeks, Gold Run, Crooked Creek, Ophir Creek, and Sweetcake Creek.

While pay dirt is widely distributed, and, in many places exceedingly
rich, yet the depth, when compared with the gravel banks of California and
other fields in the United States, is small. The average depth of pay dirt
in the Cape Nome district is only about two feet. This gravel thaws out
on exposure to the sun, and can be very easily handled with the shovel. The
country is flat, and there is practically no dump, which would be a serious
drawback to hydraulic mining, even if there was sufficient dirt to handle.

PROCESSES OF EXTRACTING PRECIOUS METALS

Three processes are used in extracting precious metals from ores : first,
the process of crushing the ore in stamping mills and washing out the metal ;
second, what is known as the cyanide process; third, the process of melting
the ore at smelting works.

The melting process is the newest and most in favor. In 1899, the
seven principal smelting works in Colorado, and others in Salt Lake City,
were consolidated under the general title of the American Smelting and Re-
fining Company. This company, which now controls eighteen plants, and
has a capital of $65,000,000, does most of the melting of ores from the
mines in the States of Idaho, Colorado and Utah. Improved methods in
the manner of extracting metals from ores are generally responsible for the
present healthy condition of the precious metal mining industry. In works
of this character wages vary with the skill of the workmen. In Colorado
and Utah, laborers receive on an average $1.40, furnacemen $2, and crusher-
men $2.40 for a working day of eight hours.

METHODS OF PLACER MINING

In many gold bearing regions the methods of mining most in vogue are
various forms of placer working. The word placer originally meant the
washing of gold from the surface sand of stream beds, but as the evolution

II— Vol. 2

658 WORKERS OF THE NATION

of placer mining grew from the use of pan and rocker to that of the river
flume and the hydraulic apparatus, the word has been extended to cover
mining operations of all kinds except that on ores in veins or deposits.

That primitive utensil for the separation of gold from sand, the pan,
is still in use. It is a strong round iron vessel, holding about half a peck.
The miner fills this pan with the supposed gold-bearing earth, and, taking it
to the creek and holding it level, sinks it gently under the surface of the
water. He then shakes the pan from side to side until all the sand and mud
have spilled over the rim and only a tablespoonful of the contents remains.
If there is any gold in that particular pan, it can now easily be found. The
pan, indeed, is still the principal instrument used for testing the value of
dirt in placer mining, and as long as that form of mining continues, it is
likely to remain an indispensable tool.

The instrument next in importance to the pan is the rocker, which con-
sists of a wooden box on a pair of rockers with a hopper at one end. The
difference between the rocker and the pan is that the pan is sunk beneath the
surface of the water and the miner fills the rocker with water by the use of
a hand dipper.

After the rocker comes the sluice-box. This is a board affair, twelve
feet long and four feet wide, with a riffle bar attached to its bottom to
catch the gold. A large number of these boxes are joined together until
a line perhaps three hundred feet long has been formed. Into the head of
this sluice the dirt is shovelled, a stream of water is turned upon it, and
while the dross is thus washed down, the gold is caught behind the riffle
bars. The newer sluices, it should be added, are paved with rocks instead
of riffle bars. Each sluice-box does the work of five men. Thus, by esti-
mating the miner's wages at $3 a day, the relative cost of treating a ton of
material by each of the three methods just named is as follows : Pan, $6 to
$8; rocker, $2 to $3; sluice-box, 75 cents to $i ; hydraulic method, one-half
cent to eight cents per ton.

Another method of mining low-grade placer ground — not so picturesque
but very effective — consists in submerging the placer ground under water
and excavating the gravel by a dredge. This has proved effective where the
bed rock is soft, as at Oroville, California.

Of all the modes of extracting gold from the earth the most extraordi-
nary is that called river mining. By this process a river is lifted bodily out
of its bed and carried in pipes for thousands of feet, when it again enters
its natural channel. By means of a diverting dam the water is raised high
enough to turn it into a flume, from which it is conveyed the desired distance.
Wonderful stories are told of great fortunes which have been made by this
system of mining. Though the mining season under these conditions lasts
but a very short time, the period being from a few weeks to a few months,
it is not unusual for the miners to take out from $500 to $5,000 in gold in
a single day. It is related that a company mining in the Feather River,
in California, in 1857, flumed that stream for thirty-two hundred feet at

GOLD AND SILVER MINING INDUSTRIES 659

an expense of $120,000. Only fifty days were available for work before
high water came and shut down the mine, yet in that time $680,000 was
taken out, a single day's product reaching as high as $21,000.

HYDRAULIC MINING

The wholesale method of working placers is by means of the hydraulic
monitor or "giant." By this method water is brought in pipes from
streams which have their source in more or less distant mountains. The
pipe delivers the water into the iron "giant," which in turn directs the
stream against the bank. From the nozzle the water is ejected with ter-
rific force, tearing away the gravel banks against which it is driven, and
thus accomplishing the process of disintegration. This "hydraulicking"
process, as it is called in mining parlance, permits gravel which contains
only a few cents' worth of gold in a cubic yard to be worked with profit.

Hydraulic mining is the cheapest and most profitable method of extract-
ing gold from auriferous soils. Large bodies of gold-bearing earth are
washed away, and, in the process, the gold is saved. The "tailings" or
refuse dirt sometimes may cause trouble, in filling up river beds, impeding
navigation, and causing overflows. In fact, so destructive was hydraulic
mining to many other interests that it was forbidden by statute, except along
certain streams. The hydraulic elevator saved the hydraulic process from
disappearance. The debris is lifted out of the way by this device, and de-
posited as desired. This simple process has added probably ten million
dollars' worth of gold a year to the California output. Experts class all
mining as either "quartz" or "gravel," subdividing the latter into shallow,
or modern, placer mining, and deep, or ancient, placer mining. The former
process was largely in vogue from 1848 to 1860, including the handling of
deposits of existing streams. The latter method is adapted to the beds
of ancient rivers of a prehistoric age. In these beds auriferous gravel was
accumulated in vast quantities. Some of the deposits of this gravel are as
much as six hundred feet in thickness. Over these deposits are layers of
clay, alluvium, or basaltic rock. Tunnels are driven into this deposit, and
the gravel is removed to the surface for sluicing. The "hydraulicking"
process is sometimes used to remove this superincumbent material. There
are more than four hundred miles of these ancient river beds in California.
From their gravels the average yield of gold is about $3,000,000 per mile.
The total amount still available is enormous, equal, in fact, to the entire
output of California from 1848 to 1890.

The cost of mining varies, of course, with the process. Quartz mining,
for example, costs from $3 to $10 per ton of material. The drift mining-
method costs from 75 cents to $4 a ton. Cheapest of all is "hydraulicking,"
which costs from one and one-half cents to eight cents per ton of material.

A single "hydraulicking" plant may cost a million dollars, as it involves
so many things. First, there is the purchase of gold-bearing land. Then
there are water rights to be acquired. Often great storage reservoirs

660 WORKERS OF THE NATION

must be constructed with perhaps miles of flumes. Iron pipes and heavy
machinery must frequently be hauled by wagons over almost impassable
roads. An electric system may have to be installed. And the many work-
men themselves require a large fund. Abandoned mines have been profita-
bly worked by this method. The North Bloomfield Mine has been made
valuable by this method of working. This mine includes the bed of a
pliocene river in Nevada County. The auriferous gravel here lies buried
beneath three hundred feet of rock and soil. The huge "monitors" tear
away the earth at the rate of 2,500,000 cubic yards a year. The yield of
this mine is about $1,000 a day. The huge granite dam built by this com-
pany forms a reservoir, holding 930,000,000 cubic feet of water, which is
conducted by a little canal or by box flumes forty-five miles to North Bloom-
field. Here is the distributing reservoir. From this the water is led
in sheet-iron pipes, from fifteen to twenty-seven inches in diameter. The
annual cost of keeping this water system in good order amounts to about
$15,000. The first cost of introducing the water was $716,000. The
"monitor" is a cast-iron nozzle, about nine feet long, with a heavy breach
on a universal joint, so that it has a free movement in all directions. Its
rifled grooves give a twist to the water, which has a pressure head of five
hundred feet. An ingenious "deflector" lowers or raises the nozzle.

Night work is made possible by a great electric searchlight. The ma-
terial is washed into sluice boxes, five feet by eighteen inches. These are
paved with "riffles" or blocks of wood. Quicksilver is thrown into the
sluices every little while. This quicksilver forms an amalgam with the gold
particles. As it sinks between the "riffles" it is easily removed by hand.
At this mine the main sluice is nearly a quarter of a mile long. Most of
the gold is of course saved in the first part of the sluice.

It is interesting to note that in the case of a large mine in Trinity County,
California, a profit was made by "hydraulicking" a high hill which yielded
only five cents per cubic yard of dirt, and the costs included keeping up re-
pairs on a long tunnel and forty miles of ditching to bring the water to the
mine. The record for cheap hydraulic mining was made in the last year of
the century, when a mine in Trinity County paid all expenses on earth yield-
ing only three cents per cubic yard.

GOLD MINE PROSPECTORS AND SPECULATORS

The uncertainty and high speculative character of mining claims have
made necessary the services of expert metallurgists. The buyer is thus
protected from the many attempts at fraud which seem almost inseparable
from the business. The duty of the expert mining engineer is to examine
the quantity and quality of the ore and pick up general information con-
cerning the mine. He ought to be enough of a lawyer also to see that the
formalities of "registration of claims" have been complied with. He must
assure himself that the requisite one hundred dollars' worth of work a year
has been done on the claim, as this perfects the title. Neglected claims may

GOLD AND SILVER MINING INDUSTRIES 66 1

be "jumped" by others. Mining claims vary in size from a parallelogram
fifteen hundred feet by one hundred and fifty feet to those of six hundred
feet in width, the length remaining the same. Until a recent Supreme
Court decision, extralateral rights were allowed. By this decision, how-
ever, no extralateral rights exist unless the outcrop crosses both end lines of
the claim. Much litigation has been incident to mining, owing to this
vexed question. In Canada the claims are fifteen hundred feet square with
no extralateral rights whatever. In South Africa the claims are also square.
Inquiry must be made as to dowry rights also. Fortunes have been lost be-
cause the wife of the grantor did not sign the deed. The expert engineer
must likewise look carefully into the question of the natural facilities of the
location. Wood and water and some sort of transportation are absolutely
necessary. Without these the gold mine may be practically worthless.

The fraudulent treatment, or "salting," of a mine, in order to deceive the
purchaser, is a matter of much reprehensible ingenuity. The "salting"
must not be overdone, lest the tentative fire-assay indicate gold in prepos-
terous quantities. One old trick was to shoot flakes of gold from a gun into
the ore vein. A solution of chloride of gold may be injected by syringes
into the ore, even after it has been sealed up in bags. The surfaces of the
standing ore may be painted with a solution of auric chloride. Gold in
various mediums may be smuggled into the assayer's laboratory, the use of
which is offered to the buyer's agent. Even in blasting there may be de-
ception. Gold is sometimes put into the tamping. The dynamite car-
tridge is inserted properly, but the hole is tamped with mud which has been
"doctored" with gold. The explosion scatters the gold particles, drives
them into the rock, and the deception is almost impossible to detect.

Fictitious and fraudulent records are also manufactured, the same bar
of precious metal being brought back from the government assay office,
remelted, and added to the next month's record. By continuing this process
for some time the United States assay certificates will indicate an enormous
monthly output, nearly all of which is fraudulent.

The only way for a purchaser's expert agent to eliminate fraud on the
part of the seller is to have the whole mine turned over to him and his
picked assistants. Four or five hundred tons should be taken for a sample.
The nature of the ore and the percentage of gold can be thus obtained.
Some ores which contain gold, even to the extent of forty or fifty dollars
a ton, can not, from their chemical composition, be worked, as the expense
of the treatment is greater than the value of the resultant gold. Here is
where the judgment of the expert comes in. His position is a most respon-
sible one. Upon his decision millions of dollars may be won or lost. He
must therefore take absolutely nothing for granted, but must, by "mill-
runs" and all other means possible, make actual personal observations and
tests, and know whereof he speaks.

CHAPTER VI

PETROLEUM AND MISCELLANEOUS MINING IN-
DUSTRIES

The Petroleum Industry — The Production of Petroleum — Petroleum Refineries — The Stan-
dard Oil Company — The Coke Industry — The Natural Gas Industry — Natural Gas In-
dustry in Kansas — Mica Mining — Diamond Mining — The Precious Stone Industry —
The Asphalt Industry — The Man Who Gave Asphalt to Commerce — Production of
Asphaltum

THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

IT has been said of American petroleum : "It is carried wherever a wheel
can roll or a camel's foot be planted. The caravans on the Desert of
Sahara go laden with astral oil, and the elephants in India carry cases of
'standard white.' In many a distant land the heathen sat in darkness until
the oil merchants came. The light the latter brought was more welcome
than any missionary's message. There is many a place in the far interior of
China where a case of 'standard oil' is a familiar sight to men who never
heard the name of America. It is one of the chief objects of interest among
the traders at treaty ports."

The transportation of American petroleum to the far corners of the earth
keeps an enormous fleet moving the year round. Over seventy steamers
and also a great number of sailing vessels carry the fluid in bulk, and a third
great fleet transports oil in barrels and cases. In carrying the oil from the
wells to the markets here at home, over 25,000 miles of pipe line are used —
"a bracelet for the Equator" — and nearly ten thousand tank cars, which, if
coupled in one train, would reach from New York to Philadelphia.

The first pipe line was built in the oil region by Sam Van Syckle of
Titusville, Pennsylvania. He thus sent oil through the earth, as it were,
from Pithole to Miller's Farm, a distance of four miles. Drivers of oil
wagons thereupon set up a wail as great as that raised by workmen in other
occupations when machinery was first introduced. But the pipe line was an
invention of inestimable value to the petroleum industry. The entire oil
region is to-day a huge grill formed of pipe lines. From the Pennsylvania
fields oil is forced through the pipes to the great refineries in Cleveland,
Buffalo, New York, Baltimore, and Philadelphia; and from the Ohio fields
to Chicago and Cleveland.

The recent tendency to substitute oil for coal in supplying the motive
power for passenger locomotives on many railroads is certain to create an
increased market for petroleum within four or five years. The Beaumont
(662)

MISCELLANEOUS MINING INDUSTRIES 663

(Texas) field is likely to supply this growing demand. On the Santa Fe
and Southern Pacific lines, which are already burning oil in their locomo-
tives, the freedom from dust and smoke is said to give great satisfaction,
while other conditions are hardly less satisfactory. For railroad systems
convenient to the new oil areas, petroleum will probably supply the motive
power in the immediate future.

THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM

Over 63,000,000 barrels of petroleum, with a value of more than $73,-
000,000 were produced in the United States during the year 1900. This is
the largest production for any year in our history, but it is not likely to re-
main so. New oil wells are being discovered every year and the production
is steadily increasing. Owing to the flattering promises of the new oil
fields in Texas and California, which are expected to develop materially in
area and productive capacity, large gains are looked for in the country's
annual rate of production. It is prophesied that, before the close of 1903,
tanks, pipe lines, and other storage and transportation facilities now wholly
inadequate, will have been so perfected as to utilize the wealth of these
newly-discovered areas of petroleum.

Corresponding to the steady growth in production, there is a continual
and gradual increase in the consumption of American petroleum, as shown
by statistics given in a report of the Pittsburg Chamber of Commerce. In
1 86 1 and 1862 the exports from the United States amounted to only about
80,000 gallons. So rapidly did the export trade increase, however, that
ten years later over 461,000,000 gallons of kerosene were shipped across the
ocean. The report of the United States Geological Survey places the figure
at 514,561,719 gallons for the year 1881, and estimates that the revenue
from this source amounted to $48,556,103. The same authority gives the
amount of exported petroleum during 1900 as no less than 975,123,476
gallons, having a value of $73,276,282. New markets and new uses for
petroleum are appearing in every nation, and the demand for "more light"
from Brother Jonathan's storehouses grows with the advance of civilization.
The raw material has, in the last forty-five years, sold from forty-one cents
to twenty dollars a barrel, with about two dollars and a half as the average.

The centre of the oil industry in the United States has, for a number of
years, been Pittsburg, but so vast is that city's output of manufactured prod-
ucts, that this interesting fact is frequently overlooked. It is, nevertheless,
through its trade in oil, that western Pennsylvania is best known throughout
the world. The Pittsburg district supplied in a recent year more than 34,-
000,000 barrels of the world's supply of petroleum. The district includes
eight refineries.

PETROLEUM REFINERIES

To produce refined petroleum to the value of $123,929,384, during 1900,
materials to the value of $102,859,341 were consumed, showing a difference

664 WORKERS OF THE NATION

in value between the raw material and the finished product much smaller
than is common in industries of a more complicated character. The Census
returns show that the value of the products of the establishments engaged in
this industry increased forty-five per cent during the last decade. Not-
withstanding the fact that there has been a decrease in the number of re-
fineries, there has been an increase of seven per cent in the number
of wage-earners, and of fourteen per cent in the amount of wages
paid. Twelve thousand wage-earners were employed by the sixty-seven
establishments operating the seventy-five refineries, making an average of
one hundred and sixty-three employes to each refinery. There is an in-
vested capital of $95,327,892, which represents the value of lands, buildings,
machinery, tools and the live capital required to carry on the business, but
does not include the capital stock of any of the corporations. The petroleum
refining industry is confined to twelve States, in seven of which there are
only one or two refineries. The number of refineries in some of the States
is as follows: California, four; New Jersey, six; New York, nine; Ohio,
nine; and Pennsylvania, thirty-nine. Colorado has two refineries, while
Texas, West Virginia, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland and Michigan each have
one. The total number of refineries in the United States during the census
decade is shown to have decreased from one hundred and six to seventy-five,
a loss of thirty-one. Part of this decrease has been due to the consolidation
of two or more refineries under one management. The figures show a large
relative increase in the number of women employed, and a decrease of sixty-
one per cent in the number of children. There appears to have been com-
paratively little change in the number of men employed in the administra-
tive or clerical force, while in the wage-earners the number increased nine
per cent and the total wages fifteen per cent. Crude petroleum is measured
by barrels of forty-two Winchester gallons ; refined petroleum, by barrels of
fifty gallons.

THE STANDARD OIL COMPANY

The Standard Oil Company, organized in 1882, is the most conspicuous
of the world's oil refiners. It controls twenty-six plants, has an authorized
capital of $i 10,000,000, owns property in every civilized country, operates a
large fleet of oil steamers and thousands of miles of pipe lines, employs 10,000
wage-earners in its refineries and thousands of other persons in the auxilliary
branches of its business. The company frequently has been criticised as
an unjust monopoly. In this connection, the testimony of John D. Arch-
bold before the Industrial Commission is interesting. He said :

"It is true beyond all question that the result to the public of the operations of
the Standard Oil Company has been highly beneficial and not hurtful, as its enemies
claim. It has given the public goods of vastly improved quality at greatly reduced
prices. It has, by its effective system of distribution, supplied this most necessary arti-
cle for domestic consumption promptly and cheaply to the most remote sections of
our country, and, indeed, to the world. Beyond all this, however, it has given to the
community at large an opportunity for investment in the business itself which it could

MISCELLANEOUS MINING INDUSTRIES 665

never have had under the old system. Thus there are to-day partners in the Standard
Oil Company as shareholders to the number of fully thirty-five hundred, where less than
one-twentieth of that number would have been interested under the old system.

It has been most beneficial in its effect on labor. There could be no stronger evidence
that the labor involved in its vast operations has been well paid and contented than lies
in the statement that for more than a quarter of a century, since the Standard Oil Com-
pany began its operations, it has scarcely had a serious strike of any kind among any
branch of its employes — one or two temporary strikes among some special classes of
workmen in sympathy with other labor organizations who were striking, constituting the
sole disturbance. Indeed, it is not too much to say that to the loyalty, zeal, and intelli-
gence of its vast army of about thirty-five thousand employes, the company is largely
indebted for its strength and efficiency.

I unhesitatingly express the opinion that when the history of our time is written, it
will appear that the marvellous commercial and industrial evolution which we are experi-
encing in this great country marks one of the most important steps of progress in our
country's history. It will prove to be of immense value to all classes of our population.
The investor, the consumer, and the laborer will all be benefited by it; the investor by
the better security which arises through amplitude of capital for the business contem-
plated, and the combination of talent in the various departments of administration ; the
consumer, through improved processes resulting in better products at lower prices, and
more efficient distribution; the laborer, by steadier employment at better wages and a
better opportunity for improvement in condition, if special talent is shown.

THE COKE INDUSTRY

The coking industry is generally carried on in direct connection with
the mining of coal. In many cases the whole product of the mines, except
the coal used at the works or consumed by the workmen, is charged into
ovens. In a few instances the coal is transported to a distant point before
being made into coke. There is a case of this sort in the State of Wiscon-
sin, where the coke is made from coal mined in Pennsylvania. The major
portion of the coke manufactured in the United States is made in the ordi-
nary type of beehive oven. The principal item of expense is the cost of the
coal, this being the only raw material employed. Coke is produced in
twenty-two States. Pennsylvania leads in the industry, making about
sixty-seven per cent of the whole output. The other coke manufacturing
States may be mentioned in the order of their prominence, West Virginia,
Alabama, Virginia, Colorado, Tennessee, and Massachusetts. In the latter
State coal is imported from Nova Scotia, for the plant at Everett, near
Boston, and gas for domestic consumption is made the primary product.

Hardly any coke is now made in pits or mounds, for a vast improvement
has been made in the process of manufacture. The newest process is by the
retort or by-product coke-oven, wherein the volatile constituents of the
coal, other than the gases, consumed in the distillation process are recov-
ered, these constituents being wasted in the ordinary beehive oven. Among
the successful by-product ovens used in this country are the Semet-Solvay,
the Otto-Hoffman, and the Newton-Chambers. Of these the first and
second are retort ovens. The coal is distilled in a chamber heated from
flues in which the gas obtained from the coal is burned, the process of coking
being a distillation rather than a combustion of the coal. The Newton-
Chambers ovens are of a different type. They are beehive ovens with appa-

666 WORKERS OF THE NATION

ratus for recovering the tar and ammonia contained in the coal, but con-
suming the gas in the process. Gases are sometimes made the primary
product of these by-product ovens. But even when coke is a secondary
product, it is suitable for metallurgical purposes. The first ovens of the
by-product class in the United States were built at Syracuse, New York, in
1893. There are more than a thousand of them now in operation, producing
annually about 907,000 short tons.

The Connellsville district, in Pennsylvania, is the most famous coke re-
gion not only of the United States, but of the world. The total production
of this region has at times exceeded fifty per cent of the total coke product
of the United States. The total number of coke ovens in operation in this
district is 22,000, with a weekly production of 240,000 tons. The demand
for Connellsville coke is far in excess of what the region is able to produce,
even if every oven were kept hot night and day throughout the year. The
H. C. Frick Coke Company owns almost all the largest plants. Another
company in the region has nearly one thousand ovens, supplied by ninety
mines.

Nearly 1,800 new ovens were added to the Connellsville district in 1900,
and 686 were in course of construction at the close of the year ; the produc-
tion during that year amounting to 10,000,000 short tons, valued at $22,-
000,000. The value of the product in 1900 was nearly double that of 1898.
The average price per ton realized ($2,234) was the highest ever recorded.

THE NATURAL GAS INDUSTRY

No other fuel, natural or artificial, has the value and convenience of
natural gas. This statement is contained in the reports of the United States
Geological Survey. All other fuels require a large amount of labor to fit
them for combustion, and most of them must be converted into gaseous form
before they can be consumed. Natural gas, however, has reached that form,
and is in condition to take to itself the amount of oxygen necessary for com-
bustion. The great natural reservoirs require only to be pierced by the drill
when the gas may be brought to the surface, where it is at once ready to be
used as fuel, or to become a direct source of power in the gas engine. No
preparation is necessary for its combustion and no residue is left. It is
easily distributed in pipes to points of consumption many miles distant, and
no known method for the distribution of power equals in economy that of
the transportation of a gaseous fuel in pipes.

The great natural reservoirs of this ideal fuel, so far as known, are found
in the northwestern flank of the Appalachian Mountains, extending from
northern-central New York to central Tennessee, and on the summit of the
great Cincinnati arch in northwestern Ohio and northern Indiana. It is
more or less associated with the pools of petroleum found within these areas.
These two fields furnish about ninety-seven per cent of all the natural gas
produced in the United States. Outside of these fields there are smaller
fields of natural gas in Kansas, Colorado, California, Illinois, Missouri,

MISCELLANEOUS MINING INDUSTRIES 667

Texas, and South Dakota. The original pools have all suffered great deple-
tion, as a vast quantity of gas has been allowed to escape into the air in the
earlier development; and when first used it was consumed in the most ex-
travagant manner. Only after the visible supply had been greatly lessened
was it realized that the proportion already taken out of the reservoirs was a
large percentage of the original volume. The introduction of the meter and
other appliances for the more careful manipulation of gas wells and pipe
lines has brought about a large saving in the amount of gas required to
produce the same heating effect.

The value of natural gas sold in the United States in 1900 exceeded that
for any previous year, although the quantity was less than was sold several
years after it was introduced, when the price was very low. The lowest
values recorded were in the years 1895, 1896, and 1897, when it was slightly
over $13,000,000 a year. Since 1897 the price and quantity have both in-
creased. The value of natural gas consumed in 1900 was $23,606,463, as
compared with $20,074,873 in 1899, a gain of $3,531,590. Allowing eigh-
teen and one-half cents per thousand as the average price at which it was
sold in 1900 the amount sold would represent, in round numbers, 127,602,-
500,000 cubic feet. This quantity would fill a vessel having an area of one
square mile to a height of 4,580 feet, if it were possible to have the same
density throughout. If this amount of gas were burned in an economical
way, it would replace 6,380,000 tons of coal. The total number of wells
producing at the close of 1900 was 10,506, as compared with 9,738 pro-
ducing wells at the close of 1899, a gain of 768 wells. There were 991 wells
abandoned and 359 dry holes or non-producing wells drilled in 1900. There
were 11,570,204 feet of pipe line two inches and larger, amounting to 2,191
miles, completed in 1900. The total length of all natural gas mains of two
inches and larger reported in the United States at the close of 1900 was
21,048 miles. The largest-sized pipe in use is thirty-six inches in diameter.

Natural gas has been tapped voluminously from newly discovered
sources, notably in the Texas oil fields and in the lola and Neosho oil fields
of Kansas. Though the natural life of some of the largest present sources
of supply is now limited by scientists to forty or fifty years, it is reasonable
to suppose that new sources, such as those mentioned, will continue to be
discovered.

NATURAL GAS INDUSTRY IN KANSAS

Probably no part of Kansas has grown more rapidly or experienced a
"boom" of a more substantial nature than has the gas belt comprising the
southeastern part of the State. This is chiefly due to the natural gas which
is found in this district in almost inexhaustible quantities. A report of the
Labor Bureau of the State says that the area of the oil and gas fields is
estimated at about eight hundred and fifty square miles. More than one
hundred wells have been drilled, which yield either oil or gas. Of this
number, Allen County has about thirty-six, the average depth of which is

668 WORKERS OF THE NATION

nine hundred feet, the estimated output ranging from two to twelve million
cubic feet every twenty-four hours. The pressure averages from three hun-
dred to three hundred and fifty pounds per square inch. The great value
of natural gas as a fuel in manufacturing has become a matter of concern
to coal-producing counties, a comparison of heat units in gas as compared
with coal showing that 20,000 cubic feet of gas are equal to one ton of the
best bituminous coal. It is estimated that the capacity constantly on tap for
commercial consumption equals one hundred million cubic feet every twenty-
four hours. The city of lola, in Allen County, Kansas, is the centre of this
gas district. Many manufacturing enterprises have moved from other
States to this part of Kansas to take advantage of the cheap fuel. Cement
is one of the articles of manufacture produced with this cheap fuel. One
factory alone in the city of lola employs over four hundred men every year.
The output of this factory amounts to three thousand barrels a day, or
1,095,000 barrels a year. This does not seem large at first thought; but it
means a train load of thirty cars every day, or a solid train seventy-two
miles in length for the year. Many other manufacturing industries may be
enumerated, such as brick plants, planing-mills, carriage factories, and bot-
tling works, all of which are using the natural gas of Kansas.

MICA MINING

The principal agency of the large mica interests of New York, Chicago
and Boston is at Spruce Pine, a hamlet in North Carolina. Every one knows
that mica is a very valuable mineral. A man can easily carry on his arm a
parcel of it worth several hundred dollars. The blocks from the mines are
split into sheets, and these, in turn, are cut into squares or rectangles. The
sizes vary from 2x2 to 8xio inches, although this is not the maximum
The merchants carry 183 different sizes. The selling prices run from 60 cents
a pound, for the smallest size, up to $13 a pound for the size measuring 8 x 10
inches. The majority of the mines are cut or tunnelled into a hillside, a very
few being reached by deep vertical shafts. Water sometimes causes trouble,
even compelling the abandonment of some small mines. The mica-bearing
vein of quartz is followed by the miners. Very little timbering is necessary
as a rule. Waste material is carelessly disposed of at random, without re-
gard for future complications. The mining of mica is free from many of the
disagreeable and expensive features incident to the mining of other minerals.
Upon locating a vein of mica-bearing quartz, the cap rock is blasted away.
The black mica is disclosed in the white quartz. To get a block of mica out
whole, resort is had either to a very light blast locally termed a "pop-shoot,"
or a big blast which tears away the rock in large masses. In the former
case the rock is merely loosened, and the small irregular block of mica is re-
moved. The block of mica, generally about 10 inches long by 4 inches deep,
is usually split open with a knife, to determine the quality of its cleavage.
A defective block is called "gummy," and may be sent to the grinding mill.
When a big blast is used it often splits the block of mica into two parts, and

MISCELLANEOUS MINING INDUSTRIES 669

the "cleavage" is at once perceptible. The mica product of each day's work
is stored temporarily in the little "mica-house," adjoining the mine.

The process of splitting the mica for the market is often the work of
boys and women, and is done with a simple pocket-knife. Spots mar the
value of mica, reducing it to the Number 2 grade. Simple as the process of
mica cutting is, it nevertheless requires especial skill. After it is split the
cutters take it in hand. They use large shears, one part of which is fastened
to the bench, and follow sets of patterns. These patterns are of all sizes,
being made of heavy pasteboard. Out of the complete set, about forty
standard sizes are the most frequently cut. The cutting is done evenly, along
the edges of the pattern, and the mica sheet is placed on the table beneath its
pattern, for several later inspections, cracks and spots reducing the grade to
Number 2, as has been stated. Mica mining might be greatly developed in
this section, as the present processes are on a rather small scale.

DIAMOND MINING

Chief of the modern diamond fields are those of South Africa, which
date from 1867, in which year stones were first noticed there. A diamond,
bought for a song, was sold in London for twenty-five hundred dollars. The
famous "Star of the South," valued at sixty thousand dollars, was found
in 1869, and the Stewart gem, more than three times as valuable, in 1872.
Kimberley, the capital of diamond-land, was founded in 1871. The four
great companies were consolidated by Cecil Rhodes in 1890, and the De
Beers Company controlled the mines. Their product, since the consolidation,
has been more than two million five hundred thousand carats, valued at
more than seventeen million five hundred thousand dollars, or 98 per cent of
the world's supply. Brazil and the East Indies are responsible for the rest.
The diamonds of Africa are found in blue rock, more than seven hundred
thousand loads of which have been removed and examined. This blue rock
extends in veins, or "pipes," to a great depth below the surface. The first
two shafts are at least four hundred and fifty feet deep, tapping more than
thirteen acres. Later the "blue ground," as it is locally called, was reached
by transverse drivings from five hundred to fifteen hundred feet below the
surface. At the surface are "floors," or spaces, of about six hundred acres
in extent, to which the "blue ground' is brought in trucks. This material is
split and crumbled, by the effect of the sun and moisture, in from three to
six months, the process being hastened by harrowing. After crumbling, the
"blue ground" is "washed" by running water. From one hundred truck-
loads of "blue ground" is produced a single load of diamondiferous ma-
terial, which is then treated first by the "pulsator," and later by the "assort-
ers." The assorters separate the pebbles, first while wet and afterward
when dry. They use a trowel for this purpose, white men being employed
for the wet assorting, and blacks for the dry assorting. After the assorting
process is finished the gems are taken on trucks, guarded by armed men, to
the general office. Here they are washed in sulphuric and nitric acids. On

670 WORKERS OF THE NATION

a counter, covered with white paper, they are placed, to be valued and sold
in parcels to local agents at all sorts of prices, the little parcels bringing, in
some cases, many hundred thousand dollars. A single parcel has been sold
for a million and a quarter dollars. At the De Beers mines there is a little
village, called Kenilworth, for the whites, with every modern convenience.
A library, billiard tables, and other luxuries are provided, with the view of
keeping the men contented while*banished so far from home.

THE PRECIOUS STONE INDUSTRY

The principal features of the production of precious stones in the United
States at the present time are summarized for the year 1900 by the United
States Geological Survey as follows :

The continued mining of the fine blue sapphires in Fergus County, Montana; the de-
velopment of the fancy-colored sapphires in Granite County, Montana; the systematic
working of the beryl deposits in Mitchell County, Montana; the increased output of the
turquoise from Nevada and from Grant and Santa Fe Counties, New Mexico; the great
sale of the turquoise cut with the rock under the name of "turquoise matrix" from all
localities; the cutting and selling of the western North Carolina emerald under the name
of "emerald matrix" ; the mining of the purple-pink garnets in Macon County, North Caro-
lina; the discovery of colored tourmaline at a new locality in California; the further ad-
vance in the price of diamonds ; the continued popularity and demand for pearls, emeralds,
and rubies ; the importation of nearly $4,000,000 worth of rough diamonds, that were all
cut in this country; the stability of the diamond-cutting industry in the United States, even
with the limited output of the South African mines; and the continued importation and
sale of the Queensland and New South Wales opals, and their cutting from the rough in
the United States. The total value of the gems and precious stones found in the United
States was nearly $250,000.

Diamonds are found in the United States in three distinct regions, as follows: In
Wisconsin, Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio, in the vicinity of the Green Bay lobe of the con-
tinental glacier ; in Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky ;
and in California, adjacent to the watersheds of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers,
where they were first found in the United States. Repeated reports of diamonds in
Alaska have been made, but the stones have always turned out to be worthless quartz.
Nevertheless, many dikes have been found which are so similar to the South African dia-,
mond rocks that great discoveries of diamonds in the United States are possible at any
time.

Reports from the Fergus County, Montana, sapphire mines in Yogo Gulch indicate
active and successful working. The gems occur in a vertical "lead," or "vein," of clay,
inclosed between walls of rock. This foreign material is taken out and washed, and the
stones are then sorted. The company that is operating the mines has worked down some
fifty or sixty feet, but exploration has been made for two hundred feet, with the same
occurrence of sapphires. Different portions along the dike vary widely in their yield of
gems. At last report five "blocks" were reported as worked. One of these yielded 10,000
carats, the other four only 8,000, one of them furnishing but 74.

The Granite County deposits of rubies, at Rock Creek, were worked for a while,
and an attempt was made to trace some of the gems to their original source in the rock.
As to the success of this search, no positive results have yet been reported. A large num-
ber of gems were obtained from the beds and were cut at Helena. The proportion of
rubies was greater than heretofore, but none were found possessing the deep color of the
true oriental ruby. There were light shades of red which were beautiful and extremely
brilliant, but not so dark as desired. At least sixty occurrences of rubies were located on
several miles of gulches. At no known locality, however, has there ever been found so
great a variety of rich colors in rubies as here. At the Paris Exposition of 1900, there
was exhibited a brooch of over two hundred of these stones, ranging from one and a
quarter to three carats each, every one of a different tint or shade. Although the deep-red

MISCELLANEOUS MINING INDUSTRIES 671

ruby and the "velvet blue" or "cornflower" sapphire were lacking, yet the richness and
variety of the other kinds were unequalled. They included pale rubies, pink, salmon passing
into yellow, pure yellow, yellow-brown and deep brown, pale blues and greens, blue-green.
Often a single stone showed two or three distmct shades of one color. Many of the colors
have never been observed at any other locality. All were of unusual brilliancy, and im-
proved greatly in artificial light. The butterflies and other rich jewels made from these
stones possess almost the beauty of natural insects.

The emerald mine at Stony Point, Alexander County, North Carolina, formerly so
well known, has been involved in litigation for several years past, and during this time
nothing has been done there, or, at least, no discoveries have been reported or published.
Few gem emeralds have been found here, but remarkable crystals, very finely formed and
richly colored, some of them fully ten inches long, translucent to semi-opaque, were taken
out when the mine was first worked about twenty years ago. A novel and attractive stone
has recently been brought forward under the name of "emerald, matrix." The emerald
deposit at Big Crabtree Mountain, Mitchell County, North Carolina, has been lately worked
by a New York company, and, although no transparent gems have yet been obtained, a
beautiful ornamental stone has been developed. The crystals vary from one-eightieth of
an inch to one and a quarter inches in diameter, and are rarely over one inch in length.

So many precious gems are found in North Carolina that it has acquired the name
"Gem State." Even very valuable diamonds have been among its treasures. The list of
precious stories, besides the emerald, includes topaz, sapphire, amethyst, garnet, ruby, and
quartz crystals. .Besides these, in both North Carolina and Tennessee, valuable and beau-
tiful pearls are found in certain varieties of fresh water mussels living in the larger streams.
Experts have said there is money in prosecuting the gem industry in the "Gem State," pro-
viding it is conducted along the technical lines practiced in Europe.

THE ASPHALT INDUSTRY

The most important of all paving materials for cities is asphalt. The
first pavement of the kind in this country for public use was laid in front of
the City Hall, in Newark, New Jersey, in 1870. Three years later part of
Fifth Avenue, New York, opposite the Worth Monument, between Twenty-
fourth and Twenty-fifth streets, was paved with asphalt, and for some years
was the only public asphalt pavement in that city. In 1876, under the di-
rection of a special commission appointed by Congress, Pennsylvania
Avenue, in Washington, was paved with asphalt. All these streets were
paved with asphalt from the island of Trinidad. The first street paved
with Bermudez asphalt was Woodward Avenue, Detroit.

The longest asphalt street in the world is Broad Street, Philadelphia.
This street is eleven miles long, seven miles out of the eleven being asphalted.
Washington was, until three or four years ago, the city par excellence in the
matter of asphalt. Until that time it had more square yards of asphalt pave-
ment than any other city in the United States. To-day, however, New
York is not only the largest purchaser of asphalt in the country, but it has
more miles of asphalted streets than any of our other cities. Within the last
fourteen years New York has spent more than $12,000,000 on this kind of
pavement.

In 1883 the Bermudez Asphalt Company, of New York, obtained from
the Government of Venezuela a concession to develop all the natural re-
sources of the free lands of the State of Bermudez, which cover an area of
about forty thousand square miles, nearly as large as the State of New
York. Guzman Blanco, who was President at the time, granted this con-

672 WORKERS OF THE NATION

cession for the term of twenty-five years. It was stipulated that the com-
pany was to explore the territory, found colonies, open highways, and es-
tablish means of communication. The company has complied with these
stipulations.

THE MAN WHO GAVE ASPHALT TO COMMERCE

Not knowing in the beginning whether the concession contained natural
resources of any kind, the company sent Mr. A. H. Garner, a civil engineer,
to explore the wilderness in question. Mr. Garner examined almost every
square mile of the wild country, giving a year and a half to this pioneer task.
In the course of hfs work he found the pitch lake, which, until he cut his way
through the jungle to its borders, had never been seen by a white man. The
Indians used the pitch in calking their canoes, but had never thought of em-
ploying it for other purposes. Mr. Garner perceived that here was a mine
which could be worked on an extensive scale and ultimately made of great
value. With accurate foresight, as events have proved, he determined to
purchase the mine outright, knowing that most of the twenty-five years of
the concession would be required to establish a plant large enough to carry
on extensive operations. Had he not bought the property outright, the com-
pany's plant would, under the terms of the concession, revert to the Govern-
ment of Venezuela in 1908. Therefore, in 1888, he surveyed a tract of land,
a quadrangle about five miles long by three and a half miles wide, in the
centre of which lay the pitch lake, and, after submitting to all the required
formalities, purchased the tract in fee simple from the Venezuelan Govern-
ment. He opened a new road southwest from the lake, to a point on the
San Juan River, where he established the town of Guanoco, the present
headquarters of the plant, and the seat of the trouble. This town owes
its existence entirely to the efforts of Mr. Garner and the development
of the asphalt industry. He built a railroad about five miles long, over
which the asphalt is brought from the lake on box cars to Guanoco, where it
is loaded on the company's steamers, for New York. The tides in the San
Juan River are high, and large steamers can load at the wharf.

The lake is a vast deposit of asphalt, 95 per cent pure, in some places
liquid, in other parts hard and brittle. The latter form is known to the
trade as "glance pitch," from which varnishes and paints are made. The
larger portion of the lake is intersected with pools of water, and in some
places with great gas-bubbles as large as a small-sized hut. There have been
found the remains of tigers that had stuck in the soft pitch, and held as in a
trap had starved to death. The lake is about two miles across in its widest
part. In appearance it resembles a deep sea of black putty. The asphalt is
dug out with broad-bladed mattocks, and the excavations fill up as fast as
the laborers leave them. Here is an inexhaustible supply that will last until
the coming of the crash of worlds.

This great enterprise is primarily the work of Mr. Garner, who, backed
by the money of the company, persevered in fighting all the physical and

MISCELLANEOUS MINING INDUSTRIES 673

political difficulties, enduring the severest hardships in these jungle fast-
nesses, but bringing out of chaos a well-established industry.

PRODUCTION OF ASPHALTUM

The facts concerning the production of asphaltum, or what is commonly
known to the inhabitants of w*ell-paved cities as asphalt, are given as fol-
lows in a report of the United States Geological Survey :

Bituminous rock is usually sold and shipped without having been previously treated
and refined. It is used principally for street paving, and is mixed with other ingredients
at the locality where it is to be used. In some cases the asphaltum, or bitumen, is ex-
tracted from the bituminous rock and sold as refined or gum asphaltum. The United
States draws its chief supply of foreign asphaltum from the island of Trinidad, off the
coast of Venezuela. In addition to the Trinidad asphaltum, we import also great quantities
from Bermudez, in Venezuela, bituminous limestone from Neuchatel and Val de Travers
in Switzerland, Seysel in France, some from Germany, Cuba, Mexico, and scattering lots
from other countries.

The island of Trinidad, off the coast of Venezuela, South America, one of the British
West Indian possessions, is, next to France, the largest producer of asphaltum in the world.
The deposits are operated by an American corporation under a concession from the Brit-
ish Government, and, independently, from land not belonging to the Crown, which was
acquired by purchase.

The chief source of supply is a lake of pitch filling the crater of an extinct volcano.
This lake lies 138 feet above sea level, and has an area of one hundred and fourteen acres.
The supply is being partly renewed by a constant flow of soft pitch into the centre of the
lake from a subterranean source. The shipments of lake pitch for the last ten years have
averaged over 80,000 tons a year, so that the renewal of supply is less than one-fourth the
amount taken out. The depth of the lake, however, is about one hundred and thirty-five
feet at the centre, and, considering the extent of the deposit, there need be little ap-
prehension of the early exhaustion of supply of Trinidad asphaltum. The material from
this lake is known as "lake pitch." Different from this is what is known as "land pitch,"
the overflow in past times of pitch from the lake and deposits of similar nature but differ-
ent origin. The overflow pitch mingled with the soil, and while it, with the other land
deposits, forms another source of supply, the amount of mineral matter it contains is
greater than the lake pitch, and the latter is in consequence preferred.

Outside of Trinidad and the United States, the more important asphaltum-producing
countries are Germany, France, Switzerland, and Spain. Small quantities of asphaltum
are also produced in Russia, Mexico, Turkey in Asia, Great Britain, the United States of
Colombia, Canada, and the Netherlands.

12— Vol. 2

CHAPTER VII
QUARRYING, AND SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES

The Quarries of the United States — Marble Quarries — Marble Quarry Employes — Granite
Quarries— Slate Quarries — Quarriers at Work — Organization of Granite Cutters —
Stone Monuments — The Salt Industry — The Salt Combination — Salt Deposits and
Production — Processes of Salt Manufacture — The New York State Salt Reservation
— The Ice Industry — The Manufacture of Ice — Mechanical Refrigeration as a Trade

THE QUARRIES OF THE UNITED STATES

THERE are about 4,500 quarries in this country, which yield annually
a total production valued at more than $60,000,000. In 1902
nearly half of this value was in limestone. The chief of the other
quarry products were granite, valued at $11,000,000, sandstone at $5,200,-
ooo, marble and slate each at $4,000,000 and trap rock and bluestone each
at over $1,000,000. It is obvious from these figures that this is the real
Stone Age in America, so far as buildings and pavements are concerned,
for the greater portion of all the stone quarried goes into buildings or roads.
The capital invested in American quarries aggregates about $90,000,000.

The total number of persons employed in this industry is about 90,000,
to whom in the neighborhood of $36,000,000 are paid annually in wages,
giving them the distinction of being the best paid quarrymen in the world.
In Italy, the same class of workers receive only thirty-five cents a day.
There, too, practically every scrap of stone is hacked out by hand, while
here all kinds of stone are wrenched from mother earth by machinery.

Pennsylvania leads all the States, with a production of stone of many
kinds, at a value nearly twice that of Vermont and New York. The quar-
ries of the Keystone State yielded in 1900 stone valued at over $8,000,000.
The New York and Vermont product was worth more than $4,000,000.
Ohio came next with a product valued at over $3,000,000. Massachusetts
and Indiana produced stone worth $2,000,000. California, Georgia, Illi-
nois, Maryland, Missouri, New Jersey and Wisconsin had a product of
stone worth $1,000,000, to their credit. There was not a State in the
Union which did not quarry within its own confines part of the stone used
in the construction of its buildings and bridges, the improvement of its
country roads and city pavements, and the adornment of its cemeteries.

There was a great increase during the year 1902 of marble produced for
use in cemetery work, with a marked decrease in the value of stone used
for ornamental purposes. The value of marble used for outside building
decreased from $1,176,208 in 1899 to $1,100,000 in 1902.
(674)

QUARRYING, SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES 675

Quarries have recently been opened up in Alabama, Arizona, Idaho,
Missouri, Montana and New Mexico. Although deposits of marble have
long been known in these States, they have not been worked commercially
to any great extent. Marble quarries have also been reported in Alaska,
but they have as yet no great commercial importance.

The value of the marble production in California and Massachusetts has
more than doubled in recent years. In Pennsylvania there has been a small
increase, but Georgia's product and New York's show a slight falling off.
The production in Tennessee has advanced in value, as has that of Vermont
and Washington.

MARBLE QUARRIES

A tract of land containing perhaps the richest deposit of marble in the
world was once exchanged for an old mare. This happened about 1830,
and the tract of land was an area half a mile square in Rutland County,
Vermont. The man who gave up the animal and took the land noticed,
one day, that a rock on his new hillside was of peculiar and dazzling white-
ness. It proved on examination to be marble of a very fine quality. Other
marble deposits were afterward found in Vermont, extending in a belt from
Manchester to Swanton; but, although a qflarry was opened in Dorset in
1785, and another in Middleburg in 1805, the discovery did not prove a
source of appreciable wealth to the people until about the time of the War
of the Rebellion. In the year 1902, however, the marble quarries of Ver-
mont produced $2,500,000 worth of marble, the most of it and the best of
it from that historical half-mile deposit in Rutland County. The largest
producing quarries are on Otter Creek, Proctor and West Rutland being
the principal quarrying towns. Quarries are operated at different points
in the western part of the State, extending from Isle La Motte, where the
beautiful black marble is found, to Bennington County.

No other name is so closely identified with the marble industry in this
country as that of United States Senator Redfield Proctor. When the
Senator went into the marble business in 1870, he began operating one
quarry and a small mill of ten gangs of saws, employing altogether not
more than seventy-five men. Now the immense mills of his company con-
tain over three hundred gangs of saws, besides its extensive shops for cut-
ting and polishing marble. It is operating at present twelve quarries, which
produce five thousand carloads of marble annually, and employs about 2,000
men, whose annual wages amount to $1,000,000. From a small beginning,
the company has grown to be many times the largest producer and manufac-
turer of marble in the world. Its mills and shops are located at Proctor,
Centre Rutland and West Rutland, and its principal quarries are at Proctor,
West Rutland and Pittsford, although it possesses marble properties in
many other towns. These various mills and quarries are connected by a
steam railroad, twelve miles in length, called the Clarendon and Pittsford,
owned by the company.

676 WORKERS OF THE NATION

MARBLE QUARRY EMPLOYES

For the convenience of its employes Senator Proctor's company owns a
large number of tenements at all its different points of business. They are
as largely as possible single houses, and include some most attractive resi-
dences. But it has never been the policy of the company to acquire or to
retain ownership of residence and other property within the village not im-
mediately connected with the business, as is done at Pullman and some other
towns largely dependent upon or related to a single industry.

The company has always encouraged its employes to build and own their
own houses, and has assisted those who desired to acquire them. It has
been in the habit of making advances and carrying loans for that purpose
until the debt is reduced to such a sum that the owner can legally procure it
at a savings bank. In no case so far, when the company has thus assisted
one of its employes to build, has it been necessary to take the house back
either upon the debt or by foreclosure proceedings. A large number of the
employes own their own homes. Some of the most desirable residence
property, indeed, belongs to the marble workers. The company carries a
general accident policy for the benefit of its employes, which entitles each
to one-half wages when offtluty on account of accident, or the family to
one year's wages, not to exceed $500, in case of death by accident.

GRANITE QUARRIES

Vermont and New Hampshire are both rich in quarries of granite, some
of which were opened there in 1812. During the past twenty-five years,
quarries have been opened in Vermont at Barre, Hardwick, Williamstown,
Dummerston, Berlin, Woodbury, and Ryegate. The city of Barre showed
the largest percentage of increase in population of any place in the State
in the last decade, due almost entirely to the development of these quarries
and the manufactures allied to them. Another city in which the quarrying
of granite is an important industry is Concord, New Hampshire. Ac-
cording to a State Bureau of Labor Report, twenty-six different sheds are
now in active operation there. With but one exception, when its granite
workers were furnishing stone for the new Congressional Library at Wash-
ington, has this industry ever been more active than it is to-day. Concord
granite is famous the country over, and it is quarried here in immense quan-
tities, and fashioned into monuments and other articles by skilled hands.
New veins of the finest stone are constantly being uncovered and worked,
and the business is steadily on the increase.

SLATE QUARRIES

Slate quarrying is comparatively a new industry. The rough stone, as
it is taken from the quarry in large or small sheets, is worked up in the
mill by saw and planer into such variety of size and thickness as economy
demands, and finds a ready market at remunerative rates. The Maine

QUARRYING, SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES 677

Labor Commissioner reports that the annual output of roofing slate in a
single county in his State is now about thirty-seven thousand squares.
Wages do not vary much in the different Maine quarries, being $1.50 a
day for common laborers, and $2 for skilled labor. A crew will average
$1.75 a clay. The average number of men employed at a quarry aggre-
gates three hundred and twenty-five. The work of making slate into articles
of utility other than roofing slate was begun at Monson, Maine, in a small
way some twelve years ago, inkstands and a few other articles being made
and sold to summer visitors. The demand for the goods increased year by
year, until now the volume of business resulting from the mill stock pro-
duced at the Monson quarries approximates, in its manufactured state,
$100,000. The capital invested is $75,000. An average crew of thirteen
men is employed throughout the year, and wages average $9 per week
The work is practically all done by machinery, so that a few men can turn
out a very large product. One of the leading specialties of this plant is
switchboards for electrical planes, this slate being very desirable for the
purpose on account of its freedom from iron and other metallic substances.
Probably not less^ than a thousand different varieties of useful articles are
here manufactured.

Slate is largely taking the place of marble, for it has one great advan-
tage; it never stains. It is not only used in its natural color, but can be
marbleizecl so as to have any shade of color or style of figure desired. The
use of wood for interior finish and for the manufacture of many utensils for
furnishing public buildings and private residences is being displaced by
slate, and although the first cost may be a little higher than wood in some
instances, the durability and beauty of finish of the slate make it preferable
for permanent work.

Among other leading articles here made of slate may be mentioned table
tops, laundry and kitchen tubs and sinks, tanks of all kinds, counter tops,
floor tiling, school blackboards, mantels and wainscoting. Hundreds of
other articles are working their way into the markets of the country, and
building up a permanent business for the promoters of this enterprise.

QUARRIERS AT WORK

With the exception of marble, the quarrying of all kinds of stone is an
operation of comparative simplicity and economy. The operations of a
marble quarry are, however, more elaborate and costly. The finest marble
quarries are in Vermont ; and the best of those are in Rutland County. Out
of these marble hills and holes, so glaring in the sunlight, from 15,000 to
20,000 blocks are taken annually and reduced to marketable shape.

A veritable army of men is at work there, tunnelling, drilling, blasting,
sawing, cutting, chipping. During the summer all these activities are
going at once. In winter there is no tunnelling, that is, no new openings
are being made, because winter work of this kind is more expensive and the
result less satisfactory. Quarrying proper, however, that is, cutting and

678 WORKERS OF THE NATION

preparing the blocks for market, is continued the year round. There are
fifteen quarries in this region, or, to speak more properly, fifteen different
layers have been uncovered. These layers are from two to ten feet thick,
running through the ground like a layer of cocoanut in a cake.

Besides the fifteen layers uncovered, there are a number of abandoned
quarries, sights as sorrowful as the abandoned farms to be seen elsewhere
in New England. It cost thousands of dollars to make these quarry
openings, but the product was not worth continuing the operations. It
seldom happens that marble worth quarrying is found until a depth of at
least twenty feet has been reached. By means of small blasts, the top rock
of a quarry is stripped off, this being one of the rare occasions on which
powder is used in marble quarrying. In cutting the layers into strips of the
required size, channelling machines are used. After removing a certain
portion of the strip called a key block, it is possible to get at the bottom of
the layers that have been cut. With steam drills, holes are bored into the
beds of the layer about eight or ten inches apart; steel wedges are driven
into these holes, and thus a strip fifty feet or more in length can be lifted.
This strip, by the same use of more machines, is then cut into blocks "as
per order." In all other quarries, operations need not be conducted with
such care as in the case of marble. Thin beds of sandstone are worked after
somewhat the same manner, but all other stones are removed in huge
blocks, by blasting, and the large blocks are then split up into smaller ones
of the required dimensions by wedges driven into small holes.

ORGANIZATION OF GRANITE CUTTERS

The number of granite cutters of the United States employed at the
trade is about twelve thousand. The conditions of labor, owing to the
utility of the trade organization — the Granite Cutters' National Union —
are reasonably good. Since the spring of 1900 the members of this union,
from Maine to California, have worked an eight-hour day for a wage rate
varying from about $3 to $5 per day; the lower rate is not as distinctly
defined as the higher, owing to the fact that the piece-work system is some-
times followed. The company-store system is now almost unknown, and,
excepting in a few instances, granite cutters are paid every week or every
fortnight, and payment in cash or its equivalent is required, which means
checks redeemable for their face value.

On March 10, 1901, the union celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary.
Twenty-five years ago the members were working ten hours a day for $2
a day on an average, as they are now working eight hours a day for an
average of over $3 per day. With their employers, the granite cutters
make two-yearly or three-yearly agreements, an arrangement which does
away with a great many strikes or suspensions of lesser magnitude. In
most of their agreements they have an arbitration clause, providing that,
should disputed points arise under the agreement, they shall be arbitrated
without strikes or lockouts. Difficulties of the kind seldom arise, and peace

QUARRYING, SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES 679

usually reigns in the trade during the life of an agreement. Occasionally
they have a conflict to secure a new agreement, but that generally takes
place when some radical change is contemplated, and then only because of
the refusal of employers to meet the local committees of the granite cutters
in a fair spirit.

These established conditions place the granite cutters in an encouraging
position; the members of this union, indeed, think more deeply of the
value of trade unionism than legislative enactments, for the latter may
fluctuate with a change of party politics, while the former, when once
thoroughly instituted, are a sure step in progressive advancement. One
illustration will suffice: For over thirty years the granite cutters, with
the members of other trade unions, waited for action by Congress, which
should place all Federal work on an eight hour basis. The best they got
was a law providing that direct employment by the Government (except in
cases of emergency, should be on an eight hour day, but if the Government
gave out any of its work by contract, lawyers officially, from the Attorney-
General down and the courts, construed the Congressional enactment not
to apply. As a matter of course, nine-tenths of Government work is done
by contract, so the law they passed for an eight hour day was more shadow
than reality. Many members of the union are at all times employed cutting
granite for great government buildings. They had in some instances an
eight hour work day prior to 1897, but in that year they notified all em-
ployers in the trade that, on and after the spring of 1900, the members of
the union, who comprised a little over ninety-five per cent of the men em-
ployed at the trade, would not work more than eight hours a day. They
continued a lively campaign in the trade, especially through their monthly
journal, in favor of the advanced position set forth in the '97 declaration,
and by determined action their trade was placed upon an eight hour basis
in something like a three years' campaign. It was through trade unionism
pure and simple, that the members gained in three years' time what they had
failed to get through a thirty years' agitation by legislative enactment.

STONE MONUMENTS

One of the first uses to which Vermont marble was applied was to the
manufacture of monuments and tombstones. In that lively industry Ver-
mont ranks third. During the last census decade, the number of estab-
lishments erected for that purpose has grown from 96 to 268, the number of
wage-earners from 1,095 to 2>974> tne value of products from $1,492,384
to $4,045,611. The manufacture of marble monuments as an important
industry dates from 1808. The stock was first taken from the top or outer
edge of the layers, where the strata could readily be split into sheets of
suitable thickness. These sheets were cut down with a chisel into the
desired shape. Marble was first sawed in South Dorset in 1818, and
found a market in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and in-
termediate points.

68o WORKERS OF THE NATION

The success of a retail monument dealer, according to the editor of "Monument
News/' depends wholly upon the man. The average dealer is a man who has grown up
in the business, first serving as an apprentice, then as a journeyman. When opportunity
offered, he embarked in business for himself, on such small capital as he had, by economi-
cal and frugal habits, managed to save from his earnings. He is made of sound stock and
shows superior marks of distinction. By instinct his judgment on the merits of a piece of
rough stone or marble is quick; his taste assists him to readily sketch such an artistic
design as will please a fastidious customer; his skill enables him to carve inscriptions and
beautiful designs; his tact gives him an ability to show and sell goods to patrons; his
struggle in carrying his business through a panic or a "silver deadlock in the Senate," has
taught him to be cautious in money matters and not to carry long accounts, and his gen-
eral experience in the varied role he plays, and his wide scope of training has developed
methods that have had a tendency to make a man of extraordinary executive ability, and
of sterling business qualifications. A successful retail dealer is, therefore, a draughtsman,
skilled mechanic, salesman, financier, and an all-round business man, and to continue his
prosperous career and keep abreast of the times, he now must keep in the march of prog-
ress. In his trade, as in others nowadays, he will find that he has to deal with strong
competition and close margins. He must constantly study what styles of monuments the
public desire, and the means of production at a popular price.

The demand for improvement in the design and general details of cemetery monu-
ments is rapidly inaugurating reform in this line of work, not only in its artistic effects,
but in its business methods as well. It follows, as a result, that there is a growing need
for better qualified men in the several branches of the marble and granite industry, with
improving conditions and possibilities for those who are qualified or will qualify them-
selves for the openings now presenting themselves in many directions. Mechanical skill,
artistic ability, and business knowledge are the principal lines of development certain of
recognition and reward in this trade. Many positions of trust await applicants of due
proficiency.

THE SALT INDUSTRY

Salt is the only mineral product which is used as a food, although others
are employed as drugs.

While the profits in the sugar industry are mountains high, the salt
industry yields only mole hills in the way of dividends. The salt of the
earth, and of the sea, is about the cheapest of all the staple products. A
whole ton can be bought for a two-dollar bill. Yet salt was once the unit
of value, once a medium of exchange. The causes of these discouraging
conditions are: (i) over-production and (2) excessive importation. Any
one of our great salt States — New York, Ohio, Michigan or Kansas —
could supply the whole Union with this saline product for an indefinite
period. Until recent years, when a salt combination was formed under the
name of the National Salt Company, the manufacturers in each State tried
to supply the entire nation, and therefore worked their plants to the utmost
capacity. The results were low prices, low wages, and low profits. More-
over, despite the over-production, salt still pours into the country duty free.
The salt workers of England and southern Europe, and the blacks of the
West Indies are thereby benefited, but the manufacturers of salt at home
' suffer from this unrestricted competition.

The kitchen range and the dinner-table are not the only places where the
need of salt is felt. It is important in many industries. It is used to cure
hides, to pack beef and pork, to preserve foods, to make butter and cheese,
to fertilize fields for oats, wheat, potatoes, and mushrooms, to remove rust,

QUARRYING, SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES 681

to prevent the decay of wooden vessels, to preserve timber, and to drive
away insects from the garden. Is it a wonder, then, that the people in the
United States need, not millions of bushels, but millions of tons of salt to
make them healthy, happy, and prosperous?

THE SALT COMBINATION

The National Salt Company was organized in March, 1899, and ac-
quired at that time thirteen plants in New York State. The basis of pur-
chase was an appraisal of the tangible assets and an issue therefore of pre-
ferred stock. An issue of common stock was also made to the owners of
these properties for their good-will, earning capacity, trade-marks, brands,
etc., on a basis of five times their average annual earnings for the two pre-
ceding years. Subsequently, properties in Ohio, Michigan, Kansas and
Texas were purchased on the best terms possible, payments being made
sometimes in stock of the National Salt Company and sometimes in cash.
It is the aim of this company to recognize individual effort in every case.
Even the president's salary is contingent on results. This policy of reward
according to merit is said to be carried out all along the line, even to the
common laborer.

Economic conditions demanded the formation of the organization. It
was organized by salt manufacturers for their self-preservation. Compe-
tition was severe, not only as to prices, but as to quality. As the prices were
reduced, it was the tendency to make cheaper and poorer salt, and to place
it on the market in cheap, inferior packages. All salt is sold delivered at
the point of consumption, not at the point of production. Of that delivj
ered, from thirty per cent to sixty per cent of the price constitutes
freight : therefore, each producing section should naturally supply the near-
est territory.

This was not always the case, however, as salt manufactured in some
localities was not acceptable in quality to purchasers. As a result, salt
was shipped to distant and unnatural markets, paying freight equal, and
sometimes exceeding, the value of the salt at the point of production. For
instance, much salt was shipped from New York State fields to Western
markets at a freight rate of from forty-five cents to seventy cents per barrel,
while the market price of the same salt at the point of production was much
less than seventy cents per barrel. Reforms have been made by producing
a uniform quality of salt of a standard grade manufacture in each of the
several producing districts, and economy has been effected by supplying
markets from the nearest point of production at the lowest prevailing freight
rate, thus doing away with the extravagance of cross shipping of freight.,
Competition in many sections was intense and vicious. For instance, the
average price received by many manufacturers in Michigan in July of 1899
was twenty-eight cents a barrel for granulated salt. This price included
the cost of the barrel, which is estimated to be twenty cents ; the remaining
eight cents did not cover the labor and other costs of producing the salt.

682 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Much Michigan salt was sold in territory naturally tributary to the Ohio and
Kansas fields, which was an unnatural market. These sales were effected,
primarily, because the Ohio and Kansas producers were shipping their salt
into territory which Michigan producers considered was theirs because of
its geographical position.

The company is now established along well-defined lines, such as are
followed in the organization of the army, or in the conduct of a political
campaign. The producing districts, New York, Ohio, Michigan, Kansas
and Texas, are divided into departments, each with its head, and each
stands on its own feet, and conducts its business in its own way, receiving
general instructions from the executive officers. The purpose of the organ-
ization is to keep the various branches in close contact with the trade. Re-
quirements are studied, and no attempt is made by any branch to deal with
conditions a thousand miles away. The results are said to be very satis-
factory to both producers and consumers.

SALT DEPOSITS AND PRODUCTION

In New York State, the rock-salt deposit extends from a point thirty-
five miles east of Buffalo in a southeasterly direction to a point a few miles
north of Binghamton. The average length of this territory is about one
hundred and fifty to two hundred miles, the average width about thirty
miles, and the average depth from twenty feet at the extreme northwestern
end to two hundred and eighty-five feet at Ithaca. There is enough salt in
New York State alone to supply the world for a million years. In Ohio,
the deposit seems to surround Cleveland, about fifteen or twenty miles east
and west, and fifty miles south. In Michigan, a deposit of rock-salt is
found along the St. Claire and Detroit Rivers, and in the western part of
the State, at Ludington and Manistee. There is brine in the Saginaw
valley which is presumed to be the filtration through the earth from these
rock-salt deposits to the east and west. Rock-salt is found in Kansas in
the central and western part of the State, at from three to five hundred feet
below the surface. In Louisiana there is a deposit of rock-salt at Avery
Island, and at another island, known as Belle Isle, on the Gulf. There is
also some rock-salt found in the southwestern corner of Virginia. It is a
very peculiar formation, however, and occurs in pockets only. Salt usually
occurs in well-defined strata. There is some little rock-salt in Wyoming
and in Utah, but it is not available, because remote from transportation
facilities.

In a general summary of the facts and figures concerning salt produc-
tion, it may be stated that fully ninety per cent of the total salt product of
the United States comes from the four States of New York, Michigan, Kan-
sas, and Ohio. Since 1893 New York has held first place as a producer
of salt, having wrested that honor from Michigan. New York manufac-
tures thirty-eight per cent, Michigan thirty-five per cent, Kansas eleven per
cent, and Ohio seven per cent of the whole product. Oklahoma, California,

QUARRYING, SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES 683

Texas, West Virginia, Utah, Pennsylvania, and other States contribute
varying amounts to the grand total of 21,000,000 barrels, value $7,000,000,
produced annually.

PROCESSES OF SALT MANUFACTURE

To supply the demand the United States produces annually over twenty
million barrels of salt, most of which is manufactured under the supervision
of the National Salt Company. An official of that company .gave the Indus-
trial Commission some interesting information concerning the salt industry,
and part of the matter in these pages is taken from his testimony on that
occasion.

There are three sources of salt supply. They are sea water, natural
brine springs, and mineral rock-salt deposits, which are found below the
surface of the earth, varying from three hundred to three thousand feet in
different localities. The production of salt from sea water is usually car-
ried on in a tropical climate, where sea water is collected in a pond, and
subsequently evaporates by solar heat and wind. No salt is made from
natural salt water in the United States, except on the Pacific Coast in Cali-
fornia, and along the Great Salt Lake, Utah. Salt is made from brine
springs at Syracuse, New York, by solar evaporation and by evaporation by
artificial heat, the brine being contained in kettles set in masonry over a
furnace.

The principal source of production of salt in the United States is from
brine, which is procured by bringing fresh water in contact with the
mineral rock-salt contained in the earth. This brine is then pumped to the
surface, purified, and evaporated. Three methods of evaporation are most
popular. The English, or open-pan system, consists in the use of a steel pan
twenty feet wide by one hundred feet long, filled with brine to a depth of
about two feet and situated over a furnace. Fuel is burned on grates under
one end of the pan, the heat passing along the entire pan length, with the
gases of combustion escaping out of the stack at the end of the pan, opposite
the grate. The second, or grainer, system consists in the use of wooden or
steel vats about one hundred and twenty-five feet long, eleven feet wide, and
two feet deep, which are filled with brine. In these are immersed pipes,
through which steam passes from the boilers. Evaporation of brine results,
and the salt is precipitated by gravity to the bottom of the grainer, whence
it is lifted out by rakes operated by machinery or by labor. The third
system is known as the vacuum process. The brine is boiled in a closed
vessel by application of steam heat under a vacuum.

The industry employs four different units of measure. The bushel of
fifty-six pounds is used at Syracuse and along the Ohio River, in Ohio and
West Virginia. The long ton of 2,240 pounds is the unit of measure at the
rock-salt mines in New York State and at the Avery Island rock-salt mines
in Louisiana. At the rock-salt mines of Kansas, and at the solar works
along the shores of San Francisco Bay and Great Salt Lake, the short ton

684 WORKERS OF THE NATION «

of 2,000 pounds is the unit. With the foregoing exceptions the barrel of
280 pounds is adopted.

In California, along the shores of San Francisco Bay, ponds are used
for receiving and settling the sea water so as to precipitate the gypsum and
other impurities. The land is cleared and diked with a levee three or four
feet high, and partitioned into reservoirs for receiving and evaporating the
water. Crystallizing ponds are excavated, and platforms are constructed
for stocking the salt. There are usually seven evaporating reservoirs to a
plant. The brine is retained in the seventh reservoir until it reaches a
density of 25° Baume. When this strength of brine is attained, the crystal-
lizing ponds are rilled to a depth of ten or twelve inches, and the brine is
evaporated until 29° by the hydrometer is reached. The completion of the
solar process consists in drawing off the mother-liquor; gathering up the
salt and conveying it into warehouses to drain. It is either sold at the ware-
houses, after drying, or taken to refining works in San Francisco to be
further prepared for different uses. The industry has suffered from over-
production. Small quantities of salt are produced in other places in the
State.

In Kansas more than 1,600,000 barrels of salt are produced, the greater
part of the output being made in grainers and open pans. More than 460,-
ooo barrels of rock-salt is produced, there being large salt mines in the
State near Lyons. There are salt beds along the coast of Louisiana on
various islands. Shaft mining prevents the danger from surface waters.
The production is about 209,000 barrels.

In Utah there is a harvest of about 236,000 barrels, nearly all made by
solar evaporation. Crude salt is of great value in silver mining, and much
of the Utah output is used for that purpose, being shipped to the silver mills.

The salt marshes and numerous salt springs of Oklahoma will in time be
the source of a great salt industry. In Woods and Grant Counties are
miles of glistening plains of white salt. In northern Elaine County is Salt
Creek, the source of which is the sweating from enormous deposits of rock-
salt ninety-nine per cent pure. Much salt is manufactured in a primitive
way along this stream, but so strong is its flow that from thirty to fifty cars
of salt daily are carried away in its waters, entering the Cimarron River and
making its waters as salt as the ocean.

THE NEW YORK STATE SALT RESERVATION

"Uncle Sam" requires New York State to furnish all salt for the army
and navy. The State, as already inferred, is equal to the demand. Just
outside of Syracuse, at Onondaga Lake, it has a reservation of twenty thou-
sand acres where salt is sun-made. The annual output at Syracuse is about
ten million bushels. Each person eats perhaps an ounce of salt every week,
or about three pounds a year. The seven million people of New York,
therefore, eat about twenty-one million pounds, or not quite four hundred
thousand bushels a year. Therefore, after salt has been supplied to all the

QUARRYING, SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES 685

people of the State, and also to all departments of the army and navy, there
is a vast quantity left here for other purposes, principally preservative. The
most important salt springs in the United States are those which supply the
wonderful wells at Syracuse. Wells from one-eighth to half a mile deep
are sunk to meet these springs. The source of this great and constant brine
supply was long a puzzle to geologists. The theory was that rock-salt was
hidden away somewhere under the hills surrounding the Onondaga Valley.
Experiments have proved that a rock-salt deposit, fifty feet deep, underlies
all the southern part of Onondaga County ; and it is these inexhaustible beds
that are the unfailing source of brine supply on the Salt Reservation.

Over each of the fifty wells a house is built to protect the pumping ma-
chinery. The pumps draw the brine up into reservoirs, and from the reser-
voirs the brine is carried through pipes to the salt fields. These distributing
pipes, if laid in one line, would extend thirty-two miles. To pay for this
pipe-system the State has signed more than one check of six figures. Some
of the pipes are iron, but the greater number are made of logs, through which
holes, three or four inches in diameter, are bored from end to end. These
are joined together by enlarging the hole in one end of a log and fitting the
sharpened end of the next one into it. These salt logs last a wonderfully
long time, for the preservative quality of saline matter is as effective on
wood as on the tissues of beef. From the springs to the wells, then to the
reservoirs and through the distributing pipes to the salt yards, goes the
brine. Collected there in huge trays, it is exposed to the sun, which begins
its work of extracting the salt from the brine. The brine is readily warmed
by the sun's rays, and the rising watery vapors are carried off by the ever-
moving air. The trays or salt vats are the most expensive part of the salt
plant. These cost fifty dollars each, and as there are forty-five thousand of
them on the reservation, they are worth to the State the sum of two million
plus a quarter million of dollars. The vats, rather shallow, and all of wood,
are twenty feet square and are built on stilts at various heights from the
ground. Each vat is provided with a movable wooden cover for rainy
weather. The level of each division of vats is so graded that the brine can
be let from one tier to another by gravitation, which is done in order to save
labor and grade the quality of the salt. The receptacles which hold the
brine during the first- stages of evaporation are called "pickling vats," and
when the liquid reaches so many salometer degrees of strength, it is trans-
ferred to the neighboring vats, where the evaporation is completed and tlie
salt crystals are gathered up. In sun evaporations, where heat is supplied
only to the surface of the brine, each tiny crystal continues to grow in rapid-
ity according to the strength of the sun's rays, until its weight becomes too
great for the mother brine to hold it any longer on the surface, when it sinks
to join its predecessors at the bottom of the vat. This process continues
until the salt sediment is sufficient in quantity to justify harvesting.

The harvesting is accomplished by means of a scraper drawn by a horse.
The scraper works back and forth through the vat until the crystallized salt

686 WORKERS OF THE NATION

lies in great heaps in the front of the vat. Then the men come through with
their hand scoops and fill the tubs, through the perforated bottoms of which
the brine drains out and leaves the crystals to dry. When these are dry,,
carts are driven down the streets between the vats, the salt is emptied into
them and drawn to the mills to be ground, graded, and packed for the
market. The Dairy Salt building, where fine salt is made by the kettle
process, is a long, low and narrow building, through the whole length of
which a furnace is built. This furnace is surmounted by rows of kettles.
Great flues extend through the furnace, bringing the heat in contact with the
kettles. By means of the log lying above the furnace, the brine is supplied
to the kettle at will. The salt made by this process is fine in proportion to
the intensity of the heat used in the evaporation of- the water. On either
side of the furnace are large bins, where the salt is stored away.

THE ICE INDUSTRY

America is the mother of the ice industry. The "ice-man" the world
over now comes to America to learn our methods of harvesting, storing,
manufacturing and shipping ice. The Norwegians, especially, have learned
their lesson so well that in seasons of scarcity they send ice across the seas
to New York. The capital invested in the ice business in the United States,
including that invested in manufacturing ice, is nearly $40,000,000. One-
half of the annual crop of the country reaches the consumer, the remainder
going to waste by melting and chipping between the river or lake and the
consumer's ice-box. There is always an enormous quantity of natural ice
for mercantile use in storage — about 10,000,000 tons. Some of the largest
of these storage houses are on the Hudson River between Rondout and
Coxsackie.

The transportation of ice requires a large fleet, consisting of sailing ves-
sels for export, and ice barges and other boats for domestic trade. The bulk
of the ice for Eastern markets is thus carried by water, but in the West the
mode of transportation is by railroad. During the harvesting season on
the Hudson, alone, employment is given to about 20,000 men. The dis-
tribution of the ice in Greater New York gives employment to more than
5,000 men, using 1,500 wagons and over 3,000 horses. The pay-rolls of the
principal ice companies in New York City and Brooklyn, in summer, amount,
in the aggregate, to $25,000 a week.

The course of the ice industry has been marked by a rapid rise and a
gradual decline, the competition of ice artificially produced being too much
for the natural product, at least in the matter of exportation, which may be
considered practically extinct. And yet in 1870 the value of the exports of
natural ice was $267,702. Natural ice was used in New York as early as
1825. Later the Civil War gave great impetus to the industry, ice being
used in the hospital service. The present increasing demand for ice is largely
due to the growth of industries dependent upon this commodity. The great
ice harvesting- regions are the State of Maine and the Hudson River, and

QUARRYING, SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES 687

yet their annual yield is probably less than one-half of the total harvest in
the United States.

The United States Patent Office has granted 4,337 patents for various
processes of refrigeration, 68 1 being for ice-machines.

The annual consumption of natural ice in New York City is about 5,000,-
ooo tons, the manufactured article forming only 8.2 per cent of the whole
consumption. Manufactured ice costs about $1.50 per ton, and sells at
wholesale for about $2, retailing for the average price of fifteen to thirty
cents per one hundred pounds, according to the season. In Philadelphia the
annual consumption of ice is between 1,000,000 and 1,600,000 tons, the
locally manufactured ice representing 342,602 tons of this total amount.
The average cost of production is about $2 per ton. At wholesale it brings
the average price of $2.25 per ton, and at retail the price is from twenty to
forty cents per one hundred pounds, according to the season. For use in
San Francisco, from 10,000 to 15,000 tons are annually brought from the
Sierra Nevada Mountains, the general consumption of ice being much
smaller in that city. In most of the Southern States the entire ice industry
is solely in connection with the manufactured product, no. natural ice being
used. The cost of production has been reduced to about $2 per ton in the
large Southern cities, and even in the smaller towns it is so low as to ex-
clude the natural ice. So we have three ice-trade zones. In the southern
zone manufactured ice has a monopoly. In the middle division both natural
and manufactured ice are sold. In the northern zone the climate gives the
monopoly to the natural product. All the States south of a line drawn
through the northern boundary of North Carolina form the southern
division.

THE MANUFACTURE OF ICE

The manufacture of ice — artificial ice, as it is called — has become an im-
portant branch of the ice industry. Ice machines have proved a great boon,
also, to the tropical countries.

Ice produced by mechanical or chemical means is commonly, but not very appropriately,
designated as "artificial," to distinguish it from ice produced by nature. Artificial re-
frigeration, as defined by the census experts, consists simply in the removal of heat, and is
accomplished by the use of ammonia, either aqua of anhydrous, or some other volatile
liquid, such as sulphurous dioxide or ether, which absorbs heat upon evaporation.

The value of a product, natural or manufactured, depends largely on the
nearness to the market. In some cases mere transportation facilities alone
will not suffice. In a long transit the merchandise might spoil, and become
unfit for use. The ice industry steps in here, and makes possible long ship-
ments of perishable goods. It has thus aided greatly in the development of
the natural resources of the country, and is a very important factor in the
progress of business. The refrigerator cars carry the most delicate fruits,
delivering them in distant marts, in a perfectly fresh condition. Meats
can also be transported in them, untainted and uninjured. Cold-st
warehouses serve to keep these classes of goods in prime order as

688 WORKERS OF THE NATION

desired, either before or after shipment. Advantage may thus be taken of
the prices quoted from week to week. Great has been the stimulation of
such industries as the cultivation of fruit, berries, and vegetables. The
raising of strawberries, particularly, has increased. In the South and on the
Pacific Coast this influence has been largely felt. In the case of dressed
meats, the ice industry has caused a revolution, widening the market almost
indefinitely, and, furthermore, enabling the operations of this trade to be
carried on throughout the entire year, abolishing the winter limitation. It
is an odd feature of the ice industry that the only materials affecting the cost
are those which form no part of the product, being used only in the genera-
tion of the temperature necessary for the production of ice. The chief
item of expense is the cost of fuel for the machinery. As has been else-
where mentioned, the principal material used as a refrigerant is ammonia,
anhydrous and aqua-ammonia.

The two methods of ice manufacture are called the can system and the
plate system. In the former or can system use is made of distilled water,
giving a clear, transparent product. Distilled water is procured by con-
densing "exhaust" or "live" steam. In the plate system, however, a trans-
parent ice is made without distilling the water. By the employment of the
can system ice may be formed either in stationary cells or removable cans.
At present the latter method is more generally employed. In the case of
the use of the stationary cells, the necessity arises of emptying all the cells
at the same time, thus compelling the use of more than one tank in order to
made the operation continuous. Where the can method is employed the
water is placed in cans which are immersed in iron or wooden tanks of cold
brine. This process may be called continuous, for the cans are taken out
singly, and, after the ice is removed, they may be refilled and replaced. The
method of removing the ice is either by dropping the can into tepid water,
or merely sprinkling with it. The formation of ice requires a lapse of time
varying from twenty to sixty-six hours. The difference in time depends
on the thickness of the mold and the temperature of the brine. The plate
system differs from this in detail. A hollow iron plate is immersed in a
tank containing the water to be frozen. The plate contains coils for the
freezing medium or for the brine, and the ice is formed on the two outer
surfaces. This process is much slower than the can system, and the use of
several plates is necessary for a continuous process. The standard thick-
ness of the ice-cake is sixteen feet in length, eight feet in width, and eleven
inches in thickness. Electric power is used in this process when available.

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION AS A TRADE

The progress in all branches of mechanical and industrial science con-
stantly gives rise to new trades and professions, and also subdivides the
older ones into numerous branches. Among the most important of the
new industrial sciences that has arisen within a very few years is that of
refrigeration. Formerly, on a large as well as small scale, artificial re-

QUARRYING, SALT AND ICE INDUSTRIES 689

frigeration was a simple matter, consisting only in placing the food products,
or other articles to be treated, below a box filled with natural ice, which, in
melting, absorbed the heat rising from beneath — just as a tea kettle absorbs
heat from the stove, causing the water to boil. Latterly, however, the
numerous methods of making artificial ice, as well as of reducing the tem-
perature of store-rooms and factory apartments by the use of ammonia gas,
carbonic acid or atmospheric air, has introduced entirely new elements,
which have a daily increasing significance. Thus, ice-making and refriger-
ating machinery is used on shipboard, in factories, breweries, hotels, apart-
ment houses, warehouses, cold-storage vaults, and in numerous other places,
so that a knowledge of the general conditions involved is rapidly becoming
a necessity for many classes of practical men. These include steam and
marine engineers, employes and managers of breweries, meat-dressing estab-
lishments, dairymen, hotel employes and janitors. The simple theory of
extracting heat from a body, in order to produce complete refrigeration,
involves numerous theoretical and practical situations that must be mas-
tered in order to attain the requisite knowledge in this increasingly impor-
tant branch of industry. To meet the demand for the practical student
several excellent treatises on the subject have been prepared, while promi-
nent correspondence and technical schools offer complete courses.

13— VoL

CHAPTER VIII
THE FARMER

Agriculture in the United States — The Status of the Farmer — Modern Agricultural Pur-
suits— General Statistics of Farms — Farming as a Business Enterprise — Organization
and Co-operation Among Farmers — The Farmer and the Commission Merchant — Mort-
gages on Farms and Crops — Farmers as Tenants — Farm Labor — Chinese and Negroes
as Farm Hands — Prosperity of "Hired Help" on Farms — Earnings of Farm Hands —
Agricultural Education — Agricultural Colleges — Government Employment for Agri-
cultural Students and Experts — Home Study for Farmers — Farmers' Reading Courses.

AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES

OVER 10,000,000 persons, or fully one-eighth of the total population
of the United States, are engaged in agriculture, despite the con-
stant heavy drafts on the rural districts to supply the demands for
workers in railroading, manufactures, and other industries. Thus, from
the point of numbers, agriculture is still the chief industry of the country,
as it is also the one most nearly fundamental. Its commercial importance is
shown by the fact that out of our total annual exports, amounting in value
to $1,330,000,000, very nearly $850,000,000 are represented by agricultural
products. The immense scale on which agriculture is conducted in this
country is shown by the fact that the annual corn crop covers 80,000,000
acres, a total area equal to the whole of Italy, with 10,000 square miles to
spare; the hay crop covers 42,000,000 acres, and the wheat crop, 41,000,000,
an area larger than the whole of England and European Turkey com-
bined; oats cover nearly 26,500,000 acres, an area four times as large as
Holland; cotton, 23,000,000 acres, equal to over half the useful lands of
Egypt; potatoes and barley, nearly 3,000,000 acres each, an area equal to
nearly the whole of Belgium; rye, 1,700,000 acres, and buckwheat and to-
bacco, about 750,000 acres each, giving a combined area between them equal
to the whole of Wales. The grand total of nearly 222,000,000 acres of land,
carrying these ten important products, thus represents a total larger than the
whole of France and the British Isles combined.

In this division of the present work are presented the most striking feat-
ures of American agriculture during the last century and up to the present
date. Immense progress is shown in the use of machinery, in the develop-
ment of businesslike farming so that great ranches and bonanza farms are
conducted with all the organization, bookkeeping, division of labor, and
minute attention to the details of preparation for operation that characterizes
the great manufacturing plant or the railway system. New farming indus-
tries have been developed that bring more money into the country than did
(690)

THE FARMER 691

the whole of agricultural exports at the beginning of the iSoos. Such is the
growing and shipping of fruits. On the other hand the production of wheat
and corn and cotton and live stock have multiplied by the hundredfold not
only to keep pace with the growth of population, but far to outrun it.

New methods of sowing and reaping and cleaning the grains and of
ginning the cotton have enormously increased the productive power of each
man, so that while the prices have greatly declined, the returns to the farmer
have very greatly increased.

It is shown that in the first third of the Nineteenth Century students of
economics even began to despair of the bread supply of the United States,
and to look for danger of famines such as have brought untold distress on
India and other part of the earth ; but the American farmer and his sons, the
inventors, came to the rescue, and America not only feeds herself but almost
the rest of the world beside.

THE STATUS OF THE FARMER

The position of the American farmer is unique. A plain citizen in his
own country, he would oftenest perhaps be a country gentleman in Europe ;
sometimes a lord, a count, an earl. Practically he never occupies the posi-
tion of the peasant of other countries. He may be poor, but he is always
freeborn, with all the political rights and duties of his most powerful neigh-
bor, and has the same standing theoretically, and, indeed, for the most part,
practically, before the courts of justice. When he is overborne in any dis-
pute by the wealth of his opponent, it is merely due to the power of money to
procure a better presentation of the other side, to make the worse appear the
better reason, not to any criminal purchase of opinion.

Jefferson and Washington were farmers, as were the Lees, both of the
Revolution and of the Civil War, and as have been a long line of strong,
useful and noted men through the last century to the present day, when
the President of the Republic is perhaps as much a ranchman as anything
else outside of politics. A lawyer who has written books of history, a
colonel of volunteers who has spent more time probably hunting game than
hunting men, he has given many days to running a western farm business.
And it is this sort of farmer that the son of any American farmer is likely
to turn out, as witness the roll of the names of the Presidents.

But again the position of the American farmer is weak in this day of
immense development of community of interests and combinations to control
business. It is next to impossible for any class numbering over ten mil-
lions to form any sort of association or league which will, including any
considerable minority of them, not go to pieces before the object in view
is fairly understood by most of them, to say nothing of accomplished. How
difficult is it then for the farmers who produce any large crop to agree and
set limits to production, prices, or methods of operation of any kind?

Still the freedom from restraint, the feeling of equality, the knowledge
of opportunity which thousands of examples show lies before every farmer's

692 WORKERS OF THE NATION

boy is an inspiration and a spur to efforts such as have wrought the marvel-
lous progress in farming told by the story of agriculture during the Nine-
teenth Century. The field lay open to all in the early eighteen hundreds, but
it was only the American farmer who found out, accepted and successfully
used new ways, new implements and machines, and new forces so that he
quadrupled his producing power for wheat, corn, hay, cotton until he meets
and overmatches in the markets of the world the cheap labor of Europe and
India and Egypt, ryots and fellaheen, all the while living well at home and
giving his children good schools and other opportunities for culture and
refinement.

MODERN AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS

Farming, like any other calling, may be either a business or a mere
occupation, and, as it is considered in the one or the other light, it will be
found a profitable undertaking or a simple failure. At the present time it is
one of the most highly specialized of all industries ; being concerned princi-
pally with cotton in the South, with corn in the Northwest, with fruit in
California and other Southwestern States and Territories, and with wheat
or cattle in the middle and far West. Tobacco and sugar beets are other
specialties that represent a wide range of territory, while general market
truck, staple vegetables and fruits are raised in the immediate neighborhood
of all large cities. In purposing to adopt farming as a life-work, there-
fore, a man's first concern is to carefully determine what particular kind of
crop can be most advantageously raised and most readily marketed in his
section; then proceeding to cultivate it with regard to economy, soil capa-
city and the ascertained conditions of growth. According to the advice of
several experienced authorities, such business methods as keeping rigid ac-
count of successes and failures of crops in each year, with full notes as to
conditions in either case, are of the utmost value for reference in after-time ;
since the rule is that we learn most often by our own failures.

As is hardly necessary to say to most people, the day of the unintelligent
farmer, with his slipshod methods, is nearly past. The farmer of to-day
must be something of a chemist, botanist and entomologist, at least to the
extent of understanding the requirements of soil and crop in his own par-
ticular specialty. Soil treatment is an important item of information with
which no farmer can afford to dispense. He must know, in some measure,
what necessary elements are lacking in the soil he has to cultivate, also how
to supply the deficiency by artificial means — what elements of dressing or
fertilizer are required to make the soil generally productive, or to assist the
growth of some particular kind of crop. He must also have a good general
idea, at least, of the requirements as to drainage, in order to obtain the best
advantage from his land. Furthermore, and equally important, he must un-
derstand what elements of its food a plant derives from the atmosphere, and
what are the requirements in this particular, as also in the others, of each
variety. Thus, many persons who make no claim to the character of a

THE FARMER 693

farmer, understand that grapes grow best on a hillside exposed to the sun's
rays during a good part of the day, a rule that applies in some particulars to
melons and other fruits. A few such rudimentary facts understood and ap-
plied would have rendered many an abandoned farm still productive and
profitable.

The deficient intelligence that has led to the outright abandoning of
many farms has caused some fruit-growers to turn to some other branch,
simply because they did not understand the physiology and pathology of
plants, and were unable to cope with and overcome insect and fungous pests,
or because work in this direction requires too much labor and vigilance.
While some fruit and tree scourges, especially the new and unfamiliar types,
are exceedingly difficult to treat and eradicate, to destroy the majority of
them requires only moderate knowledge of their nature and the same watch-
ful attention that any business man devotes to his calling. In that such
annoyances have actually necessitated these qualities in the farmer, we see
that they have proved themselves of positive benefit to the industry. In pre-
cisely similar fashion a dairyman should understand the chemistry and
bacteriology of milk, the causes and nature of the "ripening" of cheese, to-
gether with the kind of feed best calculated to produce good milk, butter and
cheese qualities. He should also have an intelligent understanding of the
"points" of cattle and their common disorders, or else not complain that
"there is nothing in farming."

Indeed, apart from the great and constant profits to be derived from
farming, in any and all its branches, by intelligent and careful management,
there is no industry that is more thoroughly encouraged and assisted. The
United States Government publishes numerous books and pamphlets for the
benefit of the wide-awake farmer, and employs a regular corps of experts to
investigate and report on all the conditions of the industry, including soil
treatment, the eradication of pests and the methods of procedure with nearly
every important variety of crop. Congress has also endowed numerous
land-grant colleges of agriculture throughout the country, where both the
theory and practice of the science are exhaustively treated. Could these
beneficent influences be permitted to penetrate the stygian gloom of tradi-
tional rural conservatism, and lead young men to see the vast possibilities of
profit lying at their very doorsteps, there would be fewer migrations to the
city, in quest of fortunes that few earn, and agriculture would be restored
to its former primacy among industries

GENERAL STATISTICS OF FARMS

Judging by values reported, the North and South Central States lead
in importance as a farming centre. The North Central States lead in acre-
age and in value of land, improvements, and products, and also reports the
largest sum paid for labor; while the South Central States report an ex-
penditure for fertilizers between twice and three times greater. The average
value of land, live stock and products is greatest in the West, while the value

694 WORKERS OF THE NATION

of buildings and the returns on products per acre are greatest in the North
Atlantic and North Central States. The most important agricultural States
of the Union are, in order, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsyl-
vania and New York, representing nearly 45 per cent of farm values and
nearly 40 per cent of product values of the entire country.

The industry of farming has, of course, increased regularly in the
United States, in point of the areas covered by its operations, with the con-
stantly-progressing cultivation of the vast tracts of the far West. In 1850
the total acreage included in farm lands was not quite 294,000,000, of
which over 113,000,000 was improved and about 180,500,000 unimproved.
At the present time the total acreage of farming lands is about 850,000,000,
with about 415,000,000 improved, and a little over 426,000,000 unimproved.
A large percentage of the unimproved land is included in the vast grazing
tracts of the West, which fact largely explains the increase in the percentage
as compared with the "improved" acreage, or that under regular cultivation
for the harvesting of vegetable crops and the growing of fruit.

According to recent estimates the total value of farm properties in the
United States has increased from about $3,970,000,000 in 1850 to nearly
$2 1 ,000,000,000 at the present time, or over 500 per cent. These figures in-
clude an increase of over $13,000,000,000 in the value of land improvements
and buildings; of over $600,000,000 in the value of farm implements and
machinery, and of nearly $3,000,000,000 in the value of live stock. In the
meantime, the annual value of farm products is nearly $5,000,000,000, or
about twenty per cent of the actual value of the property constantly em-
ployed in the work of production.

At the present time farms in the United States are operated by three
classes of people: owners; cash tenants, who pay a stipulated rental, and
share tenants, who give an agreed share of products to the owners. Out of
a total of about 5,740,000 farms, over 3,700,000 are operated by owners;
about 1,275,000 by share tenants, and something over 750,000 by cash ten-
ants.. Under the head of farms operated by owners, we have also those
operated by part owners; those operated by owners and tenants together,
and those operated by managers, who act for the owners and receive a stipu-
lated remuneration for their services. The last-named class is rapidly in-
creasing, particularly in regions where "syndicate farming" is progressing;
the total number of farms operated by this method at the present time being
nearly 60,000. Over 4,970,000 farms are operated by white farmers, about
747,000 by negroes, and the remaining 2,900 by Indians, Chinese, Japanese
and Hawaiians. About 2 1 per cent of the negro farms are operated by own-
ers, and about 90 per cent of the Indian farms, most of these being held by
grants from the Government. Over 78 per cent of the Chinese farms are
worked by cash tenants, and only 7 per cent by owners, while Japanese cash
tenants are 85 per cent of the total of 570 farms, and Hawaiian owners,
nearly 59 per cent of 489 farms.

THE FARMER 695

FARMING A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE

It is a common experience to hear complaints to the effect that "farm-
ing does not pay nowadays/' and that "no one can succeed as a farmer,
unless, like the average run of Germans and Poles, who come to this coun-
try, he and his entire family work the land day and night, etc., etc." As
with all falsehoods, there is some truth in both these statements — the aver-
age old-line farmer does well if he makes a living from the best farm land,
while the industrious foreigner lays by a comfortable property in a few
years by "keeping everlastingly at it." Thus, a constantly-increasing army
of farmers' boys go to the cities, in order to seek employment in stores and
offices, where they frequently do little better than their fathers on the farms.
To the economist and general observer this condition of affairs has long
been a fertile source of "problems," but some achievements of late years in
systematic business farming have given a clew to the facts in the case : the
average farmer lacks system, executive ability and the faculty of profiting
by simple exercise of intelligent management. According to the statements
of authorities on the subject, which may be readily verified, there is no
reason whatever why farming should not be made to pay on either a large
or a small scale.

Armed with this conviction, and with some little practical experience in
farming, several enterprising business men have purchased extensive tracts
in several States and systematically farmed them from their offices in the
city. At least two notable examples of this order of enterprise are con-
ducted in the vicinity of Chicago. Briefly described, the working of this
"long-range" plan consists in dividing the land into separate farms, each of
which is under the direction of its own foreman, who is paid a stated salary
for carrying out the directions of his chief, and is allowed to make such
outside profit as he can from the sale of milk, eggs and poultry of his own
raising. By means of a long-distance telephone directions may be given,
conditions discussed, and shipments of particular kinds of produce arranged,
whenever the state of the market promises a profit. As has also proved to be
the case, information regarding the probabilities of weather changes may
be transmitted in time to prevent losses in harvesting or putting in a crop.
In addition to making it possible to conduct the farm and ship produce,
with reference to the latest information on the condition of the market and
of the weather, the syndicate farmer can afford to use railroad freight fa-
cilities on a scale and with a degree of despatch quite beyond the reach of
the average old-time agriculturist.

Perhaps the foremost advantage of the plan is that it allows a thoroughly
competent and scientific manager to direct the kind and quantity of the crops
to be planted ; the particular live stock to be raised ; also, to systematically
control the rotation of crops, in a manner seldom followed by small inde-
pendent farmers. Thus, by having at disposal several thousand acres of
land, it is possible to maintain the average yearly output of any kind of

696 WORKERS OF THE NATION

crops, while allowing each field or tract to rest and lie idle for pasturage at
least once in every three or four years. By an intelligent and systematic
system of rotation on these lines, it is asserted, any average good American
farm may be made to yield at least seventy-five bushels of corn or oats to the
acre, and other cereals in proportion. One of the most successful syndicate
farmers in the United States gives as a paying division of crops for a farm
of 1 60 acres: 10 acres for buildings and garden patch and a field of beets
for feeding sheep and hogs; 60 acres for pasture; 60 acres for corn; 30
acres for oats. This allows of a shifting of cereal and pasture lands every
second year. As profits from an intelligently conducted farm of this size,
he figures : From sale of wool, $100; from sale of lambs, at $5 each, $500;
from sale of hogs, at $10 each, $500; from sale of corn, at 30 cents per
bushel, $900; from sale of oats, $200. Deducting from the gross receipts
about $700 for running expenses, corn fed to animals, etc., he figures a clear
profit of $1,500. In proof of these statements, a syndicated tract of 3,600
acres may be mentioned, in which 1,800 acres is planted in corn, 900 in rye
or oats, 900 in pasture, which supports 350 head of cattle and yields an an-
nual income of from $8,000 to $10,000 from the sale of hogs alone.

These figures furnish an excellent object lesson on the application of
present-day tendencies toward organization and combination to the business
of farming. If the advertised advantages of co-operation are ever to be
made available, the farming industry seems an eminently appropriate field to
inaugurate it practically. The foremen on syndicate farms, working under
the direction of a thoroughly competent head, can live as well as any of the
neighboring independent farmers, and clear considerable profits on garden
and dairy produce allowed them by contract. It is also asserted that the
subordinate employes are well housed, well fed and well paid, and that, con-
trary to the rule with most farm hands, are eager to retain their positions
and avoid all changes. In the meantime, the business head of the whole
concern realizes large profits, proving that well-organized farming is one
of the most lucrative of investments.

ORGANIZATION AND CO-OPERATION AMONG FARMERS

The conditions of agriculture render efforts at organization or co-
operation seldom perfectly successful, although, as experience shows, there
is no industry in which combination would be more advantageous. The
union and co-operative ideas are gradually spreading among farmers, how-
ever, and have given rise to many societies and associations for business ad-
vantage or for social and educational purposes. Such organizations, of
which there are over 5,000 in the United States, exclusive of irrigation so-
cieties, conduct co-operative buying and selling; operate small shops and
factories, especially for the manufacture of butter and cheese; conduct cot-
ton gins, grain elevators, telephone lines, etc. Co-operative creameries, as
conducted in several of the Western States, give the most eminent examples
of successful agricultural associations, as yet uninjured by incompetent or

THE FARMER 697

dishonest management. Social or mutual improvement societies, of which
there are several thousand, were formerly important political factors, but
this sort of activity has been strongly discouraged since the second Cleveland
administration. Nearly the strongest and most far-reaching of such or-
ganizations is that known as the Patrons of Husbandry, which maintains
numerous lodges among well-to-do and progressive farmers. Col. J. H.
Brigham, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, is a Past Grand Master of this
order.

A recent report of the United States Industrial Commission devotes
much space to demonstrating the advantage of business methods in market-
ing of crops in improving the condition of farmers, who, on account of the
perishable nature of their goods, are at the mercy of the middlemen and
compelled to accept any prices offered, irrespective of the conditions of de-
mand. The farmers' organizations in Norfolk, and other cities, have largely
remedied this evil by keeping constant returns on market conditions. The
Milk Producers' Union, of Boston is another example of successful co-oper-
ation in which the profits of the farmers are assured by authoritative agree-
ments on the price of milk. Attempts have been made to follow the methods
of this organization in other cities. The California Fruit Exchange is an
eminent example of successful co-operation, receiving consignments of
citrous fruits from all points in the State and marketing them through its
salaried agents throughout the country, maintaining the profits to the pro-
ducer, without materially advancing the price to the consumer. Similar or-
ganizations deal in California cured fruits, such as prunes and raisins, al-
though guaranteeing to sell at certain rates, free on board, in California,
instead of maintaining agencies at all important market points.

THE FARMER AND THE COMMISSION MERCHANT

The commission merchant is a necessary feature of the farm produce
trade, as of every other branch of commerce. His method is to receive
goods on consignment and to sell them to retail merchants, making his
profits by charging a fixed percentage on money thus received. Because he
has a regularly established trade with certain customers, he can transact
business far more readily and economically than would be possible for the
producer acting for himself, and can obtain better profits. Thus commission
merchants fall into four classes, according to the nature of the goods they
Handle : Butter and cheese handlers, fruit and vegetable dealers, poultry and
game dealers and specialists in other lines. Although many of them will
handle any class of farm products consigned to them, they generally prefer
to confine their efforts to some special line, in which they have an estab-
lished name and trade.

Many farmers object to commission merchants, fearing to fall into the
clutches of swindlers, who are supposed to seek victims mostly in farming
districts. It is well to remember, however, that such men, if well known,
have a business reputation to maintain, and cannot afford to stoop to small

698 WORKERS OF THE NATION

cheating. If a man is not well known, and sends lists of prominent names
as reference, it is well to write to the persons mentioned before dealing with
him. On the other hand, the law protects the shipper of goods to a com-
mission merchant, enacting in nost States that he is the farmer's agent, and
that any attempt to defraud his principal will involve a heavy fine and im-
prisonment, or both. If the merchant agrees to buy the goods at a certain
price, the farmer has no recourse, except to sue for the sum, if it is not paid.
But even this may result only in a judgment that can not be collected. It
is for this reason that dishonest merchants most often offer to buy goods
outright. In order to protect himself, when dealing with strangers, the
farmer's safest procedure is to consign the goods to his own order, making
a draft through a bank or express company and attaching it to the bill of
lading received from the railroad company, properly endorsed. The bank
or express company will then present the draft to the merchant, and will not
deliver the goods until the money is received.

MORTGAGES ON FARMS AND CROPS

Mortgages in farm districts are supposed to be a kind of plague. The
mortgage is thought to be the farmer's bane, too often his ruin. Novels and
plays are written around the hero or heroine who, by the performance of
some herculean task, lifts the mortgage on the farm and saves the whole
family from the poorhouse. In the East, the mortgage may be a curse in
fact, as well as in fiction. But in the West, the mortgages are proving a
blessing to farmers, rather than a crushing burden. In the Dakotas, for in-
stance, many farmers last year could have paid off their mortgages. Instead,
they preferred to pay only the interest, and with the surplus money to pur-
chase additional acres. They claim that this method of financing the farm
pays better. Again, in the West, the "crop-payment" plan of paying off
mortgages is proving a general success. By this plan, the farmer reduces the
amount of the mortgage in yearly installments represented by one-half of all
the grain he raises. To the Western farmer, the mortgage is a blessing
principally in that it enables him to buy his farm on credit. As this same
reasoning applies to Eastern farmers, mortgages on farms, generally con-
sidered, should not be counted as an evidence of adversity. Taking the
country as a whole, the mortgage indebtedness of farmers during the last
few years has been considerably reduced. Farmers who were obliged to
forfeit their property, either emigrated to cities, or became tenants on
the land of which they were formerly the lords and masters.

The scarcity of money in the South at the close of the Civil War ren-
dered it plainly necessary to make some provision for a credit system, and
nearly all the Southern legislatures passed crop lien laws. While something
of this kind may have been a real necessity at the time, it is generally agreed
that the continuance of the crop lien system has been detrimental to Southern
agriculture. The merchants who loan money or make advances of supplies
on crop liens protect themselves by requiring the borrowers to plant a spe-

THE FARMER

699

cific acreage of cotton, the principal money crop, and this interferes with
diversification of crops. Again, the tenant farmers are tempted by the credit
system to buy more freely than they would if paying cash, and if they suc-
ceed in getting out of debt at the end of the crop year they become involved
again almost immediately. The risk of the merchant who sells on credit is
so great that a high rate of profit is charged on these credit sales. Many
witnesses complained to the Industrial Commission of the scarcity of money
and the high rates of interest prevailing in the South as among the Southern
farmer's most serious disadvantages. Not only are the nominal interest
rates higher than in the North, but in many cases money lenders exact
additional payments in indirect ways: For example, a planter may borrow
from a cotton factor nominally at' eight per cent, but is also obliged to agree
to send the factor a certain amount of cotton and to pay him a commission
of $1.50 a bale for disposing of it, and this commission must be paid even
if the planter fails to raise the prescribed amount of cotton. In some parts
of the South money lenders have gradually come into possession of many
of the plantations. The establishment of numerous new banks in some parts
of the South during recent years, however, has relieved this stringency of
the money market to some extent.

FARMERS AS TENANTS

Tenant farmers are principally of two classes ; those who were formerly
farm owners and have stepped downward, and those who were formerly
farm laborers and have taken a step upward. The latter class of farm ten-
ants are more numerous than the former.

Farmers in some sections of the country declare that it is impossible for
a young man to start life with nothing, become the possessor of a farm, and
clean his slate of debts all within the period of his natural life. The new
Census report does not support this theory. During the last decade the total
number of farms in the United States increased nearly twenty-seven per cent,
from 4,500,000 in 1892, to 5,700,000 in 1902. And the total number of
farms worked by their owners is half a million more than it was ten years
ago, an increase of eighteen per cent. In the same time, the number of farms
worked by tenants has increased forty per cent. These figures show that the
number of farm laborers who took a step upward to become tenants is
greater than the number of farm owners who took the step downward and
became tenants. It is clear that the farm hand can rise in the world, if he
wills. And in the Middle and Eastern States, where the increase in tenant
farms is greatest — here the farm hand will find the best opportunity of rising
to an independent position in agriculture.

A farm may be rented under two kinds of tenancy, the one known as
cash rental, the other, crop-sharing. The matter depends upon the custom
in the State where the farm lies, or on the kind of crop raised. The cash
rental system prevails in the North and East, the share system in the South,
and both the cash and the share plans in the West. On the share system, the

700 WORKERS OF THE NATION

share of the crop paid to the landlord varies from one-fifth to two-thirds. It
all depends on what is furnished by the landlord. If he furnishes the tenant
with live stock, seeds, implements and fertilizer, as well as the land itself,
the owner's share of course is greater than when he furnishes only a part or
none of the utensils and supplies. But in all cases the landlord is supposed
to furnish a house, an acre of ground for garden purposes, and firewood.

In Georgia, the tenant must allow the landlord the value of one-fourth
of the cotton, one-third of the corn, and one-half of the small grain. In the
Carolinas, the cash system has largely supplanted the share plan, but the ten-
ants who still work farms on the share system must pay the landlord one-
fourth of the corn and one-fifth of the cotton. In Kentucky, the owner re-
ceives one-half the corn, and one-half the net proceeds of tobacco crops.
Cotton land is sometimes rented for a fixed amount of cotton. In Georgia,
a tenant pays from 500 to 1,000 pounds of cotton for as much land as he
can work with one mule. In Tennessee, for ten acres of land, the tenant
pays one bale of cotton. In Louisiana, the usual plan is for the tenant and
owner to share and share the cotton crop equally, the owner furnishing the
mules and their feed. In most instances, the share system is more profit-
able to the landlord than renting for cash or a stipulated amount of cotton.

FARM LABOR

Of all classes of hired help, the most difficult to find and to keep is the
farm hand. So scarce is such labor in certain States, that a system of im-
portations has been practiced for years. In Kansas, for instance, every
year when the wheat is ready for harvest, thousands of men are imported
into the State from all parts of the country. During the harvesting season
of 1902, every train coming into Kansas was filled with would-be harvest
hands. Would-be, because many of them never before saw a wheat field.
They were simply emergency helpers. The fact that such employment is
only temporary — a few weeks at the most — is the cause of the dearth of
laborers. In 1902, the wheat crop was so large, and the labor supply so
scarce, that tramps were pressed into service, and at the end the farmers had
to employ all available young girls and women. In the sugar States the
same scarcity of labor exists.

In manufacturing States, especially in New England, farm laborers are
even harder to secure, and still harder to retain. The brawn of the popula-
tion prefers to sell its service to the factories, where work is permanent,
where exposure is not an element to be reckoned with, and where the hours
are fixed, and much shorter than on the farms. From all over the country
the report comes that manufacturing establishments are taking the best men
from the farms. In the West, in sections where railroads are being built —
here again laborers are forsaking the farms and engaging with contractors.
And in sections where public works are in course of construction, the same.

Employment agencies are everywhere doing a thriving business supply-
ing farm laborers, making a specialty of securing this class of help. Farm-

THE FARMER ?OI

ers of Vermont and other New England States secure immigrants from the
immigration offices at New York and Boston. In the Western cities, em-
ployment bureaus are sending out immigrants to the surrounding farms, a
whole regiment at a time, all the arrivals by a particular ship often being
forwarded from an Eastern port in a bunch.

CHINESE AND NEGROES AS FARM HANDS

In California, either because of the lack of white helpers, or because
Asiatics are cheaper, farmers are giving employment to hordes of Chinese.
These Chinese laborers are supplied either by the Six Companies or by Chi-
nese labor bureaus in San Francisco.

In the South, white laborers are scarce, and negroes are either incompe-
tent or will not work regularly. Negroes drift from one plantation to
another, for the sake of a few miles ride on a railroad, enjoying such jour-
neys like children. Many Southern farmers supply tenements for their
negro help so that the men can be found and hired when wanted. Some
even maintain a commissary and furnish supplies on credit, like the com-
pany store plan common in the manufacturing and mining centres. In Ten-
nessee the dairy farmers are unable to achieve the best results because of the
lack of white men as helpers. In dairy work, negroes are careless and
generally incompetent.

PROSPERITY OF "HIRED HELP" ON FARMS

Throughout the country to-day, however, farm laborers own more
property than ever before, and their general condition shows a marked im-
provement over ten years ago. In some New England States, farm hands
are as well off as their employers, and in some instances, owing to the de-
cline in prices of farm properties, they are even better off than the farmers.
Machinery has reduced the drudgery, while wages have advanced.

But, despite improved conditions and higher wages, the "hired man" is
almost as much a problem to the farmer as domestic help is to the housewife.
As already inferred, the younger field workers succumb to the attractions of
cities, and the older hands will not accustom themselves to the use of ma-
chinery. The solution of the hired help problem, many intelligent farmers
believe, lies in encouraging the married laborer. The married man usually
desires to remain permanently, or as long as the farmer will furnish him
with a house, a garden, and perhaps a horse and a cow.

Even the hours of labor are more regular and average a little shorter
than formerly. Because of the chores, morning and evening in addition to
the regular field work, a farm laborer's hours are proverbially uncertain, but
as a result of the movement for a shorter day in the cities his work is better
defined and his time shorter. The average for all sections and all seasons
is about ten hours ; in summer often considerably more. In the Northwest
and the South men are required to work from sunrise to sunset, but they are
usually allowed an hour to an hour and a half "nooning." In the South also

702 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Saturday is generally either a half-holiday or a full holiday. In New Eng-
land many farmers allow their help a half-holiday on Saturday, excepting
during harvest. For one reason and another, however, this holiday is fre-
quently appropriated by the farmer for some emergency job.

In respect to the duration of employment, farm hands are divided into
two general classes : Those who can not find work in winter, and those who
don't want to work in winter. The Northern helper is of the first class, the
Southern of the second. In either case the result is, of course, the same. In
the South there is naturally more chance for winter work than in the North.
On the sugar plantations in Louisiana and the tobacco farms of Kentucky
there is work for nearly all the hands the year round. In the North there is
employment for farm hands during eight months of the year. On dairy
farms there is as much work in winter as in summer, for the business goes
on with clockwork regularity night and day the year round. Also wherever
diversified crops are raised there is less irregularity of employment than
where there is only one crop, as in the cotton region of the South or the
grain fields of the Northwest.

EARNINGS OF FARM HANDS

Of all the great groups of occupations, agricultural labor is apparently
the lowest paid. The average yearly earnings in cash of the farm laborer,
taking the country as a whole, is placed at $215 to $456. These figures, of
course, do not include board and lodging, which are free to the farm hand ;
and for this reason a comparison with city labor is apt to be misleading.
There are certain positions to be secured on farms, however, which pay
much larger wages, or salaries. Plantation managers receive from $1,500 to
$2,000 a year, and where scientific skill is required, the pay is still higher,
sometimes reaching $7,000 to $10,000 a year.

Computations have been made at various times by investigators for the
Government of the annual earnings of agricultural laborers, but the task is
difficult and the results are stated with great caution because of the complex
nature of the problem. First, while the number of agricultural laborers em-
ployed at one time or another in the year is great, the number having full
six months' employment is much smaller; the number employed eight months
is disproportionately lower than those having six months' work; and the
number at work regularly the year round is relatively very small indeed.

Again, farm labor must be differentiated from other employment of the
person, most of whose time is devoted to farming. A thrifty laborer, whose
principal employment is agricultural, may lose little time in the whole year,
and yet his employment in agriculture may not cover three-fourths of his
time. For example, near the lumber districts the same person, by change
of labor between farm and forest, can earn wages with little intermission,
but as a farm laborer he would not be employed more than half his time.

Finally, the personal element produces more difficulty in determining
wages in agriculture than in manufactures. In manufactures a clearly defi-

THE FARMER 7o3

nite product is the standard of efficiency, and a group of laborers and a series
of products become adjusted to each other, in wages and in results, with
fines and discharges for damages and neglect on one hand, and promotions
and better pay for higher skill and economical tact on the other. Fidelity
and skill are as valuable on the farm as in the factory, but their effect is
not under such constant test.-

As there are no labor unions in agricultural industries, the rate of pay
varies even in the same locality, according to the individual contract, the
amount depending largely upon the character of the work to be done.
Florists and market gardeners, for instance, require hands of special train-
ing for shorter seasons and longer hours, and they therefore pay their men
more than the general farming wages.

To sum up, the average monthly wage on the farm, without board, is
$30 in the Eastern States, $25 in the Middle States, $13 in the Southern
States, $30 in the Western mountain States, and as high as $37 in the Pacific
States. Wages are highest on the Pacific Coast, because that is the section
of the greatest scarcity of farm labor, taking the year together ; lowest in the
Southern States, because there farm labor is most plentiful. In the South,
however, it should be remembered that planters make no charge for the
tenant houses provided for the negroes. The understanding is that the
negro shall work on the plantation when called upon ; to refuse to work, and
that, too, for the current wages, would be to have to move.

In the beet-sugar and fruit-packing States, where a large number of
laborers are employed at certain seasons, a camp is established, tents are
furnished free and meals at cost; and with all this wages are exceptionally
satisfactory.

An important advantage of the farm hand is his greater opportunity to
save, as compared with workingmen in other vocations. The hired man
— girls, too, for that matter — on the farm has few occasions to spend his
wages. What is perhaps of more consequence, he has very few tempta-
tions to waste his money on drink or foolish extravagances. He is very
infrequently at the store, very coarse clothing suits his work ; two or three
pieces, with shoes and hat, completing his summer outfit, when he makes
most of his money. His board and lodging are usually allowed him in
addition to his money, if he is single, and a house and garden if married.
In either case food and lodging are to be left out of the account. Accord-
ingly, the farm laborer will usually have more cash at the end of a stated
period of service than his city cotemporary, whose pay is much higher.
The only question in his problem of laying aside a permanent fund is his
self-control when he reaches town; and he always has time to think twice
and resolve once before temptation to throw his money away is upon him.
It frequently happens that the farm hand with a little turn toward thrift
becomes first a tenant farmer and then a prosperous land owner. This is
almost independent of the actual cash wages he gets as a farm hand,
whether it be $13 a month in Georgia or $37 in California; for prices are

704 WORKERS OF THE NATION

higher where wages are higher, and after all it is the disposition to save that
makes the opportunity to save useful.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

To the uninformed mind the expression, "college-bred farmer," suggests
something of a contradiction in terms. It may be supposed to connote some
sort of amateur agriculturist or "gentleman farmer," to use an absurdly of-
fensive term, but why in the world this kind of farmer should be distin-
guished from others some find it difficult to understand. In expressing this
commonly held opinion one would be only repeating the assertion of sundry
authorities that a college training is not of direct benefit to any other busi-
ness career — why, then, to farming? This is the very point that it is ex-
tremely desirable to elucidate. The kind of college training that has been
found often a serious incapacitation, and seldom a direct advantage, in or-
dinary financial and commercial business life, is the traditional classical
and literary training, properly intended as a preparation for law, divinity,
medicine or pedagogy. Of late years, however, the college has become in-
creasingly a school of technical preparation for various modern professions,
subsumed under the general term, "scientific callings." The conditions of
modern life, science and industry have raised the calling of chemist, engineer
or of mining or manufacturing expert from the condition of being a some-
what enlarged variety of trade to a true professional dignity, for which four
full years of careful training must be the preparation. Just as the advance
of science in all these various branches have created so many new learned
professions, so in the domain of practical agriculture there is a similar de-
mand for scientific and accurate knowledge. Indeed, it is quite as essential
that we have our graduates in what may be called "agricultural engineer-
ing/' as that we have our carefully-trained mining engineers, to locate, sur-
vey and direct the operations of a mine of any description. That the de-
mand is a real one is shown by the statistics of the several colleges of agri-
culture in the United States.

According to the statements of a well-known agricultural educator, a
certain State university counts among its recent graduates twenty men en-
gaged as professors or instructors in various other colleges, of whom
seven, or over one-third, are from the agricultural department. He also
mentions that one agricultural college has graduated 399 students since
1892, of whom 261, or 65 per cent, are engaged in agricultural pursuits,
19 are students in other institutions, 59 are in other occupations, and 60
not heard from. Out of the total number 28 are employed in other agricul-
tural colleges or stations, or by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture. Among the opportunities offered to graduates of such institutions
may be mentioned the more than ordinary assurance of success as inde-
pendent farmers, coupled with such pre-eminence in the social, business and
political affairs as is always attained by intelligence. Such ends are fre-
quently called "sordid" by persons who find them difficult of attainment;

THE FARMER 705

>ut the fact still remains that any training or influence that can help toward
them is eagerly sought after by the great majority. It is quite evident that
farming is by no means a stepping-stone to political preferment, but the
fact remains that farmers frequently enter politics and attain high legis-
lative and congressional distinction. It is interesting, furthermore, to re-
cord that in one legislature in the State of Illinois there were three rep-
resentatives of agricultural districts who were graduates of the Illinois Uni-
versity School of Agriculture. Since success, not only in his chosen pro-
fession, but also in the general affairs of life, comes as the direct result of the
most careful and thorough training, we find that the graduates of the full
course have a distinct advantage over those who have taken only partial
courses, under the mistaken assumption that farming demands no greater
preparation. Furthermore, just as a lawyer, a physician or an engineer is
trained by a regular course of study that he may be fitted to take full ad-
vantage of the opportunities offered by his profession, so a thoroughly-
trained agriculturalist can "make the desert blossom" and bring fertility out
of the most unpromising tract of land that one less skilled and worse
trained would abandon as worthless.

Another fact of great significance to the agricultural graduate, and also
to the public at large, is that capitalists, seeing the possibilities of farming
by modern methods, are already investing extensively in lands in all parts
of the country. Nor do they contemplate raising the piteous wail, so often
heard in the past, that a man with too much land is "land-poor;" such a
person to-day is generally an imbecile or one devoid of energy. This move-
ment not only opens up a large vista of opportunities for competent men to
obtain profitable positions as syndicate farm managers and superintendents,
but it puts the strongest possible emphasis on the necessity for the small
farmer to have a high professional equipment, in order to be able to compete
at all with the wholesale producers. The situation is aptly expressed by
Prof. Thomas F. Hunt, Dean of the Agricultural School of Ohio State Uni-
versity, who says : "If you can not afford to prepare yourself to be a farmer,
do not farm. Enter some other business, where the business itself will teach
you success. Far better be a corner grocer or a street-car conductor." In
support of his statement of the profitable openings for the graduate agricul-
turist, he gives examples of thirty-six men graduated in his school during
six years, stating that seventeen of them are occupying high-salaried posi-
tions in their professional field.

To sum up the educational outlook for the practical farmer, it may be
stated that the man proposing to enter on agricultural study should consider
the future possibilities quite as much as the present opportunity. Within the
next forty years the agricultural graduate will be an important and pros-
perous person. The broad dissemination of these facts will prove a most ef-
fective influence in checking the present exodus of boys and young men from
the country, to become clerks and subordinates in city stores and offices, in-
stead of independent and prosperous farmers on the modern plan.

14— Vol. 2

706 WORKERS OF THE NATION

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES

A number of agricultural schools and colleges were founded in the
United States during the Nineteenth Century, a few of them making agricul-
ture a specialty, but most of them offering it with other industrial branches
and trades. The desirability of providing systematic instruction in this sub-
ject seems to have been felt as long ago as 1825, when the Massachusetts
Legislature discussed a plan for a State college of agriculture. In 1826 a
successful school of this kind was established at Derby, Conn., and between
that time and 1850 numerous schools of "manual labor" and farming sprang
up in New York, Connecticut and other States. A professorship of agricul-
tural chemistry and vegetable and animal physiology was established at
Yale College in 1846, and within two years several systematic courses were
offered for training teachers of agriculture. The first State agricultural and
industrial school was founded by the New York Legislature in 1853, a^~
though it was never firmly established. Efforts in the same direction in
Michigan in 1857; in Iowa and Minnesota in 1858, and in Pennsylvania and
Maryland in 1859, proved eminently successful. At the opening of 1860
there were agricultural colleges under State or special board control also in
New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Georgia, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin,
Indiana and Maine.

The first movement to induce the National Government to patronize
agricultural education was made by Justin L. Morrill, of Vermont, who in
December, 1857, introduced in the House of Representatives a bill "donat-
ing public lands to the several States and territories, which may provide col-
leges for the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts." This bill proposed
to grant 2,000 acres to each Congressman for this purpose. It was reported
adversely by the Committee on Public Lands, but was passed by both houses
of Congress, and vetoed by President Buchanan. The measure was finally
passed in amended form in June, 1862; thus founding the famous Govern-
ment land-grant colleges that have proved of such immense benefit in all
parts of the Union. Their usefulness was still further enlarged by the
Morrill Act of 1890, authorizing the increase in their endowments from
the funds derived from sale of public lands. At the present time there are
sixty-four such institutions in several States and Territories, of which sixty
maintain full courses in agriculture. Among these are colleges teaching
agriculture exclusively, those including it among other technical subjects,
such as mining and mechanical industries, and those that are departments of
universities. In most of them the agricultural course occupies four years,
and leads to the degree of Bachelor of Agricultural Science, which indicates
courses completed in such general subjects as agricultural chemistry and
methods, horticulture, vegetable pathology, economic entomology, veterinary
science and dairying. The last-named subject is made a particularly strong
feature in several institutions. In several instances short elementary and
practical courses are given, which may extend over a period of two years

THE FARMER 707

or be limited to the winter months, according to the requirements of
students.

Probably the most extensive and active of the several university depart-
ments of agriculture is the one connected with Cornell University. It offers
graded courses of two, three and four years for all students passing exam-
inations, also short winter courses for men regularly engaged in farming.
There is also a graduate department for advanced students, in which from
twelve to twenty men are annually enrolled. University extension and cor-
respondence methods are used with non-resident students, of which there
are large numbers in all parts of the country. These are instructed by
lesson papers regularly sent out and returned for correction, while several
hundred farmers are constantly being directed in conducting advanced ex-
periments in nearly every branch of their calling. Regular courses of lec-
tures are arranged and delivered before farmers' associations, and a special
correspondence bureau is maintained for answering the thousands of letters
of inquiry annually received on every question relating to agriculture. The
department also provides regular reading courses for farmers and farmers'
wives, as well as in the study of natural history, the last-named being con-
ducted by the Junior Naturalists' Club, with about 30,000 members, or-
ganized into 1,700 branches or chapters. The regular reading courses reach
30,000 farmers and about 8,000 farmers' wives. Another useful branch of
the work is the experiment station, which performs the beneficent function of
providing specialists to investigate insect or fungous scourges; to discover
remedies, if possible, and render full reports. These reports are embodied
in the bulletins, which are periodically issued, over two hundred having al-
ready appeared in editions of about 20,000 each. During its existence the
school has given instruction to nearly 2,000 regular students.

Among other well-known university departments of agriculture may
be mentioned the Bussey Institution of Harvard University and the School
of Agriculture of Ohio State University. One of the most widely-known
is the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, of Virginia, founded
soon after the Civil War for the education of negroes and Indians.

GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT FOR AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS AND EXPERTS

In addition to the numerous inducements to farmers and others to make
a systematic study of agriculture, the encouragement directly offered by the
United States Government has done much in recent years to enhance the
possibilities of the profession. According to provisions of Congressional
Acts within the last few years, the Department of Agriculture has under-
taken to provide most excellent post-graduate training for graduates, both
male and female, of agricultural colleges throughout the country. Fifty of
these are chosen each year from lists of applicants, and are given an unprec-
edented opportunity to pursue studies along special lines. In the mean-
time, they are designated by the dignified title of "scientific aids," and are
allowed a stipend of forty dollars monthly, until their chosen or assigned

;o8 WORKERS OF THE NATION

course of special training is complete. At this point they are appointed to
the graded service of the government, and are in line for promotion to the
highest and most profitable salaried positions. In the regular employ of the
Department, these aids are assigned to conduct special experiments in sub-
jects related to any branch of agriculture, or are sent to various points to
make investigations or render desired assistance. In commenting on the
brilliant opportunities offered under this educational system of the Govern-
ment, a well-known agricultural educator stated a year or two since :

"As indicative of the rapidity of promotion, it is stated that ten recent
graduates, who entered the Department last year and this year at $480 per
annum, are soon to be advanced to $1,000, while wathin the year an equal
number of similar promotions will follow. . . . The Department has just
sent graduates of agricultural colleges thus trained to Hawaii and Porto
Rico to take charge of experiment stations there at a salary of $3,000 each."

The young men and women, thus trained under Government supervision,
frequently obtain excellent positions as instructors in agricultural colleges,
both at home and abroad ; while, by virtue of the unparalleled opportunities
for exhaustive special research, they are well equipped to accept positions as
experts in certain lines under foreign governments or extensive corporations.
Thus, one man who was sent by the Department to Hawaii, as special ex-
pert on sugar making, very soon afterward received and accepted an offer
of a similar position at $15,000 per year to go to New Zealand. Another,
who had attained particular proficiency in the study of the growth and
physiology of tobacco, was engaged by the Japanese Government, as special
expert, on a salary of $6,000 per year. According to published statements,
a wealthy corporation in South Africa requested the Department to recom-
mend some person capable of supervising the cultivation and administration
of an extensive tract of land, at any salary he might name. As the result
of this wide and constant demand for agricultural experts and specialists,
Congress has recently been requested to raise the salaries available to com-
petent persons in Government employ, so as to increase the inducements to
remain in the service of the Department.

In order to secure appointment as "scientific aid" in the Department of
Agriculture, a graduate needs only to forward a sworn statement of the
number of years spent in study, and where, together with a statement of the
special course he desires to enter, with statement of qualifications, and a
written or printed essay on some subject connected with his work. At the
end of two years' study under Government supervision, he is examined on
his qualifications and admitted to the classified service at a salary of $1,000
per year. There are still more openings in this work than there are avail-
able men and women to fill them — such is the constant draft made by other
governments and large corporations that offer superior inducements — and
it is probable that, within a few years, it will be quite the most desirable line
of Government employment.

THE FARMER 709

HOME STUDY FOR FARMERS

The fact that during the last fifty years the value and quantity of farm
products have increased twentyfold, while the number of farm workers in
the United States has increased only twofold, indicates an opportunity for
successful and profitable farming, of which few seem to be aware. In the
meantime the cost of human labor required to produce a bushel of corn has
been decreased from 35^4 to 10^2 cents, and that required to produce a
bushel of wheat from 17^4 to 3^2 on the average. Of course, the advent
and development of improved farm machinery of various kinds have had
considerable influence in bringing about these results, but these are, at best,
only labor-savers, enabling work to be done expeditiously on a large scale,
and always to be considered of secondary importance to improved methods
and more adequate understanding of the nature and conditions involved in
raising both vegetable and animal products. The motto, "To earn more,
learn more," applies, then, to the farmer as truly as to any other business
man or primary producer : he is faced with the same necessity of competing
with trained intelligence and the scientific methods that have brought about
the great results in his calling.

As we have already seen, there are numerous and various methods at
the present time by which the farmer may obtain the information neces-
sary to give him a truly up-to-date equipment in his line. The agricultural
college can lead him through a thorough course of study, and graduate him
a fully prepared bachelor of agriculture. The experiment stations, such as
are maintained by Cornell University or by the public funds of the State of
Massachusetts, will give him the benefit of their investigations at any time,
or furnish him with expert information on any perplexity that may arise in
his work. The United States Department of Agriculture is also carrying
on a large variety of activities for the farmer's benefit: how and in what
lines it will assist him may be learned for the price of a two-cent stamp.

FARMERS' READING COURSES

Probably the most practical work undertaken for the benefit of the
busy farmer, however, is to be found in the reading courses, of which some-
thing has already been said. These courses are conducted by furnishing the
farmer with carefully-prepared treatises on such special lines as he may de-
sire— such, for example, as soils and crops, live-stock breeding and feeding,
dairying, fruit-culture, gardening, farm-economics, domestic economy, and
the like — all of them written in a simple, direct and lucid manner. Of course,
there are several serious obstacles to be encountered at the start, particularly
in the traditional conservatism of the farmer himself. It is difficult to per-
suade him that the old-fashioned methods, while quite suitable in former
times, are incapable of bringing success under the conditions of present-day
competition. Then, his widely understood contempt for "book learning,"
which has been largely fostered by the ridiculous exploits of some amateur

;io WORKERS OF THE NATION

farmers, of great professed information, as well as by the even more ab-
surd advice and opinions ventilated in some of the alleged agricultural pa-
pers, formerly so popular, often renders it difficult to make him see the value
of scientific investigations by "college professors." For this reason, some
will mention with amused satisfaction the numerous failures recorded in
agricultural experiment stations, seemingly quite unconscious of their di-
rect value to every wide-awake farmer.

Again, although the average farmer is a great reader in a general and
unsystematic way, and although many have declared that the surround-
ings of his life are eminently suited to supply the leisure and calm re-
quired for intellectual work, he will object to a course of systematic
study on the ground that he is "not made for a student;" "never could
study," and "would not stick at it." These objections are very ill
taken, of course, arising from a complete misunderstanding of the na-
ture and objects of study or systematic reading, and being undoubtedly
made in a thoughtless mood. Only a brief trial of the reading and cor-
respondence method suffices to dissipate the error. No expense is attached
except for books and a small enrolment fee, generally $i for the entire
course, and no work is required of the reader, except that he should read the
books and write intelligent answers to series of questions on their contents,
furnished from time to time. The correction of errors in these answers is
one of the greatest helps to fixing the facts in the mind. Another help to
study, which is constantly encouraged, is the formation of clubs of three or
four student-readers, which shall meet regularly to read and discuss the
books of the course, and refer such difficulties as arise to the college au-
thorities. In all cases, it is strongly recommended that each reader pursue
his course in company with some other farmer, or a member of his own
family : this adds the element of association, so essential in every effort of
life.

The particular value of these courses of reading is that they give not only
the "how" of all essential farming operations, but also the "why." In this
way they give the practical farmer an immense advantage over both the in-
experienced "book-farmer" and the man that follows the same invariable
rule for every variety of soil and every kind of crop. In short, it makes
him a practical example of the saying that, "there is an immense difference
between knowing how a thing is done and knowing how to do it, while
there is an even greater step taken in learning why it is done." Of course,
it might be unprofitable to supply the busy farmer with intricate discussions
of the varieties of fertilizer, for example, and the methods of preparing
them by mixing numerous chemicals with long names and unknown prop-
erties, but when such a treatise tells him exactly what kind of plant food
each variety of soil requires, and how it may be cheaply prepared from ma-
terials at hand, or readily obtainable, the farmer has learned something of
inestimable value. The same is true of other matters touched on, even to
the methods of exterminating common insect pests, or eliminating harmful

THE FARMER 711

fungi from trees, or overcoming troublesome plant diseases. Furthermore,
the managers of the course request each farmer to furnish them with a
rough sketch plan, made according to directions furnished, of his own farm,
so that the conditions of his work are understood and his questions may be
intelligently answered The farmer thus comes to realize that his farm is
somewhat like a mine or a factory, for the production of necessities or luxur-
ies for the public, which may be made to yield the highest profits, if handled
by an intelligent and well-informed man. He is made to benefit by the
accumulated knowledge and experience of multitudes of farmers, instead of
trusting to his own judgment or to that of a few neighbors, and can also
profit by the latest discoveries and experiments conducted by men who have
made the subject a life study. At the experiment stations, where the writers
of the books and the managers of the courses conduct the practical details
of the matters treated, there are several hundred acres, under constant intel-
ligent cultivation, both in raising all kinds of vegetable crops, and in pastur-
ing and feeding domestic live stock, horses, cattle, sheep and pigs; every
suggested experiment being thoroughly tried, in order that improvements
may be made public and errors as widely understood.

CHAPTER IX
THE CROPS

Summary of the Great Crops — The Cotton Crop — Negro Labor in the Cotton Fields — The
Cotton Planter — The Cotton Picker — Mechanical Methods of Handling Cotton — Mar-
keting the Cotton Crop — The Sugar and Sorghum Cane Crops — The Sugar Beet Crop
— The Tobacco Crop — The Tobacco Planter — Harvesting the Tobacco Crop — Growing
Tobacco Under Cover — The Tobacco Market — Raising Tobacco for Export — The Rice
Crop — The Rice Planter — Lowland Rice Culture — Harvesting and Marketing the Rice
Crop — Upland or Dry Rice Culture — The Hop Crop — Hop Planters and Pickers — Har-
vesting and Marketing the Hop Crop — The Seed Crop — Tea Culture in America

SUMMARY OF THE GREAT CROPS

OF THE 290,000,000 acres under constant cultivation in the United
States, about 49 per cent represent cereals, about 16 per cent hay
and forage, about 12 per cent cotton, not quite 8 per cent garden
vegetables, 4.4 per cent fruits, 1.9 per cent tobacco, 1.3 per cent sugar, and
the remainder all other products. Corn is the most extensively culti-
vated cereal, representing about 95,000,000 acres, yielding over 2,600,000,-
ooo bushels. Wheat occupies about 52,600,000 acres, yielding over 658,-
000,000 bushels; and oats, over 29,500,000 acres, and 943,000,000 bushels.
The common table and staple vegetables represent an average of over
7,000,000 acres and over 342,000,000 bushels, including over 273,000,000
bushels of potatoes alone. The fruit crop covers over 6,800,000 acres, and
yields over 282,000 centals of grapes and over 6,000,000 bushels of small
fruits.

The average acreage devoted to cereals is about 184,000,000, of which
51.5 per cent is devoted to corn, 28.5 per cent to wheat, about 15.7 per cent
to oats, and the remainder to barley, rye, buckwheat, rice, kafir corn, etc.
The greatest corn-raising region of the country is in the North Central
States, which contain over 60 per cent of the total acreage, leaving 24.1
per cent for the South Central States, 12.7 per cent for the South Atlantic,
and the remainder for the North Atlantic and Western. Of wheat, 67.5
per cent is grown in the North Central division, 11.3 per cent in the South
Central, 10.6 per cent in the Western States, leaving 10.6 per cent for the
Atlantic States. The North Central States also lead with 75.1 per cent of
the acreage devoted to oats, with 66. 5 of that devoted to barley, with 60 per
cent of that devoted to rye, and with 74.1 per cent of that devoted to buck-
wheat, being, in fact, the great cereal country of the Union.

Under the general term, hay, are included numerous varieties of grasses
(712)

THE CROPS

713

and other plants, used for animal fodder. Among these are the common
cultivated grasses, clover, millet, wild, salt and prairie grasses, and the stalks
of corn, various grains, alfalfa, etc. The general cultivated grasses repre-
sent 50.7 per cent of the total acreage devoted to hay fodder and the various
wild grasses, including salt hay, another 21 per cent, with over 6 per cent
each for clover and grains cut for hay, and 5.1 per cent for general forage
crops. As in the case of cereals, the North Central States contain the
greater part of the acreage devoted to hay, containing over 57 per cent of
the total, with 2 1 per cent for the North Atlantic States and over 1 1 per cent
for the Western.

The cultivation of flax has practically ceased in the Eastern States, al-
though it is still one of the important agricultural products of the Union.
On the average, about 88,000 farmers raise flax on over 2,100,000 acres,
obtaining a yield of nearly 20,000,000 bushels yearly. As with the staple
cereals, hay, etc., the North Central States lead in the production of flax,
with 98.8 per cent of the total acreage devoted to its cultivation. Minne-
sota, North Dakota and South Dakota alone contain 77.7 per cent of the
flax acreage, while the Western States contain I per cent of the area, and
the South Central division, mostly in Oklahoma and the Indian Territory,
only 0.2 per cent, or about 3,600 acres. In the North Atlantic States less
than 250 acres, and in the South Atlantic less than 50 acres, are devoted to
flax growing.

Broom corn is another agricultural product most largely cultivated in
the North Central States. Its average annual output is nearly 91,000,000
pounds, raised upon over 178,000 acres by about 17,500 farmers. Of the
total acreage thus occupied the North Central States represent 84.4 per
cent, more than one-half of which is in Illinois alone, leaving 12.4 per cent
for the South Central, and the remaining 3.2 per cent for the Western and
Atlantic States. The average yield per acre is 509 pounds, and the average
value four cents per pound, giving a total value of about $3,600,000 for
the country.

THE COTTON CROP

The great cotton-growing region of the United States is in the South
Atlantic and South Central States, commonly known as the "cotton belt,"
Missouri, Kansas, Arizona, Nevada and Utah being the only States out of
these groups to report its culture to any extent. The total area covered is
about 24,300,000 acres, from which about 1,400,000 farmers obtain 4,700,-
000,000 pounds, or 9,500,000 bales, of cotton, and nearly 4,600,000 tons of
cotton seed annually. Texas is the most important cotton State, represent-
ing 28.7 per cent of the total area and 27.4 per cent of the total production,
followed, in order, by Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, Ar-
kansas and Louisiana. The variety known as "sea island cotton" has been
extensively cultivated on the islands off the coast of South Carolina, Georgia
and Florida, and to some extent on the coasts of these States. Experiments

7H WORKERS OF THE NATION

in recent years have shown that it can be grown inland to some advantage,
which has greatly increased its production. At present the annual output
is about 75,000 bales, nearly 317,500 acres being devoted to its culture, and
over $5,250,00 being realized from its sale.

The cost of raising cotton varies from three and one-half to twenty
cents a pound. When it sells as low as five cents a pound it can not
be raised profitably. The cost of production depends very much upon the
yield per acre. Thus it is said that when a bale of cotton requires three
acres of land for its production the cost is about eight and one-half cents a
pound, including expenses of delivery, interest and taxes. When a bale is
produced on two acres the cost is said to be about seven and one-half cents,
and when a bale is obtained from one acre, about six and one-half cents.

While in commerce and in manufacturing the South is up to date and
full of enterprise, the agricultural conditions of that section of the country
remain in very much the same state in which they were before the Civil
War. It is not that the cotton crop is not large. In the rather poor season
of 1899, 10,000,000 bales were produced. Only, if the harvesting methods
could be improved, the profits might be many times increased. No such con-
ditions prevail with any other great crop. Again, no other crop demands
a similar amount of unskilled labor. For one-quarter of the year, the work
of five million negroes is required. Furthermore, it would be consid-
ered preposterous in the harvesting of any other crop to permit such waste.
The proportion of cotton left in the field to rot is estimated at one million
bales. Should a perfect cotton-picker ever be invented, harvesting methods
would be so revolutionized that the effect on the negro might be portentous.

NEGRO LABOR IN THE COTTON FIELDS

But the negroes are leaving the cotton fields very fast. They are mi-
grating to the cities by the thousand, and it will soon be a serious problem
with the planters as to how they will cultivate and gather their crops. The
negro loves a life of indolent pleasure, and this he can find in the cities.
Those who want to work find plenty of it in the public works that are
being erected in all the Southern towns.

There is no laborer on earth better suited to the cotton fields than the
Southern darky — he of the black skin and the brawny muscle ; but, though
the work likes him, he does not like the work. Efforts have been made to
supplant him with the Italian immigrant, but he is not the equal of the negro
in this work. The negro is possessed of an amount of endurance almost
equalling that of a mule. He will stand being driven, and is not in his
element unless the overseer is standing over him and heaping invective at
him at the rate of a mile a minute. When well fed and properly looked
after his endurance will never lapse.

As it is at present, the negro can earn enough money in a week to live
in idleness for the remainder of the month. The poor whites, being to a
large extent in the cotton mills, do not take his place during his idle days.

THE CROPS

THE COTTON PLANTER

The cotton-picking season is a time of rejoicing in the entire South. To
the black-skinned cotton pickers it means a certain amount of ready cash
to be spent for brilliant-hued calico gowns for the women and pickaninnies,
and to enable the men to indulge their appetite for gambling in their favorite
game of craps. To the planter it means the reward of nine months of work,
worry and uncertainty. To the country storekeeper it means a boom in
business and a liquidation of considerable old indebtedness. To the cotton
merchant in the large cities and seaports it means the squaring of accounts
with the planter and, the receipt of his cotton, which will be put on the
market, and the merchant will reap the factor's profits. To the banks it
means the taking up of notes by the merchant and the payment of the
accrued interest. To the whole South it means more money, and conse-
quently more prosperity. With cotton selling at ten cents a pound, and
with a 9,ooo,ooo-bale crop, that means the distribution of $450,000,000 in
the cotton States. It costs about five cents to raise a pound of cotton. That
leaves $225,000,000 as clear profit for the planter. Is there any cause for
wonder, then, that the whole South experienced an unprecedented thrill
when, in the first years of the present century, the price of its main staple
jumped from a figure that was below the cost of production to one yielding
a profit — or, more properly speaking, a surplus — of one hundred per cent?

The nature of the contract between the negro picker and the planter de-
pends altogether on the planter. It would not be safe to say that no two
planters make the same kind of contract, because there are too many planters ;
but they vary greatly. The price of cotton, present and prospective, wields
a great influence in the matter. A planter may have two thousand acres
under cultivation. He plants in April and begins to harvest in September,
finishing about January I. But he must work from January to January.
In the days of slavery ten acres to the hand was considered reasonable. In
these days, with a steady migration of negroes to the large cities, and con-
sequent scarcity on the plantations, they are more independent, and as the
negro loves nothing better than idleness, it takes hard driving to make him
do seven acres.

Some planters put their negroes on shares. If they are thrifty they as-
sign them so many acres, according to the number of adults in the family,
and, furnishing all the implements, mules, etc., needed in cultivation,
divide the proceeds of the sale of the crop. That is what is known as a
share contract. Others pay their hands fifty cents to a dollar a day. Some
apply both methods. Others interject variations.

Some planters pay by the month, some every two weeks, and others
every week. The best plan has been to pay by the week, because a negro
has a short memory, and it is better to deal with him without disputing.
The large plantations are supplied with commissary stores, where provisions
and clothing are furnished the "hand" at reasonable rates, and settlement

716 WORKERS OF THE NATION

day comes at the end of the picking season, or oftener, according to the
rule of the plantation. Where there is a weekly or bi-weekly pay day, and
the plantation is near a town, the hand can supply his wants at the country
store.

The planter must be a man versed in many things. He must know
how to feed his hands, to keep them in good health, and how to treat them
when they get sick. He must also be a man possessed of a sense of justice,
in order to settle the disputes which arise among them. The planter is a
prince in his own domain, and every negro there must look to him as the
supreme authority.

THE COTTON PICKER

The men and women work in the fields hoeing cotton, but when it comes
to picking the entire family is kept busy, and then all the extra hands that
can be obtained are put to work. And it is just that time of the year when
extra hands are hard to get. The steamboats plying up and down the Mis-
sissippi River and its tributaries, which have lain idle during the summer,
resume their trips, and they need roustabouts. The negro has no equal
as a roustabout ; therefore he commands eighty and sometimes as high as a
hundred dollars a month as such. It has to be paid to him or he will go
to the cotton fields, or to the sugar plantations. Cotton pickers are paid
all the way from forty cents to a dollar a hundred pounds. A good picker
will average one hundred and fifty to one hundred and sixty pounds a day.

When the cotton is ready for picking a cotton field presents a beautiful
sight. The green stalks have turned brown, and seem to have given up
all of their vitality in producing the fruit which clusters all over them.
Viewed from a distance, the field looks as if there had been a gentle snow-
fall. Here and there are different groups of negroes, who appear to be
buried in the depths up to their armpits. A closer inspection shows them
at work. The picker has slung to his shoulder a large hemp bag. It drags
on the ground behind as he walks from stalk to stalk. He grasps the cot-
ton boll with his left hand and picks the little bunch of cotton from each
of its four sides, keeping this up until he has a handful ; then he stoops down
and puts it into the sack. He begins at the end of a row, and continues
down to the other end, where he finds a large basket, into which he empties
the contents of his sack. He proceeds down the next row, then back again
by another row, and empties his sack into the basket. He keeps this up
from daylight until it is too dark to see. Each extra hand, or each family,
has one basket, and the contents of this basket are weighed and the pickers
paid accordingly.

As the seed is picked with the cotton, and its weight is seventy per cent
of the whole, it will be seen that comparatively little cotton is picked by one
hand in a day. It is very tedious work, and the women and children are
more adept at it than the big, clumsy men. In the first place, the fingers
of the former are smaller, and therefore better suited to the work of pick-

THE CROPS

717

ing out a small pinch of cotton from a brittle shell. Again, the women
and children are possessed of more dexterity in that kind of work. As a
cotton stalk averages about four feet in height, the men have to stoop over,
while the women, naturally shorter, and the children have the bolls at a
more convenient height.

As soon as a field has been picked the hands are started over again at
the beginning for a second picking. By this time many of the immature
bolls have opened, higher up on the stalk. The same programme is fol-
lowed. Sometimes there is a third picking ; and, if a respectable quantity of
cotton shows after this, and the price of the staple makes it worth while,
there is a fourth picking.

MECHANICAL METHODS OF HANDLING COTTON

The mechanical process of harvesting cotton not yet having been entirely
perfected, a fantastic experiment was tried on some plantations near Natchez,
Mississippi. Monkeys were trained to act as pickers. But the great prob-
lem can hardly be said to have been solved by them.

There is, however, a machine which does the work of picking, with a
certain amount of success. It is the Mason Cotton Picker. This machine
runs astride of a cotton row. As it proceeds, two vertical cylinders revolve.
There are fingers which go around with the cylinders, revolving at the same
time on their own axes, by a mechanical device. The fingers are punched
so that little teeth stand up from their surface, "engaging" the cotton. This
motion is reversed at a certain point, and the picked cotton is carried to a
bag by a "conveyor." To pick the seed-cotton contained in a bale weighing
five hundred pounds, costs from seven dollars and one-half to fifteen dollars.
An enormous saving might be effected here. Although the Mason machine
picks cotton in a remarkable way, yet the cleaning of the cotton after the
picking remains, forming a large item of expense.

The moment the seed-cotton reaches the gin, different conditions prevail,
the negro no longer being so prominent. The science of ginning, pressing,
and marketing the cotton has reached an extraordinary degree of develop-
ment. Eli Whitney was the best friend the industrial South ever had.
The roller compress, turning out the round bale, instead of the square bale
produced by the former compresses, is attracting a good deal of attention,
something of a war raging between the two interests. By either system,
the bale takes up about half the space afforded by the use of the ancient
methods, with the advantages of being more easily handled, involving less
danger from fire, and greater resistance to the weather. The saving in
freight and insurance has been incalculable. And there is less risk from
deterioration, in case the farmer desires to retain the baled cotton in his
possession.

MARKETING THE COTTON CROP

The conditions of the cotton market are very complex, and are seldom
understood by the cotton growers. To the great cotton cities, such as

7i8 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Atlanta, Augusta, Columbia, or Charlotte, North Carolina, long strings of
wagons converge on every road leading into town. There are great plat-
forms holding ten thousand bales. The farmers, as a general thing, know
very little about "sampling/' The brokers are usually honest, however.
They take a sample from each load, carrying them to their offices, where
they classify the cotton, and offer the farmer prices ordered by telegraph
from New York or Liverpool.

The Southern cotton planters are making constant efforts along a line
which would enable them to hold their cotton as long as they like in bonded
warehouses. They could thus borrow money on it to live, while waiting
for the prices to go up. This is in the direction of the so-called "trust."

In spite of the great crops of cotton, it remains a fact that much fine
land in the South, capable of producing the best cotton in the world, has
never been cultivated. As this unused territory is properly developed, the
cotton raising industry will advance with rapid strides, and the commer-
cial interests of the South will be greatly benefited.

THE SUGAR AND SORGHUM CANE CROPS

The average acreage annually devoted to the culture of sugar cane is
somewhat less than 390,000, to which must now be added another 66,000
in Hawaii. This area is divided among nearly 181,600 farmers. Ex-
cluding the area in Hawaii, we find that 87.8 per cent are in the South
Central States, principally Louisiana, 12.2 per cent in the South Atlantic
States, over half the area being in Georgia, with about fifty acres in Ari-
zona. Including Hawaii, we find that out of a total acreage of over 450,000,
it contains only 14.5 per. cent, but contributes 76 per cent of the sugar pro-
duced and 39.2 per cent of the molasses.

The annual average product of cane sugar is over 664,000,000 pounds,
of molasses over 10,000,000 gallons, and of syrup about 12,300,000 gal-
lons, the total value being nearly $30,000,000. The average value of the
product per acre is, on the continent, slightly over $53, while in Hawaii it
is nearly four times as great, or about $286.

The sorghum crop of the United States occupies an annual average area
of about 293,000 acres, representing the labor of about 446,000 farmers,
and a product of not quite 2,000,000 tons of cane. Of this about 14 per
cent is sold as cut, the remainder being used in the manufacture of syrup.
The sorghum acreage is mostly in the North and South Central States, the
former containing 31.4 per cent and the latter 49.7 per cent of the whole,
leaving 18.5 per cent for the South Atlantic States. The total value of
products is about $6,000,000.

THE SUGAR BEET CROP)

The cultivation of sugar beets is rapidly increasing in the United States,
as representing a cheap and economical material for the manufacture of
sugar.

THE CROPS 719

About 110,000 acres are devoted to this product, representing the labor
of over 14,000 farmers and an annual production of 793,000 tons. Of the
total acreage, 50.4 per cent is situated in the Western States, principally in
California, and 47.6 per cent in the North Central division, largely in Michi-
gan. New York reports over 2,000 acres, and Texas not quite 200.

The number of men, women and children engaged in the hoeing, thin-
ning and harvesting of the beet crops is very large. A reason for the em-
ployment of children is that the hoeing and thinning are accomplished dur-
ing the summer vacations, not interfering with the schools. The beet
sugar factories afford an excellent market for the farmers, the contracts for
the beets being made before the crop is planted. There is a good margin of
profit in sugar beet cultivation. A record was kept of the history of ten
Michigan farmers, establishing the fact that, in a favorable season, their
profits amounted to sums varying from $12 to $56 an acre. Thus even a
small crop is worth while. There is a greater percentage of sugar in the
beet the further north it is grown. The early winters in Canada, however,
leave so little time for harvesting that the crop has not been so profitable
there as somewhat further south. In the South the beets grow too large,
and contain only a small percentage of sugar. The best place for the culti-
vation of the sugar beet is the arid region, if irrigation has been introduced.
The long continued sunshine and the control of the water supply form ideal
conditions. Several States offer bounties on sugar made from beets grown
within their boundaries. These bounties are, in some instances, made con-
ditional on the payment of a certain price for the beet. In this way the
farmer is also benefited, and induced to go into beet culture.

THE TOBACCO CROP

The average annual tobacco crop is about 870,000,000 pounds, repre-
senting the product of over 1,000,000 acres and the labor of 300,000
farmers. Of the entire tobacco area, 42.3 per cent is in the South Atlantic
States, North Carolina and Virginia each representing about two-fifths.
The South Central States contain another 41.9 per cent, of which over
four-fifths, or 384,000 acres, are located in Kentucky. Of the remaining
15.8 per cent, the North Atlantic States, principally Connecticut, contain
4.8 per cent, and the North Central States 10.9 per cent, leaving the re-
maining o.i per cent for the Western States. Tobacco-growing has been
introduced into Hawaii in recent years with remarkable promise of suc-
cess, the yield there averaging nearly 2,200 pounds to the acre, at a value
of ten cents per pound, as against the American average of not quite 800
pounds to the acre, at seven cents per pound.

A district six hundred miles long and three hundred miles wide includes
what is known as the tobacco belt. In this territory is comprised parts of
Maryland, Virginia and Kentucky, the northern counties of North Carolina,
the Cumberland Valley in Tennessee, the Miami and Ohio River Valleys
in Ohio, with sections of Illinois, Mississippi, Indiana and Missouri. The

720 WORKERS OF THE NATION

leaf for cigars is better in States situated further north, so that this section
does not produce tobacco for cigars to any large extent. About seven hun-
dred thousand acres are planted with tobacco in the tobacco belt.

THE TOBACCO PLANTER

The character of tobacco depends largely on the soil and climate. Thus
these conditions must be considered, and regard must be paid to the kinds
of tobacco which are in demand. Among the principal kinds of tobacco
grown in the United States are the cigar types, the manufacturing types
for smoking and chewing, the bright yellow quality for cigarettes, smoking
and plug wrappers; white Burley, for smoking and chewing, for the home
and foreign market; and the varieties for export only. Tobacco suitable
for our domestic cigars is raised in Sumatra, Cuba, and Florida, and grows
also in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
and Wisconsin. In the intervening States our chewing and smoking to-
bacco is raised, and also the qualities which are exported. This type grows
best in the district just below southern Ohio.

The plant bed for tobacco growing is prepared by burning the leaves
and brush from a small territory, generally about a quarter of an acre, as
early in the spring as practicable. The protection of trees is desirable. The
ground must be thoroughly pulverized and mixed with ashes before the
seed is sown. When the plants have developed four or five leaves, they
are transplanted, as soon as an opportunity or "season" occurs, after a
warm rain, to the open field, for cultivation there. In the plant bed they
grow very thickly. In the field, however, they are set four feet apart,
each way. Should there come no heavy warm rain, watering by hand is
necessary before transplanting.

From three to ten acres form the general limit of the tobacco fields, the
labor of transplanting usually precluding larger areas of cultivation by
single growers. The field into which the tobacco has been transplanted
should be plowed two or three times for the purpose of killing the weeds,
as soon as the plants have started well. The tobacco worms appear about
the plowing time. They are a serious pest, and will kill the leaves unless
the worms are removed by hand from each plant. There are several meth-
ods recommended by the Department of Agriculture for exterminating these
worms that prey upon the tobacco plant, but they seem to be of little avail
in certain years. When tobacco is very ragged, from the attack of these
worms, it is called "trash" in the market, bringing a low price. When the
worms are conquered, the "suckers" must be removed. The buds putting
forth in the axils of all the leaves of the plant are called suckers. They
would otherwise prevent the growth of broad leaves. As the suckers have
to be removed by hand, the work is expensive.

HARVESTING THE TOBACCO CROP

Tobacco raisers do not employ the word harvesting as applied to the
crop; they call it "cutting." Men using a very broad, flat knife, cut off

THE CROPS 721

all the plants about four inches above the ground. They slit the main
stems to six inches from the bottom. The plants are then hung on sticks,
which are taken to the barn as soon as the plants have wilted enough to
prevent the leaves from breaking off. In the barn they are hung in tiers
close together. The sides of the barn are quite open while the tobacco is
first curing, being closed later, if desired. "Firing" is sometimes em-
ployed to aid the curing. The process of curing is a delicate one, and ex-
pert skill is required for it. Upon the success in curing, giving color,
texture and "body" to the leaf, largely depends the price of the product.

A day is chosen when the air is moist, after the leaves are well cured,
for stripping them from the stem. This operation is performed by hand,
and occupies every moist day for several weeks. If the day was not moist,
the leaves would be apt to break. The stripped leaves are tied in "hands"
of about three pounds each. This is done by skilfully twisting one of the
leaves about the thick ends of the midribs. The "hands" are placed in a circle
about five feet in diameter, the tied ends inward. The circle is usually three
or four feet high. These circles are called "bulks." In them the tobacco
is left to "ferment." It must be carefully watched, and when the curing is
finished the tobacco, sometimes in bulk, is hauled to the nearest town. It
is generally packed in hogsheads with great care, and sometimes pressed
down with a screw, something after the fashion of baling cotton. The
farmer is often busy with the old crop until about time to get ready for
a new one.

GROWING TOBACCO UNDER COVER

This method of raising tobacco is referred to elsewhere. In Tariffville,
Connecticut, a farmer followed the example set in Florida, and adopted this
method of growing tobacco. He inclosed eighteen acres, top and sides, by
a covering of cheesecloth, stretched on stringers and galvanized wires, sup-
ported by posts nine feet in height, at a cost of $250 per acre. By this
method of culture insect pests were eliminated, the temperature was kept
uniform, and protection from storms was afforded. The first crop was
700 pounds to the acre, selling for $473, or about 67 cents per pound, in-
stead of the average price of 25 cents per pound for other tobacco. In 1901
the Tariffville fields yielded from 1,600 to 2,000 pounds to the acre, and
the prices will be decided by an open auction sale. This method of culture
seems destined to eliminate the necessity of importations from Sumatra.

THE TOBACCO MARKET

More than any other product, tobacco has the advantages of a public
and well-organized market. It may be held back for future prices. In
the South the tobacco market is entirely open. The consumers come in
person or by agents to the market itself to buy the raw material, while
other products have to be shipped to them. Even cotton has not so ad-
vantageous a market. In the North, however, the warehouse system does
not largely prevail, the raw leaf being sold by sample from the wagon, and

15— Vol. 2*

722 WORKERS OF THE NATION

stored afterward. From the warehouse the leaf passes to the packing house,
where it is prepared for the different varieties of consumption.

Manufacturers have packing houses in each of the leading tobacco-
growing districts, one firm maintaining eight packing houses, situated at
Lancaster, Pennsylvania; Janesville and Cambridge, Wisconsin; Hatfield,
Massachusetts; Brookville, Ohio; Brattleboro, Vermont, and East Hartford
and New Milford, Connecticut. The combined storage capacity of these
packing houses is more than twenty-eight thousand cases. Speculative
dealers are absent as middlemen between the producer and the manufac-
turer.

Louisville, Kentucky, is the greatest leaf tobacco market in the world.
The Ohio-Kentucky White Burley tobacco district puts Cincinnati into the
second place. The shipment of the hogsheads of tobacco from the small
towns of the interior to these centres begins with early winter, reaching
great activity by February. Throughout the whole year, however, there is
some trade. Great warehouses receive the hogsheads for storage. Many
are sold at auction every day. Sometimes as many as a thousand hogs-
heads a day are sold at Louisville, a season's sales amounting to a total of
from a hundred thousand to a hundred and twenty thousand hogsheads,
holding from twelve hundred to fifteen hundred pounds each. Accord-
ing to the state of the trade and the quality of the tobacco, the price varies
from three to twenty-five cents a pound.

RAISING TOBACCO FOR EXPORT

The export trade is of great importance, the total yield of particular
localities being taken for this branch of the business. In Maryland the
light tobaccos there grown are air-cured, wood fires being used to cure
a similar variety in Ohio. These qualities are used solely for pipe smok-
ing and cigarettes, being made by the packers in the following grades:
Fine yellow, medium bright, "good ordinary colory," fine red, fine seconds,
and "lugs." The exporters take nearly all of these grades, marketing them
in France, Germany, Holland, Austria and Belgium. Maryland and Ohio
sell almost all of their yield in Baltimore. Here are five large warehouses,
where the goods are inspected by State officers. The sworn inspector takes
four samples or "hands" from each hogshead, which are tied together,
sealed and labelled. On the label appear the name of the owner, the
number, net and gross weight of the hogshead, and the inspector's name.
From these samples the agents of foreign markets make their purchases,
the samples being shipped with the goods for purposes of comparison. The
inspector becomes liable for all differences in quality exceeding ten per cent
below the sample.

THE RICE CROP

The cultivation of rice in the United States is rapidly assuming impor-
tance, its annual yield representing over 350,000 acres, or nearly 285.-

THE CROPS 723

000,000 pounds. The figures in both respects have nearly doubled in the
last ten years with the opening up of large irrigable rice lands in Louisiana
and Texas, and the adoption of improved machinery. Exclusive of Hawaii,
the greatest rice region is in the South Central States, which furnish nearly
63 per cent of the product for the country, while the South Atlantic States
furnish the remaining 37 per cent. Practically no attempts have been made
to raise it in other parts of the Union.

Some years ago the Cotton Growers' Association advised the planters
to reduce the acreage of cotton planting twenty per cent. Rice might
well be grown wherever the cotton crop is curtailed. Rice culture is adapted
to either lowland or upland ground. It is furthermore a safe and profitable
crop. It costs only $20 to $35 per acre to cultivate, and the gross result
is $40 to $75 per acre. This country is using more rice every year, the cul-
tivation falling far behind the demand. In eight Southern States there
are from seventy to ninety million acres called "waste lands," which are
perfectly suitable for rice culture. The acreage of land suitable for rice
cultivation is larger in Louisiana than in any other State. If these waste
lands were cultivated for the growth of rice, they would yield at least an
average of a thousand pounds of clean rice per acre, or from seventy to
ninety million pounds a year.

THE RICE PLANTER

The culture of rice is, as stated before, both lowland and upland. On
the lowlands the main crop is grown. These fields can be overflowed or
drained at will. The yield is very heavy under this system, many large
tracts of land being redeemed for this crop. The cultivation on the uplands
is increasing, and can be no longer ignored. Upland rice is very hand-
some, flinty, susceptible of a very high polish, and is extremely remunera-
tive.

In the Atlantic States the two chief varieties of lowland rice cultivated
are the "gold seed" and the "white rice," the latter being the original quality
introduced in 1694, and resembling the Chinese crop. The "gold seed"
rice stands among the first qualities in the world, having superseded, to a
large extent, the white rice formerly popular. The white rice, however,
matures earlier. In Louisiana the "Honduras" is the chief variety, the
grain being slightly larger and the straw stiffer than in the Carolina rice.
There is a variety called the Kiushu, or Japanese rice, with a short thick
kernel and a thin hull, of which the yield is very large. This quality is now
being introduced into this country.

The yield of rice is dependent upon the soil, climate, and culture. Forty-
five pounds to the bushel is the commercial standard weight of rough rice.
Rice is sold in sacks or barrels of one hundred and sixty-two pounds
each. The average yield of rice in South Carolina or Georgia is from eight
to twelve barrels, good lands giving a larger crop.

In the lowlands along the Mississippi the product per acre has reached

724 WORKERS OF THE NATION

thirty barrels, or 4,860 pounds of rough rice. This land had previously been
in peas, and had been plowed with six-mule teams. Along the lower banks
of the same river twelve barrels per acre is deemed a good crop, the average
not being more than eight barrels per acre. In southwestern Louisiana
the crop per acre ranges from eight to eighteen barrels. The average yield
to the acre is thirty-two bushels, with the cost of production $24, so that
the cost in the Atlantic States of raising one hundred pounds of rough rice
is $1.66 or $2.29 for a 1 62-pound sack.

Machinery in the rice fields is revolutionizing cultivation. The cost is
thus greatly reduced. These machines will counteract the high price of
labor, and enable the rice grower in the United States to beat the world,
with the least cost and the greatest profit. The highest prices can also be
secured if new and prolific varieties of rice are introduced for cultivation.
In Louisiana the rice-growing district is two hundred miles long by about
fifty miles wide. A single crop of rice has often paid for the land used in
its raising. There are more miles of irrigation canals which have recently
been built in Louisiana and Texas, and likewise more pumping plants es-
tablished, than in any of the arid States.

LOWLAND RICE CULTURE

Flat lands, easily irrigated and drained, such as swamps, are the best for
rice cultivation. The inland swamps will not produce quite as much as
those near rivers, because the water can not be so easily controlled. The
crop, however, is of a very good quality. The land is generally laid off in
parallelograms of 100 feet by. 150 feet, embankments eighteen to twenty-
four inches high being constructed. These embankments are called "check
banks," and serve to hold the water when needed, when the land is not
level. There are "flumes," or flood-gates, with cut-offs at each end. These
are in connection with the river or reservoir. In order to hold the water dur-
ing the growing season, and for drainage purposes, there are main ditches.
The land must be carefully cleared of grasses, weeds and foul seeds. The
plowing must be done as early as possible, and should be from four to five
inches deep the first year, and deeper for later seasons. Before planting,
the ground should be thoroughly harrowed. The soil should be well pul-
verized, so that the grasses and weeds may be killed.

The planting of rice may take place at any time from February to July,
according to location. Of all the many varieties of seed the best is the
White Seed Carolina, which is very hardy, and is a standard grade in the
trade. The seed may be sown either broadcast or in drills about a foot
apart. Weeding is much easier with the latter method of sowing. From
eighty to one hundred pounds of seed per acre is required. The seed is
covered lightly, and the ground is flooded just enough to submerge it, until
the seeds are sprouted, this flooding being called the "point flow." Now
the water is drawn off, and is turned on again when the plants are from six
to eight inches high. This second flooding, called the "stretch flow," kills

THE CROPS

725

the grass and weeds, and is held for four or five weeks. The absolute rule is
never to permit the water to rise above the first "barrel" of the stalk. The
"harvest flow" comes last. This begins when the stalk is about eighteen
inches high. It is kept on until the "heading" of the rice. The water must
be drawn off about a week or ten days before harvest. The harvesting
should begin when the upper half of the head is ripe, and must proceed
as quickly as practicable. Every day of over-ripeness reduces the cleaned
rice in value. The presence of a green grain occasionally is a proof that the
rice was cut at the right time, in the testing of rough rice.

HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE RICE CROP

There are machines in use for the harvesting of rice, but it is generally
done with the sickle, by which the -rice is cut about two feet and a half from
the top. The "hands" of rice are laid down on the stubble to dry, permit-
ting a circulation of air entirely around it. In good weather it should be
sufficiently cured for binding in twenty-four hours. This should never
be done while the straw is in a damp condition. The rice should be cut
in the morning, and the previous day's cutting should be bound in the after-
noon. The bundles should be taken to the barnyard as soon as dry. There
they should be stacked, with the bottom of the stacks raised a foot from the
ground. This affords a circulation of air. Before threshing the rice, it
should be left a month in the stack to cure. The temperature of the stack
must be obtained by running in a stake every day or two. If the stake dis-
closes heat inside the stack, it must be pulled down and aired before re-
stacking. Flails or threshing machines are used for separating the grain
from the straw, after curing. A thorough fanning and screening should
take place, to remove from the rice all straw, sticks, foul seeds and rubbish.
In fact, before it goes to be threshed, every bundle of rice ought to be ex-
amined, and all extraneous substances removed.

There are two ways of selling the rice crop, either in the "rough," or
after milling. It may be milled on toll, and the cleaned product sold by
an agent of the producer. In the order of their commercial status in the
rice business are the following milling centres : New Orleans, Charleston,
Savannah, New York and Wilmington. They all have mills of the first
class, and, as they are great trade centres, the highest prices are obtained for
the cleaned product. Rice must be packed in strong double bags, for ship-
ping. The bags, which should be sewed, not tied, ought to hold from 170
to 1 80 pounds each.

UPLAND OR DRY RICE CULTURE

Flooding is not used in growing this kind of rice. It is planted in
hills or rows. The rows must be wide enough to allow a horse-cultivator
to pass. The output of this kind of culture, although not equal in quantity
per acre to that grown under the flooding system, is yet greatly superior to
that of other grains and much more valuable. The use of fertilizers is

726 WORKERS OF THE NATION

obligatory. Without it the rice is of such a quality as to break while under-
going the process of milling. A more careful cultivation is attainable under
this method of culture.

THE HOP CROP

The annual average production of hops is something over 49,000,000
pounds. Over 7,600 farmers employ 55,600 acres in its cultivation, each
acre producing, on an average, 880 pounds, valued at 8.3 cents per pound.
Hop growing represents another increasing industry, especially in the West-
ern States, Oregon, California and Washington, which represent 49.8 per
cent of the acreage of the country. Another 49.6 per cent is represented in
the North Atlantic States, all of which, save thirty-two acres, is situated in
New York. The remaining 0.6 per cent is divided among all other parts
of the Union, 342 acres being in Wisconsin.

The leading States in hop culture are California, Oregon, Washington
and New York, the industry having declined in Wisconsin, in which it was
formerly prominent. As the crop demands a certain kind of soil, and
special skill in handling, only small areas are planted by single hop growers,
as a rule. The capital required is relatively large, the poles alone being a
large item of expense.

HOP PLANTERS AND PICKERS

The harvesting season for hops begins in California about August 20,
and a little later than this in Oregon and Washington. The beginning of
the picking should take place as early as possible. Speed is necessary in
picking. The process should be completed in four weeks. The hops will
turn red, and dry on the vines if left too long. The pickers would, in that
case, demand such an increase in wages as to interfere with the profitable
handling of the crop. On account of the different nature of the soils, ac-
cording to the reports of the Department of Agriculture, some parts of the
field will ripen before others. For this reason the pickers must be moved
around the hop yard, choosing the spots where the crop is the ripest.

Most of the picking on the Pacific Coast is done by the hundredweight
of green hops, and not by the box, the general custom of the market being
to measure by the hundredweight. The picker starts to work with a
knife and a sack, and there is on the ground a basket, barrel, box or cloth,
to receive the hops. The cloth is preferred by the Indian pickers. Each
picker, taking a row of hops, cuts the vine, two or three feet from the
ground, and pulls it down from the top, breaking the string on which it
grows, close up to the wire.

The picking now begins, and the object is to get the hops without the
leaves. Very small leaves are not noticed, but the presence of larger ones
injures the value of the crop. The hops must be picked as fast as the vines
are cut, or they will wilt. They are then much harder to pick. There
must be no crowding nor pressing of the hops in the basket or sack. Each

THE CROPS 727

picker has a number on his sack, so that poor work can be traced, and the
picker paid less money for his labor. Twice a day, at noon and at six
o'clock, the hops are placed in burlap sacks holding from fifty to ninety
pounds. The sacks are taken to the kiln and weighed. They are then
lifted by crane or by elevator to a platform level with the drying floor of the
kiln.

In California the pickers, Chinese, Japanese, Indians and whites, come
to the field in their camp wagons, receiving gratis wood, water, cabins,
tents and horse pasture. With some exceptions, the wages are not paid
until the end of the picking. Contracts should be made with the heads of
the working parties.

HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE HOP CROP

Prices have been very fluctuating on the Pacific Coast. To make a fair
living and something over, the hop grower must get from fifteen to twenty
cents a pound. The high price of $1.10 per pound, in 1882, led to such
overproduction in later seasons as greatly to injure the business, causing
many failures.

The pay of pickers is from fifty cents to $1.10 per hundred pounds of
green hops. Seventy-five cents is a fair average. Good hop driers earn
from $2.50 to $5 per day and board. Helpers, doing night work, get $1.25
and board. Field foremen are paid $1.50 to $2 a day and board. The
contract price for growing hops, ready for picking, is from $10 to $15 per
acre. If the contract includes all work, embracing use of teams in culti-
vating, the grower gets $14 or $15 an acre, supplying teams, tools, and
making repairs, with monthly payments from February to September.

Two thousand roots, needed for planting an acre, cost $20, besides $2
for planting. The wires cost from $80 to $90 an acre, and the string will
be an annual charge of $3.

More than three and a half pounds of green hops are required to make
one pound of dry hops. The cost of picking is about three cents to the pound
of dry hops. From $3,000 to $4,000 must be paid for a kiln capable of
curing a fifty-acre crop. For drying, every one thousand pounds of hops
require about three-quarters of a cord of willow wood at $4 to $5 a cord.
From thirty to forty pounds of crude sulphur, at two cents a pound, are
needed for every one thousand pounds of dry hops. Five yards of baling
cloth, at eight to ten cents a yard, must be had for each bale. The item of
sewing twine, at thirty-two cents a pound, must not be omitted. When the
crop is shipped to England the cost of shipment is about $1.50 per hun-
dredweight.

In the manufacture of ale, beer, and porter, in 1900, the brewers used
23,000,000 pounds of hops. The quantities of hops consumed vary with
the kinds and brands of the malt product. Larger quantities are needed for
ale and porter than for lager beer. Stock ale requires more than ale for
"present use."

728 WORKERS OF THE NATION

THE SEED CROP

Seeds are generally grown by farmers under the contract system. Firms
often contract to produce thirteen or fourteen thousand acres of vegetable
seeds. The Congressional Seed Distribution causes a demand for large
quantities of seed, which are sent to various parts of the country by the
United States Department of Agriculture, to the extent of many million
packages, after samples have been tested.

Dishonest dealers have sold bad seed to such an extent that efforts have
been made toward legislation on the subject. A check upon this fraud could
be made by the consumers, if they would insist upon guarantees of quality,
paying a fair price for the seed. The purchaser, if in doubt, should send
a sample to a testing station. The testing may be secured at many of the
State experiment stations, or at the laboratory of the United Sates Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Except grasses, all seeds can be tested by the farmers
at home, if they will take the trouble. With two ordinary plates and a piece
of flannel cloth, a serviceable germinating apparatus can be made. The
cloth must be folded and laid in one plate, with the seeds between the folds.
The cloth should be moist, but not dripping. The other plate, inverted,
should be placed over this, as a cover, and the apparatus should be de-
posited in a warm place. The temperature should not be allowed to fall
much below fifty degrees Fahrenheit at night, nor below about sixty-five
degrees by day.

TEA CULTURE IN AMERICA

Tea plants may be successfully grown in the United States, as is proved
by the initial experiment at Pinehurst, near Summerville, South Carolina,
and by others. This South Carolina tea plantation has produced a crop of
several thousand pounds. The plants on that plantation average a product
greater than the same number in China, and rivalling those of India and
Ceylon, while the quality has been pronounced by experts to equal any
Oriental teas sent to this country. Even a small-sized garden must have
a factory, with a proper equipment.

The first step in the process of manufacture of black teas, such as were
first raised at Pinehurst, is the withering of the fresh leaf by thinly spread-
ing it on floors or trays, giving ten square feet to every pound. Each
pound of tea represents four and one-fifth pounds of fresh leaf. Thus a
product of one hundred pounds of dry tea a day demands about four thou-
sand square feet of withering surface. By the process of withering, the
fresh leaf is made susceptible of being rolled without breaking. A light,
airy room is required for withering, with the direct rays of sunlight shut
out. A day's exposure is generally the rule.

In the fresh leaf there is neither taste nor odor, while there is a faint
odor from the finished leaf. A continued rolling causes an oxidation, and
the flavor is thus partly developed. A man can roll thirty pounds a day.

THE CROPS 729

A rolling machine, with one mulepower, can equal this work in half an hour.
The full flavor is brought out by the firing or drying process.

Fifteen hundred to two thousand dollars will pay for a factory capable
of producing fifty pounds of dried tea daily. In the importation of seed
from China there is a loss of seventy-five per cent of the quantity. The ex-
pert labor necessary for tea culture is also a large item of expense. High
grades only can be made to pay, in the face of Oriental competition. Black
and green teas have been produced here, bringing a dollar and more a pound
at retail. Efforts are constantly directed toward the production of very
high-priced qualities, which do not stand the sea voyage.

On the South Carolina plantation, the tea is picked by crowds of negro
children of both sexes. The contents of each picker's basket is weighed as
it is brought in, filled with leaves, and the weight, generally about two
pounds, is registered opposite the child's name on the list. Payment is by
the pound, and the pickers earn from fifty cents to seventy-five cents per
day. They are also provided with a luncheon, gratis, at the plantation.
The fresh shoots and the first two leaves are picked for the first quality of
tea, called "Pekoe tips." The next two leaves, called the "Souchong leaves,"
are also gathered. The quality of the tea is lowered if they are mixed with
the others.

The production of several kinds of tea in the United States, according to a report of
the Secretary of Agriculture, is now an assured fact, and in addition to this it is encourag-
ing to be able to announce that experts of the Department who have examined the tea pro-
duced in South Carolina pronounce it eqaul in flavor and aroma to the best imported teas.
The profit from this crop averages from $30 to $40 per acre net.

Capital is always timid of investment in new enterprises of this kind, and there is still
much to be done to demonstrate the possibilities of the work in other parts of the South.
The labor problem is an important one, but the expert of the Department has shown his
ability to handle it, and with his aid the Department is now training a few young men in
the technique of the work. There are thousands of acres of land*and thousands of idle
hands that might be made available for this work, and our possibilities in this field should
not be neglected.

The United States imports from $10,000,000 to $12,000,000 worth of tea every year,
and, although it may be a long time before anything like that amount can be produced in
this country, the industry should be encouraged in every possible way.

CHAPTER X

MACHINE FARMING AND THE CONDUCT OF
GREAT FARMS

Development of Machine Farming — How Machinery Increased the Size and Value of
Farms — The Farmer's Dependence on Machinery — How Machinery Reduced the Cost
of Farming — Summary of Results of Machine Farming — The Western Farms — Farms
on the Pacific Coast — Conduct of a Great Wheat Farm — Management of a "Bonanza"
Farm — How a Wheat Crop is Raised — Labor on a Great Farm — The Training of
Machine Farm Hands

DEVELOPMENT OF MACHINE FARMING

IN THE beginning of the century just past but three per cent of the peo-
ple of America lived in cities. The rest lived in the small towns and
on the farms, and were dependent upon agriculture for food. There
was little manufacturing — the country being still dependent on the mother-
country for almost everything except the products of the soil. It will, there-
fore, seem a surprising statement when it is said that the people in 1849 did
not raise enough wheat for their bread. At that time only 4.33 bushels of
wheat per person were raised. Production per capita was decreasing, and
economists were alarmed at the failure of the food supply to keep pace with
the rapid increase of the human race. The limit of food production with
the sickle had been reached.

This does not mean that no wheat was exported during these years, but
it does mean that the people of this country were obliged to use corn and
other grains for bread to eke out the supply ; so that since then corn bread
has been considered the bread of the poor. With the advent of the reaping
machine, however, the number of bushels of wheat per acre increased decade
by decade. It was 5.51 bushels in 1859, 7.46 bushels in 1869, and 10 bush-
els per person in 1891. It is estimated that the home consumption of wheat
per person at the present time is five and one-half bushels, thus leaving
nearly one half of the production for export.

Surprising as these statements are, however, they tell only half the story.
From the ninety-seven per cent of people on the farms in 1800, the number
decreased year by year until there are now only thirty-three country people
in each one hundred of population. There has been a constant flow of
young men from country to city, and, contrary to common opinion, foreign-
ers have not taken their places on the farms. Only twenty per cent of for-
eigners are farming. Yet the farms of to-day produce with one-third of
the labor in the country sufficient not only to feed themselves, but also the
(730)

MACHINE FARMING AND GREAT FARMS 731

two-thirds that live in the cities ; and the exports of the farm, the food and
food products, during 1900, made up the immense volume of $850,000,000
out of the total of $1,400,000,000 sent to foreign countries.

This showing is marvellous. It has been made possible only by the gen-
ius of the American inventor and the intelligence and energy of the Ameri-
can farmer. In all the history of the world, the like of this achievement
has never been known. Much, of course, has been due to the fertile soil of
the great plains and valleys in which we live; much to the beneficent gov-
ernment that has given security to property, and by its patent system encour-
aged invention ; much to the great railroads that have transported our prod-
ucts across the continent ; but more is due to that body of inventors who rec-
ognized the necessity of improved methods on the farm and who have pro-
vided that intelligent, progressive, and energetic body, the farmers of
America, with tools which have enabled them to produce more cheaply than
any land under the sun. Thus they have been enabled to sell their products
at a profit on the markets of the world, in competition with the penny a day
laborers of India and China.

This development of farming by machinery has greatly increased the pur-
chasing power of the American people. In the thirty years, from 1816 to
1848, the total exports of wheat and flour averaged only $6,000,000 per
year ; while in the thirty-one years beginning with the time that the use of
the reaper had begun to be felt in the harvest field of America, the exports
averaged $60,000,000 per year — a tenfold growth. In the single season of
1892 the United States sent abroad $236,000,000 worth of wheat and flour.

How MACHINERY INCREASED THE SIZE AND VALUE OF FARMS

The ability to cultivate great areas by aid of the implements of agricul-
ture has increased the size of farms in the United States. This is contrary
to the expectation of change with growth of population. As the people of
the old world have increased in numbers, the size of the farm holdings have
decreased. At the time when agriculture was almost the sole employment
of the people of the United States, farms averaged less than fifty acres
each. Now, however, with only one-third of the population on the farm,
by the aid of agricultural implements, more land can be cultivated by each
person, and the farms have increased in size until they average throughout
the United States 137 acres each. In France, for a comparison, more than
one-half of the holdings of land devoted to agriculture average less than two
hectares ; about five acres. There are some comparatively large tracts, but
the percentage of holdings that contain fifty acres is very small. Also in Bel-
gium, Holland and Germany this statement will be found not far from the
fact. In England the majority of the holdings are less than nine acres in
extent.

The foreign student of agriculture looks upon farming in America as
rather shiftless, and thinks the farmers are trying to do more than can be
well done. He calls his own farming intensified, and points with pride to

732 WORKERS OF THE NATION

the large average crops. When it comes, however, to a question of net
profits per acre there is no doubt that the American farmer leads the agri-
cultural world.

It hardly seems possible that in the short space of fifty years the value
of the farms of the United States has increased from one to twenty thou-
sand millions of dollars, but such is doubtless the fact. Much is said of the
great billion dollar combination of the iron and steel industries of the coun-
try, and of the enormous amount of money that those industries are mak-
ing, but their figures seem small when compared with the business that is
being carried on in farm products. And all this great increase in the value
of the farms and farm products has occurred without any new grain or
grass or species of live stock of first rank being added to the list during the
last century. The agricultural colleges have done good work in calling
the attention of the farmer to the kafir corn, sorghum and alfalfa for the
semi-arid regions of the West, but outside of these, and their value as com-
pared with the other forage crops is small, there has been no addition to the
forage plants of the farm.

But the eighty million acres of corn, the forty million acres of wheat, the
twenty-eight million acres of oats, the twenty million acres of cotton, and
the fifty million acres of grass have been harvested, and it should be re-
membered that this tremendous harvest was made possible only by the new
implements of agriculture. So profitable have these crops been that the
nation has become the richest of the world.

THE FARMER'S DEPENDENCE ON MACHINERY

Enough has been said to show somewhat the tremendous development of
the farms of the United States, and there is no need of any demonstration
or statistics to show how utterly impossible would be the tillage, harvest-
ing and marketing of crops from our great area of land by the remaining
farm population without the improved implements of agriculture. If this
proposition is not self-evident, consider for a moment how it would seem to
try to harvest the eighty million acres of small grain grown in this country
with a sickle, or how far beyond the possibility would be the ginning by
hand of the ten million bales of cotton. It was in its time a good day's
work for one expert hand to pick the seed from two pounds of cotton, while
the gin of to-day, operated by two persons, will pick the seed from 3,000 to
7,000 pounds.

While the cotton crop of this country probably gives employment to more
capital and labor than any other one product of the farm, still, the area
planted in cotton is only one- fourth of that planted in corn, and this area has
increased but little compared to corn ; so that the crop can be got in by the
old methods. But with the small grains the plow, seeder, planter and cul-
tivator have produced areas that it would be impossible to harvest without
the self-binding harvesters. The crooked stick, the plow of centuries,
merely tickled the surface of the ground. Our inventors have so fashioned

From Stereoscopic Photograph, Copyrighted 1902 by Underwood & Underwood

HARVESTING IN THE GREAT WESTERN WHEAT FIELDS-COMBINED HARVESTER,
CUTTING, THRESHING AND SACKING MACHINE

VOL. II., p. 733

MACHINE FARMING AND GREAT FARMS 733

it that the soil is completly turned over, whatever be its nature. The opera-
tor now rides, and in place of one furrow he rolls over two or more. Har-
rows of many varieties, from eight to thirty feet wide, follow after, and the
soil is prepared for the seed in better shape than on the small farms in China
and Holland. The improvements in drills, seeders and planters have not
added as much to the area that it was possible to plant as they have to the
superior quality of the planting. It is only by the harvesting machine,
however, that the areas that can be planted can be gathered. Cotton can
stand in the field for three months after it ripens, and corn is frequently
picked in the snow, but wheat, oats and rye must be harvested when they
are ripe. The reaper is, therefore, the key of the situation, and on no other
implement is the progress of the country so dependent.

How MACHINERY REDUCED THE COST OF FARMING

That the machines for the farm are economical all will admit, but few
have realized how they have reduced the cost of production, and that they
yearly produce such immense values. The figures of the Department of
Agriculture for the year 1899 are astounding. In 1830 it took over three
hours' labor to raise one bushel of wheat. In 1896 it took but ten minutes.
In 1830 the labor in one bushel of wheat cost 17^ cents per bushel, and in
1896 it cost but 3l/2 cents per bushel. In 1850 the labor represented in a
bushel of corn was 4^2 hours, while in 1894 it had been reduced to 41
minutes, or from 35^4 cents per bushel to 10^2 cents per bushel. It used
to take nearly two hours to shell one bushel of Yankee corn, whereas
now one of our improved shellers will frequently turn out one bushel per
minute.

It is also interesting to note the economical results of the machines that
have been invented for harvesting the fifty millions of acres of hay. In
1860 it is estimated that .the labor in one ton of hay in bales represented
35^ hours, while in 1894 this labor had been reduced to 11^2 hours, or
from a cost of $3.06 in labor in 1860 to $1.29 in 1884. The labor of mow-
ing, considered separately, is very interesting to the man with blistered
hands. He could cut one ton of grass in about eleven hours, according to
the figures given in a report of the Department of Agriculture, but if the
grass was only an average crop of three-quarter ton per acre it would keep
him busy. This labor is estimated to have been reduced from eleven hours
per ton with a scythe in 1860 to one hour and twenty minutes per ton by
machine in 1896. Statistics, however, tell but little, because we do not al-
ways comprehend figures. Consider the harvest of three hundred acres of
wheat in 1869, for example. The reaper was the harvesting machine. The
men were stationed around the fields and bound their allotments, wasting
more grain than it costs to-day for the whole labor of harvesting. The
overseer could say but little, because help was scarce, and wheat was get-
ting- ripe, and it had to be harvested or go to the ground. Long hours,
hard labor in the fields, harder labor in the house for the overworked women.

734 WORKERS OF THE NATION

and all in all that harvest of three hundred acres was more a task than it is
to some of our bonanza farmers to harvest three thousand.

The agricultural implements in the United States in 1902 saved in hu-
man labor a sum in excess of $700,000,000, and this immense sum on the
following crops only : Corn, wheat, oats, rye, barley, potatoes, and hay.
This great sum probably would be doubled if all the crops of the coun-
try were included. In 1855 Hon. W. H. Seward estimated that the reaper
was saving annually $55,000,000, and with prophetic vision he stated
that this saving would increase throughout all time. The hard facts, as
shown by the statistics, dwarf the half-century-old prophesies of Mr. Sew-
ard, and the material progress of the country, made possible by the labor-
saving farm tool, is greater than was conceived by the most enthusiastic
speaker, even in his wildest flights of oratory. The farm machine is the
talisman, and to its inventor all honor is due.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF MACHINE FARMING

The introduction of improved agricultural implements and machinery,
during the latter half of the nineteenth century, was a development of such
importance as to amount to an industrial revolution. The most con-
spicuous effect of the use of improved machinery is the reduction in the cost
of producing farm products. Another result of the use of improved im-
plements is the lessening of the number of laborers required on a farm.
The Industrial Commission, however, states that machinery has brought
with it a more intensive system of agriculture and an extension of agricul-
tural operations, so that in some localities the number of laborers has not
been diminished. It is also stated that improvements in agricultural ma-
chinery have brought about diversification of crops, and that by the opening
up of new avenues of industry it has given employment to those formerly
engaged in hand labor, and so, on the whole, improved the condition of
labor. There is no doubt that improvements in machinery have lessened
the drudgery of farm labor and made the work less severe and fatiguing.
Another important effect of improved machinery is the educational effect
upon those who use it. While there is perhaps less manual skill of certain
kinds among farm laborers than formerly, as there is no longer any demand
for expert cradlers or expert binders, on the whole the effect of the use of
machinery has been to raise the intelligence and skill required on the part of
those who use it, whether hired laborers or farm owners, and this is said
to have resulted in improving the intellectual status of the American farmer.

The less general use of improved machinery in the South than in other
sections is said to offer an explanation of the slow rate of agricultural prog-
ress in that part of the country, and is itself explained in part by the lack
of mechanical skill on the part of the negroes and by the cheapness of labor,
which makes it more economical to employ hand labor in many operations
which could be done at lower cost by machinery where labor is high.
Various kinds of agricultural machinery are being gradually introduced in

MACHINE FARMING AND GREAT FARMS 735

the South, however, notably in the cultivation of sugar cane and rice in
Louisiana. Where improved machinery is used in the South it is said to
increase the wages of those who are able to handle it.

THE WESTERN FARMS

Wheat growing affords one of the best illustrations of machinery farm-
ing. The West, the Northwest, and the Pacific Coast have a scale of opera-
tions in this industry distinctively their own. Big is the adjective that
best applies to their farms, and wholesale best describes their dealings. A
tract of land that would be a large estate in Europe, or even in many parts
of the Eastern United States, is a mere plot of ground in California or
Dakota; and as farms in these regions are of heroic proportions, heroic
methods must be followed in farming, from the sowing of seed to harvest-
ing. Ordinary methods would be disastrous.

On the Atlantic side of the continent tke farmer raises a dozen dif-
ferent things, not to speak of food products for his own table. In the far
West he raises one crop. Especially is this true of wheat farms which con-
tinue to yield from year to year without fertilization other than the re-
newal of the land by summer fallowing. No supplies are produced for the
table; they are brought from the nearest market.

Everything is done on a mighty scale by the use of the wonderful
machinery referred to in the previous paragraphs. There is no gardening.
Plows are set in gangs; reapers and binders, or reapers and sackers, are
built with cutting bars of a big reach, and the machine is of huge propor-
tions throughout ; one man, with as many horses as he can manage, plows and
harvests a wide area. By the use of that wonderful machine, the combined
harvester, three or four men control the strength of twenty- four to forty
horses, cutting, threshing, recleaning and sacking bushels of wheat at every
turn of the wheels. The only limit to the speed of these operations is the
speed with which the machine can be pulled over the ground.

FARMS ON THE PACIFIC CO-AST

The total wheat area of the Pacific Coast is about 5,000,000 acres,
nearly the size of the State of Massachusetts. The yield is from twenty to
seventy-five bushels an acre ; but this does not count fields greatly damaged
by insects, drought or other unusual injury. The total annual product is
sixty to seventy million bushels, worth on the farm about $40,000,000.

The principal wheat section of California, as described in the reports of the United
States Department of Agriculture, is in a central valley between the Sierra Nevada and the
coast ranges of mountains. This is one of the best agricultural regions of the State.
Plowing is done in this valley in gangs of four to fourteen plows, with a six or eight mule
team. Attached to the rear of the plow is a broadcast sower, which sows the seed as fast
as the ground is plowed. A harrow, also attached to the plow, follows the sower and har-
rows the seed into the ground. Thns the three operations are completed at one time by
the one man with a team of eight muies, at the rate of ten to fifteen acres a day. No
further attention is paid to the field till harvest time. On the larger farms the plowing
and sowing is frequently done by gang plows drawn by a traction engine, and in this way
a prodigious amount of work is got through with in a short time.

736 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The "tule" lands near Stock offer a very interesting illustration. These were once
great flats covered with water and bulrushes. Reclaimed by drain levees and pumps, they
yield from fifty to eighty bushels an acre, perhaps not quite so good in quality as the wheat
of other parts of the State. On account of the softness of the ground and large cracks
in the surface horses can not be used on much of this land, and the draught wcrk is done by
traction engines, the tires of which are broadened by the addition of enormous drums.

Not the least picturesque scene in these wheat fields is the harvest. Probably two-
thirds of the entire crop is brought in by use of the harvester thresher. The great level
plains, and even the long slopes of the foothills, permit work with the most ponderous
machinery. The great harvester sweeps through miles of ripened grain, cutting swaths
from sixteen to forty-two feet wide, cleaning, threshing, sacking, and leaving behind a long
trail of sacked grain, ready to be hauled to the warehouse, railroad or mill. This mighty
engine is drawn by twenty-four to forty horses, requires four men to operate, and cuts
a swath sixteen to twenty feet and harvests and sacks twenty-five to forty-five acres a
day. The steam outfit, traction engine and harvester takes eight men to run it, cuts a forty
foot swath, and harvests sixty to one hundred acres a day.

The sacks, holding two and one-half bushels each, are stacked in the field and left
sometimes for weeks without harm in that dry climate.

In contrast with the methods just described, wheat was sown broadcast by hand in
1830, harrowed in by drawing brush over it, cut with sickles, threshed on the barn floor
with flails and winnowed on a sheet attached to rods which two men held, and tossed the
wheat up and down till the wind blew the chaff out. By the improved ways it takes ten
minutes of human labor to produce a bushel of wheat, where by the old it required three
hours and three minutes. The cost of labor in 1830 was seventeen and three-quarter cents ;
now it is three and one-third cents.

Then comes the shelling of the corn, which is one of the most striking instances of
the changes that have been wrought by machines. In this case, the machine operated by
steam shells one bushel of corn per minute, while in the old way the labor of one man was
required for one hundred minutes to do the same work.

In 1890 men mowed grass for hay with scythes, raked into windrows with a hand
rake, cocked it with a pitchfork, and baled it with a hand press. This required thirty-five
and one-half hours of human labor per ton. Now with a mower, hay tedder, and a hay
rake, hay gatherer and stacker drawn by horses, and a press operated by a horse, the time
of human labor has been reduced to eleven hours and thirty-four minutes, while the cost
of human labor per ton has been reduced from $3.06 to $1.29.

The more important economy in hay making is in the mowing and curing the grass.
In these two operations the time of human labor has declined from eleven hours to one
hour and thirty-nine minutes, while the cost of human labor has declined from eighty-
three and one-third cents to sixteen and one-quarter cents.

CONDUCT OF A GREAT WHEAT FARM

In the West the man who owns or "runs" a great farm is called, like
his prototype in the East, a fanner ; but the Western farmer is also a busi-
ness man. He has to be. Take the Eastern farmer who all his life has
called a hundred acres a large farm and give him ten thousand acres in the
Dakotas. He would not know how to go to work to plant the seed; he
would follow his hundred-acre methods, and the whole season would pass
before planting was finished. Having been always a retail farmer, he
would not understand wholesale ways. He would not know how to organ-
ize a regiment of laborers, would not know what machinery to order, nor
how to use it if "thrown in" when he bought the place. To run a great
Western farm successfully the manager must combine the talents of the
business man with the skill of the agriculturist. He must be the kind of
capitalist who knows when to open his purse and when to keep it closed.
He must be as cautious as a banker. He must be as well acquainted with

MACHINE FARMING AND GREAT FARMS 737

his market as a manufacturer, and as enterprising as a merchant who must
sell his goods now or never.

Here is a typical Western farm. It is in South Dakota. It is a wheat
farm, and it represents the kind of business the business farmer conducts.
There are thousands of such farms in the Dakotas, in Montana, Washington,
Oregon and California. Some contain two thousand acres, some contain
ten thousand. But the typical farm now under consideration is one of the
so-called "Bonanza" farms, say 7,500 acres, and this is how it is operated :

It is as level as a desert, which is a very poor comparison, save as to the
one point of similarity, which makes the desert all the more hopeless and
the wheat farm all the more valuable. If the land were otherwise than level,
all these great machines, pulled by horses, the whole resembling a regiment
of artillery at drill, could not move in such order over the fields — across
fields so vast, indeed, that communication' from field to field is by railroad,
horseback being too slow. On a Western farm, a worker is not so near to
nature as he is to a machine. Even the farm-hand is a machinist. He tills
the soil indirectly. His principal business is to run a machine. In a day's
journey in the wheat belt you will hardly see a single man with a two-horse
team. Hand tools, such as hoes, rakes and forks are almost unheard of.

MANAGEMENT OF A "BONANZA" FARM

Like a mammoth manufacturing plant, like any great business establish-
ment, the Western farm must have its headquarters, or brain-centre, and its
various divisions and subdivisions. The great wheat farm has, perhaps,
four divisions, each run like a separate farm, as is each department of a
railway system, and yet all under one central management.

In the main office are the general manager, the bookkeepers and clerks.
This is the counting-room of the farm. Here the ledgers and daybooks
are kept as carefully as those of an auditor's office. From this office the
manager directs operations, issuing orders every night as to the exact work
to be done on the morrow. The four division superintendents, like men
holding similar positions in a railroad company, report every night to the
manager — usually by telephone, to save time. For, of course each division
has its office, and in each office there is a telephone connection with head-
quarters. In one room in the main office is a ticker — and here you will
probably find the owner, or one of the owners of this farm. The man at
the ticker is called the owner because he owns the wheat in that particular
seventy-five hundred acres. The owner of the land may live two thousand
miles away, in New York or Pennsylvania. Usually, however, the indi-
vidual, firm, or corporation which owns the wheat also owns the land.

When selling time approaches, then it is that the owner sits closer to the
ticker, and pays more attention to the tape than to the farm work. For in
the news the tape brings lies his hope of more cents a bushel for the output
of his 7,500 acres. Every hour the ticker brings to that office, in the middle

of the prairie, news of the markets at Minneapolis, Duluth, Chicago and

16— Vol. 2

738 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Buffalo, and between times gives news of crops in other States and other
countries.

To the owner fingering the tape the news of a famine in India is a mat-
ter of congratulation ; for a famine means no rain, and, therefore, less wheat
on the world's market. Rainfall in India, or unexpectedly large crops in
Oklahoma or elsewhere, means a lower price for wheat at Minneapolis, Chi-
cago, Duluth or Buffalo. Thus the farmer in the Dakotas, California,
wherever there is a large farm and a ticker, is in as close connection with
the whole world as the shouting members in the pit of the New York
Produce Exchange, who buy and sell a great quantity of wheat that does
not exist on the face of the earth.

Now let us make a tour of this farm, looking first at all the buildings.
Here, near the central offce, are two houses, one for the manager and his
family, the other for the bookkeepers and general assistants, who work at
the brain-centre of the farm. Here, too, is a huge barn where sleep the
forty or fifty cows which furnish milk for the hands. Nearby is the store-
house. Judging by its contents, one might mistake it for a wholesale
grocery house. Here are kept enough bacon, beans, canned goods, rations
of all plain kinds, to feed a regiment for a month. In this building, too,
there are rooms full of supplies for the harness men and for those whose
duty it is to repair the machinery. If it were possible to erect an Eiffel
Tower at headquarters, so that the four corners of the farm could be seen
at once, several buildings would be discovered in the middle of each of the
farm's four divisions. Two of these are the dining-rooms and sleeping
quarters of the men.

Headquarters, as already suggested, divides the farm into four districts,
somewhat as the Capitol building at Washington divides that city into
northeast and southeast and northwest and southwest. But in Washington
you may go from the northeast section, for instance, to the end of the south-
east in ten minutes. On the farm, however, the four groups of workmen
live so far apart that often they work through a whole season without the
members of one group meeting any of the members of another group.

Now take the private train over a private railway — for it must be re-
membered that this farm comprises about twelve square miles — to one of
the group ol buildings in any one of the four divisions, and one will see
there a colony similar to that in each of the three remaining divisions. The
dining-room and dormitory prove to be whitewashed, comparatively clean
affairs. In the dormitory, especially, the beds are more comfortable than
those allotted to laborers on a New England farm. In the stables are about
seventy-five horses, and a blacksmith shop at one end. Then here is the
shed or implement barn, in which a wonderful array of machinery, wagons,
carts and tools used on that division are stored in winter. In one end of this
building is a wood-worker's shop.

Each of the other divisions, as stated before, has similar buildings for
another seventy-five horses and the necessary machinery. In addition to

•v,

MACHINE FARMING AND GREAT FARMS 739

all these buildings, it should be mentioned that the private railroad by which
we travelled to the centre of this division connects two elevators, each hav-
ing a capacity of fifty thousand bushels, at the two sides of the farm.

How A WHEAT CROP is RAISED

In the Northwest, all the wheat grown is spring wheat; therefore the
operations begin in October. First, the straw of the previous year's crop
is burned. Then begins the plowing — thirty-two four-horse plows, proba-
bly in divisions of eight, travel daily about twenty miles, turning two fur-
rows at a time, and covering thousands of acres in less than six weeks.

The eight plows on each division work across the field, seemingly one
behind the other, but really in a kind of formation, which in the army would
be called "right oblique," or "left oblique." That is, each plow works to the
right or to the left of the plow in front of it, so as to turn up the two fur-
rows parallel to those turned up by the machine in front or behind. This
is called "gang" plowing, the division superintendent riding beside the
"gang" on horseback, and directing operations as a captain of a battery of
light artillery directs manoeuvres. As there are eight plows of four horses
each on each division, there are 128 horses at work at one time on the four
divisions. When the fields are all plowed the; transient hands are dis-
charged, and operations cease for the winter.

With coming of spring, the harrowing begins, half a dozen four-horse
harrows on each division. One man with a twenty-five foot machine can
harrow seventy acres a day. Then comes the planting, the seed being sown
with half a dozen four-horse drills, covering eleven feet, on each division.
Then again the transient laborers are discharged.

In the latter part of July, "transients" again appear, fifty of them at a
time, for now the work must be done in the shortest possible time, while
the owner anxiously watches the heavens. Now across the sea of wheat
giant machines move, like so many cars of the Juggernaut. These are the
combined harvesters and binders. Six on each division are pushed by trac-
tion engines. All through August this work continues, the machines cut-
ting the wheat and tying it in the sheaves with binder-twine. The farm's
twenty-four binders use up a whole carload of twine during the season.

Then begins the threshing season, one steam thresher for about every
one thousand acres, and about thirty men working at each machine, thresh-
ing about twenty-five hundred bushels of wheat a day. The wheat, as fast
as it is threshed, is hauled to one of the farm elevators, where it is kept
in bins until it is at last pitched into the railroad cars.

Now the farmer's work for the season is over. He sells his grain, is
paid for it, but, with thoughts of the next season, he still watches trie ticker.
Consulting his books, he finds that he has averaged twenty bushels to the
acre, and that his net profit is nearly $20,000 for the whole crop — an in-
come unknown among Eastern farmers. But then the Western farmer is
a business man.

740 WORKERS OF THE NATION

LABOR ON A GREAT FARM

On farms like the one just described about forty hands — ten on each
division — are employed permanently. These "tend" the stock and do the
chores common on all farms, large and small. All other help, excepting
of course the employes at headquarters, are "transients," birds ot passage,
who may have homes a thousand miles away. They rove from farm to
farm, from Texas to Montana, for the plowing here, the harvesting there,
the threshing somewhere else. And finally, when the crops are all in and
they return to their homes, the aggregate of the money in their pockets,
representing the season's wage, is easily a million dollars. For each man
receives $25 to $30 a month besides his board and lodging and laundry;
and as he has no chance to spend it, he saves every dollar. These transients
can use the machinery, and are classed as skilled laborers. It is the per-
manent hands who do the drudgery. In their dormitories at evening they
have their "smokers," their songs and their yarns. There is no canteen, no
drinking and no card playing.

THE TRAINING OF "MACHINE" FARM HANDS

The profound influence of the use of machinery on farms consists not
alone in changing the methods of plowing, sowing, harvesting, threshing, by
a transition from hand and horse methods to steam engines and automatic
machinery, it has also, as before suggested, created a demand for a new and
wider line of technical knowledge and experience than have hitherto been
supposed to belong to farming in any of its branches. Henceforth, there-
fore, the farmer or his helper must become something of an engineer and
machinist, in order to adapt himself to the new conditions of his calling.
He can not afford to compete with the machine by retaining the slower
and more expensive methods of former times, since such a mad attempt
would mean only that his margin of profit is so hopelessly cut down that
he must share in the ruin common to all the "conservative" element in
attempting to stay the wheels of progress. In the great farms of the
West steam, and even electrical, power has almost entirely supplanted the
horse, thus enabling immense tracts to be worked and cultivated profitably,
at the smallest possible expenditure of time and labor. While power ma-
chinery will probably have a much restricted sphere with the smaller farmers
for some years to come, the movement toward machine work has already
begun in the use of portable steam threshers and portable power saw-mills,
whose owners have regular itineraries in certain districts. In fact, this
type of farm assistant has already become a recognized institution.

On the larger farms, however, there must always be a full supply of all
agricultural power machinery, which involves that trained engineers be
regularly employed. It is also exceedingly desirable that managers and
foremen of such estates should understand something of the construction,
operation and reoair of these machines, in order to supervise their operation
to advantage, not depending wholly upon the experience of an employe.

CHAPTER XI
FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE

The Fruit Industry — Classification of Fruit — Fruit Transportation and Cold Storage —
Ocean Carriage of Fruit — The New York Fruit Market — Fruit Auction Sales and
Pushcart Men — California Fruit — The Watermelon Industry — The Apple Industry —
The Berry Industry — The Grape Industry — The Grape Basket Industry — The Raisin
Industry — The Prune Industry — The Nut Industry — The Flower Industry — Florists —
Florists' Exchanges and Organizations — The Vegetable Industry — Market Gardening
and Truck Farming — The Truck Farmers' Associations — Market Men

THE FRUIT INDUSTRY

PROBABLY in no other class of products of the soil has there been a
greater percentage of increase of volume in recent years than in
fruit growing. At a Fruit Growers' Convention in California it
was stated that the shipments from California orchards alone increased from
sixteen thousand car loads in 1890 to more than sixty-six thousand carloads
in 1900, over four hundred per cent in ten years. The Census reports indi-
cate a similar increase in fruit growing in every part of the country. As,
for instance, in Delaware there has been a marked increase in everything
except peaches, ranging from forty per cent on cherry trees up to nearly
fourteen hundred per cent in prunes and plums. It is true that the prunes
and plums in Delaware are still in limited quantity, although the increase
was more than seven thousand bushels. During the same period the increase
in pears in that State was more than one hundred and thirty thousand
bushels. In Connecticut during the same decade the growth of the fruit
industry as shown by percentages was as follows : Apple trees, fifty per cent ;
cherry, sixty per cent; peach, four hundred and eighty-nine; pear, forty-
three, and plum and prune, twelve hundred. Like Delaware, some of these
products are still in limited quantities, although the advance is quite marked.
During the investigations of the Industrial Commission attention was
called to the advantages of fruit growing both from the standpoint of pres-
ent profit and of the utilization of soils which are not well adapted to other
crops. Thus in Maryland soils which are of no value for general farm pur-
poses are found to be particularly well adapted to the production of late
peaches. Owing to the high prices of fruits which prevailed a few years ago
it was not unusual for California orange growers to net $500 an acre. Fruit
growers in West Virginia are said often to make twice to five times as much
money as farmers engaged in general agriculture. Also the profits from

(740

742 WORKERS OF THE NATION

fruit farms in Georgia, Missouri, Arkansas and Kansas have attracted at-
tention in the North and some immigration.

The fruit imports, including nuts, of the United States, in 1902,
amounted in round numbers to $20,000,000 worth; the exports to $11,000,-
ooo worth ; of the former half was lemons and bananas ; of the latter a third
was apples.

A fruit merchant says: Surely the science of keeping fruit has been evolved to a
high degree of perfection when the great ocean liners, no matter what flag they fly, no
longer patronize the European fruit markets for their supplies for the return voyage to
America, but stock up here in the New York market for the entire round trip. Indeed, in
the handling of fruits, the most wonderful progress has been made during the last few
years, and the years to come will show still more rapid strides not only in scientific and
artistic handling, but in the importance of the traffic and the advance in intellectual and
social standing of those whose lives are devoted to the broadening and uplifting of this
business. This is the day of scientific specialization in the fruit trade as in other branches
of business. Volumes have been written, State colleges have been endowed, and the lives
of eminent men have been devoted to horticulture. The time has now come for an equal
enthusiasm and energy in the handling of these gifts of nature after they leave the hands
of the husbandman.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUIT

Technically speaking, fruits may be divided into two classes, deciduous
and citrus, the first including all fruits, except berries, growing at certain
seasons, once a year. Citrus fruits embrace the oranges, lemons, and
grape-fruit, bearing all the year, and not perceptibly shedding their leaves,
which seem always green.

Under the head of orchard fruits are subsumed apples, apricots, cherries,
peaches, pears, plums. About 370,000,000 trees are represented in the
annual average yield of over 212,000,000 bushels of these fruits. Of this
number 55 per cent represents apples, 27.2 per cent peaches, 8.4 per cent
plums and prunes, leaving the remaining 9.4 per cent for pears, cherries
and apricots. The total orchard produce of the country includes over 1,750,-
ooo barrels of cider, 392,500 barrels of vinegar, and about 145,000,000
pounds of dried fruits, such 'as prunes, apples, etc. The greater numbers of
apple, cherry, peach and pear trees are in the North Central States, while
about one-half of the plum and prune trees are in the Western States, prin-
cipally in California and Oregon. However, of the total value of over
$83,750,000, the North Atlantic States represent nearly $25,500,000, and
the North Central, about $24,400,000.

Over 310,000 acres in the United States are devoted to producing small
fruits, strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, cranberries, currants, goose-
berries, etc. Their cultivation is most extensive in the North Central
States, which form the greatest farming region of the country, although all
parts of the Union report more or less activity in the industry. Strawberries
are the most important from the point of acreage, covering nearly 151,400
acres, out of the total of 309,800. Of this area nearly 33 per cent is sit-
uated in the North Central Region. The total yield represents an average
of nearly 260,000,000 quarts. No other fruit occupies one-half the acreage

FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE 743

of strawberries, raspberries coming- nearest, with about 61,000 acres, and
not quite 77,000,000 quarts. Of the 20,500 acres occupied by cranberry
culture about 25.1 per cent is reported from Massachusetts.

FRUIT TRANSPORTATION AND COLD STORAGE

You may handle cotton, hardware, personal baggage, with a hook, a
bang and a hurrah. But fruit — notice that the 'longshoremen handle each
particular crate as though it were a baby. Come into the refrigerator cars,
see how carefully the crates are piled, slats between the cases so that the air
can circulate freely over and under each. The fruit within the boxes was
packed with even greater care. At each end of the refrigerator car is an ice
tank, by which the temperature in transit is kept at about 40 degrees. For
the preservation of fruit, many experiments have been tried — charcoal lin-
ing for the roof of the car, electric fans attached to the axles — but refrigera-
tion alone has made possible the rapid developments of the commercial fruit
industry.

Without the modern cold storage facilities, also, the fruit trade could not
have been developed to its present large proportions. There are more
than six hundred establishments for the storage of fruits and produce under
artificial refrigeration. The capacity of the fruit and produce cold storage
warehouses is about fifty million cubic feet. If the meat storage establish-
ments are included, the capacity rises to a hundred and fifty million cubic
feet. American cold storage has been imitated to some extent in London,
Liverpool and Glasgow. Berries, peaches, plums and early pears are not
stored in large quantities, as the market is generally ready for them, save
when occasionally overstocked. Storage hurts their flavor. Great quan-
tities of Bartlett and later pears are stored, sometimes, for a relatively long
period, single warehouses in Western New York, for instance, holding
twenty-five thousand barrels of Bartletts at one time. New York City beats
even this record, some cold storage establishments containing forty thou-
sand barrels. Fruit will not retain much of its flavor if stored more than
eight weeks. Even six weeks' time is too long. Many of the large can-
neries keep pears and other fruits in their storage rooms, awaiting the can-
ning process.

As a matter of course, fruit growers are dependent on transportation fa-
cilities for the marketing of their products. All the great railroad lines now
run refrigerator cars of their own, besides the numerous private refrigerator
car lines. Many of these are devoted to the transportation of fruit and ber-
ries, which may be loaded in many instances from the packing-houses di-
rectly into the refrigerator cars, for transportation perhaps three thousand
miles. These refrigerator cars often make up whole trains, running to the
principal markets in the season. The cars may be supplied with relays of
ice at points along the route. In the United States, Canada and Mexico
there are more than sixty thousand refrigerator cars in service. Of the
California deciduous fresh fruits, 95 per cent is handled by these cars. Fruit

744 WORKERS OF THE NATION

growers are thus enabled to increase and diversify their crops. The safe
length of time in transit for summer fruits is governed by the conditions of
ripeness, etc. Strawberries will stand from two to five days in transit, and
peaches and plums six to eight days. California deciduous fresh fruits may
now be delivered by rail to any town in the United States in ten days, in a
fairly good condition. Strikes and other reasons have, however, sometimes
detained fruit in transit for twenty-six days. A carload of California
peaches and prunes kept in transit for this period sold at high prices in New
York, spoiling quickly, however, when placed on the market.

OCEAN CARRIAGE OF FRUIT

The method of carrying fruit across seas is interesting. A fleet of nearly
150 steamers, specially constructed, plies between the principal fruit ports
of the tropics, the Mediterranean, and America. Ten million dollars' worth
of perishable merchandise, at least, is brought to New York annually in these
vessels, and every banana, every cocoanut, peach and pear, is in good con-
dition. For the fruit steamers have concealed walls of charcoal which are
impervious to heat; they have separated deck planks giving air circulation
to the cargo below ; they have cold storage apparatus ; they are, on the high
seas, what the refrigerator car is on land.

Some fruit from the United States is shipped a little green, and al-
lowed to ripen slowly on the voyage, the temperature being kept as near to
forty degrees Fahrenheit as practicable. Apples, pears and oranges make
up the most of these shipments, with a few grapes.

Apples, oranges and lemons were shipped in excellent condition from
New South Wales to Chicago at the time of the Columbian Exposition. The
possibilities of ocean transportation of fruit are thus shown to be capable of
indefinite expansion.

Almost all fruit shipped by sea is brought by steamers. An exception
to this rule must be noted in the case of pineapples, which are generally
brought here in schooners, from Key West and the Bahamas.

There is a duty of 75 cents a box on Mediterranean oranges, besides the
freight charge of 30 cents a box. Ordinary freight charges from Cali-
fornia are 90 cents a box, with refrigerator car charges about 35 cents a
box. A shipper may charter a refrigerator car for $115 from California
to New York, and the ice may be renewed three times on the trip.

THE NEW YORK FRUIT MARKET

Between the orchards and fruit groves of California, the orange and
lemon groves of Italy, the banana plantations of the West Indies and the ten
thousand fruit stands of New York City there lies a kingdom that carries
on a trade of fifty million dollars a year and furnishes tens of thousands of
men, women and children with paying occupation. This is the kingdom of
fruit, and Washington Street, New York, is its capital. With the thousands
of carloads from California come to this market six million boxes of oranges

FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE 745

from Florida, ten million pineapples, $250,000 worth of limes, train loads of
lemons and strawberries, the tropical fruits from Florida mainly, and the
berries from all along the coast as the season advances. Also to this centre
come shiploads from the West Indies and Central America, from Sicily,
Almeria, and Malaga, from Smyrna and all up and down the Mediterranean.
Pickers in foreign lands are paid so little that the fruit can be sold in New
York cheaper than the American fruits.

There is no retailing in the far Western fruit. It is sold by two auction
firms. The Mediterranean fruit is also sold by auction, as likewise is about
thirty per cent of the pineapples, and perhaps ten per cent of the bananas.
Fruits other than these, coming by railroad and express, go to the com-
mission merchants' stores direct, to be sold there to the retailers.

FRUIT AUCTION SALES AND PUSHCART MEN

At Pier 20 there is a room, the size of the United States Senate Chamber,
with seats arranged as in the gallery of a theatre. This is the auction sales-
room of the New York fruit market. Two hundred and fifty buyers occupy
these seats. Each buyer holds a catalogue, waving it on high whenever
he makes a bid. Elevated on a rostrum, facing the buyers, sits the auctioneer
— a lean, nervous, intelligent man who is more the autocrat in that auction
theatre than was Czar Reed in the House of Representatives. Falls his
gavel on the stroke of nine, and "Shut up" he shouts to Italian and Greek
and German — and the voices of the buyers subside. "Lot-number-one-three-
hundred-boxes-tragedy-prunes-from-San- Jose-California- what' s-the-bid-i 75
180-185 — ': Thus the autocrat begins the sale, seeming to speak Choctaw
and Hundustani and the patois of the trainmen on a suburban railroad all
at once. Ten buyers simultaneouusly cry "190," meaning $1.90 per case.
Pandemonium reigns, and the scenes in wheat-pits and stock exchanges are,
by comparison, reduced to mere enthusiastic prayer meetings. Men jump
upon their seats naming higher figures.

Despise not the pushcart men. At the fruit auction sales they buy ten
per cent of all the fruit that comes into New York. At an ordinary sale
$40,000 worth of fruit is sold, and for their share the pushcart men pay
$4,000 in cash. The boss pushcart men run from ten to fifty carts and cor-
ner stands, and some of them, in Naples or Genoa, would be deemed mil-
lionaires.

The sales in the auction room are not made by samples, but sold
"strictly as is," no allowance being made for any cause whatsoever, the buy-
ers taking all risks. As fast as each sale is made, a memorandum is sent to
the boss teamster on the dock, who delivers the fruit to the proper dray-
man ; so that by the time the sale is over, all the fruit contained in the forty
cars which arrived at midnight has left the dock, and the process of dis-
tribution to all parts of the city and nearby States has begun.

While all California fruit is sold thus at auction, some of the Southern
fruit owners who control the Southern trade of New York still dispose of

746 WORKERS OF THE NATION

their goods by private sale. It is declared, however, that before long all
perishable fruit will be sold at auction, the argument in favor of this method
being that the man who waits for private sale or for the market to advance
finds his fruit all the while deteriorating — even in cold storage — and in the
end is obliged to sell at a sacrifice.

The retail price of fruit fluctuates almost imperceptibly ; but at wholesale
the difference in price from day to day is written in dollar signs. Generally
speaking, the law of supply and demand governs trade in fruit as in other
merchandise, but locally the demand is independent of the supply. On a
rainy day, for instance, when the pushcart men can not take to the streets,
both the demand and the price fall off at the auction sales despite the supply.
So also on a very warm day, after four hours in the sun, fruit becomes
garbage. A washout on the railroad, too, delaying fruit for a day or two,
during which it has time to ripen, sends the prices down.

The Banana Trust, which controls the trade in the most American of all
fruits, receives millions of bunches of bananas yearly from Jamaica, British
Honduras, Northern Venezuela and other West Indian countries, selling the
fruit at one of the New York piers. The sale begins as soon as the banana
ship arrives. Out of the hold they come, all green as the Irish flag. Three
trucks stand backed up to the gangway, and as each 'longshoreman appears
with his bunch of bananas, an expert examiner shouts : "Number One," or
"Two" or "Three" — thus at once specifying the grade of a particular bunch
and the truck upon which it is to be loaded. The buyers stand by the trucks
with watchful eyes. As soon as a truck is loaded, whether with No. i, 2 or
3 grade, the auctioneer mounts the fore-wheel, shouting: "What's-offered-
for-the-i25-bunches-on-this-truck?" Bids are made: 75 cents, 80 cents up
to $1.25 per bunch — and in less than one minute the lot is knocked down,
the truck pulls away, another backs into its place, thus until the ship is
emptied of bananas.

At the Ward Line Pier on the East River are sold thousands of barrels
of pineapples from Cuba, while at the docks of the Clyde, the Savannah and
other steamship lines running south are sold tens of thousands of water-
melons from Georgia and Florida. A single steamer often brings a consign-
ment of 12,000 watermelons.

Washington Street, as said before, is the Capital of the Kingdom of
Fruit in this country. From Jay Street to Fourteenth, this thoroughfare is
lined with the shops and warehouses of wholesale and retail fruit merchants.
Via this street, fruit — deciduous, citrus, dried, canned — even tomatoes from
Texas, Tennessee and Mississippi, which are as eligible as melons to classi-
fication as fruit — reaches the hotels (one large hotel alone buying about
$75,000 worth of fruit annually), the boarding houses and private homes,
yachts and steamships.

CALIFORNIA FRUIT

North from San Francisco, south from San Francisco, the railway trains
rush through a land of orchards. For ever since the days when the Francis-

FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE 747

can monks first established their missions in California that region has been
a great fruit raising centre. As early as 1792 there were five thousand
orange and other fruit trees growing at the mission stations. To-day in this
"Italy of America" nearly thirty million fruit trees are growing in orchards
that spread over a territory a thousand square miles in extent. Over six
hundred thousand acres of the most fertile lands of California are planted in
what may be called food trees.

A large part of the success of California fruit growing is to be credited
to the manner in which it is handled and shipped. The aim of the grower is
to get his product on the market in a fresh and attractive condition, and for
this he spares no pains. Methods of packing have steadily improved and the
transportation facilities have been made better to keep pace with the general
progress, until California fruit makes the best appearance among the com-
petitors on the great markets. On some of the fruit farms women and chil-
dren are employed as packers, but this work requires a certain kind of skill,
deftness and delicacy of touch, and Chinese and Japanese are generally em-
ployed because of these qualities, developed through centuries of training in
the same family. Fruit growers declare that the Chinese are the best pack-
ers available, and without the yellow men it would be impossible to harvest
the fruit crop properly.

Shipments are made in a way to insure the keeping of the fruit on its
trip across the continent. The refrigerator car has done most to solve this
problem of the industry, and the question has been how to get the cars into
the orchards and groves fast enough to meet the demand. More than
once there has been a car famine, and great losses of fine fruit in con-
sequence.

It is necessary to consider the magnitude of the fruit business of Cali-
fornia to understand how easily thousands of dollars' worth of the finest
oranges are sometimes lost for lack of shipping facilities. The statistics of
the average annual shipments of fruit from California, carloads of ten tons
each, are as follows: Citrus fruit, 25,000 carloads; deciduous fruits, fresh,
10,000 carloads; cured fruits, 10,000 carloads; canned fruit, 8,000 carloads;
raisins, 4,000 carloads; vegetables, 5,000 carloads; walnuts and almonds,
700 carloads. Of course part of these are not perishable goods, but when it
is considered that in making these average figures there are years when the
totals are twice as great, the difficulties of the freight men will be better un-
derstood. For it is the uncertain probability of an unusual production of
fruit that the railroads must provide for. The crop may be cut down by
some unusual condition just before ripening, and then the car supply may
be too great, a result more unprofitable to the roads than a car famine.

In a bulletin issued by the Department of Agriculture the varieties of
California fruits best known to commerce are discussed as follows :

The apple does phenomenally well along the coast where_the temperature is not too
high, in the mountain counties, and in the foothills of the Sierra and coast^ ranges ; the
fruit is very fine, and the crop is an exceedingly profitable one, when grown within reason-
able distance of transportation lines.

748 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Peaches are grown extensively and thrive best in the higher portions cf the warm val-
leys and the lower foothills. The peach is probably the favorite deciduous fruit of Cali-
fornia. It ripens early, has a good flavor, and yields profitable returns as early as the
second year after planting.

Pears grow to perfection over a much wider range of the State than most other fruit,
the tree seeming to adapt itself readily to diversity of soil and climate. It also stands ex-
posure well.

The commercial cultivation of apricots is practically confined to the Pacific coast.
This is one of the choicest fruits, and succeeds particularly well in California.

The quince thrives wherever apples and pears are grown. The fruit is of very large
size and of the finest quality.

The cherry crop is a remunerative one, and this fruit is grown profitably in many
localities.

The fig grows in all sections of the State. The fruit is larger and of better quality
in the warmer regions. The fig has never been very successful as a fruit crop for com-
mercial purposes, but in the past three years the introduction of the Blastophaga insect
from Italy has raised hopes that the Smyrna fig may be ripened in perfection and the
growing of figs become commercially an important industry.

Olives thrive all over the State, except in the higher altitudes 'of the Sierras and in
the low lands of the coast. The olive industry is as yet hardly beyond its infancy in Cali-
fornia, but the bearing trees can be found in almost every county, and all bid fair to make
paying returns.

California prunes are of superior taste and quality, and the crop is increasing in com-
mercial importance. Prunes are more extensively cultivated than any other fruit of the
State. Returns are very large, trees in full bearing yielding annually from 150 to 300
pounds of green fruit each.

Plums, while not so extensively cultivated as prunes, grow to perfection in many locali-
ties and yield abundant returns.

The extraordinary profits of citrus fruit cultivation have attracted wide attention, and
the industry has developed wonderfully in the last few years. Much of the land of the
State is especially adapted to the cultivation of citrus fruit, and, while by far the greatest
portion of the commercial crop of the State is at present grown in southern California,
fruit of this character can be safely and profitably grown all along the foothills of the
Sierra Nevada Mountains, from San Diego to Tehama County, a distance of over seven
hundred miles.

THE WATERMELON INDUSTRY

During the last quarter of the nineteenth century a large business in
growing and shipping watermelons sprang up in this country, principally
along the Atlantic seaboard. The melons are in very active demand in the
hot days of summer in all the great cities, from Washington north to Boston
and west to Louisville, Cleveland and Chicago, although melon-growing
sections for the supply of the Western cities are being developed nearer the
source of demand.

There are usually about five thousand acres planted in watermelons along
the line of the Southern Railway, from which shipments are made to other
than local markets. A conservative estimate for 1903 is a crop of 2,000
carloads for shipment over this one line. This acreage is divided among
about two hundred growers, the individual tracts ranging from one to three
hundred acres, most being from ten to fifty acres and yielding two to fifteen
carloads each. Nearly the whole of this acreage lies in Georgia and South
Carolina.

The profits of the business are very large when the crop hits the market
right, and there are considerable losses by an oversupply. Carloads are

FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE 749

sometimes sold for less than the freight charges. Much depends on the
weather and other considerations which it is very hard to forecast safely.

THE APPLE INDUSTRY

No branch of the fruit industry has developed more solidly and satis-
factorily than that of growing apples for market. In the beginning of the
last century there was little apple trade outside of the neighborhood where
the fruit was grown, and often farms had no orchard, or very poor orchards.
Little attention was paid to keeping apples through the winter, and he was
accounted a progressive man who had a barrel or two of good fruit in
March. The varieties of excellence were few and little known. Ship-
ments to Europe were of course of comparatively small importance. There
is a record of a package of Newtown pippins sent to Benjamin Franklin
while he was in London, in 1758, and in 1773 there was "considerable
trade" ; but the earliest reliable statistics, of the date of 1821, show only 68,-
443 bushels for the total export of apples, valued at $39,966. These figures
had grown in 1897 to 1,503,981 barrels, worth $2,371,143. Since that date
there has been a decline, partly due to a short American supply, and the
exports in 1902 were less than 1,000,000 barrels, worth, however, nearly as
much as the greater quantity in 1897. Nearly every Northern State now
raises an abundance of apples for its own use. Centres of apple growing
are in Michigan, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland, and Virginia,
while there are extensive orchards on the Western prairies and in the Pacific
Northwest.

THE BERRY INDUSTRY

The growing of small fruits is best suited to the small farm. The some-
what large amount of capital per acre required is offset by the fact that the
necessary labor may be done by the fruit grower and his family. In some
few instances small fruits are cultivated on a large scale. Except the cur-
rant, nearly all of the varieties of small fruits are of American origin, .in-
cluding the strawberry, blackberry, raspberry and gooseberry. Much at-
tention should be paid to the boxes or baskets, which should be neat and
clean. A slovenly looking box will kill the sale of the fruit. Care must be
taken to see that the packages are of the standard size, as light as possible,
and attractive to the eye. Formerly the crates were returnable, but this is
not now the custom if the transportation is over a long distance.

There should be a packing house near the berry fields. A flat-roofed
shed, open to the north, and large enough to shelter a certain quantity of
picked fruit, will suffice for ordinary berry farms. A brand of the grower's
name should be used on every package, so that it may become known in the
market. This often insures quick sales.

THE GRAPE INDUSTRY

In the State of California there are 157,000 acres planted to grapes. Of
these about 90,000 acres are wine grapes, table and raisin grapes making

750 , WORKERS OF THE NATION

up the remainder. Perhaps 27,000 acres are devoted to the culture of table
grapes, so that the raisins get 50,000 acres. It is hardly realized by the pub-
lic that the wine trade of that State amounts to 20,000,000 gallons, 6,000,000
of which are consumed in California itself.

There are other grape belts, for instance the Chautauqua region, extend-
ing from near Buffalo almost to the Pennsylvania State line. Brocton and
Westfield are the centre of this thirty-mile tract. Although the crop is so
enormous, the picking must be rapidly performed. Quick work is an abso-
lute necessity. Strangers flock to the district, including many Italians and
Polanders, and numbering at least four thousand persons. Among the
pickers are two thousand girls. The workers are paid $3.50 a week and
board, or, under another arrangement, they get a cent a basket. The work
in the vineyards lasts from six to ten weeks, and active girls can earn $1.25
a day, in a pleasant occupation. In a recent year, more than seven thou-
sand five hundred cars rilled with basket grapes were shipped from West-
field and Brocton by November 10. At the wholesale price of 13 cents per
eight-pound basket, the value of this crop of grapes would be more than
$2,000,000. But wines and grape juice are also shipped in large quantities.
In the Westfield factories 5,760 tons of grapes on an average are crushed
every autumn, while the output from Brocton is even larger. Grapes in-
tended for pressing generally bring about twenty dollars a ton. The OAvners
of the Westfield factories thus spend more than $100,000 a year for grapes,
and the proprietors of the Brocton wine-making establishments perhaps one-
fourth more.

THE GRAPE BASKET INDUSTRY

The basket-making itself is an extensive industry. Even though they are
only paid twenty-five cents per hundred baskets, the boy and girl workers
are so skilful that they easily earn $4 to $4.50 a day on an average. These
baskets are sold to the grape growers at $20 a thousand, and from thirteen
to fifteen millions of them are used every autumn, costing from $260,000
to $300,000.

There is a good profit in the grape trade. In a recent year 153,120,000
pounds were picked in this district, valued at $2,488,200, 124,000,000
pounds being packed in baskets, 9,120,000 pounds crushed for grape juice,
15,000,000 made into wines, and 5,000,000 crated for transportation. The
Chautauqua grape business pays six per cent on $41,470,000.

THE RAISIN INDUSTRY

It is rather remarkable that the number of pounds of raisins annually
consumed in the United States about equals the population. The recent
average annual consumption has been about 80,000,000 pounds. Nearly
all of these raisins were produced in this country. The raisin-producing dis-
trict of California includes ten counties, having not less than 64,000 acres
devoted to this crop. The "Raisin City," Fresno, is in the centre of a most

FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE 751

prosperous section of the industry. In a recent season there were in Cali-
fornia sixty plants for packing and seeding raisins, nearly all of them in
the Fresno region, employing about five thousand hands, who earned about
$250,000 during the season. In fact, in California the raisin industry is a
close second to the wine production. In the season of 1897 more than four
thousand carloads of ten tons each were produced, bringing an average price
of one and three-quarters cents a pound, which was a loss to the growers,
one thousand carloads not being disposed of. This was the result of reckless
overproduction and bad management. All this was regulated by an asso-
ciation of raisin growers, and the output of the next year, amounting to
about three thousand carloads, was sold for 3^ cents. The association now
carefully guards the interests of the growers, and the industry is on an ex-
cellent footing.

THE PRUNE INDUSTRY

A few years ago the prune was an object of contempt, despised by all
men. Of prunes the people would have none, not even at cents a ton. In
the days of their disgrace the only friend who stood by the prune was the
boarding-house keeper. Hence great warehouses the country over were
fairly bursting their walls with prunes, like the granaries in the time of
Joseph. The prunes were not even worth moving. And yet prunes then
were no less luscious, no less nutritious, than prunes now. It was simply
that the prune had been libelled by newspaper funny men. Their fair name
had been besmirched by the joke writers of the press. So, held up to ridi-
cule, jeered at and hooted to cover, they remained in the warehouses. No one
would even pay their railroad fare to possess them. Suddenly some one
said, "Gag the humorists and we'll sell our prunes. The way to do this is to
advertise." So the owners of the prunes made up a purse, and in all the
newspapers of the land they advertised : "Just Say Prunes," and with magic
effect. Instantly the joke writers stopped jibing, and forthwith from a
hundred storehouses prunes began to "move," at a cent a pound.

The State of California boasts of the largest prune orchards in the
world, there being several in the Santa Clara and Sacramento valleys, com-
prising more than 120 acres each, or 12,000 trees. There are two or three
orchards of 500 acres with 50,000 trees. In Central California there are
several firms, each having more than $175,000 invested in prune orchards.
The crop has been sold on the trees, in some seasons, for $60 a ton. The
duty on French and Turkish prunes has boomed the home market. There
are at least 66,000 acres of prune orchards in the State, four-fifths of which
are bearing, representing a value of about $20,000,000, if the land, trees,
tools, packing houses, irrigation systems and harvesting devices are in-
cluded. The crop runs from 90,000 to 110,000 tons, according to the
weather conditions. The industry gives pleasant work to many thousands
of men, women and children in Central and Southern California. Wide
sheets of cloth are laid under the trees, into which the prunes are shaken

752 WORKERS OF THE NATION

from the branches. They are then carefully poured into padded boxes. The
fruit then is carried to the washing boxes and the dipping caldrons. Heavy
wire cages filled with several hundred pounds of prunes are dipped into
running water. After this cleansing process the cage is swung on a crane and
let down into a caldron of hot water mixed with concentrated lye, in or-
der to crack the skin, and thus hasten the drying process. Once again are the
prunes lifted and dipped into clear hot water mixed with a white syrup, which
gives the fruit a gloss. The fruit is dried in two or three acre drying yards,
being spread in trays upon the ground, and covered with some cheap cloth.
The drying is generally accomplished in three days, so hot is the Southern
California sun. The dried fruit is placed in "sweat boxes" for a week or
ten days until all moisture has evaporated. Many large prune growers
handle seventy tons or more of the fruit in a day. The proportion of weight
is about three to one between the green and dried prunes. The fruit is sold
according to the sizes, there being six grades. The grading may be done
by machinery. Of the eleven varieties raised in California, only four are
much grown, the d'Agen, the Col's Golden Drop, the Bulgarian, and the
Tragedy.

THE NUT INDUSTRY

Nuts were formerly a desultory crop. But nut trees are now planted for
profit by the farmers of the East. From a nut orchard there may be realized
as large a profit as from a peach or apple orchard. Farm hillsides, formerly
running to waste, are successfully used for the planting of walnut, chestnut
and butternut trees. Land in the West and Southwest, too wet for other
crops, produces good returns when used for hickory and pecan nuts. Cali-
fornia took the lead in the development of nut culture, and produces now
more than two million pounds of English walnuts, with many almonds, a fine
grade of chestnuts, in addition to English filberts and hazel nuts. The new
industry has sprung up within the last fifteen years. The importation of
nuts has been affected by the great quantities grown here for the market. A
greater demand for them has been forced, and the consumption of nuts has
greatly increased. From pecans a valuable oil is made. Japanese varieties
of chestnuts have been grafted on native American stock, producing what
is sold in the market as the Japanese chestnut. Some imported Japanese
trees are also grown. The burrs open without waiting for frost, thus gaining
an early market. English walnut trees have to be protected from the rigors
of our winters, while young. They find a favorable climate in the South and
on the Pacific slope. Pecans may be raised from the seed, yielding great
harvests in ten years, producers generally buying three-year-old trees from
the nurserymen. Pecans come next to chestnuts in the size of the crop.
They will grow wherever hickories and oaks are found. Pecan trees should
be planted from thirty-two to forty-two feet apart, as is the case with walnut,
hickory, and chestnut trees. Almonds and filberts may be planted from
twelve to fifteen feet apart. The shellbark hickory tree comes into bearing

FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE 753

in about ten years from the seed, producing a very valuable crop. Black
walnuts and butternuts are also profitable. English filberts and the im-
proved hazel nuts give good returns.

The peanut crop is of importance. It occupies nearly 520,000 acres, and
represents the labor of 134,000 farmers. The annual yield is about 12,000,-
ooo bushels, the average being twenty-three bushels to the acre, valued at 61
cents per bushel. The great peanut region of the country is in the South
Atlantic States, Florida, Georgia, North Carolina and Virginia, which con-
tain 75.5 per cent of the total area, or nearly 390,000 acres. The South
Central States contain about 24.3 per cent, or about 126,000 acres, two-
thirds of which are in Alabama. There are also about 450 acres in the West
and 575 acres in the North Central States.

THE FLOWER INDUSTRY

Horticulture means that department of the science of agriculture which
relates to the cultivation of gardens, the growing of flowers, fruit and
vegetables. Horticulture may be subdivided into two branches : The useful,
known as truck or market gardening; and the ornamental, known as flori-
culture. Horticulture as a business is carried on in the United States to
the extent of about $50,000,000 annually. This figure represents the value
of the output of plants, flowers and vegetables.

Over 9,000 acres of land in the United States are devoted to the culti-
vation of flowers and ornamental plants; not quite 9,000 farmers and
florists being engaged in the business, three-fourths of whom make it a spe-
cialty. The value of products annually sold is nearly $19,000,000, about
23 per cent of which is consumed in necessary expenses, such as labor, care
of animals and machinery and the purchase of fertilizers. This last item
represents an annual expenditure of over $500,000. The North Atlantic
States lead in the florist business, with nearly 53 per cent of the total num-
ber of establishments ; the North Central coming next, with another 32 per
cent. New York leads with 983 establishments and a total value of products
of nearly $3,000,000.

There are about 5,000 nursery establishments in the United States. The
North Central States claim about 840 of these; the North Atlantic, about
500; the South Central, about 290; the Western, 240, and the South At-
lantic, 170. New York is the greatest nursery State in the country, having
nearly 240 establishments, with products valued at about $1,700,000. The
value of nursery stock sold annually is over $10,000.000. After New York,
the greatest nursery States are Iowa, Illinois, California, Ohio and Penn-
sylvania, every one of which makes annual sales of over $500,000.

The demand for palms, ferns, and allied plants is greater than the nur-
serymen of the country can meet. Besides the great greenhouse establish-
ments in Florida and elsewhere, devoted exclusively to the culture of this
class of "green goods," American florists have established palm nurseries in
Jamaica and Trinidad in order to meet the demand of the people of the

17 — Vol. 2

754 WORKERS OF THE NATION

United States. Money invested in palm nurseries will yield large returns",
for plants of this kind are used as decorations in hotels, restaurants, cafes,
and private dwellings.

An idea of the extent of the trade in flowers and plants alone can be
gained from the statement that the sales of these products in New York
City aggregate annually more than $5,000,000, an amount of business far
in excess of that of any city in Europe. One of the most profitable branches
of floriculture is cut-flower growing. Among the cut flowers the rose takes
the lead in dozens of varieties, the American Beauty being the favorite, and
bringing from $30 to $150 per hundred. Over two million dollars' worth of
cut flowers are sold every year in New York City alone.

FLORISTS

So great has been the development of commercial floriculture, and so
keen is the competition in the trade that the result has been a remarkable spe-
cialization. Certain florists grow roses exclusively; others carnations; still
others grow nothing but chrysanthemums ; others nothing but violets ; and
so on through the list of flowers.

Over ten thousand "boss" florists are engaged in this industry. Each of
these has "under glass" an area of from 1,000 to 100,000 square feet. The
average is about 5,000 square feet, or 50,000,000 for all, yielding an average
annual output valued at $i for each square foot.

New York leads the industry with 1,000 or 1,200 establishments, hav-
ing about 4,500,000 square feet of glass. Illinois is second and Pennsylvania
third. A fair estimate of the value of all the establishments in the country is
$11,250,000, or fifty cents for each square foot of glass. This estimate in-
cludes houses, boilers, fixtures, etc. The producer averages fifty cents a
square foot annually, or $11,250,000. The retailer realizes double this sum,
that is, $i per square foot, or $22,500,000. The cut flowers of the United
States are worth $12,500,000 annually, $6,000,000 being received for roses,
$4,000,000 for carnations, $750,000 for violets, $500,000 for chrysanthe-
mums, lilies and other flowers bringing $1,250,000. If we put the average
retail value of roses at $6 per hundred, carnations at $4 and violets at $i we
find that the annual output is 100,000,000 roses, the same number of car-
nations, and 75,000,000 violets, or a total of 275,000,000.

The retail value of the plants sold is about $10,000,000, at an average of
10 cents a pot. There are at least 100,000,000 plants sold annually.

For the conducting of this business there is one man for every 1,500
square feet of glass, or 1,500 men, although great rose- farms will get along
with one man for each 10,000 square feet. The average of labor is in-
creased by the numerous small establishments.

In New York and other cities the retail stores are marvels of beauty,
often displaying exquisite taste in the arrangement of the flowers exhibited
for sale. In very many instances, however, the retailers are not producers.

Auction sales of flowers have become popular in some cities, while com-

FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE 755

mission houses or flower-brokers do an enormous business in cut-flowers.
Some of these brokers make a specialty of certain kinds of flowers, such as
roses, violets or carnations.

Flowers which have been left unsold by the wholesalers and are a trifle
stale are disposed of to street fakirs in New York, mostly Greeks. They
have pushcarts, or stand at prominent corners, and make a great many
sales.

FLORISTS' EXCHANGES AND ORGANIZATIONS

In the larger cities there are cut-flower exchanges, often controlled and
managed by the growers. The New York Cut-Flower Exchange is six or
seven years old, and is in excellent condition and very popular. The flowers
are finally disposed of to the consumers by the retail stores, which handle in-
credible amounts of blossoms. In New York City several of the best re-
tailers sell flowers to the value of three or four hundred thousand dollars an-
nually. To achieve this success a retailer must be able to create new fads,
and to force a demand for new varieties. Tastes must be considered in
every detail of the business. Boxes, ribbons, delivery wagons, and messen-
gers must be up to the very latest standard. Slipshod methods are obso-
lete.

Floriculture as a commercial enterprise is well organized, many of the
leading florists having banded together for mutual interest under the name
of the Society of American Florists.

THE VEGETABLE INDUSTRY

Under the general head of vegetables are included such staple market
produce as potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions, chicory and sugar beets, which
annually occupy nearly 6,000,000 acres. Of this area over 51 per cent is de-
voted to potatoes, over one-half of which crop is grown in the North Cen-
tral States, and not quite one-third in the North Atlantic. The annual out-
put of potatoes is over 273,000,000 bushels. Sweet potatoes cover nearly
540,000 acres, and have an annual output of about 42,500,000 bushels,
mostly from the South Atlantic States and Alabama. Onions cover nearly
48,000 acres, and yield nearly 12,000,000 bushels. On the remaining 2,000,-
ooo acres, and over, devoted to general vegetables, fourteen familiar
varieties are grown annually. The total value of the production of all vege-
tables is not quite $240,000,000 annually.

There are more than 10,000 establishments in the United States for the
growing of plants under glass. About one-tenth of these are devoted to
raising vegetables for the winter market — lettuce, cucumbers and tomatoes,
for example, are thus forced. Within a short radius of Boston, say fifteen
miles, there are at least 1,742,400 square feet of glass used for forcing vege-
tables. Hothouses make up perhaps two-thirds of this, hotbeds and frames
constituting the remainder. Near Providence, R. I., are fully ten acres of
glass for vegetable production. If we take into account New York, Chi-

756 WORKERS OF THE NATION

cago and other big cities a conservative estimate brings the total up to one
hundred acres, or about 4,500,000 square feet of glass for this culture. Boil-
ers and other adjuncts included, this glass is worth about $2,250,000, or an
average of fifty cents a square foot. The growers get an annual return of
fifty cents a square foot, or $2,250,000 in all. The retailers receive about
double this amount, or $4,500,000. The number of men employed is about
22,500.

MARKET GARDENING AND TRUCK FARMING

Raising fruits and vegetables for market is known in the North as mar-
ket gardening, and in the South as "trucking." In this branch of horticul-
ture many more persons are engaged and the financial considerations are
greater than in floriculture, the ornamental branch. More money can be
made in market gardening than in raising ordinary farm crops. Small
fruit growing, as stated in a previous paragraph, is an industry involving
large capital and employing thousands of men, women and children.

For successful truck farming certain conditions are necessary. Besides
a favorable climate, sandy soils must be chosen in which the vegetables can
be planted early and forced to a quick ripening. The facilities for rapid
transportation must not be overlooked. Along the Atlantic coast from
Massachusetts southward there is a strip of very light sandy soils especially
adapted to the growing of early "truck." Crops raised one hundred miles
south of Norfolk mature a week earlier than those grown further north, and
bring higher prices at the time from lack of competition. So vital is the
transportation element that land on a railroad is many times more valuable
than equally good land lying at a distance of three or four miles, as hand-
ling and hauling injures the produce, and transportation is more expensive.
Land immediately on the water is desirable because in addition to transpor-
tation facilities it has a certain immunity from frost. This is especially
notable in the early spring months, when farms only half a mile inland may
be ruined by frost, while the coast districts escape. These coast conditions
are so favorable that about sixty per cent of truck farming in the United
States is situated along the Atlantic. Exclusive of market gardening the
total area of truck farms in the whole country is about six hundred thousand
acres.

A high degree of cultivation is obligatory in truck farming, causing a
large expense. In the first place, suitable land runs in price from $40 to
$500 an acre. The value is determined by several factors, such as the na-
ture of the soil, the distance from the market, and the facilities for trans-
portation. Perhaps $200 per acre would be a fair average value. The profit
in truck farming is indicated by the fact that before this district was de-
voted to this culture, land within its borders was not worth more than from
$i to $5 an acre.

A large item in the expense is the cost of labor, which runs from $10
to $30 per acre. Seeds and plants cost from 50 cents to $10 an acre, accord-

FRUIT, FLOWERS AND MARKET PRODUCE 757

ing to the variety of the crop. The use of fertilizers is general. Ordinary
grades will cost from $10 to $50 per acre, while the best grades will com-
pel an expense of from $60 to $75 per acre. Some considerable capital is
thus demanded for truck farming, from $6,000 to $20,000 being required
to work a small farm. Large farmers often use $40,000 a year. Besides the
outlay of capital the risks can not be ignored. Truck growers must there-
fore, of necessity, be very cautious, and must be masters of the art of culti-
vation. An annual risk of $40,000 is a great matter.

The inevitable tendency of the age toward combination, observed in so
many industries, is now noticed among the truck farmers. Such are the
competition and risks, and the outlay required, that this tendency could
hardly be resisted. Large growers have certain advantages over smaller
ones, and the latter are finding themselves somewhat handicapped.

Early maturity is essential to success in truck farming, other condi-
tions being secondary. The time of ripening is the first thing to be consid-
ered. Modern rapid transportation facilities have caused the development
in truck raising. Dependence was formerly placed upon market gardeners
near the towns and cities, and the vegetable season was necessarily short.
Now the fresh vegetable season for northern cities lasts all the year round.
The business is constantly increasing, and, as the prices are thus kept rea-
sonable, the great public is vastly benefited. The development of the indus-
try increases toward the South, Florida and Texas showing an enormous
expansion. The South, of course, reaps the advantage of high prices, which
are quoted at the first of the season.

THE TRUCK FARMERS' ASSOCIATIONS

In many local centres there are truck farmers' associations which are
gaining every year in power and influence. They receive daily telegraphic
market reports from the chief markets and distributing points. By con-
certed action in putting their potato crops, for instance, upon the market,
two or three large planters can depress the price in New York, to the injury
of small dealers. The aim of the truckers' associations is to bring about
such an equable distribution of crops throughout the North and West that
a uniform scale of prices may be maintained. Efforts are constantly made
for the accomplishment of this object.

The new methods of canning and preserving fruit and vegetables have
greatly augmented the scope of truck farming and increased its markets.
The income from crops during various seasons may thus be averaged, and
disastrous sacrifices avoided. It is well known that the canning industry
has grown to enormous proportions.

MARKET MEN

Of the market places of the world, America has the smallest number and
Germany the largest. In the rural districts the Americans have their coun-
try stores, the miniature of the city department stores, but the Germans

758 WORKERS OF THE NATION

love the market place and they support one or more in every city, town, vil-
lage and hamlet throughout the Empire. When the American housewife
says she is "going to market" she means, if she lives in the city, that she
is going to the nearest butcher shop for meat and to the grocery for canned
goods, vegetables and fruits. If one lives in the country, the housewife's
market is the store before-mentioned, where she can buy everything from a
cracker to a side of pork.

The American market place, as such, is doomed. Grocers, and butchers,
and fish dealers, all have delivery wagons, and will set the goods down in
the customer's very kitchen. Not so the market man. His customers are
scattered over a territory so great that delivery of goods would rob him of
all the profits of his sales. Hence, the falling off of business in our markets.
Moreover, American pride has reached the point at which it will have
nothing to do with a market basket. The housewife who used to go to mar-
ket and carry her purchases home, now patronizes the shops on her own
block, ordering her meat and potatoes and bread sent to the kitchen.

In many of our large cities during the last year or two, all sorts of
schemes have been tried to save the market place. All failed. The last futile
effort was a system of advertising in the daily papers. The market men
formed the American Market Association, and each member was assessed
two dollars a week to defray the expenses of advertising. The popularity of
the market place was by no means revived. After six months' advertising
there were more empty stalls than ever.

The only really thriving form of American market place to-day is the
open-air market in the poorer and most populous districts of the cities,
where the venders line up at the curbstone and offer their wares to the pass-
ing throng. The people will not go to the markets, so the markets come to
the people. Here the stalest and poorest of market produce is offered at
ridiculously imposing prices, though it is eventually sold far below the of-
fered price to the highest bidder. In these street markets on a Saturday
night you can buy not only all kinds of fish, flesh, fowl, fruit and vegetables,
but everything for the household, from a spoon to furniture, and everything
for the person, from a shoe button to an overcoat.

CHAPTER XII
THE DAIRY, POULTRY, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES

The Dairy Industry— Milch Cows— The Milk Trade— The Milkman— The Condensed Milk
Industry — Process of Condensed Milk Manufacture — Cheese Factories and Creameries
— Butter Manufacture — The Butter Trade — Oleomargarine Manufacture — Cheese Man-
ufacture—The Poultry Industry— The Incubator and Its Work— The Egg Trade— Bee
Keeping — The Honey Industry

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

DAIRYING is among the leading industries allied with agriculture in
the United States. Its progress has been constant and rapid. Or-
ganizations and associations have sprung into existence with the
purpose of controlling local interests and safeguarding general ones. Legis-
latures have enacted laws for its protection. In many sections there are
wide districts in which it is a specialty.

The value of dairy products annually realized in sales is estimated at
about $282,000,000, which represents an average of over 2,000,000,000
gallons of milk, 518,000,000 pounds of butter, nearly 21,000,000 gallons of
cream, and about 15,000,000 pounds of cheese. Judging by values, almost
43 per cent of such products come from the North Central States*, and over
30 per cent from the North Atlantic. The North Central States also report
more than one-half the total of $282,000,000 for eggs and poultry products,
which figures represent 51.3 per cent for eggs and 48.7 per cent for poultry
raised for market. The highest values of poultry come from Illinois, Mis-
souri, Iowa, Ohio and Indiana, which States, with Pennsylvania and New
York, also represent the bulk of values for eggs.

The figures just given are those of the Twelfth Census. The Department
of Agriculture doubles some of the Census figures, especially as to value
of farm products. The total value of the dairy products of the United
States, according to the Department of Agriculture, exceed $500,000,000.
This amount may be raised to fully $600,000,000 if we include the skim
milk, buttermilk, whey, and the yearly increase of calves.

The annual imports of butter average about 45,000 pounds, and the ex-
ports over 18,000,000 pounds; the average imports of cheese, about 13,-
600,000 pounds, and the exports about 48,500,000; while of condensed milk
the imports aggregate about 530,000 pounds, and the exports about 14,200,-
ooo. Adding the imports to the figures already given for each of these prod-
ucts, and subtracting the exports, we find that the average annual available

(759)

760 WORKERS OF THE NATION

amount of each inhabitant of the United States is about 19 pounds of but-
ter, 3.3 pounds of cheese and 2.3 pounds of condensed milk.

MILCH Cows

The ratio of the number of milch cows to every one thousand of the
population has been fairly constant. For 1902 it was 240, but the average
for many years.was 259. The improved productiveness of the average cow,
brought about by superior breeding and better general conditions, compen-
sates for this apparent falling off. The number of dairy cows has been very
evenly distributed throughout the country. The greatest gains have oc-
curred in the eleven States of the Western Division, with the North Atlantic
Division second. In the latter, the demand greatly exceeds the local supply
in the matter of combined dairy products. All the nine North Atlantic
States have more cows kept for milking than ever before, excepting New
Jersey. New York stands at the head with 1,538,317 dairy cows. More
than 36,600 of these are not on farms. Iowa has lately fallen to the second
place, with Illinois third and Wisconsin fourth. Each other State has less
than a million cows. Minnesota, Wisconsin, Vermont and New York have
made the greatest relative gains in the last decade.

The milk product is, in most cases, directly consumed in the Middle
and Eastern States by the large towns and great cities, butter being the
chief dairy product in the Central West and Northwest.

THE MILK TRADE

The expansion of the milk trade has become enormous in proportion and
value. Local ordinances regulate it, and supervision and inspection tend to
prevent adulteration, and to keep the average quality of the supply up to the
standard. Apart from the influence of these compulsory methods, there are
very large milk companies whose object it is to dispense milk and cream
of absolute purity. Many of these establishments have built up a reputation,
so that their certified or guaranteed milk is widely sold, and by it a high
standard is forced upon the trade at large. In this case, as in many others,
competition does more than legal enactments to maintain proper conditions.

Dairying has resulted in the rehabilitation of the drooping agricultural
interests. A market near home was found for a common product, in New
England and the Middle States, while in the West it followed ruinously low
prices for cattle and cereals. The State of New York is in the front rank in
the development of the dairy interests, with about 2,000 factories making
butter and cheese. The supply of milk goes largely to New York City,
which consumes four hundred million quarts a year. Buffalo comes sec-
ond, with the annual consumption of twenty-eight million quarts. Such
are the transportation facilities that much of this daily supply is shipped
five hundred miles to market.

One of the largest creameries in the world is in Lincoln, Nebraska. The
old-fashioned method of collecting cream by sending wagons through the

DAIRY, POULTRY, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES 761

surrounding country to collect the cream at the dairies and bringing it to the
creamery for churning, was soon abandoned. "Feeders" were established at
convenient points, from which the cream was brought in bulk to the cream-
ery. But still the expenses involved in running seven or eight butter fac-
tories were too large, and it was determined to bring all the cream for
churning to one central factory. A central butter factory was equipped with
the latest devices in machinery, and supplied with the best expert butter-
makers. There were at first twenty "skimming stations," the farmers talcing
away the skim milk after it had been through the "separator." Ten gal-
lon cans of cream were sent on express trains from these points to the cen-
tral plant at Lincoln. This central factory now receives cream from more
than one hundred skimming stations. Most of these are situated in south-
ern Nebraska, with some in northwest Nebraska, Colorado and Kansas.
The output of butter is very large.

THE MILKMAN

The milk trade of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, St. Louis
and San Francisco shows an extraordinary development. Seventy-five per
cent of the trade in Boston is controlled by a few wholesale firms, by con-
tracts with producers. In greater New York ninety per cent of the milk is
bought and sold at prices fixed by the Consolidated Milk Exchange. The
Philadelphia Milk Exchange regulates the trade in that city. In Chicago
there is a milk shippers' union which establishes a schedule of prices subject
to changes if conditions demand.

In a recent year in New York the price to milk producers was altered by
the Exchange ten times, from the minimum of three-quarters of a cent to
three cents a quart. Nothing can excel in promptness and regularity of
service the milk trade of the large cities. From the milker to the consumer,
the milk supply passes within the outside limit of thirty-six hours, thirty
hours being perhaps a fair time expenditure. The railroads all run milk
trains, with no extra charge for the refrigerator cars. To understand the
excellence of the transportation conditions, regard must be paid to the
volume of the milk traffic. In New York City, where the trade is highly
organized, in 1902 the receipts were almost 10,000,000 forty-quart cans, ar-
riving on fifteen lines, making a daily average of 26,000 cans, or 1,040,000
quarts a day. Five States furnish this supply. Much of it travels three
hundred miles in transit to market. There are more than fifty wholesale
and retail milk dealers to handle this product. Their capital runs from
$3,000 to $1,000,000. Perhaps two-thirds of the capital is in the hands of
nineteen or twenty dealers, some of whom have their own dairy farms. As
in New York City, the large dealers elsewhere are both wholesalers and re-
tailers. The fact that some dealers have their own dairy farms tends to
keep down the price of the milk bought from the farmers.

The farmers are bound by their contracts with the dealers to allow a
rigid inspection of the milk and the conditions under which it is produced

762 WORKERS OF THE NATION

and shipped. There are regulations in reference to the cows, the stables, the
utensils, the feeding, the handling of the milk, and its delivery at the rail-
road stations. At least three per cent of butter-fat in the milk is demanded
by the standard. By Dr. H. D. Chapin's recent authoritative analysis
there was a showing of from 3.10 to 3.25 per cent of butter- fat in thirty-two
tests of milk bought in the open market in New York City. Twenty-two
analyses showed four per cent and more. Ten tests disclosed a trifle below
four per cent. A fair average is four per cent, the analysis covering seventy-
five per cent of the milk consumed in New York, so that it may be seen that
there is a high standard in reference to the butter-bearing quality.

The conditions and methods of production are influenced by this general
standard of the market. There are also certain classes of consumers who
are enabled to fix their own special standards. Take the large hotels and
expensive restaurants, for example. They consume enormous quantities of
milk, and it must be of the very highest grade. Although the profit per
quart is small, yet the dealers, delivering milk in forty-quart cans, find the
hotel trade very profitable. But all this raises the general standard, and the
result is a constant increase of carefulness in the conditions and surround-
ings of production, involving more labor, time, and capital. Milk sub-
stitutes and adulterations have almost been driven out of the market, from
which consumers and honest producers suffered alike. Milk may be still
watered and "doctored" in some few instances. But the offenders are
severely dealt with if caught. As a whole, the milk trade is in a praise-
worthy condition, ethically and commercially, comparing very favorably
with any other.

THE CONDENSED MILK INDUSTRY

Condensed milk is a product representing the discovery of a long-sought
method of preserving milk for a greater period than is possible in the natural
liquid form, also of rendering it more readily portable. The process, which
is largely one of mechanically evaporating most of the water in the milk,
and adding sugar to preserve it from decomposition, was first devised by
Gail Borden in 1856. The "plain," or unsweetened, condensed milk was put
upon the market about 1861, and at the present time is an important item
in the retail dairy trade of the country. Both varieties are extensively manu-
factured both in the United States and Europe, although the sweetened
milk sealed in tin cans forms the greater part of the annual output. The fifty
factories in fifteen States produce, on the average, about 187,000,000 pounds
of condensed milk, representing over 421,000,000 pounds of liquid milk and
nearly 51,000,000 pounds of sugar. The value of the finished product is
given as nearly $12,000,000, while that of the natural milk is nearly $5,000,-
ooo, and of the sugar, about $2,600,000. There are various qualities of con-
densed milk, from pure condensed cream and condensed whole milk to the
weak skim milk variety thickened with sago and other adulterants. More-
over, there appears to be no very clearly defined lines of discrimination be-

DAIRY, POULTRY, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES 763

tween the superior and inferior qualities, some of the worst brands being
sold as "condensed cream."

Condensed milk is now used in every country. The inadequate and un-
successful desiccations, solids and powders were entirely abandoned in
favor of a semi-liquid form. The vacuum principle applied to milk con-
densation was undoubtedly the idea of Gail Borden, although there are
several other claimants for the honor. His patents in the United States
bear the dates: August 19, 1856; May 13, 1862; February 10, 1863;
November 14, 1865; April 17, 1866. His foreign rights were not at first
properly secured.

PROCESS OF CONDENSED MILK MANUFACTURE

Vacuum pans are used in the condensing factories. They are large, egg-
shaped, copper vessels, often measuring about seven feet in diameter and
eight feet in height. The process of condensing milk by boiling in the
vacuums, just mentioned, is the most popular method, the water being car-
ried away as fast as it is evaporated. A moderate degree of heat is produced
by steam passing through a coil in the interior of the pan, with a steam
jacket outside. Through the glass cover of the man-hole the milk may be
seen boiling. The process must be attended with the utmost care and
judgment. Experts are trained for this branch of the industry, as the slight-
est error may ruin an entire batch, generally about ten thousand quarts.
Each pan, after the process is finished, is most thoroughly cleansed, the
inner surface being scoured with sandpaper or emery before being used
again.

CHEESE FACTORIES AND CREAMERIES

A phase of industry that has been steadily increasing for many years is
the manufacture of butter, cheese and other dairy products at factories, in-
stead of on farms. These factories are either private concerns or are main-
tained by co-operation among a number of farmers, the former class being
apparently the more numerous, although their increase has been contempo-
raneous with the growth of co-operative dairying. The preparation of con-
densed milk in dairying sections is another industry that has increased along
with the creameries, skimming establishments, and butter and cheese fac-
tories. There are about 9,300 establishments in the United States that fall
under these three heads ; over 2,000 skimming or mechanical separating sta-
tions being under their control, and about 750 other branches.

The "syndicate," or factory, system of dairying is evidently borrowed
from the methods followed in France and Switzerland for at least 400 years.
It has been in operation in the United States for about fifty years, having
been first successfully tried in Oneida County, New York. Having once
demonstrated its value, it spread rapidly, until at the present time prac-
tically all the butter and cheese made in the United States come from syn-
dicate factories. At the present time about 300,000,000 pounds of cheese

764 WORKERS OF THE NATION

and nearly 450,000,000 pounds of butter are annually manufactured in such
establishments. Cheese-making on farms is an insignificant item, although
butter-making is still mostly produced in this manner, not quite one-third
of the total product coming from the factories. The total annual production
of butter from both sources is about 1,500,000,000 pounds. In the mean-
time the export of cheese is assuming important dimensions, being at the
present time well over 100,000,000 pounds annually.

Although cheese factories, and especially creameries, or butter factories,
were originally started on the co-operative plan, only 1,800 out of the
9,250 are at present conducted on this principle. The remainder are in the
hands of individual proprietors, firms or incorporated stock companies. The
scheme followed in co-operative concerns is for a number of farmers to band
together, and contribute to the building and equipping of a suitable factory,
to which all may bring milk to be made into butter. Such co-operative
owners are called "patrons." The business is conducted by a specially-
appointed board, or by an individual manager, and the proceeds of the busi-
ness are divided on an agreed scale, or according to the amounts of milk
consigned. Very often milk is received from outsiders on a pro rata basis, or
is bought outright at market prices, payments being made monthly. Such
methods are largely modified in practice, to suit cases; the general results
being satisfactory, although, like co-operative business undertakings in gen-
eral, failure very frequently results from bad management or disagree-
ments.

By the proprietary plan the business is conducted very much like any
other factory, with the advantage that all milk is paid for at current prices,
and disagreements are exceptional. Factories owned by individuals are
4,500 in number, while those owned by firms are over 1,300, and by cor-
porations over i, 600. Thus, out of the 2,000 factories and creameries in
Wisconsin, not quite 400 are co-operative, while the proportions are even
lower in other States, except Massachusetts. The stock-company plan is
frequently disastrous, on account of injudicious location or overcapitaliza-
tion. Thus, there seems to be considerable changing about in the location,
management, and operation of these factories.

BUTTER MANUFACTURE

The farms still hold their own in the matter of butter-making, in spite
of the rapid growth of creameries in such States as Minnesota, Nebraska,
Kansas, South Dakota and Washington. Creamery butter controls all the
large markets, but home consumption and the local markets still make up
two-thirds of the whole output. There are thousands of creameries now in
operation, but they make only four hundred and fifty million pounds of the
total fourteen hundred million pounds of the annual product. The greatest
butter producing State is Iowa, and it claims the greatest proportion made
in factories. In this State are seven hundred and eighty creameries. Of
these about two-fifths are co-operative. They turn out about eighty-eight

DAIRY, POULTRY, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES 765

million pounds of butter a year. The milk is supplied by six hundred and
twenty- four thousand cows. The farm dairies of this State produce an ad-
ditional amount of fifty million pounds yearly. Iowa claims a total butter
product, therefore, of one-tenth of that made in the whole country, sending
more than eighty million pounds of butter annually to other sections. Next
in importance as a butter-making State comes New York, followed by Penn-
sylvania, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Ohio and Kansas. Taken all to-
gether, however, these States just mentioned produce but little more than
one-half of the total output of the country. Iowa is the only State in which
half of the butter is made in creameries. Although the standard of butter
has much improved with the modern creamery system of production, yet
there is much poor butter put upon the market. This poor quality is "reno-
vated" by patent processes. Several States have enacted stringent laws to
prevent this fraudulent product from being sold under the name of creamery
butter.

As to the importation of butter into this country, it resembles the snakes
in Ireland, that is to say, there is no such importation.

When the central creamery system was first introduced, the practice
was to send around to the various patron farms, to collect the cream that had
been separated by the natural gravity process. This was called "cream-
gathering," and, although it involved the obtaining of far less cream than by
the present method of using the centrifugal separator, it saved the labor of
bringing the milk in bulk to the factory. Thus, with the introduction of the
power centrifuge, about 1879, cream-gathering was largely abandoned, and
the milk of 200 or 300 cows was brought to the creamery to be mechani-
cally treated. The obvious disadvantage of carting milk in bulk to the fac-
tory led to the founding of branches to the creamery where smaller sepa-
rators were maintained, and, finally, to the use of individual hand-operated
separators at the various farms. Thus, with the extended use of the centri-
fuge, the old system of cream-gathering is once more coming into vogue.
Added to this improvement we have the advantages afforded by the Bab-
cock milk test, in which the exact amount of fat in either milk or cream may
be determined by a chemico-mechanical contrivance, and the pay made on
the basis of its butter-making qualities. Most of the milk now delivered
at creameries is tested and paid for on this system.

THE BUTTER TRADE

Butter is packed in two distinct shapes for transportation to market,
either solid or in prints or rolls. The relative quantities packed in either of
these two styles depends largely upon the proximity of the creamery to the
retail market and the facilities for selling direct to customers. Butter put
up in the form of printed bricks or in balls or rolls has the advantage of
appealing strongly to the eye, and for this reason can be readily sold for a
higher price than that packed solid, and sold from tubs and firkins. Of
course, the method of snipping butter in the form of prints and rolls adds

;66 WORKERS OF THE NATION

greatly to the labor and the expense of transportation in bulk, but this con-
sideration is unimportant when the market is near the factory, on account of
the advanced prices to be obtained. Thus, the average price per pound for
solid packed butter in the United States is 19.4 cents to the creamery, while
that shipped in prints or rolls brings 22.1 cents. The prices for the latter
product vary according to the States and the proximity of the market. In
Connecticut it is 24.6 cents, in Massachusetts, 23.5 cents; in Pennsylvania,
23.4 cents. The relative quantities packed in these two shapes vary, of
course, in different States. In Rhode Island the proportion by weight of
solid to print butter is 8 to I ; in New York, 4^ to I ; in Pennsylvania, the
quantities are about even ; in Vermont it is I to 4 ; in Wisconsin, Iowa, and
Minnesota, I to 18; and in Dakota, i to 100. In California, Oregon and
Washington, on the other hand, about three-fourths of the creamery butter
is sliipped in two-pound rolls or prints, to suit the demand of retail custom.

OLEOMARGARINE MANUFACTURE

Oleomargarine, or fat butter, is manufactured in twenty-four establish-
ments in the United States, which produce about 100,000,000 pounds an-
nually. Most of these establishments operate in connection with slaughter-
ing and packing houses ; others purchase the fat from these places or from
retail meat dealers. Their product represents an attempt to produce, by
artificial means, a substance containing all the essential constituents of nat-
ural butter. The process consists briefly in comminuting the cooled beef
fat, which is then melted in steam- jacketed caldrons at a temperature of
about 1 60° Fahrenheit. The steam jackets permit regulation of the tem-
perature, while slowly revolving agitators keep the mass moving, so as to
evenly distribute the heat. Salt is then added to the melt, which is allowed
to settle for about two days, with the result that the scrap settles to the bot-
tom and the stearin — or glyceroid substance — is allowed to crystallize on the
surface and around the sides of the vessel, leaving the pure oleo oil between.
When the settling is complete the substance is broken up into a mushy
mass, which is wrapped in canvas-covered packages of about three pounds
each, and subjected to great pressure gradually applied. Thus the oil is
separated and drawn off into tanks, from which it is piped to the floor below,
to be mixed with other substances and churned. The substances mixed with
the pure oil vary according to the grade of oleomargarine to be produced —
the better grades containing a higher percentage of neutral lard and pure
cream or butter with salt and coloring matter, the lowest grade containing
milk and cottonseed oil. The process of churning takes place in steam-
jacketed caldrons, in which revolving agitators churn the mass violently, at
a temperature sufficiently high to maintain the liquid condition. When the
mixing is complete the mass is drawn off, cooled and packed for shipment.
The milk, cream or butter added to the oil gives the proper flavor, while the
neutral lard gives the substance the desired body.

DAIRY, POULTRY, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES 767

CHEESE MANUFACTURE

The day of farm-made cheeses, as stated before, has passed. One hun-
dred million pounds of cheese were made annually on farms in the United
States, fifty years ago. The annual production had shrunk to about three
million pounds when the present century came in. Of this output ninety-
six or ninety-seven per cent was made in factories. There are about three
thousand factories in all, New York and Wisconsin each claiming a thou-
sand. New York, however, makes about twice as much cheese as Wiscon-
sin, the factories being larger. Three-quarters of all the annual product of
the. country is made by these two States. After them, in the order of pro-
duction, follow Ohio, Illinois, Michigan and Pennsylvania. The output
from these States is not very large, however. Again the combination sys-
tem is observed, as in so many other industries. Factories are united under
a single management, and improvements in the quality of the product and a
reduction in the cost of manufacture are secured. This country does not
stand very high as a cheese-eating nation. Together with the small amount
imported there is a yearly allowance of less than four pounds per person.
However, as from thirty million to fifty million pounds are annually ex-
ported, the per capita consumption of cheese is reduced to three and a half
pounds per annum for the United States.

Cheese factories are conducted on about the same lines as creameries,
except that the whole milk is used in the manufacture, leaving no other
waste than a thin liquid, known as whey. That cheese-making utilizes a
much larger percentage of the milk than butter may be understood from
the fact that, while the annual production of cheese in the United States is
about 300,000,000 pounds, only a little over 209,000,000 pounds of whey is
left. There are about 4,000 cheese factories in the country, the majority of
which are engaged in the manufacture of the "standard," or so-called
"American" cheese, which is, in general, the same as the English product,
known as "cheddar." Of this variety nearly 226,000,000 pounds are pro-
duced annually, the remaining 74,000,000 pounds being principally fancy
varieties and imitations of well-known foreign products, such as Neufchatel,
Brie, camembert, Gruyere, limburger, etc., etc. The percentages for these
varieties vary with the different States. Thus, in the oldest cheese-making
States, Ohio, Michigan and Pennsylvania, the standard product represents
89.2 per cent of the total, while in Wisconsin it is about 62 per cent, and in
Illinois less than 50 per cent. The American cheese, however, is the more
profitable, being worth about n cents per pound at the factory, while the
lower values of the imitation varieties bring the average down to 9.5 cents.

The whey produced in the manufacture of cheese, like the skim milk of
the creameries, is used largely for feeding stock, principally swine, being
worth about 9 cents per hundred pounds. It is, however, of use in the manu-
facture of sugar of milk, which is already produced in this country in
larger quantities than in any other. Although only a small percentage of

;68 WORKERS OF THE NATION

whey, about 25 per cent, is sold for this purpose, it is becoming a recognized
fact that this material is the cheapest for use, and also quite as rich in
sugar as skim milk.

THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

The poultry industry pays from a very small to a very large profit, ac-
cording to the management — in some cases from one hundred to three hun-
dred per cent. The largest percentage is made in exhibition fowls by those
who know how to use their knowledge. In practical poultry rearing the
best profits are, as a rule, made by those who make eggs the primary, and
dressed poultry the secondary, object. Modern conditions in the poultry field
mean incubators and the hatching of chickens, geese and ducks by thou-
sands instead of by small broods. In other words, modern conditions in
poultry raising are similar to conditions of to-day in many another indus-
try in respect to the use of machinery and in conducting the business on a
wholesale scale.

Experts in chicken raising declare that the chicken farmer of to-day,
by feeding his chickens scientifically, can get all the eggs from a hen in two
years where formerly five years were required to exhaust the apportionment ;
then at the end of the second year the chicken is fattened and sold.

The profit to be derived from chicken farming should prove an incentive
to many farmers to engage in this specialty. A computation recently made
"supposes that each hen averages two hundred eggs per year, and that she is
kept for two years and then sold." The estimate regards her as laying
thirty-three dozen eggs, for which a fair price would be twenty-five cents per
dozen — rather low for fresh eggs. This would amount to $8.85. If it costs
$2 to raise and feed the chicken two years, there would remain a net profit
of $3.42 a year; and the profit to be derived from ducks and broilers is es-
timated to be even larger.

Valuable information is furnished from time to time by the United
States Department of Agriculture, on the hatching, raising and marketing
of fowls. This information is furnished free on application. One of the
recent reports of the Department declares that ' 'barnyard fowls are regarded
by most farmers as a very insignificant part of their live stock; and yet,
although so often neglected and forced to shift for themselves, the poultry
and egg crop constitute in the aggregate one of the most important and valu-
able products of American agriculture. The conditions in this country are
such that the poultry industry is capable of indefinite expansion, and there-
fore able to meet any demands that may be made upon it either by home
or foreign markets."

The Department of Agriculture names certain special lines of agricultural operations
with which poultry raising may be advantageously connected. In dairying, for example,
there is usually a large quantity of skim milk or buttermilk which may be utilized to fur-
nish a considerable part of the poultry ration. There is also much food to be gathered
by the fowls about the stables, manure piles and pastures which would otherwise go to
waste. On fruit farms, fowls are also of advantage. They keep down insect pests, and

DAIRY, POULTRY, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES 769

they may have a free range the greater part of the season without the possibility of doing
damage. Plum growers have found poultry especially helpful. Apple orchards, too, are
considerably benefited by the presence of fowls. If small fruits are injured, they may,
of course, be protected by confining the fowls for the limited season when the fruit is
ripening. The waste fruits, either in winter or summer, are a welcome and valuable addi-
tion to the poultry ration. The market garden also furnishes a large amount of waste
products which may be utilized for poultry feed. There is the waste lettuce, the small
heads of cabbage, the unsold beets, carrots and potatoes, the peas and corn which can not be
marketed for any reason; the waste of the small fruits, etc.

If properly cared for, the hens will bring a steady and reliable income during the win-
ter months. Dried clover and other green feed, roots, and tubers should be saved for them
during the summer. These should be steamed and fed with the mash, or cabbages and
beets may be fed raw. A catch crop of buckwheat or oats and peas will furnish much
food at little expense. Bran, meat, meal, wheat screenings, and oats purchased for poul-
try will bring good returns in eggs, and will also add materially to the fertilizer supply.

Dairymen who have town or city milk routes, and market gardeners who retail their
produce, have exceptional opportunities for marketing fresh eggs and poultry at the high-
est prices. They become well acquainted with many of their customers by their daily
visits, and they are looked upon as the direct channel of communication between the coun-
try and the city.

THE INCUBATOR AND ITS WORK

The incubators, such as may be bought in the market to-day, are so sim-
plified that they do not require the care of an expert of long standing ; the
average farmer can learn to use one of these machines very much quicker
than he can learn, for example, how to run an automobile.

There are two kinds of apparatus, one heated by hot water, the other by
hot air. The regulation of the apparatus is sometimes by bars made of
brass, iron, rubber, or aluminium, while other incubators are regulated by
the expansion of water, ether, electricity or alcohol. In either case the eggs
are placed in rows, in trays, and the trays are placed directly under the tank
that supplies heat to the egg chamber. The average incubator can be most
successfully operated in the spring or fall. The smaller incubators range in
size from a capacity of from twenty-five to six hundred eggs.

Twenty-one days are usually required for eggs to hatch, during which
time the temperature is maintained at from 100 degrees to 106 degrees.
When the little chicks at last break from the shells they remain in the incu-
bator for about a day and a half, after which they are transferred to another
section of the incubating apparatus, known as the brooder. These brooders
are able to meet all requirements, from one that holds a modest one hun-
dred chickens to the brooder in which three thousand chickens may be placed
at one time. In these brooders the chickens are kept until ten weeks old.

The capacity of the incubators seems almost limitless, for of late certain
companies have turned out machines with a capacity of sixty thousand eggs,
which means a production of fully half a million chickens a year. Even
moderate-sized poultry plants, such as those in New York, and which contrib-
ute to New York City's egg supply, are capable of turning out one-third of
a million chickens each year. But the mere hatching of the chickens is not
all. The operation of the incubator, indeed, is the simplest part of this mod-
ern method of raising chickens. It is after they are hatched that experi-

18— Vol. 2

770 WORKERS OF THE NATION

ence and skill come into play, for in order to bring the chickens to a market-
able age the closest watching is necessary.

The incubator, in a commercial sense, is certainly a wonderful aid to na-
ture. Not only does this apparatus render the hen no longer necessary as a
hatcher but it takes the place of the hen when hens can not be made to sup-
ply the demand. In other words, the incubator has increased the capacity of
the henyard a thousand fold ; for where a few years ago the farmer raised
one chicken he can now raise a thousand in the same time.

THE EGG TRADE

In New York City and vicinity the poultry and eggs consumed in one
year amount in value to $45,000,000, while the value of the same products
in the entire United States probably does not fall below $700,000,000. An
astoundingly large number of eggs are used in manufacturing industries.
The number of eggs used in this country in 1902 by calico print works, wine
clarifiers, and photographic establishments was fifty- four million dozens;
and many more millions of eggs were used by book-binders, kid-glove manu-
facturers and finishers of leather.

It is related that a competition was once held for the purpose of giving a
reasonably definite answer to the question : How many eggs will a hen lay in
a year? At this competition the average number of eggs laid by a pen of
eight pullets was two hundred and eighty-nine.

Experience has shown that of all classes of chickens the one which leads
in the production of eggs is the Leghorn, while the Cornish is the best for
flesh. It is said, however, that the best all-round, every-day fowls are the
Plymouth Rocks, the Brahmas and the Wyandottes, and that where the
farmer must keep his chickens in close confinement in a small yard, the best
all-purpose class is that which includes the Cochins and Brahmas.

BEE KEEPING

Bees may be profitably kept in any section of the country adapted to
farming, gardening or fruit raising. Apart from these districts, the bee-
keeper might find many locations where, on account of lack of transportation
facilities or the nature of the soil, agriculture has not been developed.
Apiaries may be maintained in or near towns, and even in cities. In Wash-
ington, for instance, bees do well in the spring and summer, finding better
pasturage in the gardens and parks and shade trees than is afforded by the
suburban vicinage. Especially fond are the bees of the linden, or bass-
wood, which flourishes to an enormous extent in Washington. While plant-
ing, even for a large apiary, is not profitable, yet the bee keeper, in choosing
crops for cultivation, or in selecting shrubs and trees for planting, should
select those which will supply pasturage for the bees at a period when other
pasturage is not available. The bee keeper should make a list of the plants
and trees which the bees visit. The time of blossoming, the facts as to the
question whether honey or pollen or both are collected, and the quality of
the product, all must be carefully noted.

DAIRY, POULTRY, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES 771

Beginners never can realize the truth that very little should be ex-
pected from a small territory. As bees often fly as far as three miles in all
directions from their home, their range is over a territory of from 12,000 to
18,000 acres.

Large apiaries are run for the purpose of making an income. The hard
work involved, and the constant care necessary, obviate the possibility of a
dilettante study of the bees, as everything must be extremely practical. It
is an odd fact that no absolutely correct inference can be drawn from the
output of a fixed number of hives in a certain locality from one season's
product. The seasons vary considerably in this respect. General deductions
may, of course, be made.

In common with other agricultural industries, apiculture depends upon
the location and the character of the season. The output is also largely de-
pendent on the knowledge and industry of the owners. A chief factor of
success, furthermore, is the proximity to a good market. In the matter of
an estimate, for a locality of average excellence, thirty to thirty-five pounds
of extracted honey or twenty pounds of comb honey per colony may be ex-
pected, with good wintering and a fairly propitious season. This output may
be exceeded when two or three important honey-yielding plants abound in
large quantities, with several minor ones. Each hive ought, under good
conditions, to give a gross annual return of from $2.50 to $3 extracted
honey, selling at the wholesale price of six to seven cents, and comb honey
at twelve or thirteen cents. One-third must be deducted from this for inci-
dental expenses, not including labor, such as the purchase of comb founda-
tions and sections, repairs, replacing of hives and instruments, and the. in-
terest on the investment. The fortunate bee culturist may make three times
this sum by choosing a location in the vicinity of linden forests, or clover
fields, or buckwheat, or alfalfa meadows, or mesquite, or California sages,
or mangroves, or palmettoes, or titi, or sourwood, or tulip trees or asters.
Bad seasons will occur even in these localities. By droughts, heavy rains,
and frosts, the bee pasturage may be injured or ruined. Caution is there-
fore necessary at every step, so that bad seasons may be tided over without
discouragement. If one is willing to expect occasional setbacks, the indus-
try of apiculture may be placed, in the long run, among the best and safest.

THE HONEY INDUSTRY

In the West the producers generally sell their honey extracted, Eastern
producers selling it in the comb. The highest price is brought by white
clover honey, basswood coming next. Comb honey is higher priced. It has
not been determined, however, that it pays better than extracted honey.
There is much adulteration of extracted honey, so that producers who can
build up a reputation for pure extracted honey may get good prices for the
product sold with the guarantee of their own especial brand and seal.

Comb honey is always marketed in one-pound frames, these being
shipped in cases of twelve or twenty-four frames, with glass fronts. The

772 WORKERS OF THE NATION

manufactured shipping cases pay for themselves in attractiveness over the
home-made ones. Below the bottom of the case a sheet of paper, should be
placed, turned up around the sides. By this the drip is caught. Light cleats
should be tacked on this for the frames to rest upon. Several cases should be
crated together for long shipments, straw being placed in the bottom of the
crates, the latter having projecting boards to serve as handles. Glass jars
and pasteboard cartons are used for the retail trade. Tin cans, with a ca-
pacity of five gallons each, are used in shipping extracted honey, being fre-
quently placed two in a box. Screw-topped tin pails are also used in various
sizes.

Reports for the year 1900 showed that bees were kept on one farm in
every nine. Texas led in 1899 m the value of honey and wax produced, the
.sum being $468,527. The Southern States share largely in this production,
but their average is kept down by the fact of small local demand. Iowa,
Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania stand well to the front, but do not equal in
this industry such States as Arkansas and North Carolina. That the climate
is an important factor is proved by the fact that California stands fifth, and
by the high average production per hive of Hawaii, Colorado, Arizona and
Nevada. In 1900 the number of colonies of bees was 4,109,626, valued
$10,186,513. In 1899 the number of pounds of honey produced was 61,-
196,160, and of wax 1,765,315, with a total value of $6,664,904. Texas
claimed the production of 4,780,204 pounds of honey. California followed
with an output of 3,667,738 pounds. New York came third with 3,422,497
pounds. Missouri was fourth with 3,018,929 pounds. Illinois, Kentucky,
Wisconsin, Iowa, Pennsylvania, North Carolina and Michigan followed
next in the order named, each producing more than two million pounds.

CHAPTER XIII
THE STOCK RAISING INDUSTRY

Live Stock in the United States — Organizations of Cattlemen — Conditions in the Grazing
Business — Areas of Production of Live Stock — The Principal Live Stock Markets —
Domestic Animals in Cities and Towns — Cattle Raising — The Modern Cowboy — Horse
Raising — Hog Raising — Sheep Raising — The Wool Supply — Foreign Wool — The Wool
Trade — Goat Raising

LIVE STOCK IN THE UNITED STATES

THE raising of live stock is one of the most profitable industries in the
United States ; it is also one of the greatest in the aggregate. The
total value of the live stock in the United States, exclusive of Indian
holdings, amounts approximately to three billion dollars, a sum greater than
the total combined value of all the corn, wheat, and other cereals; all the
potatoes, hay, cotton, sugar and molasses ; all the tobacco, lumber and wool ;
all the coal and petroleum; all the gold, silver and precious stones, and all
the iron, copper, lead, zinc and other metals produced annually in the whole
country. In other words, the value of domestic animals in any recent year
exceeded the total combined values of all the fields, forests and mines in the
same year.

The total includes 17,500,000 horses; over 61,000,000 sheep, including
lambs and wethers; over 67,000,000 kine, including 11,500,000 cows kept
for milk, and nearly 63,000,000 swine. The average number of fowls of
all kinds, including chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks, is nearly 250,-
700,000. There are also over 3,366,000 mules, asses and burros, used as
beasts of burden. The relative values may be judged by saying that 31.5
per cent represent neat cattle other than dairy cows, 29.2 per cent horses,
16.5 per cent dairy cows, 7.5 per cent swine, 5.5 per cent sheep, and 2.8
per cent poultry.

Cattle, horses, hogs and sheep, then, are the principal classes of animals
grown, and form the four great divisions of the business. For every thou-
sand inhabitants there are over two hundred milch cows, nearly nine hun-
dred neat cattle, two hundred and fifty horses and mules, and over eight
hundred swine, almost universally called hogs in this country.

ORGANIZATIONS OF CATTLEMEN

The principal organization of live stock growers is the National Live
Stock Association with headquarters at Denver. It is composed of 126

(773)

774 WORKERS OF THE NATION

live stock and kindred associations, and represents an investment of over
six hundred millions of dollars.

Of breeders' associations there are listed by the Department of Agricul-
ture fourteen national organizations for cattle, the more important of which
are the Hereford with 120,000 registrations; the Shorthorn, with 450,000;
the Jersey, with 220,000; Holstein-Friesian, 100,000; and the Aberdeen-
Angus, 35,000.

The horse breeders have eighteen associations of breeders, including that
for asses. Probably the best known are the Trotting Registry, with four-
teen volumes of registrations, the last of which contained 18,000 entries,
with fewer in the earlier volumes; American Stud Book, Thoroughbred,
with 26,000 registrations; Clydesdale, 11,000; French Draught, 11,500; and
the Morgan and the Shire Horse, with 5,000 and 6,000 respectively.

Twenty-seven sheep breeders' associations are listed, with Cotswolds
and Oxford Downs in the lead, showing 23,000 registrations each; South
Down, 15,000; Rambouillet, 15,000; Dorset Horn, Hampshire Down, Lin-
coln and Cheviot, about 10,000 each. The Merinos, however, are divided
into several societies, of which the Michigan has 50,000 entries.

Hogs have sixteen associations of breeders. Berkshires report 60,000
registrations; Duroc- Jersey, 16,000; Chester White, two associations, 25,-
ooo; Poland-China, 215,000 in four associations.

Besides these, there are many State breeders' organizations, but they
do not keep pedigrees usually, and are not recognized by the United States
Government.

CONDITIONS IN THE GRAZING BUSINESS

Success in the grazing business upon the open land is dependent largely
upon ability to control the water supply. If a man can obtain possession
of a spring or stream he can exclude the cattle or sheep of other owners
from the water, and thus be in a position to monopolize thousands of acres
of grazing land, useless to others, because their animals can not obtain
water to drink. By systematically taking up small tracts along both sides
of a stream these can be strung out in such a way as to control the water
frontage, and by fencing contiguous forty-acre tracts a continuous line can
be made for many miles, preventing access to water. Cattle companies
have employed men with the understanding that they would thus take up
land along the streams, and a glance at the map of the great unoccupied
public domain shows the forty-acre tracts entered in such fashion as to
include nearly all of the running water.

The keen competition for grazing, brought about by overstocking of
the public ranges, has thus resulted in putting a premium upon lands which,
while not irrigable nor suitable for farming, yet control access to water.
A recent advertisement in a Western paper illustrates the condition : "For
Sale, 1 60 acres, controlling 10,000 acres of good Government grazing."
No particular harm would result if the lands thus disposed of by the gov-

THE STOCK RAISING INDUSTRY 775

ernment passed into the hands of men who would make the best use of
them; but, as a rule, this is not the case. Areas which might be made
into many farms are held as portion of a great cattle range the owners of
which can make a larger interest on their investment by thus holding it than
by attempting to conserve the water and to subdivide the land into small
tracts. Many of the best reservoir sites are being taken up in one way or
another by men who confessedly do not intend to utilize them but to hold
the land for sale at a good price whenever water conservation is attempted.
Speculations of this kind are lawful and may be commendable to a certain
degree, but when they result in tying up some of the best land of the country
and in excluding population they become injurious to the public welfare.

AREAS OF PRODUCTION OF LIVE STOCK

The areas of live-stock production may be divided on the basis of the
four classes of live-stock products before mentioned ; namely, cattle, horses,
hogs and sheep. The great areas of supply of horses and mules — power ani-
mals— are the States in which pasturage is found in superior quality and
abundant quantity and where other kinds of animal food (cereals) are rela-
tively inexpensive, and therefore unimportant in the cost of production.
This is the case with the more mountainous States of the South, east of the
Mississippi, and of the great cereal States of the interior, both east and west
of that river. Seventy per cent of the horses of the country are found in
sixteen Southern and Central States. The largest of these are Texas,
Illinois and Iowa, having each over a million head of horses.

The productive area of mules is confined somewhat more to the Southern
States and the less developed agricultural States west of the Mississippi,
with Texas, Missouri, Georgia, Tennessee and Mississippi ^.s foremost
sources of supply and use. Oregon horses have been slaughtered for the
foreign meat supply as a regular business. Calves are largely a by-product
of dairy-farming sections, lying nearer to city markets.

Hogs are produced most economically in the corn-growing States.
Seventeen States have from one to nine and a half millions each, and to-
gether contain eighty per cent of the whole number of swine in the United
States. The largest producers of hogs are in their order, Iowa, Illinois,
Missouri, Nebraska, Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, Georgia and Illinois, each of
which has over three million head.

With cattle of various kinds the sources of supply are widely distributed.
Milch cows are, of course, found in the districts in which dairying is a lead-
ing feature of farming. Of the 18,000,000 head in the United States, only
New York, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania have each over a
million head. Of other cattle the country has 48,000,000 head, with six-
teen States which have over a million head each. In the order of their
numerical importance they are Texas, with 4,500,000; Iowa and Kansas,
with over 2,000,000 each, and Missouri, Illinois and Nebraska, with between
1,000,000 and 2,000,000 head each.

776 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The distribution of sheep has for many years tended Westward in ad-
vance of tillage. When pasturage gave way to tillage on the frontier, the
shepherd moved his flocks still further Westward, and when the ranges nar-
rowed, the shepherd and cowboy competed for the field.

The sheep industry is tending Northwestward, and appears to be centring
in the mountain States. The cattle industry is moving Southwestward for
the longer pasture season and for the surplus corn. The great sheep States
are Montana, with 6,000,000, according to the Twelfth Census ; Wyoming
and New Mexico, 5,000,000 each; Ohio and Utah, about 4,000,000 each;
Idaho, Oregon and Michigan, about 3,000,000 each; and California, two
and a half million.

THE PRINCIPAL LIVE-STOCK MARKETS

The four great receiving centres of live stock in the United States are
Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City and Omaha. The prominence of these
cities as markets is due to their location within easy reach of the great pro-
ductive areas and the incomparable facilities for reaching out on the one
hand into the producing sections and of distributing their products on the
other hand to the consuming centres of meat products.

With the exception perhaps of Chicago, which seems likely to yield its
primacy to the more Western markets, these great packing centres are in the
midst of the great stock-raising and stock-feeding States. The decentrali-
zation of Chicago is probable. The primary markets for beef cattle, hogs
and sheep for slaughter are bound to follow; the movement of live-stock
production for slaughtering purposes yields to the trend of corn production.
Nothing but a low freight rate from beyond the Mississippi to Chicago,
and the persistent tendency of the States nearest to Chicago to convert their
corn into animals for slaughter, can prevent the gradual decline of Chicago
as a meat-packing centre.

The apparent recovery of more recent years is a compliment to the enter-
prise of Chicago as a consuming centre.

These gateways between the producer of live stock and the consumer
of provisions manufactured therefrom occupy a geographical position of
great economical strength. The value of this adjustment of the packing in-
dustry to the sources of supply of live stock is evidenced by the rapid growth
of the business of handling this species of farm product. In the last six-
teen years a nest of farms at Omaha has been converted into an industrial
city of 15,000 inhabitants, which ranks third in the list of packing centres
of the world.

At Kansas City the capacity of the slaughtering houses is almost 53,000
head of stock per day. Nearly 10,000 hands are employed in the packing
industry alone. The receipts of live stock at this market in 1899 had a
value of $121,000,000.

The live-stock business at St. Louis is somewhat more general than any
other of the four great markets. St. Louis stands first as a market for

THE STOCK RAISING INDUSTRY 777

horses and mules. During 1902 the receipts reached near 150,000 head.
The standing of this market in this respect is national, as shown by the fact
that in 1902 thirty-five States and Territories were represented in the con-
signments made to St. Louis markets for horses and mules alone. The
position of the St. Louis market for cattle is benefited much by the attention
given to the quality of the product. An authority recently said : "Breeders
throughout the State [Missouri] are giving much more attention than for-
merly to the quality of the cattle, a fact which is a tribute to their sense and
business shrewdness, and in no small degree contributes to the success of
the State as a cattle producer, and is reflected at our market, resulting in a
very large demand for Missouri butcher cattle for immediate use."

These facts, in a general way, show the position of the different markets
of the leading "surplus" States.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS IN CITIES AND TOWNS

At great labor and expense, the Census Bureau gathered statistics of
live stock in cities and towns; that is, domestic animals in barns and in-
closures, not on farms or ranges. In a bulletin, giving these statistics,
the number of animals not on farms, but in man's service, are given. The
value of these statistics is to give dealers an estimate of the number of these
animals that can be marketed in future, and the relation of the demand
for them to the existing supply. The totals show at the present time, out-
side of the farms and ranges, nearly 3,000,000 horses, 174,000 mules, and
nearly 16,000 asses. The total of these three classes is less than one-fifth of
the total number of these animals at the present time on our farms ; and yet
our city horses, mules and asses outnumber those of all the same kind on
the farms of most of the European countries.

Austria, at the last census, had on its farms over 1,600,000 horses and
mules, or less than one-tenth of those on our farms, and one-half those in
our cities and towns. Great Britain had 2,000,000 on its farms. This is
one-eighth of our farm horses, and only two-thirds of those in our cities and
towns. The French farm horses numbered 3,000,000, while those in the
German Empire even make a total of only 4,000,000. The latter country-
has the largest supply of farm horses of any nation of Europe, with the ex-
ception of Russia, and yet its supply of such animals is only one-fourth that
of this country. These figures show why Great Britain purchased horses
and mules in the United States for the South African war. They also ex-
plain the reason Great Britain finds so much difficulty in readily supplying
the animals on which to mount any large number of soldiers.

CATTLE RAISING

The greater part of the live-stock industry in this country is occupied
with cattle. Of the total valuation of stock, two-thirds is for beef and dairy
cattle, in the proportions of one-fourth dairy and three-fourths beef cattle,

778 WORKERS OF THE NATION

or neat cattle, to use the old term that is still employed in the government re-
ports.

Of the neat cattle, numbering nearly 70,000,000 head, Texas has nearly
as many as any other two States ; and nearly thirty millions are found in the
six States of Texas, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois and Missouri. Other
States having over a million each, in order of numbers, are New York,
Wisconsin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Oklahoma, Indiana, South Da-
kota, Indian Territory, California, Colorado, Michigan and Kentucky.
Most cattle in the first group of States are perhaps still on the ranges ; in the
second, most are inclosed on pastures on farms : though the division is not
closely made in either case. The Illinois and Iowa cattle, for example, are
all on farms and are feeders, while the Oklahoma and Indian Territory
herds are stockers on the ranges.

THE MODERN COWBOY

In the management of the great range herds many changes are taking
place at the present time. The cowboy of the Wild West and of the dime
novel is disappearing. You may find him now mending fences or doing the
chores on a farm. For where the great herds in his care used to roam, there
are farms, and steam harvesters, and binders, and fences. Moreover, it is
no longer necessary to drive cattle long distances to market. Railroads
have gridironed the West. The herd is carried, instead of driven, to market,
and the occupation of "cow-puncher" is nearly as extinct as that of the
buffalo hunter.

The ranch, to-day, must generally have its fences, its inclosures. There
are still free and open grazing grounds on government lands in some of the
Western States ; but the conditions and restrictions of grazing are numerous,
and before a single cow may step upon that land, the cattleman must tie his
whole herd together, as it were, with red tape.

With each herd fenced off from that of other stockmen, the "roundup"
is not such a general feature of the cattle industry as formerly. Then, too,
very many of the herds of to-day are housed in winter. When it comes
the time for the branding iron, the cattle are driven in orderly procession
through a narrow-fenced alley, a chute, not unlike the lane leading to the
barnyard common to a New England farm. And through a similar chute
the cattle, much tamer than in the old days, are driven direct to the gang-
ways of the freight cars that carry them to Chicago or elsewhere. Also as
the railways have penetrated the cattle ranges, the old custom of making
long overland drives of immense herds is giving way to transportation by
rail. This is doubtless partly due to the restrictions of the government on
the movement of tick-infected herds. For it was recognized, even before
the source of Texas fever was found in the tick parasite, that especial dan-
ger for Northern cattle lurked along the path taken by the range herds of
the plains in their journey toward the Northern markets.

And with the cow-puncher and his pistols and broadbrim hat has gone,

THE STOCK RAISING INDUSTRY 779

to a large extent, the long-horn stock that died by hundreds of cold, neglect
and disease. In the remote corners of Texas to-day there are well-bred
bulls and thousands of grade calves of good breeding promise, while disease
is watched almost as sharply as on the farms of New York and Kentucky.
This is shown by the demand for blackleg vaccine from the Department of
Agriculture which comes in from the great ranches of the Southwest as well
as from the Eastern farms.

HORSE RAISING

In America horses are bred on a large scale, and not for pleasure or as a
fad but for business. The progress made in the manufacture of light-
running vehicles and the improvement of roads have increased the demand
for trotting horses as against that for saddle horses. There is still, of
course, a steady demand for the thoroughbred of the race-course, and there
always will be so long as wealthy men are willing to pay their jockeys
$50,000 a year. Also saddle horses of first class qualities will always
bring good prices. But the trotter is the horse, outside of draught and
general work animals, that is generally raised. The thoroughbred is
handled in the bluegrass region of Kentucky and in one or two localities on
the Pacific Coast and the saddle horse trade has its centre in Kentucky,
with a little doing at several points in other States ; but there are centres of
breeding trotters in Michigan, Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Tennessee, and in
fact there is hardly a State where there is not more or less of breeding of the
speedy horse for the sulky.

Of course the greatest number by far are draught and plow horses.
These are raised in all States by thousands. It is probable that half of them
never go from the county where they are born. Several years ago the at-
tention of the Secretary of Agriculture was drawn to the demand in the
armies of Europe for cavalry horses, and steps were taken to encourage
breeding to meet this requirement. The movement has received great im-
petus from the purchases by England for South Africa; so that now a
special branch of the business ic springing up in this direction. Also the
need of horses for breeding purposes in Argentina has stimulated the rais-
ing of pedigreed stock for this export trade. Development in the line of
specialties such as these is relieving the depression that followed the intro-
duction of electricity in street car service. The immediate turn was to-
ward the use of the over-supply for horse meat and for fertilizer; but this
meant great loss to owners and breeders. It became possible to cure horse
meat and ship it to Germany and Belgium at six cents a pound, while the
fertilizer factories would pay only two or three dollars a head for the
worn-out street car hacks. They reckoned the hide worth three dollars, and
the bones, fat and tankage as much more. But the old horses are pretty
well used up, and the new supply is coming on for the new demands. There
is, accordingly, a prospect that prices will be well maintained, with a chance
of advances in the near future to something like the old figures.

780 WORKERS OF THE NATION

HOG RAISING

The number of hogs in this country at the present time is probably near
60,000,000. Nowhere else in the world is swine raising carried on to any-
thing like the same extent. In 1883 it was estimated that of all the countries
of the world for which statistics could be obtained, the United States pos-
sessed over forty-seven per cent of the hogs. Russia came second, with
eleven per cent, and Germany third, with eight per cent; Austria-Hungary
fourth, with seven per cent, and France fifth, with six per cent. The only
other countries possessing over one per cent were, in order of importance,
Spain, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Italy and Canada. Since then
the United States has maintained its lead.

More than three-quarters of all the corn grown in the world is grown
in the corn belt of the United States. The average corn crop in this country
is about two thousand million bushels. With the exception of about 250,-
000,000 for export, it all has to be marketed or fed upon the farm. And
there is no other animal to which corn can be fed so profitably as to hogs.
Tests have been made at experiment stations showing that from one hun-
dred pounds of dry feed, nine pounds of live steer, eleven pounds of live
sheep, and nearly twenty-four pounds of live hog are produced, or nearly
270 per cent greater results in pig than in steer from the same amount of
food. Thus the raising of hogs is a great economy in the farmer's busi-
ness. This is true not only as regards the feeding of corn, but also in the
matter of the consumption of the by-products of the dairy. The aim now is
to get seventeen pounds of pork out of a bushel of corn, and nineteen pounds
of pork out of a bushel of wheat. The hog has been called the "great mort-
gage lifter." In truth, the hog is the animal which can be turned the quick-
est of all into cash, being grown and marketed as rapidly as a crop of grain,
and without lessening the value of the soil The market value of the hog
is always good. Feeding cattle is apt to be without profit unless they are
followed by the hog. The dairyman's profits are also increased by turn-
ing dairy waste into profitable pork. There is thus a triple advantage to
the farmer in raising hogs.

SHEEP RAISING

Sheep furnish one of the most nutritious of foods, and for sanitary rea-
sons, for economy and durability their wool makes the best clothing material.
Yet wool growing, though very profitable, is one of the least well developed
industries in this country. The total number of sheep in all the States is
estimated under 60,000,000, and trade returns indicate that this is consid-
erably under the total needed to supply wool for our mills.

The principal sheep States are Montana, Wyoming, New Mexico, Idaho
and Colorado, with over twenty million; California and Oregon with five
million; Ohio, four million, and Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri
and Kentucky, together, about six and a half million ; and the big States of

THE STOCK RAISING INDUSTRY 781

Texas, Pennsylvania and New York five million more. A glance at these
States and figures will show that the greater portion of the sheep of this
country are grown along the great mountain ranges of the West. Here
they alternate their grazing between the level lands at the base of the
mountain pastures.

Great "bands," as the flocks ace always called there, are driven annually
as summer comes on into the government reserves in Wyoming, Oregon and
California. This, with the open government ranges on the plains, gives graz-
ing to produce over half of the "clip" of the United States, and makes the
business under such conditions exceedingly profitable. Wool can be grown
in these sections as advantageously as in Australia.

While wool growing occupies- the great West, the flock roasters of the
East pay equal attention to furnishing mutton for the city markets.

Under present conditions, the production of mutton will continue to be
profitable, and should be, in some of its branches, one of the important rural
industries of our older and more populous States.

The present distribution of mutton sheep, as shown in a Department of Agriculture
report, is more general, tkwTi-4¥Qr.Jb.ejt>re. They_have invaded the pastures so long sacred
to the development of the American Merino in Vermont aria* NrrtE '"£t'rtJge)«ft) i

breeding in New York, Ohio and Michigan. They have nearly driven out the fine wool
competition in Indiana and Illinois, and taken possession of sheep pasturage on the meat-
producing prairies of the Missouri valley. This movement has long been in progress.

In the recent period of depression, when growers would fain have ceased to think of
sheep as a wool-bearing animal, the mutton sheep hastened its migration to the ranges of
the Rocky Mountains; and essayed the muttonizing of Merino flocks by cross breeding.
So active and persistent was this effort to get some profit from meat, where wool failed
to pay the cost of shearing and growing, that in the entire range of country thirty per
cent of flocks were of mutton breeds. The same authority thinks that in the farming
States seventy, and perhaps eighty, per cent of the wool is from sheep -in which the blood
of the English breeds predominates. This would indicate a nearly equal division of the
Merino and English races in the United States.

THE WOOL SUPPLY

The consumption of wool in all departments of the industry in 1900
amounted to nearly 400,000,000 pounds, of which nearly 258,000,000 pounds
were of domestic production and over 136,000,000 imported. Accord-
ing to these figures, the annual quantity of new wool used in manufacture
had increased 12.3 per cent since 1890, while the annual quantity of shoddy
used in the same period had increased as much as 25.8 per cent. During
the same year about 3,000,000 pounds were exported. According to gov-
ernment reports, the total foreign product consumed in manufacture for
the decade 1891-1900 amounted to nearly 1,600,000,000 pounds, while the
domestic wool used in the same period was nearly 2,900,000,000 pounds, or
over twice as much as the imported, or over seventy-one per cent of the
net supply.

The quantity of wool produced in a given year varies, of course, with
numerous conditions, which affect the growth decidedly. Thus, while the
product of 1900 was nearly 310,000,000 pounds, that of 1897 was but little

782 WORKERS OF THE NATIOI^

over 259,000,000, which was the lowest record since 1881, when the figure
was 240,000,000. Thus, although the figures generally run close to 300,-
000,000 pounds and over, the several poor years pulled the Werage for the
two decades previous to 1900 as low as 283,000,000 pounds. In addition
to the large production of sheep wool in this year, the CensU$ shows that
an extensive industry in the hair of the angora goat (mohair) has arisen
in the United States, According to returns, there/were nearly 455,000 of
these animals in the country, representing a total product of 361,328 pounds
of hair, valued at nearly twenty-eight cents per pound, or nearly $100,000.

FOREIGN WOOL

The importation of wool, as of any other commodity, depends upon con-
ditions of supply in the place of its prooiction, as well as of the demand
in this country. The increased proportions of both conditions in the last
century have naturally raised the figures from the minimum of 1,291,400
pounds in 1824 to the maximum of 350,000,000 pounds in 1897. Tariff
laws are partly responsible for the enormous fall to 70,000,000 and 77,-
000,000 pounds for 1898 and 1800, resr>e the business had only

:Tby 1900, when a little over 128,000,000 pounds were
imported. However, the annual importation has increased steadily since
1825, the average percentage of advance being about 53.93 per cent in each
succeeding period of five years to 1900. The figures for the five years end-
ing 1890 were 63.74 per cent; for the five years ending 1895, 33-38 per
cent; and for the five years ending 1900, only 15.35 Per cent °f increase,
the fall being obviously attributable to the changes in tariff legislation
during those periods. The greatest actual increase in pounds occurred in
the period ending 1890, when an excess of 216,295,081 pounds were im-
ported, although the percentage of advance was only 63.74.

The relative importance of the foreign sources of wool supply differs in
very much the same particulars as do the actual amounts received in a given
period. Thus, while in 1890 Argentina headed the list with nearly 14,000,-
ooo pounds of class III. wool, with Asiatic Turkey second, with over 12,-
000,000 pounds, and Russia third, with over 10,000,000, all these countries
showed a falling off in actual amounts and in relative importance in 1900.
In the latter year China headed the list with nearly 31,000,000 pounds;
Scotland came second, with a little over 10,000,000, and India third, with
a little over 9,000,000 pounds. In the other grades of wool the case is
somewhat different. Thus in class II. England led in 1890, with nearly
6,900,000 pounds out of a total import of nearly 7,660,000; and also in
1900, with nearly 5,700,000 pounds, out of a total import of about 9,900,-
ooo pounds, her closest competitor being Ireland, with about 1,660,000
pounds. In class I. wools, the returns for 1890 show Australia in the lead,
with about 11,900,000 pounds, followed by British Africa, with a record of
about 1,103,000 pounds; the total imports for the year being about 15,-
500,000 pounds in all. In 1900, we find that Australasia still holds first

THE STOCK RAISING INDUSTRY 783

place, with a total import of nearly 23,000,000 pounds, an advance of about
one hundred per cent, while Argentina follows with over 11,000,000 pounds,
leaving British Africa with a record of only about 626,000, or a fall of
nearly fifty per cent; the total importation for this class being, roughly,
37,000,000 pounds. The wools designated as classes I. and II. represent
the qualities used by the general wool manufacturer, and which, as a con-
sequence, compete with domestic wools. Class III. includes the coarser
grades of wool, which enter principally into the manufacture of carpets.

In 1900 nearly 140,000,000 pounds of foreign wools were used in manu-
factures, about 36.5 per cent of that amount being coarse carpet wools, in-
cluded under class III. In addition to this raw wool, over 9,000,000 pounds
of worsted yarn were used in the mills, which represented, on an average,
two pounds of wool to one pound of yarn, giving a grand total of over
70,000,000 pounds of class III. According to returns for that year, another
quantity of raw wool, amounting in all to nearly 33,000,000 pounds, was
purchased for carpet yarn manufacture, of which, as estimated, nearly one-
third must have been actually used.

THE WOOL TRADE

The wool producer deals directly with the trade. He may receive bids
for his clip from wool-buying houses in the East or West, as the owners of
the great sheep ranches do in Montana; or he may be visited directly by a
buying agent. The latter method of buying through agents who travel for
the purpose, and are sent out by the dealer or manufacturer each season,
is generally followed throughout the country where wool is a feature of
production. More general still is the practice, especially east of the Mis-
sissippi, of the growers selling locally to the home buyer or dealer. This
local buyer's charge, when acting as the agent of an Eastern dealer or
manufacturer, is generally from one to two cents a pound.

Montana now yields the largest wool clip in the United States. The
tendency of the wool industry is toward the Northwest and the Southwest.
In these two localities the methods of marketing have made most advances.
Montana has three marketing centres, at which more than half of the
twenty-one million pounds of wool is concentrated for marketing. These
are Great Falls, Billings, and Big Timber. In this same State an impor-
tant improvement in the method of marketing wool has been brought about
by the introduction of the wool exchange. By this system the wool buyers
at the principal markets have a common meeting-place or exchange, to
which market the owner of wool brings his product, lists it on the exchange
without charge, and at the appointed time receives bids on it from the"
various buyers present. This plan is proving far more satisfactory to the
wool growers than the system of private sales to buyers that prevailed here-
tofore. It is employed, of course, only at the larger centres of wool re-
ceipts, where buyers appear in sufficient numbers to make the bids com-
petitive.

784 WORKERS OF THE NATION

GOAT RAISING

An industry closely associated with sheep raising is the growing of An-
gora goats, which has received a great impetus from the investigations and
publications ,of the Department of Agriculture in the past five years. An
association was recently formed with headquarters at Kansas City, and a
number of States, including Iowa and Missouri, have shown much activity
in this line. Texas, California and Oregon, however, continue to be the
centres of the industry. This beautiful little animal, brought to this coun-
try originally seventy years ago from the Turkish village of Angora, at-
tracted comparatively little attention till it was discovered how effectively a
herd would clean up a piece of brush land. This, added to the fact that
the herd will take care of itself against ordinary sheep-killing dogs, gave the
goats great usefulness in many sections and spread the industry. It was
found by the students of the subject that there was a good demand for the
clip to make some elegant forms of very durable cloths, including the plush
commonly used in upholstering railway cars. Also it was found that the
meat was very good eating, much resembling mutton, and that considerable
quantities were actually sold annually from the Southwestern ranges under
the name of mutton, and, of course, at the same price.

In the sudden expansion of the business there has been occasional loss
by lack of experience on the part of those attempting to handle the goats.
Two things especially are easily forgotten : the mother neglects her kids
unless watched closely; and a good wire fence is necessary to hold goats.

Very successful shows have been held at Kansas City and at the Pan-
American Exposition at Buffalo, and the trade in the goats for breeding pur-
poses continues quite active. While the demand has not assumed the form
of a fad, as in the case of the Belgian hare, some fancy prices have been paid
for very desirable animals. The highest figure so far recorded was $1,050.
A new importation from Turkey was made in 1901 for the first time in fifty
years, and the energy displayed by breeders indicates that the industry is
being put on a solid foundation.

CHAPTER XIV

HOMESTEADERS, PUBLIC LANDS AND ABAN-
DONED FARMS

Unappropriated Lands in the United States — Rules Governing Entry — How the United
States Land Office Conducts a Drawing — Public Lands in Oklahoma — Public Lands
in Missouri — Public Lands in Idaho — Public Lands in the State of Washington—
Public Lands in Oregon and New Mexico — Irrigated Land and the Home Seeker —
Increase of Homes and Farms by Irrigation — Irrigation by Corporations and the Gov-
ernment— Colonies in the Irrigated Sections — Summary of the Irrigation Problem —
Abandoned Farms

UNAPPROPRIATED LANDS IN THE UNITED STATES

THE public lands of the United States are included within the States o
Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Illinoi
Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississipp
Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South
Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming, the Territories of
Arizona, New Mexico and Oklahoma, and the Territory of Alaska. In Ohio,
Indiana and Illinois only a few isolated tracts of public land remain. In
these States and Territories, with the exception of the three last mentioned,
there are land districts with defined boundaries, in which a land office is es-
tablished by law, where a register and receiver are in attendance for the sale
or other disposal of lands embraced therein. There were more than 600,-
000,000 acres of public lands open to homeseekers on January i, 1903.

According to the Land Office reports, 15,562,796.30 acres of public
lands were disposed of during the fiscal year which ended June 30, 1901.
These included 1,301,668.94 acres sold for cash and 14,151,780.34 acres ap-
propriated for homesteads, allotted to Indians, secured by land warrants
and scrip locations, and set aside as swamp lands, as State railroad, and
wagon road selections. The following table gives an approximate estimate
of the number of acres of unappropriated lands in the States and Territories
at the end of 1902 :

Alabama 312,630 Indian Territory. . 19,658,880 New Mexico .... 55,585,124

Alaska 364,983,506 Iowa North Dakota . . . 16,956,491

Arizona 48,771,054 Kansas 1,085,315 Ohio

Arkansas 3,224,128 Louisiana 319,335 Oklahoma 4,653,605

California 42,049,008 Michigan 462,157 Oregon 33,784,023

Colorado 39,115,814 Minnesota 4,148,193 South Dakota . . . 11,869,004

Florida 1,459,774 Missouri 281,727 Utah 42,515,865

Idaho 42,475,176 Montana 65,803,307 Washington 11,913,164

Illinois Nebraska 9,926,670 Wisconsin 230,813

Indiana Nevada 61,322,225 Wyoming 45,656,896

Grand total 914,656,974

(785)

19 — Vol. 2

;86 WORKERS OF THE NATION

RULES GOVERNING ENTRY

Agricultural public lands are subject to entry only under the homestead
and desert-land laws. The homestead laws of the United States secure to
qualified persons the right to settle upon, enter and acquire title to not ex-
ceeding 1 60 acres of public land by establishing and maintaining residence
thereon and improving and cultivating the same for the continuous period of
five years.

A homestead entry-man must be the head of a family or a person who has
arrived at the age of 21 years and a citizen of the United States or one who
has declared his intention of becoming such, and he must not be the owner of
more than 160 acres of land in any State or Territory. A wife who has been
divorced from her husband, or deserted by him, can make homestead entry.
Payment of $14 to $16 fees and commissions must be made at time of en-
try, and final proof can be made at any time after five years' residence there-
on with cultivation of a portion, when the fee, including publication of
notice, taking testimony, and commissions, is $14.25 to $15. A party can
at the time of making homestead entry of 160 acres also make an entry under
the desert-land act. He will be required to pay 25 cents per acre at the time
of making entry, after which he is required to expend $3 per acre ($i per
acre each year for three years) in labor or money in improving the land, and
constructing reservoirs, canals and ditches for irrigation and reclaiming the
tracts entered, and the party may make final entry at any time prio'r to the
expiration of four years on making the required proof of reclamation, of ex-
penditure to the aggregate amount of $3 per acre, and of the cultivation of
one-eighth of the land and making a final payment of $i per acre.

How THE UNITED STATES LAND OFFICE CONDUCTS A DRAWING
The following description of the methods pursued by the representatives
of the United States General Land Office at the recent registration of the
persons who desired to take up public lands in Oklahoma, and the subsequent
drawing for lots is taken from the report of the representative of the Land
Office who had charge of the work :

The clerks who were to make the registration at El Reno reached that place July 10,
1900, and began the registration at six booths. Upon the opening of the booths several
thousand people were in line. There being a great many women in the lines, I proceeded
to procure and furnish a booth to be used exclusively by women, of whom eight thousand
were registered. As they were not prohibited from registering at the other booths, it is
estimated that a total of ten thousand women were registered at El Reno. Upon Friday,
July 26, registration closed.

The total registration of El Reno was 135,416. Upon the first day of registration
there was considerable disorder at several of the booths at this place, the people appearing
to have an idea that it was necessary for them to secure and hold their positions in line
by force and to take every means to guard their own interests. In a very short time they
appeared to become satisfied that they were to receive fair treatment; that there would
be no favoritism, and that the entire matter was to be honestly managed; after that there
was no disturbance of any kind in connection with the registration.

The identification cards were carefully guarded during the day, at the time of the
registration, by being placed in locked cash boxes through a slit cut for that purpose, no
one but myself having the key to any of these boxes.

HOMESTEADERS AND PUBLIC LANDS 787

The committee first met at El Reno on the evening of the 25th day of July, and readily
agreed upon the plan by which the drawing should be conducted. Two boxes were con-
structed in which were to be placed the envelopes containing the names of those who had
been registered. At the hour designated in the President's proclamation for the drawing,
these boxes were taken upon the platform and placed upon trestles upon which they could
be revolved. The envelopes containing the names of all who had been registered were
also brought upon the platform. These envelopes had been separated according to the re-
spective land districts, were of two colors, one being buff and the other white, and bore no
distinguishing mark other than the name "El Reno" on those for one district and "Lawton"
on those for the other. The envelopes were in pasteboard boxes, each of which contained
four hundred envelopes, and the boxes of each district were consecutively numbered.
Small cards had been prepared bearing numbers corresponding to the numbers upon the
envelope boxes, which cards were placed in a receptacle from which they were drawn at
random, and the envelope boxes taken in the order in which the cards were drawn and
their contents placed in the larger boxes, a portion of each box through each of the large
openings, and well scattered throughout the entire length of the box.

When all of the envelopes had been thus placed, these openings in the drawing boxes
were closed and securely sealed, and the boxes revolved until the envelopes were thoroughly
mixed. Ten reputable young men had been selected, all of whom were under age and
therefore not registered and in no way interested in the drawing, to draw the envelopes
from the boxes. These young men were assigned to the holes in these boxes by lot, and
it was also determined by lot which one should begin the drawing at each box. The
young man at the hole numbered three drew the number entitling him to take the first
envelope from the El Reno box, and the young man at the hole numbered four drew the
number entitling him to take the first envelope from the Lawton box, the drawing there-
after to continue in numerical order. The drawing began with the El Reno box by the
young man at hole numbered three drawing an envelope, which was numbered I. He then
opened the envelope and took therefrom the identification card and caused the same num-
ber to be placed upon it.

While the drawing of names was in progress a force of land-office clerks was engaged
preparing postal card notices to those whose names had been drawn, which were placed
in the post-office upon the evening of that day. This course was followed during the entire
drawing of the six thousand five hundred names from each land district, the postal cards
being mailed on the same day upon which the names were drawn.

The drawing was continued upon the platform at the rate of two thousand per day
for each land district, until the total of six thousand five hundred envelopes had been
drawn for each district.

PUBLIC LANDS IN OKLAHOMA

As long ago as 1897 tne impression had gone forth that all of the Gov-
ernment land in the Territory of Oklahoma suitable for agricultural pur-
poses had been taken up, but the bountiful crops since then have induced
many people each year to settle on land that at first had been rejected. Ac-
cording to a report of the Governor of that Territory, during the two years
ending June 30, 1899, over ten thousand quarter sections were thus taken,
and so agreeable has been the experience of all these settlers that others have
been coming and are still coming and taking up lands that had been over-
looked or rejected by those who preceded them. During the year 1901, six
hundred and three thousand and five hundred and twenty-seven acres were
filed upon by persons representing nearly four thousand families of new
settlers outside of those who purchased farms or located in towns or cities.
There are still five million seven hundred and thirty-three thousand three
hundred and eighty-five acres of vacant Government land in the Territory
subject to homestead entry. Most of this is too high or rough to be suitable

;88 WORKERS OF THE NATION

for agriculture, but there are still some excellent farms upon which one can
combine stock raising with some little farming and do exceedingly well.

The farm lands of Oklahoma, like those of all sections of the country,
vary in fertility, and these conditions, together with cultivation, improve-
ments, and proximity to market, all combine to fix the selling value of farms
in the Territory. While many farms near the larger towns sell for from
$25 to $50 per acre, good farms fairly well improved, from four to ten
miles from market, can be bought in any part of the Territory from $8 to
$15 per acre, and in many sections much cheaper. The large immigration
into the Territory during the past two years has caused a steady demand
for lands, and considerable farm property is changing hands in every
county. The increased demand and the absorption of all the desirable Gov-
ernment lands, which will take place in 1903 and 1904, will cause a steady
increase of price of land in the Territory for the next few years. In addition
to the school and other public lands rented by the Territory, good land can
be rented in almost every county for crop-rentals of from one-third to two-
fifths of corn, wheat, and oats and one-fourth of cotton and cash rent rang-
ing from $i to $3 per acre.

Perhaps the greatest single feature that is most fully recognized is the
unusual number and variety of products that may be grown and matured.
The farmers who went to the new country were from every State in the
Union, and carried with them the knowledge of the crops and methods to
which they were accustomed. Farmers from the States North, South and
East settled in the same township, and the result has been a system of agri-
culture which is unique in many ways. The nature of the population has
been such as to preclude the hazardous system of growing only one or two
crops. Exactly the opposite, a wide diversification, has contributed largely
to the prosperity enjoyed during the past decade by the farmers of the
Territory. In addition to the mineral deposits, the agricultural, horticul-
tural, and the live stock products of the Territory offer many inviting fields
for the investment of capital and energy to great advantage.

The Governor of the Territory, in his report, says :

There are great stone, cement, clay, and salt deposits which offer special inducements
for development. The quarries of Clay County turn out the finest building and paving
stone in the West, while equally good stone is found in nearly every county, and the
supply of granite in the Wichita Mountains is inexhaustible. In Kay, Kingfisher, Greer,
Canadian, Lincoln, Woods, Woodward, Elaine and other counties are beds of cement suffi-
cient to furnish all the world with the finest quality of plaster.

In Woods and Woodward counties are a number of large caves filled with countless
numbers of bats that have inhabited these vast recesses for centuries perhaps. Here are im-
mense deposits of guano of great commercial value, and within the past year hundreds
of tons have been taken out and hauled long distances to railway stations for shipment,
some of it going as far as California. These deposits will be the source of great revenue
to that portion of the Territory.

PUBLIC LANDS IN MISSOURI

The State of Missouri owns no lands and therefore has nor^ for sale;
but the United States has yet much valuable land within the State which

HOMESTEADERS AND PUBLIC LANDS 789

is available for entry for homesteads or may be purchased outright at $1.25
per acre. All remaining swamp and school lands belong to the counties
wherein they lie, and are for sale by the several county courts. Such lands
are nearly all in counties lying south of the Missouri river. On June 30,
1902, the total area of government land in Missouri subject to entry was a
trifle over 200,000 acres — the land being taken up at the rate of about 50,000
a year. Since June 30, 1897, the year in which the Missouri Bureau of
Labor first published information relative to these lands, the reduction in
their total area aggregates 216,533 acres. These lands are subject to home-
stead entry, or may be purchased at $1.25 per acre.

The Land Office fees, payable when application is made, are as follows :
On 1 60 acres, $14; 120 acres, $13 ; 80 acres, $7; 40 acres, $6. The Land Of-
fice commissions, payable at the time of making final proof, are as follows :
On 1 60 acres, $4; 120 acres, $3; 80 acres, $2; 40 acres, $i. The fees for
reducing testimony to writing in making final proof are 15 cents for each
100 words, which in each case amount to $i, sometimes to $1.50, and must
be paid with the other final proof commissions.

PUBLIC LANDS IN IDAHO

In the Clearwater country, Idaho, there are hundreds of sites for homes,
orchards and fields, which are enriching the non-resident stockmen who pas-
ture their roving herds thereon. A State Labor Bureau report refers to a
valley called the Snake River Canyon, that yields a profit of $100,000 an-
nually to stockmen whose herds feed exclusively upon the wild grasses. The
average home seeker would call this valley a desolate canyon upon first im-
pression, but when the available rich lands are cultivated the crops will not
only feed one thousand dollars' worth of stock for every homestead, but
they will yield grain, fruit and other commodities worth as much more. The
spirit of the pioneer is in demand to inspire the first home seeker to build
roads and break the solitude of remote valleys by the chanticleer's voice
and the shouts of the children at play twenty miles from a schoolhouse and
forty miles from a town. When he has a hundred neighbors he will laugh
at his own dread of isolation. When his homestead, a year old, becomes a
townsite the pioneer will reap his reward. This is not an overdrawn picture.
There are vacant town sites in every quarter of the Clearwater country
awaiting the new-century homesteader. Every new settlement, every new
mining camp, every new lumber centre, will build a new town, a new social
centre and a new market for the products of the new farms in the interior.

The new conditions encountered often overawe home seekers who visit
the West for the first time. The rugged mountains which border the narrow
valleys seem to inspire the idea that they proscribe opportunities. There
have been instances of home seekers becoming discouraged by the contrast of
conditions impressed upon them after only limited observations along the
common routes of travel. The valleys and canyons are only a small por-
tion of this great country. Less than the one-hundredth part of the produc-

790 WORKERS OF THE NATION

live area of this district is in the river bottoms. If the home seeker will in-
vade the interior he will find conditions of climate and soil that will satisfy
the most exacting demand. He will find the widest range of crops on one
farm, or he can find farms that will produce almost any special crop that
will grow outside of a tropical zone.

The visitor who is looking for business opportunities, says the report of the Idaho
Labor Bureau, should visit the great new reservation region. There thousands of homes
have been made on virgin lands within five years. Farms can be purchased, the crops of
which, already planted, will pay for the land. Then he will find business opportunities of
every class known to a new country. Then there are the new mining districts. They
offer fortune to every class of business men. The present valuation of property in this
district is the highest of any rural district in the United Sates. The income from ex-
ports is the highest of any district of equal area in the United States. This fact alone is
a guarantee of great opportunities and good times. Within the State's boundaries are to
be found almost every avenue open to human endeavor — farming, stock raising, fruit
culture, mining, lumbering, manufacturing, and railroading. These are yet in their infancy
as to development, and should therefore be an incentive to other sections, or the inhabitants
thereof, less favored.

PUBLIC LANDS IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON

The man with money, who is looking for investment, can satisfy himself
that there is an opening in some of the lines of business, or in the develop-
ment of the natural resources, of the State of Washington. Many of these
resources are as yet practically untouched.

The advantages usually offered by a new country are that the land is
not fully occupied, and therefore every newcomer may find a farm and go to
work with a reasonable certainty that he will be fairly well paid for in-
telligent and well-directed industry. In Washington, if he is unable to pro-
cure government land for settlement, he still may be able to buy lands at such
prices as will warrant a change from less favored communities.

The Washington Labor Bureau reports that it is possible for each immigrant, who
carries a few hundred dollars with him, to get land in Washington, and that by careful
and diligent effort he can engage at once in a business on his own account. What is
wanted is intelligent farmers with money enough to commence business. Such men, by
thrift and industry, can soon acquire and improve the best of homes in this State.

To those who have larger means and are looking for first-class improved farms that
will produce more wheat to the acre than any other country, and who are willing to pay
for the same, certain counties offer opportunities to procure the same. Irrigated lands can
also be secured in large areas. The time of the settler is not always fully employed on his
own property at first. Settlers who so desire can usually procure work at other occupa-
tions during certain parts of the year. Nearly every branch of mechanical industry is car-
ried on to some extent in the State, and any reliable workman can nearly always find
employment at good pay. The man who is able to adapt himself to the variety of occupa-
tions will be able to maintain himself on the farm from the very beginning.

There is still some government land to be had in the State, a large portion of which,
however, is classed as uncultivable, although there is no doubt that considerable portions
of the same will be found to be tillable and equal in fertility to many other lands differ-
ently classed. The government lands available are located in the valleys toward the heads
of the streams in the mountains, and somewhat remote from the railroad and transporta-
tion lines, but as the same are settled and the country developed, no doubt the railroads
will supply the means of transportation as they have thus far done in other portions of
the State.

HOMESTEADERS AND PUBLIC LANDS 791

PUBLIC LANDS IN OREGON AND NEW MEXICO

Of all the inhabitable regions of the world, where all the favorable con-
ditions of life are present, the basin of the Columbia River is the most unde-
veloped and unsettled. But its time has come, for people living in those sec-
tions of the East where crops fail, where winters are long and cold and the
summers excessively hot, are looking this way for homes. So says the re-
port of the Board of Trade of Portland, Oregon.

There is yet available an area of more than 50,000,000 acres of public
domain in New Mexico, capable of supporting an immense population. Thou-
sands of acres of these lands are to be had by complying with the United
States land laws, much of it being contiguous to water and desirable for
colonization purposes when ditches and water storage reservoirs are pro-
vided. The land grant question is no longer a bugaboo in New Mexico, and
through the action of the land court titles to vast tracts have been cleared
up and settled. Some millions of acres have been confirmed by the courts to
private ownership, while, on the other hand, a much larger acreage has been
rejected so far as the grant claimants are concerned, and the land added to
the public domain, subject to entry.

IRRIGATED LANDS AND THE HOME SEEKER

The anomalous condition is becoming apparent that although one-third
of the United States proper, excluding Alaska and outlying possessions,
consists of vacant public land, yet there is no longer an outlet for the home
seeker upon these lands. In the past the vast unoccupied public domain has
served as an outlet for surplus labor and has afforded scope for the energies
of thousands of young, able-bodied men who without financial means have
had the ambition to become land-owners and to grow up with the increasing
development of a new country.

After the close of the Civil War, and at times of great industrial de-
pression, when men sought for an opportunity to earn their daily living and
the doors of factories and machine shops were closed, there has been a
steady stream of pioneers representing the best of the bone and muscle of
the country going out upon the broad plains and prairies, building up sub-
stantial communities and expanding within our borders the area of the high-
est type of civilization. All this has passed away. There are no longer to be
seen the prairie schooners and the emigrant wagons filled with household
goods, with the children on top or trailing behind. Only the Pike County
wanderer, who is always seeking for something better, is still to be found
pursuing his aimless search for the promised land. It is true that the rail-
roads have done away with the necessity for the overland journey, but the
railroads cover only a very small extent of the vast inland empire of the
United States. Stretches of hundreds of miles of vacant public land lie be-
tween the railroads, but across these fertile plains the home seeker no longer
travels.

792 WORKERS OF THE NATION

It is not because there is a lack of land, for there are in the Western States
and Territories nearly 600,000,000 acres still vacant, much of this the rich-
est soil of any in the United States. It is not because the pioneer spirit no
longer prevails, for the country is as full of adventurous spirits as ever, and
it requires merely the intimation that some Indian Reservation is to be
opened for thousands of people to gather to make the rush, or try their
chance in a lottery. There is plenty of land and there are numberless people
eager to occupy it. What, then, is it that prevents their doing this ? Simply
the lack of water. The country is dry and the ordinary farm crops can
not be cultivated without an artificial application of water at certain times
and seasons.

It must not be supposed that there is no water to be had. On the con-
trary occasional storms occur, sending down vast quantities of water and
inundating the thirsty plain. This rushes off and in a few hours the chan-
nels of the rivers are nearly dry. There are also, at long intervals, large
perennial streams, but most of these flow in narrow, deep canyons.

The country under discussion is not wholly uninhabited but at nearly
every spring and along every river which is not flowing in a narrow canyon
there are to be found ranches and occasional small towns. All of the easily
available sources of water supply have been seized upon, and in the aggre-
gate over 6,000,000 acres have been brought under irrigation, this being
about one per cent of the total area of the remaining vacant lands.

Not all of this 600,000,000 can be irrigated, for some of it is mountain-
ous and covered in part with timber. Other portions are rough and broken,
and even if all of the floods were conserved in great reservoirs, and all of
the rivers which could be diverted were turned out from their canyons, there
would not be enough water for more than 60,000,000 acres, or possibly 100,-
000,000 acres ; but this would be a great increase, say ten times, over the area
now in use.

INCREASE OF HOMES AND FARMS BY IRRIGATION

In that portion of the United States where the vacant public lands lie,
and where farms and homes can not be made without irrigation, there are
now living 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 people. If ten times the amount of land
were irrigated, it is possible that the population would be increased to at least
40,000,000 people, and possibly far more, because of the other industries
which would be developed as more land is cultivated. The mineral wealth
of the region is very great ; gold and silver, iron and coal are now produced,
the precious metals having special value. The poorer ores are for the most
part neglected, because of the high cost of transportation, of labor, food and
forage. With more land cultivated in scattered areas throughout the coun-
try, and greater population, better transportation facilities must come and
cheaper food material, making it possible to work some of these low-grade
ores. Great deposits which now are practically valueless can then be worked,
affording employment for thousands of men, and adding to the population

HOMESTEADERS AND PUBLIC LANDS 793

and wealth of the country. With a regulated water-supply such as that
needed in irrigation, cheap water-power can be had, not only for pumping
water to the fields, but for various industries connected with the handling
and reduction of the ores, and thus, one industry feeding another, the West
must develop its wonderful resources with increasing rapidity.

But the question may well be asked, why is this not now taking place if
there are so many people wanting land ? Why is it that the settled area has
actually diminished in some portions of the West and population has
tended to concentrate in the towns? It is because the irrigators arid in-
vestors in irrigation systems have utilized all of the easily available sources
of water and have developed agriculture by irrigation nearly to the limit of
the capacity of these. They have demonstrated that irrigation is not an ex-
periment, but an assured success, highly profitable to the man who cultivates
his own land. More than this, they have shown by numerous failures that
reclamation works on a large scale do not pay financially nor yield the satis-
factory returns that the small works have done. There are no longer op-
portunities for these small works, and if the big enterprises can not be made
sources of profit what then is to be done ?

IRRIGATION BY CORPORATIONS AND THE GOVERNMENT

Numerous instances can be cited where corporations have been formed,
stocks and bonds issued and a million dollars invested in great reclamation
works, in building reservoirs, dams and canals, resulting in an increase of
values in the vicinity of $3,000,000, yet the investors lost every dollar. They
could not control and bring to themselves the profits of the enterprise. These
went to the public, and under existing conditions could not be realized by
the men who took the risk. The people who bought stock and bonds of ir-
rigation enterprises are no longer willing to play the part of philanthropists
to benefit the public, and they say that although the schemes offered are
equally enticing to those in the past, we will not be led into another enter-
prise of this character. Hence development has practically ceased, and,
relatively, the country with its vast opportunities seems almost stagnant.

Numerous writers upon social and economic questions are beginning to
sound the note of warning against further delay, against the policy of pro-
crastination, which allows the speculative element to gradually acquire pos-
session of the places where water may be stored, and to render difficult or
impracticable the ultimate reclamation of the public land and the creation of
homes for workers. President Roosevelt, in his clear-cut, decisive fashion,
has reached to the very heart of the matter, and has recommended that the
Government, the great land-owner, should construct and maintain the reser-
voirs as it does other public works. He says that this is properly a national
function, and that it is as right for the National Government to make the
streams and rivers of the arid region useful by engineering works for water
storage as to make useful the rivers and harbors of the humid region by en-
gineering works of another kind.

794 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The importance of prompt action is shown by the way in which the re-
maining public lands are being taken up by speculators. Although several
millions of acres are being disposed of annually, yet these are not passing
into the hands of people who are making homes upon them, and that the
homestead and desert land act is being used as a means for securing titles to
lands which are not brought under cultivation. The greater part of the arid
West is devoted to grazing; herds of cattle and flocks of sheep range over
the public lands eating the herbage without restriction, the whole country be-
ing practically an open common. This business is at times extremely profit-
able, and has attracted large capital, influential companies being formed.
The business has increased to such an extent that the ranges have been over-
stocked, and being free to all there has been a struggle for existence.

Irrigation properly conducted means intensive farming, the cultivation
of the soil in the best possible manner, and diversified crops. The area
which any one man can cultivate under such conditions is far less, and the
yield per acre correspondingly greater. In the best irrigated regions farms
are very small, the average size of cultivated area in Utah being less than
thirty acres. Small farms and the economy which must be practiced in con-
veying water, result in comparatively dense rural population. In Southern
California the irrigated tracts in orchards and vineyards are so small that
the farming region takes on the appearance of suburban communities. The
houses instead of being a mile apart as on the prairies and plains of the cen-
tral part of the country, are within a few rods of each other. Social inter-
course is possible, good roads are assured, and rapid communication through
electric car lines. Thus results a far higher type of civilization than is pos-
sible on the isolated, lonely farm. Diversified agriculture, the raising of
vegetables and small fruits, the keeping of various domestic animals, also
necessitates greater mental as well as physical activity, continuous employ-
ment for all the members of a family, and many minor industries impossible
where attention is concentrated upon a single crop, such as wheat, corn or
cotton.

COLONIES IN THE IRRIGATED SECTIONS

The small farms so successful under irrigation make possible a colony
life such as that so successfully practiced by the Mormons in Utah, and ex-
emplified in the early history of the Greeley colony in Utah. The success
attained has led to a most interesting experiment, that of the Salvation
Army in helping the people get back to the soil. In its work in big cities
the Salvation Army has come across almost innumerable men and women
who are eager for an opportunity to get away from their surroundings and
start life anew in the open air. Out of the thousands of applications received
there have been selected those families which apparently are best qualified
for success, and these have been located upon small, irrigable farms. Noth-
ing is actually given to these people outright except the opportunity to help
themselves. They are sold a tract of land and a small house, the necessary

ABANDONED FARMS 795

tools, and seed upon credit, and are given a reasonable time to repay the loan
thus made, with interest. From one aspect the enterprise might be regarded
as money-making, but from the higher standpoint, it is one of the greatest
philanthropies yet undertaken.

This work of the Salvation Army in establishing colonies in Colorado
and California is really more than an experiment, for sufficient time has
elapsed to give it a trial, and its success may be considered as demonstrated,
sufficiently at least to justify further and larger efforts along this line. It is
not believed that the "submerged tenth" can be lifted bodily and put upon the
land to become successful farmers, but the weight of humanity above this
tenth, the keen struggle of those a little better off helps to submerge the de-
spairing portion of the community and to obstruct every avenue of escape.
Relief from the congested condition of the cities can come in part at least
through furnishing opportunities to those who are able to go out upon the
land and to become independent land-owners and citizens. Ordinary farm-
ing can not offer any attractions to these people who have spent much of
their lives in the cities, as they are largely dependent upon keeping in
crowds. The small farm and the suburban life possible under irrigation
alone makes it possible for such people to leave the city environment and
become tillers of the soil.

SUMMARY OF THE IRRIGATION PROBLEM

To sum up the problem we may say that we have the vast extent of
vacant public land of wonderful fertility; we have water which will make a
portion of this land productive ; we have the people who are seeking for the
opportunity to make a living, and who would gladly escape from the conges-
tion of the cities. We have the public funds and the public interest toward
developing our country to the highest degree, but we are a long way from
bringing these powerful forces to effective action. We are allowing the lands
so necessary to the development of the nation to drift out of its control ; we
are allowing the waters and the opportunity to conserve them to be monopo-
lized and become subject to speculation, and we are allowing barriers to be
gradually erected shutting off the opportunities for development of our great
internal resources.

The call to action has been sounded by the head of the nation ; it has been
taken up by his lieutenants, and has been heeded in part by individual mem-
bers of Congress, especially those from the West; but the matter must be
considered from the larger standpoint, not of immediate local benefits
through the construction of a public work in one locality or another, but as a
great national undertaking whose benefits reach out to every community,
and which helps solve some of the most difficult of the social questions of our
times.

ABANDONED FARMS

The abandonment of farms in New England began about fifty years ago.
The two principal causes of this rural exodus appear to be the rapid de-

796 WORKERS OF THE NATION

velopment of the West and the attractions of the cities, the former cause
being assisted by cheap transportation and local discriminations in freight
rates, the latter being both the cause and the result of the difficulty of ob-
taining suitable farm laborers, especially for truck farming. A contributory
cause is said to be the demoralizing effect upon agriculture exerted by
summer boarders. In Maryland the abandonment of farms is attributed to
the loss by the original owners through mortgage foreclosures, and to the
exhaustion of the soil by continuous farming of the same crops.

Several of the New England States seek to bring the abandoned farms
again into use by advertising them for sale. Three- fourths of the abandoned
farms in New Hampshire and Massachusetts have been taken up, in many
cases by people of wealth, for summer residences.

There are more abandoned farms in Massachusetts than in any New
England State. New Hampshire probably has the second largest number.
All these farms are for sale cheap, and many are suitable not only for farm-
ers but for the city man who seeks a country place at small cost.

The Commonwealth of Massachusetts issues a descriptive catalogue of
farms that can be bought at a low price "in proportion to the cost of the
buildings and the productive capacity." This catalogue will be sent free upon
application to its compiler, James W. Stockwell, Secretary of the State
Board of Agriculture, The ninth edition of this remarkable record of
abandoned farms is dated September, 1901, and contains a description of
nearly two hundred farms which can be had for a song — for an amount of
money, indeed, not exceeding that which the ordinary family would spend
for a summer's outing. They are in retired locations, mostly among the
hills. Some of them are ideal places for summer residences of the well-to-do,
others are adapted to specialties in agriculture.

In order to secure accurate information, Secretary Stockwell inserted
an advertisement in the State agricultural papers which read somewhat as
follows : "Notice — Owners of partly abandoned farms who wish to sell are
requested to so inform the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture,
State House, Boston, who will supply necessary blanks for description of
such property. There will be no expense to such owners. The object is to
print these descriptions in a catalogue, as continued requests for a catalogue
of such farming property are coming from all parts of the country."

As a result of this advertised notice, and of a general circular of in-
quiry, nearly two hundred descriptions were received, the average acreage
of the farms offered being 135 acres, and the average price asked, $1,720.

The chief reasons assigned by individuals desiring descriptions of their
property included in the catalogue may be summed up as follows : In other
business, living elsewhere, no use for it or unable to carry it on, old age,
poor health, having another farm, and to settle an estate. In no instance was
there any expression of dissatisfaction with farm life, or of the opinion that
farming does not pay. Purchasers as a rule appear to be well satisfied with
their bargains, and the verv cordial words with which some of them have

ABANDONED FARMS 797

indorsed the work of the authorities show that in their opinion it is merito-
rious.

The real object of this work is to advertise unoccupied farms which may
be used for purposes of cultivation or as summer homes. Many of these
farms are believed to be worth, well worth the price asked for them — for the
prices in all cases are very low.

There is another class of farms, those which are occupied by their
owners, but which are only partially cultivated, if at all, on account of age or
ill-health. Descriptions of such farms, have a rightful place in the catalogue.

Here are a few descriptions, out of the entire lot of goods offered at a re-
markably low price on this bargain counter of abandoned farms.

ORLEANS. — Farm of 20 acres: Nearly all suitable for cultivation. Light, old-fash-
ioned one-story house. Water supply from a cistern. Twenty apple trees and two pear
trees; plenty of grapes. Farm best adapted to small fruits and poultry. Railroad station,
Orleans, 2 miles. One mile from beach and church. Good place for a summer home.
Price, $200 cash.

BLANDFORD. — Farm of 195 acres: Mowing, 45; pasture and woodland, 150; suitable
for cultivation, 30. Two-story house, 15 rooms, 7 large; in fair condition; L, back room,
woodshed and carriage house all connected. Good well at house and well at barn. Thirty
grafted apple trees. Woodland mostly young growth of hemlock ; two groves of white pine,
beech, maple, and other kinds. Probably one thousand dollars worth of very sharp quartz
if quarried. Farm best adapted to dairying or sheep raising. Price, $1,500.

SANDISFIELD. — Farm of 100 acres: Mowing, 35; pasture, 45; woodland, 20; suitable
for cultivation, 40. Large two-story house, with L and woodshed and summer cook room ;
in good repair. Two barns, recently shingled. Good well at house and running water near
barn for stock. Woodland mostly hard wood. Farm best adapted to tobacco, potatoes
and small fruits. Price, $800; $300 down and balance in yearly payments.

STURBRIDGE. — Farm of 50 acres: Mowing, 14; pasture, 23; woodland, 13; suitable for
cultivation, 10. House, 22x26; L, 22x14; 8 rooms; outside newly clapboarded and
shingles painted, but wants painting over, and inside wants painting and papering. Barn,
22x24; good dry cellar; nearly new built. Never- failing stream runs through the farm;
good well within ten feet of the house. Ten apple trees and two or three pear and plum
trees. Woodland is ten to forty years growth, and is mostly pine and hard wood. Farm
best adapted to small fruits and gardening; interval land good for grass. Would be a
good poultry farm ; will keep two cows now and could be easily made to keep four. Price,
$500; $100 cash at delivery of deed; balance, $50, to be paid yearly until all is paid at
5 per cent ; and taxes kept up by purchaser.

WINCHENDON.— Farm of 60 acres: Mowing, 10; pasture, 15; woodland, 30; suitable
for cultivation, 35. New house, 28 x 22, piazza in front ; 3 rooms and pantry finished on
first floor. Barn, 30 x 40 ; clapboarded and painted, but needs repainting. Three small hen
houses. Good well and pump; spring 300 feet from house. Twenty apple trees, 7 pear
trees ; one acre raspberries, currants and gooseberries — one acre strawberries. About 5
acres low meadows we mow for hay. Woodland is mostly second growth ; birch and white
pine. Farm best adapted to small fruits, vegetables and poultry. Soil is warm, sandy
loam, protected from wind on north and west by woods. Near which is a thriving village
with 10 or more factories ; is a good market and a good place to get work. Price, $1,200 ;
$600 down, and balance on mortgage at 6 per cent ; with $50 and interest each year.

CHAPTER XV
THE FISHING INDUSTRIES

The Piscatorial Resources of America — Functions and Work of the United States Fish
Commission — Employment in the Fisheries Department — The General Extent of the
Fishing Industry — The Utilization and Preparation of Fish as Food — Different Meth-
ods of Preserving Fishery Products — Fisheries of the New England States — Fisheries
of the Middle States — Fisheries of the South Atlantic and Gulf States — Fisheries of
the Pacific States — Fisheries of the Great Lakes and Interior Waters — Pearl Fishery
— Mussel Fishery — The Lobster Fishery — The Oyster Fishery — The Sponge Fishery —
The Whale Fishery — Miscellaneous Fisheries

THE PISCATORIAL RESOURCES OF AMERICA

FEW if any countries have been more highly favored by nature than
the United States, this being no less true of its water products than
of its vegetable and mineral resources. The abundance and variety
of edible fish have exerted a marked influence on the settlement, develop-
ment, and prosperity of many parts of the country; and fishing is to-day
the leading industry in numerous coastal and interior sections. By the re-
cent acquisition of insular possessions, more especially the Philippine archi-
pelago, our fish-producing capacity has been very largely increased.

While our fisheries, compared with many other national enterprises, are
of minor importance, nevertheless they are entitled to be regarded among our
leading industries, because of their enormous contributions to the food sup-
ply of the world, the international disputes in which they have involved the
country from the outset of our national career, and the unparalleled stimulus
they have received from artificial propagation, whose aid has been invoked
to supplement nature. The fisheries of a number of other countries are
relatively more important than those of the United States. Norway, Japan,
and Newfoundland are the most conspicuous examples of countries whose
population is very largely dependent on fishing for a livelihood. In the
actual extent of its fisheries, however, the United States takes first rank;
and in the perfection of methods of catching and handling water products,
and in the magnitude of its fish-cultural operations, it far surpasses any other
nation. The fish resources of the United States represent all classes of the
animal kingdom, fishes proper being exceeded in value by mollusks.

Extensive as are the fisheries of the United States, it is evident to fishery
experts that the industry is capable of great increase through the develop-
ment of new grounds, through the utilization of species now entirely dis-
carded or only imperfectly employed, and through the stocking and replen-
ishing of waters by artificial means. In the science and art of cultivating
(798)

THE FISHING INDUSTRIES 799

the waters and producing valuable aquatic animals, greater progress has been
made by the United States than by any other nation. Millions of dollars'
worth of foodstuffs are thus annually added to the supply from natural
sources, but the possibilities in this direction are far from being fully real-
ized, as practical fish culture is still in its infancy, and the area of water yet
to be brought under the influence of man is vast. The farming of the great
public water estates lying off our shores, as well as the interstate rivers and
lakes, is naturally intrusted to the national fishery commission, while the
needs of the local and State waters are looked after by the State authorities.

FUNCTIONS AND WORK OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION

An important factor in the development of the fisheries is the national
Commission of Fish and Fisheries, which came into existence about thirty
years ago. This bureau is charged with the investigation of all questions
pertaining to the maintenance and improvement of the fisheries in public wa-
ters, and with the artificial propagation of food fishes and the stocking of
waters therewith; and is the adviser of Congress in fishery legislation. Be-
sides the corps of scientific assistants who study the biological questions
which underlie national fish culture, the Commission employs a large number
of experts, at its numerous stations in all parts of the country, who spend all
their time in working for the increase of fish in our fresh and salt waters.
No other country has achieved such signal success in fish hatching as the
United States, and no other country so liberally supports and encourages
fish-cultural work. The popularity of the operations of the National Fish
Commission depends on the scientific principles on which they are based, and
the numerous strikingly successful evidences of their pecuniary value. For
an expenditure of a few hundred thousand dollars a year in biological in-
vestigation and experimentation, and in artificial propagation, millions of
dollars' worth of fish food is added to the wealth of the country. Fish cul-
ture, as now practiced, is in reality an investment, which guarantees immedi-
ate large returns.

Upward of thirty different kinds of food fishes are regularly propa-
gated by the Commission, and the annual plants in public waters now number
about 2,000,000,000 young and adult fishes. The shad, the salmon, the
trout, the bass, the whitefish, the pike-perch, the shore cod, the oyster and
the lobster fisheries have now been brought well within the control of the
fish-culturist, and other important branches will soon be in the same con-
dition.

The work of the government is ably reinforced and augmented by that
of the States, most of which are actively engaged in the artificial propaga-
tion of fish, in addition to the protection of the fish from unnecessarily de-
structive fishing methods. The government exercises no legislative func-
tions in the matter of fish preservation and protection, and its efforts are
thus greatly facilitated by the enactment of State laws restricting fishing and
prohibiting the pollution and obstruction of streams.

8oo WORKERS OF THE NATION

EMPLOYMENT IN THE FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

The government employs a large corps of scientific men in the Fisheries
Department, and scattered throughout the country at the different hatcheries
there are hundreds who spend all their days in working for the increase of
our fresh and salt water fishes. No country in the world has achieved such
signal success in fish hatching and propagating as the United States. The
Fish Commission has not only stocked the waters of our country with mil-
lions of young fish, but its members have imported the fish of other countries,
discovered new foods for our native fish, protected millions of young fry by
removing dangerous enemies, saved our streams from pollution by factories
which would have destroyed all fish life, and in short made our fish food
double, treble, and quadruple in a decade. Scientific fish propagation is one
of the most popular branches of the government work. For an expendi-
ture of a few hundred thousand dollars a year in experimenting and culti-
vating young fish millions of dollars' worth of fish food is added to the
wealth of the country. Thus the many profit by the concentration of the
science, skill, and energy of the experts under the control of experienced
leaders.

Like all the other scientific departments, the remuneration of workmen
and experts in the Fisheries Department depends upon the character of the
labors required, and the special fitness of the men.

Statistical field agents in the Fish Commission's service are scattered
throughout the country, with salaries for beginners ranging between $300
and $1,200 per year. Station superintendents at the hatcheries receive the
higher wages, while minor employes average between $700 and $800.

THE GENERAL EXTENT OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY

The number of persons who derive a livelihood from the fisheries is about
215,000; these and those dependent on them number fully a million. Some
of the fishermen are engaged in no other occupation and are therefore en-
titled to be called professionals ; others, while making most of their income
out of the water, engage in other business at times; and still others are
farmers, mechanics, boatmen, etc., who take up fishing when their regular
occupation can not be followed or when a special run of fish makes fishing
more profitable.

The capital invested in fishing properties is upward of $72,000,000.
Vessels, employed either in taking or in transporting fish, are a prominent
factor in the investment, nearly 6,500 craft of over five tons burden being
now employed in our fisheries. While the larger proportion are sailing
vessels, many steamers are used in the whale, oyster,. menhaden, and other
fisheries, and the number of steam vessels is increasing yearly. The net
tonnage of our fishery marine is nearly 200,000, and the value of the vessels
and outfits is more than $13,000,000. In the fisheries prosecuted from the
shore, 74,000 boats and vessels under five tons are employed, with a value

THE FISHING INDUSTRIES 801

of $4,350,000. The apparatus used in the capture of fishery products —
comprising seines, gill nets, hand lines, traw lines, traps, pots, fykes,
dredges, tongs, harpoons, etc. — is worth $7,880,000.

Few industries yield larger and more immediate returns than the fish-
eries. The first value of the fishery products taken in the United States
annually is about $46,500,000, or nearly double the investment in fishing
property. Of this amount, exclusive of land, buildings, wharves, and other
shore property, the coastal fisheries represent $41,900,000, the Great Lakes
fisheries $2,600,000, and the interior fisheries $2,000,000. By another
classification it appears that fishes proper yielded $27,415,000, mammals
$1,315,000, reptiles and batrachians $230,000, mollusks $15,105,000, crus-
taceans $2,100,000, sponges $310,000, and marine vegetables $25,000. The
aggregate weight of the annual catch is about 2,000,000,000 pounds.

The foregoing figures, supplied by the United States Commission of
Fish and Fisheries, do not include the fisheries of any of our outlying
possessions.

THE UTILIZATION AND PREPARATION OF FISH AS FOOD

Fish in one form or another is almost universally recognized as one of
the most important food materials, combining comparative cheapness with
high nutritive value and easy digestibility. It enters into the dietary of
almost every American family, although comparatively few persons have
any adequate conception of the methods and extent of the fisheries which
provide their food, the source of their fish supply, or of the measures taken
for preparing and preserving fishery products.

In few countries has greater attention been given to the preparation of
fishery food products than in the United States. In the various interna-
tional expositions our exhibits of this class have excited favorable comment
because of the great variety and excellence of the products and the neat and
convenient forms in which they are prepared for sale.

The Fish Commission is authority for the statement that the large repre-
sentation of foreign nationalities in the United States has probably been a
factor in increasing the number of our methods of preparing marine foods.
People emigrating to America and devoting their time to handling fishery
products naturally make use of the ideas and methods in vogue in their
native countries. The smoking of haddock was introduced in this way by
Scotchmen ; the Chinese on the Pacific Coast and in Louisiana prepare fish
and shrimp by methods similar to those practiced in the Orient, and the
preparation of sturgeon products was first begun here by natives of Germany
and adjacent countries.

The congregation of people of foreign birth in our Coast and Lake
cities also tends to increase the list of fishery products ; as, a small local sale
for certain products developing among those people, the trade gradually ex-
tends until such articles become of recognized importance in the food mar-
kets. There are, however, many additional methods of preserving marine

20 — Vol. 2

802 WORKERS OF THE NATION

food products that could be employed advantageously to meet the wants of
new markets.

Some products highly valued in Europe and Asia are never utilized
here, although abundant in the United States waters; and many of our
fishery resources are undeveloped through a failure to appreciate and
follow the foreign methods of preservation. Herring, for instance, is one
of the most abundant species of fish on the United States coasts, being
very frequently obtainable in much larger quantities than the fishermen
make use of, yet the United States imports annually over $2,000,000 worth
of preserved herring. The frugal Chinese, the ingenious Japanese, and the
industrious German can teach us much in the way of utilizing our natural
resources.

Fish destined for consumption in a fresh state leave the hands of the
fishermen either round (i.e. whole) or dressed. Dressing consists in split-
ting and eviscerating (with or without the removal of the head), or in
eviscerating through the gills without splitting. The commendable prac-
tice of selling fish alive is followed in a few places, Key West, for example.
Many of the products of other branches of the animal kingdom are usually
sold alive.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRESERVING FISHERY PRODUCTS

Different methods of preserving fishery products are employed for special
articles or in special sections, a slight variation in some process sometimes
making considerable difference in the appearance or flavor of the prepared
product. In many cases preservation is only to ensure transportation to
remote points in good condition. Low temperature is the means most
commonly employed for this purpose. By taking advantage of the recent
improvements in apparatus and methods of chilling and freezing, fish may
be shipped long distances and kept a long time in good condition.

Large quantities of fish are salted and smoked, the processes being em-
ployed alone or in combination. These methods ensure preservation, but at
the same time modify the flavor. Various secondary fishery products are
also prepared by one or more of these processes. Caviar, which may be
cited as an example, is prepared from the sturgeon roe by salting; the
methods of salting and packing vary somewhat and give rise to a number of
varieties. Although formerly prepared almost exclusively in Russia, caviar
is now made to a large extent in the United States.

When fish are salted and cured, there is a considerable loss in weight
incident to removal of the entrails and drying. Cod loses sixty per cent in
preparation for market as dry-salted fish. If the fish is boned, there is a
further loss of twenty per cent.

Various kinds of fish extract, clam juice, etc., are offered for sale.
These are similar in form to meat extract. There are also a number of
fish pastes and similar products — anchovy paste, for instance — which are
used as relishes or condiments.

THE FISHING INDUSTRIES 803

Oysters and other shellfish are placed on the market alive in the shell
or are removed from the shell and kept in good condition by chilling or
other means. Oysters in the shell are usually transported in barrels or
sacks. Shipment is made to far inland points in refrigerator cars and to
Europe in the cold-storage chambers of vessels. Large quantities of oysters
and other shellfish are also canned. Oysters are often sold as they are
taken from the salt water. However, the practice of "freshening," "fat-
tening," or "floating" is very widespread — that is, oysters are placed in
fresh or brackish water for a short period, and they then become plump in
appearance and have a different flavor than if taken directly from salt water.

FISHERIES OF THE NEW ENGLAND STATES

The fisheries prosecuted along the Eastern seaboard of the United States
are very extensive and of an exceptionally varied character. Each of the
regions has distinctive fisheries and shore industries related to the fisheries.

In the New England States nearly 35,500 persons are engaged in the
fisheries. These are distributed as follows: Maine, 17,000; New Hamp-
shire, 150; Massachusetts, 14,000; Rhode Island, 1,600; Connecticut, 2,500.
The capital invested in the fisheries of this region is about $19,500,000, of
which $4,000,000 is to be credited to Maine, $52,500 to New Hampshire,
$13,000,000 to Massachusetts, $957,000 to Rhode Island, and $1,200,000
to Connecticut. The leading item in the investment is vessels, of which
more than 1,400, valued at upward of $4,000,000, are in use. Other im-
portant items are boats (10,500, valued at $600,000), pound nets, trap nets,
and weirs (1,070, valued at $420,000), hand and trawl lines to the value of
$300,000, lobster pots (200,000, valued at $210,000). The annual yield of
the New England fisheries is about 393,000,000 pounds, with a value of
$9,600,000. Massachusetts leads, with products worth $4,400,000, fol-
lowed by Maine with $2,650,000, Connecticut with $1,550,000, Rhode Isl-
and with $1,000,000, and New Hampshire with $50,000.

Probably the most characteristic feature of the New England fishing
industry is the high-sea fisheries carried on with fine large vessels, which
operate from Cape Hatteras to Newfoundland and sometimes extend their
cruises to Africa and Europe. The fishermen of these States are em-
phatically those "who go down to the sea in ships." On the vast outlying
"banks," some of which are more than a thousand miles from home, the
indefatigable Yankees seek the bottom-loving cod, hake, haddock, cusk,
and halibut ; and among the surface fishes, they follow the wily mackerel, the
pugnacious sword-fish, and the humble herring.

Other branches which are characteristic of New England are the lobster
fishery, the soft-clam industry, the herring fishery carried on with brush
weirs, the smoking and canning of herring, and the manipulation of cod,
haddock, mackerel, and other fishes brought in by the off-shore vessel fisher-
men.

Whaling, which in the early days contributed so largely to the wealth and

804 WORKERS OF THE NATION

prosperity of the colonies and nation, is now an almost unknown calling, the
fishery having been transferred to the Pacific Coast.

The leading product of the New England fisheries is the cod, which is
taken in every State and supports numerous people in Maine and Massa-
chusetts. The annual catch is 90,000,000 pounds, for which the fishermen
receive $1,800,000. The quantity and value of the yield of other promi-
nent species are: Haddock, 45,500,000 pounds, $576,000; hake, 37,000,000
pounds, $300,000; halibut, 11,000,000 pounds, $575,000; herring, 65,000,-
ooo pounds, $600,000; mackerel, 8,800,000 pounds, $482,000; lobster, 14,-
650,000 pounds, $1,276,000; clam, 1,225,000 bushels, $580,000. The oyster
fishery of Connecticut and Rhode Island, which depends entirely on the crop
from cultivated grounds, has an annual value of nearly $2,000,000.

FISHERIES OF THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES

The Middle Atlantic States have the distinction of maintaining more
valuable fisheries than are carried on in any other part of the country. The
fishing population numbers 95,000, and is thus about equal to that in all
other parts of the country combined. In the number of vessel fishermen,
boat fishermen, and shoremen, this section is pre-eminent. Maryland leads
in this respect, with over 40,000 persons; Virginia is second, with 28,000;
New Jersey follows with 12,500; then come New York, with 7,500, Dela-
ware with 2,400, and Pennsylvania with 1,900.

The fishery capital invested here — $15,200,000 — is less than in New
England, owing largely to the expensive class of vessels in that region.
The extent to which the different States are represented in this investment
is as follows: Maryland, $5,800,000; New York, $2,100,000; Virginia,
$2,900,000; New Jersey, $2,400,000; Pennsylvania, $1,600,000; Delaware,
$400,000. No less than 3,800 vessels of over five tons register are engaged
in fishing, which fleet has an aggregate tonnage of 58,000 and is valued at
$4,200,000. More than a third of the vessels belong in Maryland. The
3,200 boats used are valued at $2,000,000.

The fisheries of this section yield upward of 600,000,000 pounds annu-
ally, which bring the fishermen $14,500,000. The Maryland fishermen's
harvest amounts to $3,620,000, that of New Jersey to $3,615,000, that of
New York to $3,400,000, and that of Virginia to $3,200,000. The inter-
ests of Pennsylvania and Delaware are relatively small.

Among the especially prominent features of these fisheries are the very
large number of small vessels and boats engaged in taking oysters ; the ex-
tensive use of pound nets, gill nets, seines, and fykes in the rivers and bays ;
the employment of many sail and steam vessels in catching menhaden for oil
and guano ; the taking of crabs and clams ; and the valuable shore industries
dependent on the oyster and menhaden fisheries. The oyster alone, how-
ever, is sufficient to give to the fisheries of this region the importance they
have attained. This animal is worth $8,875,000 a year to the people of
these States — a sum representing 19,850,000 bushels, of which 14,300,000

THE FISHING INDUSTRIES 805

bushels, valued at $4,950,000, come from Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries.
The other leading products, which are more important here than in any
other section, are shad, 35,850,000 pounds, $980,000; menhaden, 270,-
000,000 pounds, $475,000; alewives or river herrings, 36,000,000 pounds,
$230,000; bluensh, 18,000,000 pounds, $580,000; eels, 1,800,000 pounds,
$93,000; hard clams, 900,000 bushels, $820,000; and crabs, 19,000,000
pounds, $345,000.

FISHERIES OF THE SOUTH ATLANTIC AND GULF STATES

The fishery interests of the South Atlantic and Gulf States are less de-
veloped than those of other coast sections, although the variety and abun-
dance of valuable economic products are noteworthy. The persons who
make a living by fishing number only 31,000, of whom 12,000 are in North
Carolina, 6,100 in Florida, and 1,200 in Texas. The capital devoted to the
industry is $2,347,000, of which North Carolina is credited with $1,220,-
ooo and Florida with $1,300,000. The annual catch amounts to about
146,000,000 pounds, worth $4,100,000, the North Carolina yield being
$1,316,000, Florida $1,100,000, and Texas $290,000.

Mullet, shad, alewives, sheepshead, snappers, squeteague, sponges,
oysters, shrimp, and alligators are the principal products of the waters of
these regions. The mullet is the leading fish, upward of 22,000,
pounds, valued at $330,000, being taken each year, mostly in North Car
and Florida. The most valuable product, however, is the oyster, whi
found in every State, and is destined to attain still greater importance u
cultivation.

FISHERIES OF THE PACIFIC STATES

In the Pacific States, salmon is almost synonymous with fishing, so pre-
ponderant are the interests centring in the capture and handling of the
enormous runs of the various salmons in the rivers and coastal waters.
Other important fishery enterprises, however, are conducted by the ener-
getic people of the Western seaboard, who have extended their operations
to the Aleutian Islands, Bering Sea, and the Arctic Ocean, as well as the
mainland of Alaska. While the fisheries of this region are less extensive
than those of the New England and Middle Atlantic States, they are
probably destined to assume first rank, unless the phenomenal abundance
of salmon should be overcome by indiscriminate fishing methods.

The 28,000 persons employed in the fisheries of this region are chiefly
engaged in salmon, whale, fur-seal, cod, herring, and oyster fishing, the
salmon industry commanding the services of at least two-thirds of them.
About 4,000 persons are employed in California, 5,600 in Oregon, 10,000
in Washington, and 8,000 in Alaska. The capital here invested amounts
to $19,000,000, of which $2,750,000 represents vessels. Over three hundred
vessels, many of them steamers of large size and fine construction, are en-
gaged in the whale and other fisheries. The contribution of the waters of

8o6 WORKERS OF THE NATION

the Pacific to the wealth of the nation is about $13,700,000 a year, of which
the share of California is $2,550,000, of Oregon $855,000, of Washington
$2,870,000, and of Alaska $7,415,000. The leading factors in this large
sum are salmon, $10,270,000; cod, $200,000; whales, $460,000; fur-seals,
$567,000; and oysters, $1,050,000.

The shore waters of the Pacific States have been enriched by the intro-
duction of the shad and the striped bass from the Atlantic. Both species
have become so abundant and well-established that they support a growing
fishery already worth $80,000 a year — a truly remarkable outcome of a
government investment of less than $5,000 about twenty-five years ago.

The great salmon fishing grounds are the Sacramento and Columbia
Rivers, Puget Sound, and the islands and mainland of Alaska. The salmon
yield exceeds 248,000,000 pounds annually, and the catch, as placed on the
market, is worth $24,000,000. The government and the States endeavor
to maintain the salmon supply by extensive fish-cultural measures.

The whale fishery, which formerly centred at New Bedford, is now prac-
tically confined to San Francisco. Here the vessels fit out, and here they
land their catch. The recent scarcity of whales has greatly reduced the
profits of whale fishing, and has made this branch one of exceptional finan-
cial risk ; nevertheless, the San Francisco fleet last year killed whales whose
bone and oil sold for $456,000.

Cod taken about the Aleutian Islands were valued at $200,000 ; herring,
chiefly from Alaska, were valued at $26,000 ; oysters, largely from San Fran-
cisco Bay, sold for $1,045,000; and the products of the fur-seal, sea-lion,
sea-otter, and walrus fisheries were worth $572,000.

FISHERIES OF THE GREAT LAKES AND INTERIOR WATERS:

The 100,000 square miles of water in the Great Lakes support a rich
fauna, including some of the most highly-prized food and game fishes of the
country. If the American and Canadian fisheries are combined, they con-
stitute the most valuable lake fisheries in the world, the yield in the past
twenty years being worth nearly $100,000,000. Superior, Michigan,
Huron and Erie support extensive gill-net and pound-net fisheries, Erie
ranking first in the number of persons employed, capital invested, and
products taken.

The fisheries of the American side of the Great Lakes give employment
to 10,000 persons, of whom 4,000 are in Lake Erie, 3,260 in Lake Michigan,
1,250 in Lake Huron, 600 in Lake Superior, 400 in Lake Ontario, and 450
in Lake St. Clair and tributaries. The aggregate capital devoted to the
industry is $6,600,000, of which Lake Erie is credited with $2,720,000 and
Lake Michigan with $2,915,000. Gill nets fished from steam vessels are
prominent means of capture in Lake Erie and Lake Michigan, which lakes
also have nearly 2,500 pound nets set around their shores and on the shal-
low reefs. The combined length of the gill nets operated in these lakes
is upward of ten thousand miles.

THE FISHING INDUSTRIES 807

The annual yield of the Lake fisheries is about 115,000,000 pounds, for
which the fishermen receive $2,611,000. Lake Erie's share of this amount
is $1,150,000, Lake Michigan's $876,000. The fish taken in largest quan-
tities is the small whitefish, improperly called the lake herring ; it represents
about one-half of the quantity and one-third the value of the fisheries of the
entire basin. Other species are whitefish, lake trout, and wall-eyed pike.

The active fishing in these waters is beginning to show its effect on the
abundance of fish. Lake Ontario has been practically fished out, and other
lakes will doubtless have the same history, unless more adequate protec-
tion is given the fish, more especially at their spawning season, and unless
the already extensive fish-cultural operations of the government are con-
tinued and increased.

The innumerable interior rivers and lakes are important as sources of
food supply, and are destined to attain even greater prominence as the popu-
lation of the country increases. In nearly every interior State and Terri-
tory there are commercial fisheries of some consequence, but in only a few
of them does fishing assume the proportions of an established industry.
The Mississippi River and its tributaries naturally support the most ex-
tensive fisheries, but some of the lakes and other waters also have a profitable
business.

The fishing population on the interior waters numbers about 12,450; of
these 2,400 are citizens of Illinois, 325 of Louisiana, 2,650 of Iowa, 500 of
Minnesota, 460 of Arkansas, 400 of Indiana, 475 of Tennessee, and 1,530
of Missouri. The value of the fishing property is $1,818,000, and the
annual value of the catch is about $1,200,000, representing 99,000,000
pounds. Missouri has the largest investment and catch, followed by Iowa,
Illinois, Louisiana, and the other States mentioned as having the most
numerous fishing population. The leading product of the Illinois fisheries
is the German carp, of which over 9,896,000 pounds, selling for $244,006,
were taken and sold in a recent year; the carp is also an important species
in other States. The catch of other prominent interior fish are — black bass
1,030,000 pounds, $66,000; buffalo-fish 14,215,000 pounds, $350,000; cat-
fish 7,800,000 pounds, $347,000; sturgeon 250,000 pounds, $8,300; suckers
3,275,000 pounds, $100,000; and wall-eyed pike 243,000 pounds, $15,000.

PEARL FISHERY

One of the most fascinating, uncertain, and needlessly destructive
branches of fishing is that for pearls, which is sometimes enormously
profitable, although the average income is so small that few persons would
engage in it were it not for the possibility of finding very valuable pearls.
The United States waters do not produce any mollusks comparable with
the oceanic pearl oyster in pearl-bearing qualities; but in the fresh waters
of nearly every State there are mussels which produce more or less valu-
able pearls.

About every ten years a new wave of interest arises in connection with

808 WORKERS OF THE NATION

fresh discoveries of pearls at some point where the shells have lain long
undisturbed; it again absorbs the attention and excites the imagination of
the community around and spreads to other parts of the country; a fresh
campaign of ignorant extermination is carried on for several summers, then
the yield is exhausted, and there is nothing more but to leave nature to
recuperate, if possible, and slowly to restore, in limited amount, the abun-
dant life that has been destroyed.

In the reports of the United States Fish Commission it is related that
in 1897 the pearl fever broke out in various parts of the country, the par-
ticular scene of discovery and excitement being the hitherto undisturbed
streams and bayous of Arkansas. These waters teem with mussels, and
pearls have at times been found by the rural population for years past ; but
there has been, usually, no knowledge of their nature or their value. They
have been simply regarded as "pretty stones," and used as playthings by the
children — like the first South African diamond, which attracted the notice
of a trader in 1866 as he saw it in the hands of the children of his Boer host
at the Vaal River.

Several valuable pearls, however, were found in 1897 by persons from
St. Louis and Memphis, who at once sent them to those cities and ascertained
their value. The same persons then searched for more, and took steps to
lease the land where pearl-bearing shells were abundant. Ere long the
facts became known, and a wild excitement set in and spread through large
portions of Arkansas, extending into Missouri, Kansas, and the terri-
tory of the Choctaw Nation. The first important discoveries were on small
lakes or bayous formed by affluents of the White River in White County.
The subsequent activities prevailed along the general valley of the White
River and its branches, then on the Arkansas, the Ouachita, and the Black,
Cache, and St. Francis Rivers, thus affecting almost all sections of the State.
In one district an entire lake was leased, guarded and fenced for its pearl
contents alone.

The newspapers took up the subject and published highly sensational
accounts of the treasures to be had in what was widely proclaimed as "the
Arkansas Klondike." These articles were copied all over the country, and
led to a great amount of pearl-hunting in many States, both East and
West. Iowa, Tennessee, Georgia, New York, and Connecticut were all
more or less stirred up to activity. The former pearl region of Tennes-
see was less affected than a new section in the eastern part of the State,
along Clinch River, where great crowds searched for pearls, and large quan-
tities were obtained. The Georgia interest was chiefly along the Oostenaula,
near and above Rome. The New York activity has been in the northwestern
angle of the State, along Grass River, in St. Lawrence County. Connec-
ticut has yielded some good results to the searchers on the Mystic and the
Sheprang Rivers, at almost opposite ends of the State.

Some pearl-hunters are professionals, but the majority are farmers,
laborers, or persons engaged regularly in other branches of fishing.

THE FISHING INDUSTRIES 809

The usual method of removing pearls is to forcibly separate the valves of
the mussel. Inasmuch as the mussel is thus killed, whether or not it con-
tains a pearl, the waste is enormous. Some fishermen crush the shells, and
some pile the mussels in a dry place to die and decay — the Oriental method
of opening the true pearl oyster. It is possible, however, to gently open the
valves with a pair of tweezers and disclose the presence or absence of
pearls, and to return the mussel to the water alive and uninjured.

Only a few approximate figures concerning the yield of pearls can be
given. The total production of pearls may be summed up as follows:
In the 1868 excitement, $50,000, worth to-day at least four times that
amount; in the 1868 excitement, $50,000 worth; in the 1889 Wisconsin ex-
citement, perhaps $300,000 worth; the Tennessee fisheries, $100,000; Ken-
tucky, $20,000; Texas, $20,000; Arkansas produced pearls in 1897 of a
total value of $35,000, some selling for over $1,000 each, and many for over
$100 and $200. In 1901, the value of the pearls from the upper Missis-
sippi River was reported to be nearly $200,000 ; the selling price of some of
the individual pearls was from $50x3 to $1,600.

The great importance to a rural population of obtaining ready money
easily by pearling can not be overestimated, the pearlers being aided in the
payment of taxes, interest, and for such things as only money will buy ; and
the protection of the pearling interests is, therefore, very desirable, as the
industry, if properly regulated, yields a product which can always be sold
for cash.

MUSSEL FISHERY

The gathering of mussel shells, to be used in the manufacture of buttons,
is one of the newest and most interesting fisheries in the Mississippi basin.
Originally quite local, the fishery has spread up and down the river from
Iowa, and now extends from Wisconsin to Arkansas. Although the busi-
ness of manufacturing buttons from the shells of our native fresh-water
mussels is of quite recent origin, it has already attained comparatively large
proportions, especially in the Mississippi River, and seems destined to have
still further growth, provided adequate protection is afforded to mussel
beds, which on account of the comparative shoalness of the water are readily
accessible and liable to rapid depletion.

The mussel fishermen in the region under consideration, according to
investigations made by the United States Fish Commission, are mostly peo-
ple who have been engaged in other branches of fishing, or who, as boatmen,
are familiar with the river. Many of them depend on mussel fishing for
their livelihood, and follow it throughout the year, but others seek mussels
only when their regular work is suspended. Thus, in winter especially,
the ranks of the regular mussel fishermen are considerably augmented by
saw-mill hands, farm-hands, and others.

The number of regular mussel fishermen along the Mississippi and its
tributaries now reaches several thousand, most of whom are in Iowa and

8io WORKERS OF THE NATION

Illinois. As many of the fishermen have no premanent headquarters, but
move from place to place, it is difficult to obtain an accurate statement of
their number.

In view of the small amount and inexpensive character of the apparatus
(rakes, scrapes, etc.) required to prosecute the fishery, the comparative
ease with which the mussels are taken, and the little experience required,
mussel fishing is regarded with favor by many, as they are readily able to
get their catch to market and dispose of it, receiving cash in payment.
When they find a good mussel-bed they sometimes make thirty dollars or
more per week. The average earnings, however, are considerably less,
at this time probably being less than ten dollars per week. Some days two
or three dollars will be made, but inclement weather prevents fishing and
reduces the average.

The prices which the fishermen receive for shells vary considerably, de-
pending on the supply and demand. The size and kind of the shells also
affect the price. The standard shell is the "niggerhead." In 1897 the
market value of this species in Muscatine ranged from forty to sixty-two
cents per hundred pounds. Shells were cheaper in 1898 than at any pre-
vious time, but in February, 1898, there was a scarcity of shells at the fac-
tories, prices went up to $18 and $20 per ton, and many fishermen were thus
induced to enter the business for the first time, and the supply was soon
in excess of the demand. By July, 1898, the prices had fallen as low as
thirty cents per hundred pounds for small "niggerhead" shells and thirty-
five cents for large ones. The quantity of mussel shells taken by the fisher-
men and sold to the button manufacturers now amounts to 5,000 to 10,000
tons annually, valued at $60,000 to $100,000.

THE LOBSTER FISHERY

The lobster fishery is prosecuted to a greater or less extent in all the
States on the Atlantic Coast from Maine to Delaware, but nearly seventy-
five per cent of the total annual yield is from the waters of Maine.

The statistics show that the total yield in 1880 was 20,128,033 pounds,
valued at $488,871, and in 1889 it was 30,771,573 pounds, valued at $86 1,-
297, an increase of 10,643,540 pounds in quantity and of $372,426 in value.
There has since been a great reduction in the quantity of lobsters annually
produced, but the value has been constantly increasing. In 1898 the total
yield was 15,188,062 pounds, valued at $1,318,299, a decrease, as com-
pared with 1889, of over fifty per cent in quantity and an increase of over
fifty per cent in value.

The greater part of this decrease in quantity has occurred in Maine and
Massachusetts. From 1889 to 1896 the lobster yield of Maine declined
about fifty-five per cent in quantity, while it increased about seventy per
cent in value. In Massachusetts there has been an almost steady decline
in the yield since 1880. In that year the catch was 4,315,416 pounds,
valued at $158,229, and in 1898 it was 1,693,741 pounds, valued at $147,-

THE FISHING INDUSTRIES Sn

602, a decrease of 2,621,675 pounds, or sixty per cent in quantity, and of
$10,527, or about six per cent, in value.

As this industry gives employment to at least 4,500 persons, and repre-
sents an investment of fully $1,660,000, the continued decrease in the supply
is occasioning deep concern and demands very active measures to restore this
valuable commodity to its former abundance. The decline has been brought
about by overfishing, fishing at all seasons, catching lobsters of all sizes, and
sacrificing the extruded eggs, which are carried on the mother-lobster for
months. The measures which will lead to the re-establishment of the lobster
are the more rigorous enforcement of the law and more extensive artificial
propagation on the part of the government.

THE OYSTER FISHERY

In the preceding chapter reference was made to the extent and
importance of the oyster industry. The oyster, besides being the most
valuable of our fishery products, is also the most generally distributed.
Oystering is carried on in every coast State except Maine and New Hamp-
shire, and the oyster is the leading object of fishing in most of the States
on the seaboard, in some being more valuable than all the other species
combined.

Efforts to acclimatize the Eastern oyster on the Pacific Coast have been
successful in places, and a large part of the oyster crop from San Francisco
Bay now consists of the transplanted stock.

A fact of far-reaching importance in connection with the oyster in-
dustry is that the product is readily susceptible of cultivation, and each
season shows a larger proportion of the supply taken from planted grounds.
The oyster exemplifies more strikingly than any other fishery product the
feasibility of successful water-farming. Under wise laws for the en-
couragement of oyster planting, some of the States have ceased to pay any
attention to the natural oyster grounds and now depend entirely on their
cultivated stock. Conspicuous examples of the success of the oyster in-
dustry under the modern regime are afforded by New York, Connecticut,
and Rhode Island, which have increased their oyster output three to five
times as a direct result of artificial measures. Strange to say, some of the
States which have the most vital interests at stake are neglecting measures
known to be beneficial, and continue to depend largely on the natural supply
of oysters, which is surely becoming exhausted.

THE SPONGE FISHERY

The sponge fishery of the United States presents the interesting an-
tithesis of an industry restricted to the single State of Florida, and a product
perhaps more generally employed and having a wider range of usefulness
than any other article yielded by the American fisheries. There is scarcely
a civilized habitation in the country in which the sponge is not in almost
daily use. Besides its very general employment for toilet purposes, it is

812 WORKERS OF THE NATION

utilized in many other ways — in the arts, trades and professions, and in
domestic life.

The merchantable sponges of the waters of Florida are named by Dr.
Hugh M. Smith, of the United States Fish Commission, under five heads —
the sheepswool or "wool" sponge, the velvet sponge, the grass sponges, the
yellow sponge, and the glove sponge, of which the first-named is by far the
most valuable.

About one hundred registered vessels and two hundred unregistered ves-
sels and boats are employed in the fishery, which, with their outfit, are
worth about $260,000, and are manned by upward of 1,400 fishermen.
While many of the fishermen are white, a large proportion are negroes from
the Bahama Islands.

Sponges are by far the most important of the fishery products of Florida,
representing about one-third of the annual value of the fishing industry. In
the calendar year 1895 the Florida sponge fishery yielded 306,070 pounds
of sponges, of which the value was $386,871. The catch in 1896, as repre-
sented by the purchases of the wholesale buyers, who handled practically the
entire output, was 234,111 pounds, having a value of $273,012. In 1897
the product was 331,546 pounds, valued at $284,640; and in 1899, 304,400
pounds, which sold for $367,914.

Key West and Tarpon Springs are now the only ports at which the
cargoes of sponges are discharged and sold. At the former place, in 1899,
there were eight purchasing firms and at the latter six, two firms being
represented at both places.

Key West is the headquarters of a large fleet of vessels and boats em-
ployed in sponging about the keys and on the grounds off the west side of
Florida, and is the exclusive market for the sponges taken on the southern
and eastern coasts, although receiving a good proportion of the crop from
the grounds to the northward. Tarpon Springs is very conveniently located
in the proximity of the important grounds off Rock Island and Anclote
Keys, from which the largest quantity and best quality of sheepswool
sponges come ; and the prominence of the place as a sponge centre has been
increasing from year to year.

In 1895 the value of the sponges purchased at Tarpon Springs was only
$60,000, or less than fifteen per cent of the total value of the sponge crop of
that year, while in 1899 the Tarpon Springs trade amounted to over
$230,000, or more than sixty per cent of the aggregate value of the
output.

The sponge fishery is very uncertain, in that its success depends largely
on the prevalence of calm weather and the clearness of the water. Rough
weather or turbid water prevents the fishermen from plying their calling
and entails heavy losses. The sponges are gathered by means of long-
handled hooks, with which the sponges are secured and torn from their
attachment on the bottom. The exhaustion of the shoaler grounds and the
serious depletion of many of the deeper grounds have induced the Fish Com-

THE FISHING INDUSTRIES 813

mission to undertake experiments with reference to the cultivation of
sponges, either from eggs or from cuttings.

THE WHALE FISHERY

No other fishery prosecuted on the high seas has undergone such a re-
markable decline as has whaling, which early engaged the attention of the
American colonists and at one time was the leading fishery enterprise of the
United States. The decline has been due partly to the substitution of lower
priced mineral and animal oils for whale and sperm oils, and partly to the
decreased abundance of whales. Even as late as the outbreak of the Civil
War, 514 vessels of 158,000 tonnage were engaged in the United States
whale fishery; by 1871 the fleet had dwindled to 218 vessels, by 1881 to
161 vessels, and by 1891 to 92 vessels. In 1901 only 40 whaling vessels, of
9,000 tons burden, carried the American flag; u of these were large
steamers, 16 were barks, and 13 were schooners.

For many years New Bedford was the leading centre of the whale
fishery, and this place is still the nominal home port of more whalers than
sail from any other city; practically, however, San Francisco has for a
long time been the headquarters of this industry, having an important local
fleet as well as being the rendezvous of some of the New Bedford vessels.
Fifty years ago the whaleships owned in New Bedford would have made
a line more than ten miles in length, and 10,000 able-bodied sailors were
required to man them ; now this port has only 22 vessels. The disposition
of the remainder of the fleet was 13 vessels at San Francisco, four at
Provincetown, and one at Boston.

Whaling now is not involved in the glamour or romance which charac-
terized the whale fishery of early days ; but it is still one of the most exciting,
hazardous, and important, and at the same time most uncertain, branches of
the fisheries. A single voyage of a single vessel may make or mar the
owner's fortune. During recent years, some vessels have made long
cruises without killing a single whale ; while others have taken many whales
and brought home products whose aggregate value was almost fabulous.
One of the most remarkable voyages in recent years was that of the
steamer Mary D. Hume in 1890-92. She sailed April 19, 1890, and re-
turned to San Francisco September 29, 1892, having passed two winters in
the Arctic Ocean at Herschel Island. During this time the vessel killed
thirty-eight bow-head whales, valued at $400,000. The share of the cap-
tain was about $35,000, and that of each of the crew from $1,000 to $2,000.

The most productive whaling grounds are the North Pacific and Arctic
Oceans, although the old grounds in the Atlantic continue to be resorted
to by a considerable fleet. In 1901, the Atlantic fleet of sperm whalers
had a fairly successful season, the catch of twenty vessels reaching 12,550
barrels of oil. The barks Caton and Sunbeam secured 1,000 barrels each
during the summer cruise, and smaller vessels took from 300 to 500 barrels
each. Five vessels cruised in the Japan and Okhotsk Seas, and secured

814 WORKERS OF THE XATIOX

about 4,000 barrels of sperm oil. The fishery for right whales is confined
to the northern seas, and is followed by the vessels sent out from San
Francisco. The 1901 season was very unsatisfactory, the catch being the
smallest for many years. Only forty-three bowhead whales were taken in
the Arctic, against eighty in the previous year, and only thirteen right
whales against fourteen in 1900. The aggregate yield in the North Pacific
and Arctic in 1900 was only ninety- four whales, the take in the previous
year being 140. The product of nineteen vessels was 6,000 barrels of oil
and 188,000 pounds of bone.

The prices of the whale products vary much from year to year. Of late,
whale oil has been worth about thirty-seven cents per gallon, and sperm oil
50 cents. The value of bone has fluctuated to a remarkable degree. In 1861,
the average price was sixty-six cents a pound, while in 1891 it was $5.38
a pound. During 1901, about $2.50 was the average price.

Nearly every State and Territory is represented on the whaling ves-
sels, and a large proportion of the crews are of foreign nationality. Canada,
every European country, Africa, China, Japan, Hawaii, and the South Sea
Islands contribute their quota and give to the whale fleet an exceedingly cos-
mopolitan make-up. All sorts and conditions of men drift into this fishery,
and many of them are without experience, not only in fishing, but in any
other maritime enterprise. Consequently, to many, perhaps most, of them
only small pecuniary returns come, even after a fairly successful cruise ; but
to those who are experienced, industrious, and temperate, whaling is still
a remunerative occupation and affords opportunities for the exhibition
of the greatest braver}*, hardihood, and seamanship.

MISCELLANEOUS FISHERIES

Among the important fisheries restricted to certain sections or addressed
to a single species are the whalebone fishery of the southern California coast,
mostly in the hands of the Chinese; the shrimp fishery of California, also
controlled by the Chinese, who dry their catch and export it to China ; the
hunting of diamond-back terrapins in the salt marshes of the Atlantic
Coast, the toothsome diamond-backs having become so scarce that large
ones sell for more than $100 per dozen; the turtle fishery of the Florida
Keys, the green turtle being sought for food and the hawksbill turtle for
its shell, which supplies the tortoise-shell of commerce; the killing of fur-
seals, under government supervision, on the Seal Islands in Bering Sea ; the
hunting of alligators in the Gulf States; the gathering of Irish moss in
Massachusetts; the pursuit of the walrus and the sea-otter in Alaska, the
latter furnishing the most valuable of all pelts ; and the hunting of the musk-
rat and fresh-water otter.

PART III
THE PROFESSIONS

CHAPTER I
THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS

Engineering as a Profession — Achievements of Engineers — Classification of Engineering
— Specialization in Engineering — Engineering Schools and Employment for Graduates
— The Training of an Engineer — Conditions of Success in Engineering — Earnings of
Engineers — Engineers as Business Men — Institutes of Engineers — The Surveyor — The
Civil Engineer — Railroad Engineering — Structural Engineering — Municipal Engineer-
ing— Sanitary Engineering — The Mining Engineer — Qualifying as a Mining Engineer
— Mining Schools — The Mechanical Engineer — Qualifying as a Mechanical Engineer
— Mechanical Engineering Schools — Steam Engineering — Gas Engineering — The Elec-
trical Engineer — Qualifying as an Electrical Engineer — Training and Earnings of
Electrical Engineers — Telephone Engineering — Marine Engineering

ENGINEERING AS A PROFESSION

TO GIVE a broad definition of the word engineer, we may say that he
is "one who is skilled in the application of the forces and materials
of nature to the uses of man." Of course, there must be as many
kinds of engineers as there are varieties of forces and materials to be so
applied ; and, as we soon discover, there are as many kinds of specialists as
there are methods of application, each one dealing with conditions and ac-
complishing results quite outside the spheres of the others. Thus, of two
men trained in the same way, and, it may be, in the same school or college,
the one devotes his practical life to the designing of machinery or the prepa-
ration of specifications for machines to accomplish given ends, while the
other turns his attention to the practical carrying out of such designs and
specifications, or to devising mechanical means to accomplish the results
indicated. In America the general rule is that the first kind of engineer
merely indicates the precise requirements in the desired machine, while the
second provides the designs for realizing them : in Europe the second kind
of engineer acts only as builder, making the machine exactly as designed,
without taking the responsibility of adding or subtracting any minute detail,
and thus placing the responsibility for its operation entirely on the other's
shoulders. In the constant advance and change in engineering methods
and devices it is obviously impossible that any technical course should be so
inclusive as to prepare the student in the recognized fundamental princi-
ples of mechanical or engineering -science, and, at the same time, anticipate
the advances that must inevitably be made in practice. Thus, unless the en-
gineer keeps himself constantly informed on the progress and current con-

(8*5)

8i6 WORKERS OF THE NATION

ditions of his calling, as set forth in technical publications and in the re-
ports of professional organizations, he will soon find himself and his meth-
ods out of date and inadequate. The same statement holds good for every
branch of industrial or professional science. Such means of spreading in-
telligence of practical results and experimental laboratory work have the ad-
ditional advantage of saving energy that might, otherwise, be wasted, in
only duplicating the work of others.

The result of the demand for the American engineer abroad is that he
is more than ever a rover. He is obliged to pitch his tent here to-day and
there to-morrow. He finishes his work in South America only to be called
at once to India ; his work in a Western or a Mexican mining centre is fin-
ished, and he starts at once for South Africa. This state of affairs lends to
engineering its feature of uncertainty, a feature which has its charm for the
young men and is not loved by the older ones. Like the newspaper corre-
spondent the engineer must keep his trunk constantly packed, as it were, for
a change of base; he must be ever ready to depart for any corner of the
earth. This is especially true of the civil and the mining engineer.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF ENGINEERS

A brief record of the wonderful achievements of engineers in the last
quarter-century would fill many large volumes. In the long distance trans-
mission of power, alone, engineers have revolutionized hundreds of in-
dustries ; they have made water power a substitute for coal ; they have car-
ried electric currents over snowclad mountains; they have opened the in-
terior of Africa to commerce; have connected the Cape with Cairo by
bands of steel; have harnessed Niagara; have drained the city of New
Orleans, once a seemingly impossible task; have given commerce the most
useful canal in the world, the Sault Ste. Marie; have joined Tien Tsin to
Pekin by rail ; have bridged the great rivers and canons of India ; have built
American bridges in Burma and constructed a railroad in Corea; have
given New York a great water-works, and are now giving to Boston the
greatest water-works in the world. Other engineers have just completed
the Trans-Siberian Railway. Others are building a wonderful bridge across
the East River, connecting New York with Brooklyn; others are cutting a
great hole under the City of New York, from end to end, building a rail-
road therein; others are about to tunnel beneath the North River and be-
neath the East River to give the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Long Island
Railroad each a terminus in New York.

The services of the engineer, indeed, have been the more needed, the
higher civilization has grown. Theories become matters of fact, and the
engineer is always abreast of the times. In fact, he has received by far too
little credit for his place in the march of -progress. The conquering prowess
of the Roman armies was no more momentous than the records left by the
engineers who followed them, in bridges, roads and great aqueducts. Dis-
tance is no longer reckoned by miles, but rather by length of time in transit.

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 817

The journey from New York to Liverpool is now performed in less than a
week; formerly it required thirty days. How many are the monuments
of modern engineering skill ! To name only a few, there are the St. Louis,
Brooklyn and Forth bridges; the Mersey, Sarnia and St. Gothard tunnels;
the Manchester and Suez canals.

The tendency of people to flock to great cities presents new problems to
the engineer. There are questions of rapid transit, pure water supply,
sewage disposal, and public health, for the engineer's consideration. Al-
though the history of industrial advancement may be prosy reading, yet the
greatest practical civilizing agent in the world is the engineering profession.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING

The old-fashioned classification of engineering into two departments is
obsolete. The modern divisions are civil engineering, mechanical engineer-
ing, electrical engineering, mining engineering, and marine engineering.
The next decade may introduce the department of aeronautic engineering.
Each of the chief divisions just named is subdivided, and the subdivisions
are differentiated into further classifications. For example, civil engineer-
ing is subdivided into Railroad Engineering, Structural Engineering, Mu-
nicipal Engineering and Government Engineering.

Under the first head, or Railroad Engineering, come first steam roads,
with the departments of Construction, Maintenance, Yards and Terminals,
and Signalling, and secondly, electric roads.

Under the second head, or Structural Engineering, come first, steel con-
struction, with the departments of bridges and roofs, and architectural;
secondly, steel imbedded concrete construction; thirdly, city subways;
fourthly, inspection of materials; fifthly, sub-aqueous construction, the last
being divided again into foundations and tunnelling.

Under the third head, or Municipal Engineering, come, first, city sur-
veying; secondly, water- works, with the subdivisions of storage and distri-
bution, filtration and power development; thirdly, sewerage works, subdi-
vided into conveying system and sewage disposal ; fourthly, roads and pave-
ments; fifthly, street cleaning; sixthly, waste disposal; seventhly, improve-
ment of water fronts.

Under the fourth head, or Government Engineering, come, first, river
improvements, with the subdivisions of navigation and land protection; sec-
ondly, harbor improvements ; thirdly, land reclamation, with the sub-classi-
fications of irrigation and drainage; fourthly, geodetic and topographical
surveying; fifthly, public roads; sixthly, civil engineering in the United
States navy. Government engineering is the term largely applied to the
fourth classification, viz., geodetic and topographical surveying, and it is
generally performed by graduates of the Military Academy at West Point,
although it can not be strictly included with military engineering. There
are other subdivisions known as chemical engineering, landscape engineer-
ing, and social engineering.

21 — Vol. 2

8i8 WORKERS OF THE NATION

SPECIALIZATION IN ENGINEERING

As in all professions, all trades, all callings, the man who becomes rec-
ognized as a specialist in engineering earns the most money. A general
civil engineer, or a general mechanical engineer, having attained the rank
of chief, may of course earn his $10,000 a year, but the civil engineer who
makes a specialty of bridge building, or of the construction of waterworks,
earns more than he who has adopted no particular specialty but who builds
canals to-day, constructs bridges to-morrow, and lays out a town the next
day. The same in mechanical engineering. The engineer who is most ex-
pert in a certain kind of machinery earns more than the man who under-
takes to build any kind of machine as the opportunity offers.

ENGINEERING SCHOOLS AND EMPLOYMENT FOR GRADUATES

Through the influence of technical schools engineering has become scien-
tific instead of traditional. The introduction of the laboratory method of
instruction has much to do with this advancement, America leading the
world in this branch of teaching, and rendering study abroad quite un-
necessary. The curriculum of the engineering college now consists of
10 per cent of English or modern foreign languages, 30 to 40 per cent of
indirect technical studies, such as mathematics, physics and drawing, with
50 to 60 per cent of purely technical work. The tendency is to make the
engineering courses entirely professional. There is a general effort to force
back some of the indirect technical subjects, such as advanced algebra and
trigonometry, into the preparatory schools. In the post-graduate depart-
ments of the leading institutions only one quarter of the students are in
engineering.

The graduates of engineering courses in the various institutions of
the country numbering about two thousand a year, the question arises how
they shall all find employment. Mechanical engineering leads in the number
of its graduates, with civil and electrical engineering coming next, and
mining engineering taking the last place. There need be no anxiety among
youthful engineers, however, as the demand for graduates is very great, far
exceeding the supply. It is a good thing for these young men to be thrown
on their own resources, as the vast majority of them are. So keen is the
competition and so various and exacting are the demands of the present day,
that specialization seems to be indicated as almost the only way in which to
obtain distinction for most young engineers.

THE TRAINING OF AN ENGINEER

At college the young man acquires simply a knowledge of fundamental
principles. He learns mathematics, of course, and the principal facts which
form the basis of the processes in other branches of the profession. He
learns that the electrical engineer, for example, must have a knowledge of
the work of the civil, mechanical and mining engineer. Then he learns the

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 819

strength of materials and their behavior under varying conditions of tem-
perature and moisture; learns the laws of physics; learns the elementary rules
of geology, chemistry and electricity.

Having studied many branches of the profession, he is able by experi-
ence to determine just what kind of knowledge is most valuable to him in
the division, or the specialty, which he has chosen as his life work. But he
never forgets that prime requisite of a modern engineer — formulae. Un-
less he knows exactly which formulae he needs at a certain time and where
to find them and how to use them, he will never achieve success in his pro-
fession.

The cost of the training of a young engineer is no more than that of
the young man studying for any other of the professions ; that is, the cost of
the regular college course, which is usually about $4,000 for the four years
at college.

Once graduated, the young engineer has advantages not generally pos-
sessed by the lawyer or the physician fresh from college; that is, the young
engineer can probably find work at once at which he will earn from $40 to
$60 a month, while the lawyer or the physician must spend several years of
work in a law school, office or hospital without pay. But it is said that be-
cause the young engineer can at once earn a salary he does not so soon ac-
quire the habit of independence as does the doctor or the lawyer. The young
member of the bar, or the young medical practitioner, hangs out his own sign
and, according to the traditions of his profession, starves, if necessary,
while waiting for clients or patients. The engineer, on the other hand, hav-
ing a salary at the outset, is lacking in that courage necessary to face the
unremunerative period that must precede his establishment in independent
practice.

CONDITIONS OF SUCCESS IN ENGINEERING

What are the qualities that bring success in the engineering profession?
First, and above everything, accuracy. The fact that to make mistakes
is human is not recognized among engineers. While at college the em-
bryonic engineer might make an error in a calculation during a blackboard
demonstration. Such an error merely meant a low mark instead of a high
one, and continued errors simply meant more low marks. Such mistakes
involved no loss to capitalists, no interference with the work of a contractor.
But when the practicing engineer makes a mistake the result is serious. An
error in a calculation now means loss of money and time for the men who
are furnishing the capital for the enterprise, and a few such errors mean the
complete ruin of the engineer.

There is one phrase in the engineering world which the engineer dreads
as much as the soldier dreads the word "cashiered." This is "constitu-
tionally inaccurate." Once this phrase has been applied to an engineer for
cause, the future has no hope and he might as well abandon his career ; in-
accuracy in engineering is a defect for which there is positively no excuse, a

820 WORKERS OF THE NATION

vice for which there is no known cure. An engineer must conform to
the highest standard of his profession or his usefulness ceases. A doc-
tor's patients may die, a lawyer's failures are overlooked, but a blunder on
the part of an engineer is something material and tangible, and such
blunders do not allow others to forget the man whose failure remains thus
permanently in evidence.

EARNINGS OF ENGINEERS

The American engineer earns, as a rule, a great deal more money than
the foreign engineer. He can earn a salary at once, while his brother in Eng-
land or Germany is obliged to pay for the privilege of working under the di-
rection of a distinguished engineer, in a factory, a shipyard, or a mine.

The engineer in this country leaves college, say, at the age of twenty-
two. After eight years of practice, if he is destined to be successful at
all, his income will be sufficient to keep a large number of wolves
from the door. There are many competent engineers employed in the main-
tenance of way or motive power departments of railroads, who at the
age of thirty earn $50 a week. At this age, it may be supposed that they
are just getting the first firm foothold in their profession. Their head-
way after that is usually very rapid. Railway engineering, it should be
added, is perhaps not so well paid as some other branches of the profession.
Many mining engineers at thirty earn twice as much as the railroad engineer.

The highest salaried man in the engineering profession is the chief en-
gineer engaged on a great public work. His salary is perhaps $10,000 a
year, though a few earn considerably more than that. The highest rewards
in this profession, of course, are represented by fees paid to those who are

practicing independently.

i P y _

ENGINEERS AS BUSINESS MEN

The nature of his training fits an engineer for commercial life. A great
number of corporations, especially those which manufacture machinery or
mechanical devices, employ mechanical engineers as salesmen. This is a
lucrative field for the young man who has not the courage to enter upon the
practice of his profession independently. In the electrical world, the less
studious or scientific engineer can find ready employment in negotiating
contracts for manufacturers. For this work engineers are often paid even
higher salaries than are usually paid for purely technical work.

Another field which an engineer may enter with success is that of the
contractor. He either becomes an independent contractor or secures em-
ployment with an established firm. This field is becoming yearly more
popular with engineers ; first, because their professional standing is not im-
paired, and, because of the opportunity to add comparatively large sums of
money to their professional earnings. The engineer-contractor, as we may
call him, has the advantage of the ordinary contractor in that in addition to
his business training, he brings to the enterprises intrusted to him that
technical knowledge which the ordinary contractor lacks.

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 821

INSTITUTES OF ENGINEERS

Every young engineer desires to become, as soon as possible, a member
of one of the five leading engineering societies, namely :

The American Institute of Electrical Engineers, which has 1,350 mem-
bers, the entrance fee being $5 and the annual dues $10 for associates and
$15 for members.

The American Institute of Mining Engineers, the membership of which
numbers nearly 3,000, the annual dues being $10.

The American Society of Civil Engineers, 2,500 members.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, which has a total
membership exceeding 2,000; initiation fee, for associates, $25; for juniors,
$15; annual dues for members and associates, $15; for juniors, $10.

The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, which has nearly
300 members, the entrance fee being $5 and the annual dues $5.

No other profession requires so high a qualification for membership in
its national societies as does engineering. It is a coveted distinction, only
given as the reward of merit. In England, membership in such societies
takes the place of diplomas. The position of the engineering profession
with regard to degrees is very high. The degree of C.E. or E.E. does not
count with engineers as much as an M.D. for doctors or an LL.B. with
lawyers. It carries a presumption, perhaps, but very little weight. Ex-
perience is necessary for the making of an engineer, no matter how thor-
ough his preliminary training may have been. Natural aptitude is pre-
supposed.

THE SURVEYOR

The profession of civil engineering has as its simplest exponent the
land surveyor, whose work is to measure tracts of land, determine boun-
daries and topographical features, and to prepare maps setting these forth.
Every surveyor is not a civil engineer, but every civil engineer must under-
stand surveying. This work, although involving skill in the use of several
delicate instruments and a good knowledge of some branches of mathematics,
is a simple matter readily mastered.

In former days there was a class of surveyors distinct from engineers.
At the present time this distinction is disappearing, although many engineers
find that the bulk of their work consists in surveying. Such are generally
those who are located in country districts where there is not much construc-
tion work. The earnings of surveyors are usually very small. Their work
is principally making surveys of pieces of land, dividing up land into lots,
and, in the government lands, laying out township lines. Very few gradu-
ates of civil engineering schools are exclusively employed as surveyors.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER

The profession of civil engineer is more than an extension of surveying.
It demands an extensive knowledge of higher mathematics and mechanics ;

822 WORKERS OF THE NATION

also ability to grasp situations, so as to lay out towns, railroads and public
works in general, also to design bridges, breakwaters and such other con-
structions as require special adaptations of principles to suit natural con-
ditions. Although every civil engineer is supposedly able to discharge any
of these functions, the profession is at the present time subdivided into a
number of distinct specialties, determined by the study and experience of the
operator within some limited field of work. Thus, one man so specializes
his efforts that he establishes a record as a bridge engineer, becoming either
a consulting specialist or occupying a remunerative position with some con-
struction company. His training and experience enable him to grasp the
requirements of each bridge situation; to determine the'kind of structure re-
quired, and to design it accordingly. The conditions of bridge building vary
so greatly that the services of a specialist are often required, to design a
bridge utterly different from anything previously built. The business of a
railroad engineer frequently involves the problems of bridge building, in
addition to which are those of laying out and constructing a road capable
of fulfilling the requirements of modern railroading, with its heavy trains
and high speeds, also of choosing courses, so as to avoid, as far as possible,
heavy grades and costly bridges or tunnels. Indeed, most of the problems
confronting the laying-out engineer, or the one regularly employed on the
finished road, are such as to demand special experience of long duration.

Again, the modern conditions of life in towns and cities have given rise
.to another distinct profession, that of municipal engineer, who is concerned
with the practical problems of laying out streets, planning and conducting
the construction of public works, such as parks, sewers, etc., with a view to
combining economy in expenditure with durability of construction.

Yet again, we have the calling of hydraulic engineer, who is concerned
principally with designing and executing water supply and power systems;
with improvements in canals, harbors and rivers; with the problems of
irrigation, so important in agriculture in some sections, and with the proper
installation of hydraulic machinery.

It may easily be seen by the young man that civil engineering offers a
field for activity and usefulness that is unsurpassed. Its responsibilities are
great, no doubt, but so are its opportunities. It is well for him to secure
the advantage of training in a good technical school, so great is modern
competition.

The standards in these schools have been much advanced with a corre-
sponding elevation of the standards of the profession. The young engineer
should realize the fact that he must be a man of affairs as well as a mathe-
matician, that he must have judgment as well as education, that he must be
ready to plan for the future as well as to absorb the past.

RAILROAD ENGINEERING

The field of railroad engineering has not by any means been exhausted.
Apart from the opening of new roads, which in itself may not be so great a

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 823

branch of activity as in the past, there are countless opportunities for the
young engineer. Every year great sums of money are expended by the lead-
ing roads in the reduction of curves, the levelling of grades, and the shorten-
ing of distances. Improved safety appliances are constantly introduced and
adopted. Yards and terminals are put in better condition. Grade crossings
are abolished, existing lines are being double-tracked or quadruple-tracked.
Spur lines and feeders are constructed.

Graduates of technical schools are generally preferred in the engineer-
ing departments, when it is the question of employing new men. These
beginners get from forty to sixty dollars a month at the start. In these de-
partments the organization, of course, varies with the different railroads.
Many roads have separate departments for construction and maintenance
of way, while on others they are united in one. Engineers naturally find the
construction department the most interesting. Still, the work in it is much
harder. And service in it is apt to last a shorter time, for at the first sign of
general business depression, economy or complete stoppage follows in the
construction department, throwing out of employment many engineers,
just at a time when they find it difficult to secure work elsewhere. But even
if young men are thus forced at times to leave railroad service, the engineer-
ing experiences and discipline there gained are of vast benefit to them.

In the maintenance of way departments positions are much more secure,
leading, on most roads, to promotion, even to the very highest offices in the
service. Looking at the various steps in promotion, we see that positions as
assistant supervisors are generally filled from the list of those who have
served several years on construction. The assistant supervisors get from
seventy to seventy-five dollars a month. The next step is the position of
supervisor, at a salary ranging from ninety to one hundred and twenty-five
dollars. Next comes, after five or six years more of service, the place of as-
sistant engineer, or roadmaster, bringing to the incumbent from one hun-
dred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty dollars a month. The next
place is differently styled on different roads as principal assistant engineer,
superintendent, or division engineer. In this the salary runs from two
hundred to three hundred dollars a month. Among the higher offices next
in order are general superintendent, engineer of maintenance of way,
— sometimes known as engineer of roadway or superintendent of main-
tenance— chief engineer, general manager, vice-president and president.

The young man who is afraid of hard work, long hours, and, at first,
rather small pay, would do better to stay out of railroad engineering. Yet,
to one fond of an active and energetic life, the work has the strongest fas-
cination, in that it presents so many difficulties to conquer, and affords such
opportunities to exercise authority as well as to obey orders. Good work in
railroading always breeds enthusiasm.

The ambitious railroad engineer should possess perfect health, in order
that he may stand the wear and tear of his profession. Energy, self-reliance
and determination must be predominant in his mental make-up. Executive

824 WORKERS OF THE NATION

ability will aid him greatly. Overtime work will be the rule, at first, and
personal ease will have to be forgotten. And yet, in no branch of industry
will a man be treated with more absolute fairness, and he will always find
gentlemen as his associates. If he is properly qualified he will find his work
of never-failing, but constantly augmenting, interest. Good habits and a
presentable appearance are presupposed to exist.

The elimination of cut-throat competition, by the vast consolidations
now so much in vogue, may reduce the number of high positions in the rail-
road service, but it does not follow that engineering positions are reduced,
either in number or in salaries. In fact, to attract better men, the salaries
tend upward.

Such is the expansion of railroad interests that some of the universities
are beginning to shape their courses with reference to the needs and oppor-
tunities of railroading. The very highest degree of efficiency is demanded
by the modern railroad. Safety must be combined with speed, and technical
knowledge is required in many branches of the service. So the universities,
in some instances, notably Purdue, have offered chances for study in a
number of railway subjects, forming practically a department of railroad
engineering.

The astonishing results in reducing the cost of transportation during
the last generation are a promise of greater things to come. The lowering
of freight charges has enabled us to export products of our farms and fac-
tories to the extent of $1,500,000,000 a year. Engineers will devise future
improvements, reducing the cost of construction, maintenance and operat-
ing, and thus the cost of transportation will be still further lessened. For
example, an angle-bar, making the joint as durable as the rail, is bound to
come, as well as a cheap method of permanently preventing the oxidation of
iron.

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

The graduate of an engineering school who aims to specialize as a struc-
tural engineer often begins in the draughting-room of a bridge company, or
with a consulting engineer. In the former case he is thrown with other
young men in the same line, and reaps a benefit therefrom. From the older
men he may learn much. In the shops which he visits, he receives object
lessons from up-to-date materials. He does not get more than from fifty
to sixty dollars a month, at first ; perhaps seventy-five, after a year's service.

The first thing he should do is to pitch in and get a reputation for ac-
curacy. He will then be given the drawings of others for "checking," or
verifying. Not the slightest error must be permitted to pass by the
"checker." The position is thus a responsible one, but is fertile in oppor-
tunities for gaining a knowledge of details. A service of from two to four
years is enough for a bright man in a draughting-room. The salary there
hardly ever exceeds one hundred and fifty dollars, about one hundred and
twenty-five being considered fair, for experienced workers.

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 825

Promotions to the next grade, the estimating department, are not easily
obtained. If too long delayed, the young engineer may seek a place in the
erection department, or in the field of inspection. To the estimating depart-
ment only very well equipped men are taken. And a service of from three
to five years is necessary to become an expert at estimating. Such experts
are paid from one hundred and fifty to two hundred dollars a month. Many
men never get above this level, but notable ability promotes others to the
positions of contracting agents, chief engineers, and managers. At this
stage the ambitious young man is apt to start a business of his own, as or-
ganizer of new works, or as general contractor, or consulting engineer.

Bridge companies generally maintain regularly organized erection de-
partments, which are fine schools for young engineers, giving them great
opportunities for original work.

The inspection of materials, for steel mills and bridge shops, is gen-
erally done by private firms, charging so much a ton, the prices being pre-
viously arranged, and inspection during the building of a bridge often be-
ing included in the contract. This branch also affords him opportunities
for gaining coveted experience. Successful "inspection" requires a liberal
allowance of tact and common sense, the interests of the employer being
faithfully conserved, while the "shop" is not unnecessarily antagonized. The
inspector who is finicky and captious will not succeed, as he will offend both
parties. As a rule, the less the experience, the more the captiousness and
fault-finding. In this special branch of the service many men establish
themselves permanently, and make a good income out of it.

Bridge departments are maintained by the chief railroads. In these, an
additional experience of great value may be gained. Their own structures
are designed by many roads, and erected and inspected as well. Observation
of wear and tear of material is also greatly facilitated by service in this field.
Inspection and repairs are constantly demanded.

In structural engineering new fields have been opened by the "steel
skeleton." Engineers are taken into consultation by architects of such
buildings, the engineers looking after the foundation and the steel framing.
The growth of structural engineering marks the modern industrial pros-
perity, affording an unprecedented demand for experienced men.

MUNICIPAL ENGINEERING

Although the civil engineer of to-day is largely concerned with the de-
sign and building of structures and machines, yet his profession includes a
far broader field. Very frequently, civil engineers are elected in great cities
to high public offices, in which they may exercise a general supervision over
important municipal improvements, securing to the citizens the best scientific
results, and saving the town much expense. For the discharge of these ad-
ministrative duties the civil engineer is well fitted by the broadness of his
training. It is of necessity based upon truth, and upon the practical. Every
error in engineering being checked by immediate and open failure, juggling,

826 WORKERS OF THE NATION

sophistry and deception are completely eliminated. The business ability of
civil engineers is frequently developed by the necessity which falls to their
lot in the management of men. Tact and skill in direction are thus evolved.
The very truthfulness of the basis of all their scientific efforts cultivate and
produce the highest moral tone among civil engineers.

Municipal engineering includes many heterogeneous elements. In en-
gineering offices the deleterious influence of politics is largely eliminated,
civil service requirements assisting in this good work. In fact, city engineer-
ing officials are rarely the subjects of justly adverse criticism. Competent
and honest men generally fill the higher positions. The young graduate
should look upon a municipal position as a valuable school of experience,
not considering too much the salary or the shortness of the hours of service.
To gain the position of consulting engineer on municipal problems is a high
ambition. In connection with water supply and sewerage such a position
is particularly desirable, being generally given only to those of marked
ability.

The nineteenth century city will have to be made over — reconstructed—
and it will be done by engineers, architects, and scientists. An unprece-
dented ratio of increase is observable in the population of cities, and even
modern appliances and inventions are hardly keeping pace with it, in spite
of their extraordinary strides. A description of the Chicago of the future,
for example, if it could be made to-day, would doubtless appear an extrava-
gant dream.

SANITARY ENGINEERING

A special course in sanitary engineering is offered at many of the uni-
versities. By this the student is prepared to undertake the problems peculiar
to city life. These include the water supply, sewerage, paving, parks, and
so forth. Instruction in civil engineering constitutes the first part of this
course, as the underlying and basic principles are the same in both.

At some colleges and universities, among them Columbia, special studies
in sanitary subjects are substituted for the higher structural and mechanical
departments of the profession. Especial features are accentuated. For
example, the sanitary treatment of buildings, the care of the public health,
and the consideration of the water supply, receive particular attention. A
thorough training is given in sanitary chemistry, biology and bacteriology.
Studies of the problems of the sanitary adjuncts of modern buildings, the
drainage of towns and cities, systems of heating and ventilation, and analy-
sis of water are followed with especial care and thoroughness.

THE MINING ENGINEER

The profession of a mining engineer involves a wide variety of knowl-
edge. He must understand how to prospect for and locate a good mine,
whether of coal or metal ore ; must be able to judge precisely what kind of
working is best suited to the deposit in hand ; must be able to assay the ore

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 827

extracted, so as definitely to determine the value of any vein or seam ; andy
from his special knowledge of geology, must be able to determine definitely
how to follow deposits cut off by faults or breaks. In addition to all this,
he must be sufficient of a mechanical engineer to install and superintend the
working of modern mine machinery. In this profession, as in every other
technical calling, modern science has introduced such vast improvements,
and opened up so many departments of new and exact knowledge, that the
profits of metal mining have been immensely increased. On account of per-
fection of metallurgical processes, even the tailings of old mines may now be
worked over with profit, while many deposits of metal formerly considered
commercially worthless may now be opened with advantage by improved
machinery and appliances. Indeed, such is the perfection of theory and
practice in modern mining that the operations of only a few years since
seem slipshod and crude. The mining profession has also profited by the
latest discoveries in sanitary science, lighting and signalling, so that the
ventilation and general arrangements of coal and other workings render life
and limb as safe in the mines as on the surface of the earth. This profes-
sion, in short, is a curious illustration of the widely-inclusive nature of
modern specialized knowledge, and also of the wonderful degree of exacti-
tude that may result from the application of a few exceedingly simple
scientific principles.

To the young man who contemplates training for any particular pro-
fession, the question of its profitableness is one of deep and often dispro-
portionate interest. In reference to the study of mining engineering, this
question resolves itself into the more specific inquiry : What are the chances
for obtaining a position after graduating from a school of mining engineer-
ing ? In answer to this question, it may, be said that, with the increased de-
velopment of our mining interests, there is a corresponding demand for
competent mining men, and at the present time the profession of mining
engineering would seem to offer rather unusual opportunities for brilliant
achievements and commensurate rewards. The advancement of any man in
any profession depends quite as much upon his character and ability, how-
ever, as upon his technical training and his business opportunities.

QUALIFYING AS A MINING ENGINEER

What constitutes a mining engineer ? What are the ear-marks that dis-
tinguish him ? Does a course of training in a school of mining engineering
make him one of the profession ? Or lacking the conventional training, is he
forever barred from being recognized as a mining engineer? These are
questions that are frequently propounded, especially by our mining brethren
across the water.

So far, no one has been able to answer them satisfactorily. . It would
seem, however, to be the consensus of opinion that college training alone
can not make a mining engineer. Men whose technical education has
been meagre have often achieved so much in a practical way that those whose

828 WORKERS OF THE NATION

opportunities have been more abundant can not becomingly show any pro-
fessional arrogance.

It is curious to see how unerringly a man with a well-developed mining
instinct will go straight for a body of ore. No amount of education seems
able to supply this instinct, if nature did not bestow it. Many a time has a
man of little education, who makes no pretence of being an "engineer,"
made a commercial success of a mine that an engineer with all kinds of de-
grees has failed to make profitable.

A writer in the "Mining Reporter" says that an ideal mining engineer should have,
besides education and the power to work hard, what New England people call "faculty,"
and also that quality described by the word "gumption." Of these four qualities, the min-
ing engineer can do very well with only three, but the non-essential quality is neither
"faculty," "gumption," nor the power of working hard.

This same writer maintains that, although there is no royal rule by which a mining
engineer can be measured, the spurious article is frequently easy to identify. A man who
parades around in high boots, flannel shirt, and corduroy suit, using long words where
short ones will apply, and trying to make others believe that he is the only one who knows
anything about mining, is, in the opinion of this writer, not a mining engineer. He never
has been one, and even his chances for becoming one are very slim.

MINING SCHOOLS

Many excellent schools are scattered now throughout the country where
a young man may be admirably prepared for the practice of mining en-
gineering. No school can turn out finished engineers, but a good institution
can fit a man for the ready assimilation of the practical experience he will
get in actual work. Some of these schools are connected with State uni-
versities and some are independent of all other institutions. Those located
near mining camps naturally have an advantage over those more remote
from producing mineral deposits, as the opportunities afforded at the former
places for practical demonstration of the principles inculcated are neces-
sarily more numerous. When the line of operations for which a school is
training its students is the dominant one of the region the advantage
is obviously great. If those in control of these operations are in sym-
pathy with the institution and are willing to place the plants under
their charge at its service, these plants are truly part of its equipment, and
the environment thus becomes a factor which must greatly increase the effi-
ciency of the instruction.

THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER

The mechanical engineer in latter days has been making the field of pro-
ductive industry specifically his own. A distinction which has been occa-
sionally made, is that the civil engineer concerns himself with the problems
of statics, while the mechanical engineer concerns himself with the prob-
lems of dynamics. This distinction, while popular, rather than exact,
brings out very clearly the distinction between the functions of the civil
and the mechanical engineer in the railroad. The civil engineer may be con-
sidered responsible up to the top surface of the railway ties, above this point

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 829

the mechanical engineer reigns supreme. The system of switches, of signals,
the manufacture of rails, and nearly the whole motive power problem and
rolling stock problem have been the achievements of the mechanical engineer.

In structural engineering, including the erection of steel buildings and
steel bridges, the mechanical engineer, as the person responsible for the pro-
duction of the steel, has invaded the field which the civil engineer used to
claim as his own. The line just here is a difficult one to draw, and its solu-
tion is changing year by year.

The invention of machinery for production, and the generation and
transmission of power from prime movers, steam engines or hydraulic
motors, have been conspicuously the field of the mechanical engineer. We
owe to him the invention of the steam engine and its improvement to its
present advanced state. We owe to the mechanical engineer the develop-
ment of the locomotive, the printing press, the power loom, the machinery
for making shoes, watches — in fact every labor-saving appliance which has
given to America its pre-eminence as a producing country. We owe to him
the machinery and the processes for the utilization of steel in rails, beams,
armor plate, and the whole field, down to watch springs. We owe to the
mechanical engineer the development of the marine engine and the construc-
tion of the steel ship in all its relations to the transportation problems of the
country.

The power plants of all street railways and lighting installations belong
to the mechanical engineer, up to the point at which the armature of the
dynamo or generator means the transformation of mechanical energy into
the electrical form whereby it is so much more conveniently transmitted. A
tendency is manifesting itself, however, to transfer the manufacture of
standard electrical machinery into the hands of the mechanical engineer, who-
is becoming more and more familiar with the handling, control, repair and
similar functions in connection with electrical machinery. The electrical
engineer is more concerned with the design of these electrical apparatus and
less with their management and installation after the design is completed
and it becomes a question of their manufacture on the commercial scale.

Two types of mechanical engineers may be mentioned : First, the pro-
fessional man who works mainly with his head in design as an office practi-
tioner, and second, the executive or administrative type of man who, at the
head of important producing concerns, such as manufacturing corporations
and firms, is a combination of engineer and business man. The latter is a
combination which is peculiar to mechanical engineering, but where it ex-
ists it brings the most important results in money and influence.

There is, of course, a third class, which includes the draughtsmen, those
putting into practical or concrete form the ideas of others and furnishing
them to the practical operators or artisans in charge of shops. These, taking
the drawings made from the inventor's ideas, reproduce the conceptions in
material forms in iron and steel.

Naturally there is a prejudice in favor of the intellectual side of me-

830 WORKERS OF THE NATION

chanical engineering in certain directions, but, on the other hand, the im-
portance of the practitioner must not be undervalued. The man who drives
a locomotive is not as a rule a professional man, in the sense the word is
used above, but on the other hand he must have a distinctly engineering in-
stinct, and must be well qualified by experience to know what his machine
can do, and what is to be done in case of possible accident.

QUALIFYING AS A MECHANICAL ENGINEER

The strenuous demands for special practical training, coupled with
theoretical knowledge of the broadest possible description, is nowhere greater
than in the domain of mechanics. The graduated mechanical engineer may
be an expert on general theories and the construction and operation of spe-
cial machinery, but the increasing stream of improved devices in each special
branch puts him at a disadvantage in each new line of work he may enter.
The same is true of the machinist. He is no longer the general shop worker,
capable of operating any and every appliance, but rather the specialist, who
understands one machine, 'or one branch of the work and does nothing else.
He is also handicapped by the fact that, while he may understand the work-
ing of a given machine, he knows little or nothing of its theory or construc-
tion, and is frequently only a machine tender, equally ignorant of all other
processes and machines and of the machinist's trade in the broadest sense.
While these conditions remain practically unchanged, there is the broadest
field for the ambitious and studious man who will take the trouble to work
himself up in his line. The old saw that "there is plenty of room at the
top" is receiving new exemplifications daily in every branch of industry,
while the eminent helps offered by such educational methods as correspond-
ence courses can qualify a man to fill the positions of master machinist, fore-
man or superintendent. One department of the mechanical industry in which
there is a constant and great demand for workers is that of draughting.
Not only must every master machinist and mechanical engineer be himself
able to design and lay out machinery, but he has constant need of trained
assistants who can assist in this line. Only a short time since the public
press set forth, as the reason for a serious stagnation in the structural iron
work trade, the lack of available trained draughtsmen to prepare the neces-
sary drawings and working plans.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCHOOLS

The leading schools for the training of mechanical engineers are the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston ; Columbia University, New
York City; Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken; Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y. ; the Rose Polytechnic, Terre Haute, Ind. ; and Leland Stan-
ford University, in California, under the institutions founded and con-
ducted upon private endowment. The State universities of the Middle, Cen-
tral and Western States, which have been founded upon agricultural and
mechanical foundations, are doing splendid work in this line, and from their

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 831

conditions and support are destined to do more and better work in the fu-
ture. The most noteworthy of these are the University of Michigan, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Purdue University (Indiana), and the University of
Illinois.

STEAM ENGINEERING

In former times a steam engineer was one of the best examples of skilled
craftsman, who, after serving an apprenticeship and acquiring such knowl-
edge regarding the management, operation and maintenance of steam en-
gines as comes from experience, was awarded a license. He needed very
little, if any, technical knowledge, his "practical ability" serving every need
of his calling. At the present time, with the rapid advances in all branches
of mechanical and industrial science, the distinction between technical and
merely "practical," or "rule-of-thumb," knowledge is being largely lost
sight of, except for the most subordinate assistants in large engine rooms.
In all large plants, as well as in very many of smaller size and power ca-
pacity, a thoroughly trained and experienced head is required to direct
operations and to see that the requirements of efficiency, economy and safety
are properly fulfilled.

According to modern requirements, a chief engineer must possess a wide
range of knowledge, including not only complete information on the de-
tails of construction, installation and operation of steam boilers, furnaces,
engines, and their various attachments and auxiliaries, but also on the
^numerous details of electrical dynamos ; and motors; including the wiring
and operation of light and power plants, the .theory of current generation,
supply, measurement and control, and the construction, uses and operation
of transformers, switchboards and other necessary apparatus. In almost all
cases, also, he must be able to manage and direct the repair of elevator and
steam-heating plants, which involves that he must be conversant with their
theory, construction and familiar defects. Of course, the proper exercise of
such knowledge involves the use of testing and measuring instruments of
various kinds for both steam and electric machinery, together with the physi-
cal and mathematical principles upon which they depend. At this point, at
least, it is evident that the skilled and thoroughly equipped craftsman has
attained the dignity of a learned profession, with the ability to command
a correspondingly high rate of salary.

In all this we have yet another example of the fact that modern condi-
tions of industry, while tending toward a most rigid degree of specialization,
demand intelligent work, and offer the highest inducements to a man of
all-around equipment. Despite the rash and ill-founded statements of pessi-
mists and calamity-howlers — these persons represent a thriving and re-
munerative industry — there is no reason why the worker should be a victim
of conditions, while any advantage is at. the command of the man who im-
proves his time by training his intelligence and equipping himself for a
better understanding of his own calling. This rule reaches even the most

832 WORKERS OF THE NATION

subordinate employe, who will readily reap the rewards derived from per-
forming his own simple tasks understandingly.

While it may seem technical and unnecessary, that a fireman should un-
derstand the theory of combustion, or that the constructional details of
boilers or furnaces should have a bearing on his duties, the fact remains that
these things have a vital relation to the economy of fuel in maintaining de-
sired boiler pressures, an item which is of the first importance in large steam
plants. If, therefore, a man in this small, though important, office is suffi-
ciently ambitious to acquire the rudiments of this "technical" information,
he will undoubtedly reap the reward of his efforts in a speedy raise of pay.
The engineer, or any of his assistants, such as oilers or wipers, need not
neglect available information on construction or operation, because "it be-
longs rather to the designer," as some have said, since such knowledge as-
sists them not only to know how to do a thing, but also to know why it is
done. The value of a man informed even in the simplest particulars, such as
lubrication, for example, will soon be estimated in dollars and cents by his
employer.

GAS ENGINEERING

With the practical perfection and increasing use of gas and oil engines in
the last twelve or fifteen years, there has actually arisen a demand for a
new profession. A goodly number of practical machinists and engineers
know little or nothing of the essential operation of this type of motor;
many of them being somewhat uncertain as to the real distinction between
it and the steam engine. Thus, in coming into contact with a gas engine,
in the way of operating or repairing, they seem literally to be facing a
mystery. Bearing in mind the fundamental distinction between the two
types of power producer — that the steam engine operates through the expan-
sion of a heated vapor produced in a separate generator, the boiler, while
the gas engine operates through the explosion, by intermittent heat, of an
inflammable gas behind the piston — he will readily understand that there
are peculiar physical, mechanical, mathematical and .constructional con-
ditions to be met and mastered. A thoroughly competent gas engineer
must know something of the laws of gases and the required proportions to
produce explosive mixtures of air and gas; must also understand how to
compute the conditions met in practical experience, as well as to be familiar
with the design and construction of the motor and the numerous delicate
and difficult adjustments required. All these things become not only de-
sirable, but imperative, in view of the rapidly increasing introduction of
internal combustion engines in all branches of industry, and their undoubt-
edly augmented importance in the near future. The gas engine is a growing
factor now, but its growth has been rapid and nearly unprecedented in the
history of mechanics and mechanical appliances.

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 833

THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER

Though electrical engineering is one of the newest of branches, the field
even now offers so many and such varied opportunities to young men that
there is danger of overcrowding the ranks. Almost daily new uses are found
for electricity, and every time such new use for this wonderful modern agent
is found, more engineers are needed to make it subserve the purposes of man.
Meantime the electrical engineer must be reckoned with in almost every in-
dustrial enterprise, and in all matters of public improvement, in the lighting
of cities, in the running of railroads and in a hundred other respects. Know-
ing this, an army of young men have rushed into the field, and have adopted
electricity in the scientific courses at colleges with a view to becoming spe-
cialists and with visions of great wealth and fame.

The young engineer's best chance for immediate advancement, the great-
est promise for the near future, lies in the field of electrical engineering. In
this comparatively new field, which has expanded so suddenly and so enor-
mously, opportunities have been created so rapidly that it has not always
*been possible to meet them. Despite the great number of students who, in
increasing numbers, in the past few years have entered our colleges to take
the special electrical course, the demand for young men thus trained has
greatly exceeded the supply. Several young men reached high positions and
won a national reputation in their profession within five years after gradu-
ation from one school of electrical engineering. One of these young men
became the chief engineer of the Niagara Falls plant, the largest electrical
power plant in the world ; a second became professor of electrical engineer-
ing in a great university; and a third, within two years after graduation,
achieved the position of chief engineer of a large manufacturing concern.
A study of the alumni roll of any of the schools of engineering throughout
the country, would show several hundred instances similar to those just
mentioned, in which the progress of the engineer has been so rapid that he
has reached a place of eminence and a generous salary within five years after
graduation.

All of the principal officers and engineers of the electrical companies in
this country, the greatest as well as the smallest, are young men who were
advanced to such positions before the young lawyers, for instance, who
graduated the same year, advanced far enough to be intrusted with an im-
portant case. The electrical companies without exception prefer young men
who have graduated from one of the electrical schools. Some of the larger
companies, such as the General Electric and Westinghouse, announce that
such a training is an absolute requirement for admission to certain depart-
ments of their works. There are a few self-made electrical men, of course,
just as there are certain self-made army officers.

QUALIFYING AS AN ELECTRICAL ENGINEER

It is natural that the older men now holding high positions in the elec-
trical field should be self-taught ; for until within recent years there were no

22— Vol. 2

834 WORKERS OF THE NATION

schools in which special training in this branch of science could be acquired.
The majority of novices in electrical science are not at all fitted for the
practical work of this exacting profession. Many young men have entered
the field because it seemed attractive and because they had somehow gained
the impression that in this calling money could be made easier than in other
occupations. These students imagined that their genius would lead them to
make a great discovery immediately upon graduation, and that they would
thus easily acquire wealth, or at least a large income. It is because a great
number of young men of this sort have entered the electrical field that the
profession is said to be overcrowded; but the professors in the electrical
schools, as well as the heads of industrial companies, understand that the
field is only apparently, not really, overcrowded. Young men who have
taken up electricity as the result of a mere whim, or because of a desire to
make money easily, soon drop out and only the men of exceptional ability
remain and forge ahead.

Mr. Edison's advice to young men in the electrical field is : "Don't watch
the clock." Presumably, this means that the young engineer or electrician
engaged at a salary to work so many hours a week, will never rise above a
certain level as long as he keeps one eye on the clock with the intention of
working only the number of hours called for "in the bond," instead of elimi-
nating the factor of time and trying harder and working longer than other
young men in the same field. Edison knew not the clock, and perhaps this
was one of the reasons why he forged ahead of his fellow workers.

He who would be successful in electrical engineering soon finds that
something more than general intelligence or general knowledge of the sub-
ject is necessary. He must possess a special taste for electricity, must be
gifted with a special talent for it, a capacity that in many ways resembles
the peculiar gifts of the successful musician or artist. After these intangible
qualities, the electrical engineer must possess certain fixed mental character-
istics, all of a decidedly tangible character. He must, for example, have an
exceedingly alert mind ; he must be able to think rapidly and to comprehend
and act quickly; he must have a capacity for analysis, so as to be able to
reach conclusions rapidly.

In the electrical field something new is announced almost every day. It
may be a new invention, or a suggestion for a new way of applying electri-
city, or a new process of some kind. The simple fact that a thing is new
must commend it to all engaged in the field. Men of the older professions
are apt to look askance at anything that is new. In electricity conditions
are reversed and conservatism is not tolerated. This is the reason, perhaps,
that Americans have made greater progress in electricity than Englishmen
or Germans.

Electricians assert that in no other science or profession are conditions so
definite as in electricity. In this field one thing follows another with as-
sured certainty. In what other branch of mechanics, for instance, would it
be possible to tell what a machine will do within a fraction of a per cent,

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 835

before that machine is built ? Yet calculation as fine as this is possible while
an electrical machine exists only on paper ; but it is a calculation that proves
correct when the machine becomes a thing of iron and steel. Wonderful
feats are foretold with conviction. As an example of such feats may be
mentioned the transmitting of electrical power over 100 miles; the sending
of several messages simultaneously on the same wire ; the locating of faults
on submarine cables; telephoning a thousand miles or more; telegraphing
without wires; and producing the Roentgen ray. The men who invented
the various devices that accomplished these wonderful things, were certain
of the results beforehand. The great problem was to make the necessary
apparatus to produce a known result.

TRAINING AND EARNINGS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS

The work of an electrical engineer may have to do with general electrical
conditions — in which case he must be extremely well equipped or be able to
deal only very generally with very many cases — or else, he must be a spe^
cialist in some one of the numerous and constantly-increasing • branches.
Thus, as a dynamo or motor expert, as a street railway engineer, as a tele-
phonist, as a telegraphic engineer, or as an electric light specialist, he must
have intimate knowledge of many things with which his fellow-electricians
deal only very lightly, if at all. This is true, because, not only does each in-
dustrial branch involve the use of special and peculiar apparatus, but it has
its own problems that do not emerge in other branches, and which, to be
treated properly, must be exhaustively and practically understood. In-*
deed, even the best-equipped graduate electrician is faced with the inevitable
specialization situation, and is largely handicapped, not only by the nearly
proverbial lack of practical knowledge, but also by having only a very gen-
eral knowledge of very special applications of his science. It thus follows
that he must often begin his career by periods of work in the shop or on the
line, so as to familiarize himself with practical problems and working con-
ditions. Furthermore, in order to properly discharge the frequently re-
curring task of designing special machinery and apparatus, he must have
more than a general knowledge, either theoretical or practical. He can
not turn his mind directly from the conditions involved in power trans-
mission, to telephony or telegraphy, or even to electrical lighting, as a spe-
cial branch, because each branch involves the use of a very definite variety
of apparatus, also of particular and carefully-calculated principles of current
strength and use. Moreover, the constant improvement in each special
line soon leaves any but the closest student of that branch far behind, even
in point of ability to grasp intelligently the situations he must face. These
facts give only a general idea of the present immense development of elec-
trical industry and the professions dependent on it, although for the spe-
cialist, either college-trained, or self-instructed, by private study or corre-
spondence methods, it offers the widest field and the most stimulating pros-
pects.

836 WORKERS OF THE NATION

While preliminary electrical instruction in colleges and technical schools
is valuable for those intending to become electrical engineers it must be
supplemented by practical apprentice work in the shop, the central station, or
on the railway line. The graduate of the technical school is only half-
equipped, its function being* to prepare students to absorb the lessons of fu-
ture initial practice in the foundry, and in other fields of practical activity.
Electrical engineers must be trained in actual, practical work. Laboratories
typical of engineering work as it really exists can not be maintained by
schools and colleges. The memorization of theories will not suffice to en-
able a graduate to earn his living in electrical engineering. The lessons of
practice in business life are absolutely indispensable to the rounding out and
full development of his fitness to become a practical, self-supporting member
of the profession. The class-room is very good; the shop, or foundry, or
central station, is obligatory.

TELEPHONE ENGINEERING

Not to be behind the times some of the universities have established
courses in telephonic engineering. In these instruction is given in special
telephonic work, as the general courses in electrical study are not sufficient to
cover this field of activity. Electrical study has always had to be supple-
mented by two or three years of merely apprentice-work. But by the new
.course of instruction now afforded by this special department in the uni-
^rsities, this apprenticeship may be omitted, or at least largely abridged.
The curriculum includes training in electrical engineering, English, mathe-
matics, shop-practice, drawing, physics, German, chemistry, history, de-
scriptive geometry, physical and electrical measurements, mechanics, en-
gineering design, and kindred topics, by way of preparation for the direct
study of practical telephoning applied to actual scientific and business con-
ditions.

MARINE ENGINEERING

In olden times, and until within one hundred years, the practical work
of operating a ship on the ocean, on rivers or on inland waters, required
only a knowledge of the science of navigation, together with an experienced
familiarity with the dangers to be encountered in any given course. Later,
with the introduction of steam motive power on ships, mechanical and engi-
neering knowledge began to be of importance. At the present time, when
the accumulated knowledge and experience of three-quarters of a century
have brought ship engines, with their auxiliary apparatus, to such a won-
derful height of perfection and efficiency, an entirely new profession, with
utterly novel situations — that of marine engineering — has been developed.
A multitude of trained minds have been working all these years on the
problems of increasing the efficiency of marine engines ; in facilitating to the
utmost the generation of steam ; in economizing its use, and in deriving the
greatest degree of heat from fuel. As a consequence, the wonderfully com-

THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS 837

plicated triple and quadruple-expansion engines have been devised, with
the several types of vacuum pumps and condensers, for utilizing the power
of steam from the highest boiler pressure to below atmosphere ; also, highly
efficient types of boilers and furnaces, with improved apparatus for fur-
nishing artificial draught and some entirely new problems of construction.
Added to all this are the numerous types and varieties of auxiliary appa-
ratus— feed pumps, circulating pumps, ash ejectors, evaporators and dis-
tillers, steering, hoisting and pumping engines, the electric light plant,
and all the highly elaborated and delicately adjusted adjuncts of every one
of them — with which the marine engineer must have a thorough and ex-
haustive acquaintance. Furthermore, each of the five types of steam-pro-
pelled ship or boat — ocean-gping, condensing and non-condensing lake, bay
and sound boats, and condensing and non-condensing river boats — has its
own peculiar construction and involved problems, which must be thoroughly
mastered and understood. When, therefore, we consider the immense re-
sponsibilities placed upon the chief engineer of any kind of craft, and on
his assistants, it seems hardly remarkable that the law should require the
most exacting kind of examinations for securing a license. The necessary
knowledge includes a wide range of information, from pure mathematics
and mechanics to the most complicated problems in construction, operation
and repair of steam and electrical machinery. The candidate must also
exhibit a thorough and intelligent comprehension of every subject, partial^
larly mathematics, and be possessed of such clearness and readiness of
as shall prove him capable of meeting the trying and exceptional sit-
that constantly and inevitably arise in marine practice.

Despite all the difficulties and exactions to be met and overcome,
are few workers aboard a steamship, including even the coal passers, std
wipers and general helpers, who, at some time in their several careers, do
entertain the ambition to become chief engineer. It is for this reason that
we find these men anxious to serve apprenticeships in the engine room, or to
devour any one of the numerous excellent treatises on marine engineering
that have appeared in recent years. We also find that many of them hope to
save sufficient funds to attend some course on the subject.

CHAPTER II
CHEMISTS AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERS

Chemistry as a Profession — The Training of a Chemist — The Chemist in the Law Courts
— Chemists in Agriculture — Chemical Engineering — Training for Chemical

Engineering

CHEMISTRY AS A PROFESSION

THE first criterion of a young man's fitness for the profession of chem-
istry is his fondness for the study of the science. As an occupation
it holds out no alluring prospects of great wealth. There are, of
course, exceptions to this rule, as in cases in which some fortunate discovery
in metallurgy or in manufacturing processes has made the inventor rich.
But the certificate of originality issued by the Patent Office is not always
a guarantee of coming wealth. Neither as a teacher nor as a salaried em-
ploye does a prospective fortune loom up in front of the professional chemist.
--There is the chance that he may become manager of some prosperous manu-
facturing concern, which position will bring him a "competence." Or, as
president of a college, he will be in easy circumstances, should he attain that
eminence. In the majority of cases, the professional chemist will not get
rich.

Above and beyond the glittering prizes of wealth, the chemical profes-
sion can "point with pride" to the many fundamental services it has done
for humanity. The chemist stands at the bridge between matter and spirit.
The very secret of life is almost his. He may yet determine the chemistry
of cerebration, and pursue biology and etiology to their very fountains. The
magic power of autogenesis can never be his, but alleviation of life's harder
conditions has been and shall be within his scope and ken.

It is a part of the dignity of chemistry that it stands so near to nature's
heart, and gains new insight into causality and analysis from its secret
throbs. These things place the chemist on a high plane, above the pettiness
of professional jealousies. In the success of other chemists he sees the
welfare of the profession and the uplifting of humanity. He may, then,
with genuine sincerity, congratulate his more successful brother, taking
also new spurs therefrom, new incentives to harder work on his own part.

Looking at the ethics of the profession, we see that all chemists are
moved by the spirit which prevents them from taking, without permission,
out of the hands of a fellow chemist, an investigation which he has com-
menced or pre-empted. This is considered dishonorable and unprofessional.
(838)

CHEMISTS AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERS 839

So, too, is the attempt to underbid a brother chemist in the matter of offer-
ing professional services. There ought to be a closer concert, a consensus
among members of the chemist's profession, to establish upon a proper and
higher basis the rights and privileges of the craft. Other professions look
to the special interests of their members, and chemists should emulate them
in this respect, standing together firmly upon their rights.

No other scientific profession is so largely represented in the great
modern industries as the science of chemistry. The only possible exception
is physics, and that is generally confined to electrical industries and those
of a strictly engineering category. And in mining engineering, the engi-
neer is useless unless he is also a chemist.

Many of the leading universities of the country have honored them-
selves and the profession by selecting professional chemists as presidents.
In this list are Harvard University, Lehigh University, the University of
North Carolina, the University of Tennessee, and Purdue University.

There is great significance in the selection of so many college presidents
from men pursuing the science of chemistry. It goes to show that the
professional study of this science has a tendency to broaden the mind and to
bring a man into close touch with all the forces and industries of modern
life. Chemical science is taught with a thoroughness not always to be
found in other branches of learning. Its study may not develop adminis-
trative ability, but it brings the mind into general contact with human affairs.
Thus, in the avocation of the educator, we find that the influence of chem-
ical research is predominant. The same is true where chemistry touches
directly the great modern industries.

From all these considerations, and by many other facts, the dignity of
the profession of chemistry is established beyond the reach of cavil or con-
tradiction.

A false position has been held by chemists with regard to the com-
mercial value of their own services. Too long has there existed among the
brothers of the profession a tendency to consider as derogatory to their
dignity the demand for a properly adequate and justly remunerative pecu-
niary stipend for their professional work. The popular physician does not
feel that it is beneath his dignity to accept a large honorarium. The emi-
nent divine does not refuse a large salary. The legal profession is consid-
ered dignified enough, and yet great lawyers are not exactly shrinking
violets in the matter of fees. It is an undoubted fact that professional
chemists should have more regard for the dignity of their work in connec-
tion with great industries, insisting upon its proper classification with other
chemical research and employment. There is nothing derogatory about
industrial advice and superintendence.

THE TRAINING OF A CHEMIST

The calling of a chemist demands no other particular qualifications than
ability to master a thoroughly systematized science and sufficient intelli-

840 WORKERS OF THE NATION

gence to apply principles learned. However, as in all other branches of in-
dustry, the greater the culture, the greater the success. Although, as in
former days, a man may become a qualified chemist by serving an appren-
ticeship. Many colleges and technical schools offer thorough courses in
the science, at an average charge of between $100 and $200 per year.
Several excellent correspondence courses are also offered at even lower
figures. Considering the wide field open in his profession at the present
day, the student can not afford to neglect any opportunities that may enlarge
his knowledge or usefulness. A qualified chemist can almost always com-
mand a salary of between $75 and $100 per month, and in many of tha
connections open to him there are no fixed limits to the remuneration of his
skill.

THE CHEMIST IN THE LAW COURTS

From the rules of evidence now obtaining in American legal procedure,
the chemist, in testifying for his client, is undeniably often placed in an un-
favorable light before the public. While the expert should favor his
client as far as possible, yet he must never pass beyond the boundaries of
truth, nor attempt to bolster up a false claim. The system is at fault, not
the chemist. He ought to be employed by the court and not the litigant,
an improvement in legal procedure that is bound to come.

CHEMISTS IN AGRICULTURE

The prowess and worth of chemistry is nowhere better illustrated than
in its great influence upon the development of scientific agriculture. Vastly
beneficial have been the agricultural experiment stations maintained by the
United States Government throughout the country. Among the forty-
nine directors of these establishments twenty were selected from the ranks
of professional chemists, in deference to the relation between scientific chem-
istry and modern agricultural research. Very few other sciences are repre-
sented in the list of directors, or even among the subordinates, in compari-
son with the chemical profession. The proportion is illustrated by the
relative numbers of employes representing each science in the employ of
the agricultural experiment stations of the United States; viz., one hundred
and fifty-seven chemists, fifty botanists and forty-two entomologists, and
still fewer in other branches of scientific work.

While it would be invidious to mention names of those particularly
prominent at the present day in the class of eminent chemists, a few of those
who are counted pioneers in the profession in its connection with agricul-
tural colleges and experiment stations may be mentioned. The first regu-
lar bulletins were published by Professor F. H. Storer, of the Bussey Insti-
tute, in Massachusetts. These have been of great worth, as has been his
well-known book, first printed in 1887. In 1846 Yale College appointed
John Pitkin Norton as professor of agricultural chemistry. His efforts
were very profitable to the profession. Samuel William Johnson was made
instructor in agricultural and analytical chemistry in 1855. His valuable

CHEMISTS AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERS 841

publications are still used as text-books. Professor E. W. Hilgard, of the
University of California, stands in the front rank in the union of chemistry
and agriculture, having obtained by his researches and books a world-wide
fame. Professor G. C. Caldwell, of Cornell, has given great assistance
to the profession by his book on agricultural chemical analysis, printed in
1869. In the class of leaders must also be mentioned the name of Professor
C. A. Goessmann, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

There is a branch of technical knowledge that has a more inclusive im-
portance than chemistry, since there is scarcely a branch of industry into
which it does not enter, and in which a well-equipped chemist can not find
a good chance for employment. In the three trades — tanning, glass-making
and ore-working — which were for many centuries the sole lines of chemical
activity, there are still constant opportunities for chemical experts, who, in-
deed, have done more than the merely "practical man" to bring them to their
present stage of perfection. Paper-making is another business in which the
chemist, has a wide field, and where his assistance is constantly required,
particularly in the modern industry of wood-pulp paper-making. In prac-
tical mining, particularly in the department of metal-ore work, the ser-
vices of the assayer and analytical chemist are in constant demand, in
order to determine the value of a mine or working, and thus save large ex-
penditure in fruitless operations. It has frequently happened that a gold
or silver mine has been exploited by a company or by individuals, who might
have been saved from financial embarrassments, had they employed compe-
tent assayers to determine whether the metal could be extracted in paying
quantities. Strangely enough, however, as history shows, many otherwise
astute men have neglected to take this necessary step.

Other fields in which modern science has opened up great opportuni-
ties for the analytical chemist are those of agriculture, where there is con-
stant demand for the analysis of soils, fertilizers and products; sanitary
science, where there is a demand for analysis of water, foodstuffs supposed
to be adulterated, and fuels. In the steel industry it is important that the
exact composition of crude iron be constantly determined; also that the
"materials added in the process of manufacture be carefully analyzed to
secure the exact proportions of nickel, manganese or carbon desired for the
particular product. Chemists are also employed and kept constantly busy
by gas companies, bleacheries, soap manufacturers, and brewers. Even rail-
road companies and others, using large quantities of fuel, paints, varnishes
and other substances, constantly require the services of chemists to analyze
materials, boiler water, fuel, and thus to save time, money and machinery,
by indicating proper courses to pursue. The United States Government
employs chemists in the agricultural, geological and ordnance departments,
the opportunities for trained men in the first line of work being particularly
brilliant. Chemistry is also an important part of the electrician's work at

842 WORKERS OF THE NATION

the present day, not only in testing metals, such as copper, whose conduc-
tivity may be impaired by such adulterants as arsenic, etc., but also in fur-
nishing a complete understanding of the theory of primary, and especially
of secondary, batteries, which depend for their operation on very exact
chemical knowledge. In addition to all these general fields may be men-
tioned the modern processes of synthetic chemistry and electro-chemistry,
by which a large variety of valuable substances have been produced. The
vast number of synthetic products derived from coal tar, as well as artificial
graphite, artificial indigo, etc., example the enlarging sphere of chemistry.

The application of chemical knowledge in the manufacture of fertilizers
and in agriculture generally has resulted in increasing the production of
wheat in this country threefold. In the manufacture of medicines chem-
istry plays an important part in preserving human life. Were it not for
our chemists, printers would suffer, for the manufacture of good ink is de-
pendent upon chemical science. All explosives, used either by the armies
of workmen in time of peace, or by the regular army and navy in time of
war, are the product of chemical laboratories. Chemistry has given us, for
illuminating purposes, a superior quality of pure gas. Chemicals, too, are
used as food preservatives.

Neither the house and sign painter nor the artist could exist without
the chemist, for it is the latter who teaches how to purify mineral and
vegetable oils and all pigments used for painting. The process of tanning
depends upon the skill of the chemist, and, indeed, were it not for the
science of chemistry the development of the leather industry would be an
impossibility. The photographer is indebted to the chemist for the coal-tar
products which are called "developers" and the manufacture of dry plates.
Photography, indeed, would fall into disuse but for chemistry. No wonder,
then, that an authority states "that the measure of a country's civilization
can be determined by the activity of its chemists."

It is apparent, therefore, that not all the best work of the chemists, nor
that which has brought greatest results to American manufacturers, has
been done in industries which may be classed as chemical. With modern
methods the chemist is no less necessary to the steel plants, to the sugar
refiner, to the great dyeing establishment, than their steam engines.

But it is in connection with his work in the great oil refining industry
that his work is most familiar. For it is from its by-products that the
Standard Oil Company has won its greatest triumphs in the industrial world
and worked its greatest changes in industrial life. At least one-third of
the company's product was formerly wasted. To-day, thanks to the skill of
the chemist, this waste is manufactured into more than two hundred by-
products. Nothing is now lost. The naphtha is transformed into different
grades of gasoline for all kinds of motors and for use in the arts. Here
alone has been effected a saving of at least three and one-half millions of
dollars. The tar products form a larger and most wonderful group. These
are developed by distillation. Thus are produced, besides other oils, the par-

CHEMISTS AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERS 843

affine wax and the oils so largely used in many ways. These are in scores
of grades. From the results here obtained come supplies to manufacturers
in many industries. The makers of chewing gum, hair oil, shoe blacking,
vaseline, headache powders, salves, and other products draw largely thereon
for their raw material. From these remarkable waste products, too, the
chemist has by his wonderful skill been able to extract the aniline dyes in all
the colors of the rainbow, all the flavors of the fruits of the orchard and
garden, and then, finally, the refuse, if such it may be called, is turned into
fertilizer, to make two blades of grass grow where one grew before. No
industry has enforced so clearly the lesson that the commonest things may
be made to have their uses. To the main industry the result has of course
been a great cheapening of product and at the same time a great improve-
ment in its quality.

Chemists are expected to find some new chemical method of generating
electricity as a substitute for the present mechanical method. The chemist
who can generate electricity chemically cheaper than by the methods of to-
day will make millions. The cost of motive power must be lessened at all
hazards, and the world looks to the scientists to help solve the problem. To
chemists, also, the world looks for the production of foods, or, in other
words, the artificial preparation of natural products by chemical means. M.
Berthelot declares that the chemical manufacture of food will be the great
scientific achievement of the present century, although this will be preceded
by an equally revolutionary change in motive power.

TRAINING FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

In the technological schools there are courses in the study of the appli-
cation of chemistry to the arts and to those problems of engineering con-
nected with the use and manufacture of chemical products. These courses
are supplementary to the study of chemistry alone, and presuppose the
possession by the student of a facility in, and fondness for, mathematics
and drawing. Instruction is given in textile coloring, preparing the stu-
dent for employment in the textile industries.

Formerly, expert workers in chemical engineering were educated in
Europe, in most cases. Our own excellently equipped institutions of tech-
nical instruction have done away with the necessity of studying abroad.
The imperative demand for the utilization of by-products has compelled
the employment of scientific men, whose chemical knowledge will enable
them to plan and execute new processes, and whose engineering ability will
suffice to devise and superintend their equipment. A man scientifically
trained can enter at once upon a career of immediate usefulness in such
establishments, intelligently grasping the processes in their minutest details,
By actual practice, he becomes familiar with the handling of vast quantities
of materials, and is certain to be rewarded by early promotion. The stu-
dent, to fit himself for this service, must be well versed in theoretical, ana-
lytical, physical, electrical and industrial chemistry, and thoroughly grounded

844 WORKERS OF THE NATION

in mathematics and physics as applied to engineering, in its mechanical,
electrical, civil and hydraulic divisions. He will thus be equipped to plan
and superintend the engineering plants for the generation and control of
heat, the production and application of vacuum, and the transfer, in huge
quantities, of solid, liquid and gaseous materials.

A course of chemical engineering ought always to supplement the study
of chemistry, in order that the chemist may be prepared for all the exi-
gencies of his profession. In some institutions, the study of the application
of chemistry to manufacturing covers two years, including class lectures and
demonstrations, inspection visits, lectures by practical experts, and, when
practical, there is laboratory investigation.

Extremely important, in these modern days, is the rapid and exact
analysis of raw materials in such industries as cement-making, the manu-
facture of fine porcelain and glass, and the various branches of metallurgy.
To take one example, for purposes of illustration, the wide use of serium
and thorium oxides for incandescent mantles shows what exact analytical
research has done. And such opportunities for original methods and dis-
coveries will constantly arise.

CHAPTER III

INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC

PROFESSIONS

Americans as Inventors — The Training of the Inventor — Achievements of Inventors — In-
ventions in the Electrical Field — The Reward of the Inventor — Opportunities for
Inventors — The Patent" System — How to Protect an Invention — How to Sell a Patent
— How to Market a New Invention — Astronomers — The Night's Work of an Astrono-
mer— Explorers — Metallurgy as a Profession — Forestry, a New Profession — Positions
for Trained Foresters — Preparation for Forestry Work — Positions for Foresters' As-
sistants— The Farmer and the Bureau of Forestry — Scientists in Government Employ

AMERICANS AS INVENTORS

THE great majority of the 40,000 patents which are issued yearly by
the United States Patent Office are in the names of persons under
thirty years of age. Moreover, the greater number of these patent
rights cover inventions by persons who are not of high station, but who are
rather in the humbler walks of life. Thus the records of the Patent Office
show that the young men, and the comparatively poor men, of this country
are taking advantage of the great opportunities which the government offers
to inventors in protecting the products of their brains.

No other government in the world, save, perhaps, that of Germany,
offers such inducements to the inventor, nor guarantees such absolute pro-
tection of his invention, as does the United States Government. Even in
Germany the government does not insure patent rights covering inventions
which serve to improve the working of a particular part of a machine al-
ready invented ; in the United States, however, he who can improve a ma-
chine, even in the most minute detail, is secure in the ownership of the device
which he has invented. For example, while to one man may belong the
patent rights for the general invention of the telephone, there are scores of
inventions representing small improvements which serve to make the tele-
phone more efficient. The result is that the most humble workman operat-
ing a machine is induced to study his machine or tool and invent, if possible,
a device by which the machine can either be improved, or the output in-
creased. On the other hand, in Europe, even in Germany, where the gov-
ernment is the most liberal in protecting inventions, there is no inducement
to the workman to discover a way to improve the machinery amid which he
spends his life. European workmen are, as a class, simply part of the ma-
chinery which they operate, doing only what they are told to do\ America,

(845)

846 WORKERS OF THE NATION

meantime, is a country of inventors, and to these inventors is due a large
part of the credit for our wonderful industrial progress.

Invention among Americans has, indeed, become a habit; as a result
the United States is the only country in the world in which inventors form
a distinct class or profession. It seems that the encouragement is so uni-
versal and the rewards so great that once a man has invented a successful
article, he becomes what may be termed a professional inventor — that is,
one who devotes his entire time to inventing something. Mr. Edison,
therefore, may be said to be the leader of this profession, his life having been
devoted to the evolving of mechanical improvements and to the creation
of things new and useful.

All over the country there are laboratories in jwhich young men are
spending their lives in the attempt to realize an ambition to become a second
Edison. Almost every school and college has such a laboratory, and here we
find the inventors of the future. In hundreds of manufacturing plants men
are employed and paid large salaries to do nothing but experiment with a
view to improving the machinery or methods in use in the mills or fac-
tories. At the same time nearly all the mechanics in a manufacturing plant
are self-constituted inventors. It has often happened that one of the
mechanics has invented a device which has proven far more valuable than
anything invented by the expert especially employed for the purpose.

THE TRAINING OF THE INVENTOR

To certain minds the most fascinating of all fields of endeavor is that of
invention. Like the journalist and novelist, the inventor is interested in
every phase of man's work. While the writer studies or explores this or
that industrial territory with the purpose of suggesting improvements
through the medium of stories or magazine articles, the man with the me-
chanical turn of mind explores the same fields with the idea of making im-
provements, if he can, through invention. One day the young man of
inventive proclivities discovers a definite need, and straightway he proceeds
to make a special study of the particular corner of the field in which the
discovery is made. He knows that merely to invent something for use in
that particular part of the territory, he need not spend his time in trying to
master the details elsewhere. He may be a workman at the bench. He
thinks he can improve a certain tool. If so, he studies only that one tool
and the work which that tool is expected to accomplish.

Neither the workman nor the professional inventor need understand
every detail of an art or industry. He has a problem to solve in one single
department of the business, and therefore he confines his study and his
energy to that one department. But he must know that department thor-
oughly. He must then learn the real meaning of patience, perseverance and
industry. An invention is not a matter of a day nor a month. Sometimes
years are required.

After these qualities comes the habit of intelligent observation. In

INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS PROFESSIONS 847

each and every phenomenon may lie the one thing that he is searching for,
the one element necessary to success. Nothing is so trifling that the inven-
tor can let it pass without investigating and understanding it. Many men
have tried, many are now trying to discover just what electricity is. Some
day one of these patient, persistent, industrious, observing scientists will
give an exact definition of electricity.

The inventor need not be a scientist, and yet he can and does invent
many articles of great practical use to science. He need not even be an
electrician in order to invent something that will make electricity still
more useful to mankind. He may not be a printer nor a machinist, and
yet he may invent a device that will further increase the output of the
printing press. He will achieve success because he is an observer, because
he sees and values the possibilities in a phenomenon which others would pass
by as of no consequence.

Such is the training of the inventor. He may be a college man, or his
education, so-called, may have been confined to the public school. But
neither colleges nor schools make inventors. They can only teach a young
man to observe and how to observe. For therein lies the only training that
can be given the future inventor. To teach a man a language does not
make him an author. No more does a knowledge of tools make one an
inventor. Each inventor is simply an individual phenomenon who has
worked out something in his own individual way. For the inventor there
are no rules. He questions everything, upsets theories and overthrows
science itself.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF INVENTORS

Inventors have, above all, given us automatic machinery. They have
made America supreme in the iron and steel industry, because they have in-
vented machinery which gathers up the ore at the very mouth of the mine,
carries it to the mill, and converts it into steel, the whole process requiring
but few hands. He who visits certain iron and steel plants wonders where
the workers are. It seems incredible that such vast results can be obtained
with such a small number of hands. Again, the inventor has made our
railroads the best, the safest, the most comfortable in the world. Westing-
house gave us the air-brake, Woodruff gave us the sleeping-car, not to
speak of the inventors who have improved and developed the locomo-
tive until' to-day we have the wonderful iron horse racing seventy miles
an hour.

Other inventors have made Americans the masters of the cereal markets
of the world by giving us machinery by which the land is plowed and har-
rowed, by which the seed is planted and the harvest reaped, all on a
wholesale scale. We have newspapers that cost only one cent each, because
inventors gave us the machinery that grinds the trees of the forests into
pulp, that converts the pulp into paper, that covers five miles of paper every
hour with words and pictures. We wear the best shoes in the world, for

848 WORKERS OF THE NATION

which we pay the lowest price, because inventors gave us machinery which
turns out a pair of shoes complete every twenty minutes.

Instances in which the inventor has contributed to our national progress
might be multiplied indefinitely, but enough has been said to show that all
that inventors have accomplished in the past has served to create new and
greater opportunities for the young men of to-day to attain place and fame
and wealth by inventing something that will render the inventions of yes-
terday still more useful, that will cause the wheels of industry to revolve
still faster, that will render the product of machinery still cheaper.

INVENTORS IN THE ELECTRICAL FIELD

For inventors in the electrical field there are almost unlimited possi-
bilities. A study of inventions that have been made in electricity merely
since the centennial year would show that a great many men have come to
the front and have reaped magnificent rewards. At first the inventors
constructed apparatus that revealed fundamental ideas; then came one in-
vention after another for the application of electricity ; and the inventors of
the next twenty years will have plenty of opportunities to improve upon the
inventions of the last two decades. Electrical railways are to be developed
to the point where the people may have not only local trolley lines but high-
speed railways, annihilating the distance between great cities. The Ger-
mans are constructing an electrical railroad between Berlin and Hamburg
on which they expect to run trains at the rate of 150 miles an hour. To
run at such tremendous speed, however, involves the danger of the train
leaving the track, and here is a chance for still other inventors.

Other opportunities are in the transmission and distribution of electrical
power to motors in factories, mills and mines. In fact, in every industry
in which power-driven machinery is used, the advantages of motors are be-
coming more and more apparent. Cotton, woollen, and all other textile
mills will soon be run entirely by electricity, as well all printing establish-
ments, chemical works, machine shops, iron works, and, in fact, all mining
and manufacturing establishments.

Another great chance for inventors is the discovery of a way of generat-
ing electricity directly from coal. Mr. Edison and other great inventors
have given their attention to this important problem. It presents one of the
greatest and most urgent needs of the electrical world. A colossal fortune
awaits the man who will invent some successful process or apparatus to
meet this need. Such an invention would mean that we should no longer
be obliged to depend upon the boiler, steam engine, and dynamo for nearly
all of our electrical current.

Meantime, new electrical inventions are being announced in the United
States almost daily. The majority of such inventions are simple devices
by which electricity may be used in the various arts, while others are
of extreme importance in that they promise to revolutionize this or that
industry.

INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS PROFESSIONS 849

THE REWARD OF THE INVENTOR

Inventors are not rewarded in every instance as liberally as might be
expected. The reward depends upon the value of the thing invented. A
new machine, such as that of the cotton gin, for example, yielded larger
returns than would have the invention of a small device in the running-gear
of a great machine already invented. The cotton gin brought the inventor
untold wealth, because one single such machine performed in a given time
the work of several thousand persons. Again, the patents issued to Cyrus
H. McCormick for his harvester made him a millionaire, because he had
invented a better way of cutting grain than with the scythe. Elias Howe
received over $100,000 a year in royalties, because, after the patient study
of years, he discovered that by punching a needle at the point instead of at
the head, sewing could be done by a machine instead of by hand. Charles
Goodyear reaped wondrous wealth by discovering the process of vulcaniza-
tion, which at once became the basis of the rubber industry. It is patents
like these, of course, which reap the largest rewards, because they represent
a great saving of time and labor.

Hundreds of very simple articles, however, have made fortunes for
those holding the patent rights thereof. Such articles may have only an
ephemeral existence, and be of no service to mankind save as a source of
momentary amusement. One class of such inventions is that known as
parlor games. The invention of a picture of a tailless donkey, for instance,
led to the game called "Donkey," in which each player is led blindfolded to
the picture of the donkey and is obliged to pin the tail to the animal. The
inventor of the parlor "Target and Dots" received between $35,000 and
$40,000 from his invention. The "Pigs in Clover" puzzle was likewise a
great money-maker. Inventions like these, of course, are dependent for
success upon the whim of the public, or upon the investment of great sums
of money in advertising. At the best their popularity is only short-lived,
for they are not necessities.

There are thousands of very simple inventions, however, which are ex-
tremely useful. Among these may be mentioned Mr. Parker's invention of
the tobacco-box fastening, which consists simply of a "bulge in a dent."
Again, the man who invented a patent clip for fastening together the pages
of manuscript reaped a fortune. It is related that an inventor who obtained
a patent for a washing machine sold it for $50,000.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR INVENTORS

In spite of the giant strides of the technical sciences during the last few
decades, there are still many requirements in mechanics and industry await-
ing the touch of genius that alone can subdue natural forces to the uses of
mankind. To-day inventors are nearly as numerous as poets, but there is
as great a dearth of really worthy contrivances as of real poetry, because

23— Vol. 2

850 WORKERS OF THE NATION

that, in both fields, the majority of work is done by people who do not
understand the fundamental principles of their crafts, or lack the talent to
apply them. Such facts should not discourage people with original ideas,
but they should emphasize the utter necessity of understanding the science
or industry to which proposed inventions relate, in order that useless efforts
may not be made, and that new devices may embody the ideal of simplicity.
Even a general knowledge of electrical science, for example, will immensely
modify a would-be inventor's conception of desired results and the avail-
able methods of achieving them; while, with insufficient information, he
must flounder hopelessly, achieving nothing of use or merit. Such is the
story of a very large number of devices for which patent rights are sought,
and, also, of very many that are actually patented. The amazing sim-
plicity of some of the inventions that have proven most profitable only
shows how far science contributes to success.

Among the new devices anxiously awaited by the world are improved
.apparatus for increasing safety in travel, both at sea and on shore. Thus,
the apparently hopeless problem of a steamship that will not sink still lures
engineers and amateurs by the prospects of immense profits. The ideal
railroad car coupling is still to be devised, while really reliable rail- joints,
automatic signals, and devices capable of dealing with heavy snowstorms
and the dangers of derailment would yield fabulous returns. Many practi-
cal apparatus, such as brakes, heaters and switches, are capable of great
improvement. There are not yet enough agricultural machines to supply
the demand for means to conduct farming as economically and efficiently as
the needs of the present day demand. A cotton-picking machine would
bring its inventor large profits, and there is still need for a sugar cane reaper
or a fibre separator for hemp and. other such plants. Labor-saving kitchen
utensils of real merit would have a wide sale, while large prizes await the
successful inventor of a superior oil lamp, or of a match mixture that con-
tains no phosphorus.

Such substances as India-rubber, wood, asphalt, etc., will undoubtedly
become scarcer, as time progresses, and rise in price, hence really meritorious
substitutes for any of them, made from waste or cheap materials, are eagerly
sought for. India-rubber has been imitated in products of such plants as
milk weed, and at least one experimenter announced that he would presently
make it compositely from coal tar, but the problem still remains unsolved,
while the demand increases. In a few years, also, wood-pulp paper will
be an expensive article. Hence the devising of a cheap substitute is claim-
ing the attention of many practical minds, using the hulls of cotton seeds
being at present the most hopeful solution of the question.

Labor-saving machinery in all branches of industry is as much in de-
mand as ever, while the cry for more efficient arms and ammunition grows
louder as the arts of peace advance. Mining and metallurgy in all their
branches offer equally strong inducements to well-equipped inventors.

INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS PROFESSIONS 851

THE PATENT SYSTEM

One hundred years ago there was neither telegraph, steamboat nor rail-
road. There were no exports but agricultural products, and no manufac-
turing of importance. There were no carpets made here, except rag carpets,
up to 1776, and there were no power looms for carpet making up to 1850.
Iron plows were made here in 1819, reapers in 1833, and threshers in 1850.
The country was mainly agricultural until the close of the Civil War, al-
though manufacturing had previously begun. But now the exports of
manufactures exceed the imports. All this has arisen from the intro-
duction of labor-saving devices, most of which were invented in this
country. And this leads us to a consideration of the United States Patent
System.

Our system of patents is sometimes called the "examination system,"
differing from those in vogue in Europe. While ours is an ideal system, if
the examinations can be made with sufficient care, it is becoming a difficult
one through lack of time to make perfect by thorough examinations on ac-
count of the rapidly increasing number of patents. More than two million
domestic and foreign patents have been issued. The increase of scientific
publications has also been enormous. The encouragement given to inven-
tors and investors in patents has been one of the prominent causes of the
great industrial and manufacturing prosperity of the country.

Our patent laws are more liberal than those of other countries. A too
frequent change of commissioners prevents the establishment of definite
policies. Too many appeals are permitted, and interference proceedings
are too complicated and cumbrous. The power of keeping applications in
the office through delays in amendments is a serious flaw, the Act of March
3, 1897, not having remedied this to the extent hoped for. But even under
existing rules, about seventy-five per cent of the patents granted are issued
within one year after filing. Without undue delay of applications, this
number would reach ninety per cent of the whole. It is a fact that re-
cently there were pending 4,329 applications filed prior to January i, 1898,
three of them having been filed as far back as 1880. From this it would
appear that an application may be kept alive indefinitely.

There is no record of salaries paid to employes of the Patent Office be-
fore 1803. Men may have been detailed for this work, while on the pay-
rolls of other departments. The personnel of the Patent Office in 1816
consisted merely of a superintendent, one clerk and a messenger, the total
salaries being $1,772. In contrast with this we may note that the office
force now includes 679 persons, and the aggregate of salaries for a single
year is $761,691.

The receipts of the office have, however, kept pace with the expendi-
tures, the receipts for a recent year being more than $1,350,000, while the
expenses were about $1,260,000. The total excess of receipts over dis-
bursements from 1836 to the present time is $5,177,458.

852 WORKERS OF THE NATION

How TO PROTECT AN INVENTION

As a rule the sole cost of inventing something that will lead to a fortune
is that of a few tools and of the patent right. The cost of securing the
patent is about $55, of which $5 is the fee charged by the government and
$50 the fee charged by the patent attorney.

It is important that the young inventor should study the Patent Office
practice and have a good working knowledge of patent law. Every ex-
perienced inventor will impress upon the youngster the importance of exer-
cising great care in drawing up applications for a patent.

Over half a million of patented articles have been registered in the Pat-
ent Office since the law granting patents was first passed by Congress. Up
to a few years ago the law required that a model of every invention be
placed in the Patent Office. As a result there are thousands and thou-
sands of models now on exhibition in Washington, the study of which will
afford the young inventor a more or less thorough knowledge as to the
development in almost any class of inventions. In the Patent Office there
is an expert called an examiner, for each of thirty-eight classes of inventions.

Under the present patent law it is not necessary to place a model in the
Patent Office, but the government does require a drawing and a specification
prepared by a patent attorney in a prescribed legal form. It is in the prepa-
ration of these drawings and specifications that the utmost care should be
used. The inventor should not send in his application for a patent until he
has studied the drawings and specifications over and over again. Patent
attorneys are oftentimes so busy that they delegate the details to clerks or
assistants. These subordinates have from time to time made trouble for
inventors, their blunders leading to protracted lawsuits. The litigation
over a telephone transmitter patent, covering a period of fourteen years, was
the result of carelessness on the part of the inventor in intrusting the work
of drawing up the patent application to an attorney's clerk.

In addition to covering his invention by patent in the United States, the
inventor should secure European patents if his invention is sufficiently valu-
able to justify the expense at the outset.

The inventor can intrust his plans to the Patent Office with every assur-
ance that he will receive honest and fair treatment and that the product of
his brain will be kept a secret until such time as he is fully protected by
patent and publicity will do no harm.

How TO SELL A PATENT

The first step after securing the patent is to give the invention as much
publicity as possible. Publicity will prove of great value, either in dispos-
ing of the patent rights or in bringing the invention to the notice of capital-
ists upon whom the inventor depends for marketing the article. Inventors
are not usually good business men ; they often have exaggerated ideas of the
commercial value of their patents. Moreover, the average inventor is not

INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS PROFESSIONS 853

equipped to secure the best terms from capitalists, and therefore it often
happens that the inventor who attempts to exploit his own patent finds him-
self outwitted by capital at the very outset.

The young man who wishes to dispose of his patent, therefore, should
find a partner, or an agent, who possesses the shrewdness of a business man.
In every large city there are patent agents, whose sole business is the sell-
ing of patent rights. These agents subscribe to the "United States Patent
Gazette," which is issued weekly, and send out their circulars to all those
mentioned as having secured patents. The inventor will probably receive
scores of such circulars as soon as the "Patent Gazette" has published the
fact that he has invented something. The agent will charge five to ten
per cent of the amount secured from the sale of the patent right. Or, if
preferred, the inventor can make an arrangement with the agent for a fixed
sum, which he must pay in advance, and which is considered an equivalent
for the agent's services, whether the patent is sold or still remains on the
hands of the patentee at the end of a certain time.

How TO MARKET A NEW INVENTION

By somewhat similar arangements the inventor, through another class
of agents, can secure the capital necessary for the marketing of his inven-
tion. Capital is ever on the outlook for something that is good, and the
inventor can depend upon it that if he has something which is really meri-
torious he will sooner or later secure the requisite amount of money for
the launching of his invention. Is his invention one that represents an
improvement on a certain machine, or a device that will save time and
money in the factory or shop? His best chance then is to go at once to
the manufacturers to whom his invention will prove of greatest value.
Notwithstanding the general distrust of corporations, it is said that inven-
tors usually secure far more liberal terms from corporations than from in-
dividuals.

ASTRONOMERS

Astronomers may be divided into two classes — mathematicians and
observers.

The mathematician spends his time in computations and methods of
mathematical analysis, by which great discoveries are made and the places
of the heavenly bodies determined through past and future centuries.
This branch of the profession is but little known in a popular way, for the
study of the mathematician constitutes that highest and most difficult
branch of astronomy called "the science of celestial mechanics." As those
engaged in this branch of the profession seldom use the telescope, that is,
seldom make observations themselves, they can hardly be called astrono-
mers in the popular sense of the term. They are usually termed "mathemat-
ical astronomers." They develop new methods of solving abstruse prob-
lems, spend a great deal of time in libraries consulting the observations of

854 WORKERS OF THE NATION

astronomers proper, the principal tools of their trade, as it were, being the
mathematical and scientific books, the use of which is known only to a few
specialists. These specialists in astronomy work and study by day rather
than by night. Newton and Darwin were mathematical astronomers, as
were also Laplace, Newcomb, Poincare and Hill.

The more familiar class of astronomers includes those who work by
night and whose observations and measurements among the stars furnish
the foundation of man's knowledge of the universe. The regular as-
tronomer who passes his nights with his eye to a telescope, in profound
study of the celestial bodies, must bring to the observatory not only prac-
tical talent in the use of the instruments, but a mind thoroughly trained in
mathematics and physics and other high branches of science. Almost every
State has its observatory, and in these silent halls of science, through the
night, hundreds of astronomers, young and old, the novice and the veteran,
are lost to all things earthly, engaged in the contemplation of the movements
of worlds, sometimes as far distant as 70,000,000,000,000 miles.

Among the best known workshops of astronomers in this country are
the United States Naval Observatory in Washington; the Lick Observa-
tory on Mount Hamilton, in California; the Yerkes Observatory at Wil-
liams Bay, Wisconsin; and the Lowell Observatory in Arizona. Many
of the universities have observatories in which important discoveries now
and then have been made. The largest and most famous telescope perhaps
is the one used at the Lick Observatory, which has a 36-inch refractor — the
largest lens, perhaps, in the world. This particular lens was the master-
piece of the late A. G. Clarke of Cambridgeport, Massachusetts.

Astronomers declare that the science of the stars is the most fascinating,
most exacting and most laborious of all the professions.

This form of mental occupation, resulting, as it does, in the forgetful-
ness of earthly ills or suffering, prolongs the life of men thus engaged. In
the popular mind the cause of longevity among astronomers is the sup-
posedly easy nature of the work; that is, as the star-gazer works in the
solitude of the night his labors are imagined to be so quiet, so free from
strain on the nerves, that it is only natural that he should live many years.
It is declared, however, that the practical observer of the stars actually
works harder than the ordinary professional man. His task is principally
performed in the latter half of the night, the very time when, from the in-
herited tendency of generations, the human system is most in need of rest.
It is during these hours that the vital forces of the physical organism are
at their lowest ebb ; therefore, even after a quarter of a century of work in
an observatory, when it might be supposed that the human system had be-
come accustomed to unnatural working hours, astronomers still experience
the peculiar bodily suffering and discomfort resulting from disregard of the
demand of nature for sleep. Despite the circumstances, as a matter of
fact astronomers live longer than men engaged in other professions. It is
not unusual to be informed that this or that worker at the telescope is seventy

INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS PROFESSIONS 855

or eighty years old; some have even continued observations beyond their
eightieth year. It is explained that the longevity of astronomers is the
result rather of a process of natural selection which draws the stronger in-
dividuals to this sublime science. Longevity in this instance, therefore,
is an indication of the strength of those who choose the profession rather
than the measure of its quietude and ease.

It can not be said of this profession, as of others, that it is overcrowded.
For obvious reasons young men do not rush into astronomy as they do into
law or medicine or engineering. He who wishes to take up astronomy as
a career must possess a great capacity for mathematics — "the faculty of mind
necessary for its successful cultivation being admittedly the highest and
rarest gift of the race." In short, the young astronomer must pass many
years of his precious youth in training, must possess the peculiar tempera-
ment that is capable of sacrificing his personal comfort without hope of any
great material reward. Astronomers as a rule make but moderate incomes.
Their reward, after a tiresome vigil lasting through the entire night, after
hours of physical exhaustion and pain, lies principally in occasional dis-
coveries which they are able to announce to the world.

THE NIGHT'S WORK OF AN ASTRONOMER

At certain seasons of the year when conditions are most favorable for
"seeing," as the astronomer says, it is not unusual for the astronomer to
pass as many as eighteen hours out of the twenty-four in the observatory.
Oftentimes it is necessary to work thus hard for six weeks or two months,
or even three months.

While making observations, a few years ago, at the Lowell Observa-
tory at a place near the City of Mexico — the observatory having been moved
bodily from Arizona — Dr. See tells us that Mr. Lowell himself usually ap-
peared about nine o'clock in the morning; made observations until one
o'clock ; then devoted an hour to luncheon ; then returned to the observatory
and worked until sunset; took an hour for dinner; then again returned to
the observatory and observed until three or four o'clock in the morning.
Dr. See at this time usually put in as many as sixteen hours a day at the
telescope. He even had his meals brought to the observatory in order not
to lose much-coveted moments in the middle of the night. He usually
worked until sunrise, and during a period of six months sleep was neglected
and almost forgotten. In a single night he sometimes examined as many
as 1,000 of the brighter stars. Between sunset and sunrise it was not un-
usual for him to find and measure fifty or sixty systems, many of which were
new.

Great achievements are expected of astronomers in the present century,
and to American astronomers the world looks for the greatest of these
achievements. Sir Norman Lockyer, director of the Solar Physics Obser-
vatory, declares that to the progress of this science the most valuable con-
tributions in the near future will be made in the United States, which has

856 WORKERS OF THE NATION

more observers and better instruments than any other country in the
world. One of the first of such achievements will be the forecasting of
famines in India, of drought in Australia, and of important weather
changes in all countries. These forecasts can be made a long time in ad-
vance by means of the spectra of sun spots. It is expected that astronomers
will be able to predict not only the time, but also the area and extent of
drought and famine, thus making it possible to take timely precautions. In
this way astronomers can make their work of great practical service to
mankind. Astronomers have three other great tasks before them; first, the
chemical classification of the stars ; second, the completion of a photographic
chart of the heavens; third, the substitution of photography entirely for
the observation of individuals in recording the transits of the stars.

EXPLORERS

While the work of explorers themselves can hardly be said to comprise
a distinct profession, the explorer is usually a man of science, and his work
can therefore be included under scientific pursuits.

In various ways the archaeologist, the botanist, the ethnologist, and others
have added to scientific knowledge as explorers. Africa and the Arctic
region have for years been the favorite fields for exploration.

Hundreds of thousands of dollars have been expended and many lives
lost, especially in the quest of the North Pole. For commerce, glory and
wealth — this, in brief, is the answer to the question, "Why do explorers
again and again seek the North Pole?"

The theories of the philosophers may be revolutionized by the conquest
of the North Pole. They are at present based upon inference and mere
conjecture. A mighty hand of retardation and arrested development has
been laid upon that section of the earth's surface. Cosmology and cos-
mogony show there the status of the glacial period, when all the world was
ice. What mysteries of world-history may be unfolded by observation of
this region of darkness and silence ! Mile by mile has man fought his way
toward this goal of scientific exploration, through untold hardships and
privations. Lives and fortunes have been lost in this quest for scientific
knowledge. But science will not be baffled by any obstacles, and, as sure
as sunrise, the day and the man will come, revealing to mankind the secrets
of prehistoric epochs, and perhaps of human races who went down to death,
leaving behind them no traces heretofore disclosed.

The director of the Geological Survey of Canada, in one of his reports,
makes the statement that practically nothing is known of one-third of the
Dominion.

There are more than 1,250,000 square miles of unexplored lands in Canada. The en-
tire area of the Dominion is computed at 3,450,257 square miles, consequently one-third of
this country has yet been untravelled by the explorer. Exclusive of the inhospitable de-
tached Arctic portions, 954,000 square miles is for all practical purposes entirely unknown.

The Government has made a great effort in the direction of exploring and developing
this vast territory. It has recognized the fact that railroads are essential to the develop-

INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS PROFESSIONS 857

ment of a new country, and liberal inducements for their construction are made by grant-
ing millions of acres of land as a bonus. The indications are that, during the next five
years, at least 5,000 miles of new railroad will be completed throughout the Dominion,
most of which will run through unexplored wilderness.

The mineral wealth of this unknown region is undoubtedly immense, and perhaps in-
exhaustible; while the dense forests of hard wood, now of so little value, will, when
brought to the markets of the world, become a source of large profit.

METALLURGY AS A PROFESSION

Metallurgy has advanced at an even pace with modern mining engineer-
ing, the two together having gone far to reducing the practical operations of
extracting and working ores to an exact science, involving the minimum
of waste and the maximum of production. Properly speaking, metallurgy
is a branch of chemistry, and, like it, has profited immensely by the intro-
duction of electrical processes. Thus, by an electro-metallurgical process,
aluminium, formerly obtained from its compounds by reduction with sodium
or similar metals, at a cost of about one dollar per pound, may now be ob-
tained by electrolytic reduction of its oxides, so as to enable it to be sold at
thirty cents per pound. Other improvements enable the profitable working
of copper ore, averaging as low as three per cent of metal, while the inven-
tions of Edison and others have made it possible to extract iron from the
poorest deposits. Such improvements have, of course, immensely extended
the sphere of mining operations and increased the total output for all metals.
Thus, the average amount of copper annually recovered from domestic ores
is about 601,000,000 pounds, and from imported ores about 62,500,000 ad-
ditional : of lead, 276,000 tons from domestic, and over 103,000 tons from
imported ores ; of gold, nearly 4,000,000 ounces from domestic, and nearly
2,000,0000 ounces from imported ores; of silver, over 59,000,000 ounces
from domestic, and nearly 47,000,000 ounces from imported ores. The total
production of aluminium is over 7,000,000 tons. These figures example the
wide field open to the competent metallurgist, also, the great advance in the
science, which, of all others, has been the index to civilization.

FORESTRY — A NEW PROFESSION

Since the business of forest management has been undertaken by the
government, a profession absolutely new to this country has been created.
This is the profession of forestry. Certain it is that the government can
not conduct its work in forestry without a large number of independent and
specially trained men. In order to secure the required number of foresters,
therefore, the government is educating a number of young college grad-
uates in this art and paying them for their services.

This branch of the government work is in charge of the Bureau of
Forestry under the Department of Agriculture. The chief forester and
head of the bureau is Mr. Gifford Pinchot, who is unquestionably the lead-
ing authority on forestry in the United States. Mr. Pinchot, aided by
members of his family, secured the endowment for the establishment of a
school of forestry at Yale University. A similar school is also maintained

858 WORKERS OF THE NATION

at Ithaca, New York, by Cornell University. Graduates of either of these
schools, or of any other forestry school in the United States, are at once
given employment in the United States Forest Bureau, as Mr. Pinchot is
ever glad to obtain the services of young men so trained.

POSITIONS FOR TRAINED FORESTERS

The Bureau of Forestry has positions open to trained foresters. These
employes are known as field assistants, starting with salaries of from $720
to $1,000 at first, with extra allowances for living and travelling expenses
incident to field work. Half of each year is spent in the field, and the other
half in Washington, reports being prepared in the capital city. Incompe-
tent men are excluded from entrance into this service by strict technical
examinations under the United States Civil Service Commission.

The Bureau of Forestry is constantly engaged in the preparation of
working plans for the development and maintenance of private State and
Federal forest lands, for the pursuit of forest investigations, and in tree
planting. To do all this work there is a dearth of properly trained foresters.
And private forest owners are seeking the services of skilled foresters to
check the wasteful methods of lumbering now in vogue. Trained men in
this branch of work will find excellent opportunities in the Philippines.

PREPARATION FOR FORESTRY WORK

Preparation for forestry should be undertaken upon a broad basis. It
ought to begin with a college course, giving the student some knowledge of
such allied subjects as geology, physical geography, mineralogy, chem-
istry, botany, and pure and applied mathematics, including surveying. Some
attention may well be paid to physics, meteorology, and political economy.
A post-graduate course should be taken at one of the schools of instruction
in professional forestry.

The student should spend all his vacations in the woods, studying forest
conditions from day to day, and getting used to forest methods in field work,
especially learning all he can about lumbering, which is closely allied to for-
estry. If European forest study can be added, so much the better, as re-
sults of different methods, long employed, may be thus observed. In so
much as all these branches of preparative work have been pursued, by so
much more thorough is the fundamental training of the forester. Study
at a forest school, at least, is essential, though the rest be out of reach.
Insufficient training will be found to be a great drawback to advancement,
no matter how great may be the student's natural ability.

POSITIONS FOR FORESTERS' ASSISTANTS

Application blanks for the position of student assistants in the Forestry
Bureau may be obtained by writing to the bureau. The applicant will be
required to state whether it is his definite intention to make forestry his pro-
fession and to say when he reached such a decision. The student must state

INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS PROFESSIONS 859

the degree of his knowledge of the following subjects: Forestry, lumber-
ing, geology, physical geography, surveying, botany, and auxiliary sciences.
The applicant has the privilege of naming the region of the country to which
he prefers to be assigned, but the application blank adds : "The work you
are applying for will be hard and monotonous. Cheerful obedience to
orders is essential to success."

Each applicant stands about one chance in five of being accepted. As
soon as he receives his appointment he will be assigned to work in the
Bureau at Washington, where about twenty-five young foresters are em-
ployed, or he will be sent out on field duty, sixty-five students being thus
employed in various parts of the country during summer. The student will
be required to pay his own travelling expenses, and his salary during his
apprenticeship will be $25 a month. The young man who seriously intends
to make forestry his life work learns the business thoroughly, and as a full-
fledged forester can ultimately command a good salary. These foresters
must be something more than mere timber-cutters and woodsmen : they must
have a knowledge of the needs of trees, a practical working familiarity with
the different varieties of growths, and a fair knowledge of entomology.
Insect ravages are so great in many of our forests that the forester must be
thoroughly informed on the natural history of the pests and the methods for
exterminating them.

The student assistants in the field are, in the performance of technical
work, under the supervision of trained foresters, who explain and elucidate
matters coming before their men, and suggest individual study in certain
directions. Still these supervisors are not formal instructors, with lectures
at given hours. The student assistant can learn much, however, from his
daily routine.

THE FARMER AND THE BUREAU OF FORESTRY

The steady growth of public interest in the preservation and wise use
of forests is a subject for congratulation. Not only has the interest in
forest management spread among important lumber companies and other
holders of forest lands, but the interest in forest preservation has taken a
firmer hold than ever before of those portions of the country whose pros-
perity depends upon their water supply. There has been a marked devel-
opment of the forest movement in the South. The growing appreciation
of the advantages of practical forestry is here, no less than in the North,
largely the result of practical assistance from the Bureau of Forestry of the
United States Department of Agriculture to private owners in handling
their forest lands.

Every farmer who owns woodland can profit by writing to the Bureau
first named for the reports in relation to the special branch of forestry in
which they may be interested. Every branch of the operations of govern-
ment forester is of direct benefit to the farmer, and all who desire may be
made acquainted with the results and investigations of the forester. The

86o WORKERS OF THE NATION

farmers of Wisconsin and Minnesota can receive benefit from the Bureau's
study of forest fires. All farmers in mountainous regions can use to ad-
vantage the advice given by the Bureau in respect to protection against
forest fires, for such protection is of vital importance to agriculture. How
to maintain the lumber supply without impairing the profits of lumbermen is
a subject also treated of in the forestry publications. Every possible prac-
tical assistance is given to owners of forest land, even to the owner of a
small wood lot, including advice as to the most suitable trees to plant in
various sections, especially in the treeless West, and the best manner of
handling wood lots wherever situated.

The conditions under which the Bureau of Forestry undertakes to assist the owners
of wood lots to make the most of them are very simple. It has nothing to do with the
receipts and expenses which arise under its plans. The farmer must attend to the actual
work of cutting and marketing his wood, or else furnish the necessary labor. The cost
of doing so he must pay, and the money it yields goes to him. On the other hand, all in-
vestigations, advice, and supervision needed to prepare and carry out the working plan
are entirely at the cost of the Bureau. The assistance of the Bureau costs the farmer
nothing except the desire to improve his property and the willingness to be assisted.

The object of this whole undertaking is to convince the farmers of the real advantage
to them of better ways of handling their wood lots. To spread this conviction by the
proof of actual examples in successful operation, which must be satisfactory to the men
chiefly concerned before they can be of use to others, the whole scheme is arranged so
that its success depends on the way it is received by the farmers. Just so long as the work-
ing plans are satisfactory to the farmers for whom they are made, just so long they stand
a chance of being useful as examples, but no longer. Consequently the wood lot agreement
is so worded that it can be ended at ten days' notice by either party. Furthermore, if a
working plan is not satisfactory to the owner when it is made, it will not be put into effect.
These conditions have been made so easy because the close relation of the wood lots to so
many millions of our people, the vast area they cover, and their very great national im-
portance as sources of fuel, fencing and other material, require and justify great effort to
improve their condition and increase their productive power.

SCIENTISTS IN GOVERNMENT EMPLOY

There are a number of technical and scientific positions in the various de-
partments and bureaus of the government which require special examina-
tions. Applicants for these places are notified when vacancies occur and
informed as to when and where examinations will be held. These positions
can not be classified, as many of them stand by themselves. Hence ex-
aminations have to be made to fit each individual case. Such positions are
as follows: agrostologist, anatomist, astronomer, botanical artist, bibli-
ographer, cartographic draughtsman, cataloguer, chart corrector, chemist,
climatologist, entomologist, horticulturist, assistant hydrographer, lapidist,
lithographer, map colorer, microscopist, nautical expert, scientific assistant
in the National Museum, ornithologist, pharmacist, photographer, pomolo-
gist, pattern-maker, road expert, soil physicist, tea examiner, vault, safe
and lock expert, verifier of weights and measures, wood engraver, and vege-
table pathologist. This list shows to a certain extent the varied interests,
professions and trades which the government touches in its department
administrations. The salaries paid to these different experts range from
$1,000 to $3,000 or $4,000.

INVENTORS AND MISCELLANEOUS PROFESSIONS 861

The work performed by the government scientists is as varied and dif-
ferent as the industries which _make our national life so successful. For
the sake of brevity and system, however, they are classified under great
departments and bureaus, and in each one there will be found specialists in
a dozen different lines. No man in scientific research has attained too great
a reputation to make him above working for the United States Government,
and no man is too humble of origin to be passed by unnoticed if he has any-
thing new and of special value to the country. In the Department of Agri-
culture there are thousands of trained experts and men of science who are
laboring in the interests of some ten million farmers. One of the largest
libraries in the world is that which the Department of Agriculture pub-
lishes, and copies of the books and pamphlets issued from this department
run into the millions.

The Department of Agriculture is administered by the Secretary, who
is a Cabinet Minister, appointed by the President, and he makes his own se-
lections for the heads of the different bureaus. The civil service law applies
to many of the appointments in this department, and there is an unwritten
law applying to many places outside of the civil service that no competent
man shall be dismissed without cause. It is a well-known fact that there
are scores of important positions in the department which are hard to fill,
and a good man is retained in service for a lifetime. These scientific ex-
perts are paid good salaries, ranging from two to five thousand dollars a
year, with some few exceeding the latter figure.

In all these positions under the government some scientific training or
knowledge is necessary as a preliminary. The fear or favor of political pull is
less than in most other departments. The work is all of a scientific or
semi-scientific character, and a mere political follower or ward henchman
can hardly cut a decent figure in such a position. Consequently the posi-
tions are in less demand than the mere clerical ones.

CHAPTER IV
THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS

The Ministry as a Profession — Qualifying as a Preacher — Number of Ministers and Va-
cant Pulpits — Ministers' Salaries — Theological Schools — Theological Students — Sunday
School Teachers — The Catholic Church and Clergy — Training for the Priesthood —
Sisters of Charity — The Jewish Church and Clergy — Missionaries — The Achievements
of Missionaries — The Practical Side of Missionary Work — The Educational Work of
Missionaries — Medical Missionaries — Missionaries as Printers and Publishers — Candi-
dates for Missionary Work — Churches as Employment Agencies — The Practical Work
of the Salvation Army — The Practical Work of the Volunteers of America

THE MINISTRY AS A PROFESSION

THE profession most affected by the spread of the commercial spirit in
America appears to be that of the ministry. Not that commerce
has had the effect of keeping the people from church. On the other
hand, in the last forty years during which the commercial spirit has been de-
veloped to its present magnificent maturity, church membership, according
to the figures in the case, has increased proportionately with the increase of
the population. Therefore the effect of the growth of commercialism is to
be found in the theological schools and in the pulpits rather than among the
laymen in the pews. It seems that in a practical age young men do not
take kindly to the least practical of the professions. The material rewards
in the ministry are so small that our young men pass by the open doors of
theological schools, bent upon seeking entrance to the colleges of law or
medicine or engineering, where the promise of the material future is brighter
than that afforded by the seminary.

The influence of the pulpit, however, even in this age of commercialism,
is as widespread and far-reaching as it ever was. The moral teachers are
the social leaders. The pulpit will never be dispossessed. Preaching is a
lofty form of conversation, or persuasion; an effort to bring the truth to
bear upon conduct and character, so that the conscience may be quickened
and the moral sentiment refined. The foundation of moral instruction is
in the family, where the example of the parents is a constant, concrete les-
son. The preacher must supplement this influence and expand it. Great
is the printing press, and books may teach immortal truths. But, after all,
it is only the living voice of the preacher, the persuader, that can touch some
natures. Men need spiritual leaders of flesh and blood, and religion must
be upheld and fostered and disseminated by priests and clergymen. It is
(862)

THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 863

the speaking philosopher who wins converts. Books, as a rule, do not carry
conviction, do not proselytize, or convert. Spoken truth burns its way into
the mind and heart. Man is governed by moral teachers, guiding the multi-
tude out of the wilderness. Exterior laws do not make men good. Spiritual
principles must work upon the heart.

There are difficulties to be faced by the modern preacher. He must be
an expert in social reform. He must know the conditions of life in refer-
ence to illiteracy, vice, and crime, and not be a stranger to the demands of
the tenement house. He must keep abreast of the times in all the various
branches of contemporaneous human activity and interest represented in his
congregations. He is forced to read much. Public duties must not be over-
looked.

QUALIFYING AS A PREACHER

What particular qualities are required to make a preacher ? The ministry
used to be considered the most learnetl of the professions, especially in the
United States. To-day, while it is still classed among the learned pro-
fessions it has also a place as a practical calling. A New York clergyman
says that the minister of to-day lives the life of every other man in the com-
munity. His life is more in the open, but amenable to the charge of being
unpractical in the very effort to be practical. Ministers are now trying to
adjust themselves to new conditions. For centuries they have ranked as
cloistered men; to-day their work is among men shoulder to shoulder. Un-
der the new conditions, therefore, the faculties of seminaries realize that
young men in training for the ministry must receive instruction in sociology
as well as in theology. For ministers to-day are not asked to give personal
opinions on things which mere man is never destined to know, but "to take
a useful part in the things which everybody has to do."

The most successful men in the pulpit under these conditions are those
who are men of affairs as well as preachers, who have the practical mind of
lawyers, the tact of politicians, the habit of investigation common to scien-
tists, the thoroughness of educators, the sympathetic qualities of physicians
and the courage of soldiers. In other words, the minister of to-day is
judged not so much by his scholarly attainments as by his ability to make his
teachings conform to the life practical. He must be a doer as well as a
thinker. For these reasons his profession, which formerly was made dif-
ficult by demanding that those entering it be masters of Hebrew and the
classics, is now made more difficult by the fact that the minister must under-
stand the things of earth as well as of heaven, that he must know the ways
of man as well as the ways of the Saint, that he must be a reader of news-
papers as well as of the Bible. The preacher who wishes to hold his congre-
gation to-day must have something vital and something practical to com-
municate. There never has been a time, therefore, when real ability has
been so much in demand in the pulpit.

Meantime, the ministry offers the shortest of all the world's roads to em-

864 WORKERS OF THE NATION

ployment, excepting that of the day laborer. The comparison is not odious,
for ministers have often been compared to those engaged in the humble field
of activity just mentioned. To say that the ministry offers a "short road,"
does not mean that there is a guarantee that the minister will continue in
the employment thus secured. He will hold a pulpit only so long as he con-
forms to the requirements mentioned above. But up to the day on which the
newly-ordained preacher conies into his first charge, his pathway is easier
to travel than that in any other profession. Tuition at the seminary is free
and he is given monetary aid, besides, for his support. After graduation he
has not nearly such a long road to travel before taking his place in the active
field, as has the young lawyer or physician. He encounters no harrowing
delays, is not obliged to waif for clients or patients ; for when he bids fare-
well to the seminary, there is somewhere a congregation waiting for him,
pledged to his support. It is not often the case that a theological school
graduate is obliged to wait a long time before securing a charge. Indeed,
many are definitely engaged before they actually graduate. In most cases a
call is extended from the particular church to the person desired. In the
Methodist Episcopal body assignments are made by the ecclesiastical au-
thority. No doubt it would be more satisfactory in many cases if there
were in all churches some central body that had at least a degree of authority
in the direction of young ministers with reference to suitable charges, but at
present this is the exception and not the rule.

NUMBER OF MINISTERS AND VACANT PULPITS

It is said that there are too many ministers, that the ministerial field is
quite as much overcrowded as the professions of law and medicine. There
are three replies to this statement, any one of which is sufficient to encour-
age rather than to discourage young men who may be thinking of entering
the ministerial field. First, there are in this country at the present time
thousands of unoccupied pulpits. Second, the number of students in Prot-
estant seminaries during the last ten years shows a very decided decrease
when compared with the number of students in the same seminaries during
the previous decade. Third, and most important, if there appear to be too
many ministers of a certain kind, there are not too many ministers of the
right kind. And this last statement applies to all professions and to all
members of such professions who are imperfectly educated.

In spite of the fact that the seminaries of the various denominations turn
out an ever-increasing number of young clergymen, it remains a fact that,
recently, at the beginning of the winter season, there were fifty pulpits va-
cant in the city of New York, representing an aggregate sum to be paid in
salaries of $100,000 a year. New York congregations, at present, are dis-
inclined to accept an untried man. The preference is for men of estab-
lished reputations and proved ability. Young men flock to New York with
the expectation of securing a church. They soon find that it is no easy task,
and are content to take a charge, or parish, in some suburban town or dis-

THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 865

tant city. In Presbyterianism, the modern church is not controlled by two
or three elders, as in former days, but the congregation has a voice in the
selection of a pastor. Thus the process of selection is somewhat more diffi-
cult and protracted.

One prominent sect recently had upon its lists 1,200 vacant churches.
But the Church is now devising methods by which the vacant pulpits may
be properly filled, and all available men be sent to places where they can
immediately be useful. This would be a good training for the younger
graduates, and would enable many of them to find permanent charges.

MINISTERS' SALARIES

Say what statisticians will, the clergy are underpaid. There are bishops in
the Episcopal church who may receive as much as $12,500 a year, with an
average among them of $5,000 per annum. Rich Presbyterian churches have
paid $15,000 a year to their ministers. But these are exceptions. Men of
equal relative prominence in other professions might earn double these
amounts. Taking all the various churches together, the general average of
ministers' salaries is not far from $800. Expert statisticians have placed
it at $847 for Methodist ministers, this average being pulled down by the
very low salaries in the South, where the average is $500. In the Presby-
terian church the general average rises to from $1,000 to $1,200. The
Congregational average has been placed at $1,047; probably too low.

Among the mission workers of the Presbyterian church, in the home
field, the average salary is about $866. The ranks of these mission workers
contain many heroes, who face all kinds of hardships and dangers. A min-
ister, animadverting upon the neglect of old clergymen in some denomina-
tions, wrote a brochure entitled "At What Age Ought Ministers to be
Shot?"

All sects are agreed that the salaries of clergymen should be higher,
and that they should be relieved of the many humiliations to which they are
now subjected by this scantiness of wage. The present system of eking out
an utterly inadequate salary by alms, disguised as "donations," should cease.
The laborer is worthy of his hire. It is high time that justice should be
done to this noble calling, in the way of proper financial support.

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS

Some writers on the church's method of helping young men into the
ministry by means of free tuition, scholarships, and monetary aid otherwise,
allege that this method lowers the standard of character among divinity
students and robs them of the dignity of independence. Acquaintance with
the students, however, as well as a survey of the ministerial field, shows that
this allegation is not well founded. In the first place, the great majority of
theological students come from the ranks of poverty. About ninety-eight
per cent of the students in theological seminaries would be absolutely unable
to take the seminary course were they not aided as they are. A canvass

24— Vol. 2

866 WORKERS OF THE NATION

of the students of the General Theological Seminary in New York showed
that all the students at the time of the canvass, with the exception of two,
were receiving assistance from some source. In further defence of the
church's method of helping students, a Presbyterian clergyman defies any
one to go to the General Assembly and pick out those who were self-sup-
ported from those who had been aided in the preparatory studies of the
church. "The thing," he says, "can not be done." As a matter of fact,
many of the brightest clergymen of to-day are among those whom the
church aided in securing their education.

Another very excellent argument in defence of the method of aid and
support, is that the cadets at the National Military Academy at West Point
receive each year the sum of $540 from the government in addition to free
"tuition. Certainly the character of the cadets is not injured by this aid;
therefore, the conclusion is drawn that the character of another body of
young men is not necessarily injured by receiving $100 a year from the
church in addition to free tuition.

At the Princeton Presbyterian Seminary, at the Baptist Seminary at
Rochester, and the Drew Methodist Seminary, not only is the tuition free,
but aid is given to the student in addition. These facts are not cited to in-
dicate that the seminaries give free instruction as an inducement for the
young men to enter their doors, but to show that a young man can train for
the ministry at less cost than for any other of the professions. At the same
time the course of study in theological seminaries is in most instances
shorter than in other professional schools. The pathway to the pulpit,
indeed, is easier than that which the student must travel to reach the bar.

There are over 150 theological schools in the United States, having
8,000 students, while 96 law schools have over 12,000 students, and 200
medical schools fully 25,000 students.

THEOLOGICAL STUDENTS

By means of scholarships and free tuition generally, the young man who
wishes to join the Protestant clergy is not debarred because of poverty.
Everything is so arranged for him that he need not steal time from sleep or
study in order to earn his way through the seminary, nor need he in any
way suffer the strain or anxiety which comes to other young men who must
meet pecuniary necessities.

A Presbyterian clergyman argues that the ministry should be first of all
a learned profession, and that therefore it is inexcusable to require candi-
dates to earn a living and attend at the same time to all the exacting require-
ments of a college curriculum. The Presbyterian church says to her
young men :

From whatever other profession or walk in life a condition of poverty may shut you
off, it shall not be said that simple poverty shut you out from the holy ministry. Poverty
shall not of itself constitute a passport into the sacred office; only it shall not shut you out.
You must have brains and energy and piety and love of souls.

THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 867

Young men intending to begin theological studies must be well grounded
in Latin, Greek, philosophy, history, and English. Their special education,
besides the ordinary curriculum of the theological seminary, ought to in-
clude practical experience in fields of labor. Some churches place theolog-
ical students under the direction of their committees on Home Missions and
Sabbath-school work. There are also permanent committees for the pur-
pose of supplying vacant pulpits. This gives experience and fosters the
missionary spirit.

The method of training followed in the leading seminaries is in many
respects acknowledged to be the best training that any young man can re-
ceive for the ministry. More than ninety per cent of theological students
are graduates of colleges.

SUNDAY-SCHOOL TEACHERS

A popular movement has begun for the establishment of the Sunday-
school upon a new basis. There are many young men and women who are
ready and willing to give their services as teachers in the Sunday-school.
The new idea, however, is to have normal schools for the especial training
of Sunday-school teachers. This would be easy in college towns and in
great cities. Educational endowment funds are proposed for the payment
of the workers in the teachers' schools, the heads of departments in these
schools, and Sunday-school teachers, graduating from these courses, in
cases where payment is not superfluous.

In the matter of training schools for Sunday-school teachers, this has
been provided for in Pennsylvania, Washington and New Jersey. In Phila-
delphia, the County Sabbath-School Association made the beginning in
teacher-training. In the State of Washington such an institution is car-
ried on for part of the year. The Bible Teachers' College of New York
City is an ambitious venture of several years' standing. For the training of
superintendents and other Christian workers, the Moody schools at North-
field, Massachusetts, and the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago, and the
Bible Normal College of Hartford, Connecticut, are specially engaged.
There are a number of cases where Sunday-school superintendents are
under salary.

Though the number of Sunday-school scholars in the United States is
only a trifle more than half of the number of pupils in ordinary schools, yet
there are three Sunday-school teachers to each ordinary school teacher.
To be exact, statistics show that there are about 12,000,000 Sunday-school
scholars in 135,000 Sunday-schools, and that there are 1,500,000 teachers.
Of the 12,000,000 scholars, 1,000,000 are in Roman Catholic Sunday-
schools.

World's Sunday-school conventions are held every five years. The
next convention will be held in 1903, the fourth gathering of the kind.
The third convention was held in July, 1898, in London. The two great
questions usually before the conventions are, first, the training of Sunday-

868 WORKERS OF THE NATION

school teachers, and, second, the question of paying salaries to Sunday-
school teachers.

THE CATHOLIC CHURCH AND CLERGY

One-fifth of all the Catholics on the American Continent live in the
United States. The figures are 58,000,000 in the Western Hemisphere, and
10,000,000 in the United States. Of the total number of communicants in
this country, 9,000,000 are Roman Catholics; 15,000 belong to the Polish
branch; there are 10,000 Old Catholics, and 1,500 Reformed Roman
Catholics. The total of Catholic churches in the United States is nearly
12,100, and there are nearly as many members of the clergy. The Roman
Catholic Hierarchy of the United States consists, first, of the apostolic dele-
gation at Washington; second, fourteen archbishops; third, eighty-one
bishops.

TRAINING FOR THE PRIESTHOOD

Every young man who enters the priesthood, who gives himself to the
Church, stands a chance some day of becoming Pope. The path toward the
College of Cardinals, however — all the members of which are eligible as
successors to the Pope — is one of unceasing work, sacrifice and devotion.
The College of Cardinals comprises five cardinal bishops, twenty-six car-
dinal priests, and eight cardinal deacons.

The theological seminary is the official institution preparing young men
for the priesthood. The minimum of necessary qualifications for admission
to a seminary is either the education received in the Petit Seminaire or a
college education of six years. The seminary itself devotes two years to
philosophy, and from three to four years to the theological branches. A
still longer time is required by those who take the degree of D.D. If the
candidate has studied a year of philosophy at a larger college, the year is
deducted in the seminary; if he has taken a two years' course of philosophy,
both years are deducted upon examination. A considerable number of col-
lege graduates visit European universities to make or finish their theological
studies and to obtain the degree of D.D. The three schools patronized by
American students are the American College in Rome, whose members at-
tend the lectures of the Roman University; the American College of Lou-
vain, whose students attend the lectures of the University of Louvain ; and
the theological department of the University of Innsbruck, Austria. The
highest degrees can also be obtained at the Catholic University at Wash-
ington, D. C.

Candidates for the priesthood are usually required to have completed
the classical college course which leads to the degree of Bachelor of Arts.
The Eastern colleges of the Jesuits do not especially aim at the training
of prospective clerics. The purpose of the colleges of the Jesuit Fathers is
to impart a general education as the groundwork for any profession to be
chosen later. The only Catholic college, perhaps, that limits its endeavors
to fitting students to become clerical candidates is St. Charles College in

THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 869

Maryland. But preparatory or "little seminaries" also exist in Rochester,
N. Y., Philadelphia, and elsewhere. After undergoing a satisfactory
examination before a board of clergymen, the young men selected are
sent by the bishop to a seminary, such as the one at Yonkers, N. Y., or
at Boston, Massachusetts. There two years are spent in the further study
of philosophy, Hebrew and scriptural subjects, and the four following years
are devoted to scripture and theology. At the end of the six years men-
tioned the bishop ordains to the priesthood those who have satisfied all
mental, physical and moral requirements.

Promotion to positions of responsibility in a diocese depends on the local
needs, and the aptitude of the newly ordained clergyman. Usually some
years of curacy precede the responsibilities of a pastorate, and a period of
rustication or country life antedates a city charge.

SISTERS OF CHARITY

In the streets of Paris a picturesque feature is that of the Sisters of
Charity in their dark blue cotton gowns, white handkerchiefs and huge
white bonnets. In the streets of New York and many other American
cities, a familiar feature is that of the Sisters of Charity in their black gowns
and "nun's veil" and their white-rimmed shovel bonnets. Whether in blue
or black, in France or the United States, or elsewhere, these are all Sisters
of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul. There are to-day more than 20,000 of
these Sisters, and more than 2,000 houses which they have established, or
serve or direct.

The mistake is often made of supposing that any woman who wears a
recognized religious dress and is engaged in works of mercy is a Sister of
Charity; nc a matter of fact, there is only one community in the world
legally entitled to the name "Sisters of Charity." This community is the
one mentioned above, the Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul. The
United States courts recognize this fact, and hence bequests intended for one
of the numerous sisterhoods engaged in works of mercy, whenever the tes-
tator has failed to designate a specific order in his will, have been given to
the Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de PauL

Though all the branches of the Sisters of Charity in the United States
are incorporated in the original organization at Paris, the American Sisters
of Charity have never adopted the dress of the French sisterhood, deeming
it too conspicuous, and therefore unsuitable to their work in this country.
Their many ministrations extend to all who are afflicted in mind or body;
to the soldier wounded in battle ; to the orphan, the outcast and the found-
ling; to the prisoner condemned to the scaffold or the electric chair; to
those of every race, every color, every creed, every condition of affliction.
The sisters themselves live the life of poverty, toil and privation. The
three cardinal vows taken by all the sisters are "poverty, chastity, and
obedience," to which the Sister of Charity adds the care of the sick and
poor.

870 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The government of each community of sisters is vested in the Mother
Superior, assisted by an assistant superior, treasurer, and the procurators.
These officers, together with the ecclesiastical superior, form the Council
of the community. The mother and her principal assistants each serves
a term of three years, and their successors in office are elected by the
members of the community.

Do you wish to be released from the trials of the world ? Knock at the
door of the Mother House of the sisterhood. Whether you are of high or
low degree, rich or poor, you will be admitted. You must, first of all, how-
ever, submit to a drastic cross-examination. The Mother Superior conducts
this examination politely, but insistently. She will ask you questions con-
cerning your age, your health, your family ties, your obligations. Upon
the judgment of the Mother Superior at this moment depends your future.
If she believes that you possess traits of character which would make it
impossible for you to find peace, happiness and usefulness in community life,
she will say so frankly and you must remain "of the world." On the other
hand, if you secure the approval of the Mother Superior you will be at once
enrolled among the postulants.

"If you love Me, sell all your worldly goods, take up the cross, and fol-
low Me." In obeying this scriptural injunction, you must take the vow
of poverty before mentioned, and bring to the community a dowry which
is controlled by the Mother Superior. If you are penniless, other things
being equal, you will be admitted just the same as the woman of riches,
and the dowry in your case will be waived. The dowry, however, for those
who can afford to pay it, is a specified sum sufficient to cover the living ex-
penses of the novitiate. Any money beyond the stipulated amount is still
the sister's own to do with as she chooses. She may give it to the com-
munity, or she may give it to her family or friends. Having been admitted
as a postulant, you will be allowed a period of six months' probation before
making formal application to take the vows. Having proved that you have
the essential, spiritual and physical qualifications for the arduous life which
you wish to undertake, you then become a novitiate proper. Now you must
bow your head to the shears, lose what is perhaps your crown of glory —
your hair — and you must put on the cap with the deep white fluted border.
Before the chapel altar, in the presence of the whole community, you take
the vows — for one year. In all modern sisterhoods, indeed, both for the
novice and for the professed sister, the vows are only taken for one year
and renewed at the end of that time. Thus the sister may leave the com-
munity and return to the world whenever her vows expire, just as a soldier
may leave the army at the end of his term of enlistment. However, very
few take advantage of this privilege.

Your novitiate may last only two years, and not more than five. The
ceremony at which the novice becomes a professed sister is simple but im-
pressive.

Your life from now on will be one of constant toil. You will be required

THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 871

to rise every morning in winter at five, and in summer at half-past four
o'clock, for this is the invariable rule for the Sisters of Charity of St. Vin-
cent de Paul. At half-past seven your day's work begins, the mistress of
the novices assigning to each postulant the day's duties. During the first
months of your novitiate the duties imposed will be to test your spirit.
Were you a woman of the refined world? You will be set to scrubbing
floors. Have you the tapering fingers of the artist? You will be asked
to wash dishes. Were you accustomed to elegant leisure ? You will be sent
to the laundry to labor over the wash-tub. Such will be the test of your
humility and of your pliability for self-abnegation. As a postulant or as
a novice, you may then be sent to a hospital, an orphanage, or a foundling-
asylum, or to one of the industrial schools of the order. If you are to take
up hospital work, you will be sent to the training school for nurses ; if your
work is to be among the orphans or the outcasts, you will need no training,
but will at once take up your active labors, and from that time on, until you
are at last laid to rest in the little cemetery of the Mother House, you will
know no idle moment.

THE JEWISH CHURCH AND CLERGY

At the present time there are about 1,000,000 Jews in the United States,
the Jewish population in this country having grown steadily since the in-
troduction of steam navigation on the Atlantic. In 1846 there were only
10,000 Jews in New York City; to-day they number nearly 400,000. In
1877 the Board of Delegates of American Israelites, assisted by the Union
of the American Hebrew Congregations, placed the total Jewish population
in the United States at less than 200,000 ; to-day there are 200,000 Jews in
Pennsylvania and Illinois alone, while every State in the Union has a Jewish
population; 1,000 each in the States of Wyoming, Vermont, New Hamp-
shire and Maine; 2,000 each in Nebraska and the Territories of New
Mexico and Arizona. All the remaining States and Territories have a
Jewish population of 3,000 or more.

Until within comparatively recent times the Jews of the United States
received their clergy from abroad. To-day, of the two hundred Jewish
ministers in this country, a large majority were trained here. The list of
rabbis contains many names of men distinguished not only as pulpit ora-
tors, but as leaders in the manifold activities of the American people.

There are five hundred and fifty-seven synagogues, the total of communi-
cants being 1,058,000. There are several seminaries conducted by the
orthodox wing of the Jewish Church, for the training of young men for the
pulpit. The principal departments of such institutions are the preparatory,
the rabbinical and the Semitic.

The only theological institution of the reform wing of the Jewish Church
is the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati. The graduates of this college
now occupy pulpits in all the large cities of the Union. Tuition at this col-
lege is free to all; the average cost to a non-resident student during his

872 WORKERS OF THE NATION

college course here is from $400 to $500 per annum. "Thus far," says
the dean, "we have been very successful in placing our graduates in good
positions; some of them occupy the pulpits of the largest Jewish congre-
gations in the country."

MISSIONARIES

A survey of the practical as well as the spiritual side of the missionary
field reveals the opportunities open to young men and women to devote their
lives to hard work in foreign lands with little hope of material reward be-
yond that of a comfortable living. This survey shows that thousands of
young men and women are capable of the necessary self-sacrifice and of
being content with the consciousness of doing what they are able to do for
the good of their fellowmen in lieu of substantial incomes.

Considering missionary work as an occupation, however, it must not be
supposed from the foregoing that missionaries never rise to high positions
in the actual work of the world. As a matter of fact, a number of men of
exalted station in the religious field began life humbly as workers in foreign
climes. Many prominent divines and certain bishops whose names are
known in many countries started as missionaries. Briefly, advancement in
the missionary field depends upon ability and hard work quite as much as in
the other professions and in the useful arts and trades.

The foreign field needs men and women of the finest natural gifts, and
highest education and training. They must have an aptitude for languages
to enable them to master several dialects, and to use them with forcibleness
and persuasiveness. There is little division of labor in the foreign field.
The missionary must do everything that comes to his hands.

In the countries of the East, such as Japan, educational qualities are
particularly necessary, as the missionary comes in contact with educated
people. He must be grounded in the philosophy of religion and in compara-
tive religion. He must develop the higher aspirations of the old faiths by
revealing to his hearers the truths of Christianity.

In India, also, the policy of wise missionary effort has changed. A
half-educated missionary there may do a great deal of harm, especially if
of an unsympathetic spirit. Missionaries to India must be persons of the
very best equipment, intellectually and socially. They must be abundantly
able to meet and vanquish the modern criticism. They must face special-
ists in religious philosophy and religious history upon their own ground.

There is always a great need of specialists in foreign fields. Medical
missionaries do an enormous amount of good. Even industrial teachers
may be classed as missionaries, when they are employed in these benighted
lands.

THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF MISSIONARIES

What is revealed in the survey of the distinctively spiritual side of the
missionary field? We find more than 18,000 men and women devoting
themselves to uplifting the lives of the ignorant and degraded in the remote

THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 873

and dark corners, religiously considered, of the globe. The majority of
this army of workers toil with a singleness of purpose, oftentimes under cir-
cumstances of great privation, which is to be commended. In order that
they may carry on their work the people of enlightened countries con-
tribute over $20,000,000 annually. This seems like a large sum of money,
but when it has been divided piecemeal among many workers the amount
which each missionary has at his command is comparatively small. It
should be added that the 18,000 American and European missionaries are
reinforced by more than 80,000 native preachers, teachers, colporteurs and
others, and that each of these receives his share of the contribution of
$20,000,000.

What have all these workers accomplished ? They have established per-
manent missions in 23,000 cities and towns; have organized 14,000 churches
with 1,500,000 communicants; and from the so-called heathen countries
they have created a recognized religious community of nearly 5,000,000
persons.

THE PRACTICAL SIDE OF MISSIONARY WORK

The practical side of the work has of late years been developed until it
is now the side of greatest importance. This practical side includes the
founding of universities, colleges, kindergartens and other educational in-
stitutions; it includes the distribution of literature; it includes the estab-
lishment of hospitals and dispensaries, medical colleges and schools for
nurses ; it includes the opening and maintaining of orphanages and found-
ling asylums, leper homes, and other reformatory and philanthropical in-
stitutions.

These departments of missionary work were formerly considered mere
adjuncts of the work performed by foreign missions, were given secondary
consideration by the missionary boards at home, and were hardly considered
at all in the training of missionaries. To-day, however, these departments
are given first consideration, and every effort is being made to develop the
practical departments simultaneously with the spiritual.

THE EDUCATIONAL WORK OF MISSIONARIES

The educational features in modern missionary centres are most con-
spicuous. There are 94 universities and colleges, for instance, with about
36,000 students. There are included such institutions as the Wilson and
Duff College in India; the Pekin University and the Canton Christian Col-
lege in China; Robert College, Constantinople; Syrian Protestant College,
Beyrut; the missionary schools in Japan; and similar institutions in Egypt.
In addition, the 18,000 missionaries have over 1,000,000 pupils under in-
struction in nearly 19,000 elementary and village day schools. Again,
there are about 1,000 secondary schools, which include nearly 200 training
schools in the industries and arts, and about 12=5 kindergartens.

Considering the standing of women in Asiatic countries, it is a signifi-

874 WORKERS OF THE NATION

cant fact that one-third of the entire number of pupils who are to-day
receiving instruction from missionaries are girls. The missionary boards
assert that female education in Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands is car-
ried on entirely by missionary organizations. The mission colleges alone
have over 2,000 female pupils, while fully one-half of the total number of
pupils in the secondary schools are girls.

In the reformatory and philanthropic branches of the work, mission-
aries have established nearly 250 reformatories and foundling asylums,
over 100 leper homes, 160 refuges for slaves of opium, for the insane and
others, and thirty institutions for the blind and the deaf. Every depart-
ment of modern effort for social improvement, indeed, is being developed
by missionaries in foreign fields.

MEDICAL MISSIONARIES

The practical branch next in importance, and a branch which perhaps is
of more real benefit to the races among which missionaries operate, is the
medical department. This branch has developed a corps of workers known
as "medical missionaries," and the nature of their work is thoroughly prac-
tical and humanitarian. These medical missionaries have established about
380 hospitals and nearly 800 dispensaries, in which 7,000,000 patients
have been treated within the last few years. Of these hospitals and dis-
pensaries there are nearly 400 each in China and India, and 150 in Africa,
the remainder being scattered throughout the missionary centres of the
world. In addition, there are nearly 70 medical colleges and training
schools for nurses, with nearly 450 male and about 250 female pupils.

MISSIONARIES AS PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS

The fourth branch of the practical work is that which makes of the mis-
sionary a printer and publisher. These printer missionaries distribute
annually about three and a quarter million of volumes, consisting to a
great extent of different portions of the Bible. The credit for over 450
of the 478 English and modern translations of the Bible belongs to mission-
aries. In the distribution of religious literature in what is known as mis-
sionary fields there are, first of all, the great tract societies, and, second, about
1 60 mission publishing houses, which circulate nearly 11,000,000 volumes
annually.

CANDIDATES FOR MISSIONARY WORK

The missionaries that the American Board of Foreign Missions ap-
points get their training prior to their appointment. In other words, mis-
sionaries qualify themselves as ministers or as physicians, just as men of
other callings do; namely, by studies in college, theological seminaries and
medical institutions. The board has nothing to do with all this educa-
tional work, either in directing it or paying for it. Usually the first the
board knows of these men is when they come as graduates asking for ap-
pointment. They are appointed after due examination and ample recom-

THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 875

mendations from those who know them well. Their qualifications for par-
ticular fields of service are studied. When they go they are authorized to
expect a comfortable and economical support year by year. Of course this
varies in different fields. Their outfit is paid by the board. Their term of
service is for life, except where unexpected circumstances arise, calling
them to give up the work. It is understood that they will have a fur-
lough after each period of eight or ten years' service. It would be impos-
sible to go into the details here of what they do, but it may be understood
that they do whatever they can in their several fields to preach the gospel of
Christ, and, through that gospel, to elevate the people socially, morally, and
religiously. When they become superannuated and are obliged to return
to America, they have a small stipend, sufficient to support them through life.

The day was when any one who offered for missionary work would be
accepted. It is past. At the present time such is the demand that is made
upon them that each one who offers for a missionary service, more espe-
cially in the foreign work, must be able to do one thing exceptionally well
— he must be a specialist in that line. The following facts apply especially
to Episcopal clergymen. If it is a clergyman who is to do evangelistic
work, the board requires a statement from a life insurance examiner of his
physical soundness to live in the climate to which he purposes going. Sec-
ond, evidence of a liberal education in arts and theology, stating the in-
stitutions in which he has studied or graduated, and his approximate
standing. In the case of a layman — the work open to him is either as a
teacher or physician. If a physician he must show evidence of consid-
erable post-graduate work in the largest hospitals of the country. If he has
not such and his other qualifications are of a high order, he is given special
training without expense. If a teacher, he must show the same qualifi-
cations and have the same indorsement as would be necessary to obtain
a similar position in the larger universities of this country. The women
sent out go either as church workers, for which they must take a three years'
training in one of the training schools, or as physicians, when they are re-
quired to show the same ability as is asked of the men; or as nurses for
hospital service, when their testimonials must show the highest efficiency.

The salary of missionaries follows a fixed schedule. The only differ-
ence that is recognized is that of the increased responsibilities of a married
man over a single man, and of a single man over an unmarried woman.
They are all provided with house rent, or "quarters," and their medical
attendance without cost. Each missionary in the foreign field is given a
vacation of one year in this country after seven years of service. Their ex-
penses are paid to and from the field. The amount of salary is sufficient to
insure a comfortable living in the country in which they are at work.

CHURCHES AS EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES

Every one of the 200,000 churches in the United States is, in a sense,
an employment bureau. Many churches have regularly established bureaus

876 WORKERS OF THE NATION

for the purpose of rinding employment not only for applicants who are church
members, but for outsiders as well. St. Bartholomew's in New York has
as many as seven or eight regularly established departments for the relief
of the unemployed. Churches that have no regularly established bureaus
find work for the unemployed in haphazard fashion, even thus helping a
large number of needy persons.

Business and manufacturing establishments frequently make a point
of drawing upon the Sunday-school for employes. Not infrequently a
Catholic firm recruits its force of helpers from Protestant Sunday-schools,
while Protestant business establishments draw upon the Catholic and Jewish
schools.

As there are 12,000 Catholic churches and nearly 600 Jewish churches,
and as the Baptist churches number nearly 50,000, the Congregationalist
nearly 6,000, Episcopal 7,000, Lutheran 10,000, Methodist 53,000, Pres-
byterian 15,000, Reformed 3,000, not to speak of the thousands of churches
under such denominations as the Adventists, the Disciples of Christ, etc.,
and as each of these constantly finds employment for communicants, it is
evident that a very large proportion of the army of workers in this country
is supplied by the churches.

THE PRACTICAL WORK OF THE SALVATION ARMY

The Salvation Army is nothing if not practical. It has opened in New
York City and vicinity six workingmen's shelters, with accommodations
for 736 homeless men. In these a bed may be had for ten cents and a
room for fifteen cents. The manager helps the men to find employment.
There are similar institutions of the Salvation Army in Chicago, Boston,
Philadelphia, San Francisco, and a score of other cities, accommodating
5,000 persons in all. The Salvation Army also maintains many shelters for
women in several cities.

Separate buildings are occupied in many cities as homes for artisans,
the charges in these being a little higher. Homes for respectable working
girls have been established and do an immense amount of good, and cheap
food depots furnish the poor with food at wholesale prices, or less, meals
being furnished to the extent of 1,300,000 a year. One cent meals are pro-
vided in some cities, consisting of coffee or soup with bread, to be taken
home, if desired.

The Salvation Army also maintains cheap clothing stores, in which the
poor may purchase supplies at nominal rates. There are also salvage
brigades for the collection and sale of waste, giving employment to large
numbers. In some cities contracts are taken to keep the streets in certain
wards free from waste paper. As much as twenty-five tons of paper a week
is handled by a single brigade. Woodyards offer some employment, but
they have to compete with machine-cut wood.

The employment agencies of the Salvation Army are doing good work
throughout the country, securing work for about 60,000 persons every

THE MINISTRY AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 877

year. In the matter of winter relief much good is done, relief funds of
several cities being distributed through the officers of the Army. The
doors of the Army halls are opened to the poor for shelter during periods
of exceptional cold, the police gladly co-operating. Medical relief, nursing,
the care of maternity cases, and work of a general medical character are
now systematically conducted in many cities. Of great usefulness are the
farm colonies in far Western and Central States, the only drawback to this
excellent work being lack of capital. It would almost seem as if these farm
colonies solved the problem of what to do with the very poor. They are not
prison establishments. Family ties are not broken. Every colonist may
become a home owner, and give children the hope and promise of immediate
employment when arriving at the proper age. In -this respect it is one of
the most hopeful of charities, in that it makes men and women self-respecting
and self-reliant.

THE PRACTICAL WORK OF THE VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA

General and Mrs. Ballington Booth thought that the vast sums which
they had collected in this country ought to be spent here, and in view of
Booth Tucker's opinion to the contrary left the Salvation Army and started
another called the Volunteers of America. They have nine companies or
central societies, and nearly one hundred self-supporting posts throughout
the country, besides many outposts. In 1902 about 4,000,000 people at-
tended their meetings. Among the most beneficent activities of the organi-
zation are a sociological branch for the help of destitute men ; a philanthropic
branch, including the Homes of Mercy for young women of all classes and
conditions, providing them with shelter and securing employment for them ;
and a tenement branch, for work among the deserving poor. There is also
a branch for work among the poor children, which conducts several homes,
while much good is done by the Volunteer Prison League among prisoners,
paroled prisoners and their families.

CHAPTER V
THE LEGAL PROFESSION

Conditions of Practice at the Bar — The Specialist in Law — The Law Office — Title and
Guarantee Companies — "Ambulance Chasers" — Practice in the Criminal Courts —
Practice in the Civil Courts — The Lawyer's Fees — Corporation Counsel — Law Schools
— Law School Graduates — Studying Law in a Law Office — Studying Law at Home —
Women in the Legal Profession — The Judiciary — The United States Supreme Court

CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE AT THE BAR

NOTWITHSTANDING the difficulties in starting, and the number of
competitors, the opportunities in the legal profession were never
greater than they are to-day. Never was there a time when the
services of the really good lawyer were more frequently required. This con-
dition arises from the wider range and greater complexity of modern busi-
ness affairs, the increase in the subjects of legislation, and the corresponding
multitude of new enactments, and the great number of new questions as to
legal rights and powers that arise in a country of swiftly increasing wealth
and expanding commercial interests.

The subject of taxation, the relation of employer and employe, the in-
numerable questions arising from the extension of the corporate form of
the employment of capital, the constant increase of State regulation as to
different trades and occupations, and in the conduct of the affairs of life,
from the renting of a tenement house to the cutting down of a shade tree,
from the speed of an automobile to the practice of Christian Science, all
give constant occasion for the services of a lawyer to advise, to consult, to
prosecute or defend. All these have vastly increased the volume of busi-
ness committed into lawyers' hands. Legal ability, wherever it is known to
exist, is certain to be in demand. There is not only "room at the top" in
the profession, but also room for those conscientious workers, who, if they
can not gain that pre-eminence that places them at the top, can nevertheless
reach a respectable and safe elevation.

There need be no cause for despair for the young practitioner who has
the ability and is determined to become a good lawyer. But who has the
ability and what are the conditions of success in this most arduous of pro-
fessions ? The answer is : the aspirant for a high place should possess, be-
sides the cardinal virtues, an unlimited capacity for work, the power of
concentrated and continuous attention, an avidity for cold facts, tact and a
sound judgment. He must be truthful, honest, courageous, self-denying^
(878)*

THE LEGAL PROFESSION 879

and faithful. He should possess the qualities mentioned by Judge Stevens
in dismissing the late Fosburg case, "the greatest reasoning powers, keen-
ness, discrimination and the highest common-sense." If all these require-
ments set up a discouragingly high standard, be it remembered that they
are requirements which are pre-eminently capable of attainment by assiduous
effort and cultivation. A certain degree of natural aptitude is absolutely
essential. Some men. are born without the faculties needed to make a
lawyer, just as some are born without the ear for music or an eye for color,
and the attempt to develop such faculties will be fruitless. But, given the
possession of a sound body and a sound mind and a genuine taste for the
profession, hard work will do the rest.

Judges form the best estimate of character of the counsel who appear
before them, and there is no influence so potent with the court as the con-
fidence engendered by experience in the habitual truthfulness and accuracy
of the advocate. There is no argument before the jury so successful in the
long run as the argument that is earnest but fair, and that rests on facts
and arguments rather than on mere oratory. The time was when juries
were more liable to be swayed by rhetorical display than they are to-day.
The community is older; juries, as a rule, are composed of those who have
read more, seen more, know more, than the juries of half a century ago.
They are quicker to detect insincerity, and to resent attempts to hoodwink
them. Ask any one who has served upon juries what, in the summing up
of the counsel, was the most effective in securing a verdict, and he will tell
you that it was the actual, and not pretended, addresses to their intelli-
gence, and the appeals to their judgment. A successful lawyer is, at
least, sure of a competency. His professional earnings alone will not, it
is true, amount to a fortune, as fortunes are now counted. They will rarely
form the capital which speculation may so increase in bulk as to rival the
wealth of the merchant or banker.

Another felicity of the lawyer's position is its independence. His capital
lies in his brains, skill and character, and it is never at risk. He has none of
the perils to meet that daily beset the merchant or the business man. He
need fear no strikes, nor tariffs, nor changes in fashion, nor, if he is wise,
the rise or fall of stocks. He takes no man's orders, is subordinate to
none, but rather is intrusted with affairs of deepest moment that he may
assume direction and control.

He is subject to the court and must bow to the decision of the judge, but
that is a deference he gladly pays. It does not curtail his independence of
action, except as his action is governed by the law itself, which it is the duty
of the judge, to the best of his ability, to declare, and which is binding alike
on court and counsel. Both are officers of the law, both have divided but
co-ordinate duties in the administration of justice. There is no more agree-
able relation than that between the bar and the bench, where the duties of
both are conscientiously performed. There is ho greater inspiration to duty
than that which comes to the lawyer from the loyal trust of his client and

88o WORKERS OF THE NATION

the sense of all that depends upon his care and judgment. His conscience
may call him to account if he fails to do his best, but, if he has done that, he
is accountable to none.

But the chief advantage of the lawyer's profession is the extent of intel-
lectual activity which its practice calls in play. In this country, where there
is no artificial division between attorney and counsellor, where the lawyer
deals directly with the client, is consulted at every stage of the case, is called
upon to perform diverse duties, and even when his practice is limited to
some special branch of the profession, must study whatever is submitted to
him, or whatever he assumes direction of for himself, the widest range of
intellectual faculties are brought into play, and there is no higher pleasure
than such an exercise of those faculties.

No knowledge comes amiss to the lawyer. In no profession is general
literary culture more productive of practical results, nay, more necessary
for the best performance of its duties. The good lawyer should be a master
of lucid statement and felicitous expression, and there is no better aid for
the attainment of this art than the study of the classics.

The courts are the final interpreters of our constitutions, national and
State, and hence questions the most momentous that' can arise must be
argued before and determined by them. The Supreme Court of the United
States is the most august tribunal in the world. The destiny of the nation
may depend upon its interpretation of our fundamental law, and in that
court and all others, it falls to the advocates of the legal profession to study
and present the arguments the consideration of which must govern the
final decision. Cases may arise at any time in the ordinary practice of the
American lawyer which present questions the solution of which may affect
the interest and future of the people of a State or of the whole country.
With such duties, such aims, such privileges, such influence, the legal pro-
fession yields to none in honor, in usefulness, in all that is worthy of human
endeavor.

THE SPECIALIST IN LAW

The successful lawyer of to-day, like the successful business man, studies
the market and offers for sale that which is in greatest demand. The com-
modity which he offers is legal information, and the kind of legal informa-
tion for which he receives the highest price is one or another of the special-
ties. Like the manufacturer who realizes that he can not make many classes
of goods as profitably as he can make one class, the lawyer finds that he can
do better by making a specialty of a single branch of the law ; so there are
real estate lawyers and patent attorneys; and specialists in copyrights, in
theatrical work and in a score of other fields.

The specialist in law must know his field as thoroughly as the business
men therein engaged. The insurance lawyer needs to know the insurance
business as thoroughly as he does the insurance law. One of our public
prosecutors, upon whom devolved the duty of prosecuting two or three de-
fendants charged with murders by poison, became a veritable scientist in

THE LEGAL PROFESSION 881

chemistry, medicine and pathology. A lawyer who makes patent cases
his specialty will find himself strongly equipped if he has a taste for
mechanics and fortified impregnably if he has mastered the mechanic's trade.

THE LAW OFFICE

Conditions have changed in the last thirty years in the legal world. The
days of the Evarts and Choate type of lawyers have passed. The individu-
ality of the young lawyer of to-day is lost, he is simply an integral part of a
law machine called a firm or a corporation. It is known that banks, for
example, in choosing counsel, first ascertain which of two or more candi-
dates has the best financial credit, which pays his bills with the greatest regu-
larity, which has unencumbered property, which carries the largest bank
balance. And in making such choice, the banks give preference to firms
rather than to individual lawyers. As the example set by the banks is fol-
lowed by corporations, business houses, and even by individuals, it is mani-
fest that the poor young lawyer, with a small office and nothing but his
diploma and his ability to recommend him, stands but little chance of secur-
ing clients of high degree.

This state of affairs is the result of a common-sense business principle, the
application of a business maxim that "the one who has been most successful
in managing his own affairs is likely to be most successful in handling the
affairs of others." Hence it has even come to pass that the mercantile
agencies issue regular reports as to the financial standing of lawyers, giving
the amount of their property, together with their professional standing —
reports similar to those issued on dealers in butter and hardware and dry-
goods.

The modern law office is a kind of law department store; that is, the
office is divided into various departments, in each of which a special kind
of legal information is for sale. The client or customer, upon entering, is
shown into the private room of the senior member of the firm. He states
the exact kind of legal information he wishes to buy, whereupon the senior
member presses one of the numerous buttons that dot the rim of his desk.
An electric bell rings in one of the other offices, and is responded to by one of
the junior members of the firm. This junior member is the head of the de-
partment where are sold the particular legal wares the client wishes to buy.
Henceforth the client transacts his business with this junior member, who
acts under the general direction of the senior member.

The methods of business as carried out in a large law office of to-day
are interesting. The old-time lawyer, practicing independently, kept no
books, but simply sent a bill to this or that client from time to time as the
money was needed. Oftentimes the fee charged was an amount of money
which the lawyer judged to be consistent with the financial standing of the
client. The bill, in other words, was rendered in a lump sum without re-
gard to the actual disbursements. This haphazard method, in the best law
offices, has been entirely abandoned, and charges are now made on a strictly

25— Vol. 2

882 WORKERS OF THE NATION

business basis. All accounts are presented to the cashier of the firm, whose
O.K. is necessary on all outgoing bills.

The heads of department receive either a salary or a percentage of the
income. Each "head" is required to keep a record of the time, spent on each
client's affairs and of the time spent by each of the employes of his depart-
ment on each particular case. A record is also kept of the time the client
spends in the office. When the day of settlement comes round these records
are tabulated on special blanks and given to the fee clerk. The fee clerk
is thus enabled to determine just how much each case has cost in time, and
just how much of the office expense the client should be charged with. To
this sum is added a regular percentage of profit, the percentage depending,
of course, upon the importance of the case and its value to the client. The
bill is then submitted to the cashier, or auditor, above mentioned, who de-
cides whether the result to the client justifies the charge.

TITLE AND GUARANTEE COMPANIES

The title and guarantee companies have ruined the business of a great
number of the older lawyers and deprived many of the younger lawyers for-
ever of the chance of making headway, individually, in private practice.
Many old and experienced lawyers and the novices alike are now employed
by the title and guarantee companies at salaries ranging from $20 to $30 a
week. There are conveyancers on the pay-rolls of these companies earning
$25 a week, who, twenty years ago, were classed with the ten-thousand-a-
year men. The companies have so revolutionized the transfer of titles to
real estate, a branch of the work of the profession that was formerly the
most lucrative, that old lawyers, having lost their clients, are simply obliged
to take salaried positions with the very corporations which were the cause of
their ruin. There are a number of companies which make a business of
furnishing bonds in cases requiring sureties. Other companies insure against
accidents. Others draw wills for nothing, stipulating, however, that the
company be named as executor. All these companies, too, employ lawyers
on weekly salaries, the amount paid in all cases being less than the same
lawyers could earn if they could practice as individuals.

"AMBULANCE CHASERS"

With changed methods of practice have come changed methods among
a certain class of lawyers in the manner of securing clients. In the old days
the lawyer sat in his office, read law, and thus in ponderous dignity waited
for his clients, of their own accord, to seek his counsel. To-day the lawyer
must seek the client by methods as undignified as those of the office-seeker.
Behold even the "ambulance chaser," that product of modern conditions,
the lawyer who makes a specialty of securing retainers from persons injured
in city streets, or in railway accidents.

Railway companies, especially, declare that one of the most surprising
features of accidents is the presence upon the very scene of the accident of

THE LEGAL PROFESSION 883

lawyers or their representatives, making bids for retainers from the injured,
even before the extent of injury is known. At the time of the disaster in
the New York Central tunnel, in 1901, lawyers actually offered to pay sub-
stantial sums to persons injured and take an assignment of the claim. The
object of these enterprising lawyers, of course, was to obtain much larger
damages on account of the public outcry against the railroad company. It is
recorded that one lawyer offered a man who had lost his leg the sum of
$20,000. The injured man later secured only $18,500 from the company.

This is only one phase of the general scramble for clients on the part of
lawyers, which their brothers of twenty years ago would have scorned as
beneath their dignity. It is understood, of course, that the business of the
"ambulance chaser" is prosecuted in most cases with a view to extorting
money from corporations. And it is equally understood that such lawyers
are not on the road that leads to success.

The lawyer of to-day, if he would succeed, must build up, not tear down.
He who makes a practice of preying upon society, by reason of its misfor-
tunes or its crimes, will never stand high in his profession.

PRACTICE IN THE CRIMINAL COURTS

Not so many lawyers as formerly are willing to appear as practitioners
in the criminal court. The high-minded young man looks askance upon
this branch of his profession, perhaps because of the associations it entails,
or because of the uncertainty of pecuniary reward. The criminal court may
sometimes prove a short cut to notoriety, especially in cases of a sensational
nature. But the lawyer who defends the criminal only for the sake of the
notoriety it brings soon drops out of sight. Certain it is, meantime, that
criminals are entitled to counsel, and that a certain number of lawyers must
appear in the criminal courts. Therefore there are lawyers who make a
specialty of defending criminals, and it is these specialists who stand the best
chance of success in that branch of the law business.

PRACTICE IN CIVIL COURTS

While the practice of law in the civil courts is still essentially a profes-
sion, the methods of practice are such that it may be said of the majority of
lawyers that they are in the law business. In the old days many a lawyer
rose to success, as it were, on the wings of oratory as practiced in the court
room. His eloquence yielded him large fees. To-day, however, the most
substantial successes and the largest fees are made out of court. For-
merly the chief value of the lawyer lay in his ability to extricate his client
from trouble; to-day the value of the services of the member of the bar
depends upon his success in keeping his client out of trouble and out of
court. The process of law is so slow and the machinery of justice so un-
wieldy, that the modern business man is only too glad to resort to arbitra-
tion and to pay a liberal fee to counsel for "settling out of court."

While eloquence is still a commodity of which excellent use may be made

884 WORKERS OF THE NATION

in the criminal courts, the opportunities for the display of eloquence in the
civil courts are few. As a rule, the courts to-day allow the shortest possible
time for oral arguments, especially the civil courts. A plain, concise state-
ment of facts is permitted, but the views of counsel are, as a rule, submitted
in a written or typewritten brief.

THE LAWYER'S FEES

The highest fees paid to lawyers are for creative work, for skill in organ-
ization, for the formation of great combinations and consolidations. One
of the largest fees on record was paid to a Western lawyer for organizing
the American Tin Plate Company. It was five million dollars, partly in
stock of the new company. A New York lawyer was recently paid a fee of
a million dollars for reorganizing the steel combination. Another New
York lawyer, practicing mostly before the United States Supreme Court,
earns a hundred thousand dollars a year. Another New York practitioner,
now in the diplomatic service of the government, earns a similar amount.
The Northern Pacific Railroad recently paid a legal firm a fee of two hun-
der.d thousand dollars for services rendered. The Chicago Gas Trust not
long ago paid their lawyer a fee of half a million. So the American Spirits
Association paid a firm of lawyers a quarter of a million recently. The
Venezuelan Government paid to the late Benjamin Harrison a fee of two
hundred and fifty thousand dollars as counsel in the boundary dispute. The
same sum was paid to a New York lawyer for organizing the sugar com-
bination under the laws of New Jersey.

Great fees have been earned in criminal practice. A New York firm of
lawyers was paid fifty thousand dollars in the Molineux case. Special
deputies to the Attorney-General of New York have been paid as much as
fifty thousand dollars in certain prosecutions. Sometimes poor lawyers are
taken into great firms on account of their ability to bring business, springing
from their social relations or their family ties.

CORPORATION COUNSEL

One of the most lucrative fields for the lawyer of the present day is em-
ployment as counsel or as expert in some special province of jurisprudence.
The growth of large business combinations fosters this development. Pro-
fessionally skilled advice is necessary. Specialization is the need of the
moment. Great business managers are absolutely dependent upon their
legal advisers, and must adopt legal precautions to avoid civil and criminal
liabilities and prosecutions.

LAW SCHOOLS

Before the young man can become either a specialist or one of the
partners in a law firm, or any kind of a lawyer, what must be the young
man's training? There are one hundred odd law schools in the United
States in which the cost of tuition ranges all the way from $100 to $250.

THE LEGAL PROFESSION 885

There are short cuts to the bar, of course, but the young man who adopts
the "get-there-quick" plan soon finds himself unable to compete with his
brothers who have received the proper training, and he must inevitably drop
out of the race and acknowledge himself a failure. The proper training for
a successful career means an investment of from seven to ten years of time
and of several thousands of dollars. There is his first four years' course
spent at the university in earning the degree of Bachelor of Arts. This will
cost from $500 to $1,500 a year. Then comes the three years' course in the
law school at an annual expense quite equal to that at the university. Then
comes the final examination, which he must pass before being admitted to
the bar.

The courses of study in the different law schools vary somewhat. Look-
ing at two or three of the more prominent institutions, we find that at the
Yale Law School, for instance, the aim is to give all the undergraduate
students a thorough acquaintance with the general principles and rules of
American law, fitting them for practice in any State; to instruct special
students in their chosen branch ; and to offer opportunities for study to ad-
vanced students. The course of three years leads to the degree of LL.B.
Graduates of colleges and others are permitted to compress the course into
two years, under certain conditions. Special students may, in three years,
take the degree of Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L.).

LAW SCHOOL GRADUATES

Thousands of young men are graduated from the law schools of the
country every year, and the number of lawyers to cases is out of all pro-
portion. In New York alone there are eight thousand practicing lawyers.
Courts the country over are so conducted that only one lawyer in five hun-
dred is able to get the public ear as an orator, or to achieve fame as a clever
practitioner.

The question, then, is : What becomes of all the young lawyers ? Hun-
dreds of them are doubtless bright men: but, shorn of their individuality,
they are anonymous factors in the great law machines before referred to,
for which they are working as salaried employes. The unfortunate ones
are simply "lost" in law practice under modern conditions. They are
eternally required to "work up details," and only the most fortunate, or
those who, nothing daunted by the prevailing conditions, detach themselves
from the law firms and hang out their own shingles, are given entire charge
of a case.

STUDYING LAW IN A LAW OFFICE

It has been said that the law office is a poor school room. The student
is told to read the law books on the shelves, without much regard to order
or sequence. A systematic study of the law is out of the question. Perhaps
more than any other science the study of the law requires an instructor.
The average practicing lawyer is so busy that he has little time to give to the

886 WORKERS OF THE NATION

student in his office. The training in a law office must therefore be ex-
tremely superficial. The student skims through a few books, draws a few
legal papers, and is admitted to the bar, without the proper systematic study
of the principles and history of the law. To one who can not go to a law
school the correspondence schools are a boon, supplementing in a satisfac-
tory manner such instruction as may be obtained in a law office, and ground-
ing the student in basic and fundamental principles.

STUDYING LAW AT HOME

The establishment of correspondence schools of law has made it prac-
ticable for young men to study law at home. These correspondence schools
have passed beyond the stage of experiment, and have proved their useful-
ness. Those whose time is partly taken up at home can pursue these courses
with great advantage, gaining a good legal education. The student chooses
his own time and place of study, receives individual instruction, is taught
self-reliance, and may pursue his regular vocation while studying. He re-
ceives attention which the busy, successful lawyer in his office has no time to
bestow upon him. His reading is properly directed. A common-school
education is required of applicants for admission to the junior class. Post-
graduate courses are also available. In the "Department of Practice" the
every-day routine of a lawyer's office is followed, with instruction in con-
tracts, leases, deeds, mortgages, bills of sale, bonds, notes, powers-of-at-
torney, wills, pleadings, affidavits, searches of title, etc. General principles
are taught and applied to concrete facts and conditions.

WOMEN IN THE LEGAL PROFESSION

In the United States a large number of pulpits are occupied by women,
the medical directories contain the names of hundreds of women in medi-
cine, but at the bar woman has a comparatively small representation.

A prominent woman lawyer in New York who has won cases in the
Court of Special Sessions was asked whether she would advise girls to be-
come lawyers. She replied that she would not unless they were seriously
in earnest and felt a special calling for it.

"It is a hard life," she said. "The nervous strain of court practice is wearing even to
men, and women are much less able to endure it. I would certainly advise girls to study
law as part of a valuable practical education, but I would discourage them from attempt-
ing court practice unless it is necessary. It is useless to deny that there is a prejudice
against woman lawyers. I mean among the men in the profession. When I first began
to practice I had the feminine idea of the social courtesy extended by men to women, and
I thought everything was going to be perfectly lovely; but I found out my mistake. If
I wanted to win, I had to fight tooth and nail. I did it, but it isn't every woman who
would be physically able to endure the strain."

As sentiment and impulse predominate in the feminine temperament,
nothing will round out a woman's mind more fully than a legal educa-
tion, enabling her to acquire a judicial way of looking at things. The cost
of a legal education for women is not high. In an Eastern university the

THE LEGAL PROFESSION 887

fees in the woman's law class are $6 for each course, or $20 for the four
courses, besides a graduation fee of $5. There are scholarships of which
ten are free and twenty half free. The advantages that come to women
from studying law are numerous. Typewriters and stenographers in law
offices are greatly benefited by a legal course of study. A knowledge of the
principles of commercial law is a great advantage to a business woman.
Women physicians find it to their interest to know something of medical
jurisprudence. As the laws of many States give women, married and
single, entire control of their individual estates, the more law they know
the better can they manage their property.

Iowa, Michigan, California, Missouri and Illinois were among the first
States to admit women to practice law. In New York State there are
classes for women law students at Cornell and New York University. There
are in this country several successful women lawyers. Some foreign coun-
tries admit women to the bar. Among these is France, Canada, Japan, and
India.

In Wyoming women are permitted to serve on juries and to act as jus-
tices of the peace. In Chicago a woman is public guardian, having in her
care the estates of more than three hundred orphans. New York an !
Illinois lead in the number of women lawyers. In conclusion, we may sav
that in thirty-four States women are admitted to practice law. In Illinois
eighty-seven have been admitted; in New York, forty; in Iowa, thirty; in
Massachusetts, twenty; in Missouri, twenty-five; in the District of Columbia,
ten ; in Nebraska, twenty-five ; in Oregon, nine. Each of the other of the
thirty-four States has two or three.

Wives, mothers and daughters were among the number recently gradu-
ated from a women's law course of an Eastern university. The relatives
of several prominent millionaires and of men noted in their professions were
included in this list. The broad-minded and philanthropic Miss Helen
Gould has been very deeply interested in this legal course for women. Many
women have followed the study of law, not with the intention of becom-
ing legal practitioners, but that they might be the better prepared for the
management of their estates and the control of their financial affairs, or the
conduct of their business. A large number of women are taking up legal
study for the broadening of their education and the fascination presented
to them by the subject.

As between their brothers in the legal profession, so judges and juries
will always distinguish between capable and incapable women lawyers.
Prejudice against women lawyers is disappearing. Success must be a
matter of personality. Business ability and personal individual magnetism
will be factors in determining a woman lawyer's success. The first prac-
titioners have been, and will continue to be, women of a very high grade of
ability. Although women have not practiced in New York long enough to
permit conclusions to be drawn, yet the prospect is promising that they
may find legal work remunerative. One or two women lawyers have

888 WORKERS OF THE NATION

achieved signal success at the New York bar. It has been agreed that the
West offers a broader field for beginners.

Two qualities are absolutely essential to a woman's success as a lawyer
— perseverance and concentration. Earnestness and sincerity will, of course,
be present. A sense of justice must prevail. From the bench and the bar
women lawyers in New York will always receive the most courteous treat-
ment. Respect for her ability and character each woman will win for
herself. It is not yet a certainty that the average woman practitioner will
make a good living by her profession. But all things must have a beginning.

THE JUDICIARY

"When the lawyer turns from the Bar to the Bench," said a justice of the Supreme
Court of New York, "it usually means that a man has added the profession of politics to
that of the law. In a general way the judiciary may be said to be divided into three
branches — city, State, and national. Every lawyer has it within his power to work his
way up from city magistrate, through the State courts, to a place on the bench of the
Supreme Court at Washington, but to do this he must not be averse to taking an active
part in politics."

The salaries of the various magistrates and judges are as follows : The
city magistrates of New York are paid $7,000 a year; judges of the special
sessions receive $9,000 a year; judges of the general sessions, elected for a
term of ten years, receive an annual salary of $12,000; the district attorney
of New York receives $12,000 per annum, and the assistant district attorney
$7,500. The Supreme Court justices in New York City receive $17,000,
and in the remaining districts of the State $7,200 each.

It should be added that the justices of the Supreme Court of New York
State are divided among eight districts, the first and second districts com-
prising the city and county of New York and other counties in or near
Greater New York, the six remaining districts covering the entire "up State"
section.

In the Court of Appeals of the State of New York the associate judges
receive $13,700, and the chief judge $14,200 a year. To return again to
the City Court — the judges are elected for a term of ten years at an annual
salary of $10,000 a year. In the Surrogate's Court the surrogates are
elected for a term of fourteen years at an annual salary of $15,000 a year.

It is impossible here to dwell at length upon the judiciary in all the
cities and States of the Union. It is sufficient to say that the salaries paid
to judges in New York represent the maximum earnings of the judiciary
throughout the country. A study of the figures named will show that a
good lawyer can earn a great deal more money than a judge in the highest
court.

THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT

"The most respected and most powerful judicial body in the world."
These words are to be found in the eulogy which Mr. Gladstone pronounced
upon the Supreme Court of the United States. To become a member of this
august tribunal is considered worthy of the ambition of the greatest lawyers.

THE LEGAL PROFESSION

A place on the Supreme Bench is supposed to be the greatest office under the
government. It carries with it a power greater than that of Congress, greater
than that of the President. For the Supreme Court of the United States
can set aside the law of the land, a power not given to any other court in the
world. Congress may pass a bill, the Chief Executive may sign it, but the
Supreme Bench can render any such act null and void by declaring it un-
constitutional.

A place on the Supreme Bench, therefore, means power, position, dis-
tinction. It does not mean material advantage. On the contrary, more
than one member of the court has given up an income of from $30,000 to
$40,000 a year as a practicing lawyer to become a member of the Supreme
Court at $10,000 a year — the salary of each of the eight Associate Justices.
The Chief Justice receives $10,500, a sum equal only to that which the
United States pays to ministers to countries like Peru, Uruguay and Sal-
vador. It is a sum a trifle in excess of half the amount paid to our ambas-
sadors. It is apparent that the great and important office of Chief Justice
or Associate Justice often carries with it a sacrifice in a material sense on the
part of the incumbents.

A place on the Supreme Bench is supposed to be unlike political office,
in that it is considered indelicate to become an avowed candidate for the
position. The place, therefore, is seldom sought after through the regular
channels utilized by ordinary office seekers.

An appointment to the Supreme Bench is for life, but the justices may re-
tire at the age of seventy with pay, if they so desire. As a matter of fact,
but few justices have availed themselves of this privilege until long past
threescore and ten. The oldest member of the court at the present time is
seventy- four years of age, while the youngest is not yet sixty.

All the justices literally burn the midnight oil. The press of the busi-
ness of the court is so great that many litigants are obliged to wait two or
even three years before their cases can be heard. Oral arguments are heard
every week-day excepting Saturdays, during the session, from twelve o'clock
to four. The time the justices spend actually on the bench, however, is only
a small part of their work, just as the actual time a Senator or a Represen-
tative spends in the legislative hall represents only a small part of the time
he gives to government work. The real hard work of statesmen is done in
committee rooms, and the hardest work of the justices of the Supreme Court
is done in the consultation room.

Every litigant, great or humble, has the opinions, not of one of the jus-
tices, but of all. Therefore, after hearing the arguments, each justice must
study the case individually. On "conference day" each case is discussed,
briefs examined and opinions exchanged. Then the Chief Justice names the
Associate Justice who is to write the opinion of the court.

CHAPTER VI
THE MEDICAL PROFESSION

Conditions of the Practice of Medicine — Specialists in the Medical Profession — The Gen-
eral Practitioner — The Country Doctor — Physicians as Business Men — The Physician
in Public Life — Physicians in Court — Surgeons — Electro-Therapeutics — A Medical
Education — The Hospital Service — The Beginner in Medicine — Women in the Medi-
cal Profession — Organization among Physicians

CONDITIONS OF THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE

THAT the ranks of the profession are very much overcrowded is shown
by the reports of the last census, which demonstrate that in New
York State there is one physician to every five hundred and ninety-
six other inhabitants, in Pennsylvania one to every six hundred and ninety-
three ; in Illinois, one to every five hundred and eighty-three. In a general
way, the Eastern and Middle States contain the greatest number of doctors,
while in the Southern and Western States, except California, the proportion
is not so large. New Mexico contains one to every fourteen hundred and
six, while Mississippi contains one to every fifteen hundred and forty-eight.
There are most physicians to the population in the States of Vermont and
California, which respectively contain one to four hundred and seventy-
seven and one to three hundred and ninety-two. A practitioner, with a fair
practice, must have about two thousand persons who come to him when ill
for treatment.

The older general practitioners are fond of telling the youngsters that it
is almost an impossibility to keep abreast with the rapid progress that is be-
ing made in all branches of the profession. This is to some extent true, and
it is for this reason that physicians prefer to know one branch thoroughly
rather than to have only a superficial knowledge of all the branches ; there-
fore we have what in popular parlance are called eye doctors, nose and
throat specialists, ear specialists — not to speak of bacteriologists, gynecolo-
gists, and many other specialists better known to the profession than to lay-
men.

It has been said that because of the great number of specialists, the gen-
eral practitioner has become merely a master of ceremonies, especially the
physician who counts his patients among the wealthy class. Instead of
making a diagnosis and suggesting treatment himself, it appears to be the
custom of the general practitioner to call in various consultants, by whom
the diagnosis and treatment are furnished. In fact, specialists have so multi-
(890)

THE MEDICAL PROFESSION 891

plied that the old-fashioned "family doctor" is not as popular in households
as formerly, for patients argue that if the family doctor is not capable of
handling the case himself and is obliged to call in the specialist, they might
as well go at once to headquarters, and thus pay only one fee. Thus it has
come to pass that in many instances the family doctor finds himself replaced,
first, by the specialist, and second, by the trained nurse, who carries out the
specialist's instructions.

The general practitioner must carry with him an atmosphere of cheeri-
ness and hopefulness. The old physicians speak of this as "a good bedside
manner," and it is indispensable to a doctor's success. The complete trust of
the patient must be won. The personal equation of the physician counts.

A fruitful source of failure in the medical profession is the following of
double callings. The physician should absolutely avoid this. Medicine is a
jealous mistress, and will quickly turn from the man who courts any other
profession. Even a reputation as a surgeon will militate against a prac-
titioner, for his acquaintances soon give him a reputation for cutting, and
believe that he is good for that alone. Surgery should be regarded as a
specialty distinctly apart from medicine proper. Surgical work, moreover,
differs widely from that of the practitioner — one cuts away and sacrifices,
while the other saves and renews.

SPECIALISTS IN THE MEDICAL PROFESSION

The general tendency of the medical profession is to specialism. In be-
coming a specialist the young physician sometimes makes a grievous error.
He chooses a specialty and practices it before he is thoroughly grounded in
general practice. The specialist who is not first of all a good general prac-
titioner, thoroughly qualified by study and experience in all branches of
medicine, is a very dangerous man. He is apt to attribute all symptoms to
his own specialty. Thus, if his specialty be the nasal passages and throat, he
will look upon malformations of these as the cause of all human ailments,
and no person will escape an operation at his hands which is designed to
improve nature, but which not infrequently leaves the sufferer a victim to
some chronic nasal disease. There are oculists who believe that all nervous
diseases spring from ocular defects, aurists who hold the ear to be the
source of nearly all human ills, gynecologists who allow no woman to escape
the knife, yet these practitioners are conscientious men who would not
knowingly or willingly do a wrong act.

In recent years a new specialty has opened up to medical men through
the discoveries in the field of bacteriology. In this field and in that of
physiological chemistry, which is so closely allied to it that the two are
united, a young medical man may, without practical experience in curing the
sick, find opportunities that may secure him a living. Unless, however, he
can obtain a position in some medical school or in connection with some
hospital or dispensary it would be better for him not to attempt to use this
as a path to practice.

892 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The specialist demands even more years of study than does the general
practitioner, with a corresponding increase in cost; for the specialist, after
leaving the hospital, should spend at least two years in the hospitals of
Europe, and then from two to ten years as an assistant to a leading special-
ist. Thus the young man usually devotes at least fourteen, but as a rule
sixteen, years in training for the particular branch of the profession in which
he aspires to make his mark. To some patients the specialist's fee for a
few moments' work may seem excessive, but it is the patient, not the doctor,
who forgets the years spent in study and hard work, and the cost of prepara-
tion for the operation which perhaps has saved a human life.

THE GENERAL PRACTITIONER

In large cities it is discovered that it is not the celebrated specialists who
earn the largest fees, but rather the general practitioner who has what is
called a fashionable practice. This physician in ordinary to the fashionable
element of society drives about in a brougham with a coachman in spick
and span livery; also, he calls in specialists or scientific experts at his own
discretion. The income of the fashionable physician — and there are perhaps
a score of such doctors in New York alone — is larger than that of the
specialist, as has been said, and is greater, perhaps, than that of physicians
celebrated for their high scientific attainments. For the fashionable doctor
not only charges large fees, knowing that they will be paid, and paid
promptly,' but the appreciation of his patients is often shown in a practical
way by voluntarily sending him a check for double the amount of his bill.

It is matter of record, however, that even the wealthy sometimes refuse
to be imposed upon by that class of physicians who charge according to the
estimated capacity of the patient to pay. For a certain operation a physician
once charged a rich man the sum of $25,000. The patient disputed the bill,
and the matter was referred to a committee of doctors for settlement.
The committee rendered an opinion that the maximum fee for an opera-
tion such as had been performed should be $500. Whereupon the wealthy
patient sent the physician a check for $500, which was accepted — and ser-
vices of that particular physician were never again required by that particular
patient.

Physicians who earn large fees from private patients often give their
services free to hospital patients. Some of the most celebrated general prac-
titioners in New York, for instance, treat hospital patients gratuitously in
the morning, while for the same services at their offices in the afternoon they
charge a large fee. But they give as much attention to the free patient as to
the one who is able to pay. Physicians say that it is only right that the rich
should pay for medical attendance for the poor.

In estimating his probable income the young physician must not forget
that his expenses will involve a large outlay besides that for office rent and
servants. If he would keep abreast with the progress made in his profes-
sion, he must buy a great number of text books every year, and must sub-

THE MEDICAL PROFESSION 893

scribe to many periodicals and purchase dozens of new instruments. The
expenses of the physician who would keep himself in the front rank are such
that it is said that one New York physician who is reputed to have an in-
come of $60,000 a year, asserts that his net income is only about $10,000
a year, the remaining $50,000 representing his annual professional expenses.

THE COUNTRY DOCTOR

The hardest working member of the medical profession is the country
doctor. Hard work in this case is not wholly in the realm of science, but
rather in actual manual labor; for every country doctor passes most of his
time either on horseback or in his buggy. He must drive from ten to thirty
or thirty-five miles a day. After the first year of practice the country doc-
tor no longer counts driving as a pleasure, for driving and riding have by
that time become for him real hard labor. His patients are miles apart,
and he must reach them somehow, winter or summer, in rain or sunshine,
urging his overworked horse through snow or mud, as the case may be.

Often he is called up, like the city doctor, in the middle of the night,
but there is no trolley-car for the country doctor to board, no livery stable
from which he can order a cab by telephone. He must harness his horse
himself and drive a number of miles, all for a fee of perhaps $2. Certain it
is that physicians in the rural districts are obliged to work much harder for
their $800 a year than do their city brethren who earn $1,200 a year.

Many young physicians, however, find practice in their native county,
with small fees, more desirable than a larger practice with less work and
larger fees in the city among strangers. If often happens that the young
countryman takes over the practice of one of the old family doctors in his
neighborhood, having made a bargain with the practitioner for such a trans-
fer before going to college.

PHYSICIANS AS BUSINESS MEN

A physician's first aim is to relieve the suffering and to cure the sick;
his second is to obtain a living for himself and for those dependent upon
him. In order to perform this latter duty he must be to some extent a busi-
ness man ; generally, however, the physician is a very poor man of business,
and it is too often the case that boys who are found wanting in business abil-
ity are, as a last resort, put to the study of medicine. At any rate, failure
to acquire lucrative practice is often the result of poor business methods on
the part of the physician. The first principle of all business is system. In
his business relation to patients, the physician should live just as close to
system as possible. He should have a fixed rate of charges and a fixed sys-
tem concerning the collection of these charges, which should be followed as
closely as possible.

Whenever a young physician can keep his practice on a cash basis he
would best do so ; a dollar in the hand is worth two on the books, and this

894 WORKERS OF THE NATION

is especially true of the early practice in the case of young men. An office
practice is to be encouraged and built up as much as possible, for it is always
largely cash. It is an excellent plan to render bills monthly, and no ob-
jections will be made to this if the bills bear the notice on the heading : "Bills
rendered monthly." The old-fashioned long credit plan is sure to entail
heavy losses.

THE PHYSICIAN IN PUBLIC LIFE

In our large cities there are many salaried positions which a young
physician may obtain. In New York the Health Department employs a
large number of young medical men to whom it pays small salaries, but suf-
ficient for support. The life insurance companies and many hospitals and
dispensaries also pay salaries to physicians, and by receiving such an appoint-
ment a young man can tide over the period when patients come slowly. But
whoever sinks into the rut of a salaried position passes a wretched existence.
He is never sure of his position, especially if it be a political one ; he may be
torn from his place by political changes or by sickness or other misfortune,
and if such an accident occur late in life he will probably not endure trans-
plantation. Moreover, the salary of official medical men is so small as to be
a disgrace to the country. While it may seem large to the beginner in medi-
cine who is without a family, it is quite inadequate to support the latter.

Young men in official medical positions should never neglect to keep up
at least a nucleus for the establishment of a practice, for if his official life
is continued to old age and then terminated by the loss of his position,
he is likely to become a wreck and unfitted for any avocation, least of all
for the practice of medicine.

These salaried positions undoubtedly retard final and complete success
even when they are used for the purpose of tiding over the period when prac-
tice is slow. There seems to be something about the holding of a salaried
position that leads patients to distrust the doctor, either from lack of faith in
his ability or for fear that he may not be on hand when his services are re-
quired in a case of emergency. The physician himself loses something; he
lives from hand to mouth, spending his salary as soon as it is due, ofttimes
before, neglecting to work up a practice. He has no time to work at the
hospitals and do other work necessary for the acquirement of a practice.

PHYSICIANS IN COURT

Physicians are probably more frequently called into court as expert wit-
nesses than are the members of any other profession. As alienist the doctor
must represent the interests of the insane, while in accidents and murder
cases his services are often required to make clear medical evidence. As an
expert witness, neither the young nor the old physician can afford to be un-
fair to either plaintiff or defendant, regardless of the side he represents. He
should never permit himself to be made use of to establish a case of doubtful
character, lest sooner or later he will come to repent it.

THE MEDICAL PROFESSION 895

SURGEONS

It is said that the medical profession in the Nineteenth Century made
greatest progress in the surgical branch. A great number of medical stu-
dents nowadays prefer to train as surgeons rather than as doctors in the
ordinary sense of the term. It seems that the use of the knife is considered
more scientific than to prescribe medicine, and that therefore the surgeon
makes more money than he who scribbles prescriptions. Meantime, when
a surgical operation is to be performed, the ordinary practitioner prefers to
call in the surgeon, even when the operation is of the minor sort.

To the triumph of modern surgery, says a New York surgeon, there is scarcely a
limit. Nothing apparently is beyond the reach of the confident and daring hand that wields
the life-saving blade. The hitherto hidden recesses of fatal disease are made into broad-
ening highways for explorative scientific endeavor. No organ of the body, from brain to
kidney, is exempt from successful operative procedure. Even a stab or bullet wound of
the heart itself is boldly sutured in the short intervals between uninterrupted pulsations.

It is a proud thing to say on behalf of the medical profession, that, through its per-
sistent efforts in the interest of radical sanitary regulations, there is not a district in all
the wide territories of the United States in which any pestilential disease could take firm
root or be beyond the possibility of speedy and effectual eradication.

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS

The use of electricity in all branches has been reduced to an exact prac-
tical science. Delicate instruments enable the adjustment of the voltage
and current strength to the most minute degrees, to the achievement of
correspondingly precise results. One of the most significant phases of elec-
trical development is found in electro-therapeutics. Science has demon-
strated the close analogy between the actions of electricity and vital forces,
and it only remains for the physician to apply this knowledge accurately to
the treatment of diseased and morbid physical conditions. Here, however,
the all-important subject of electro-physiology, or the science of electrical
effects on the human body, is necessary as defining and limiting the use of
electricity, current or static, since this force which can heal so effectually can
also injure, if wrongly or ignorantly applied. For this reason, the physi-
cian, who would use this latest of scientific adjuncts to his professional prac-
tice, must become an electrician to the extent at least of being an expert on
electro-physiological effects.

Among the uses of the electrical current in medical practice may be men-
tioned its power as a sterilizer, deodorizer, bactericide or general oxidizer in
sanitation, in which it is fairly incomparable. In therapy, it is useful as
supplying a ready means for lighting and exploring cavities of the body, the
stomach, bladder, etc. ; in the electric cautery, which may be introduced cold
into any passage, heated to the desired degree, applied to the diseased tissue,
and withdrawn cold ; in the Roentgen or X -rays, by which medical and
surgical diagnosis has been immensely advantaged. In all of these appli-
cations, however, especially the last, exact knowledge is necessary, in order
to avoid harmful effects. The various kinds of current, intelligently used,

896 WORKERS OF THE NATION

have different physiological effects. Thus the direct current is stimulating
or soothing, according to strength and polarity ; induced currents are useful
in treating the motor nerves and contractile tissues ; sinusoidal currents can
induce muscular contractions with the minimum of pain; high-tension and
high-frequency alternating currents, as powerful excitants, are particularly
useful in quickening metabolism ; static electricity, carefully applied, is use-
ful in a wide variety of ailments; while alternating magnetic effects are
especially useful in correcting faulty nutrition. Thus a wide sphere of use-
fulness is opened to the physician who takes the trouble to inform himself on
the exact regulation and use of electricity. In dentistry the electric current
is of especial value in the electrolytic elimination of diseased tissue; in the
preparation of a cavity, without needless pain to the patient; in sterilizing
teeth ; in short, in all operations where the allaying of pain is desirable. It
is equally effective in oral surgery, accomplishing with the smallest discom-
fort to the patient, many things impossible to the knife or older methods of
cautery.

A MEDICAL EDUCATION

A good medical education costs a sum of money which will seem large to
people in moderate circumstances. In the first place a man must be
thoroughly grounded in the elementary studies before he can enter a first-
class medical school. Under the existing laws enforced in all our States a
knowledge of reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography and Latin is
required before matriculation.

The cost of a strictly medical education depends, of course, upon the lo-
cality in which a given medical school is situated, and will consequently
vary within rather wide limits. In our large cities, such as New York,
Philadelphia, Baltimore and Chicago, from six to eight hundred dollars a
year will probably cover the necessary expenses. As most medical colleges
now require a course of four years before conferring their degree, the total
cost will be between three and four thousand dollars.

One would think that ample means would be an essential need for the
medical student throughout his career, for such means would enable him to
support himself without worry and embarrassment for the period of time
necessary for thorough study, and for the subsequent acquirement of hos-
pital experience and equipment which would enable him to outstrip his
poorer competitors. As a matter of fact, however, a man backed by ample
means seldom succeeds in the practice of medicine. It is true that some
wealthy men have achieved success in branches related to medicine, such
as original chemical and bacteriological research, but in the practice of
medicine proper rich men are failures.

Two things are necessary for success in the profession; these operate,
the one to pull, the other to push, the student. One is a pronounced taste
for the calling, an overwhelming ambition to be a physician and to attain the
goal of medical success ; the other is the spur of necessity, or goad of pov-

THE MEDICAL PROFESSION 897

erty, that forces a man forward and prevents him from taking a backward
step.

It is impossible to advise the student with regard to the particular medi-
cal college which he should enter. He has his choice of about one hundred
and twenty-five regular medical schools and about twenty-five homeopathic
schools. Some young men prefer to enter medical schools near their own
homes, or at least in their own States. The wise student, of course, will
make every attempt to enter one of the best medical schools. If he has not
money enough at the outset to pay for his training, he can work his way to a
degree, and in doing so will find helping hands the rule rather than the ex-
ception.

The medical graduate, at the date of his graduation, is utterly incompe-
tent to treat any disease. All of his studies of diseases have been from
diagnosis to symptoms. For example, in the study of typhoid fever his
text-book article is entitled, "Typhoid Fever; its Etiology, Symptoms and
Treatment." In practice, when confronted by a patient he finds this order
reversed, the symptoms are what first meet his eye, the name of the disease
must be worked out from these symptoms. His text-book describes a classi-
cal case of typhoid fever, but the symptoms presented by his patient vary,
as a general rule, so greatly from the classical description that he is com-
pletely at sea, and can not recognize the disease which is producing them.
A young physician once confessed that when he was first called to see a
case of measles he had not the slightest idea what was the matter with the
patient until an old woman came into the room and said : "It's measles, isn't
it, Doctor?" "Why of course it is," he replied, "and," said he later, "if
that old woman hadn't helped me out, goodness knows what I would have
diagnosed." The early mistakes of a physician would be ludicrous were it
not for the consequences which they sometimes entail. Before it is safe for
a young practitioner to undertake to practice he must have had some practi-
cal work in a hospital under the direction of an experienced physician. This
hospital course should be insisted upon after graduation.

THE HOSPITAL SERVICE

After leaving the medical school he will make every effort to secure a
two years' course in a hospital. It is said that the experience acquired in two
years at Bellevue Hospital, in New York, is equal to ten years of practice.
In the hospital he must be content to conform to the rules, to act under the
direction of his superiors, and to respond to ambulance calls night or day,
in all kinds of weather.

It hardly seems possible that it is only thirty-three years since the estab-
lishment of the ambulance system. It was introduced then at Bellevue
Hospital, in New York, and has been copied in all the great cities of the
world. It was an enormous improvement on the old methods of transport-
ing patients in trucks, carts or stretchers. As nearly perfect as the system
now is, yet there is room for further progress in its organization. The mat-

26— Vol. 2

898 WORKERS OF THE NATION

ter of the quickness of the summons should be looked into. A moment's de-
lay is frequently a question of life or death. Upon receipt of a certain sig-
nal, called "the hurry five," New York ambulances often start for the lo-
cality indicated in thirty seconds after the accident or disaster has happened.
In former days there was often a delay of hours before succor arrived.

In New York, the fire department wires are always unobstructed, and
through this department calls are made more quickly than through the
agency of the police.

The police officer often has to use the public telephone service, with its
incidental delays, and perhaps ten minutes elapse before the "hurry call" is
received at the hospital. Or, in the excitement of the moment, a citizen calls
up a hospital five or six miles distant from the scene, instead of asking for
one two blocks away. Such delays must often be fatal. A law was passed
by the legislature, more than twenty years ago, providing for an ambulance
call in every block in New York City, but it has never been enforced. Every
citizen should know the hospital districts, so that, upon emergency, he may
call up the right hospital, that is to say, the nearest. Much praise is due to
the system, and many an able practitioner has graduated from the rear step
of an ambulance.

THE BEGINNER IN MEDICINE

When a young physician has obtained his degree and demonstrated to
the State Examiners that he has a complete knowledge of his calling, and
when he has qualified himself by experience in a hospital to treat the ills of
mankind, he is met by the momentous problem : "How and where shall I
start?" Frequently he rents a room containing a folding bed, a desk and
some chairs, buys some surgical instruments and hangs out his shingle. His
wait for patients is likely to be a long, tedious one. One young physician
waited for a year, during which period he had two calls, one from the cook
in the house, who had scalded her hand, and the other from a passerby who
chanced to see his sign and came in to be treated for some trifling ailment.
He disappeared before he paid his bill. Perhaps the best way for a young
physician to succeed is to start as an assistant to some older man. If the
young man is patient, well qualified by study and experience and of good
judgment he is likely to succeed in time, and to acquire the practice of his
patron when the latter retires or passes away.

Acquirement of a practice depends upon the personal equation of the
physician, and upon the size of his acquaintanceship. If there is any human
being on earth who has to hustle it is the young physician. He must make
friends, keep abreast of the times in his studies and keep brushing up on his
past work. His knowledge must be large and varied, and is easily forgot-
ten, so he is doomed to be a student all his days. He must secure hospital
or dispensary practice in order that his hand may not lose its cunning, and
this can only be obtained through the backing of influential friends. His
path is beset with pitfalls. Even in the making of friends serious dangers

THE MEDICAL PROFESSION 899

exist. He must avoid persons whose habits of life would tend to com-
promise him ; he must not permit his office to become a social rendezvous ;
he can not afford to be a hanger-on around clubs, and never for one instant
must he forget the high character of his calling. His appearance must be
above reproach. Clean linen, good clothes and a neat appearance are essen-
tials for success in all walks of life, and to no one are they more necessary
than to the physician. His manners should be a perfect reflection of his
character, and this character must be that of a clean-minded, polished gen-
tleman ready to genuinely sympathize with affliction.

One of the greatest elements of success is practicality, and in this the
American physicians are pre-eminently ahead of their European brethren.
Just as there are men who can do a better piece of work with a jack-knife
than others can do with a whole chest of tools, so some physicians, poorly
equipped in the learning of the profession, may, with their slight knowl-
edge and the application of sound common sense, do better than many of
their more learned colleagues. The successful physician must be distin-
guished also by honesty, and that indescribable element of the personal
equation which the French call savoir faire.

WOMEN IN THE MEDICAL PROFESSION

In the profession of medicine, women take their place as naturally as in
the profession of nursing. There are more women in the medical profession
than in any other professions save those of literature and art. All the
smaller cities have at least one "woman doctor," and every large city has
twro or more. Many women doctors have a large and lucrative practice.
The name of at least one very prominent woman physician in each large
city might be mentioned.

Women have no trials different from men in the study of medicine, ex-
cept in the matter of hospital appointments after graduation, and that m
ter is slowly righting itself. It is of great advantage and very impo^
for the graduate of medicine to practice in a hospital as interne,
places are secured through competitive examinations, and very few
large hospitals allow women to compete for places. Women are adri
equally with men in most post-graduate schools. It is so in the New
Post-Graduate School and Hospital, the Polytechnic, and at Johns Hop-
kins, in Baltimore.

A hard course of study is essential, bringing out the faculty of patient
observation, exact statement, and correct deduction. Sound judgment and
common sense must form the foundation. Kindness and cheerfulness are
necessary. The most careful anatomical study and extended clinical obser-
vation are obligatory. Pathology and therapeutics must be made actual and
practical.

Although there is a tendency among women doctors to devote themselves
to specialties, yet it would be well for them to aim at being family physi-
cians, and not specialists. Formidable operations by great leaders need not

900 WORKERS OF THE NATION

be run after, nor isolated cases sought for. The study of the treatment of
ordinary diseases, such as measles, whooping cough and scarlet fever, is of
much greater practical benefit. A doctor's aim should be to extirpate these
common diseases, and women physicians should cherish this object. Mid-
wifery and sanitary, or preventive, medicine will always appeal to women
doctors, and these departments of practice should be raised to a higher plane.
Midwifery should not at all be looked down upon by women practitioners.
Skilful services in this branch of professional work lead to the summons to
attend the children and other members of the household, and the appoint-
ment as the family physician naturally follows. The broader the scope of
the woman practitioner, and the wider her field of usefulness, the better for
the sex and for the profession.

No practical work outside of domestic life is more in keeping with noble
aspirations than is the practice of medicine. Women find in this field room
for the exercise of those high moral qualities, tenderness, sympathy, and
care, while their minds are broadened by the constant study incident to the
preparation for the profession and to its practice. The woman practitioner
must possess the essential qualities of maternity, for the sick are like children
in her hands. Insight and sympathy must be present, and she must also re-
member that the sick-room is as sacred as a confessional. In midwifery and
preventive medicine, in the care of chronic diseases, in the treatment of
children and of the poor, there are enormous demands upon pity, patience
and courage.

In the beginning of practice women can acquire a footing almost, if not
quite, as easily as men. In the highest rank of this profession, that is as
consultants, it is much more difficult, owing to the lack of hospital con-
nections, which give great facility and skill, and consequent recognition.
The courts in New York, at least, have recognized the right of women to be
examined, should they so prefer, by women physicians. Women are ad-
mitted to the medical societies, write and present papers and participate in
debates.

ORGANIZATION AMONG PHYSICIANS

The principal medical associations in the United States are the American
Academy of Medicine and the American Medical Association and its
branches. Perhaps the latter is the most important, as it is the national so-
ciety of the physicians in this country, having a membership numbering
about twelve thousand. This association was reorganized at the annual
meeting in June, 1901, and is now in reality the central organization, with
the State societies as its branches. The State societies are in turn sub-
divided into county or district societies. Other medical societies are the
American Electro-Therapeutic Society, American Surgical Association, As-
sociation of American Anatomists, Association of American Physicians, and
the Roentgen Ray Society of America.

CHAPTER VII

NURSES, PHARMACISTS, DENTISTS AND VETERI-
NARIANS

Nursing as a Profession — Training for the Profession of Nursing — Pharmacists — Drug-
gists— Drug Clerks— Dentistry as a Profession — Dental Education — The Veterinary
Profession — Openings for Veterinary Surgeons — The Education of the Veterinarian

NURSING AS A PROFESSION

WOMAN'S natural work in the world includes nursing, and the
number of women at work as trained nurses will always exceed
the number of men in the same profession. In the United States
and Canada there are about 35,000 trained nurses, of whom the great ma-
jority are women. One or more nurses are employed in each of the three
thousand hospitals, sanitariums, homes and asylums in the country. Some
of the hospitals are so small that they employ only one trained nurse, but in
such cases a number of untrained helpers are in attendance.

The commercial advantages of the profession of nursing have led many
to enter the field who have no special fitness for its duties. Although there
have been numerous accessions to the army of trained nurses, yet there is
room for more, and the employment is fairly profitable. It is not well for
a young woman to imagine that a nurse's work is easy. On the contrary, it
is strenuous, confining work, with very long hours of service.

The young woman intending to become a trained nurse should, first of
all, be thoroughly examined by a physician in reference to her physical fit-
ness for the life. An organic disease of any kind ought to be a disqualifica-
tion. In the training schools the work is hard, the hours being, generally
speaking, from 7 A. M. to 8 P. M., or from 8 P. M. to 7 A. M., with rest
periods. The novice does not at once assist at delicate operations, but is ad-
vanced step by step, as she improves.

A word of caution to young trained nurses may be added. The keynote
of success in private nursing is tact. Your patient in a hospital can not dis-
charge you. In private practice, however, incompatibility or friction be-
tween nurse and patient is sure to result in immediate discharge, in many
instances. The nurse must adapt herself to conditions as they arise. She
must be strict and exact, but she must also be amiable, persuasive and pol-
itic with her patients. A real interest must be taken in each case, and serv-
ices must not be rendered in a careless, mechanical fashion. The nurse
should carry with her an atmosphere of cheerfulness.

(901)

902 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Very often is heard the expression : "It was the nursing that pulled him
through." As a matter of fact, great as is the responsibility of the physician,
and efficacious as is his skill, yet the nurse, of the present day, is almost as
much a necessity in curing diseases as he is, the one being the proper comple-
ment of the other. Nurses even act as checks upon incompetent or careless
doctors. The nurse should possess a great liking for the work.

The graduate nurse must put her theories into practice. The clinical
classes will still be of benefit to her. Manipulative work can only be learned
by actual handling. Individualism must be a factor of success in nurs-
ing, as in other callings. The personal equation always counts for a great
deal with both nurse and physician.

TRAINING FOR THE PROFESSION OF NURSING

As there is a State board of medical examiners in many States regulating
the admission to the practice of medicine, so also, many claim ought there
to be State control of the education of professional nurses. The spreading
of the training school for nurses throughout the country is a notable sign of
progress.

Among the training schools for nurses is the Bellevue School, in New
York, from which seven hundred nurses have been graduated since its
opening in 1873. One of these graduates has become superintendent of a
training school for nurses in Manila, and two others have similar schools in
Cuba. Nurses, as a rule, are advised to return for practice to that section
of the country from which they came. In a recent year this school received
one thousand eight hundred and three applications for admissions. Nurses
must be strong and healthy, and should be prepared to meet much that is
repugnant in their daily duties at Bellevue Hospital. They must give ab-
solute obedience to the orders of the physicians.

A woman may pass any examination prescribed by the most exacting
authorities, but lacking that sympathetic quality which distinguishes the
best type of womanhood, fail in the profession of nursing. The technical
knowledge is most important, but alone it does not fit a woman for a good
nurse. Her personality counts far more with her patients than her profes-
sional skill. Nurses, like artists, are born.

The expense of learning the profession of nursing is not great, there be-
ing some income from the first. The cost of the necessary uniform is paid
by the nurse, but it is of cotton, and not expensive. Board and lodging are
free. For the first year the wages are about ten dollars a month, running up
to sixteen a month during the last year of the school. An application must
be made in advance, as there are so many girls desiring to enter this service.
After leaving school the trained nurses readily find employment, receiving
twenty-one dollars a week for ordinary diseases, and twenty-five for con-
tagious diseases, in the large cities. In the smaller towns, the prices are not
so high, coming down to about ten dollars. There being less competition
in the smaller towns, the nurse's income will about equal her city sister's.

NURSES, PHARMACISTS, AND DENTISTS 903

In hospital work it is well for nurses to take several months of training
in the medical wards first, and then in the surgical wards. Payment should
begin as soon as a nurse fully enters into hospital service. Professional
nursing is "an honorable calling for honorable women," and women should
earn enough by its practice to live upon. It is essentially a woman's work.
Cleanliness in the wards should be insisted upon by the nurse. Brightness
and comfort should prevail. Proficiency in general nursing should always
precede specialties.

PHARMACISTS

To Philadelphia belongs the credit for founding the first college of
pharmacy. It seems that as far back as 1821 a little group of Philadelphia
druggists recognized the necessity for the better educational qualifications of
those in the drug business, and encouraged the founding of the Philadelphia
College of Pharmacy. In 1826 this school graduated three students. The
institution now has over eight hundred students, graduating about two
hundred yearly. New York, in 1826, followed the example of Philadelphia
by establishing a school of pharmacy. At about the same time Baltimore,
Boston and Cincinnati also opened similar schools. To-day there are over
sixty institutions in the United States and Canada where instruction in
pharmacy is given, more than half of which are regular colleges and schools
of pharmacy, the others being departments of pharmacy in universities.
These schools employ about four hundred and fifty instructors and have
nearly four thousand pupils. In recent years the graduates have numbered
one thousand one hundred or one thousand two hundred annually, from fifty
to sixty of whom were women.

The necessary education for a pharmacist can not be attained in a drug
store alone, but must be supplemented by a systematic study of pharmacy in
a properly constituted college. This college training and laboratory practice
are essential. There should be a preliminary high school education. In a
prominent Western college of pharmacy the tuition fee is $75 for each year,
covering all drugs, chemicals and other materials needed in laboratory work.

Students are permitted to serve for part -of the time in drug stores, where
they may earn five or six dollars a week. In a first-class Eastern College of
Pharmacy the total expenses for the two years amount to $235, including
$25 worth of text-books.

The pharmaceutical course usually covers three years, and, in addition
to this the laws of some States require at least four years' practical experi-
ence in a drug store, although the candidate for a license may serve part of
this apprenticeship while studying. This arrangement frequently, enables
the student to pay a large part of his expenses, including about $100 per year
as tuition fee.

DRUGGISTS

The modern apothecary must carry a stock of goods which is really sur-
prising in variety. It is estimated that in any first-class drug store as many

904 WORKERS OF THE NATION

as 1,500 different articles or preparations can be bought. The development
of the drug business in the United States has been such that the druggists of
this country now supply the world with almost everything it needs in medic-
inal wares. American medical preparations, including so-called patent or
secret medicines, have largely displaced home products in foreign lands, and
the inhabitants of foreign cities are buying American goods in preference to
wares made in their own country. The progress made in this country, in-
deed, in operative and manipulative pharmacy, has been marvellous. Our
Pharmaceuticals and chemicals now hold the foremost place in the list of the
world's productions. The results of American inventive skill in this as in
other industries, have made an impression in all countries.

We have eight large factories engaged in manufacturing fine chemicals,
and a score of firms which make pills and other pharmaceutical preparations
on a very extensive scale. The combined rating of 270 wholesale druggists
and manufacturers of chemicals and pharmaceuticals, in 1895, was over
$50,000,000, eleven of these being rated at $1,000,000 each.

New York, of course, is the largest distributing centre for the drug
trade in the United States. The metropolitan firms, indeed, supply the bulk
of the trade throughout the country. Here, too, are the headquarters of the
various organizations of the retail and wholesale branches of the drug busi-
ness. In the retail branch the leading organization is the American Pharma-
ceutical Association, its object being the advancement of pharmacy through
increased educational facilities, and the securing of more general recognition
of the professional side of the drug business in relation to the medical pro-
fession. The membership list of this organization includes the names of the
ablest men identified with the scientific advancement of pharmacy.

DRUG CLERKS

The young man who seeks to pass his life in a drug store stands a
much better chance of advancement, of course, if he happens to be a graduate
of one of the schools of pharmacy. The more thorough his preliminary
training the quicker he will secure recognition as a pharmacist, or, to use
the old-fashioned name, apothecary. As the ordinary layman understands
the situation, the distinction between a pharmacist and a druggist lies in the
fact that the pharmacist is engaged professionally in preparation of drugs,
while the druggist is concerned principally with drugs as considered com-
mercially. In other words, the pharmacist makes compounds and fills the
prescriptions of physicians, while the druggist is the owner of a store for
the sale of drugs — a merchant dealing in hundreds of articles, many of
which can not be classified as drugs.

Of all classes of retail clerks, the drug clerk works the largest number of
hours per day. The drygoods store, the grocery shop, the clothing store,
and the hundred and one other classes of retail establishments, are closed
evenings and Sundays ; but the drug store is never closed. Every night until
the hour of twelve it is ablaze with light ; from midnight until daylight the

NURSES, PHARMACISTS, AND DENTISTS 905

lights are out, but a night bell is provided, and a pharmacist sleeps in the
store subject to the call of the bell. On. Sundays the store is open for
business as on weekdays. The drug clerk, of course, is given one day a week
"off," but still the hours in many instances are unreasonably long. For sev-
eral years the organizations of drug clerks have agitated the subject of
shorter hours, with a view to causing legislative bodies to take action in the
matter by passing laws regulating the hours of work in the drug trade.

DENTISTRY AS A PROFESSION

All the world hates a dentist quite as emphatically as it loves a lover.
The Americans were the first people to discover that the systematic hatred
of dentists was unwise. The people of this country discovered that the skill
of the dentist was as necessary to perfect health as exercise, plain food and
plenty of sleep. Thus as a nation we encouraged the development of the
science of dental surgery to such a high degree that, by the time the first
dental schools were established, dentistry was recognized as a separate pro-
fession.

The American dentist is considered the best the world over. At the
same time the whole world sends students to our schools of dentistry ; and
these institutions, like the graduates thereof, are recognized as the best the
earth affords.

In whatever country an American dentist is practicing to-day, the people
prefer to intrust the care of their teeth to him rather than to the native prac-
titioners. Hence we have the spectacle of the inhabitants of the capital cities
of Europe giving their patronage to American dentists, while at the great
seats of science, such as Paris and some of the German cities, the leading
dental surgeons are all of them either Americans or graduates of American
dental schools. It is said that in almost every city of South America there
is an American dentist. At the same time the teeth of the Orientals are cared
for almost entirely by dentists from the United States.

The young dentist of to-day enters upon his career as an assistant to
a dental surgeon with an established practice, or as an independent prac-
titioner. As an assistant he receives a small salary equivalent to that which
the young lawyer receives in a law office, or the salary paid to the draughts-
man in an architect's office. As an independent worker his earnings are
more or less uncertain, for like the young independent lawyer or doctor he
must wait for clients and be content to make progress slowly until he has
established a practice and acquired a reputation. In either case the young
dentist must apply himself with the singleness of purpose which is a require-
ment of success in all professions.

Sometimes the dental surgeon, like the physician, charges fees in accord-
ance with the estimated capacity of the patient's purse. The wealthier the
client the more the dentist asks for his services. In New York there are
perhaps a score of dental surgeons who take care of the teeth of the rich, and
who make from $10,000 to $30,000 a year. The income of the average den-

9o6 .WORKERS OF THE NATION

tist in the cities, however, is not greater than that of the average income
of physicians, namely, about $1,200 a year. In the country districts dentists
average about $800 a year.

A determination to succeed makes light the drudgery of preparation and
the first years of practice. The profession of dentistry is, however, by no
means a sinecure. Kindliness and pleasantness of manner must not be
overlooked.

The dentist must be ever on the alert. The destructive forces of nature
are arrayed against his work, and it must be thorough and up-to-date. But
so also must his manner be gentle, and roughness must be avoided, pain
being inflicted as little as possible. Some dentists, mindful only of results,
are careless of methods, and have very little patience. The patient's con-
fidence should be won. Deception should not be used with children. The
dental office should be more like a parlor than a surgery, the instruments be-
ing concealed in neat cases and cabinets. Absolute cleanliness of office and
instruments is assumed, as the absence of this quality in a modern dentist is
inconceivable.

DENTAL EDUCATION

The first three schools of dentistry organized in this country were those
of Harvard University, of the University of Michigan and of the University
of Pennsylvania. Add the School of Dentistry, at Buffalo, and the list
comprises the principal institutions of the kind in America. Previous to the
opening of these schools the status of dentistry was a peculiar one.
Scientists were unable to decide whether dentistry was a mere branch of
medicine, or whether it was a distinct profession. As the standards were
raised, however, and it became more difficult for young men to obtain the
degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery, dentists insisted that theirs was a sepa-
rate profession, though allied to that of medicine.

In the United States there are fifty recognized dental schools, with nearly
1,000 instructors and about 75,000 students.

Half a century ago young Americans found it not a difficult task to
come into possession of diplomas as doctors of dental surgery. In many
States, at that time, a young man could enter a dental school and, in a couple
of years, receive his degree. Thus it was easy for blacksmiths or barbers or
veterinarians to practice dentistry in addition to their regular avocations.
The dental colleges even received boys fresh from school, demanding no pre-
liminary training of a scientific nature. Now, however, in addition to the
requirements exacted by the dental examiners of various States, the dean of
more than one dental college has declared that a course of four years in
dentistry must be adopted.

Under present conditions, the rules regarding admission to dental
schools are much more severe than ever before. In New York State, for
instance, only young men of good moral character can secure a license. They
must be more than twenty-one years of age and must show that they have
had a preliminary education equivalent to graduation from a four years*

VETERINARIANS 907

high school course icgistered by the State Regent, or an education accepted
by the Regents as fully equivalent. Furthermore, before they are given a
license, and after receiving a preliminary education as just mentioned, the
dentists must show that they have been graduated with a dental degree from
a registered dental school.

Several States have followed the example set by New York in exercising
great care in registering acknowledged doctors of dental surgery. The or-
ganized dentists of the Empire State have driven out all charlatans, while
users of fraudulent diplomas have been arrested, fined and imprisoned.

The leading school of dentistry in the United States to-day is that of the
University of Pennsylvania. The plan of instruction in this school is so ar-
ranged that the branches common to both medicine and dentistry are taught
concurrently. The strictly dental branch is in charge of professors especially
qualified in their respective departments.

As an example of the number of foreign students in American schools
of dentistry, it may be stated that the catalogue of the University of Penn-
sylvania, for 1902, shows fourteen students each from Austria and Canada,
seven students each from Africa and Australia, two students each from
China, Jamaica, Mexico and Spain, six students from England, nine from
New Zealand, three from Switzerland, and others from Nicaragua, Russia,
Holland and Ireland.

THE VETERINARY PROFESSION

Veterinary science has for its object not only the cure of the diseases of
animals, but also the protection and improvement of the domestic breeds.
Losses by contagious diseases among cattle in thirty years, ending in 1870,
in Great Britain, amounted to $450,584,270. In 1872, one disease alone
caused a loss there of $76,000,000. At present all of these diseases are un-
der control, one having been completely eradicated. In our own country
hog cholera has occasioned to hog raisers a loss of as much as $35,000,000
in one year, and by Texas fever among cattle, $25,000,000 a year are sunk.
In our Eastern States tuberculosis carries off cattle enough every year to
cause a loss of many millions of dollars. Veterinary science in Germany
lias increased the productiveness of cattle nearly fifty per cent, without add-
ing to the cost of production.

Veterinarians are now employed by the various municipal and general
authorities. They act in the cities as milk and meat inspectors. The
growth of the profession is indicated by the fact that the Bureau of Animal
Industry, under the direction of the Agricultural Department, spends almost
a million a year, or one-half of the entire appropriation for the department.
Veterinary surgeons are employed in the army by the War Department,
holding the relative rank and getting the pay of lieutenants. A pending
bill establishes an Army Veterinary Corps, with rank and pay of colonels,
majors, captains and lieutenants. Men will constantly have to be trained
for these positions.

908 WORKERS OF THE NATION

A veterinarian finds private practice very remunerative. Owners of fine
stock can not get along without his services, and even dogs and cats of
high breeding make very profitable patients. Prescriptions for medicines
are often written, to be dispensed at the druggist's shop. Equine and bovine
practice give rural veterinarians a good income.

One of the alluring attractions to veterinary practice is the fact that
the profession is not overcrowded. There is plenty of room in it. And the
outlay for the necessary preparation and training is not large. A careful
choice of schools should be made by the young man. As Chicago is the
greatest live stock market in the world the veterinary college of that city af-
fords extraordinary facilities to the student, meat and dairy inspection being
especially taught.

OPENINGS FOR VETERINARY SURGEONS

The development of the appreciation of veterinary science has opened
new fields for competent men. The veterinary practitioner is now employed
as an inspector, or assistant, in the Bureau of Animal Industry, in Washing-
ton, with a life tenure, under Civil Service rules. The assistant inspector re-
ceives a salary of $1,200 to $1,400, sometimes more. Or he may become an
instructor in an agricultural or veterinary college, where the salaries are very
fair. Or he may be appointed to service at a State experimental station. He
may become a veterinary surgeon in the United States Cavalry Service,
earning from $1,200 to $1,400. He may join municipal boards of health.
He may become State Veterinarian. He may manage a great stock farm.

THE EDUCATION OF THE VETERINARIAN

The modern system of teaching veterinary surgery is not a matter of
memorizing, but rather of scientific and practical methods. Anatomy is ac-
curately taught, and not from books alone. First principles are, of course,
instilled into the minds of the students, but practical demonstration is given,
chemistry is studied in the laboratory, histology and microscope work are
pursued, analyses are made, embryology is emphasized in the study of cells
and tissues, physiology is carefully followed, and the laboratory training in
materia medica and therapeutics is very thorough. Practical instruction is
given in the principles of toxicology, pathology, bacteriology and meat and
milk inspection. As to the department of surgery, the course is severely
practical, several operations being performed daily. Students are carefully
trained in diagnosis.

The courses here referred to are those of the New York Veterinary Col-
lege, founded by the State. With a million farm animals in New York, and
a yearly product of milk amounting to 5,000,000 gallons, it is surely a good
policy to foster and develop the veterinary science. The communicableness
of certain diseases, such as tuberculosis, from animals to man, is claimed to
exist by many specialists. Mankind is doubly benefited by the improvement
of cattle. At this college tuition is free to students who are residents of
New York, others paying a fee of $100 per annum.

CHAPTER VIII
EDUCATION AND TEACHING

Schools and Colleges in the United States — The Public School System — Work of a Board
of Education — Conduct of a University — University Extension — Education by Mail —
Teaching as a Profession — A Teacher's Qualifications — The Training of Teachers-
Cost of a Teacher's Training — How a Teacher Secures an Engagement — Earnings of
Teachers — College Professors and Their Earnings

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES

THE number of persons in the United States of school age — from five
to twenty years — is about 27,000,000, of whom 17,000,000 are
enrolled in the schools and colleges. It is presumed that the re-
maining 10,000,000 persons of school age have finished their schooling and
have begun the practical work of life. If we include the instructors and
professors in colleges and universities, the number of teachers in the United
States forms a vast army 500,000 strong, a number equal to that of all the
inhabitants of the State of Washington.

In our common school system there are so many schools that it is im-
possible for a traveller to journey more than a few miles in any direction,,
even in the Western States, without stumbling upon a schoolhouse, while
the pedestrian in the city passes a public school every few blocks. We have
colleges and universities in 350 different cities and towns.

Besides the enrolment in the public and private institutions of all grades
included in the above summary, there are more than 600,000 pupils enrolled
in special institutions more or less educational in their character, including
business schools, schools for defectives, reform schools, Indian schools,
orphan asylums, private kindergartens, and schools of music, oratory, elo-
cution, cookery and the various special arts.

THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM

Few people appreciate the magnitude of the public school systems of this
country. Every large city has its own system, which is in itself a great
business and educational institution, requiring at its head men of great ability
in several directions, men who are responsible not only for the education of
the boys and girls of the municipality, but for the expenditure' of enormous
sums of money and the care of a vast amount of property.

The pupils enrolled in the public schools of the United States num-
ber 15,500,000, requiring the services of more than 425,000 teachers. The
average daily attendance is 10,500,000, so that 12^ per cent of the total

(909)

910 WORKERS OF THE NATION

population of the United States may be said to be "in school" every day.
And this is exclusive of pupils in professional schools.

The common school system can not be considered as a national institu-
tion, for we have no minister of public instruction as in other countries, and
unless the United States Bureau of Education may be considered as such,
education has no official representation at Washington. Therefore, each
city, each town, each county, or each State, as the case may be, conducts its
own system in accordance with local requirements.

WORK OF A BOARD OF EDUCATION

The public schools of the larger cities are in charge either of a school
board or a board of education, comprising from four or five to thirty mem-
bers. The New York Board of Education, established in February, 1902,
numbers more than twenty members, all of whom are appointed by the
mayor. The work of the New York Board, as of all others, is divided into
two departments : the business and the educational. It is the duty of the
business department of a board to conduct the financial affairs of the public
school system, erect new school buildings, employ engineers and janitors,
and see that all the schools are maintained efficiently. In the execution
of these duties the business department counts money by the millions rather
than by the thousands. When Greater New York came into being, the
Board of Education of the combined boroughs was confronted by the neces-
sity for expending at least $20,000,000 for new school buildings. The
board carried out the work as fast as possible, purchasing or condemning
school sites at the most advantageous points and erecting school buildings
thereon.

The duties of the educational departments of the boards include the
employment and dismissal of teachers and the general control of the educa-
tional end of the system. The educational executive of the board is the
superintendent of public schools, and he is usually a man of wide learning
and of great ability as an educator. It is his duty to see that teachers are
appointed upon their merits and not through the exercise of personal in-
fluence.

CONDUCT OF A UNIVERSITY

The vast operating expenses of the modern universities and the wide
variety of their financial dealings entitles them to the first rank as business
institutions. The material side of university work is more closely asso-
ciated with educational work than the general public imagines, for "there is
no part of university life or work into which financial questions do not
enter."

The business department of each of the great universities is obliged to
meet material problems of management. In its dealings with the outside
world, each university has activities in a score of directions, while within
itself it is a colossal hotel, and, in a sense, a vast industrial plant.

In addition to the president, trustees, treasurer and finance committee, the

EDUCATION AND TEACHING 911

officers of a university include the registrar, or bursar, who receives fees,
collects bills for board, and rents rooms in the domitories ; a manager of the
printing and publishing bureau, purchasing agents in the various depart-
ments, and directors of the library, laboratories and museum work. All the
expenditures must pass through the office of the auditor, who maintains a
staff of accountants and stenographers fully as large as that to be found in
the largest bank.

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION

The university extension movement, conducted by the American Society
for the Extension of University Teaching, which contributes considerably
to the support of its work, has a threefold object: (i) to extend higher
education to all classes of people; (2) to extend education throughout life;
(3) to extend thorough methods of study to subjects of every-day interest.
The work is conducted by courses of lectures on a wide variety of topics,
supplemented by class discussions, essays and examinations. The lectures
are given by experienced teachers at the various centres of the Society's work,
a class being held for questions, discussion, etc., at the close of each. These
lectures also instruct students living where there is no centre, by receiving
and commenting on essays and papers, written in accordance with the
directions of the Society, on reading, etc., as set forth in its publications.
Clubs of such students are frequently formed, which, under proper direc-
tion, are able to prove of great benefit to their members. On completing
the course, each student is admitted to examination, and is awarded a special
certificate on its successful completion. The centres bear their own ex-
penses, paying a stipulated fee for the services of the lecturer and his travel-
ling expenses, as well as providing a hall. The amount paid by each member
is thus brought to a figure seldom exceeding $1.50 for a course of six
lectures.

EDUCATION BY MAIL

Many people have availed themselves of the excellent system of direct
instruction afforded by the modern method of education by correspondence.
This system, which is systematically conducted by several large institutions
at the present time, evades the difficulties attendant on evening schools or
lectures at stated periods, while, at the same time, affording to the ambi-
tious student a wide choice of subjects for personal study in leisure hours,
under constant supervision of trained instructors. Hitherto, private study
has been difficult, except for a man of exceptional ability or determination,
since it affords him no stimulus in pursuing his work, and he has no person
to whom he can refer the difficulties that must inevitably arise. He must,
therefore, plod along, without encouragement or assistance, attempting to
gain the knowledge he covets from books intended for advanced students,
or made merely to sell. This condition is all changed by the correspondence
method, in which every branch, including steam, electrical, civil, marine and
mining engineering, navigation, industrial branches, modern languages, and

9i2 WORKERS OF THE NATION

even law, are now successfully pursued. In taking any such courses, the
student is supplied with necessary books and materials at a stipulated rate,
the work being subdivided into separate lessons, containing necessary direc-
tions and a series of questions to be answered in writing. On completing the
prescribed line of work, the student is required to pass an examination on all
subjects learned and is awarded a certificate of proficiency. Too much can
not be said in favor of the method, which has proved of material assistance
in forming many a successful career. The largest institution of the kind
in the United States has nearly 350,000 students, and gives instruction by
mail in more than one hundred courses.

TEACHING AS A PROFESSION

Previous to the centennial year the school teacher's calling was looked
upon merely as a makeshift, or as a possible stepping-stone to something
better. In those days, young men who were obliged to make their way
through college taught school during vacations. Many teachers roved
about the country, teaching in a different school every season. In the
early seventies, however, college presidents, professors, and others inter-
ested in educational methods began suggesting changes which in time
created a demand for permanent and well qualified teachers. Since then
hundreds of thousands of persons have adopted teaching as a life work,
and we have to-day in the common schools of the United States 425,000
teachers.

Within the last twenty-five years improved educational methods have
raised the teacher's calling to the dignity of a profession. To-day it is
possible for a young woman or a young man to enter this profession with
a reasonable certainty of advancement year by year. Indeed the profession
offers a permanent career quite the same as the law or medicine or the
church. Beginning as a "substitute," perhaps, or in one of the lower grades,
at a few hundred dollars a year, the teacher who can successfully pass ex-
aminations from time to time can at last reach the lofty position of a prin-
cipal of a high school with an annual salary of $5,000.

A TEACHER'S QUALIFICATIONS

In order to be a successful teacher a young woman should have health,
a fondness for children, patience, sympathy, tact, good judgment, and the
faculty of imparting knowledge. A certain proportion of pleasures and
privileges must be willingly sacrificed. The best education obtainable must
be secured. A course at a training school is very desirable, and not very
expensive. Sometimes the student is able to earn something by assisting
in the work of the school. Kindergarten work is recommended, because
the field is not at all overcrowded. Hundreds of teachers may find places in
this branch of the service. The latest imDrovements and suggestions in the
field of child-culture must be adopted. The Normal College of New York
is free. It supplies the city with about ninety per cent of its teachers. The
School of Pedagogy of New York grants degrees.

EDUCATION AND TEACHING 913

THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS

Formerly the recognized method of teaching in public schools — and in
most private schools also — was to require the student to memorize a daily
lesson from his text-book and recite it to his best ability to a teacher whose
principal function seems to have been to be a "good listener." That any
but the brightest minds were educated by this method is wonderful: that
the standard of popular intelligence is no higher is not remarkable. At
the present day we find that a vast revolution has been wrought in educa-
tional theories and methods. The modern science of pedagogy emphasizes
the need of developing the student's faculties of understanding, thinking and
reasoning from the first lesson in the kindergarten, where he "learns how,"
to the last in the most advanced professional or special course where he
"learns why." The training of teachers is equally thorough and accurate
in the various State normal schools, embracing a wide range of knowl-
edge, also dealing thoroughly with the theory and methods of pedagogics ;
the aim being throughout to give the teacher a grasp of the subjects he or
she must teach and to develop the ability to impart information.

The typical teachers' training is that followed at the New York Normal
College, where the course occupies three years of general and special work,
the systematic instruction in pedagogy beginning in the second year. Im-
portant elements in the pedagogical training are instruction in logic and
applied psychology, with attendance at classes in the model school, f or
observation and the collection of material for essays. For a short period
before graduation the students are also given opportunities to teach, when
chance vacancies occur. The system of licensing teachers in New York is
also typical. There are in this State three grades of certificate, in addition
to the life license. In order to acquire this, teachers must pass rigid exami-
nations and comply with several conditions as to experience and proved
aptitude at teaching. Only about one-sixth of the candidates are successful.
The first grade certificate is for five years open to all with two years' ex-
perience and renewable, without examination, if the holder has taught under
it for three years ; the second grade certificate is for three years, requiring at
least ten weeks' experience or one year's attendance on a training class,
and is only renewable on examination; the third grade is for one year, on
successful examination, and requires no experience. That it is necessary
so to grade teachers' certificates is shown by the fact that over half the
candidates for examination fail. Thus, according to reports, about 7,500
out of 11,500 failed in one year in New York; while, out of the successful
candidates, only 243 secured first grade, 2,318 second grade, and 1,464
third grade certificates. The insistence on a high standard of qualification
for teachers has, in recent years, been accompanied by a successful movement
toward raising their wages to a living basis, with the result that at the
present time the average salary in cities of the United States of over 8,000
inhabitants is about $640, in spite of the fact that the figures include many

27— Vol. 2

914 WORKERS OF THE NATION

small, or nominal, salaries — $100 or $150 — paid to licensed teachers still in
training. The field of the practical educator, from the kindergartner to the
high-school teacher, is thus rapidly becoming a wide and remunerative
sphere of activity.

COST OF A TEACHER'S TRAINING

It is true that a university training is not necessarily one of the re-
quirements for admission to the ranks of the army of school teachers. The
boards of education in the various States have provided such facilities for
the training of teachers, that it is possible for a young man or woman to
acquire the necessary education and training at very small cost in money.
There is, first, the great public school system, including the high schools, in
which tuition is free; and, second, the normal colleges. Even at the nor-
mal colleges the cost of tuition is the smallest item in the student's expense
account.

How A TEACHER SECURES AN ENGAGEMENT

After years of study and training, and after securing the coveted di-
ploma which is equivalent to a license to teach, how does the young man or
woman go to work to secure a class or school? In other words, how
shall a qualified candidate secure a position? There are teachers' bureaus,
through the medium of which engagements may be secured. Many of these
bureaus are of excellent standing, and their charges are comparatively low.
But the teacher of energy and perseverance will not rely upon a bureau ; the
better and shorter road to an engagement is by direct application through
the local school boards. If one wishes to teach in a private school or col-
lege, of course one must apply direct to the institution. And it should be
added that while candidates for the position of teacher in private schools
or colleges are not obliged to pass a formal examination, the character,
training, experience and scholarship of such candidates are very carefully
scrutinized.

EARNINGS OF TEACHERS

The average salary is not always a fair test of the earnings of those in
any profession; nevertheless mention of the average monthly salaries paid
to teachers in various States is suggestive. The teachers' salary list reaches
its lowest ebb in Alabama, where men teachers receive $25 'a month and
women $20. These figures apply, however, only to teachers in rural schools.
The highest average salary is paid to teachers in the rural schools in Nevada,
where males receive $85 a month and females $60. In Maine, Massachu-
setts and New York school teachers are paid an average of $37 a month.

Teachers in cities, of course, receive salaries very much higher than are
paid to country school teachers. Reports of school commissioners show
that the larger the city the higher the salaries paid. In New England, for
example, an assistant teacher in a kindergarten receives $432 at the start
and a maximum salary of $624. Principals of grammar schools receive a

EDUCATION AND TEACHING 915

maximum of $3,180, and a maximum of $3,780 is paid to the principals
of the high, Latin, normal and mechanical art schools.

In New York State, in the elementary schools the maximum salary paid
to men principals of less than twelve classes is $2,400, and to the women
principals $1,600. The minimum salary paid to men principals who have
twelve classes or more is $2,750; the maximum, $3,500. To women prin-
cipals of the same grade, the minimum salary is $1,750; maximum, $2,500.
High school principals in New York who have supervision of less than
twenty-five teachers receive $3,500; those who are paid $5,000 must have
supervision of twenty-five teachers or more. The salaries of teachers in the
public schools of Philadelphia, Chicago and other large cities are lower
than those paid in New York — in some instances as much as twenty-five per
cent lower.

COLLEGE PROFESSORS AND THEIR EARNINGS

Unless the young professor has married in haste or is in debt an in-
structorship, even in one of the smaller universities, is a position which
should not be declined. Such a position carries with it a salary of $1,000
a year and an excellent chance of promotion. The position is one which
ordinarily should satisfy the most scholarly ambitions ; and yet a number of
cases are recorded in which such a position has been declined on the ground
that the salary was too small. Such declinations have come from young
men who have married, or have accumulated debts, and are obliged to look
for less scholarly positions which will yield them a larger income.

With the sudden rise of scientific schools and their development in dif-
ferent parts of the country, the demand for instructors qualified to teach in
such schools has exceeded the supply. Therefore the university graduate,
trained in one of the branches taught in scientific schools, finds little diffi-
culty to-day in securing a position as assistant professor at a salary of about
$1,800 or $2,000 a year. It is possible to secure such appointments for five
years with every promise that at the end of that time the young man will
be given a full professorship with a salary of from $2,500 to $3,000 a year.

The salaries just mentioned represent perhaps the average income of col-
lege professors in this country. The minimum pay in this profession is less
than $1,000 a year, but the maximum is nearer to $10,000 than to $4,000.

The professor who is earning the average salary, however, can and does
add to his earnings by writing books and magazine articles. A successful
text-book will yield its author from $300 to $1,500 a year until it has been
supplanted by a better one. The weekly papers and magazines are always
glad to have articles from college professors, provided the subject is one that
has a news value and is treated in a popular and not an academic or a techni-
cal way.

CHAPTER IX
LITERATURE AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS

The Profession of Literature — The Author and the Publisher — Authors' Earnings — Book
Writing — Novelists — Poetry as a Marketable Product — Short Stories and Magazine
Articles — Qualifying as a Short-Story Writer — The Market for Short Stories — Special
or "Hack" Writers — Literary Agencies and "Co-operative" Publishers — Libraries —
Travelling Libraries — Librarians

THE PROFESSION OF LITERATURE

JUDGING from the number of persons actually engaged in earning or
attempting to earn a living by writing, and by the great activity in
book and periodical publication, it may be said that ours is, in a very
real sense, a literary age. The calling of the professional writer is for
these reasons popularly supposed to be extremely profitable, and attracts
large numbers of people of both sexes, many of them possessed of no more
eminent qualifications than superabundant self-confidence and the ability to
write. That other things are essential the beginner very soon discovers, and,
instead of the wide and open field, where his genius shall shine forth as a
beacon, he finds himself an inexperienced worker at a very superior sort of
trade, in which skill, experience and hard work are among the foremost
components of success. Such reflections apply to all branches of the writing
craft, with the exception of journalism, in which a man works up from a
reporter to as high a post as his abilities and influence will allow, and of oc-
casional writers, such as educators, scientists and others with separate means
of livelihood, who step into fame and success on the strength of reputations
gained in other fields. Regular workers in literature fall into two general
classes : the first, authors, who write as they feel inclined on subjects that
interest them — and make it pay — and special writers, or "hacks," who,
from long and arduous experience, are able to "cram up" and write to order
on nearly any suggested subject.

To obtain a recognized position in the first class is the hopeless ambition
of the majority of writers ; to obtain a competence in the second is the high-
est attainment of a very small minority.

A humorous periodical, commenting on the course of a certain society

woman, who had gone on the stage and started out to "star" with her own

company, said : "She evidently realizes that there is 'plenty of room at the

top,' and that she can gradually work down to her true professional level as

(916)

LITERATURE AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 917

vacancies occur below." This cruel sarcasm, happily untrue in the particu-
lar case, supplies an eminently good description of many literary careers.

Beginners usually essay to enter the field of fiction-writing, frequently
attempting short stories or, worse yet, a novel of several thousand words.
A few try serious articles or treatises. Both are doomed to bitter disappoint-
ments, unless they are persons of more than usual ability and equipment,
and, after the first few vain attempts, either quit writing or begin their
arduous apprenticeship as literary hacks. Their failure as authors or origi-
nal contributors is due as frequently to the crudities of literary style and
treatment, inevitable in an untrained writer, as to the hopeless mediocrity of
their talents and conceptions. These are matters which the beginner can not
afford to ignore. If he attempts a line of work that is above his present
abilities, it is desirable for him to know why he fails where others have suc-
ceeded. That some exceedingly inferior writers do succeed amazingly is a
fact that can not be denied. Their success, however, is due either to the
fact that they have paid well for the eclat of a well-advertised name — as-
suming the heavy risk of manufacturing and publishing their first efforts —
or else that they have cultivated the friendship of some complacent editor or
publisher, willing to rate the feeble output of a friend at least as highly as
the finished products of a stranger. Whether the latter result always fol-
lows or not, no person with literary ambitions can dispense with the numer-
ous professional advantages derived from forming friendly relations with
editors and publishers, or with his fellow craftsmen. The conditions of the
publishing business are such at the present day that employment as readers,
special editors, etc., comes quite as frequently through an acceptable intro-
duction as from recognition of good work already accomplished.

THE AUTHOR AND THE PUBLISHER

While in a general sense the author and the publisher may be said to be
at peace, they occasionally clash. The cause of the clash, when it does come,
is simply that between a theoretical view of business and a practical business
experience. The ancient saying that authors are not good business men or
women still holds true. There is no author's "union." Hence it is a case of
each author for himself. Working alone they care little and learn little
about the practical affairs of trade ; they have only a hazy conception of the
cost of conducting a huge publishing .business with its ramifications and its
many details.

Authors no less than ordinary workmen are suspicious of that which
they do not understand, and certainly very few authors understand the pub-
lishing business. It is difficult, for instance, for the man behind the pen to
realize that if he gets a royalty of ten per cent on the retail price, which we
may assume to be $1.50, he is really getting twenty per cent of the price at
which the publisher is obliged to part with the book. Therefore, not only
the new author, but often the one who has published one or two successful
books, haunts the publisher's office, making more or less timid suggestions

9i8 WORKERS OF THE NATION

to the effect that he would like to have a statement of account, or even some-
times boldly intimating that he really ought to have a royalty of thirty or
forty per cent.

Despite all this, it is contended that the nature of the business is such that
the author is obliged to trust the publisher entirely, possessing no means of
checking accounts, no way of preventing the publisher from making an in-
accurate report. But a common sense view of the situation will convince the
author that flagrant dishonesty on the part of the publisher is impossible.
Such dishonesty would necessitate the connivance of bookkeepers and of the
entire office force of a publishing establishment.

A publisher must perforce look upon an author's manuscript strictly as
an article of merchandise, just as the merchant would consider a new brand
of soap, or a cloth dealer a new kind of shirt-waist. A book, from the pub-
lisher's viewpoint, is an article to be offered for sale, and his confidence in it
is the result of his estimate of its selling qualities. When the publisher ac-
cepts a book and undertakes to risk his money in manufacturing it and plac-
ing it on the market, it is assumed that he believes in its character, its mis-
sion and its quality. On the other hand, if the author accepts the publisher
as his intimate business partner, it is assumed that he is convinced of the
integrity of the publisher, and has confidence in his enterprise. It is by such
mutual confidence that friendly relations have been established between au-
thors and publishers ; and such relations make the business of publishing a
profession, and the profession of authorship a business.

AUTHORS' EARNINGS

Is the man of letters as well paid as men in other professions? In the
days of Hawthorne, Washington Irving, Matthew Arnold, Jane Austen,
George Meredith, Charles Lamb and others, the answer to this question
would have been : "No."

To-day, however, a negative answer can not be given so promptly. Ac-
cording to the advertisements of publishers, authors are all making large
incomes and are growing rich. We are informed that checks for sums of
money comprising four and five figures are sent at regular intervals to the
authors of novels published within the last few years. It is said that Rud-
yard Kipling is paid sometimes as much as $100 a line for his poems; that
Conan Doyle is paid many thousands of dollars for each of his Sherlock
Holmes stories; that Hall Caine's "Christian" yielded him a fortune; that
the royalties on J. M. Barrie's "Little Minister" were sufficient to pay for a
manor house one month and a private park the next. These statements
show that men of letters at the top of the ladder can at present earn as much
money as lawyers, doctors and engineers occupying similarly high places in
their respective professions.

An author states that he once asked a veteran and accomplished writer
for the press, who won a reputation by his first book, and has since con-
tributed for fifty years to most of the leading reviews and magazines of

LITERATURE AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 919

the United States : "How much money can a man with a first-rate consti-
tution, and with the very best education which America and Europe united
can give, earn yearly by writing for periodicals? Can he earn $2,000?"
"No." "Can he earn $1,600?" After some thought he replied: "Yes; but
that is all." "An industrious writer," says a novelist, "by the legitimate
exercise of his calling, can just exist, no more. No man should enter on
the literary life unless he has a fortune or can live contentedly on $2,000 a
year. The best way is to make a fortune first and write afterward."

But despite the fact that a number of men of letters work hard and in-
cessantly, and earn only from $1,600 to $2,000 a year, a still greater number
enjoy incomes equal to twice the amount mentioned. Even assuming that
$2,000 is all that can be earned by the man of letters of to-day, he is still bet-
ter off, so far as compensation goes, than the minister or the teacher. At
the same time his earnings are considerably less than those of the journalist
or literary "hack."

To sum up, for the man of letters, it may be said that the chief reason
he is not successful from a financial point of viewr is because he will not, or
can not, learn the ways of business and become a business man. As in the
case of the journalist and the "hack," the reward of purely literary work is
dependent upon the business ability of the one who offers his wares for sale.

BOOK-WRITING

The writing of books is in some particulars akin to that of short stories
and special articles, a notable exception lying in the fact that the larger ex-
penditure of labor is rewarded by a commensurately larger chance of profits.
A magazine article is paid for on the editor's terms, unless the writer be
sufficiently prominent to dictate in the matter, and a check closes the trans-
action. With a book, however, the profits from percentages may continue
for months, even years, according to its excellence or popularity ; many au-
thors having become independent on the proceeds of one single effort. How-
ever, the rule holds good that the writer of an acceptable book shall, in the
publisher's estimation, be capable of handling the subject; that he under-
stands the technique of book-writing, and that his treatment is sufficiently
original and interesting to render it salable.

With these conditions observed, the unknown writer stands a far better
chance in book work than as a magazine contributor. The larger book pub-
lishers are always willing to undertake a meritorious work, particularly in
fiction, and expend large sums yearly in securing the services of competent
readers to examine and pass on manuscripts in the hope of discovering a
new author of ability. That this is the case may be readily understood from
the fact that some of the most successful novels issued in recent years have
been written by unknown writers, whose reputations and fortunes have thus
been made by enterprising publishers willing to recognize a good thing when
presented. In the matter of treatises on scientific or literary topics the same
rule holds good, within limitations, all such manuscripts being submitted to

920 WORKERS OF THE NATION

specialists, who render opinions on their merits, and extensive reports on
their contents. This class of writing is more limited in its significance to
the literary profession in general, since the majority who follow letters as a
specialty prefer the field of fiction.

NOVELISTS

Mr. F. Marion Crawford describes the novel as a miniature theatre, and
the novelist as a dramatist and theatrical manager combined, who writes
pocket plays with chapters for scenes and acts, presenting the drama be-
tween two covers instead of behind the footlights. Some novels have been
written by men or women advanced in years, but it is not necessary to
postpone novel-writing until old age warps the mind, or even until middle
age fills the mind. It seems that youth is wholly capable of producing suc-
cessful novels, a fact which was proven by a number of striking examples
during the year 1902. Indeed, the number of winners of literary success
during the first years of this century suggests that this is the age of young
men and young women in literature no less than in the industries.

All conditions in the literary field point to the fact that there is greater
opportunity for the American novelist at the present time than ever before.
Of the 2,000 novels published in 1902, nearly 1,000 were by American
authors.

The Boer war accomplished a great deal for American novelists, in that
the publishing trade in England suffered equally with other branches of
business, through the general depression that prevailed. Consequently, as
English publishers could not sell as many books as formerly, the production
of English books steadily decreased. At the same time the production of
American books quite as steadily increased. The American publishers sold
over 400,000 copies of "David Harum," over 200,000 copies of "When
Knighthood Was in Flower," over 300,000 copies of "Richard Carvel," and
more than 200,000 copies each of "Janice Meredith" and "Mr. Dooley."
All these figures were given out in 1900. While the sale of American books
was at first increased by the International Copyright Law, the demand for
American novels was further increased by the conditions named above.
A larger number are reading books by American authors than new books
by Kipling, Hope, Doyle, or Mrs. Humphry Ward. An authority states
that the supply of English books, serials, magazine articles and short stories
must fall below the usual average for some time to come, while for the
American writer who has learned his craft, for him who has something real
to say, there is now unequalled opportunity.

POETRY AS A MARKETABLE PRODUCT

Poetry long ago ceased to hold a place among the "paying" arts. While
novelists have become rich, poets who have tried to make a living by poetry
alone have become still poorer. Mr. Kipling is paid large sums of money for
his "lines," but then, Mr. Kipling also writes prose. The same may be said

LITERATURE AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 921

of Mr. Richard Le Gallienne. Occasionally a poet writes something that
gains wide popular favor and makes a trifle of money. Thus Mr. Edwin
Markham has probably received more than one good sized check as his
share of the sales of "The Man With the Hoe." Edmund Clarence Stedman
finds time to write poetry simply because of the revenue from his banking
business.

Magazines and weekly papers print poems, to be sure, but principally to
fill space. When a short story or an article does not fill out a page, then and
not till then does the editor open his drawer and hunt for a poem. Certain
it is that to-day a man can not live by poetry alone. He must either write
prose five and a half days a week, devoting himself to poetry only on Satur-
day afternoons and Sundays, or else engage in some kind of business or
other prosaic pursuit in order that he may earn a livelihood.

SHORT STORIES AND MAGAZINE ARTICLES

Regarding the class of work that pays best, there is much to be said that
shows the real conditions to be quite different from appearances. In point
of numbers, and certainly in actual bulk of publications, short stories and
general magazine contributions far exceed books, separate compositions and
more extended efforts in general, yet, in spite of the greater possible activity
of the short-story writer, his profits seldom, and with great difficulty, can be
made to give him a living income. According to the statements of several
authorities, there are scarcely a dozen persons of both sexes in the United
States who can command a competence in this line, and they have built up
their business through years of steady effort and hard work. Any person
starting out in the hope of making a living from short-story writing, there-
fore, is almost certain to fail. A well-conceived short story requires, pro-
portionately, more thought and skill in handling the plot than does a novel
of 60,000 words, while the constant necessity of conceiving new plots and
fresh situations is so arduous an undertaking, if persistently followed
through an extended period, that the time comes, sooner or later, when
the writer can simply produce no more — his mind has ceased to work easily
in the line of fiction.

The same is true, in a certain sense, of the essay-writer, who expects to
support himself by contributing to periodicals. It is probable that most
of his articles are neither timely nor otherwise "available," and the incessant
grind soon wears out his enthusiasm.

One thing to be remembered, in undertaking to contribute either fiction or
essays to periodicals, is that the first step to success is to have a contribution
accepted by a magazine of good standing. Several repetitions of this de-
sirable achievement, although the profits may be small, attracts the attention
of the public and of other editors, and, in case the work is meritorious, may
lead to requests for contributions. Meantime, the writer, no matter how
great a genius he may seem to himself and his friends, had best apply him-
self to some other calling, as a means of livelihood, doing his writing as a

922 WORKERS OF THE NATION

kind of "side line," in order to leave his mind free to do his best literary
work. Even if each of his first few short stories requires months to prepare,
it will pay in the end, in point of ability gained to conceive and develop a
good plot.

These principles hold good because of the excellence of short-story work
in the United States, which puts the new and untried author into the position
of attempting to compete with the most experienced writers of the day in
any of the several lines. The facts in the case are eminently well brought
out by the result of several prize competitions in recent years, in which the
larger prizes were almost invariably secured by well-known, if not distin-
guished, authors, leaving the obscure and struggling writers as obscure and
struggling as before.

Several fiction magazines have in the past regularly employed one or two
clever story-writers to fill their pages on the salary basis, thus securing their
best work and having stories prepared to suit their own requirements. This
plan is still followed in several publications, not only with fiction but also
with special articles, leaving only a margin of opportunity for the outside
worker. Indeed, a careful examination of the leading periodicals will re-
veal the fact that the bulk of the contents in all cases comes from the pens of
distinguished writers, specialists in various lines of activity, and persons
who have attained recognition in literary circles.

In spite of these facts, the great magazines are always on the lookout for
new writers of merit, and it may be confidently asserted that all contribu-
tions are read and passed on by the readers. However, the standards are
high and the remuneration is small. The writer of one or two successful
contributions must follow up his advantage, and, rather than spend his time
in writing up a plot on speculation, try to secure the advance permission of
some editor to submit it.

QUALIFYING AS A SHORT-STORY WRITER

Of the thousands who send short stories to the magazines and weeklies
and Sunday newspapers only a few are trained writers. The products of
these unpracticed pens are all returned. Accompanying the rejected manu-
script is a stereotyped notice saying that "the return of the story herewith
does not necessarily imply lack of merit." This printed form is more polite
than accurate, more diplomatic than truthful. The plain fact is that the re-
turn of nine stories in every ten does imply lack of merit. The remaining
one manuscript in each ten may possess merit, but is returned because it is
not suited, for one reason or another, to the particular magazine or journal
to which it was offered.

The trained story writer is to literature what the painter of a miniature is
to art. The short-story writer is capable of presenting a great subject, as
well as a trivial incident, in a small compass. He condenses a novel into
four or five pages. He is master of style — his own style. His stories bear
the impress of his own individuality. He begins his story in the first sen-

LITERATURE AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 923

tence and not in the second paragraph. Besides knowing how to write a
story and the kind of tale editors want, he knows many editors personally,
and has a thorough acquaintance with what may be called market conditions.
Also he reads the short stories written by his contemporaries.

How is the necessary training for short-story writing to be secured?
First of all, by writing; just as the painter attains success only by painting,
and the musician by practicing. The novice can earn money while serving
his apprenticeship by working for a daily newspaper. In this way his pen
will acquire readiness and he will learn, through necessity, how to think
carefully and write rapidly. To remain too long in the newspaper world,
however, is usually fatal to the would-be fiction writer. In a newspaper of-
fice he has no chance to practice style ; neither city editors nor news editors
want literature in the columns for which they are responsible. If the novice
is not confronted by the necessity of earning money during his period of
training or practice, he can write stories and give them away to country
dailies. If he is careful to rewrite each story over and over again, revising
it, correcting it, and ultimately throwing it into the waste-basket and begin-
ning all over again, he will in time write a story which he will not need to
give away, but which he can send to market "at the regular rates."

All this, providing that the writer has the native ability, the necessary
imagination, the poetic or artistic temperament, and the instincts of the
natural born story teller. Above all, he must have a story to tell. Editors
judge a story first of all with regard to its general interest or plot; second,
with regard to its literary qualities. If ten points be accepted as the maxi-
mum number in judging the short story, the proportion in most cases will
be nine points for the plot and one for the style. With certain editors, of
course, if the story lacks the tenth point the other nine count for nothing,
and the story is returned.

THE MARKET FOR SHORT STORIES

The market conditions are such that the story writer who is also a busi-
ness man disposing of his wares as a merchant disposes of his goods, will
find that the net proceeds of his year's work are far in excess of those of his
brother who studies not the market. Mr. F. Hopkinson Smith says that
while he is writing the story he is simply an author, but that the moment
the story is ready for the market he becomes a business man, in the sense
that he has something to sell and is determined to sell it at the highest pre-
vailing market price.

How is the story writer to learn the conditions of the market? As a
novice he will probably subscribe to the half-dozen so-called journals issued
in the interests of literary workers, in the pages of which he will read a
great number of articles written by unsuccessful authors, all replete with
abuse of editors and their methods. In these journals he may also learn just
which magazines are offering prizes for short stories. In the same pages he
will come across essays written by novices like himself, on the proper uses

924 WORKERS OF THE NATION

of the words "will" and "shall," on the correct use of relative pronouns, and
much advice as to how to transmit his manuscript to editors without rolling
it. As he accumulates experience, however, the novice finds the so-called
journals for literary workers utterly useless. He then begins to buy all the
best magazines and weeklies, and now, instead of reading about what editors
do not want, he makes himself acquainted with the kind of wares which
they actually buy. In the stories of successful magazine contributors he
studies composition, construction and style.

After having familiarized himself with the contents of the leading peri-
odicals he takes the next step, which is, that of making the acquaintance of
the editors and publishers themselves. Even if his home is far from the
great publishing centres, the wise story writer finds it worth the cost of the
railroad journey to New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago or San Fran-
cisco, to call upon the editors. In meeting the editorial monarchs face to
face he discovers that they are not the inhuman creatures which the "journals
devoted to literary workers" have represented them to be. He finds that
even the busiest editor is humane and courteous and willing to give the
author a reasonable amount of his editorial time. He finds that even the
greatest publishers are willing to give him a chance and to listen to his sug-
gestions. He learns that this magazine wants only stories of life in the
United States ; that another magazine wants only stories in which the char-
acters are in the smart set. He finds that a certain weekly wants stories of
healthful outdoor life, stories of the plains, of mountaineers and seafarers ;
that another periodical wants stories of domestic life, or of college life; and
that still another pays the highest prices for stories of scientific impossibili-
ties. Above all, he learns that his story must be clean and wholesome, that
American editors have no use for the suggestive or the morbid tale, or for
any story that can not be read and discussed in the home circle.

SPECIAL, OR "HACK," WRITERS

The "hack" is sometimes known as a "free lance." In point of numbers
the "free lance" class of writers is a very important one. The number of
free lance writers in the United States far exceeds the combined number of
all our journalists and authors. It is necessary, therefore, to define exactly
what is meant by a free lance. He is known to the public simply as a
"writer." In this way he is distinguished from the journalist who is called
the "newspaper man," and from the fictionist who is called an author. He
is one who can write on any subject, at any time, for any editor or any pub-
lisher.

All of the larger magazines and reviews order articles on special sub-
jects from writers of known competence in each several line, and this plan
is largely followed in the smaller periodicals, whose editors would far sooner
consider a proposed subject than read a submitted manuscript. The special
writer must, therefore, be something of a "hustler," always quick to submit
an idea to an editor, and, if possible, secure his order to write it up. Some

LITERATURE AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 925

such plan is followed by many of the most successful workers in this line,
and their profits and popularity demonstrate its merits.

Writers of treatises are usually persons who write upon the science or
occupation in which they are engaged, or else are special writers, engaged by
some publisher to prepare a book along given lines. The sphere of the spe-
cial writer in the preparation of books is enlarging considerably at the pres-
ent time; their services being often preferred to those of experts, from the
fact that they understand the method of presenting a subject in lucid and
readable form, abilities which many first-hand authorities lack to a notorious
extent. This is shown in the numerous books, often quoted as authoritative,
that have been prepared by men whose careers in science or literature have
begun as special contributors to the great daily newspapers.

Special writers are also largely employed in the preparation of cyclopae-
dias and other books of reference, for which some notable character or other
gets the credit. Apart from this policy of economy — for the "hack" will work
cheaper than the notable — there is a large field in the preparation of books
for wealthy men with literary aspirations but no ability, and for professional
men, lacking the time to devote to writing. It is an open secret that a goodly
number of high-class medical and other scientific treatises have been com-
piled by special writers in the employ of the reputed authors.

LITERARY AGENCIES AND "CO-OPERATIVE" PUBLISHERS

Numerous helps are provided for persons entering the world of litera-
ture but still unacquainted with the rules governing its affairs. Thus there
are numerous authors' agencies in various parts of the country, which
undertake to receive manuscripts, edit them into acceptable form and secure
their publication. Most of these concerns do excellent work in revision and
editing, but as a rule are of advantage to the author in securing a publisher
only on account of their wider acquaintance with periodical literature and
their superior judgment on fitness. There have been a few scattered at-
tempts to establish the system of book manuscript brokerage in this country,
in which the broker or middleman submits the manuscript to publishers, and
obtains his remuneration in a percentage on the author's royalty, if success-
ful. This plan has worked excellently in England, where almost all au-
thors act through such brokers, being thus saved much trouble and anxiety
in the matter of securing a publisher and arranging terms on a satisfactory
basis.

Another character with whom the aspiring author is liable to come in
contact is the so-called "co-operative publisher." He will manufacture any
book, whose author will pay the costs, and then agrees to publish it on an
exceedingly generous percentage basis, from 50 per cent to 90 per cent of
the profits being promised the author. Some of these publishers make hon-
est although largely ineffective attempts to secure recognition for books,
while others do nothing whatever in the matter. On the whole, their
schemes are to be avoided, since the large number of worthless books bear-

926 WORKERS OF THE NATION

ing their imprint is sufficient of itself to ruin the standing of a good book
or a good author.

Most reputable publishers will issue good books on the "co-operative"
basis, and do their best to push them, even though convinced that they can
have but a limited sale. Authors possessed of sufficient means to manu-
facture their own books can generally make better profits and gain a wider
reputation by dealing through a news company, as has been done with sev-
eral very successful books, formerly refused by publishers of good standing.

LIBRARIES

There are in the United States more than 10,000 libraries, containing in
all, some 40,000,000 volumes The United States Congressional Library
stands fifth on the list of the world's great libraries ; before it, in the matter
of number of books, coming the National Library of France, the British
Museum Library, the Imperial Library of Russia, and the Royal Library
of Berlin. The Boston Library conies seventh, following Strasburg.

Before the Civil War the Library of Congress held less than 100,000
volumes, but it now contains 890,000 volumes and 250,000 pamphlets. The
new Congressional Library building, with the ground, has cost $6,950,000.
It is open to the public, every book being accessible under certain rules. The
building is of marble, with mosaics and frescoes, the latter depicting great
historical events. Fine specimens of early printing, book-making and en-
graving are displayed. Early American Colonial history is well represented.
Engravings illustrate all the Presidential administrations. The reading-
room is always filled with readers of all classes, the arrangement and deliv-
ery of books being wellnigh perfect.

A national body was organized in Philadelphia, October 6, 1876, as the
immediate result of a three days' library conference held in connection with
the Centennial exhibition. Its purposes are the promotion of library in-
terests, the interchange of experience and opinion, the obtaining of larger
results from library labor and expenditure, and the advancement of the
profession of librarianship.

TRAVELLING LIBRARIES

The sending of "travelling libraries" to villages and towns, which have
no public library of their own, has proved a boon to hundreds of thousands
of people throughout the United States. By the introduction of these itin-
erant collections of books, people in the remotest sections of the country are
furnished with the best reading without individual cost. This system of
helping rural populations in an educational way was started in New York
in 1892.

There are now about 2,500 travelling libraries, containing about 115,000
volumes, scattered in thirty States. About 1,100 of these were equipped
and maintained by State aid. The remainder were purchased by private in-
dividuals or associations.

LITERATURE AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 927

The ease with which the new plan of library extension can be adapted
to meet various needs may be shown in a rapid summary of the work done
by a few systems of travelling libraries. In New Jersey, they have used
them to lighten the long winter days and evenings of the brave men who be-
long to the life-saving service, and that State has now taken up the travel-
ling library as a definite part of the work of its State Library. Women in
Salt Lake City send them regularly to remote valleys in Utah. A number
of State federations of women's clubs use them to furnish books for
study to isolated clubs. One woman in Georgia is devoting herself to the
supervision of a system which reaches a number of small villages on the
Seaboard Air Line, in five Southern States. An association in Washing-
ton, D. C, puts libraries on the canal boats which ply on the Washington
and Potomac Canal in the summer, and "tie up" in small hamlets in the Blue
Ridge Mountains in the winter. The colored graduates of Hampton Insti-
tute carry libraries to the schools for their own people at the base of the
Cumberland Mountains, while to the "mountain whites" libraries are sent
by the women's clubs in Kentucky, Tennessee and Alabama. In Idaho,
California, Nebraska, Kansas, Illinois, Missouri, Minnesota, and many other
States, women's clubs are doing the same work for miners, lumbermen,
farmers and sailors.

LIBRARIANS

So systematized have libraries become that a librarian's profession now
ranks with the others. In connection with one or two educational institutes
there are training schools for librarians, the graduates of which are very
successful in finding immediate employment in their chosen field, either as
librarians, cataloguers or general assistants in public libraries, or those of
universities and schools. There is a State Library School connected with the
University of Illinois, with a four years' course. The graduates are given
the degree of Bachelor of Library Science. General university studies occupy
two years of the course. Every department of library administration is
thoroughly exploited, attention is paid to the bibliographical methods of
great libraries, and the students are encouraged to master all the technical
details of the profession.

Special courses of instruction in this branch are also given in connection
with several large libraries and in separate schools. The particular subjects
taught relate to the classification and cataloguing of books, with special ref-
erence to cross-indexing and the subdivision of matter. All this constitutes
the most recent method for securing easy access and ready reference. Of
course, to fully profit by such systematic instruction, a person must have a
good working knowledge of books and of the subjects treated, which involves
that he has at least a high-school education, or, better still, is a college
graduate. Librarians usually receive between $1,500 and $3,000 per year,
and trained assistants, several hundred, at least, at the start.

CHAPTER X
THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM

The Newspaper Fraternity — The "New Journalism"— Journalistic Education — Reporters —
Newspaper Correspondents — Staff and War Correspondents — The Local Correspond-
ent— Special Correspondents — The Washington Correspondent — Women Reporters —
The Woman Reporter's Assignments — Earnings of Women Reporters — Newspaper
Editors — The Making of a Newspaper — The Day's Work in a Newspaper Office —
The Night's Work in a Newspaper Office — The Evening Edition — The Sunday Edi-
tion— The Country Newspaper — The Press Associations — Operations of the Associated
Press — The Circulation of a Newspaper — Weekly Journalism — Monthly Journalism —
Making a Magazine

THE NEWSPAPER FRATERNITY

ON THE question of adopting journalism as a profession, a number
of things may be said favorable and unfavorable. To be suc-
cessful, a man must possess, in some measure, what is happily
termed the "journalistic instinct," coupled with the ability to follow
its guidance. He must have the faculty of recognizing news, or mat-
ters of general interest, and the ability to state such in the fewest words,
with the greatest effect. In his career as a reporter, he must demonstrate
his facility at observing conditions and extracting essential facts, with the
smallest possible exercise of the "nosey" and tricky methods, popularly sup-
posed to characterize men of his craft. In these respects, a man of trained
mind and polished manners has a better chance of immediate success than
one less advantaged, although his ultimate advancement depends upon his
ability to develop along these lines into such mastery of his calling that he
is fitted to direct others. Practical journalism has the advantages of beget-
ting desirable rapidity in the use of the faculties of observation and in way
of recording them on paper, but, as is frequently demonstrated, the speed
forced under the trying conditions of modern newspaper-making can not be
maintained indefinitely, a man reaching his limit and beginning to retro-
grade, after a number of years of incessant grinding.

While by far the fewest men who enter journalism attain to elevated
and permanent positions as editors, critics, editorial writers, high-class cor-
respondents, etc., it is still one of the most valuable trainings that can be had.
In compelling a man to observe quickly, think quickly and act quickly, it
so sharpens the faculties that his success in any calling, fitted to his talents,
is already assured. This end is particularly assisted by the modern method
of assigning reporters to permanent specialties, such as the stock market,
the current political situation, the mercantile world, etc., etc., which gives
them a broad grasp of the peculiar facts in their own special fields, and
(928)

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 929

brings them the acquaintance of many persons capable of assisting them in
other callings. Thus, for the majority of men, it is a good stepping-stone;
but a poor life work. It affords great possibilities for eminent qualification,
but, like the calling of general literature, leaves the majority of its workers
in the position of "hacks" and "grinds" — with the exception that it generally
pays them better — and offers pre-eminence to the few. It is a strenuous
field, in which the law of "survival of the fittest" reigns supreme, although,
as has been well said, that does not always and necessarily involve the "sur-
vival of the best."

The newspaper fraternity may be roughly divided into the following
classes: Reporters, editors and editorial writers; and local, staff, and spe-
cial correspondents.

In general, a reporter may be said to be one who gathers the news in a
community in which his paper is published. All the news outside o.f such
a community comes from the correspondents. Thus a man employed by
the "New York Herald," who writes the story of a blizzard within or near
Greater New York, is a reporter. That same man if sent to Wilkes-
barre to write a story of a coal miners' strike is, for the time being, called
a staff correspondent. On the other hand, if the same story had been sent
in by an employe of the "Herald" living in Wilkesbarre, the writer would
be known as a local correspondent. Or if the same story had been sent in
by one not regularly employed by the "Herald," whether a resident or
stranger in Wilkesbarre, the writer would be known as a special corre-
spondent.

THE "NEW JOURNALISM"

Of late years, thanks to the mechanical and executive perfections found
in the newspaper business, there has arisen a new school of journalistic
policy and method, appropriately known as the "new journalism." For-
merly the editor had fulfilled his mission when he had recorded the latest
obtainable news, and made such comments as seemed good on current
events. Now, the sphere of newspaper work has enlarged into activities for
representing public interest in all branches, and for the "creation" of news.
This latter term does not indicate the unworthy scheme of inventing or
"faking" items, for the sake of producing sensations or for creating a tempo-
rary and doubtful interest in the paper containing them. It rather indicates
precisely the policy of combining the functions of the reporter with those
of the skilled detective. Its usefulness is demonstrated in the fact that,
within the last few years, a number of criminals have been brought to justice
through the persistent efforts of skilled newspaper sleuths, when, as is per-
fectly evident, they might have escaped, if only the police and public detec-
tives had been relied on to run them down.

Many notable mysteries have been cleared up, and several worthy re-
forms have been carried to accomplishment by the same indefatigable agents,
who, although working in the first instance for the benefit of their respective

28_ Vol. 2

930 WORKERS OF THE NATION

newspapers, have always borne in mind the pre-eminent value of truth.
Public opinion has also been effectively molded by the enterprise of certain
editors, who have sought and received expressions on current crises from
distinguished personages, rulers, prime ministers, etc., or who have, at their
own expense, undertaken suits, in the public behalf, against corrupt officials
or oppressive corporations.

In one or two notable instances the cause of science has been immensely
advanced by newspaper enterprise, as when Stanley was sent to Africa by
the "New York Herald." Reporters and agents from modern newspapers
have undergone dangers and hardships of remarkable variety, in the tireless
and determined effort to collect the real facts on their "assignments."

JOURNALISTIC EDUCATION

There is a well-defined movement at the present time to incoroorate
courses of journalism with the special departments of universities, business
colleges and correspondence schools. The scheme is highly approved by
several prominent journalists, and seems to be meeting with some success
in point of attracting students. Certain of its advocates argue that, as other
professions are learned by special instruction, journalism should be no ex-
ception. This may be true, so far as concerns the acquisition of necessary
knowledge of several subjects; the ability to write readily and simply on
any required facts or topics, and the general theoretical understanding of
the business, but a person so instructed has scarcely any advantage over an-
other possessing only a good general education. There are numerous things
that can be learned only in a newspaper office, as, for example, the ability to
investigate and report on an assignment with the required rapidity, and to
know news from ordinary happenings. Every newspaper office, moreover,
has its own rules and practice which can be learned only by actual service;
and no school course, however thorough, could possibly fit a man to take
a position as city editor on any paper.

REPORTERS

There are several ways in which to make the start as a reporter. One
way is to apply direct to the city editor and secure a trial assignment. The
better way is to run down a news story, write it, and send it or hand it to
the ci'ty editor. If the story is printed, the beginner should at once apply
in person for an assignment. The first assignment will mean an actual start
as a reporter — the real beginning of the young man's race for success in
journalism. It will not be a very long race, for in the newspaper world,
especially in the larger cities, the reporter finds himself an old man at forty,
and the race over at about that period of life at which men in other profes-
sions are just beginning to enjoy the fruits of their labor.

From the very day of the first assignment, the life of the reporter is one
of perpetual excitement, haste, and turmoil. This applies, of course, only
to the larger cities where the publishing of news is a continual race with

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 931

time. The constant fear of being "beaten" or "scooped" by one's rivals
keeps every man in the newspaper office, from the managing editor to the
newest "cub" reporter, in a fever of anxiety. The beginner soon becomes
conscious of the tension at which all those around him are working, and if
he has the qualities of a good reporter, the excitement thrills him, he enjoys
it and plunges into the fray with his whole heart. His salary, at the be-
ginning, will probably be about $15 a week; if he has the ability, he can in-
crease the sum to $35 — actually within a few weeks. Let him get one big
scoop, and he becomes the hero of the office, and as a reward he may be
taken off the salary list and allowed to work at space rates. While work-
ing "on space" it is possible for him to earn from $35 to $75 a week, accord-
ing to the amount of space his stories fill. A few reporters reach the $75 a
week limit within a year or two after their start; the majority plod along
for many years, their earnings seldom amounting to more than $50 or $60
a week.

NEWSPAPER CORRESPONDENTS

Newspaper correspondents, as previously stated, may be roughly di-
vided into three general classes — staff, local, and special. Staff correspon-
dents work on a salary as regular employes of their papers; local corre-
spondents work "on space"; while special correspondents may work either
on a salary which continues during the time necessary to perform a certain
task, or they may receive a stated sum for each contribution, or a lump sum
for a certain piece of work which may involve a period of time anywhere
from one week to two or three years. In each case the travelling expenses
of the correspondents are usually borne by the papers employing them.

STAFF AND WAR CORRESPONDENTS

A correspondent is really a reporter, but as his reporting is done either
by the telegraph or by mail, or, in other words, by correspondence, the term
correspondent was applied to him in order to distinguish the out-of-town
reporter from the city reporter. It is the ambition of almost every reporter
working for a daily to be sent out of town on some important mission as a
staff correspondent. Such a mission offers opportunities which may result
in advancing the journalist a peg or two in his professional career. In the
event of war the reporter may be given a chance to distinguish himself in
camp and on the battlefield. After war was declared with Spain, in 1898,
a legion of reporters soon reached fame as staff correspondents accompany-
ing United States troops. They were sent to Cuba, Porto Rico, Guam and
the Philippines. Later they were sent to South Africa to join either the
Boer or the British armies, and send home news of the war in the Transvaal.
Still later they were sent to China as the day to day historians of events tak-
ing place in Tien Tsin and Pekin. The work of many of these staff corre-
spondents was so well done that they were given signatures in their papers.
The correspondent who is permitted to sign his story can usually command

932 WORKERS OF THE NATION

higher pay than other correspondents, for it is understood that if his work
is worth signing, he must necessarily command an audience; and the larger
the audience the correspondent commands the better for the publisher.

For obvious reasons, either the staff or special correspondent, who is
acting as war correspondent, receives higher pay than he would in time of
peace. The war correspondent must necessarily soldier with soldiers. He
must march with the troops shoulder to shoulder, enduring hardships, often-
times risking his life. Certain newspapers paid the cost of insurance on the
lives of the men whom they sent to Cuba, to South Africa and China. Oth-
ers even insured their correspondents against accidents. The expenses of
a war correspondent, too, are greater than those of the correspondents who
are travelling about the world on ordinary missions. Owing to the un-
certainties in the matter of expense, newspaper editors usually place several
thousand dollars at the command of their correspondents as emergency
funds to be drawn upon when needed.

THE LOCAL CORRESPONDENT

Though correspondents may be divided, as before mentioned, into classes
known as staff, local, and special, the duties of the men in each class are
about the same. The dividing lines mark a difference in the methods of
pay rather than any difference in the methods of work.

The local correspondent, of course, earns less than either the staff or the
special correspondent, because his work is of less importance. Take the
case, for instance, of the local correspondent of the "New York Herald" in
Wilkesbarre. This man is probably a reporter on the local paper of his
town. When anything happens that is of interest outside of his town or
State, he telegraphs the story to the "Herald," but he handles the important
things only up to a certain point. When comes a strike among the coal
miners, for instance, he may send in the story of the opening days of the
strife between labor and capital, but if the strike spreads, or if blood is shed,
or if the trouble even promises to be serious, the "Herald" sends a staff cor-
respondent to Wilkesbarre to handle the story. The local correspondent
then continues his work under the direction of the staff correspondent,
merely assisting the latter in "covering" the news.

SPECIAL CORRESPONDENTS

The special correspondent is employed either because of his special fitness,
or because an event is important enough to justify employing an authority or
a specialist. Thus a man who has built up a reputation as a political writer
will be sent as a special correspondent to a political convention. When an in-
ternational yacht race is to be run, the newspapers employ yachting experts
as special correspondents. In order that coronations, inaugurations, or any
great fete of national or international importance may be presented to their
readers by the very best writers, newspapers often employ novelists or poets

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 933

whose pens are trained for the descriptive writing necessary on such occa-
sions.

The correspondent, wherever he is, is a living interrogation point.
He is omnipresent and insatiable. He must gain the confidence of all the
leaders of thought or action from whom it is necessary for him to get the
news. If he is a one-idea man, he will never succeed. If his vision is fixed
on a single point, his paper, which, in other words, means his readers, will
soon discover that he is prejudiced and his value as a correspondent will
dwindle to naught. It is the many-sided correspondent who gains the
confidence of public men, of the reading public, and of the proprietor of the
paper for which he happens to be working.

THE WASHINGTON CORRESPONDENT

The Washington corps of newspaper correspondents numbers about
two hundred. These are principally the representatives of daily papers
throughout the country, and it is their duty to send to their papers a daily
report of everything of importance that happens in the capital. The tele-
graph press rates are so low that even the smallest papers in the remotest
sections of the country can afford to pay for the services of a special corre-
spondent in Washington. Thus papers in the interior of Pennsylvania or in
the small towns of the Northwestern States and Territories have their
representatives in the press galleries of the Capitol, just the same as the
metropolitan papers.

In addition to the 200 representatives of daily papers in Washington,
there are fully 300 persons who write for the press as a means, or a partial
means, of livelihood. These special correspondents write not only for the
dailies, but for the weeklies and for the magazines. They include recog-
nized authorities on certain subjects, Congressmen who have undertaken to
act as correspondents, the heads of government bureaus, and even depart-
ment clerks.

The Washington bureau of each of the great dailies of the country is
maintained the year round, the busiest season of course being during the
session of Congress. In every bureau there are from two to six corre-
spondents. In many cases there is a direct wire from the bureau to the
home office.

In both the House of Representatives and in the Senate, there is a press
gallery, to sit in which is the right of every correspondent who sends out
daily despatches. No discrimination is made in the case of women corre-
spondents. The press gallery is an important centre of news, of course, but
it is by no means the chief centre ; in fact, there may be said to be no prin-
cipal centre of Washington news, for the bulk of the news is secured in in-
terviews with the legislators themselves. The Washington correspondent
must be a vigilant man, for one of his principal duties is to thwart secrecy,
to give publicity to matters which it is best that the public should know.

934 WORKERS OF THE NATION

WOMEN REPORTERS

Since the rise of so-called yellow journalism, the public has become
familiar with the newspaper woman. She appears at great social func-
tions, is distinctly in evidence at summer resorts, is known to the keepers
and wardens of prisons, to the matrons of hospitals, and at the box-offices
of theatres. She has even made a sensational tour of the world ; has
thrown herself in front of an onrushing trolley car in order to test the prac-
ticability of the fender; has run automobiles through Central Park at a
higher rate of speed than is allowed by law in order that she might try the
mettle of the mounted police. She has done many other queer, strange
and wonderful things in the name of journalism. She has been sent so
often to the bottom of the East River to write up the art of bridge-building,
in a caisson ; she has been despatched so often to other extraordinary places,
that newspaper readers have ceased to wonder at her doings, and editors are
now allowing her to take a normal place in the newspaper world.

If many young women made a sensational entrance into journalistic
work, it was their misfortune rather than their fault; they simply had to.
Editors said "Do this," and "Do that," and the newspaper woman obeyed.
So for a time her salary was abnormally large and her fame spread through-
out the land. But gone are the Nellie Blys, and the newspaper woman now
works side by side with the men, doing the same work and earning less
money.

The young woman may seek to enter daily journalism by way of the
Sunday edition. She visits the editor and places before him a number of
suggestions — probably on feminine topics. The editor checks off two or
three of the suggestions as an indication that he would like to have the stories
submitted. He invariably says that he would like to see the "stuff," making
it plain to the candidate for Sunday newspaper honors that he has not given
a positive order for the work. However, if her stories prove satisfactory,
it is probable that after a time the Sunday editor will introduce the young
woman into the city department and there she begins her work as a reporter.

The wisest newspaper woman of all makes application for an assign-
ment direct to the city editor, declaring that she is ready to take her
chances with the men. She makes it evident from the start that she
wishes to be placed on an equality with the men. If she is fortunate
enough to secure an engagement she will report the following morning at
about eleven o'clock for work.

THE WOMAN REPORTER'S ASSIGNMENTS

Now begin the real trials and struggles of her newspaper life. Every
morning she is obliged to wait in the office for an assignment; sometimes
she waits two hours, sometimes all (Jay. While she is waiting she is
obliged to accustom herself to a shirt-sleeve environment and a tobacco-
laden atmosphere. If she is destined to succeed at all, she must not cough

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 935

when the smoke from a cigarette happens to float her way, nor must she be
averse to joining in the gossip of the "shop."

And then her assignments. She is obliged to approach men to whom she
has never been introduced, and talk to them. She must enter the office of
a busy broker, knowing that she will be treated with but scant courtesy
because of lack of time. She must rush from mansion to mansion on the
day of a great ball and ask for a description of the gowns to be worn. In
the evening she must go to the ball in person and secure information from
the secretary of the hostess. She must interview murderers and make
analytical studies of criminals of the most degraded kind. In the editorial
room, if she happens to have a headache, she finds that she can not make
a greater blunder than to mention the fact. If the city editor says, "Take
the next train for the scene of the strike," she must go, without hair-brush
or powder-puff. The true woman reporter never shirks her work because
of the weather. Neither blinding snow nor driving rain holds terrors for.
her. She dresses for all kinds of weather as appropriately as her purse will
permit, and then goes forth to get her story, knowing that neither blizzard
nor cyclone will be accepted as an excuse for "falling down."

EARNINGS OF WOMEN REPORTERS

Women in editorial positions — that is, editors of women's pages — earn
from $40 to $50 a week. Outside of the woman's chair and a chair or two
in the Sunday room, you may look in vain for a woman in an executive
capacity on a great daily. It is related as an extraordinary circumstance that
the Sunday editor of a daily New York newspaper not many years ago was
a woman ; but that paper had only a short life, and the woman who was
its Sunday editor was obliged to return to earn her living once more as a
contributor to the inevitable woman's page.

Of course there are a few women in New York and other large cities who
earn more than $50 a week; there are perhaps three or four who draw as
much as $100, but these are women who have earned a reputation for
undertaking daring feats or because of a daring style.

The ordinary woman reporter while on a salary list draws only from $20
to $35 a week, though she does as much work and as good work as men who
are paid more than she. When she is put "on space," or, as they say in
industrial establishments, on "piece work," it is possible for her to make as
much as $75 a week. The average rate per column on large dailies is about
$7, and if the space writer fills one column every day she deems herself for-
tunate.

NEWSPAPER EDITORS

Horace Greeley once said that the only way to make a newspaper editor
was to feed him from earliest boyhood on printer's ink and let him sleep on
newspapers. This was another way of saying that a young man who is
brought up in a newspaper office makes a better editor than one who has the

936 .WORKERS OF THE NATION

benefit of a college training. Mr. Greeley called college graduates "the
worst horned cattle." While it may have been true in Mr. Greeley's day
that college graduates were an incumbrance rather than a help in a news-
paper office, conditions have changed and college graduates are now in the
majority in newspaper offices.

The pace being what it is, it is natural that the men who can best meet
the requirements of rapid development should enter the profession properly
equipped, and the men who are best equipped are college graduates. If the
graduate is fitted by nature for journalism, his advancement will be wonder-
fully assisted by his trained mind, the enlargement of the social horizon
through close association during a period of from four to six years with a
great number of men of mental ability, and his skill in the use of a broad
vocabulary. Hence, more and more college graduates are entering journal-
ism every year, and it is these men who are rilling the editorial chairs of the
great dailies. Newspaper publishers recognize the fact that the men of
greatest value in an executive position are those who have been trained in a
university.

On the great daily, an editorial staff usually consists of the editor, the
managing editor, the city editor, the news editor, the telegraph editor, the
Sunday editor, a number of assistant city editors, and the heads of various
departments, such as the sporting editor, the financial editor, the art editor,
the marine editor, the railroad editor, the real estate editor, the dramatic
editor, the literary editor, and others. The relative rank of these editors
is not the same on every paper. On one New York paper, for instance, the
man who is nominally the city editor receives a higher salary than the man-
aging editor. As a rule, however, the editor or managing editor receives
the highest salary, while the earnings of the others are in proportion to the
value of their department in the particular paper buying their services.
Certain editors in the offices of the New York papers receive $15,000
a year, or more. Thus, in point of compensation, managing editors,
Sunday editors and city editors are now classed with electrical experts,
medical specialists and corporation officers. The average salary, how-
ever, paid to ordinary editors of ordinary papers seldom exceeds $5,000
a year.

It may be further said, relative to the rapid rise of newspaper men to
high editorial positions, that, with one or two exceptions, all the managing
editors of New York newspapers are under fifty years of age. One or two
are only a trifle over thirty. So absorbed are these men in their work that
they themselves have no real appreciation of the pressure at which their
labors are carried on. The proprietor, however, truly understands the situ-
ation, for it is he who insists that managing editors shall have their under-
studies ; that is, three or four men so trained that they can assume full charge
of any edition at a moment's notice.

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 937

THE MAKING OF A NEWSPAPER

The making of a modern newspaper is nearly the best example extant of
what human energy may accomplish, under pressure, in the way of rapid
and exact work. In spite of the apparently incongruous and haphazard
jumble of matter of all kinds and qualities on the pages of a newspaper,
which is the first thing that occurs to the average lay mind in the way of
criticism, and which would be perfectly inadmissible in book work, the whole
make-up is carefully and laboriously planned in advance and every detail is
worked out in accordance with a system that is as perfect as it is com-
plex. Moreover, there is little time to meditate or hesitate on what to do
between the impulse and the action, since the delay of even a minute often-
times counts seriously against the interests of the paper. The matter in-
cluded in a daily paper falls under two distinct heads, city news and foreign
news, the latter including all out of town items, from either foreign coun-
tries or other parts of the United States, while the city department, which
is the scene of the greatest activity, deals with local news and such items from
the suburbs as can be quickly and readily obtained by the reporters.

The work of the editors is arduous and constant, on account of the vast
bulk of the news matter constantly pouring into the office, and forming a
mass of material generally sufficient to fill ten or a dozen papers of the
largest size. The selection and editing of this matter, so as to obtain all
essential facts, and at the same time come within the required compass, de-
mands not only skill at editing and ability to work with the utmost rapidity,
but also a trained sense of relative values that, from the close competition be-
tween the great journals of the present day, must be as nearly unerring as
possible.

THE DAY'S WORK IN A NEWSPAPER OFFICE

The story of a day's work in the office of a great daily newspaper will
give an idea of the tremendous pressure under which the modern newspaper
man performs his labor. On a morning edition work begins about nine
o'clock with the arrival of the paper reader. It is the duty of this man to
read all the papers published in his city with a special regard for local mat-
ters, and with the object of marking everything in the newspaper, even to
an advertisement, that promises to make a "story." A "story" means any-
thing published in a newspaper. The paper reader hands over the papers
he has marked to the city editor. The city editor, meanwhile, has read the
papers for himself, and after assorting a number of other suggestions that
may have been handed in by various members of the staff, he is able to give
assignments to the few reporters who may be on duty at ten o'clock in the
morning.

Meanwhile the assistant city editor, the sporting editor, and others are
also reading newspapers, all looking for ideas. Each editor is constantly
on the lookout for something original and striking that will make an at-
tractive news featitre. It is through reading newspapers constantly that

938 WORKERS OF THE NATION

men in executive positions in newspaper offices are able to determine just
how much space any particular story is worth. It is these men who deter-
mine the relative importance of stories. Step into the office of any great
morning newspaper during the daylight hours and you will find everybody
reading newspapers. They may appear to be lounging, some may have
their feet elevated to a desk top, a few are in their shirt sleeves — all are
smoking — but each particular man present is really hard at work develop-
ing the most vital forces in newspaperdom — namely, ideas.

In the middle of the afternoon the reporters begin to arrive. Some of
them have not yet breakfasted, having taken advantage of every possible
moment for sleep. As a rule the reporters on the morning papers do not
begin their actual day's work until about the hour when men in other pro-
fessions are dining. The reason for this is that the evening editions so
thoroughly cover the news of the day that it is not practicable to make up
the morning editions until after six o'clock. A few of the department men,
of course, such as those who cover the news of the police courts, the City
Hall, Wall Street, and so on, get to work early in the day, but the main part
of the reportorial staff, which, on the larger dailies numbers as many as
fifty, work at nights. Meantime all routine news is covered by the local
bureau of the Associated Press, the workings of which will be explained
under a separate head.

The really big events are handled by the "star" reporters, each of whom
is usually intrusted with a story which he is expected to play up to the very
best advantage.

The ordinary reporters are sometimes sent out for as many as six or
eight different stories between three o'clock in the afternoon and one o'clock
in the morning. It often happens, however, that the six or eight stories
written by the reporters are, all together, given less space than the one
story of the star reporter. A few reporters are always retained in the office
for emergencies. Nor are these emergency reporters the men of least
ability, for when an editor is actually confronted by an emergency he needs
a good man to meet and handle it.

We must not forget the autocrat of the newspaper — the managing editor.
He is an editor of editors. It is not his business to be interested in any one
department, but in all. It is he who has the last word as to the news. The
city editor, in New York, for instance, is concerned only with happenings
within one hundred miles of the City Hall but the managing editor is con-
cerned with affairs the world over. He arrives at his office between three
and five o'clock, and at once issues instructions not merely to the city editor
and to others in the building, but to the correspondents in the capitals of
Europe and on the other side of the world as well.

THE NIGHT'S WORK IN A NEWSPAPER OFFICE

About six o'clock the night force arrives, headed by the night city editor,
the night telegraph editor, and so on. At about this hour the result of the

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 939

reaching out for news to all parts of the world begins to appear in the news
home office. The news arrives by telegraph, by cable, by telephone, and re-
porters come rushing in to begin clicking off their stories on typewriters or
writing them out in long hand.

The men employed for the purpose make up the schedule of the paper,
the editors having decided upon the way in which the news will be pre-
sented. Before one o'clock in the morning, however, it is probable that the
schedule will have been changed many times, for events happen so quickly
that the telegraph at any moment may change the most elaborate plans for
"make-up."

From nine o'clock till two o'clock at night the editorial rooms of the
great dailies present scenes of mental activity where the strain is such that
it has sometimes led to actual madness. More than one brilliant editorial
mind has snapped during these rushing hours of the night. It is related
that the city editor of a great New York daily rushed into the reporters'
room brandishing "copy" in both hands and shrieking at the top of his
voice. The pace at which this man had been working for years had at last
had its effect. He was taken to a hospital, where he soon afterward died.

The subdivision of work in newspaper offices is now as fine as that to
be found in any industrial establishment. Certain men are detailed to re-
ceive stories over the telephone; others are employed as rewriters — that is,
men who take the stories of out-of-town correspondents, and select the most
valuable points of the story, rewriting the entire tale in the most forcible
language, infusing into it picturesque and descriptive features worthy of the
novelist. Then there are men who draw large salaries for writing head-
lines, and yellow journalism has created a demand for ability of a high
order in the matter of writing "heads." Then there are the ordinary copy
readers, eight or ten of whom are required to read the city copy.

All this time the reporters have been rushing about the city, inter-
viewing all sorts and conditions of people under all sorts of circumstances,
hurrying back to the office to write the story if there is time, or telephoning
it in if the time is short. Sometimes they do not reach the office until about
three o'clock and are sometimes required to wait until the issues of rival
papers are brought out — for even at that time in the morning somebody must
read the rival newspapers and be on the lookout for any possible big exclu-
sive story with a view to "lifting" and rewriting enough of it, as editors say,
"to save ourselves."

THE EVENING EDITION

Evening editions of newspapers have become of great importance. For-
merly one, or at most two, editions of an evening paper were considered
sufficient, and these editions came from the press really at eventide. In
New York, however, evening editions of the "Telegram" are issued not later
than noon, while the evening editions of the "World" and the "Journal"
are on sale so early in the morning that they have in part taken the place

940 WORKERS OF THE NATION

of the morning edition. With the increasing importance of the evening edi-
tion came the demand for editors of more than average ability who could
produce papers in successful competition with rivals ; and these men were
drawn from the staffs of the morning edition. So it came about that edi-
tors who had been accustomed to going to bed at four or five o'clock in the
morning now found themselves getting up at that hour and arriving at the
office between six and seven o'clock. Some editors and reporters on evening
editions are obliged to get to work as early as five o'clock. Competition is
a great deal more keen among evening than among morning editions. The
most enterprising evening paper is for sale at seven o'clock in the morning,
and from that time until midnight a new edition is issued every hour, or as
often as the news may justify.

The tension in the office of an evening edition and the speed at which the
men must work is even greater than in the morning newspaper rooms. It
can at least be said that on a morning paper there are a few hours early
in the day when all work has ceased ; on an evening edition the work goes
on, like the poet's brook, forever ; there is not a single hour in the twenty-four
during which some one is not on duty. Between nine o'clock in the even-
ing and midnight, there is what is called "the dog watch," when only one or
two men are on duty; after midnight comes what is called "the gas house
trick," when the rewrite men appear in time to paraphrase stories from the
first morning editions for the first evening edition. So precious is every
second of time in the office of the evening edition that editors sometimes
move their desks into the composing room in order to be as close as possible
to the compositors. The paper which can give an important piece of news
to the public five minutes ahead of its rivals will sell thousands of extra
copies, and this means added prestige and more advertisements.

All sorts of mechanical devices have also been invented to save time.
There is, for instance, what is called the "fudge" or "stop press" bulletin,
printed in red ink. The time required to add a fudge to the plates already
on the press is only about two minutes, for the words are inserted in actual
type. The words are even called off to the compositor, who sets them up
as fast as the editor or reporter dictates them — for there is not even time to
write. Another device adopted by evening pepars in order to beat time is
what is called the "flash." The flash is used when something is occurring
which can end only in one of two ways ; for example, a prize fight, or an im-
portant horse race, or boat race, in which there can be only one winner. In
order to announce the result of the fight, or of the race, within the fewest pos-
sible minutes after the event is over, editors conceived the plan of printing
two editions of the paper; one edition gives A as a winner, the other says
that B won. Both these editions are sent out to the various news centres in
the city and suburbs ; the moment the result of the event is flashed over the
wire, word is telephoned to the distributing centres and the proper edition
is released, the other being destroyed.

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 941

THE SUNDAY EDITION

Since Morrill Goddard, the father of the Sunday newspaper, first pub-
lished a Sunday edition of the New York "Herald" as a separate entity, a
new class of papers has been created. The members of this class are called
Sunday editors. Soon the counting-room discovered that the "Sunday" was
the" best paying edition of the paper. Then came the demand for Sunday
editors — good Sunday editors. For a time the supply was wholly unequal
to the demand; for the editing of the Sunday edition such as Mr. God-
dard produced was something new in journalism. So for a time Sunday
editors simply copied the ways and means adopted by Mr. Goddard.

Previous to this, the Sunday paper was nothing more nor less than a
weekly edition, containing a recapitulation or an elaboration of the news
of the week. It was made up haphazard fashion by the members of the
daily staff, under the direction of a busy managing editor, who had very
little time to give to it. Mr. Goddard, however, recognized the fact that
the Sunday edition should be published in every sense as a separate paper,
having nothing to do with the daily edition. Therefore, he organized his
own staff of assistant editors, writers and artists, who worked for him ex-
clusively. He arranged matters so that he had no need to call upon the
members of the daily staff, but could publish his Sunday paper independently
of everybody else. At this time Mr. Goddard had reached the advanced age
of twenty-five years.

The Sunday editor must have all the qualifications of a magazine
editor, while still possessing every qualification necessary to success as the
editor of a daily paper. It is his business to give the public a magazine
which is also a newspaper. In other words, he must treat news events, both
in picture and story, as topics of general interest, but of no news value, as
treated in the monthly periodicals. Following these lines, all the great
dailies the country over now publish what is known as the Sunday maga-
zine section, for each of which there is a special Sunday editor.

The business office recognizes the Sunday editor as a man of great im-
portance, because the product of his establishment yields a larger revenue
than either the morning or the evening editions. The daily editions give
prestige, standing and influence to a newspaper property, but these editions
run up mighty bills in the shape of telegraph and cable tolls, huge salaries
for editors and correspondents, incurring meanwhile hundreds of other
expenses. The Sunday edition can be made up at far less expense. It is
said that the circulation of the Sunday edition of three New York papers
amounts in each case to at least 600,000 copies. The comic supplement and
other supplements, with colored illustrations and half tones, have increased
the circulation of the papers which adopted them by some 50,000 copies.

THE COUNTRY NEWSPAPER

The situation facing the editor of a country or town newspaper is pre-
cisely the same as that before the manager of the greatest metropolitan

942 WORKERS OF. THE NATION

daily ; briefly stated, to furnish the local news in the most acceptable manner.
In any large newspaper the city editor's department, with its corps of re-
porters, constantly waiting to be sent out on assignments, to investigate
and write up the newest bit of news, before the forms are sent to press, is
nearly the most important. This is true because the people of every city
are more keenly interested, oftentimes, in local news than even in matters
of world-wide importance. Yet, within a radius of not very much over one
hundred miles from the metropolis, none but the most sensational city news
is of very great interest. Also in country towns, even near the great cities,
there is as real a demand for news of local interest, which the great metro-
politan dailies can in no sense supply. Furthermore, these apparently
insignificant, even trivial, items are of keener interest to the local public
than all foreign happenings put together, and are the principal dependence
of the local editor.

The founder of a local newspaper, whether his object is to seek profit,
to conduct a political propaganda, or to secure his own election to some pub-
lic office, must proceed along one line. He must secure such contracts for
advertising as he can obtain from local tradesmen and the numerous mer-
chants and manufacturers who advertise widely in his class of newspaper, in
order to insure the financial support essential to his success. He must also
canvass 'his own and neighboring towns, for the purpose of securing the
services of regular correspondents and contributors, who generally feel
amply compensated by a place on the subscription list. These persons regu-
larly furnish the local news items, which, worked over in the chatty, popu-
lar style that all country editors eventually master, are the main dependence
in obtaining and keeping a good circulation. This is on the principle, once
stated by a Brooklyn editor, that he would prefer an item from Chicago,
stating that some resident of his city had sprained his ankle, than another
relating how that the mayor of that distant city had been assassinated by
anarchists.

In addition to the local items, with special emphasis on the register of
deaths and marriages, the local newspaper must include a brief summary
of important world happenings and as much "local" and syndicate literary
filling as the news and advertising will permit. In all things, however, the
local editor must be local, understanding that his success depends on featur-
ing the interests and doings of his neighbors, quite as truly as the New York
editor is concerned with representing the doings and sentiments of the
metropolis. His every effort, therefore, to create local news and to stimu-
late latent literary talent is sure to be repaid many fold by the increased
profit and popularity of his "sheet."

THE PRESS ASSOCIATIONS

The most important institution in the newspaper world is the Asso-
ciated Press. Were this institution suddenly to cease operations, hun-
dreds of newspapers would have to cease publication entirely, and only the

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 943

very richest newspaper publishers could hope to continue issuing their
papers. The Associated Press is the gatherer of the news of the world —
all the news either of local or national or international importance. It is
as a gatherer of the routine news, however, that it is of greatest value to the
newspapers which pay for its services.

In addition to the Associated Press, there are other press associations,
the principal of which at the present time is the one conducted by the
New York "Sun" — The Laffan News Bureau — and the Publishers' Press.
These news associations are well called the backbone of modern journalism.

The instinct by which a man understands just what is news and
whether it will interest the public is what Mr. Charles Dudley Warner called
the "sixth sense." The first qualification that must be possessed by the
man who seeks employment with the Associated Press is this sixth sense.

It is a well-known fact that the Associated Press pays its correspondents
and managers and editors lower salaries than are paid by newspapers to men
in the same position, and yet the employes of the Associated Press must pos-
sess ability quite equal to that required of employes of newspapers. On the
other hand, the opportunities open to the Associated Press men to distin-
guish themselves are even more numerous than those afforded by news-
papers. It often happens that the representatives of the Associated Press
are admitted where men representing the ordinary press are excluded.
During the war with Spain, for instance, the flagships could not carry repre-
sentatives of all the papers ; hence it was decided to carry simply a correspon-
dent of the Associated Press. When President McKinley made his trans-
continental tour he could not invite representatives of all the daily papers
to accompany him ; hence he confined his invitations to the men representing
the three principal news associations and the three principal weekly papers ;
viz, "Collier's Weekly," "Harper's Weekly" and "Leslie's Weekly." These
are merely illustrations of the hundreds of instances in which correspondents
of the Associated Press have had an advantage over those employed by in-
dividual papers.

Among the advantages of the Associated Press comes, first, the fact that
it does away with the dead weight of useless competition, which would have
resulted in ruin if it had been persevered in. Another advantage is that the
association makes it possible for all the news to reach the reader. It is
stated by experts that were it not for the press associations even our present
telegraphic facilities would prove inadequate in handling the bulk of news ;
for these facilities, great as they are, would be unequal to the task of trans-
mitting news separately to each particular paper. The amount of time saved
by the press associations in distributing one despatch to hundreds of papers
would probably amount to thousands of hours a year.

OPERATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATED PRESS

The scheme of organization of the Associated Press for administrative
purposes consists of general officers and general manager, and an assistant

944 WORKERS OF. THE NATION

general manager with offices in New York, four superintendents of divi-
sion, a superintendent residing in New York, with a division comprising the
New England and Middle States and West Virginia, called the Eastern divi-
sion; a superintendent residing at Washington, in the District of Columbia,
managing the Southern division, which comprises the District of Columbia,
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mis-
sissippi ; a superintendent resident of the city of Chicago, managing the Cen-
tral division, comprising the States of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois,
Wisconsin, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Arkansas, Kentucky, Texas, Oklahoma and the Indian Terri-
tory, Tennessee and Louisiana ; a superintendent resident of San Francisco,
managing the Western division, comprising the States of Arizona, Califor-
nia, Wyoming, Oregon, Colorado, Montana, Washington, Idaho, Nevada,
Utah and the Territory of New Mexico.

There are about 650 salaried employes of the Associated Press, and
probably about the same number of men on space rate, who are scattered all
over the country. There is a list maintained, practically in each office of the
Associated Press in the United States, of men who are on call at different
points. They may not be used except at long intervals. Their names are
on file, and in an emergency they are called upon for news which they gather
and file at the nearest telegraph office to the nearest general correspondent
of the Associated Press. Besides this, each member's contract obligates
him to furnish the association with the news of his vicinity. In practice
there is at each point where there is a paper a salaried or unsalaried repre-
sentative of the association, who puts the news in shape and files it.

For the purpose of gathering foreign news it now has correspondence
with the foreign news agents- — the Reuter, Havas, Wolf, and the different
agencies all over the world. It has contract relations with Reuter and
Havas, which cover Great Britain and her colonies, France, Belgium, Swit-
zerland, Portugal, and some parts of South America ; with the Wolf Agency
of Berlin, which covers Germany, Austria, and Hungary ; with the Stefanie
Agency, which covers Italy; with the Nordisches Telegram Bureau, which
covers Russia* with the Norsky Telegram Bureau, which covers Norway;
with the Svenska Telegram Bureau, which covers Sweden; and with the
Agence de Constantinople, which covers Turkey.

The news of the United States chiefly originates in Washington and
New York, which may be regarded as the great news centres of this coun-
try. The Associated Press has a resident bureau in each of these cities,
as well as at other important points, preparing the news and transmitting
it by means of leased wires or by one of the telegraph companies into the
general system. The leased wires form a network across the continent
from St. John, New Brunswick, to Seattle, Washington, and San Diego,
California, and Duluth, Minnesota, to New Orleans, Galveston and the
City of Mexico. The total mileage of this leased wire system is : Day wires,
9,345 miles ; night wires, 20,461 miles.

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 945

From various points along the trunk lines the report is sent to interior
cities, and at several of the larger of them the whole report is boiled down
perhaps to one-tenth its volume, perhaps more, and filed (as a "pony" re-
port) with one of the telegraph companies for delivery to papers in neigh-
boring towns and smaller cities which could not afford nor handle the "full
service." At leased wire points, the Associated Press supplies its own
telegraph operators, who receive the incoming report in typewriting — mak-
ing one or more carbon copies, according to the number of papers at that
point taking the service.

In the larger offices many copies of the received report have to be struck
off, and in several offices use is made of a device whereby the operator sit-
ting before his key, cuts a stencil on a waxed sheet placed in his typewriter,
by means of which many copies of the report can be very quickly made.

These copies are sent to the various papers (in Chicago by a pneumatic
system), and distributed to the various editors, whose duty it may be to
refile the matter for some particular section of the country or to cut it down
for "pony" report points.

The members of the Associated Press contribute a large quantity of the
news thus handled by furnishing the local representative of the Associated
Press their proofs, but in addition whenever special occasion requires, the
association's own reporters are sent out to report specific events, and they
telegraph the news they get to the nearest office of the association. Special
men are employed at different places to gather market reports, to cover Wall
Street and the produce markets, and men at different seaports report the
arrival and departure of boats. Alliance is had also with many press asso-
ciations, which gather local news, and organizations that are formed to co-
operate in the business of gathering news of particular localities. For
instance, there is the City Press Association of Chicago, an organization
effected for the purpose of gathering routine local news ; a copy of its report
is furnished the Associated Press every day, and anything of general inter-
est to the country is taken from it and transmitted to members of the asso-
ciation. City Press Associations are also established in New York and
other cities. In short, the Associated Press aims to avail itself of every
known means of getting valuable news.

The Associated Press has now about 700 members, and some 2,500
daily and weekly papers are served through minor agencies. Though the
bulk of the papers getting the Associated Press service are in the United
States, there are upward of fifty scattered through the various provinces of
Canada, and also papers in Mexico, Cuba and Porto Rico.

The annual revenues of the Associated Press, which are derived from as-
sessments levied upon the newspapers served, exceed $1,900,000, while
the number of words daily received and transmitted at each of the more
important offices is over 50,000, or the equivalent of thirty-five columns of
the average newspaper.

29 — Vol. 2

946 WORKERS OF THE NATION

THE CIRCULATION OF A NEWSPAPER

With newspapers, as with monthly magazines and weekly journals, the
creation of a large circulation is the all-important aim. This is true, not
only because it enables the exercise of a wider influence and the counting of
higher profits from sales, but because it also attracts a larger quantity and a
better class of advertising — and advertising is the mainstay of all classes
of periodical publication. In the effort to increase circulation, therefore,
many newspapers have adopted methods popularly described as sensational,
using two and three-inch type for headlines, to feature the most startling
news items of the day, grasping every opportunity to expand such matter,
although of small importance in itself, to the disadvantage of other and more
significant facts. In the long run, this procedure violences truth only to the
extent of improperly estimating values and catering to the natural love of
scares and sensations, which is developed to an inordinate degree in a large
part of mankind. It is sound policy, however, since it involves the pub-
lication of exactly the sort of thing the people like to read, and thus
achieves the desired end of increasing the demand for that particular news-
paper. A similar method is found in the habit of evening papers of issuing
a large number of separate editions, each with a different headline feature,
announcing some new and interesting phase or development of a subject al-
ready heavily featured. The production of "extras" on the slightest provo-
cation is another method of forcing up the circulation by spreading the im-
pression that a newspaper has obtained important news ahead of all its
rivals. Sometimes all these methods are perfectly justified, in view of the
real value of the news thus featured, although following it out as a
regular practice seems to attain the desired end of creating a steady demand
with the public.

More "conservative" methods of obtaining a circulation consist in fol-
lowing out a studied policy of presenting news in forms acceptable to a given
public, together with pointed editorial comments, in accord with the senti-
ments of a certain political party. At the present time, however, such a
policy, if unaccompanied by the modern methods of "creating news," and
a wise use of illustration, are of themselves capable of no more than mod-
erate success in occasioning a general demand and a wide circulation.

WEEKLY JOURNALISM

The decadence of certain weeklies has created the impression in some
quarters that the monthly magazine is the only profitable field for a pub-
lisher of periodicals. While this view certainly applies as far as concerns
the worn-out ideas in evidence a few years since, it is certainly true that a
new regime in weekly journalism has been inaugurated. As the public
takes a paper at its genuine worth, the new idea is to make the weekly paper
genuinely worthy, even by a large expenditure of money, if necessary, and
by employing the best talent in every department. In tracing the progress

THE PROFESSION OF JOURNALISM 947

of this idea, we find that the best has supplanted the mediocre and the com-
monplace.

Among leading exponents of modern weekly journalism may be men-
tioned the "Saturday Evening Post," "Harper's Weekly," "Collier's Week-
ly," "The Youth's Companion," "Leslie's Weekly," "The Outlook" ; and in
religious journalism, "The Christian Herald." The efficiency of its prin-
ciples, in creating popularity and increasing circulation, is eminently well
exampled in the history of one of the foremost publications on the list,
which, by the consistent observance of up-to-date methods in all depart-
ments, has increased its circulation from 36,000 in 1896 to 350,000 in 1903.

People of the highest standing in all lands and in every department of
activity have written articles for this paper on current topics, phases of
progress, and chapters of history, in which they themselves were factors.
Correspondents of international reputation have been sent by the publishers
to the ends of the earth in search of the world's great news. Were war
news sought, the firing-line had no terrors for them. Were new gold fields
opened, the hardships of the frozen Klondike were braved, and full de-
scriptions of life and conditions, together with photographic illustrations,
first given to the world through their efforts. In the matter of fiction,
stories by the strongest writers have been regularly secured, while in the
field of illustration, instead of pictures produced with ease and indifference,
for small pay, the best artists of the day have been called on for their best
efforts.

The enormous output, 18,000,000 copies of this weekly and 5,000,000
books every year, gives a vast importance to the saving of the smallest frac-
tion of a second. If only the one-hundredth of a second can be saved in
producing each copy of this paper forty-eight hours will be saved each
week. In the pressroom of this paper word has more than once been re-
ceived from the editorial realm to destroy all copies of an edition printed
up to the moment. Reason : news has just come of an event of national im-
portance and the story must go into the issue now on the press at any cost,
any sacrifice. Forty or fifty thousand have been run off. Never mind —
"kill" them. Hence, several times, a number of the weekly equal to an
entire edition of this paper four years ago — and equal to the whole regular
output of some metropolitan weeklies of the present day — have been de-
liberately destroyed. This in order that the paper might give its readers
the story of the very latest happening, something which may have occurred
on the far side of the earth.

MONTHLY JOURNALISM

While the editor of a monthly magazine is spared the hurry and rush,
the strain and high-pressure labor of the newspaper editor, he is faced,
nevertheless, with problems of equal or greater difficulty, from the fact
that his publication reaches a larger, or a wider, public, and must, there-
fore, deal with subjects of more general interest. In the first place, the

948 WORKERS OF THE NATION

element of news is largely limited with the magazine, since by the end of a
month the most important and sensational news story has become very
much like ancient history, and may not be touched upon at all, except by
skilful writers, who treat it from the point of view of the largest interest,
or else write up to preface and elaborate illustrations. There are, more-
over, only a very few news items that may be so treated, and they touch on
matters of international importance or on the deepest springs of human in-
terest. It thus follows that the magazine editor must exercise the most
rigid discrimination in the choice of subjects, for his special articles, avoid-
ing at once all matters of merely local or temporary importance. Obscure
or only locally notable characters may not be featured in a magazine,
except where, as occasionally happens, they possess the latent elements of
a fame that the editor may "create" ; but the most contemptible person of
national or international reputation affords suitable material for a write-up.

Mr. Frank A. Munsey, in an article on magazine making, quotes an-
other editor, Mr. McClure, as saying that he solves the problem by making
a magazine to please himself, thinking that this method is easier than guess-
ing at the public taste. "Other editors," he proceeds to remark, "are guided
largely by the literary atmosphere in which they themselves live. This is a
little world, and quite apart from the great, big, every-day world of the
people." Mr. Munsey's plan is different; he has not made his magazine to
please himself, nor yet to suit the taste of some literary clique or set, but to
reach the common interests of human nature everywhere. "I have as-
sumed," he says, "and I believe that I am right in the belief, that it mat-
ters little where one is ... the human heart is pretty much the same. It
follows, then, that there are certain themes on which one can depend to
awaken an interest in all communities alike." Among these he mentions the
"true, pure, romantic love story," which is "not a question of nationality, or
of locality," but "always new, always absorbing."

Mr. John Brisben Walker, another successful magazine editor, says:

"Magazine-making .... is so mixed up with the business of humanity that, after a
time, the editor comes to learn that other people's affairs are his. The effect of even the
slightest word, scattered among a million and a half of people, is so pronounced that he
comes to weigh with the utmost care every sentence and page, for which he must stand
responsible."

Proceeding, he says: "It would be difficult to estimate the influence which our maga-
zines are having on the civilization of the time. The daily newspaper is dependent but too
often upon local opinion for its success. It may be ruined by opposing the popular feeling
of the neighborhood. But the magazine goes into every State and Territory, every city
and hamlet, and depends upon no local affiliations. The average citizen of the United
States likes sincere utterance, even if it does not correspond with his own ideas. He has
learned to know that truth is difficult to get at — that it is oftenest reached by the vigorous
presentation of opposing views ; and it is entirely in accord with his ideas of American
citizenship that a man should be ready to stand up for what he thinks is right."

CHAPTER XI
ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND PHOTOGRAPHY

American Arts and Crafts — The Earnings of Artists — Portrait Painters — The Painter of
Miniatures — Sculptors — Illustrators— The Mechanical Side of Illustrating — Illustra-
tions for Advertisements — Designers — Designers of Book-Covers — Art Education in
the United States — The Art Students' League and Its Branches — The National Acad-
emy and Its Schools — The Profession of Architecture — The Architect's Training —
Earnings of Architects — An Architect's Expenses — Photography as a Profession — The
Training of a Studio Photographer — A Photographic Studio — News- Photographers —
Color Photography — Various Uses of the Camera — Artists' Models — The Life of Pro-
fessional Models

AMERICAN ARTS AND CRAFTS

LESS than thirty years ago, art in the United States was certainly at
the lowest ebb, and artists were looked upon as non-producers, un-
worthy of a place in the great scheme of the country's progress. It
was the usual thing at that time to inquire sneeringly, "Who buys an Ameri-
can picture?" The honest answer was "Almost nobody." At the same time
the profession of art was not considered by the average American man or
woman as thoroughly respectable. Business men placed art among the
impractical trades, and as one writer says : "Like religion, art was deemed
good enough for women; useful in its poor way but so little applicable to
rational everyday life that a strong man was more or less belittling his
power in following it."

What a change in American sentiments since those days! A change
which is no way made more apparent than in a visit to the Fine Arts build-
ing in New York, where are held the exhibitions of the Art Students'
League, the Society of American Artists, the National Sculpture Society and
the Architectural League.

American art has been influenced, too, by changing social conditions.
Statistics show that the number of people engaged in occupations of the
higher grades has been constantly increasing; their wages at the same time
have been growing larger, and hence the standard of living has been raised
proportionately. All this means that more and more persons have be-
come engaged in occupations requiring trained skill, higher mental quali-
ties, and, above all, an artistic taste. While the masses developed a love
for the beautiful, a love which they indulge as best they can, the American
millionaire class began purchasing American pictures. Economists agree
that every time a large sum of money is paid for a picture the community
in which the artist lives is enriched. Thus fine art, no less than industrial
art, in the United States has become a source of wealth — artists have be-

(949)

950 WORKERS OF THE NATION

come producers, and their profession ranks as high as in European coun-
tries.

Painters are wont to appropriate as exclusively their own the name of
artists. They seem to imagine that the only art is the mixing and wielding
of colors. The tendency of the age is to relieve them of this somewhat too
exclusive responsibility. Claims are being put forth in behalf of sculptors,
architects, designers and decorators. They, too, have a just and indispu-
table claim to the title of artist. The potter whose exquisite creation has been
the admiration of centuries can hardly be excluded from the ranks; work-
ers in gold and silver and iron and brass — they also may be artists from the
heart to the ringer tips.

The effect of this attitude on the part of the painters is hurtful in two
ways. So much attention is paid to paintings that other productions of art
are underrated. This has a baneful influence upon young men, and those
who would make unimpeachable designers and decorators prefer to produce
pictures of mediocre merit, because "pictures are the only art." And the
public has wellnigh forgotten, or was in a way to forget, that art could ex-
ist in anything but paintings. There has been something like a snub in the
very name of decorator or designer. The general system of art education
has been so affected by this one-sidedness tha': there is a waste of effort in
turning out thousands of pictures every year which are flat, stale and un-
marketable. Young artists prefer to starve in producing pictures, when they
might enter the field of mural painting, make money, and still be artists.
The whole of art is not surrounded by a gilt frame. Ornament and design
are prominent in architecture, sculpture, painting, and in many industrial
arts. It is impossible to keep them any longer in a subordinate position.
In truth, they have been kept back merely by the fact that from the despite
which they have received, originality has run in other directions. Orna-
ment has not been creative, but rather has been content to be a mere echo
and copy.

The arts and crafts movement is projected with the stated purpose of
arresting this harmful tendency, and of restoring design and decoration and
allied arts to their proper dignity and worth.

THE EARNINGS OF ARTISTS

The annual earnings of artists, like the income of men of letters, is rep-
resented in most cases by not more than four figures. Though connoisseurs
and the American public have for some time realized that America has an
Art, American artists, considering the importance of their work, earn little
more than enough to support them in comfort, seldom in luxury. Many of
our artists are obliged to sell an important canvas for the price of a pot-
boiler. The picture thus sacrificed for a small sum in order that the artist
may buy shoes or pay his coal bill sometimes turns up years later at a public
sale, and brings a fancy price. It is related that a picture sold originally by
an American artist for $75, was sold for $2,500 at an auction sale in New

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY 951

York, in 1900. At that same sale, pictures which another American artist
had originally sold for $150 brought thousands of dollars.

There are exceptions to the rule just mentioned, and indeed it might be
said that of late years the exceptional cases have become more numerous than
those under the rule. Formerly the value of an artist's work was not fully
appreciated until after his death, but since painters have learned that it
pays to enter into the commercial spirit of the times, they have managed to
make their work yield them a proper reward while breath is still in their
bodies.

PORTRAIT PAINTERS

There are a number of fashionable portrait painters who command a
high price for their pictures and make from $20,000 to $40,000 a year.

Time being precious to sitters, especially public characters, portrait
painters have to work rapidly. And yet the work of American portrait
painters is characterized by fine fidelity and engaging simplicity, a careful-
ness of detail, freedom and smoothness. Our painters are bold draughts-
men, masters of color, close students and conscientious workers. They
aim, above all, to present the subject as he or she appears in life; and yet
their portraits contain no irrelevant suggestion, nothing that even pretends
that they are anything more than portraits.

THE PAINTER OF MINIATURES

It seems that many men and women can afford miniatures when the oil
portrait is beyond their purses, and yet the miniaturist usually charges a
high price for the portrait in little. Mrs. Amalia Kussner Coudert and
others who lead in this field, often receive several thousand dollars for a
single portrait. Until recently the status of miniaturists was similar to that
of other painters in the community before they drew together and fixed a
standard of work for exhibitions. The formation of a Society of Miniatur-
ists in New York, however, will probably result in establishing certain
standards in this branch of art. The association, moreover, will have the
result of impressing the public with the seriousness of the aspirations of the
members.

A good miniature is rare — most of them lack sentiment. "A miniature
should have a quality of exquisiteness." It should not only be little, but have
the special charm of littleness, a certain dainty discretion in choice of color
and treatment. Broad impulsive work, while it is a merit in a large picture,
acquires a kind of flippancy in the little one. Simplicity and apparent artless-
ness become virtues, and there is a particular charm in preserving some por-
tions of the ivory surface undisturbed by paint. "Mere prettiness is ob-
jectionable, as is daintiness at the expense of lively reality in the face."

SCULPTORS

How a sculptor obtains his first commission is rather a difficult ques-
tion to answer. Some do not get a single commission, but remain modellers

952 WORKERS OF THE NATION

or assistants all their lives. In competitions for government commissions
many sculptors are backed up by friends and relatives. Those that are en-
tirely self-supporting sometimes find difficulty in obtaining commissions.
"There is always room at the top," but that is the apex of a pyramid. "For
some years after I had made some reputation," says a New York sculptor,
"I had to depend for about one-half the expenses — money to run my family
and studio — upon teaching and lecturing, and also marble finishing. Suc-
cess not only depends upon excellence in the work produced, but in knowing
how to take advantage of opportunities."

There are various methods by which a sculptor may make a living, in-
dependent of t commissions. First, in acting as a sculptor's assistant; in
figure modelling; and especially in the various branches of decoration and
ornament. The sculptor sketches out his ideas when the general scheme is
decorative, and the specialist earns a large sum of money in carrying it to
perfection. Then there is marble and wood carving and cameo cutting. The
great majority of sculptors of reputation have had to resort to the above
methods before attaining the point — after struggling for ten or fifteen
years — when they receive commissions enough to keep their families from
want. Sculptors as a body exercise considerable influence on public taste
and public commissions. The future for sculptors, rank and file, looks very
encouraging.

The representative organization of sculptors is the National Sculpture
Society. The object of the society is to spread the knowledge of good sculp-
ture, foster the taste for, and encourage the production of, ideal sculpture for
the household and museums, promote the decoration of public and other
buildings, squares and parks with sculpture of a high class; improve the
quality of the sculptor's art as applied to industries, and provide from time
to time for exhibitions of sculpture and objects of industrial art in which
sculpture enters. There are two classes of members — sculptors and non-
sculptors. No sculptor is eligible as a non-sculptor, or as a sculptor unless
of approved merit as such. Subject to the foregoing, any person who is in
sympathy with the objects of the society is eligible to membership. The
government of the society is vested in eighteen directors, termed the council.
The annual dues are ten dollars.

ILLUSTRATORS

Art students and artists generally have within the last ten years dis-
covered that one of the best paying fields for their talents is that of illus-
trating. The field is not as great as it would have been if photography had
remained on its own side of the fence, but still a great number of artists
find that the magazines and weekly illustrated papers offer a ready market
for their wares. It is impossible to give a definite statement of the earnings
of illustrators, because any amount from 50 cents to $500 may be paid for a
single picture. A number of illustrators in New York and the other large
cities are making at least $5,000 a year, while a few earn $10,000 or more.

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY 953

Nearly every illustrated magazine or weekly of note employs one or more
artists on a salary. The chief work of those thus employed is to retouch,
so to speak, the pictures of others. Illustrators of real merit prefer to work
as free lances, selling their work to the various publications, though every
large newspaper has its corps of salaried artists who are obliged to make
pictures to order at all hours of the day or night.

The first requisite and indispensable qualification that must be possessed
by the candidate for honors and a livelihood as an illustrator, is a good
knowledge of drawing. Unless the would-be illustrator has acquired the
first principles of art he will not succeed in this field any more than in the
higher branches. A second qualification is a knowledge of the photo-
engraving process, in order that he may make pictures that can be repro-
duced. A picture may have artistic value, and yet the practiced eye of an
editor, at a glance, will see that it can not be reproduced with good results.
Every beginner in the field of illustration, therefore, should acquire a work-
ing knowledge of how drawings will come out under various conditions,
and of technical details which must be regarded in order to ensure satisfac-
tory reproduction. A very different method of treatment is required for an
illustration for a magazine of the first class, which is to be printed on fine
paper and on slow presses, than for a picture for a newspaper, which will
be printed on very absorbent paper with ordinary printer's ink, and turned
out by tens of thousands.

Educators and publishers recognize the value of illustration, as a means
of increasing interest and imparting information. The field of the
popular magazine and newspaper has been greatly enlarged by including
profuse illustrations, representing interesting events of all varieties, dia-
grams, sketches and, particularly, portraits.

In a few words, the prevalence of illustration is the artist's opportunity,
supplying him with a chance for greater profits and wider reputation than is
afforded in any of the traditional lines of activity. A good illustrator or
cartoonist may command as high an income as $300 or $400 weekly, in pro-
portion to his skill and reputation.

THE MECHANICAL SIDE OF ILLUSTRATING

The increased use of illustration means that the cost and difficulty of
producing plates and blocks suitable for use on the printing press have
been proportionately decreased. Forty years ago, when the woodcut was
the prevailing type of illustration, the cost was prohibitive, but, at the pres-
ent day, with the cheaply and rapidly made photo-etchings, both line and
half-tone, it is possible to make a drawing or photograph, reproduce it on
zinc or copper, stereotype it, and print it in a newspaper — all on the same
day at insignificant cost.

Whether such ease and cheapness of production has operated to the ad-
vantage of art is a debated question among critics : that it has increased the
opportunities and the profits of professional illustrators can not be doubted.

954 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The desire to take advantage of the cheapness of manufacture, which leads
to over-using half-tone reproductions of photographs, involves a large
amount of very unsatisfactory illustration, and leaves little opportunity for
artistic work, except in retouching originals or engraving plates. This
popularity of the half-tone involves the further evil of using inferior and
poorly -executed gouache and wash drawings, to the disadvantage of true
art in a large number of cases. The accompanying disadvantage, as claimed
by many authorities, is that the standard of illustration is consequently
lower to-day than when woodcuts and line or mezzo-tint steel plates were the
only methods of book illustration. Such claims seem to find support when
we examine the elegant specimens of book-work often produced fifty or
sixty years ago.

The first step toward the cheap illustration of to-day was found in the
once famous "chalk plate," which was made by spreading a layer of chalk
mixture on a smooth plate of blue steel and cutting the design through the
chalk to the steel. The drawing thus made could be stereotyped and
printed. The superiority of this method to the woodcut soon led to its wide
adoption, and many illustrators made their first reputation by their rapid
work in chalk. A modification of the process is still in use in the well-
known "wax drawings." A sheet of prepared beeswax is spread upon a
plate of copper, and the outlines of the design are photographed on its sur-
face. The artist then cuts through the wax film with sharp tools, exposing
the copper wherever a black line is to appear in the print. When the draw-
ing is completed the uncut wax preparation is made to bulge by the use of
heat, thus leaving an irregular surface, upon which an electrotype may be
formed. This process is seldom used in artistic illustrations, finding its most
general uses in reproduction of maps, machine drawings, etc.

The familiar line etching, now used for most pen drawings, is made by
photographing the drawing and printing from the film on a sensitized zinc
plate. After developing the print thus made, a kind of powdered resin,
known as "dragon's blood," is dusted over the surface, adhering to the dark
lines of the plate, and, after baking in an oven, giving them a hard surface,
capable of resisting the corroding effects of the dilute nitric acid, used as an
etching bath. The acid eats away the unprotected portions, leaving the lines
in relief, and the plate is finished by mechanical routing and engraving.
The process of making a half-tone plate is precisely similar, except for the
fact that the original photograph is taken through a "screen" — a network
ruled on a glass placed in front of the film — which is of varying degrees of
fineness, according to the number of lines ruled to the inch. The coarser
screens, having wide meshes, are used for newspaper work, while the finer
ones require a high quality of coated paper. The effect of the screen is seen
in the familiar dotted appearance of half-tone prints.

One excellent effect of the mechanical reproductions, made possible by
the half-tone process, is that the standard of art is elevated to a close ap-
proximation to nature, wherever original drawings are demanded for il-

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY 955

lustration. The cheapness of the process contributes to increasing the profits
of the artist, whose drawings may be made on paper, bristolboard or canvas,
and are paid for according to their merits. Thus the distinction between art
drawings and paintings, and illustrations, is less pronounced than formerly,
and the illustrator has a larger field in which to express his talents. Another
desirable result is that opportunities for good illustrators are immensely
multiplied, ranging from the regular employment of the high-speed hack
artist of the newspaper office, to the high-priced book and magazine illus-
trator. The pen artist may work either free-hand, or by tracing over silver
prints made from photographs. The silver print, like the familiar "photo-
enlargement," is taken direct upon a paper surface to any desired siz%e, and
supplies the penman with the outlines to be drawn in and shaded. When the
pen drawing is finished the photograph may be bleached out with a solution
of mercury bichloride, blue vitriol, muriatic acid, or other washes, leaving
the India ink lines on a white background. This process is the one most
widely used in line-work reproductions, although properly demanding artis-
tic skill of the first order to achieve really good results. The work of bung-
ling penmen has brought the silver print into disrepute in many quarters, en-
abling a trained eye to readily detect the evidences of inferior tracing.
Skilled work, however, is fully equal to the best free-hand drawing, particu-
larly in the intricacies of the perspective. In point of accuracy, then, the
good silver-print drawing is superior to the half-tone reproduction, particu-
larly for interior views, machine elevations, and, in very many cases, for por-
traits also.

ILLUSTRATIONS FOR ADVERTISEMENTS

The great popularity of illustration offers a wide field for well-equipped
artists in the production of drawings and designs for advertising purposes.
According to reports, over 1,000,000 manufacturing and mercantile con-
cerns in the United States use illustrated advertisements to a greater or less
extent, and the demand for new ideas is constant. Many manufacturers
seek the services of skilled artists in preparing "birdseye" views of their
plants, a work which demands, for its proper performance, a high degree of
technical knowledge.

DESIGNERS

The field of the designer is essentially a skilled and technical one, de-
pending no more upon original talent or capability than on the mastery of
certain geometrical, proportional and harmonic principles, on which really
effective work depends. The perfection of ornamental work is coincident
with advance in civilization, which, at the same time, multiplies the oppor-
tunities for skilled designers, and demands a higher standard of accuracy
in minute details and technical and historic consistency. The rules of pro-
portion and geometric accuracy are necessary to the work of the designer, in
order to enable him to produce harmonious and elegant figures, avoiding the
crudities and failures of unskilled workers. In this respect, it is comparable

956 WORKERS OF THE NATION

to the work of the qualified musical composer, whose productions may be
discriminated from those of amateurs by even untrained ears. In fact, artis-
tic designs are eye-music, and the principles of harmony, consistency and
compatibility apply to their parts as rigidly as to the "concord of sweet
sounds."

An understanding of these technical principles also immensely increases
the merit and versatility of the designer's work.

Among the fields for conventional and ornamental design at the present
day may be mentioned the execution of appropriate initial letters, head-
pieces and tailpieces for book chapters and magazine articles ; of ornamental
gift cards, for Christmas, New Year, birthdays and other seasons; of special
menu cards, programs for theatres, etc., and calendars; of embroidery and
lace work ; of china decoration ; of designs for woodcarving, pyrography or
painting, or for hammered brass panels ; of wallpaper, calico prints, carpets,
rugs, and other woven fabrics, of parquet flooring, inlaid or mosaic work,
marquetry and oil-cloths ; of fancy book covers ; antique and decorative fur-
niture ; and as many other varieties of use and ornament.

Original designs in any field always command good prices, and are
eagerly sought after by any who use or deal in such articles. It is, however,
essential in all such work to understand, and carefully discriminate, histori-
cal and racial styles of decoration, and never to mingle such, unless extraor-
dinary genius enables one to create not only designs but new styles. Thus
Egyptian or oriental decorations may never be mingled with Renaissance or
Byzantine patterns, any more than operatic airs and popular melodies may
be combined into a pleasing musical composition — unless the magic of genius
weld the two ; but a genius never assumes nor presumes, and the true artist
has far too exact an idea of consistency to "rush in," except where impulse
leads and talent guides.

DESIGNERS OF BOOK-COVERS

Thirty years ago no publisher thought of enlisting the services of an
artist in designing commercial book-covers. He depended for designs upon
the binder. But since 1876 special efforts have been made to improve the
general appearance of book-covers. In Centennial year a book called, "The
New Day," by Richard Watson Gilder, was published with the first book-
cover made wholly from an artist's design and under an artist's direction.

To write a formula for a perfect commercial book-cover is impossible.
The only point upon which all agree is that the colors of the cloth used must
be related to the general character of the book, and, in some degree, to the
surroundings in which it will be placed; and that these colors, moreover,
must be suited to the various ink stamps which are to be applied, and to
gilding. These necessities being observed, the artist works out his cover
according to his own conception. Some artists are impatient of the restric-
tions put upon space, form, texture and color by the limits of machinery.
Many a beautiful design has been rejected by publishers on account of the

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY 957

utter impossibility of reproducing it. Sometimes an artist hits upon a capi-
tal idea of covering a book with paper, leather or cloth, only to find when
the presswork begins that the brass die cuts through, that it soils too easily,
that the corners look clumsy when bound, or that the material costs too much
for the edition. All these things the designer must consider.

That there is money enough in book-cover designing to justify an artist
in choosing the work as a specialty is generally admitted. The price paid for
a single book-cover is often large, for the reason, perhaps, that first-class
competition is small.

ART EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

American art schools have taken a high rank. The endowments of
some of them are very liberal, the directors are capable, and the instructors
painstaking and efficient. The number of scholars in art has grown to be
a large one. Among the many worthy institutions is the Art Students'
League, of New York City. Its methods are catholic and up-to-date, and
its standard is high. It is self-supporting.

In Philadelphia there is another excellent school — the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts. The notable progress and development of this
school is evidence of the growth of the art spirit throughout the country.
The School of Design for Women, established more than half a century ago,
has done much to foster industrial art for women.

In the West, Detroit came to the front some years since with the Mu-
seum of Art, having its own building, and a gratifying attendance. Its art
library is valuable. Several scholarships permit talented students to visit
Europe for further study. Cincinnati has its School of Design, connected
with the Cincinnati Museum Association. Each teacher goes in turn to
Paris every year, and there are foreign and home scholarships for the pupils.

Of the cities of the Middle West, perhaps St. Louis is as well equipped
in the way of art instruction as any. Mr. Halsey C. Ives, the Director of
the Department of Art of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904, has
long been the leading spirit of art interests in St. Louis. His reputation
caused him to be appointed Art Director of the World's Fair in Chicago,
and as director of the St. Louis School of Fine Arts he placed that city in the
front ranks of art study.

Returning to the East, we find in Boston the Museum of Fine Arts, with
a School of Drawing and Painting established twenty-seven years ago.
There is maintained an annual course of lectures upon art themes. In the
South there is one of the oldest art schools in America.

The Maryland Institute of Baltimore has classes in drawing, modelling
and painting, with a library of more than twenty thousand volumes.

THE ART STUDENTS' LEAGUE AND ITS BRANCHES

Perhaps the most important of all the art schools in America is the Art
Students' League. In the days when artists in the United States were none

958 WORKERS OF THE NATION

too prosperous, a few New York art students rented a room in a building on
Fifth Avenue, and founded the Art Students' League. This was in Cen-
tennial year, and among the students who thus leagued together were a
number of young men and women who have since become famous. The
League, indeed, has accomplished much for the good of American art, both
as an educational force and as a potent element in its evolution.

The Art Students' League, together with the Society of American Art-
ists and the Architectural League, form what is known as the Fine Arts
Society, who own and occupy the structure on West Fifty-seventh Street,
which was especially designed for them. This building, called the Fine Arts
Building, is in the centre of the art quarter of the city. With the exception
of the exhibition galleries on the ground floor and the hall of the Architec-
tural League, the entire building is given up to the school. The studios are
large and well equipped. In addition, there are a students' room and a
members' room. The latter contains a small but select and valuable library,
and serves as a clubroom and reading-room.

The League insists upon a thorough study of drawing and composition.
A year, or even two years of work are required before the student may be
admitted to the life classes. By this rule the League has established for its
pupils an excellent reputation in drawing. The student's work is judged
and marked by the instructors each month. The judging is rigid, and with-
out favoritism, the students being advanced if worthy. This "concours" or
competition day is one of great excitement in the school. The classes are
formed in October, the first judging of work and the first monthly exhibition
come in November.

THE NATIONAL ACADEMY AND ITS SCHOOLS

A much older society than the League is the National Academy of De-
sign. In the list of students of this Academy for the past seventy-five years
may be found the names of nearly all of the most eminent artists of Ameri-
ca. On the 8th of November, 1825, a number of young artists and students
established the New York Drawing Association, and soon after, on the iQth
of January, 1826, they resolved themselves into a new organization, to be
known as the National Academy of the Arts of Design. They thereupon
chose from their number fifteen artists, who were directed to choose fifteen
others, the thirty thus selected to constitute the new society. The depart-
ment of schools of the Academy includes the free antique schools and a num-
ber of special classes — life, painting, still life, etching, illustration, etc.

THE PROFESSION OF ARCHITECTURE

Architecture, the most ancient of all professions, has become recognized
in this country as one of the liberal professions only in recent years. The
credit for establishing architecture in its true place in the United States be-
longs, first, to the several universities wherein separate departments are
maintained for the training of the architect, the principal of which are

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY 959

Columbia, Cornell, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania ; and, second, to the American Institute of Architects
and the Architectural League. The architect who is elected to membership
in either of these societies has the same high standing that a diploma from a
great university gives a physician or that admission to the bar gives to the
lawyer.

THE ARCHITECT'S TRAINING

From the day the young man first enters the department of architecture
in the university to the day he is elected to membership in one of the archi-
tectural societies just mentioned, from ten to fourteen years must be spent
in training. As the period of training is longer than that necessary for the
doctor or lawyer, it is obvious that only the young man who is gifted with
that infinite capacity for hard work which is commonly attributed to genius
should choose the practice of architecture as a career. So great are the ex-
actions of this profession, even during the period of training, that many
young men abandon hope and leave the ranks of their fellow students after
the fourth or fifth year of study. This dropping out of the incompetent or
the lazy benefits the profession as a whole, of course, for it means the sur-
vival of the fittest.

Regarding the training of an architect, a leader in this field of work says : "Before
entering upon the study of architecture the pupil should be a good writer and a fair arith-
metician; that is to say, he should have a knowledge of decimals, fractions, square and
cube root, and mensuration. He should be able to deal with simple equations in algebra,
should have mastered the first three books of Euclid, and should possess a knowledge of
practical plane and solid geometry. To these should be added free-hand drawing, ele-
mentary physics, practical mechanics, and elementary chemistry."

Equipped with this elementary knowledge the next step is to seek admis-
sion to the department of architecture in one of the universities. After the
four years' course, the graduate will .find little difficulty in securing a position
as junior draughtsman in an architect's office, where he will learn the prac-
tice of his profession. It is at this point in the period of his training that
the hardest work begins. If he has not already discovered that he must
have a practical knowledge of several other professions and trades before
he can enter upon the one he has chosen as a life career, a realization of re-
quirements will be thrust upon him now.

As junior draughtsman he is treated as one who knows only the rudi-
ments, or theory, of the profession, and has everything of a practical nature
yet to learn. He finds that he must have not only an artistic temperament
but must cultivate a business man's habits of mind. On one side he must
deal with sculptors and painters and on the other with capitalists who know
not sentiment, with engineers who will not vouchsafe him even one mistake
in his plans, and with mechanics who look to him for guidance. Hence he
must have a working acquaintance with all the mechanical arts, but es-
pecially those of the mason, the carpenter, the plumber, the plasterer, the tin-
smith, the blacksmith, the painter and the glazier. He must make himself
conversant, too, with the arts of the decorator and the carver. He must

96o WORKERS OF THE NATION

spend many months in acquiring a knowledge of the principles of engineer-
ing and mechanics, of statics, strength of materials, theory of arches, beams
and columns, the flow of air and water, ventilation and drainage, and all the
mathematics necessary to the treatment of things quantitatively. Besides all
this, he is surrounded by a commercial world which demands of him a fa-
miliarity with business transactions of all kinds, with the law of contracts,
the formulae of estimates and of specifications, and with the various prosaic
details common to the inspection of work, the settlement of accounts and
the placing of responsibility. Such is the great task that confronts the
young draughtsman in an architect's office. If he is first of all an artist, the
acquirement of technical and mechanical knowledge will seem at first sheer
drudgery, but in the end he will understand the value of such training.

Many young students of architecture, after four years in an office, go to
Paris to finish their education as architects at the School of Fine Arts. Here
the student spends four years, and if he succeeds in passing the final severe
examination he returns to America thoroughly equipped to begin the inde-
pendent practice of his profession.

It should be added that the American colleges claim only to give a
thorough grounding in the principles of architecture, while the Beaux Arts
completes the student's training. At least four years must be spent at the
Beaux Arts, and yet in the first three of these years the student is simply
required to study again what he has already learned in the American schools.
The fourth and final year, however, is the one that proves of great value.
Peculiarly enough, while the first three years at the Beaux Arts are of so
little advantage to the American student, the entrance examination is so
severe that many students are rejected and are obliged to seek instruction in
private ateliers.

After working for many years in an office, many draughtsmen, usually
those of a timid nature, or those who can not afford to take financial risks,
prefer to remain in the office and enjoy a salary which they view in the
light of a known income, rather than hazard a career as an independent
architect with its accompanying uncertainty in the matter of income. The
average salary paid to draughtsmen, that is those who are themselves rec-
ognized as competent architects, is $2,500. Some are paid as low as $1,800,
while others receive as much as $5,000 or $6,000. It often happens that a
draughtsman can add to his income by executing outside commissions, or by
opening an experimental office of his own while still an employe in a large
office. In architecture more than in any other of the liberal professions, the
plunge into the unknown, which means branching out for one's self, is a
matter of courage.

The expenses of the student, of course, range from a minimum of $500
a year to a similar sum per month. Architects, as a rule, declare that the
average of expense for eight years of schooling amounts to at least $1,000
a year. In the matter of expense, the student is assisted during the period
passed in an office by his earnings, which are from ten dollars to thirty dol-

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY 961

lars a week, according to the ability of the draughtsman and the size of the
office.

EARNINGS OF ARCHITECTS

What are the earnings of the architect proper, that is the man in business
for himself? There are 10,000 practicing architects in the United States,
and their incomes vary from $1,500 to $100,000 a year. These amounts
represent, of course, net incomes a,fter all expenses have been paid. The fig-
ures just mentioned represent the two extremes of the earnings of architects,
and while hundreds earn only $1,500 or a trifle more, not more than eight
or ten regularly earn $100,000.

In these days of million dollar buildings, however, it often happens that
an architect can earn the latter sum as a single commission. As the fixed
rate, rigidly insisted upon by the etiquette of the profession, is five per cent
on the total cost of the construction of the building, and ten per cent on
interior decoration, furnishing and sculptural adornment, it is evident that
an architect's fee on a two million dollar hotel or office building, for instance,
amounts to $100,000. Fees of this magnitude are in accordance with mod-
ern conditions, hence the ambition of every architect is to gain one of the
great prizes, namely, the drawing of plans for a great and costly building.
The resulting competition is doing much that is good for the architects
themselves, as well as enhancing the beauty of our cities architecturally.

The competing architects for an important building are chosen from
among the members of the Architectural League or the American Institute
of Architects. Sometimes only two are chosen, but more often three. The
two who are unfortunate enough to have their plans rejected receive a nomi-
nal sum for their trouble, but such payment usually covers only a small part
of the money actually paid out by the architect for help in the preparation of
designs. Here, of course, is the unfavorable side of modern competition.
The cost of the designs is just as great whether they happen to be accepted
or rejected, and hence there is an unavoidable drain on an architect's profits.
Only those who are so fortunate as to have a large practice can afford to
enter competitions.

AN ARCHITECT'S EXPENSES

While in many instances the architect's fees are large his expenses are
also great. The architect, indeed, is not unlike the merchant who has bought
something for cash and is obliged to sell it at a larger sum for cash in order
to reap a profit. He must spend a considerable sum simply in equipping his
office. Two thousand dollars is the sum named as the cost of the nucleus of
a first-class architectural library. Architectural books contain a great num-
ber of plates, and are therefore very expensive. One architect refers to the
expenditure for books by saying: "When $10,000 have been expended for
a library the average architect shudders to think of the cost of completing
it." An architect's expenses otherwise are for instruments, rent, subscrip-
tions to a great number of periodicals, both domestic and foreign; and,

30 — Vol. 2

962 WORKERS OF THE NATION

greatest of all, salaries for draughtsmen. In the largest office in New York
one hundred draughtsmen are employed. The number of draughtsmen in
other offices throughout the country varies according to the work which,
in each case, the architect undertakes.

It is apparent that to furnish designs for million dollar buildings, an
architect must have a large staff of draughtsmen and clerks. Capitalists
look upon time as money, and demand that the plans be finished within,
sometimes, a seemingly impossible limit of time; for, while the plans are
being made, valuable land oftentimes yields no income to its owners. Hence
large offices get the large commissions, for where the small office would re-
quire a year to prepare plans, an office that can put thirty to forty men at
work can turn out plans for the same building in a few weeks.

It is matter of record that one building in the Wall street district cost
for construction alone, $6,000,000. The architect's fee in this case was
$300,000, but out of this he was obliged to pay the salaries of a large corps
of draughtsmen. For each of New York's new school houses the city pays
the architect a fee of $25,000. The architect who designed the new Hall of
Records received $150,000.

It would have been impossible for one man to complete the plans of any
of the great new buildings recently erected in the United States ; that is to
say, capitalists could not have waited the necessary number of years for a
single architect to make the drawings. To prepare the plans of even com-
paratively small buildings like that of the Metropolitan Club, in New York,
or the Vanderbilt or Whitney houses on Fifth Avenue, would have taken all
the time of one man for many years.

In building skyscrapers, architects assert that these are almost entirely
engineering feats, architecture being a secondary matter. Hence it is as-
serted that architects of the future will have to be masters of engineering as
well as of architecture.

PHOTOGRAPHY AS A PROFESSION

With the rise of the illustrated daily paper, with the impetus given to
weekly journalism by the camera, with the advent of ten-cent illustrated
magazines, professional photographers were divided into two great groups :
the studio photographer and the newspaper photographer. The studio
photographer includes the conservative element representing all the tradi-
tions of the art ; the newspaper photographer scorns tradition and proceeds
to take pictures at any time and at any place, by night as well as by day,
making the whole world his studio.

The studio photographer takes pictures by rule. He studies lights and
shadows and the pose of the sitter, and consequently his pictures may repre-
sent expression, but seldom action. The newspaper photographer has no
time for rules, does not study light and shadow, has no regard for the po-
sition of the head, hands or feet of the persons whose appearance he is about
to perpetuate — in short, he is the realist of photography; his pictures show

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY 963

persons as they are in everyday life, .in their usual pursuits or on extraor-
dinary occasions. Many of the pictures made by news-photographers are
of vastly greater importance than those made in the studios. The work of
the news-photographer is of greater educational influence than all the nice,
"look-pleasant," dead-calm pictures made under skylights.

The great demand for photographs by newspaper and periodical editors
and publishers has caused a large number of amateurs to enter the field as
professionals. Having reached a creditable degree of excellence in photo-
graphic work as a fad or as a source of amusement and pleasure, the ama-
teurs have proceeded to master every detail of the work, and are now pur-
suing it as a business. Those who are ambitious, those who, as amateurs,
were energetic and painstaking, are making a success as professionals. As
a professional, of course, a small capital is required, but capital is not the
only requisite — the professional must possess energy and enterprise and cour-
age. He must know how to secure patrons if he is a studio photographer,
and he must study the market for pictures if he is a newspaper photogra-
pher. In addition to the demand created by the illustrated papers, the
scientific world makes many demands upon the camera. Physics, mechanics,
astronomy, chemistry, zoology — all these branches of science give employ-
ment to enterprising photographers. Science now demands pictures of
birds in flight and of animals in motion. Such pictures bring a high price.

THE TRAINING OF A STUDIO PHOTOGRAPHER

Until within a few years, it has been very difficult to learn the art of
photography, although it is followed as a business by such large numbers
of people, and is constantly progressing, in both methods and effects. There
is an ever-increasing demand for skilled operators, but few, if any, oppor-
tunities to become apprenticed in a studio. With a view to providing an
adequate training in the profession, several schools of photography have
been opened within recent years. Here students may be fully instructed in
all departments, including light arrangements and posing, to obtain desired
effects, retouching of negatives and the printing and mounting of the
finished pictures. According to the prospectus of one of the best-known of
these schools, the course of training is divided into four classes, the lowest
called "D," the highest, "A."

The principal points treated in each of these relate to the arrangement
and regulation of lighting. In the lowest class, "plain" or "broad" lighting
is fully mastered, as a preliminary to posing, although with none but a gen-
eral reference to the effects on the human face. Similarly, in Class "C,"
the so-called "Rembrandt" lighting is treated, and in Class "B," the "fancy"
lightings, the "Inglis" method and the various shadow and line effects.
Only in Class "A" is the subject of posing treated systematically, in con-
nection with the methods of properly lighting various faces. The numerous
tricks of arranging a sitter, so that unusually long noses or necks may be
made to appear normal in the picture; that thin hair or eyebrows may be

964 WORKERS OF THE NATION

duly thickened ; that the ill effects of hollow cheeks, round shoulders, poor
mouths or eyes, or other defective features, may be overcome, are taught in
this class. That such tricks of the craft are the most essential and popular
elements of the art, equal in importance with the ability to produce elegant
and finished prints, is evidenced by the fact that they are nearly universally
demanded, and form the foremost recommendations of successful photogra-
phers.

Another very essential factor in modern photographic practice is the art
of retouching negatives, so as to eliminate, or soften, wrinkles, facial blem-
ishes, lines and other imperfections of the skin, which are always greatly
exaggerated on the developed film. This work requires, at once great skill
and a trained judgment, since, while it is desirable to reduce the harsh ef-
fect of all such features, a strongly marked or aged face may be made to
appear absurdly weak or juvenile, if the process is carried too far. Good
retouchers are in constant demand by first-class photographers, who offer
the highest remuneration for expert work.

In a large number of cases the work is given out to be done at home,
thus affording opportunity for women having skill at the business. The
pay ranges between 20 cents and $i each for cabinet negatives, other sizes
in proportion. A good workman can retouch eight or ten plates per day,
although some of the more expert can turn out as many as twenty-five. Some
expert retouchers earn as much as $65 weekly.

There is every encouragement offered for men or women to take advan-
tage of opportunities to master the science of photography. Not only is it a
pleasant and satisfactory art to practice for amusement, or for private pur-
poses, but the demand for skilled workmen in all departments is incessant.
The average photographer is far too busy to take apprentices, and the only
opportunities offered to learn the business, under ordinary circumstances,
can usually be found in studios of inferior grade. In these, of course, the
training is insufficient. Very many practical photographers, furthermore,
have "picked up" all that they know, and are unusually desirous to secure the
services of people thoroughly trained in up-to-date methods.

The remuneration offered to trained employes ranges between $15 and
$35 weekly, on the average, while some who have worked their way into
high-class establishments, receive even higher pay. Very many of the
smaller studios yield an income to their owners of $5,000 per year, while
some of the more popular realize between $30,000 and $50,000.

A PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIO

A photographic studio should have a slant skylight of ribbed glass, set
at an angle of about sixty-five degrees, and screened with transparent white
curtains, with opaque shades on rollers to regulate the amount of light. The
studio should be made generally attractive. The "sitter" should be placed
perfectly at ease. There should be no suggestion of stiffness nor tawdry
vulgarity about the establishment. The proper equipment of a studio, with

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY 965

lenses, cameras, backgrounds and furnishings, costs between one and two
thousand dollars, although one may make a beginning on a smaller scale.
A camera, eleven by fourteen inches, with extensive bellows for the various
sizes of plates ; a supply of six or eight light plate holders, and a first-class
lens; two or three plain backgrounds, and five or. six artistic chairs, benches,
and stools are requisite.

NEWS-PHOTOGRAPHERS

The successful newspaper photographer is one who can take pictures
without the accessories of the photographic gallery. He is one who can use
the camera by night as well as by day, at sea as well as on land ; briefly, he
is one who can take a picture of anything under any circumstances, and who
can sell the picture after he has made it. He must make good pictures under
conditions the most unfavorable. He must be able to photograph the deck
of a moving battleship from the Brooklyn bridge; he must be able to take
pictures of the manoeuvres of a troop of cavalry when his camera faces the
sun ; he must photograph the celebrity as he comes down the gangplank ; the
President of the United States while he is making a speech from the plat-
form of a railroad train ; the bride as she comes forth from the church.

The nature of their duties has made the leading newspaper photog-
raphers rich in experience at least. During the last four years Mr. James
H. Hare, as the staff photographer of "Collier's Weekly," has been present at
almost every event of national importance which has taken place in this
hemisphere between San Francisco and Halifax, and between Manitoba and
Venezuela. When Mr. McKinley made his transcontinental tour, Hare was
on the train. When the beloved President was shot, at Buffalo, Hare was
present, and it was indeed he who, in picturing Mr. McKinley as he mounted
the steps of the Temple of Music, took the last photograph of the living
President. Four days after the Maine disaster in Havana harbor, Hare
was on the scene with his omnipresent camera, and that same instrument re-
corded all the exciting events that took place in the Cuban capital before the
war. When war was declared, Hare shouldered his camera instead of a
rifle, and marched with the troops to the very firing line. In camp and un-
der fire, in the depths of the Cuban forests in search of Gomez, and on the
transport on the way back to Montauk Point, Hare continually "pressed the
button." Since the war, the launching of every battleship, the scenes fol-
lowing every flood and great fire, every wreck cast up on our shores, every
international or intercollegiate athletic contest, every political convention,,
all the manoeuvres of the army and navy, and, indeed, every event having
a place in news has been pictured either by himself or by his colleagues on
"Collier's Weekly." Hare's work serves as an example of what is expected
of the modern newspaper photographer. The narrative of his experience,
between the covers of a book, would show that the newspaper photographer's
life, as well as that of the correspondent, is intimately connected with all
that is picturesque and dramatic.

966 WORKERS OF THE NATION

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY AND VARIOUS USES OF THE CAMERA

The camera is supposed to be wholly truthful, and yet in the matter of
colors it may be deceptive. "Three color work" has done much to solve the
problem, but it has its limitations.

The camera is no longer a mere convenience for correspondents in war
time. It has been raised to the importance of an instrument of value to
army officers. It is now carried by scouts, and furnishes a precious record
of localities and existing conditions within the enemy's lines.

Telephotographic lenses were used by the British army in South Africa.
They were employed in connection with balloons, affording pictures of the
surrounding country on a large scale, enabling accurate charts to be made.

The camera was of great value during the war in the Philippines. What
is termed electrical photography was used both in the Philippines and in
China. In case of grounding, or certain other accidents to battleships, pho-
tography under water has been found of great service.

ARTISTS' MODELS

In every art centre there are a number of persons who make their living
as models. In New York there are said to be ten first-class models and 490
of other classes. All models — good, bad, and indifferent, men and women
— are paid a regular rate of fifty cents an hour. The difference in earnings
is dependent upon the number of hours the model works; the favorites earn
three or four dollars every day in the week, including Sundays.

The best models, those who earn the most, forget the commercial side
of their engagement the moment they fall into position on the studio throne.
The young girl who starts out to earn her living by posing, believing that
a pretty face or a fine figure will be sufficient for the purpose, usually comes
to grief. Posing requires intelligence and oftentimes the genuine artistic
temperament, for there must be sympathy between the artist and his model.
Models who have really the artistic temperament find the greatest fascina-
tion in posing, because in this way they can maintain artistic associations.
Models of this class are always careful to pose only for the best artists, be-
cause of the fear that to pose for the mediocre painter or sculptor is to de-
teriorate.

Successful models regard their calling as an honorable one, and when a
woman so regards her manner of earning her living, she is treated with the
greatest respect by the artist. Men of the brush, indeed, have no use for
models who are in any sense ashamed of their calling. This and the artistic
temperament are the two most important qualifications of one who would
succeed as a model.

In posing for the figure, the most competent models are those who are
entirely unconscious of anything save that they are assisting in the creation
of a work of art. Next to unconsciousness, artists most appreciate the
model who has a silent tongue. Sculptors, especially, value silence.

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY 967

THE LIFE OF PROFESSIONAL MODELS

Many persons outside of the artistic profession seem to have a vague
impression that artists' models are not morally just exactly what they ought
to be. This impression seldom has a corresponding expression, for nobody
has yet ventured to criticise publicly. This calling has been termed ab-
normal; but it is not abnormal, because art makes professional models an
absolute necessity. Reference is made to models who pose undraped. As
a matter of fact, it is only in exceptional cases that such a model is not a
modest and good woman. They are usually bubbling over with health and
animal spirits, always radiant, buoyant, honest and happy hearted.

Models pose for the nude for the same reason that they would stand be-
hind a drygoods counter — to earn their living. And they make more money
in the studio than they would in the store.

At first a model poses only for the draped figure, or perhaps only for
the head. She finds this congenial and an easy way to earn fifty cents an
hour; above all, there is no publicity. Every artist holds the names and
identity of all his models in sacred trust. In a short time, if the model has
intelligence, she will begin to study her employer, will try to comprehend
his ideas and his conceptions ; eventually, she will do all she can to interpret
them. Thus she comes closer and closer to the artist's work, and finding
in it a personal interest, she feels that, in a measure, his success depends upon
her. At the same time she learns that she is to him only a model, and he
to her only an artist, and that he thinks no more of her personality than he
does of the costume or other inanimate details of his picture or statue. Then
one day he needs an undraped figure, and it rarely happens that she will not
pose in the manner desired, as a matter of course. The artist is to her now
simply what a mirror is to any woman. At the end of the sitting, when
she has ceased to be the model, and is no longer required as a necessary ac-
cessory to the artist's work, she vanishes, and in a few moments goes on her
way as an ordinary business woman in a work-a-day world.

From what classes are models recruited ? In European countries -from
two classes; either from a family of models, or from a family which has
met with financial reverses. The best models are found in France, ItaJ
America, because, in these countries, they are recruited principally
two sources just named, and are therefore most intelligent.

In her daily life, in her home, among her friends and socially^
fessional model lives quietly and happily, pursuing her way just as
young woman earning her livelihood. It is not unusual for an
marry a model. There are four artists in New York City each of whom
chose a wife from among his models.

CHAPTER XII

DRAMA, ENTERTAINMENT AND ALLIED PRO-
FESSIONS

American Dramatists — The Making of a Play — The Dramatization of Novels — Women
Dramatists — Theatrical Managers — Combination of Theatrical Managers — Acting as
a Profession — Conditions of Stage Success — Vaudeville Managers — Continuous Per-
formance Houses — Vaudeville Performers — Organizations of Vaudeville Performers
— Dramatic Schools and Training for the Stage — The Professional Dancer — The
Training of Stage Dancers — Scene Painters — Lecturers and Entertainment Bureaus —
Circus Managers — Circus Performers — Circus "Followers" — The American Turf

AMERICAN DRAMATISTS

ORGANIZED in 1891 and incorporated in 1896, the American
Dramatists' Club includes in its list of members all of the promi-
nent writers for the American stage. The moral and legal rights
of the author and composer are carefully guarded by this institution. Edu-
cational work was at first done until a public opinion was created which
recognized that a playwright is entitled to share in the profits of the pro-
duction of his piece. This paved the way for the amendment of the Fed-
eral Copyright Law.

In this country we have two ways of protecting a play or an opera; by
the Federal Copyright Law and by the common law. Keeping the work
in manuscript protects it under the common law, not selling printed copies
of it. First, a printed copy of the title page must be filed in the office of
the Librarian of Congress ; secondly, the work must be printed within a rea-
sonable time after this step ; thirdly, two printed copies must be filed at the
same office on the date of publication ; and, lastly, a notice of the copyright
must be imprinted on the title page or next page of each book. Play pirates
are now liable to imprisonment just as any other thieves, and injunctions are
efficacious. Heavy fines for illegal productions are also collectible.

THE MAKING OF A PLAY

The technicalities of stage craft must not be overlooked by the dramatic
author. His manuscript ought to contain the fullest directions to stage man-
ager, scene painter, property man, costumer, gas man, orchestra leader and
actor. "The play's the thing" for the closet— the "production's the thing"
for the box-office, and no dramatic effort can now be termed successful
which does not fill the theatre with paying spectators. It often takes months
of hard work to arrange for a "production," rehearsals being only a small
part of the preliminary work. The preparation of a play for public presen-
tation is a sort of continuous process. Not only the author, but the stage-
(968)

DRAMA AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 969

director, the property man, the scene painters, the actors, and musicians, all
have suggestions to make for its improvement.

The typewriting of a play in a duplicate set of parts is no easy task.
A "book" is made for each of the characters, containing his or her "lines,"
stage directions, and cues. The latter are as essential to an actor as are his
own lines. A part is called "fat" or "lean," according to the relative promi-
nence it gives the actor.

THE DRAMATIZATION OF NOVELS

The latest dramatic fad has been the dramatization of novels, the plays
being doubly protected. The author often reserves the right to dramatize
or turns it over to his publishers, with whom the intending playwright must
negotiate. In England the author must dramatize the novel himself, and
publicly produce it in order to have it protected. Prior publication outside
of the United Kingdom interferes with copyright there, and plays must be
produced in the United Kingdom prior to their production in the United
States to secure the English copyright. Stage production is considered pub-
lication in England, contrary to our rule.

Although the author of a novel knows, as a rule, nothing of stage
effects, yet the dramatist is in duty bound to consult with him. The "man-
agement" must also be conferred with, and after the manager has consid-
ered the play he calls in the stage-manager. There are said to be three
thousand actors in the country, and only half a dozen good stage-managers.
The scene painters are next in point of importance. The designer, or in-
ventor of costumes, comes next. The costumer takes the designs, and his
work is an art by itself. The stage carpenter must now be introduced.
Then the indispensable property man comes forward, and there is nothing
that he will not supply upon proper notice, from a piano to a papier mache

WOMEN DRAMATISTS

Women who set out to write plays must remember that dialogue is the
smallest factor in successful production. The story and the action are the
main elements to be considered. There is a tendency toward too much dia-
logue. The surplusage has to be cut out. In one thing women play-
wrights excel, and that is in the direction of the decorations and costumes.
Another tendency in women play-writers is to depict men as the possessors
of every virtue, making them quite impossible in the eyes of their fellow-
men. The reverse of this is also true. It is undeniable that the most dis-
agreeable, cat-like, treacherous, and altogether too unpleasant women char-
acters in modern plays are drawn by women. Men seldom divest women of
all the cardinal virtues at once. Is it a fact that women are rather severe
upon each other's faults in real life, carrying this tendency into the drama?

THEATRICAL MANAGERS

The theatrical manager, broadly considered, is supposed to watch all
departments of the theatre, just as the head of a mercantile establishment

970 WORKERS OF THE NATION

watches each and every branch of the enterprise of which he is the head. He
is presumably competent to judge of the work of a company from an artistic
point of view as well as from the strictly commercial viewpoint. If the
modern manager devotes a large part of his time to arranging for the com-
fort and safety of the patrons of his theatre, if he devotes time also to organ-
izing the work of his assistants, with the object of keeping expenses down
and pushing the receipts up, he must give quite as much time to those
occupying the stage.

The sum of his attainments is supposedly comprised in his ability to
develop merely the business character of the theatre. Fortunately for the
theatre-going public, this is not true of all managers. Augustin Daly was,
first of all, an artist ; second, a critic ; and, last of all, a business man. Mr.
Daniel Frohman and Mr. Charles Frohman both devote as much time to the
artistic side of their productions as to the commercial considerations.

Probably half of the 4,500 theatres in this country are supplied by com-
panies fitted out under the direction of managers in the great play-producing
centres, like New York, Boston, and Chicago. New York, of course, fur-
nishes the greatest number of companies. Thus it may be said that but
comparatively few theatrical managers supply the theatres of the country
with entertainment.

Of recent years, however, a number of companies have brought about
a revival of the stock system, and we now have stock companies playing
permanently in certain cities, bringing out a new play each week, or as often
as the manager judges necessary. Mr. Daniel Frohman has such a com-
pany; Mr. Charles Frohman has several stock companies; there is a very
excellent stock company in Washington, producing a new play each week ;
another in Albany, and still others in several of the inland cities.

The relation of the theatrical manager to the theatre-going public is that
of the publisher to the reader. The manager supplies plays as the publisher
supplies books — according to demand. There are about 13,000 actors and
actresses in the country to-day, merely counting those of the first class.
Many of these are paid large salaries, and a few have become wealthy.
Without the manager, however, it would never have been possible for the
majority of to-day's players to come before the public. As the author needs
the publisher in order to get into print, the actor requires the manager in
order to take his place behind the footlights.

Managers the country over give employment to as many as 60,000 or
70,000 persons besides actors. The army of workers thus employed in-
cludes the stage hands, scene painters, travelling agents, and, in fact, all
who derive their support from theatres. The number of companies "on
tour" alone is fully five hundred.

It should be added, that though the old-time actor-manager was for a
time replaced by the business man, a number of actors, in the course of
events, taking lessons from the business men, discovered that they could
manage their own affairs if they set out to do so on a business basis. The

DRAMA AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 971

leading actor-manager of the world to-day is Henry Irving. James A.
Herne was more or less successful in directing both the art and business
departments, and Richard Mansfield, as actor-manager, gained and lost and
again gained a fortune.

COMBINATION OF THEATRICAL MANAGERS

In the theatrical world there is what is known among the player folk as
the theatrical trust. Indeed there are two so-called "trusts," one in what
is called the "legitimate," and the other in the realm of vaudeville. In
the "legitimate," the principal managers a few years ago met in New York
and agreed upon certain rules and regulations in the matter of the manage-
ment of their various theatres and enterprises. Theatrical managers all
over the country are now represented in this combination, or trust, and it is
at the theatres thus represented that the best companies appear. Man-
agers who hold aloof from the combination are obliged to be content with
inferior productions, or they must form their own stock companies and pro-
duce plays of their own choosing from week to week. One of the managers
in Washington, finding that he could not secure the best attractions unless
he joined the combination, formed a stock company, and his box-office re-
ceipts are now much larger than they could possibly have been had he suc-
cumbed to the demands of the theatrical trust.

ACTING AS A PROFESSION

A bill to license actors and place them on a footing somewhat similar to
that of physicians and dentists was introduced into the New York State
Legislature. The bill stipulates that "actors shall be subjected to an ex-
amination of their merit, and, upon giving assurance of it, may be permitted
to enact parts upon the stage in this State, under a license, to be obtained
upon payment of a fee of ten dollars."

The introduction of this bill resulted in the natural question as to how
the merit of actors is to be determined and to whom the task of passing upon
their merit shall be delegated. At the present time the managers draw
largely upon dramatic schools for new talent. There are certain schools in
New York, the graduates of which are presumed to be capable of playing
small parts without other preliminary examination than that included in
one or two rehearsals. Joseph Jefferson says that the dramatic schools
teach the mechanisms and conventionalities of acting, but that the emotions
by which the best acting is exhibited can not be taught in any school. Mr.
Jefferson further states that the novice should serve his apprenticeship for
the stage on the stage itself. He argues that the only way to learn to act
is by acting, just as painters can only learn to paint by painting and authors
learn to write by writing.

Meantime, however, the principals of dramatic schools are, in a large
number of cases, the first to pass judgment upon the novice. Then come
the managers themselves, and last and most important of all, the public.

972 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Therefore, if the bill introduced in the New York State Legislature be-
comes a law, it is said that a committee to pass upon the merit of actors with
a view to giving them a license to appear on the stage, should be composed of
one principal of a dramatic school, one stage-manager, and one ordinary
"first-nighter."

The pupils and graduates of the dramatic schools are usually serious-
minded young persons, who are willing to work hard to achieve success in
their chosen profession. Many of these pupils and graduates appear nightly
"on the boards" in New York theatres. They usually have nothing to say,
and are paid absolutely nothing for appearing "on the bill." They are eager
to secure such engagements, however, for the sake of the training which they
thus acquire. Even though they are seldom given speaking parts, they are
able to acquire what is called "the stage presence" and to learn to be at their
ease in front of the footlights.

The principal charitable and social organizations among actors are : the
Actors' Fund, the Actors' Order of Friendship, the Players' Club in New
York — founded by Edwin Booth — and the Professional Woman's League.

CONDITIONS OF STAGE SUCCESS

After securing an engagement, and after a few months of work, the
novice finds that he has entered a profession in which his whole life is
passed separate and apart from the rest of the world. He finds his isolation
irksome or agreeable, according to his temperament or his ability or de-
termination to adapt himself to circumstances. At the outset he may try
to mingle with people in other walks of life, to rub elbows and exchange
ideas with those in the outer world, but he very soon realizes that this is
impracticable and, indeed, impossible. Popular prejudice and the exactions
of his calling render this isolation a necessity.

After a time the young actor realizes that he must pass his life apart
from the conventional world, and so the sooner he ceases to interest himself
in the outer world, or to care about it one way or the other, the better.
Finally he finds that he is as clannish as those older in stage work, and that
he prefers to associate with actors rather than with persons in other walks
of life. He reads the newspapers only for theatrical news; he is inter-
ested only in the doings of his brothers and sisters of the stage, whose
whereabouts and successes or failures are announced in dramatic weeklies.

About two-thirds of his life is passed "on the road." While thus
"trouping," he works very much harder than any young man of relative
standing and pay in any other profession. One-night stands try his soul.
He finds his art reduced to mechanical drudgery. After the theatre he
must rush to the railroad station, ride half the night, perhaps, in an ordi-
nary day coach, or he must rise at five o'clock in the morning to make a
"jump." In the theatre he must be satisfied with musty and dirty dressing-
rooms, which are scarcely better than dog kennels, and in the atrocious hotels
of the inland towns he must put up with all sorts of inconveniences.

DRAMA AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 973

VAUDEVILLE MANAGERS

The closest, most compact association of managers is to be found in the
vaudeville field. There are nearly seventy first-class theatres in the United
States devoted to vaudeville, all but a few of which are represented in the
Vaudeville Managers' Association. Twelve of these vaudeville theatres
are in Greater New York, thirty-four altogether are to be found in the
Eastern cities, twenty-four in the Middle West, seven in Chicago, and two
on the Pacific Coast.

The direct cause which led vaudeville managers to combine was the enor-
mous salaries demanded by the performers. It seems that when the managers
were working each independently of all the others, they were obliged to offer
large salaries to the performers who drew the best houses. The performer
who made an unexampled hit under one manager was immediately ap-
proached by another manager with offers of a larger salary. The man with
the trained seals, for instance, who received $750 a week from a manager in
Chicago, was offered $1,000 by a New York manager. The consequence
was that when the owner of the trained seals was called upon by a third
manager he demanded $1,500 a week. Thus the amount of money which
for a while the managers paid out in salaries -was out of all proportion to the
amount of money paid in at the box-office. At last they held a meeting
and formed the Association of Vaudeville Managers of the United States.
Since then the top-notch salary paid to a single performer has not exceeded
$1,000 a week, and it is doubtful if any performer who might now achieve
even the most unparalleled success could induce the managers to pay him one
cent more than the amount mentioned.

The advantages which accrued to vaudeville managers by combining
were similar to those resulting from combinations in the industrial world.
Prior to the formation of the Managers' Association a great number of
agencies were necessary in different parts of the country. To-day all acts
are booked either in the New York or the Chicago office. An act may be
booked for thirty weeks, or fifty-two weeks, or only a few weeks, according
to the merit or popularity of the performance. When booked for only a
few weeks, the actors are obliged to play in the cheaper variety theatres, and
such an engagement is called a "hide away." Once the vaudeville per-
former is booked, however, he knows that his salary will be paid regu-
larly during the engagement, for, as previously explained, the managers
are, first of all, business men, and the haphazard manner of conducting the
theatre on chance is not known in the vaudeville field as it is in the regular
field. Sometimes in the booking season, in the summer, as many as 100
acts are booked in a single day, and by the middle of October the entire
complement of 1,500 players necessary for the season's work have been
engaged.

CONTINUOUS PERFORMANCE HOUSES

The business of well established vaudeville houses runs as smoothly as
that of a department store. This applies in particular to the continuous

974 WORKERS OF THE NATION

performance houses. The leading manager in the "continuous" field has
amassed a large fortune and passes most of his time on his yacht. He has
a chain of such houses in the United States and his entire enterprise is con-
ducted on strictly business lines, as much so as is the case in any mercantile
or commercial enterprise.

"Continuous refined vaudeville" is an American institution. The trav-
eller the world over will not find a continuous performance house outside
of the United States. The bill is divided into three parts — the afternoon
show, the dinner show, and the night show. The first begins at eleven or
twelve o'clock in the morning and continues until five, employing the full
strength of the bill. The second is from five o'clock until eight o'clock,
during which hours only the less important acts are shown. The third con-
tinues during the regular theatre hours, from eight to eleven, and, like the
afternoon show, employs the entire strength of the bill.

The continuous performance is made possible by the fact that dramatic
sketches and acrobatic acts can alternate with the song-and-dance artists
and the monologists. The latter require only the front of the stage, that
is, the space between the curtain and the footlights, and while they are
"on" the change of scene is arranged behind the curtain. The average
weekly cost of the bill of a continuous performance house is about $2,000.
The largest of such houses seats about 12,000 persons, and between the
opening and the closing hour the house has, in the parlance of managers,
been "turned over two and a half times." Thus in a house seating 3,000
persons it is possible that as many as 9,000 tickets have been sold at the
box-office in the twelve hours during which the performance continues.
Even during the dinner show, from five to eight o'clock, the audience in
the continuous houses in the great cities is as large as that which may be
seen ordinarily at one of the regular theatres. Certain managers claim that
when the house is turned over only two and one-half times they are doing
a comparatively light business. These same managers claim that it is not
unusual to turn the house over three and a half times, and that on Saturdays
and holidays they have as many as four or five full houses.

With the prominence given to vaudeville performers by the managers
of the continuance performance houses, and by the encouragement given to
vaudeville in general by the public, this division of the theatrical world is
now considered the most desirable field even by some of the stars in the
regular field. In the first place, an engagement in vaudeville seldom includes
the terrors of one-night stands, for the houses are so situated and so con-
ducted that an actor usually plays at least a week in each city.

A comparison of the number of hours passed in the theatre shows that
work in vaudeville is less arduous than in the regular field. In vaudeville
the performers must appear twice a day, to be sure, but only about one hour
is passed in the theatre for each appearance ; in the legitimate they must be
in the theatre at least three hours each night and another three hours for
each matinee. Moreover, in vaudeville the actor is exempt from the dreary

DRAMA AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 975

weeks, or perhaps months, of rehearsals. Each act in a vaudeville show is
independent of every other act, and hence the performers may rehearse
when and where they choose. Then, too, the vaudeville performer usually
sings the same songs, or does the same dances, or performs the same acro-
batic or juggling feats throughout the season; whereas actors in the regu-
lar field are oftentimes obliged to learn the lines for several new parts and
rehearse for two or three and sometimes four, new plays during the season.
There is still another feature of vaudeville that has proven exceedingly
attractive. This is the great amount of advertising which accompanies an
appearance in vaudeville. Hundreds of performers in vaudeville are adver-
tised to an extent which in the legitimate is possible only for stars of the
first magnitude.

ORGANIZATION OF VAUDEVILLE PERFORMERS

Two or three years ago, after the vaudeville managers had combined
under the name of the Association of Vaudeville Managers of the United
States, vaudeville performers formed a combination among themselves, or-
ganizing under the imposing title of the White Rats of America. A
similar society in London, called the Water Rats, probably inspired the
name which the American performers gave their association. For a time
neither the managers nor the public took the vaudevillists' association seri-
ously. Later, however, the White Rats showed that they were really in
earnest in their endeavors to help one another, though their organization
was not strong enough to cope so successfully with the managers' organi-
zation as to "fix its own terms," after the manner of ordinary trades unions.

DRAMATIC SCHOOLS AND TRAINING FOR THE STAGE

There are two ways of going on the stage ; one is the old way, which is
advocated by theatrical people of the old school, who have not kept up with
the developments of the day, and so still think that the only way is to apply
at the stage door and to become a super and work up. Some years ago
the old stock-company system afforded the young actor an education, by
giving him several times a week new parts to study and rehearse under a
stage manager of repute. So when an actor of the old school advises the
beginner to do as he did, and go right on the stage, he does so because he
does not know that there exists a new method ; either he has not heard of it
at all, or has heard of it only in a fragmentary and imperfect way, and so is
ignorantly prejudiced against it. When finally he has occasion to seek the
services of new members for his company, and turns toward the school as the
readiest and surest source of supply, he opens his eyes with wonder to find
that a scientific school of training can do for his grandson in two years what
it took him by the old-school method from eight to ten years to accomplish.

The dramatic schools can not, of course, turn out finished actors and
actresses in so short a time, but they can and do equip the student with
sufficient knowledge of the art of acting to enable him or her to occupy posi-

976 WORKERS OF THE NATION

tions on the stage that might only be attained after years of drudgery in
the theatre. Naturally those players who have won their spurs by long and
arduous toil are inclined to scoff at the schools. Their opposition has con-
siderably lessened, however, in recent years, since the schools have given
abundant proof of their usefulness by the legitimate success of a considerable
proportion of their graduates. In this connection it may be well to point
out also that the dramatic school performs a very useful function as a dis-
courager of mistaken ambition. Formerly the aspirant, having no means
of learning the true worth of his talents, risked the best years of his life
upon what often proved a hopeless enterprise. Under the present system
he may ascertain definitely and within a very short time whether or not he
possesses the requisite qualities for the stage by entering any one of the
better schools. Only those who know the bitterness of defeat in the pro-
fession can fully appreciate the value of this function of the school.

THE PROFESSIONAL DANCER

One reason for the decline of the old-fashioned style of ballet dancing
is the rigorous training necessary for its mastery. Graceful character-
steps have taken the place of tiptoe pirouetting, long skirts and sleeves have
supplanted the old costume. Colored lights have been brought into ser-
vice, and the various "skirt dances" and "fire dances" have been evolved.

Generally speaking, the ballet dancer is not beautiful. Her figure has
been so developed in one direction that it is apt to lack full symmetry. The
greatest dancers have been below the ordinary size. By its devotees dancing
is considered a fine art, and mere attractions of face are relegated to the sec-
ond place. The really great ballet dancer must be a thorough artist, ever
true to the standards of her school, filled with imagination and poetry,
and not merely an exemplar of technique. A great dancer in London once
drew a house of $40,000 a night.

THE TRAINING OF STAGE DANCERS

A visit to any school for professional dancers will reveal the fact that
there is a great amount of unromantic drudgery that must precede the
glitter of the stage. The art of high kicking is by no means the easiest
thing in the world to acquire. The limbs of beginners refuse absolutely to
go beyond a certain point. Their muscles need stretching, and therefore
the dancer who aspires to earn money as a high kicker must go through
a tiresome treatment of oil and massage, and must continue to exercise the
same step day after day. Apprentices in these schools assert that during
the first few weeks they suffer the most excruciating pains. Those who
have finished their apprenticeship declare that the fatigue of standing be-
hind a counter, or the drudgery of plying the needle is easy work compared
to that of making one's limbs respond to the demands of the professor of
dancing.

It is apparent, then, that there is no glamour of the stage about a train-

DRAMA AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 977

ing school for professional dancers. Hard benches and hard work are
the rule. The pupils present every variety of girls, plump and slender,
tall and short, willowy and dumpy, pretty and plain. They wear shirt-
waists without collars, soft skirts reaching to the knee, and light slippers.
The floor is waxed, and carelessness will cause a fall. The teacher, gen-
erally a retired ballet dancer, is emulated and imitated in her object-lessons
by the scholars, who at first are very mechanical. The clumsiest girls are
pounced upon, and their stretching muscles none too gently assisted by the
hands of the lady who is trying to make dancers out of unpromising ma-
terial.

The advanced pupils fare better. Their muscles have become flexible.
Various figures of the dance, difficult steps and poses are taught them,
gliding, hopping, whirling, all very hard work when pursued by the hour.
Not the least valuable to their success is the instruction received in the art
of the manipulation of drapery, which has an entire gamut of expression,
from coquetry to hatred and disdain.

Twenty lessons in modern professional dancing may be had for sixty
dollars. A successful stage dancer now in vogue took two lessons a week for
a year, at the cost of $350. The first lessons are similar to those in phys-
ical culture. Chair-gymnastics is practiced until the muscles of the body
become supple. One hour a day is sufficient practice. The attitudes are
the main thing, the steps being easily acquired. In the skirt-dancer there is
complete symmetry of development.

Slim women are preferred by teachers, with a weight of about ninety-
six pounds. Dieting is not necessary to produce suppleness. Even the
best dancers practice half an hour a day. A skirt-dancer's costume costs
from $250 to $400, and must be frequently renewed. The salaries are
very good.

Fabulous sums have been paid to favorite dancers. Some have re-
ceived as much as $10,000 a season. Only recently a Turkish dancer
earned by her profession the sum of $62,000 in the Klondike in the course
of a few months.

SCENE PAINTERS

Not so many years ago it was thought that a man who could paint a
house or a fence was quite capable of painting the scenery for a theatrical
production. Any theatre-goer of to-day knows that all this has been changed.
Theatrical managers understand that to secure the service of true artists
as scene painters is to make the theatre potent for real art. To-day not
even the poorest road company would dare to produce a melodrama with
inadequate and ugly scenery.

Hence it has come to pass that almost every theatrical manager employs
the best artists he can find as scene painters. The Frohmans have a corps
of such artists constantly at work. The manager or head of every stock com-
pany has his favorite scene painter, whose services he employs by the year.

The best scene painters earn quite as much money as the best illustrators.

31— Vol. 2

978 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The painting of theatrical scenery demands, indeed, a high degree of
artistic ability, together with a keen appreciation of local and historical
consistency. The former is necessary, in order to produce the desired
perspective and color effects, while the latter is demanded by public taste of
the present day, which has been educated beyond the anachronisms and
misfit effects of a generation ago. For these reasons very largely the oc-
cupation of a scene painter affords ample opportunity for artistic ambition,
while the compensation is fairly high and the reputation assured by the
custom of crediting the work on the programme. Such distinguished ar-
tists as Burne-Jones and Alma Tadema have found it compatible with their
genius and reputation to paint scenery for Sir Henry Irving, while many
artists of smaller ability have built up a wide reputation on work for far
lesser actors. Indeed few branches of art have a more rigid technique, nor
afford greater opportunity for skilfully-executed effects.

The stage scene, like other varieties of painting, especially those of the
impressionist school, depends, for its perfect appreciation, upon distance.
Thus, as has been well said, the scene painter must work as though he were
at least seventy-five feet away from his picture, making what appear at
close range to be mere daubs of color or hypertrophied representations of
impossibly plethoric vegetation and impossible contrasts of light and shade.
He calculates effects so exactly, however, that the audience sees a well-
conceived landscape, with trees, shrubs, mountains, rocks, water and sky,
executed as well, in color and perspective, as the daintiest gem of art ever
set upon an easel. Described in a few words, scene painting is a "system
of accurate exaggeration." With the recent tendency toward high color
effects, there is eminent opportunity for the highest art of the landscape
painter, whose effects are still further heightened by the use of electricity
for stage-lighting.

The technic of scene painting is more binding than that of any other art,
with the exception of architecture. It demands a high degree of me-
chanical knowledge, and acquaintance with the possibilities of stage-car-
pentry, and constant reference to the proper provisions for folding, rolling,
cutting, shifting and transportation. Although painting on a sheet so large
that he must stand on a scaffold, his constant problem is not to make large
objects too large or small objects too small in comparison, and to keep in
mind constantly the size of the actors, their distance from the scene, the
effect of the stage lights on the colors, and numerous other details demand-
ing a high degree of technical skill. In the words of a well-known scenic
artist, the ideal is "to throw the mind into something that isn't before you."
The construction of stage scenery approximates architecture in the sense
that it follows regular requirements and specifications. Thus, the painter
may be required to design a room, or even the exterior of a house, with
"practicable" doors and windows, or to design an out-of-door scene with
a practicable bridge. Having read the play carefully, he prepares a minia-
ture model to set forth his designs, giving the smallest details, down to the

BEHIND THE SCENES— ACTORS AWAITING THEIR TURN

DRAWN BY EVERETT SHINN

DRAMA AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 979

furniture of the room, or other properties. This having been approved, he
proceeds to execute his work, directing the stage carpenter in the con-
struction of the set pieces. The side drops representing foliage are care-
fully cut away between the leaves and mounted on netting, so as to allow
the rear scenery to be visible through the interstices.

LECTURERS AND ENTERTAINMENT BUREAUS

Not many years ago one of the most promising fields for money-making
was that of the popular lecturer. John B. Cough's price was $200 per
night. Henry Ward Beecher, Wendell Phillips, and Bayard Taylor aver-
aged the same figures. The receipts for Professor Tyndall's thirty-five
lectures in this country were $23,100; and Max O'Rell earned $5,290 by
his lectures during a single week in Johannesburg, South Africa. But
lyceum bureaus are a thing of the past. People go to the theatres and
more attractive "shows" than the platform presents. Only when some-
thing sensational is presented is the public interested. Miss Ellen M. Stone,
for example, was the "star" lecturer in 1902.

A number of English authors during the last six or seven years have
made tours of the States, expecting to reap large profits by reading from
their own works ; nearly all of them have, however, returned to their
native island wiser men, having discovered that while the American public
will buy thousands of copies of their books, it will not spend a few dollars
to listen to the voice of the writers thereof. Hall Caine, Conan Doyle, J.
M. Barrie, Ian Maclaren, and others found it difficult to obtain an au-
dience. However, the lecture platform is still a paying venture for men
and women who have something to say.

What is the cause of the "decadence" of the lyceum? The reason is
obvious when we consider the make-up of the lyceum in its palmiest days —
Everett, Sumner, Phillips, Gough, Mrs. Livermore, Anna Dickinson and
Helen Potter — all of great power and corresponding success. So long
as such forces were to be had the lyceum flourished. But celebrities have
been few since those times, and the lyceum has suffered correspondingly.
We must recognize another reason for this "decadence." In 1877 Wendell
Phillips wrote to his friend, John B. Gough, "The successes of the lyceum
can be counted on the fingers of one hand." There was then one bureau.
To-day, with no more celebrities than can be counted on the two hands,
there are more than seventy bureaus. There could be but one natural out-
come. Mediocrity has been introduced, and an attempt been made to foist
it in place of genuine worth. To these two causes — few great names and
many bureaus — must this change in the lyceum be attributed.

One lecture bureau has on its lists about five hundred names of per-
sons in all branches of entertainment. The manager charges five per
cent in some of these agencies, which gives him a good return for his
services.

980 WORKERS OF THE NATION

CIRCUS MANAGERS

The public imagines a boss showman has nothing- to do but sit in a big
leather chair in a hotel corridor and decline to be interviewed, leaving all
the work of the show to his lieutenants. Truth is, the proprietor must know-
more and work harder than any one in his employ. Even if he can not do
stunts in the ring himself, he knows how each particular performer should
do his act. He must be omniscient.

He must know all about wild animals, their haunts, habits, food and
cost of maintenance. He must know what kind of hides different kinds of
harness should be made of. He must know every point of every horse,
from a draught to a thoroughbred. He must know all about painting and
the values of paints and oils ; must have a knowledge of foodstuffs of every
description for man and beast; about municipal legislation and license laws
in all cities; he must be a veterinarian, a printer, paper-maker and lithog-
rapher; must know all about crops — when harvested, when sold — in all
sections of the country; must be acquainted with the industries of the dif-
ferent parts of every State in the Union, and know the dates on which em-
ployes are paid off; must know, for instance, that the last of May or the
first of June is the only time a circus will "go" in St. Louis ; must know the
art of advertising in all its branches and the relative value of notices in the
principal newspapers of every city and town; must know all about rail-
roading, from the way a car is built to the science of transportation on land
and sea. Above all, he must know that it is no longer possible to humbug
the public.

When the Bailey Show first arrived in Europe, appearing now in the
cities of England, now in those of Germany, Austria and Hungary, the phase
of the American circus business which most astonished military men was not
so much the show itself as the manner in which it was moved. Two or
three incidents will serve to illustrate the curiosity with which the
transportation department of the English and Continental armies
viewed the organization, discipline and ingenuity shown in moving,
without halt or hitch, such a large amount of property and so many
persons.

While preparing to open at the Olympia, the Madison Square Garden of
London, the Building Department of that city told the owners of the Olympia
that a new proscenium arch of steel must be built. This arch was to frame
a stage at one side of the edifice, and was 280 feet wide by 70 feet high.
The material was brought into the building and the arch was put together,
bit by bit, flat on the ground.

When completed, the British workmen were confronted by the task of
lifting the heavy frame into place. Days were spent in futile attempts,
until at last Mr. Bailey said that if they would turn the job over to him he
would raise the thing of steel. He then called in his three hundred Ameri-
can workmen, and in three hours had the arch in position and secure — using;

DRAMA AND ALLIED PROFESSIONS 981

for the purpose only the circus paraphernalia which he had brought with
him from America.

The London "Times" printed an editorial urging the government to
detail one or two officers from the Engineering Corps of the army, to
travel with the circus and thus acquire knowledge that would be of prac-
tical use in moving military material. The government acted upon this
advice, and throughout the tour several army officers were always present
to witness the loading and unloading of the cars, the transportation to and
from the grounds, and the erection and the razing of the tents.

CIRCUS PERFORMERS

The morals of a, circus do not at all accord with popular opinion. In
the realm of canvas, such things as scandals, divorces, double living and
elopements are rarities. Women who travel with certain shows must
be accompanied by a male relative, who must also be an employe of the
circus. Observance of this rule is not difficult, for circus performers run
in families from one generation to another.

The acrobats, athletes, gymnasts and aerialists of to-day are sons and
daughters of the acrobats, athletes, gymnasts and aerialists of yesterday.

There are the Deals, all equestriennes; the Pecchianis, all acrobats; the
Potters, all aerialists. As you can tell by a name whether a person is a
member of an old family of New York, Boston, Baltimore, so circus people
can tell by a name whether a performer comes of old circus stock. The
cosmopolitan character of circus performers is illustrated in the case of the
Pecchianis, consisting of father, six daughters and three sons, each one born
in a different country.

The health of his company is a consideration as important to the pro-
prietor of a circus as to the general of an army corps. Arrangements are
such that everybody, down to the humblest canvasman, is allowed eight
hours' sleep.

CIRCUS "FOLLOWERS"

Another error in popular belief is that concerning drivers, hostlers, and
canvasmen. People suppose these men to be mere human driftwood, home-
less, without ties, and living from hand to mouth. On the contrary, most
of those who handle the "rags" and tend stock are heads of families, care-
ful with their money and temperate in their habits. Many of them have
happy homes in Western cities.

Show people, as a rule, are a lot of sober men and women. A marked
characteristic of all, from the maitre de cirque to the stable-boy, is loyalty
to the show, for the glory of which they will fight as if it were their very
own, resenting any false aspersion upon the management as a personal
affront.

In advance of the show there are about seventy-five bill-posters, whose
duty is to "bill" the country for at least twenty miles in all directions from

982 WORKERS OF THE NATION

the town in which a performance is to be given. They are supplied with ad-
mission tickets, to give to farmers in exchange for "barn and fence privi-
leges," and they guard these billets as jealously as they would so many
greenbacks. The man who tries to wheedle a single ticket from a bill-
poster without giving the proper quid pro quo is promptly and profanely
rebuked.

The pay of canvasmen, bill-posters and helpers is from twenty to sixty
dollars a month. Half their wages is handed to them on pay day, the
other half is held back, in accordance with a contract they are required to
sign, until the end of the season. Thus at the beginning of winter the men
receive a sum of money which otherwise they might have spent.

Many of these men have been with one circus for twenty years or more.
Circus men, fond of pseudonyms, frequently abandon their real names,
signing even their contracts with their circus names.

Bill-posters are often intrusted with money for expenses, and with rail-
road passes covering long distances, and in twenty years only one case of dis-
honesty has occurred. In this instance a man ran off with passes from
Portland, Oregon, to Chicago. A Pinkerton man started in pursuit, caught
him in the Windy City, and landed him in the penitentiary.

THE AMERICAN TURF

The jockey is a money-maker. Many of these active and skilful young
men earn relatively enormous sums. One or two make from sixty to
seventy-five thousand dollars a year, and there are several whose salaries
are $20,000. Besides the regular "retainer," or stipulated salary, each
jockey gets $25 for a winning race and $10 for a losing race. The sup-
port of a racing stable, with what is called "a good string of horses," is a
very expensive matter. One trainer is generally allowed to twenty horses,
with two foremen, five men, and five or six exercise boys. The trainer
gets two or three dollars a day for each horse trained, out of which amount
he must pay his stablemen and board them, besides the feed bills for the
animals. Many trainers get salaries of about ten thousand dollars a year,
plus a percentage on the net winnings. So closely are the horses watched
that the trainer even sleeps near them in a box stall fitted up as a bedroom,
the men and boys sleeping in rooms above.

Apprentices are received in many stables, boys from twelve to eighteen
years old. The time of their apprenticeship, under the laws of New York,
is three years. For the first year they have two dollars a month, besides
board and clothes. They receive ten and fifteen dollars a month for the
second and third years, less the price of their clothes. Then they can at
once secure work as exercise boys, thirty dollars and board.

Foremen earn twenty-five dollars a week or more. The "forfeit list"
is a heavy tax on the owner of a stable, paid upon the withdrawal of horses
before the race, after "entry" for a certain stake.

CHAPTER XIII
THE MUSICAL PROFESSIONS

American Musicians and Composers — Musical Education in the United States — Earnings
of Musicians — Singing as a Profession — The Singer in Opera — Qualifying as a Prima
Donna— Staging an Opera— The Chorus Girl— The Chorus Man— Writing a Comic
Opera — The Singer in Concert — In the Choir — Song Writers — The Orchestra — The
Band

AMERICAN MUSICIANS AND COMPOSERS

THE resources of the orchestra have been greatly broadened, permitting
a portrayal of every mood and emotion. Both the orchestra and the
piano have gained an extraordinary increase of power, not only in
Europe, but in this country as well. There is just now a lull in Italy,
France and Germany. Americans have already made great progress in the
lighter and popular forms of music, and in teaching the art. Very notable
as teachers were Lowell Mason, Geo. F. Root, L. O. Emerson, A. N. John-
son and Eben Tourjee, while in orchestra-leading and chorus-work, Leopold
Damrosch, Gotthold Carlberg, P. T. Gilmore and Anton Seidle, were veri-
table apostles of art. Among pianists, several Americans have taken first
rank, and the number of operatic stars from this country has been phenom-
enal. Even of Adelina Patti, the first musical talent was developed in the
United States, where she spent her childhood.

The works of many American composers are of the first magnitude, and
will undoubtedly live. Among the producers of oratorios and dramatic
compositions are J. K. Paine, Dudley Buck, F. L. Ritter, C. C. Converse,
S. G. Pratt, J. C. D. Parker, George W. Chadwick and E. A. MacDowell.
Scientific church organists include, A. W. Berg, Clarence Eddy, W. L. Carl,
Frederick Archer, George E. Whiting, Louis Falk, Harrison M. Wild and
H. B. Roney.

The German Saengerfests have been transplanted, and are represented
by our great musical festivals. Our American schools of music, oratorio so-
cieties, musical societies, conservatories and colleges have taken root, and
flourished greatly. A public benefactor endowed a symphony orchestra in
Boston, which has become a leading feature in American music, improving
the taste of the whole country. Sunday night concerts, at popular prices,
are given in New York by members of the Opera Company, in which city
the finest opera in the world may now be heard every winter. The cost of
a single performance often reaches $10,000, and the receipts, $15,000. The
growth of oratorio societies has developed music to a great extent. The

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984 WORKERS OF THE NATION

standard of church music has also greatly improved, largely through the in-
fluence of the American Guild of Organists. In Boston, free organ recitals
are given by a local club.

A score of American cities give the people music in the public parks,
New York City spending as much as $30,000 a year for this educational
and recreative purpose.

MUSICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

For the benefit of the young men and women of this country who intend
to adopt music as a career, a bill has been introduced in the houses of Con-
gress, at Washington, to establish a national conservatory of music and art,
for the education of advanced pupils in music in all its branches, vocal and
instrumental, as well as painting and drawing and etching. The bill pro-
vides for four departments of equal standard, one to be located in Wash-
ington, and one each in New York State, Illinois and California.

According to the bill, the conservatory to be located in the District of Columbia shall
contain at least forty study rooms for music, capable of accommodating fifty pu,,
pils in each, and twenty art studios to accommodate thirty-five pupils each, and shall
also contain one large assembly or concert-room and one art gallery, together with
such other necessary offices for the convenience of the board of regents, general di-
rector, art masters, teachers, and professors, as well as the clerical force necessary to con-
duct and operate the said conservatory. Pupils will be entitled to attend from the District
of Columbia, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro-
lina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas,
Texas, and Porto Rico. An entrance fee for a term of three years not exceeding $50 shall
be required from each pupil.

Aside from the financial feature, it is claimed that it would save Ameri-
can young men and women from exile. The majority of the young men
who go abroad to study music or art never return to this country. Many of
ihem "become inoculated with the vagrant -and Bohemian habits that are
prevalent in the respective Latin quarters of the big cities of Europe."

At the present time, at a conservative estimate, there are 40,000 Ameri-
can students abroad, scattered in the different cities of Europe. The mini-
mum sum for which they can be maintained in the cheapest parts of Euro-
pean cities is equivalent to $2 per day, which means $80,000 a day of Ameri-
can money paid to foreigners, or $2,400,000 per month. Or, for a three
years' term Americans spend $75,000,000 trying to obtain an education in
music and art abroad, while here at home the four institutions proposed in
the bill mentioned above can be fully equipped and conducted upon the very
highest possible plane within a cost of $1,000,000 per annum.

EARNINGS OF MUSICIANS

While the foremost men of letters and artists are often paid less for their
work than "hack" writers and sign painters, it seems to be the invariable
rule that great musicians, especially operatic singers, receive compensation
commensurate with their ability. Madame Patti in the days when she was
considered the greatest living vocalist, was the best paid singer in the world.

THE MUSICAL PROFESSIONS 985

She often demanded and received $5,000 for a single performance, and sel-
dom received less than $3,000 for one appearance. Madame Melba is never
paid less than $1,000, either in concert or opera, for an evening's work.
Madame Nordica and Madame Eames are paid from $750 to $1,000 for
each appearance at the Metropolitan Opera House, in New York. Madame
Calve's voice yields her even larger returns. When any of the artists just
mentioned sing in concerts they invariably charge a fee of at least $500.

Contralto singers are seldom as well paid as sopranos. Madame Scal-
chi seldom received more than $600 for an operatic performance, and never
more than $300 for appearing in concert. Madame Braemer, when appear-
ing in Wagnerian performances at the Metropolitan Opera House, never
received more than $300 for a night's work.

Among concert singers the one who for several years earned more money
than any of her sisters was Clementine De Vere (Madame Sapio). While
singing in the choir of the West Presbyterian Church in New York she re-
ceived a salary of $3,500. At the same time she was earning at least
$15,000 more singing in concert. For each appearance in concert she
charged from $200 to $350, her fee depending upon the distance which she
had to travel to fill an engagement. She was constantly in demand in all
parts of the country, and she usually filled at least three engagements each
week.

The earnings of choir soloists, vocal teachers, pianists, violinists, harp-
ists, etc., vary in amount from $700 per annum for the soprano singer in a
small choir, to the handsome sum of $125,000 earned by Paderewski during
a single tour in the United States.

SINGING AS A PROFESSION

All great singers and musicians, in attempting to tell others how to suc-
ceed, agree that the voice alone is not all that is necessary. In addition to the
voice there must be good health, sympathy, a fine physique, intelligence, a
musical ear, and a capacity for study. In other words, to be simply a singer
is not sufficient; the singer must be also a musician, an actor, an imper-
sonator and a student.

The singer should regard the voice as a musical instrument, the proper
use of which can be acquired only through practice, just as one learns to
play on the violin or the harp. And while cultivating the voice, learning
how to use it, one should also pursue the study of vocal musical literature.
It is as important for the singer to know the literature of his art as for the
musician — Paderewski, for instance — to know the literature of the piano.
Only in this way can the singer approach his art with intelligence.

Again, the singer must be a linguist ; she — the feminine is here used be-
cause the majority of professional singers are women — must have not only
a working knowledge of Italian, French and German, as well as English,
but she must realize that there is a demand to-day for perfect education in
whatever language the song happens to be written. Many new opportuni-

986 WORKERS OF THE NATION

ties have been offered to public singers in recent years. The opera and con-
cert field has very much widened.

Our country has produced some singers of the very first rank, the State
of Maine, perhaps, taking the lead in this happy eminence. Three singers
of world-wide fame have come from that State.

It is not every singer, of course, who can attain the highest honors, but
women of moderate talent can always earn a good living in the field of vocal
music, which embraces private teaching of voice culture, teaching in the
public schools, choir work, and singing in concerts and festivals.

THE SINGER IN OPERA

The singer who aspires to an operatic career must study hard and long
before she can hope to secure an engagement in grand opera in New York.
In France and Germany the opera houses are also schools of instruction,
where students are instructed in all the details of action and interpretation.
In the grand opera houses in the countries mentioned, debutantes are drilled
for many months in a single role previous to their first appearance. In the
United States, however, the artist must acquire her art outside of the opera
house, coming to the operatic stage with all the necessary theatrical experi-
ence as well as a thorough training in the roles which she is engaged to sing.

Diction is important in opera singing. A singer should think of the
words as well as of the music. Many make an error in thinking that if the
right note is struck the words do not matter. The words should be care-
fully studied before the music is mastered. Nasal exaggeration must be
avoided in singing French. In the interpretation of songs a singer must
have refinement and distinction. The singer's character is revealed in his
singing. A beautiful voice and perfect enunciation are not all that is neces-
sary. Expression, feeling and character are indispensable. The sentiment
and power of expression must be regarded in interpretation. The individu-
ality of a singer must be considered in the selection of songs for concert
rendering, but nevertheless songs of every style must be given, in order to
avoid the danger of getting into a groove.

QUALIFYING AS A PRIMA DONNA

The operatic road from chorus singer to prima donna is a long, up-hill
route, and has many side tracks. She who travels it must work hard and
faithfully under skilled instructors. She must devote many long hours to
patient study and practice. She must take herself seriously, view her un-
dertaking as a stern reality, and give herself up entirely to it. In her art
she must find her life. Regularity and simplicity of daily life, plain food,
plenty of sleep, quiet habits — upon these depend health, and through
health the voice. Voice, the singer's capital, must be watched closely. No
one set of rules for its care can be laid down for all cases. The course to
pursue is determined by individual needs and peculiarities.

Great care should be taken to keep the vocal cords in perfect condition.

THE MUSICAL PROFESSIONS 987

All singers should avoid warping, straining, or roughening these cords;
yet young women frequently invite such results by singing too much or too
high. Trapeze performance with the voice is the height of folly. Vocal
excellence is not conquered in a single battle; there must be a long war.
High notes are not captured by assault, but by siege.

Like a locomotive, the voice should be sent, at it were, regularly to the
repair shop. Seven months is the limit of time that the average voice can
be used continuously with safety. Then should follow five months of rest,
during the first month of which the voice should not be used at all, not even
to practice. Many singers go out of training altogether between seasons.
This is a step backward; for if the singer would push onward, she must
keep in training during her annual halt.

There is no reason why the singer who intelligently uses these few sim-
ple precautions should not retain her voice, in all its fulness, purity and
sweetness, not only for ten or twenty years, but for a lifetime. The musi-
cian becomes, by culture and practice, the artiste, and then, by hard work,
the operatic star; which, continuing in the ascendant, finally attains the first
magnitude, and is called prima donna.

STAGING AN OPERA

The chorus of a grand opera company is obliged to be at the theatre half
an hour before the rise of the curtain, and are carefully inspected in costume
and "make-up" before the performance begins. The principals always
reach the theatre an hour and a half before the curtain rises. A call boy is
used, when "on the road," but in New York there are thirty-two electric
bells in the opera house to do the work.

The ballet is drilled in steps, and rehearsals of the chorus are held on the
stage first, then of the principals, then of all together. The orchestra is
added after about a dozen rehearsals with the piano. Of course, the orches-
tra has practiced the music by itself previously. The entire outfit, princi-
pals, chorus, ballet, and orchestra, have final rehearsals together, lasting
from 10 A. M. to 4 p. M. There are also separate "rehearsals" for the
scenery, lighting and stage properties. In fact, the rehearsals are the most
fatiguing part of the opera singer's work.

When the Grand Opera Company is about to start "on tour," the stage
manager of the Metropolitan Opera House, in New York, has one hundred
assistants simply to pack the trunks of the company. The chorus costumes,
properties and electrical effects require one hundred and thirty trunks.
Each of the principal singers has from twenty-five to thirty trunks. In ad-
dition to this, each member of the chorus and ballet takes one trunk. With
263 persons connected with the company it may be seen that the handling
of the baggage is a difficult problem to solve. An absolutely accurate sys-
tem and method are imperative. Seven wardrobe people attend the com-
pany when on tour, together with four stage carpenters, three property
men, three electricians, a ballet master, and three baggage men. The prin-

988 WORKERS OF THE NATION

cipal soprano and tenor have the first choice of dressing-rooms. The chorus
have to dress in squads. In each different town a new set of "supers" has to
be drilled.

THE CHORUS GIRL

It is perhaps on the comic opera stage that the conditions surrounding
theatrical people are at their worst, especially for those in the chorus. The
average chorus girl is paid only $15 a week, and even if she is given a small
part her salary is not over $35 a week. Ordinarily, chorus girls are sup-
posed to be beyond the pale of conventionality, creatures of vanity whose
morals are not of the strictest. But as a matter of fact young women of
education and refinement can be found in every chorus. They are working
honestly and sincerely to succeed, for they believe that they have a future
before them; but the coarseness, vulgarity, and oftentimes immorality and
vice, which surround them, are almost unbearable. With stout hearts they
bear all these ills, however, for they know that they must make a brave
struggle against fearful odds, and endure untold hardships before success
can crown their efforts.

At rehearsals, especially, they submit to downright brutality, oftentimes,
on the part of foul-mouthed stage managers. But it is these earnest young-
girls who endure and suffer so much, who finally step out from the ranks to
receive the plaudits of the audience, and a large weekly check from the man-
agers, as prima donnas. It is said that the force of character displayed by
young stage women of this sort is fully appreciated and admired by their
companions — a sign which must be accepted as very encouraging for the
future of the personnel of the comic opera company.

During rehearsals for a big comic opera production, the members of the
company are obliged to work without pay. Sometimes the rehearsing
period lasts from four weeks to two months, and from sheer lack of proper
food, it is not unusual for a girl to fall in a dead faint on the stage. The
other members of the company are always ready to relieve distress which
they know to be genuine, and hence the girl who has fainted is often helped
by the generosity of the players, rather than of the management.

One of the most trying phases of stage work for the young chorus girl,
if she happens to be pretty, is the jealousy of the prima donna or one of
the other female principals of the company. A case is related in which a
prima donna at the Metropolitan Opera House, a singer famous the world
over, ordered a chorus girl to go to the dressing-room, because she feared
that when they stood near each other the chorus girl's beauty would distract
the attention of the audience from herself. Professional jealousy in stage life
is more dreaded by the novice than one-night stands or the harsh criticism
of the stage manager. She who possesses the most talent or the greatest
beauty finds herself more often the subject of jealousy on the part of the star
or the principals of the company than her plainer and less talented sisters. A
young actress of great promise was summarily dismissed from a company
because her little act received a curtain call from the audience.

THE MUSICAL PROFESSIONS 989

THE CHORUS MAN

Many chorus men take to the stage after serving in clerical positions in
business houses. They have fairly good voices, and prefer to earn twenty
dollars a week in a chorus rather than half of that sum in a store. A chorus
man, if careful of his health, can keep his voice for many years. Some
have remained for fifteen years with a single company. They often marry
chorus girls, and, by the exercise of thrift, are able to save a little money.
Sometimes a desire "to see the country" draws a man into the chorus of an
opera company. He certainly is essential to the success of a musical pro-
duction, and may justly consider himself a member of a self-respecting
profession.

WRITING A COMIC OPERA

Comic operas are often written to order, and to suit the requirements of
a certain manager or star performer. Subject, treatment and locality must
be first determined upon by the composer and librettist. Novelty in "locale"
is especially desirable, and the humor should arise naturally from the situa-
tions, not being dragged in by the comedian. Picturesque costuming is
demanded by the public. After the skeleton plot of the story has been made,
there must be a synopsis of the musical numbers. Much of the success of
the best songs depends upon the dramatic situation in which they are intro-
duced. Operatic tradition demands an opening chorus, a musical opening
for each act, a good finale both for the first and second acts, the whole opera
of three acts containing from twenty to twenty-four musical numbers, the
last act always being the shortest. The numbers must be properly distrib-
uted, it not being permissible to have two duets come in juxtaposition, for
example, and must illustrate the action of the story, not being interpolated
merely to please a particular singer. The lyric often suggests the melody,
two people who work together for some time often getting to think alike to
a certain extent.

The librettist and composer are in daily consultation, and the detailed
dialogue is often the last thing written. From three to six months are
spent in the construction of a comic opera.

THE SINGER IN CONCERT

To attain great success as a concert singer is said to be even more diffi-
cult than as an opera singer. In the concert-room the singer must fill her
notes with her voice alone ; she is not permitted to make gestures in order to
strengthen the story she is telling ; she must depend for dramatic effect upon
facial expression. In concert the singer is very seldom aided by an
orchestra ; she must usually depend for coloring entirely upon the piano. In
opera, on the other hand, the voice is not only sustained by the orchestra,
but the singer is permitted to act, and acting helps to produce the desired
effect upon the audience. For these reasons some musicians place successful
concert singers above successful opera singers.

990 WORKERS OF THE NATION

More singers should make the concert hall their objective point, instead
of the opera. The voice which is not strong enough for the opera may be
quite suitable for the concert stage. Opera choruses are filled with mediocre
voices, many of which might achieve distinction if properly trained for the
concert-room. With the possession of a good voice must go the capacity
for hard study. Voice production needs much attention. A proper method
must be attained. Young singers ought to be willing to listen to the advice
of those who have won success by careful study, and reform their methods
utterly, if necessary. They ought to permit the experience of older artists
to benefit them, and not reject suggestions for their improvement. Praise
is not so valuable to the young singer as good counsel. The beginning of
wisdom in music is to learn how to study.

IN THE CHOIR

In the modern religious service music holds a very prominent position.
The organist and choirmaster is a person of importance, soloists or quartets
are paid extremely good salaries, and the music is most artistic and at-
tractive.

There are several churches in New York which pay $10,000 a year for
musical services, and some few which pay more than this sum. Solo
singers, in some instances, are paid as much as $1,800, although $1,000 is
considered a good salary. Many of these singers receive engagements for
evening work at the homes of the members of the congregation, which they
find very remunerative. The choirmaster of a large church receives about
forty applications a day. Fine sopranos are difficult to secure. A sweet
and pure lyric voice is required for church work. Mixed choirs are some-
what in vogue. The previous bad training of many singers makes some
choirmasters limit their choirs to boys, whose voices can be molded and
trained as the choirmaster wishes.

The number of paid choirs is increasing, as are the salaries of organists.
As much as $800 a year is sometimes paid to a boy soloist. One church in
New York has a choir of fifty men and boys. The choral side of church
music is now receiving much attention. Vocal pyrotechnics are in very bad
taste. The predilections of the congregation must be considered, and there
must be hearty co-operation between the clergy and the choir.

SONG WRITERS

A song writer must first find a publisher, and secondly, must induce some
notable singer to introduce his creation to the public. As a general rule, it
is wise to have a song published in New York City, as most of the "hits'*
are made here. The ideas may come from the West, but New York is the
best place in which to launch them. A singer like Dockstader can make a
song popular by using it for a week in his repertory. There is no doubt that
people like to hear songs depicting the action and reflecting the atmosphere
of country life, with allusions to fields of corn, and flowers, and running

THE MUSICAL PROFESSIONS 991

brooks. Strong situations and catchy melodies are preferred by many song
writers. Hymn choruses are used sometimes with good effect. Often a
happy title will sell a song. Songs that are sung only on the stage are not
profitable ; they must be taken into the homes of the people. Topical songs
are too restricted in their scope to be productive of good financial returns.
The young lady at her piano should be kept in view, and songs should con-
tain a dash of sentiment, with the ideas of home and mother emphasized.

It may be of interest to note a few songs which have achieved phenome-
nal, national popularity, and made fortunes for their writers. Daniel Em-
mett's "Dixie" was known all over the country. "Old Folks at Home," by
Stephen Foster, and "After the Ball," by Charles K. Harris, made mints of
money. Fifty thousand copies of H. W. Petrie's "I Don't Want to Play in
Your Yard" were sold in the first edition. Fifteen thousand dollars came to
Edward B. Marks for "The Little Lost Child." It is well known that Sir
Arthur Sullivan received $50,000 for his "The Lost Chord," and it is a
matter of history that Balfe got $40,000 for "I Dreamt That I Dwelt in
Marble Halls."

THE ORCHESTRA

While each city and town has its own brass band, only a few of the same
cities and towns have their own orchestras. Attention has been so re-
peatedly called to this fact that a number of cities are now considering the
advisability of supporting an orchestra, by appropriating municipal funds
for the purpose. While the orchestra is lacking in this country as either a
municipal, state, or national institution, permanent orchestras are main-
tained in nearly all the cities of Europe. In fact permanent orchestras are
supported in European cities having a population as small as 25,000 souls.
It is contended that such permanent orchestras should be maintained in
American cities, as the expense where the players are engaged by the season
is small when compared with that of certain other educational and pleasure-
giving institutions.

But while our municipalities are backward in the matter of giving the
people the highest of all music, that of the orchestra, private enterprise has
encouraged music in all its forms, including that branch we are here consid-
ering. While the municipalities employ brass bands in public places and on
social, ceremonial and military occasions, it has been left to private indi-
viduals to establish orchestras. Mr. Damrosch and Mr. Victor Herbert, and
lately Mr. Reginald De Koven and others, are doing all they can to establish
permanent orchestras. They are regularly giving the great symphonies and
other concerted work, at least in the lar^e cities.

All the theatres, of course, employ orchestras, and there are a great num-
ber of private "string" organizations, which render high-class music in pub-
lic halls and at private entertainments. The Metropolitan Opera House, in
New York, maintains one of the best orchestras in the country, and a very
good orchestra has recently been established in Washington by Mr. Regi-
nald De Koven, who acts as its conductor.

992 WORKERS OF THE NATION

A good violinist, a good 'cellist or cornetist, and men proficient in play-
ing the harp and other instruments common to the orchestra, find no diffi-
culty in securing engagements. A great number of musicians who play in
orchestras belong to an organization, or union, similar to those in ordinary
trades. The compensation of the man who plays in a first-class orchestra
may be any amount from $5 to $20 for each performance. Musicians who
play in the orchestras of the ordinary theatres of the country are engaged
by the week, and are paid salaries ranging from $15 to $35.

THE BAND

To secure a position in one of the great bands a musician must be skilled
in the use of his instrument, be able to read and perform any music, no
matter how difficult, at sight, and possess an adaptability to the ideas of the
conductor, who alone fashions and molds the artistic phases of his en-
semble. The work is all done in the rehearsal room, where by untiring pa-
tience and perseverance on the part of the conductor and loyal and intel-
ligent effort from the musicians the end is accomplished that means the
finished public performance.

There are approximately about 10,000 bands of all classes in this coun-
try. The country band is the backbone of it all, and it is in this rough-and-
ready school that Americans are turning their attention to the study of the
less conspicuous and familiar instruments gradually, but naturally the cor-
net and trombone remain first choice. The trombone is the hardest of all the
band instruments to completely master. It is the violin of the bass, and
requires something of a musical instinct as well as musical knowledge and
appreciation to become perfect in the manipulation of the mechanism of it.

The American musician should turn his attention to the study of the
French horn, the oboe and the bassoon, which have but few good performers
in this country, nearly all of whom are foreigners. These instruments do
not figure in the average band, and are therefore practically unknown to the
young aspirant for band honors. The remarkable increase of amusement
parks and resorts, and annual exhibitions, has greatly widened the field for
bands in the United States, opening many and comparatively profitable en-
gagements. The average weekly salary of a bandsman is difficult to esti-
mate, falling so low in some instances as fifteen dollars, but as soon as a
musician distinguishes himself above his fellows he can command a better
financial return. In the military band, as in all other avocations, there is
always room at the top.

The salaries of American bandsmen range from $35 to $150 per week,
and they are the highest paid in the world. Salaries are regulated accord-
ing to the relative value of the instrument and the skill of the performer.
In New York and other cities, musicians' salaries are regulated by their
union — in the smaller communities by demand and supply. A parade en-
gagement nets a New York musician eight dollars.

PART IV
PUBLIC SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS PURSUITS

CHAPTER I
POLITICAL, DIPLOMATIC, AND CONSULAR SERVICE

Politics as a Profession — Politics as a Business — The Political Machine — Methods of
Securing Political Office — Salaries of Federal Officeholders — Holding Office Under
the Fee System — The Diplomatic Service — Method of Appointing Diplomats — The
Consular Service — Method of Appointing Consuls — How the Consuls Help Business
Men

POLITICS AS A PROFESSION

IN THE majority of professions and callings success is built upon many
failures. In politics, however, success very seldom follows a failure.
The politician must build his success upon success. In other callings
failures at the outset do not hurt the young man, but act rather as an in-
spiration to further trials; but in the political arena a first defeat oftentimes
means the end of a man's public career. Moreover, in the wake of defeat
comes censure, sometimes justly, but more often unjustly.

Before the young man adopts politics as a career he should understand
the exact conditions. It cannot be said that there is any school for the
training of politicians other than that of experience. A ward leader has
been elected sometimes to the Mayor's chair in municipalities, and a State
Senator has often been sent to the National Senate chamber at Washing-
ton; but the men who reach the high political places have, most of them,
been natural leaders of men.

The honest and sincere man in public office seldom finds that the rewards
justify the struggles and the sacrifices involved. The salaries of public offi-
cials are in few instances commensurate with the services rendered. Often-
times the salary of the officeholder is not even sufficient to pay his local ex-
penses. What, then, is left? Simply the honor, which in most cases is
fleeting and unsatisfactory.

Even the prejudiced citizen who believes that he should have nothing to
do with politics excepting to drop his ballot in the box, has of late years con-
ceded that politics is a proper and creditable profession. The concession is
based upon the ground that there is no more reason why a man should not
serve the people than that he should not serve an individual or corporation.
The professional politician, moreover, has a higher grasp of public questions
than has the private citizen, and gives better service than the non-profes-
sional politician, for the latter, not making politics his exclusive business,
is obliged to give much of his time, for which he is paid out of the city

(993)
32— Vol. 2

994 WORKERS OF THE NATION

funds, to his private affairs. While politics has no formal recognition as
a profession, in which respect it is like journalism, yet this field is in need
of young men who will enter it and follow it as a permanent career.

POLITICS AS A BUSINESS

Corruption in politics and the frequently faulty condition of government
arise from the fact that the average man is too much engrossed with his own
business to pay any attention to public affairs. It is the personal selfishness
of the citizen that keeps him out of politics. Politics is a sport in England,
and a profession in Germany. Here it is a business. And when by chance
a good man gets into office, the business men are too "busy" to go to the
primaries and renominate and re-elect him. The good office-holder neglects
the "business" of the politicians, and attends to the interest of business men,
and they reward him by confining themselves wholly to their own private
affairs and letting the politicians elect somebody else. Americans want
freedom. They want to be let alone. Politicians will always cater to pub-
lic opinion, if it is strong enough and active enough. Parties are established
to meet some peremptory demand of the people, some principle which is in
the ascendant. When the cry for good government becomes loud enough,
independent organizations are formed which carry the day. But the trouble
is that with security comes carelessness again, the citizen neglects his pub-
lic duties and the politicians regain the ascendency.

But there is no disrepute in legitimate political work. It is erroneous to
imagine that politics must consist of nothing but systematic trickery and dis-
honest intrigue. Shrewdness in manipulation and questionable methods are
not wanted of young men.

THE POLITICAL "MACHINE"

In the political, no less than in the industrial, world organization is the
soul of success. Political leaders look upon politics as a business, even as
an industry, and they know that that industry is most successful which is
most highly organized. It has become the fashion, however, for certain citi-
zens to condemn in politics what they praise in business ; they declare that
the present political organization is very bad and that it should be put on
a business basis, but master organizers declare that it is not possible to place
politics on a business basis except through organization.

It is folly for professional politicians to attempt to hold aloof from par-
ticipation in party organization. The man who hopes to succeed in politics
should understand the workings of every department of the organization as
thoroughly as superintendents and managers and other officials understand
the general scheme of organization in an industrial field while doing all they
can to co-operate with it.

METHODS OF SECURING POLITICAL OFFICE

Nearly all the young men who enter politics belong to one of two classes ;
first, those whose motive is one of public spirit; second, those whose motive

POLITICAL, DIPLOMATIC, AND CONSULAR SERVICE 995

is only that of holding public office. In either case the young man must
begin at the very bottom of the political ladder. He must join the "ma-
chine" as one of its most insignificant attachments. The political machine
begins in the ward precinct at the primary elections, and ends at the Capitol
in Washington with the inauguration of a President, but between the ward
of the city and the steps of the national Capitol there is a vast amount of
machinery, and the young man who expects to succeed in politics, either for
public good or for himself, must begin in the ward precinct.

The young man who starts out properly equipped mentally, may be a
student of politics, but he can hardly be termed a politician. The study of
great questions of state is not sufficient ; he who hopes to hold political office,
or who has the public welfare at heart, must understand the mechanism of
politics ; he must acquire a knowledge of the workings of the political ma-
chine. Therefore, at the start, he must begin first the study of practical
municipal politics.

He finds, first of all, that his party organization, in its various branches,
local, state, and national, is controlled by party leaders, called the "bosses" ;
and he finds that party leadership begins in the precinct ward. It is said that
thorough precinct organization is the foundation of party organization.
There is a common saying : "Take care of the precincts and the city will take
care of itself." The precinct is the smallest division of political territory; it
is the primary district, and it is here that political action begins; so the
young man begins his career in politics by joining the precinct club. The
members of this club choose delegates to represent the ward in the city
nominating convention.

As a precinct is one of the divisions of a ward, the next larger body of
politicians is the ward club. The young man who by enterprise has pushed
himself to the front in the precinct club, soon finds himself a member of the
ward club, and if Fortune favors him, he is ultimately appointed to a place on
the city central committee, the highest organized body in practical municipal
politics.

It is understood, however, that the young man's work thus far has been
preliminary to that of securing nomination for office. He may first of all
be appointed to a minor political office either through the civil service sys-
tem, or through what is known as the "spoils" system. The "spoils" system
prevails wherever the civil service is not in force. The next step is an office
to which he is elected by a popular vote, such as that of Alderman ; after this
he may become President of the Board of Aldermen, then a president of a
borough of the city — and this refers, of course, particularly to New York —
and ultimately he may enter the city hall as Mayor. It does not follow that
every Mayor reaches the highest political office through all the minor offices
just mentioned, but certain it is that every Mayor, previous to his election,
was a party leader.

The young man who aspires to reach the State Capitol as Governor, or
the national Capitol as Senator, and even President, must continue his study

996 WORKERS OF THE NATION

of practical politics, State and National, just as he did at the beginning, in
precinct and city ward.

SALARIES OF FEDERAL OFFICEHOLDERS

There are only 439 civilian officeholders on the pay rolls of the Federal
Government who draw annual salaries ranging from $4,000 and $5,000 to
$50,000, the latter being that of the President of the United States. If the
fifty-seven generals and admirals and chiefs of bureaus of the active mili-
tary establishment be added, the aggregate number between these limits is
still no more than 496. The following is a compilation of the pay of all
persons in Government employ who receive $4,000 or more per annum.

No.

Salary
$50 ooo

Total
$50 ooo

No.

Salary

$IO OOO

Total

SlQO OOO

No.

•1A

Salary

Total
$187 ooo

c .

. . 17,500

87,500

16 ...

. . . 8,000

128,000

I .. .

c,7o6

i . .

• • 13*500

13,500

32 . . .

, . . 7,500

240,000

140 .. .

5,000

700,000

12 OOO

8j.ooo

16 .. .

7,000

112,000

A COO

589 500

1 1 OOO

II OOO

6 ooo

222 OOO

A 2OO

8 400

I .

. IO.SOO

10. cm

i .

"^q

51 .

4,000

204,000

HOLDING OFFICE UNDER THE FEE SYSTEM

While the earnings of those who hold office under the salary system are
in many cases smaller than they should be, the earnings of those ''in office,"
under the fee system, are in many instances greater than is justified by the
services rendered. This point was emphasized by a politician in the city of
Brooklyn, who, in a public statement, said : "I do not know what the emolu-
ments of any of my predecessors were, but I do know what they have been
in my office during the past twelve months. After expending $20,000 more
than was probably ever expended in giving the county a broad and liberal
service, and after giving away upward of $8,000 for charitable purposes,
there still remains to my credit more than $45,000." Thus this politician
brought to light the fact that he was paid for his year's work an amount of
money greater than that paid to the President of the United States, and this
for services requiring only average ability.

The fee system in operation in nearly all the big cities yields such large
returns to those holding positions under it, that in a number of cases the
offices are controlled by politicians who form a syndicate for the purpose of
dividing the fees among themselves. It is stated as a fact that in some cities
the fee offices yield as much as $100,000 a year. The local laws entitle the
holders of such offices to put all such fees in their own pockets.

THE DIPLOMATIC SERVICE

In writing about what is called "ready made" American diplomats and
ministers, it appears to be the fashion to begin by berating our national legis-
lative bodies for what is called the "pauper salary list." This persistent
criticism of the attitude of indifference on the part of Congress toward the
diplomatic service is both natural and unavoidable. There are three de-

POLITICAL, DIPLOMATIC, AND CONSULAR SERVICE 997

fects in our diplomatic, as in our consular, system. There are : First, the
low standard of salary ; second, the method of appointment ; and, third, the
uncertainty of the tenure of office.

The mere number of persons engaged in the diplomatic service is not at
all impressive, as the corps in its entirety numbers less than 200 officials.
These include: At embassies, the ambassador, the first, second and third
secretaries of embassy ; the naval and military attaches, and interpreters ; at
the legations, they include the minister, the first and second secretaries, the
naval and military attaches and interpreters. Therefore, the numerical
strength of the corps does not count. It is the work of the corps which we
must consider. Under modern conditions, the most important battles are
fought in the audience chambers, drawing-rooms, chancellories and foreign
offices in foreign capitals. The result of these battles often has had a more
far-reaching and more beneficial effect than bloody frays on actual battle-
fields. More than one diplomat has prevented a great war, and has there-
fore saved the tax payers of this country the enormous expense which would
have attended such a war.

How does Congress treat these very important representatives of the
United States abroad? As mentioned above, the first defect in our diplo-
matic system is the low standard of salary. The highest salary paid is
$17,500 a year. Only five ambassadors receive this salary, viz. : The am-
bassadors to France, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, and Mexico. A sal-
ary of $12,000 a year is paid to our diplomatic representative to each of the
following countries, namely : Brazil, Austria-Hungary, China, Italy, Japan,
and Spain. A salary of $10,000 a year is paid to our minister to each of the
following countries, viz. : Argentine Republic, Belgium, Chili, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Persia, Salva-
dor, Turkey, and Venezuela. All other salaries paid are less than $10,000
a year, down to the $1,200 received by the third secretary of embassy.

The higher salaries, when considered from the point of view of the demo-
cratic American at home, may seem not only adequate, but even generous
and lordly; but the stay-at-home American forgets that an ambassador is
the direct personal representative of the President of the United States, and
that when he enters a room in a foreign capital it is in every respect just the
same as if Mr. Roosevelt himself were present. Therefore, it is necessary
that the direct representatives of our chief executive should live in a style
commensurate with his high place. This is especially true in Eastern coun-
tries, where the people form their ideas of the importance of a country ac-
cording to the display made by its representative. In Constantinople, for
example, and even in St. Petersburg, pomp and show are of importance in
that they impress the people. Even in London and Paris and Berlin, if our
representative is not to be overshadowed socially by the representatives of
other nations, he may not live in a flat in an obscure portion of the town,
but must make what is called "a showing." It happens, therefore, that the
salaries paid to our ambassadors to Great Britain and France are not suffi-

998 WORKERS OF THE NATION

cient even to pay the house rent of the man who personifies the President
of the United States.

METHOD OF APPOINTING DIPLOMATS

The second defect of our diplomatic system, namely, the method of ap-
pointment, is considered more important than that of inadequate pay. While
it can not be justly said that all appointments are made through personal or
political preferment, certain it is that in many instances men have been taken
from small towns and sent abroad to represent us in places, where the thou-
sand and one little things that make up what is called finesse are wholly
unknown to them.

The third flaw in the system, that of the uncertainty of the tenure of
office, is the most serious and the most important of all.

Most of our ambassadors or ministers at the time of their employment
are wholly untried in the world of diplomacy. Upon reaching their posts
they are obliged to depend upon the coaching of the secretaries or other
subordinates. Even the secretaries are in many cases changed with the
change of administration at Washington. The result is an untrained corps,
and a service which no young man can hope to adopt as a permanent career.
There is no certainty of promotion, there is not even an assurance for a sec-
retary that he will be retained in the service beyond the term of the adminis-
tration in which he has been appointed. The ambassador who has given
his time and his money in patriotic service to his country has no hope of re-
ward other than a perfunctory "well done/' and a request for his resignation
with the coming of a new administration.

Under the present system a young man may be appointed to the position
of third secretary of embassy, at $1,200 a year, or of second secretary of
legation at $1,800 a year, and become ultimately a secretary of embassy or
legation at $2,600 a year. But when he has gone thus far he finds either
that he has gone as high as he can in the diplomatic service, or he is dis-
missed and his years of training have gone to waste by chances of political
favor.

THE CONSULAR SERVICE

The entire American consular service numbers less than 1,300 men.
The importance of the service, however, can not be judged by the number of
men engaged in it, but rather by the benefit which accrues to many thousands
of business men in the United States and to millions of invested capital the
world over.

There are 318 principal consulates, nearly all of which have agencies
under them. The titles of the principal positions in the service are : Consul-
general, consul, and vice-consul-general, commercial agent, deputy consul,
agent, interpreter, and consular clerk. Sometimes, at the small consulates,
our country is represented by a citizen of the country in which the consulate
is located.

Consular positions are eagerly sought by a great number of men, though

POLITICAL, DIPLOMATIC, AND CONSULAR SERVICE 999

just why no one can determine. Certainly the service does not attract men
because of the salaries offered, nor because of the fees which it is possible
to earn. The salaries paid are, in most instances, utterly out of proportion
to the quality of service expected, and to the demands which are made offi-
cially upon those who in foreign countries are our commercial, often our
diplomatic, representatives. Our consuls in important cities, like London
and Liverpool and Paris, receive only $5,000 a year. Our consul-general
in Berlin receives only $4,000 a year. These are the highest salaries paid
in the consular service.

The amount of earnings of consular officers, otherwise, runs from the
sums just mentioned down to no salaries at all. Where no salary is paid,
the consular official must depend upon fees. That a man can not live in this
service by fees alone is shown by the fact that our agent at Dover, England,
earned in 1901 only $5. This represents the total amount earned in repre-
senting this government during the entire year, and yet this particular agent
was appointed in 1885, and hence for nearly twenty years has continued in
the service, earning each year only a few dollars. On the other hand, our
consular officers sometimes earn large fees, three or four times in excess
of their regular pay. Our consul at Nottingham, England, for instance, re-
ceives a salary of $3,000 a year, but in 1901 he also received $11,400 in
fees,

METHOD OF APPOINTING CONSULS

The following order regulating the appointment of consuls, issued by
Grover Cleveland, when he was President, is still in effect :

It being of great importance that the consuls and commercial agents of the United
States shall possess the proper qualifications for their respective positions to be ascer-
tained either through a satisfactory record of previous actual service under the Department
of State or through an appropriate examination, it is hereby ordered that any vacancy in
a consulate or commercial agency now or hereafter existing, the salary of which is not
more than $2,500, nor less than $1,000, or the compensation of which, if derived from
official fees, exclusive of notarial and other unofficial receipts, does not exceed $2,500, nor
fall below $1,000, shall be filled, either by a transfer or promotion from some other position
under the Department of State of a character tending to qualify the incumbent for the
position to be filled; or by appointment of a person not under the Department of State,
but having previously served thereunder to its satisfaction in a capacity tending to qualify
him for the position to be filled ; or by the appointment of a person who, having furnished
the customary evidence of character, responsibility, and capacity, and being thereupon
selected by the President for examination, is found upon such examination to be qualified
for the position.

For the purposes of this order, notarial and unofficial fees shall not be regarded, but
the compensation of a consulate or commercial agency shall be ascertained, if the office is
salaried, by reference to the last preceding appropriation act, and if the office is not
salaried, by reference to the returns of official fees for the last preceding fiscal year.

How THE CONSULS HELP BUSINESS MEN

The American consular service helps American manufacturers and mer-
chants in four ways :

First, by the gathering of data concerning the industries, prices of manu-

iooo WORKERS OF THE NATION

facture and markets open to American goods in foreign countries; second,
by the general dissemination of that knowledge in this country; third, by
response to individual inquiries containing minute information relative to
an important matter of commerce or manufacture; and, fourth, by the for-
warding of samples of new products or of certain kinds of merchandise par-
ticularly suited to this or that market, the establishment of sample rooms at
the consulates for the exhibition of American goods, and the maintenance
of agencies for the sale of American products.

Every consular officer is expected to watch the development of trade and
industry in the country to which he is assigned, and to send information
concerning industrial and commercial developments to the home office as
quickly as possible. In certain cases in which the information would be
particularly helpful to the American business world, if such information be
of a kind which should be imparted at once, the consular officers are in-
structed to use the cable. Hence, in addition to the data asked for by or
through the State department, a great deal of valuable information is sent
voluntarily.

All information coming in from the consuls is made public daily in The
Consular Report. This report, therefore, may be called a daily newspaper.
In it all information of immediate value and importance is thus brought to
the attention of every board of trade and every chamber of commerce and
every exporting house throughout the country. By application to the State
Department, these reports will be mailed direct to those who may desire
them. The more general manner of distributing this news, however, is
through the newspaper press. Copies of the daily consular report are sent
every morning to every newspaper correspondent in Washington, and at the
same time copies are mailed to newspapers all over the country. Editors
and correspondents are at liberty to print all or a part of the report according
as the information which it contains may be of value. The result is that
almost every issue of a daily newspaper contains extracts from these re-
ports, while in hundreds of instances the reports are printed in full.

So thoroughly and intelligently does the consular service meet the de-
mand for information concerning foreign markets that the Department, as
before stated, now conducts an enormous correspondence with important
business concerns, located in all parts of the United States, who have learned
by experience that consular officers can be relied upon to make exhaustive re-
ports even on scientific and other special subjects. One firm of exporters
has declared that if all the consular officers were trained newspaper corre-
spondents, the trade news in foreign countries could not be better handled.

CHAPTER II
THE ARMY AND NAVY

The Regular Army — Organization of the Army — The Training of Army Officers — General
Conditions at the Military Academy — The Private Soldier — Promotion in the Army —
Volunteers and Militiamen — The Navy, Preparing a Warship for Service — The Per-
sonnel of the Navy — General Conditions at the Naval Academy — The Training of
Naval Officers — The Enlisted Force in the Navy — The Naval Apprentice — The "Jackie"
and Promotion in the Navy — The Landsman — The Marine Corps

THE REGULAR ARMY

THOSE trained in the military service may be classed into three divi-
sions, first, he who in his boyhood is reared, trained and disciplined
to the profession of arms, where the influence, experience and pres-
tige of parental or professional instructor is directed toward developing the
boy's -military talents, and the boy in his youth has all the advantage of
acquaintance with, observation of and, possibly, experience in the actual
conditions of war.

The second class includes the boy who enters the modern military
academy, where the history, the theory and the technical application and
illustration of the art of war are demonstrated in every possible way, and
where the boy receives such instruction as enables him to apply the prin-
ciples of the science to the varied conditions of actual warfare. At the
same time his mental and physical instruction is of such a character as to
best prepare him for the rigid and exacting requirements of the service.

The third class is composed of men who possess the courage and
natural qualifications most essential for those in the military service who
have not had paternal or academic instruction, yet who possess all the
enthusiasm, patience, fortitude and gallantry that prompt them to seek the
field of carnage and do battle for their country.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY

All the recognized general principles concerning the maintenance of an
army apply especially to the 3,820 officers and 59,866 enlisted men com-
prising the regular army of the United States. The Act of Congress of
February 2, 1901, provides that the total enlisted strength of the army shall
not exceed at any one time 100,000 men.

The army in active service, as now organized under the above act, com-
prises :

• First : Fifteen regiments of cavalry, 750 officers and 12,620 enlisted men.

Second : An artillery corps, 30 batteries of field artillery and 126 com-
panies of coast artillery, 651 officers and 17,742 enlisted men.

(1001)

1002 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Third: Thirty regiments of infantry, 1,500 officers and 25,345 enlisted
men.

Fourth: Three battalions of engineers, 1,282 enlisted men, commanded
by officers detailed from the corps of engineers.

Fifth : Staff corps, military academy, Indian scouts, recruits, etc., 2,877
enlisted men.

Sixth : A provisional force, consisting of one regiment in Porto Rico,
31 officers and 545 native enlisted men; 50 companies of native scouts in
the Philippines, 100 officers and about 5,000 enlisted men.

THE TRAINING OF ARMY OFFICERS

In no institution in the world are the requirements greater and the
discipline more exacting than in the United States Military Academy at
West Point. From the establishment of the academy, in 1802, to 1811,
the percentage of admitted cadets who graduated was sixty per cent. Dur-
ing the next ten years the percentage fell to twenty-eight per cent. In the
fallowing decade it rose to thirty-seven per cent. From 1832 to 1841,
forty-seven per cent of every hundred graduates who entered secured com-
missions in the army. During the subsequent years up to 1851, fifty-one per
cent graduated. During the decade just before the troublous days of '61
the percentage increased to fifty-two. In latter days, in a period of nearly
forty years, the average percentage of cadets entered at the academy who
graduated was fifty-nine.

During the academic season of the year, which extends from September
to June, the cadet is allowed to sleep until 6:15 A.M. At the sound of the
first call to reveille, the cadet must spring out of bed and his day's work
begins at once, lasting, with time for meals and a few short periods for
relaxation, until ten at night. His time is taken up with the most arduous
mental work, with drills and gymnastic training at such hours that the
physical work gives the best relief possible from the fatigue incident on
study and recitation.

On arising, the young man must dress quickly and with absolute neat-
ness. Exactly fifteen minutes after reveille, "police call" is heard, and the
cadet must make up his room with perfect neatness, every step being ac-
cording to regulation. There is an exact way of rolling the mattress at
the head of the bed, and of placing the pillow over it and of folding the
covering over the pillow. Every garment not in use has its exact place and
must be found nowhere else. Books and papers are placed, according to
rule, on the study table. The floor must be swept to a condition of abso-
lute spotlessness.

Very little time is allowed for the "police work." Then bugle call
summons the battalion to form outside of the quadrangle. The formation
and marching must be carried out with as great precision as in any drill
or parade. After marching into the mess-hall the cadets file to their seats,
to which they are regularly assigned, according to rule. At each table

THE ARMY AND NAVY 1003

there is one cadet in charge, who is held accountable for the preservation of
order at that table.

Breakfast is finished at about 7.10 or fifty-five minutes after the young
man was called from his night's rest. Now "sick call" is sounded by a
bugler, and all cadets who feel themselves in need of medical advice or
treatment report at the hospital to the surgeon-in-charge. In case of an
ailment that does not interfere with the day's work, the cadet is supplied with
medicine. Should he be found to be' bodily unfit for recitations and drills,
he is ordered to his quarters. In this case he may study if he is able to, or
may rest until he is in condition to resume work. But if at "sick call" the
cadet's condition is found to be serious, he is ordered into the hospital and
treated there.

Punctually at eight o'clock there is another bugle call, which summons
the entire battalion to the most serious work of the day. Each class is di-
vided into sections for purposes of recitation, and each section forms and
marches to the proper classroom. Each instructor is an army officer and a
graduate of West Point, who has shown special aptitude in the branches
he teaches. The instruction is as nearly individual as possible. There are
never more than a dozen cadets in one section, while some contain as few
as seven. Each military student is thus able to secure a large share of his
instructor's attention, which tends, of course, to bring out special aptitude.

At one o'clock comes an intermission of an hour. The battalion again
forms outside of the barracks, marches to mess, and remains there until
140. Twenty minutes for recreation follows, and then two hours more of
hard work in the section rooms. At 4.10 P.M. the battalion turns out for
drill. This is over at 5.30, but it is immediately followed by dress parade.
Supper formation is made at 6.30, and the meal lasts until seven o'clock.

It would seem to a young civilian that this ought to complete a pretty
fair day's work, but the mental requirements of the academic work are so
exacting that the young man must now go to his room and study hard for
three hours. At ten o'clock lights are out, and the cadet has eight hours
and fifteen minutes absolutely to himself. During the summer encampment
the cadet is required to rise at 5.30, but is free from his books. Nearly all
the day is taken up with drills and guard is maintained night and day until
the encampment is broken up.

GENERAL CONDITIONS AT THE MILITARY ACADEMY

For instruction in infantry tactics and in military police and discipline,
the cadets are organized into a battalion of four companies, under the Com-
mandant of Cadets, each company being commanded by an officer of the
army. The officers and non-commissioned officers are selected from those
cadets who have been mast studious, soldier-like in the performance of their
duties, and most exemplary in their general deportment. In general the
captains and lieutenants are taken from the first class. There are four
cadet captains, fourteen lieutenant cadets — two of them discharging the du-

1004 WORKERS OF THE NATION

ties of adjutant and quartermaster respectively — a sergeant-major, a quarter-
master-sergeant, twenty other sergeants and twenty corporals. All cadets,
without regard to class or the duties performed, receive the same pay—
$540 a year. This sum, with proper care, can be made to cover all the
cadet's expenses, and often leave him enough at the end of the four years'
course to buy his uniform and arms when he receives his commission.

The boy who succeeds at the Military Academy is the one who is ame-
nable to discipline. There is punishment for every delinquency, nor is this
punishment ever omitted or rescinded where guilt is proven. The delin-
quencies not serious enough to entail suspension or dismissal are divided
into seven groups. Every offence possible is in this long category, and
each of the seven divisions has its own number of demerits, ranging from
one for an untidy floor to ten for an offence so grave as insubordination or
disobedience. There are supplementary punishments, such as "punishment
tours," i.e., marching across the quadrangle for a stated number of hours in
full uniform and carrying rifle and bayonet. "Punishment tours" are
walked Saturday afternoons after inspection, at a time when other cadets
are enjoying themselves in any proper form of relaxation that they prefer.
Another supplementary punishment is confinement for a stated number of
weeks or months within prescribed limits, which cuts off for that time all
of the cadet's opportunities for pleasant and relaxing social life.

For lying or other offences against morality the punishment is invari-
ably dismissal, for manliness is the keynote of that for which the academy
training strives. Truthfulness and obedience are treated as of prime
importance in a cadet's career, and the mental and bodily training comes
next.

THE PRIVATE SOLDIER

The nation takes a great deal of pains with the new soldier. It does
not coddle him to make him a child of luxury, but it improves him phys-
ically, mentally and morally by a system of training which develops the
worthy characteristics of a man and makes him a better fighting unit. In
the scheme of making a soldier's life agreeable to himself and the service
acceptable enough to prevent him from being a deserter, the matter of
physical training has developed into a business which the army surgeons
conduct with a good deal of thought and care. They realize that military
efficiency depends upon the strength, activity and endurance of the soldier,
and that he is the better fighter in proportion to his bodily vigor, suppleness
and ability to withstand the fatigue and hardship of long marches and a
campaign in the field.

The recruit is selected, in the first place, with every consideration of his
health and strength when he applies at the recruiting office, but naturally
many men who are enrolled stand in need of further development, and this
is a part of an important and systematic process to which the new soldier is
promptly subjected. A man who becomes a soldier may have worked at

THE ARMY AND NAVY 1005

hard manual labor and may have developed one part of his body to the
sacrifice of another. He has abnormal power in one set of muscles and
none in another set. Such men pass the surgeon's examination at the re-
cruiting office, but they must be put through the regular course of gymnastic
drill, which gives them a symmetry in development, and finally gives to our
troops of cavalry and companies of artillery and infantry that splendid
physical appearance which has been recognized as the ideal in soldierly
bearing and presence.

The care of the soldier takes the form of a robust training, which
neglects no part of his anatomy and no organ of his body. The nervous
system and the heart are looked after quite as much as the muscles of his
legs and arms, and one of the most important of the physical exercises is
that which relates to his chest and lungs. He is made to run and walk and
breathe — the latter function being more difficult for new soldiers than peo-
ple imagine.

The military authorities make these exercises as entertaining as pos-
sible. They furnish music whenever it can be obtained. They encourage
competitive tests and rivalry in the shape of athletic meets, and the officers
take so great an interest in their commands as to provide prizes for those
who surpass records. A part of the fund gathered by the post exchange is
always used in the equipment of a gymnasium in which enlisted men take
the greatest pride. In the cavalry, the animals come in for a part of the
spectacular exercises which are possible by the combination of men and
horses. The well-drilled troop of United States cavalry in some of its
manoeuvres furnishes an exhibition which rivals that of the professional
riders of the best circus in the world.

One feature of serving in the army is that a man can make it a life
service, and if he properly deports himself he can rest assured of a fair
income until his death. Even though sickness or old age come he is pro-
vided for. There are pensions and salaries for those who have retired on
account of old age or sickness. This shows that the government is more
sympathetic in its treatment of employes than most private concerns.

PROMOTION IN THE ARMY

In the army the way for advancement is clearly defined, and if the officer
performs his duties thoroughly he will gradually make his way upward
according to well-established rules of promotion. There are few excep-
tions. A young officer who makes a special mark in any particular line
will be promoted above the heads of those who have shown no such apti-
tude. Our late war brought out a whole crop of young West Point gradu-
ates, who distinguished themselves and were accordingly advanced rapidly.
This special promotion may also follow in times of peace. A young officer
in the engineering department of the army may become an authority on his
particular subject. His gifts may win special rewards for him. Sometimes
he receives special appointments on commissions named by the President,

ioo6 WORKERS OF THE NATION

or he contrives inventions which the government takes from him and pays
liberal compensation for. There is, indeed, opportunity for a bright, per-
sistent student of engineering, of mechanics, or of war strategy to distin-
guish himself. He has the advantage of government aid, advice, and
a special library of reference works to facilitate his work.

VOLUNTEERS AND MILITIAMEN

In several countries under monarchical government, especially where
they are in close proximity to each other, it has been deemed for the best
interests of the state to require a large portion of the able-bodied male
population of a certain age to become drilled and trained soldiers. In
general, where such a rule is in force, the young man is first required to
serve a certain number of years with the regiments ; after that he must serve
a limited time during each year for several years with the colors, and
from that time until he ceases to be of suitable age he continues part of the
grand reserve of the military force of the nation. It has been claimed by
some authorities that this experience, aside from its necessity in pre-
serving the safety and strength of the nation, is beneficial to the man during
life inasmuch as the young man is taught discipline, respect for superiors,
habits of obedience to lawful authority, habits of regularity of life, and is
required to exercise self-control and to practice the most rigid rules for the
development of his strength and the preservation of health.

In a republic like ours, however, all of this service is voluntary, for when
a man enters the military profession, whether it be to devote his life to the
service, or whether he enters it at a time of great emergency for a brief
period, he accepts cheerfully of his own accord the obligations imposed.

In all sections of the country the term "National Guard" is applied to
the militia. The term is not strictly correct, but its use is explained as "an
anticipation of a Federal reorganization of the militia of the whole United
States." Until such reorganization takes place, however, our volunteer
forces remain simply State troops, and we can have no national guard.
Every State in the Union, meanwhile, has its militia, in which are enlisted
young men of all stations in life, rich and poor, and engaged in every known
trade and profession. In the ranks of the Seventh Regiment of New York,
in the Twenty-third Regiment, and in Squadron A of the same State, there
are millionaires as well as mechanics.

The total number of men liable to military service in the United States
is about 12,000,000. The total number of militiamen authorized by the
various States is less than 200,000. The total organized force, so far as
the militia of the States is concerned, is only about 106,000 men. With
nearly 14,000 men enlisted in New York, this State leads in point of num-
bers. Pennsylvania comes next with 10,000 men; then Massachusetts and
Ohio each with 5,000; then New Jersey with 4,000. The smallest number
of National Guardsmen is to be found in South Dakota, which has less than
100 militiamen under arms.

THE TRAINING OF A SOLDIER-UNITED STATES TROOPS
ON THE MARCH

DRAWN BY FREDERIC REMINGTON

THE ARMY AND NAVY 1007

THE NAVY — PREPARING A WARSHIP FOR SERVICE

As soon as a ship-of-war is completed she must be commissioned, which
means being put in charge of her officers and crew and in all respects
prepared for service. In the case of a battleship or a large cruiser, 400 or 500
men and officers must be provided. Vessels are commissioned as soon as
they are completed, in order to ascertain if all the requirements of the speci-
fications covering their construction have been complied with. These are
speed ; power of machinery ; the installation and working of the battery ; the
ship's equipment, such as the working of the anchors and chains ; the boats,
steering-gear, compasses, electrical appliances, and many other, almost un-
namable, devices now in use in modern ships-of-war. The demands upon
the personnel of the Navy are further illustrated by the fact that modern
ships, especially battleships and torpedo boats, should always be cared for by
keeping a reduced crew on board of them, even when laid up at the Navy
Yard and not commissioned for active service. A battleship is of the most
complicated construction. It is filled with auxiliary engines and labor-
saving machines, none of which should be neglected or allowed to deteri-
orate, but all kept in working order so that they may quickly be put into
working condition, and when thus being looked after the ship is said to be in
reserve.

Torpedo boats, many of which are supplied to all modern navies, are of
especially delicate construction in hull, engines and boilers, and if not con-
stantly cared for by trained men will rapidly go to pieces. A proper knowl-
edge of how to handle as well as to care for torpedo boats requires their
being frequently used, which of course means additional officers and men.
In order to carry on the training of the personnel, the services of many
officers and many of the Navy's trained petty officers and men are required.

A training ship, no more than any other ship, can be sent to sea with a
crew of landsmen alone. She must have a crew of seamen sufficiently large
in number to navigate her under all conditions of weather, independent of
the men undergoing a course of training. At the present time the following
ships of our Navy are being used to train landsmen for seamen : the Hart-
-ford, Lancaster, Mohican, Topeka, Buffalo, Dixie, Alliance, and the battle-
ship Indiana. It is the intention to -add to this number, in the near future,
the Panther and the Prairie. The Alert, Essex, and Monogahela are also
being used in the training of naval apprentices.

THE PERSONNEL OF THE NAVY

The duties of a naval officer are multifarious and never-ending. The
properly equipped naval officer, under modern requirements, can not be im-
provised ; he can only be produced by a long and laborious course of study
and training. To have him in time of war we must produce him in time of
peace. The trained man-of-war's man is also a necessity, but the trained
officer is even more essential. The demand for his services is very great;

ioo8 WORKERS OF THE NATION

for not only is he required on board our battleships and cruisers actually in
commission, but, as already shown, a large number are employed in carrying
on the training of the newly enlisted personnel.

Besides those officers required for duty on board ship (and there are
now, out of the entire list of lieutenants and ensigns, 77 per cent at sea), a
very considerable number are required for a proper administration of the
several bureaus of the Navy Department, the administration of our Navy
Yards and receiving ships, and for the inspection of the ships and their ma-
chinery under construction ; also for inspection of material for ship and gun
construction, for which purpose alone sixty-one officers are now employed ;
and, finally, at the Naval Academy, where forty-nine officers of the line are
now on duty, all engaged in the very necessary service of training, drilling,
and disciplining the cadets under instruction.

The Personnel bill, reorganizing the line of the Navy, passed by Con-
gress in March, 1899, transferred all engineer officers to the line. In
order to create a proper flow of promotion, this bill provided that there
should be, each year, forty vacancies in the line above the grade of ensign.
The graduates from the Naval Academy being our source of supply to the
grade of ensign (the lowest commissioned officer), it follows, that unless
the number of graduates each year exceeds forty, there will be no increase
in the total number of commissioned officers. The number of graduates of
the Naval Academy during the past five years has averaged below forty.

The number entering the Naval Academy each year must therefore be in-
creased. This has been done to a moderate extent by changing the law
governing admissions, so that at present each Congressional representative
may always have an appointee at the Academy, provided he passes the neces-
sary entrance examinations. Even with this change, the output of gradu-
ates will not be sufficient to meet the demands of the service, and its effect
at best can not be felt for several years to come. It is suggested that each
representative in Congress be given two appointments instead of one.

The active list of the Navy comprises 1,346 commissioned, 461 warrant,
officers; and 25,258 men. By act of Congress of March 3, 1899, a force of
150 warrant machinists to perform engineer duty was also provided, and
increases authorized in the medical, pay and marine corps.

THE SHIPS OF THE NAVY

The vessels of the Navy fit for service January i, 1903, numbered 223;
vessels under construction numbered 63 ; vessels unfit for sea service num-
bered 24; total number of vessels. 310.

The total included 19 seagoing battleships, 10 armored cruisers, 7 double-
turret monitors, one ram, 9 single-turret monitors, 27 unarmored steel ves-
sels; 23 gunboats, 3 vessels of a special class, 5 auxiliary cruisers, 37 tor-
pedo boats, 8 submarine boats, 16 torpedo-boat destroyers, and a number of
unarmored gunboats, old naval vessels, tugs, and vessels used by various
State Naval militia.

THE ARMY AND NAVY 1009

GENERAL CONDITIONS AT THE NAVAL ACADEMY

Until very recently, no more provision for naval officers had been made
for our new and more modern navy than had been necessary to officer the
wooden vessels of earlier days. Congress was made finally to appreciate this
fact so keenly that, in the bill approved June 7, 1900, making appropriations
for the navy during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, provision was
made for a substantial increase in the number of naval cadets allowed at the
United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. That act provided that :

Whenever any naval cadet shall have finished four years of his undergraduate course
of six years, the succeeding appointment may be made from his congressional district, or
at large, in accordance with existing law. The appointees to follow the two classes of
cadets now at sea may enter the Academy during the present year; and those to succeed
the class, which is now finishing its four years of study, shall be appointed before March
4th, next, to enter the Academy during the year 1901.

This provision virtually made an increase of thirty-three and a third per
cent in the number of cadets allowed at the Academy during any given time
by reducing the course at the Academy from six to four years and allowing
a new cadet to be appointed from each Congressional district and organized
Territory, as well as from the District of Columbia and at large, every four*
years instead of every six years, as had been the law and practice up to that
time.

The experiment of operating through the agency and under the auspices
of the Civil Service Commission, was tried on August 13, 1901. It proved
to be so satisfactory that, under date of September 26, 1901, the Navy
Department issued a general regulation on the subject, providing in accord-
ance with arrangements made with the Civil Service Commission, that
hereafter, till further notice, all examinations will be held at various points
throughout the United States, under its supervision, and that no examina-
tion will be held hereafter at the Naval Academy for admission.

Under the new arrangements, three examinations for admission into
the Naval Academy will be held each year : the first on the third Tuesday in
April; the second, on August n, each year, at points designated by the
United States Civil Service Commisssion nearest the homes of the candi-
dates; the third, at Washington, D. C., only on September 15, each year, for
the accommodation of all candidates who have for any reason been unable
to report for examination at an earlier date. Under this arrangement,
however, confusion will arise, if it is not remembered that the Civil Service
Commission has nothing whatever to do with the selection or appointment
of cadets. . .

Under the law and regulations as they now stand, each candidate for
admission into the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., must
be between the ages of fifteen and twenty years when he reports to the
superintendent of the Academy ; must be unmarried ; must be of good moral
character ; must be almost perfect physically ; must be a bona fide citizen and
actual resident of the Congressional District and State, Territory, the Dis-

33 — Vol. 2

ioio WORKERS OF THE NATION

trict of Columbia or the United States at large, according to his appoint-
ment, and he must stand a satisfactory examination in reading, writing,
spelling, arithmetic, geography, punctuation and use of capitals, English
grammar, United States history, and the outlines of the world's history.

THE TRAINING OF NAVAL OFFICERS

Under the present system the cadet remains for four years at Annapolis,
engaged in study. He is then sent to sea for two years, and returns for his
final examination. It is only after such final examination that the cadet be-
comes a commissioned officer.

A very important factor in the training of the naval cadet is the summer
cruise. The first week in June is the usual date of setting sail from the
Academy. The "middie" packs his belongings and takes them aboard the
Practice Ship, especially provided for the cadet's cruise. The U. S. S.
Chesapeake was built for this express purpose, but in recent years the
U. S. S. Indiana has been used in addition, owing to the increased number
of cadets.

After having been at sea for some time the practice ship points her bow
* toward the coast, where she again comes to anchor. Selecting a long,
clear stretch of water the "middies" are drilled in target practice, a floating
target being previously moored 1 ,600 or 1 ,800 yards away. With the six-
pounders and four-inch rapid fire guns the cadets make some remarkably
fine shots, thus illustrating the value and advisability of actual gun practice.
While riding at anchor the cadets have many other drills, such as unrigging
the row boats and lowering them to the water. This is calculated to insure
quick action and means of escape in case the practice ship should get so
seriously damaged that she would have to be abandoned. Fire drills are
given at the most unexpected times to further insure the proficiency of the
cadets.

When six or seven weeks have been spent in training our future naval
officers aboard a sailing vessel, they are transferred to a modern man-of-war.
In this way the cadet becomes familiar with the construction and working of
the steering-gear, anchor-hoist, and massive engines, which require days of
study to thoroughly understand their intricate make-up. While the cadet
has no sails to furl or loose, he must sketch and satisfactorily explain the
working of these wonderful devices by which the great steel monster of the
ocean is made to perform its work. The large guns of the war ship also pro-
vide ample opportunities for study. Accurate sketches have to be drawn of
the various guns, boilers, and sets of machinery, showing the different parts
and illustrating their use.

THE ENLISTED FORCE IN THE NAVY

In the navy, as well as in the army, there is a shortage of both men and
officers. An official of the Bureau of Navigation not long ago declared that
if the government were to be suddenly called upon to man for war service all

THE ARMY AND NAVY ion

the vessels available in the navy yards it would be confronted with a re-
quirement impossible to meet. As the matter stands to-day, there are not
even enough line officers to man the vessels already constructed. As soon
as the new ships now under construction are put into commission the de-
mand for officers and sailors will be more pressing than ever. Meanwhile
the Navy Department is making every effort to secure apprentices and re-
cruits, so that a sufficient number of trained seamen will be ready to man
the new ships.

Man-of-war's men are of two kinds — the one who entered as a boy be-
tween the ages of fourteen and eighteen, and the one who entered the navy
as a man. The one who entered as a boy has a very decided advantage over
the one who began his naval life after his twenty-first year. The boy who
began as an apprentice has the benefit of long training, and it is he who,
later in life, is promoted to the higher positions on board ship. A compari-
son of the courses which the boy, called the apprentice, and the man, called
the landsman, must pass through before becoming first-class seamen, will
show why the apprentice has the advantage of the landsman, and why the
landsman is still scrubbing decks or polishing brasses while the younger man
has steadily advanced from 'prentice to warrant officer.

The principal recruiting station for apprentices is the old receiving ship
Vermont, at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Eighty-five per cent of the appr
tices who apply here for enlistment are of American birth, and only a fe
them have ever seen more of the sea than that which lies betweea the Ba
and Coney Island. Each of the lads must bring a letter of recommenda
from his teacher or employer, and a letter in which consent is given for
enlistment from his parents or guardians. After he has been accepted by
the sharp-eyed and long-experienced recruiting officer, he is placed in charge
of the medical officer to undergo a physical examination a great deal more
severe than that imposed by any life insurance company. If he passes the
physical test successfully he must then sign papers, by which he binds himself
to the government until he is twenty-one years of age.

THE NAVAL APPRENTICE

Within a few hours after his enlistment he is fitted with a typical sailor's
costume. His trousers flare at the bottom, and on the breast of his jumper
appears the figure-of-eight knot. His pay is $9 a month. Not until he has
reached the dignity of twenty-one years and the rank of seaman will the
figure-of-eight knot be shifted from the breast to the sleeve cuff of his
jumper. Meanwhile he will have passed through several periods of train-
ing, his education continuing without vacation for the entire term of his ap-
prenticeship.

After a week or two on the Vermont he is transferred, in company with
twenty or thirty other apprentices, to the United States training school at
Coasters Harbor, near Newport. Here he begins what really may be called
his college life, for now his education begins in earnest. A thousand or

ioi2 WORKERS OF THE NATION

more other boys are here undergoing the same schooling, so the young ap-
prentice has no chance to be lonely. The very first thing the youngster is
taught is how to make himself clean, and how to stay clean. A soiled
jumper, an unpolished shoe at the training school, as anywhere else in the
navy, is an offence for which no excuse is accepted. Though he lives in
barracks, the apprentice's daily life is regulated exactly as on board a battle-
ship or a cruiser, excepting that in addition to ship-board duties he is trained
in land evolutions. On the lawn surrounding the barracks masts are
planted, each with its full complement of rigging and sails. Here the
apprentice learns "rigging jumping," free from the danger of falling over-
board.

A bright boy finishes his course at the training school in about three
months ; the dullest is supposed to get through in six months. Now comes
the apprentice's baptism of salt water, for he is now put aboard a real ship,
and soon finds himself actually at sea. The principal training ships are the
Essex, which is a bark-rigged steam auxiliary, and the Monongahela, a full-
rigged ship, depending entirely upon her sails. It is to one of these ships
that the apprentice is transferred from the training school. If aboard the
Essex, he is in the company of 200 other apprentices ; or, if aboard the
Monongahela, his shipmates number more than 300. For the training of
seamen the Navy Department still adheres to the opinion that the best vessel
for the purpose is one under sail. The argument is that the best way to
make a sailor is to teach him how to sail. On each of the training ships a
large crew of thoroughly seasoned man-of-war's men is carried. It is the
duty of these man-of-war's men, or jackies, to help teach the apprentices and
instruct them in the ways of the sea ; hence the working of the ship is prac-
tically given over to the boys who perform their duty under the direct super-
vision of the jackies, and of naval officers whom the Department has chosen
as specially qualified for the* purpose.

At last the cruise in the training ship ends, and now the apprentice is
sent to a receiving ship, there to await transfer to the first man-of-war that
calls for more hands. Once aboard the battleship, the cruiser, the gunboat,
the torpedo boat, or whatever class of vessel he happens to have been as-
signed to, the apprentice is still officially only a boy, though he now does the
work of a man-of-war's man. From the very moment he steps foot upon
a warship he becomes a part of the fighting force of the United States Navy,
and from this moment onward his advancement depends entirely upon his
own ability. It may possibly take him some months to discover just which
branch of the service he is best fitted for. In making his choice, especially
if he is a bright boy, he will be helped in every possible way by the officers
of the ship. He may become a signal boy of the first class, or he may enter
the dynamo-room with a view to becoming in later years a chief electrician ;
or he may prefer to become a. gunner, in which case he joins one of the gun
crews.

After three years on a ship of war he has become a first-class apprentice,

THE ARMY AND NAVY 1013

and is paid $21 a month. If he now wishes to have certain special instruc-
tion in a particular branch of the service, he makes the proper application,
and is transferred to the naval station, where he is instructed in his chosen
specialty. At the age of twenty-one, however, no matter where he is, he
is discharged with the title of "man." Nine out of ten of such "men/' how-
ever, immediately re-enlist and become full-fledged jackies.

THE "JACKIE" AND PROMOTION IN THE NAVY

The law is now such that it is possible for a Jackie to become a com-
missioned officer, to go forth from the fo'castle to the ward-room. Only the
very brightest and smartest, however, can even hope to take advantage of
the law which gives the enlisted man a chance to wear the gold braid and
the sword of a naval officer. Even the smartest must have the advantage of
gentle birth, for in the navy the "officer-and-a-gentleman" idea is more
jealously guarded, even, than in the army. Meanwhile, if he has taken the
course of instruction in gunnery at the Newport torpedo station, he can in
six months hold the official rank of seaman gunner. In the next step he be-
comes a warrant officer with the rank of gunner, and an annual pay increas-
ing from $75 to $150 a month.

If he is studious and a hard worker, "has natural talent and the qualities
a gentleman, it is possible for him to go before an examining board befo
he is thirty years of age, with a view to passing an examination as
ensign. In other words, he is now a candidate for a commission.

THE LANDSMAN

Elsewhere in this chapter reference is made to the landsman — he who
entered the navy at an age beyond his twenty-first year. What has the
landsman been doing while the apprentice has been forging ahead? And
what are the landsman's chances for advancement ? The very fact that he
enlisted as a grown man, as already explained, is to his great disadvan-
tage. With probably an exceedingly limited education and with little, or,
more probably, no experience at sea, he is simply regarded by officers and
jackies and apprentices alike, as a land-lubber, only fit to do the menial work
of the ship. On board such training ships as the Buffalo, Hartford, Dixie,
Lancaster and Prairie, however, he is instructed in the duties of a seaman
quite as thoroughly as are the apprentices on the Essex and Monongahela;
but it must be remembered that the landsman does not receive the prelimi-
nary training which is vouchsafed to the apprentices, and therefore is handi-
capped throughout his career.

Though he is older than the apprentice, he will ever remain several
years behind the latter in professional knowledge and skill. Even when he
is transferred from the training ship to the ship-of-war, his education is not
nearly as complete as that of the apprentice. His knowledge of naval, if not
of nautical, affairs, is indeed so limited and superficial that only by the hard-
est work, and after many years of enlistment, can he hope to attain the rank

ioi4 WORKERS OF THE NATION

of one of the more important petty or warrant officers. He may become a
third-class petty officer, such as carpenter's mate or coxswain, with an an-
nual pay of $480; or he may even become chief master at arms, with an
annual pay of about $800, but because of what he lacks in the way of edu-
cation it is probable that he has now reached the limit of promotion, can
go no higher.

THE MARINE CORPS

The marines are the police of the navy, or the infantry of the sea. On
shore they may be called a military guard in charge of the navy yards, the
marine barracks in Washington, and all other places within the jurisdiction
of the Navy Department. The corps consists of a force of 212 officers and
6,000 men. The officers rank with those of the army. As the service is
purely military, the marines aboard ship have nothing to do with navigation.
They stand "watch and watch," not with eyes turned seaward, but ever
"deckward." They are not lookouts, but watchmen.

The long period, five years, for which recruits entering the marine corps
are required to bind themselves to serve, presents an obstacle to enlistment.
This corps is the only branch of the military service having five-year en-
listments, the army term being three years, and that of the navy four years.

The small number of officers available for recruiting duty in the marine
corps makes it necessary to group the recruiting offices into recruiting dis-
tricts, each district being under the direction of a commissioned officer, with
headquarters at the principal recruiting office, and the substations being
under the immediate charge of a non-commissioned officer, with the ex-
ception of the substation at Pittsburg, Pa., which is under charge of a com-
missioned officer. The recruiting officer visits the substations in a circuit to
swear in recruits as often as may be warranted by the number of applicants
who present themselves and pass the physical examination. The main office
of the recruiting district is, for all practical purposes, permanent, being es-
tablished in some large city, where a reasonable number of recruits can be
counted upon each year. The substations in the various districts, however,
are changed from place to place, as certain fields of recruiting become ex-
hausted, and others are recommended by the recruiting officer. Marine re-
cruiting posters are sent out and displayed in the towns throughout the
country in the vicinity of the recruiting offices, being" placed in the post-
offices and other prominent places, and advertisements for recruits are also
inserted in newspapers that are liable to reach the population from which
recruits are drawn.

Since the passage of the act of Congress approved March 3, 1899, ^ ^as
been possible for meritorious non-commissioned officers of the marine corps
to be promoted to the rank of second lieutenant in the corps, and four non-
commissioned officers have been so advanced.

CHAPTER III
CIVIL SERVICE AND GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT

Positions Under the Civil Service — Competition for Civil Service Positions — Civil Serv-
ice Examinations — Prospect of Employment and Salaries — The Classified Civil Service
—The Postal Service — Organization of the Postal System — Postmasters and Post-
men— The Railway Postal Service — The Star Postal Routes — The Lighthouse Service
— Lighthouse Keepers — The Life-Saving Service — Life-Saving Station Keepers — Life-
Saving Crews — The Revenue Cutter Service — The Marine Hospital Service — The
Quarantine Service — The Custom House Service

POSITIONS UNDER THE CIVIL SERVICE

AMONG the positions in the Civil Service, secured through competitive
examination, the following may be mentioned as affording ready ac-
cess to the service as well as opportunities for advancement : Stenog-
rapher, fourth assistant examiner in the Patent Office, scientific assistant in
the Department of Agriculture, civil engineer, topographer, draughtsman, aid
and computer in the Coast Supply, and other technical positions. To this
list may be added the position of department assistant in the Philippines
civil service, for which examinations are to be held by the United States
Civil Service Commission. These examinations are intended to secure men
who are fitted not only for entrance to the service in the Philippines, but
who have already developed qualifications which evidence their fitness for
advancement to positions of the highest responsibility in the service. With
this end in view, the examinations were made to consist of a basis examina-
tion which can be passed by any man who is a good English scholar, with
a knowledge of mathematics, of our history, Constitution and government,
of commerce, territorial government and administration, and of political
economy, as taught in the colleges of the country. Optional examina-
tions are also provided on the subjects of finance, civil engineering, sani-
tary science, agriculture, municipal administration, educational methods,
chemistry, botany, mineralogy, forestry, theory and practice of statistics,
geology and other subjects, any number of which may be taken by any com-
petitor, according to his inclination and ability. These optionals will be
changed somewhat from time to time as the needs of the Philippines ser-
vice may require. It is thought that this method of examination may be
advantageously introduced into our Federal service.

While it is true that the Federal service does not hold out the large re-
wards offered by the great industrial and commercial enterprises, there is
a growing disposition on the part of educated persons to accept service

(1015)

ioi6 WORKERS OF THE NATION

under the government at less compensation than is paid for a like service in
private life. This is attributable to a growing unselfishness of devotion
to public duty and to the increasing honor attached to public service as it is
placed upon a basis of merit, as well as to the security of tenure, and of the
emoluments of the office; the educational and other advantages incidental
to residence in Washington, and to the exceptional advantages offered by
the government itself in its far-reaching scientific activities, by reason of
which it may be properly styled the greatest university of the world for
training young men who wish to follow careers in the various branches of
science.

Among the educational advantages offered by the service may be men-
tioned also the night courses — scientific, literary and professional — offered
by the several universities in Washington, by means of which many young
men, while earning a livelihood in minor positions in the civil service, sup-
plement their previous educational training by courses of study which
otherwise would be beyond their reach. In this way hundreds of persons
in the civil service in Washington annually secure degrees in science, arts
and medicine.

COMPETITION FOR CIVIL SERVICE POSITIONS

In aspiring to an appointment under the Civil Service, the applicanc
should remember that there are always more eligibles having ordinary
qualifications than are required for appointment, and that to pass with a
percentage of 70 — the lowest accepted in the examinations — is no indica-
tion that an appointment will follow. On the contrary, such a low per-
centage should be accepted as a sign of a slim chance of receiving a position.
As 100 is the highest possible mark, the nearer one can approach to that
percentage in the examinations the greater will be the opportunity of re-
ceiving an immediate appointment after certification. In case of women
typewriters in the departments at Washington, it is specifically announced
that only those who pass a grade of 88 per cent have any prospect of ap-
pointment. Likewise the number of eligibles in the Railway Mail Ser-
vice is so much in excess of the demand that few below the 88 per cent grade
have any immediate prospect of employment.

CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS

The regular schedule examinations for the Departmental and Govern-
ment Printing branches of the service are held twice a year, unless other-
wise specified, in the spring and in the fall. The spring examinations
occur usually in the months of March and April, and the fall examinations
in the months of September and October. This paragraph does not apply
to the Custom House and the Post-Office branches. The Internal Revenue
examinations are held only in the fall. The application blank and Manual
for the Department, Government Printing, and Internal Revenue branches
of the classified service may be obtained by writing directly to the "United
States Civil Service Commission, Washington, D. C."

CIVIL SERVICE— GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT 1017

PROSPECT OF EMPLOYMENT AND SALARIES

It is not possible to estimate the prospects for appointment. The law re-
quires examinations to be held, but the passing of an examination does not
insure appointment. The conditions of appointment in the various branches
of the service are such that nothing can help and nothing can hinder the
certification of a name in order of its standing on a register. As the highest
possible mark is 100 and the lowest that gives eligibility is 70, it follows that
the nearer a mark is to ioo-the more likely it is that the person may be
reached for certification within the period of eligibility. There are gen-
erally on the registers more eligibles having ordinary qualifications than are
required for appointment. Under the Civil Service rules the appointing
officers are the final judges of the qualifications of the persons selected for
appointment, and with the proper exercise of their discretion in selecting
from those certified the commission cannot interfere.

Entrance to the departmental service is in the lowest grades, the higher
grades being filled generally by promotion. The usual entrance grade is
about $900, but the applicant may be appointed at $840, $720, or even $600.
There are very few special appropriations for the positions of stenog-
raphers, typewriters, bookkeepers, draughtsmen, etc., and persons who
pass these examinations are usually appointed with the designation of
clerks or copyists. The supply of male eligibles in stenography and type-
writing is hardly equal to the demand, and the male applicants proficient^
as stenographers and typewriters have much greater prospects of appoin]
ment than other applicants.

THE CLASSIFIED CIVIL SERVICE

The entire classified service may be divided into three classes, with
reference to the provision made for filling vacancies.

The first class includes those positions for which registers of eligibles
are constantly maintained. For this class examinations are ordinarily held
twice a year, on the regular schedule dates.

The second class includes positions in which vacancies occur less fre-
quently, and for which no registers of eligibles are ordinarily maintained.
Examinations for these positions are held only when eligibles are needed.
It is the practice of the commission to announce such examinations through
the newspapers as items of news. The announcement is made at least thirty
days before the date of the examination, unless a necessity exists for filling
the vacancy in less time, in which case a notice of not more than two or
three weeks is sometimes given. Persons who have special or technical
qualifications or who desire to compete for any position not covered by
schedule examinations may obtain from the commission a blank request to
be notified of special or technical examinations, and file it with the com-
mission. Whenever one of such examinations is announced, the commis-
sion will notify all persons who have requested notification of an examina-
tion of the character of the one to be held.

ioi8 WORKERS OF THE NATION

The third class includes all of those positions in the classified service in
which vacancies are regularly filled by transfer, promotion, or reinstatement,
and not by appointment of persons outside of the service. It is becoming
more and more the practice of the departments to fill the higher grade posi-
tions, such as chiefs of division, etc., by promotion or transfer instead of
by original appointment.

The principal branches of the classified Civil Service, in which examina-
tions are held regularly, are as follows : Departmental Service at Washing-
ton, Custodian Service, Custom-House Service, Engineer Department at
large, General Land Office Service, Government Printing Service, Indian
Service, Internal Revenue Service, Life-Saving Service, Lighthouse Ser-
vice, Marine Hospital Service, Mint and Assay Service, Navy- Yard Ser-
vice, Ordnance Department Service, Post-Office Service, Railway-Mail
Service, Revenue Cutter Service, Steamboat Inspection Service, Sub-treas-
ury Service.

THE POSTAL SERVICE

This paragraph might be headed The World's Greatest Business Con-
cern, for the postal establishment of the United States is without equal as
a business institution, public or private, in any land. Certain nations have
a larger population than ours, but in no country does intercommunication
cover so great an area of service and assume such magnitude of proportions
as in the United States. Ex-Postmaster Charles Emory Smith himself
says of the United States Postal Establishment: "It handles more pieces,
employs more men, spends more money, brings more revenue, uses more
agencies, reaches more homes, involves more details and touches more in-
terests than any other human organization, public or private, governmental
or corporate."

As the great postal system musters an army of more than 200,000 em-
ployes, there are a great many executive positions open to capable men,
and altogether the service offers more numerous opportunities for advance-
ment than any other branch of the government service.

The Post-Office Department is indeed one of the largest employment
bureaus of the government, the majority of those engaged in this service
securing their positions through competitive examinations and promotions.
The postmaster and the chief assistant of each post-office in the country are
exempt from the Civil Service examinations, but all other positions come
under the competitive system. Thus the greater number of persons enter-
ing this service do so at the bottom of the ladder, beginning as clerks and
carriers, and working up by promotions to the higher positions, passing new
examinations each time they are advanced.

Carriers must be over twenty-one years of age at entrance, and not over
forty ; clerks, eighteen years and over. There are also examinations held in
the Post-Office Department for porters, doorkeepers, janitors, stenographers
and typewriters. Both in the Post-Office and Departmental service the
entrance salary of typewriters is from $600 to $1,000 — rather more than

CIVIL SERVICE— GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT 1019

the average wages paid by commercial houses. Clerks who understand
shorthand as well as typewriting have their names entered upon two regis-
ters, thus doubling their chance of an early appointment. Speed and accu-
racy in stenography and typewriting are absolutely essential.

ORGANIZATION OF THE POSTAL SYSTEM

The general organization of our vast postal system as it exists to-day is
the result of developments during the last generation. The department is
divided, first of all, into four grand divisions, or bureaus, each in charge of
an assistant postmaster-general.

The division in charge of the first assistant has to do with the practical
administration of the post-offices, directs the affairs of their numerous car-
rier and clerical forces, concerns itself generally with the actual management
of the system and the multitudinous questions pertaining thereto, and in
addition supervises an annual expenditure of about $45,000,000.

The duties of the second assistant's bureau include the mighty task of
providing for the transportation of the mails, the annual expenditure for
which is nearly $40,000,000.

The bureau of the third assistant deals with the financial side of the sys-
tem, furnishing the stamps and keeping the accounts.

The fourth assistant's bureau is responsible for the appointment of post-
masters whose salary is less than $1,000, and there are about 70,000 such
postmasters.

The sum total of the work of these four grand divisions, which virtually
comprise the entire postal system, contains a number of interesting figures : it
directs nearly 74,000 post-offices, handles over six .billion pieces of mail
matter, of which nearly three billion are letters; manufactures and delivers
yearly four billion postage stamps of a value exceeding $72,000,000. The
system carries more than two billion newspapers in a year, while about
12,000 letters are dropped into the post-boxes and post-offices of the United
States each minute of the day.

POSTMASTERS AND POSTMEN

As before stated, the number of post-offices is about 74,000, more than
70,000 of which are fourth class offices, that is, those which carry with
them a salary of less than $1,000. When the salary exceeds $1,000 the
President makes the appointment, and hence the 4,000 offices included in
this classification are called "Presidential offices." The great number of
fourth class postmasters explains in itself the reason why it is impossible
for all postmasters to be appointed by a central authority located at Wash-
ington. The majority of such postmasters, therefore, are appointed by local
representatives who recommend proper persons for the place. The post-
office of highest rank in the United States is that of New York, the annual
revenue of which exceeds $8,000,000, the net profit being fully $5,000,000

Next to the postmaster the most familiar representative of the postal

1020 WORKERS OF THE NATION

system, as far as the public is concerned, is the letter carrier. There are
nearly 15,000 letter carriers, or "postmen," their pay-roll aggregating nearly
$15,000,000. These carriers form a very compact army, having their own
organization. Altogether the delivery system has been carried to a high
state of perfection.

THE RAILWAY POSTAL SERVICE

The most hazardous and most interesting feature of the service is the
railway post-office — the artery of the whole system. The number of em-
ployes in this branch of the service is nearly 8,500. Practically every mile
of railroad in the country is covered by this service. It is estimated that
the actual distance travelled by the postal cars during a single year is about
285,000,000 miles. The total number of pieces of mail carried yearly by
the railway postal system is beyond the power of imagination to appre-
ciate, the figure being more or less than 14,000,000,000.

Each postal car is practically a fully equipped post-office, so far as the
handling of the mail therein is concerned, for in these cars the mails are now
handled, sorted, pouched, and delivered. Thus the work is done while trav-
elling at the rate of more or less than a mile a minute, so that when the mail
reaches the city or town for which it is designed, it is all ready for the car-
riers. The men employed in this service are all experts in postal matters
and are otherwise men of peculiar talents. Before entering the service they
are required to pass examinations by which their fitness to handle the mails
correctly is determined. The most rigorous tests to which they must submit
are called "case examinations," the preparation for which consists in memo-
rizing the name and order of every post-office in a given territory, and the
list of such offices must come from their lips as easily as would the alphabet.
Unless they can pass the "case examination" satisfactorily they can never
hope to enter the postal service.

To see the railway postal clerks at work is a revelation of the develop-
ment of memory within a certain scope. Moreover, in throwing letters to
the right box across the car they become as expert as magicians who handle
cards on the stage. To show how few flaws there are in the memories of
these men, it should be added only one error is made to every 10,000 pieces
of mail distributed correctly.

THE STAR POSTAL ROUTES

Another interesting phase of the postal service is that embracing the
"star routes." These number more than 22,000, and vary in length from a
fraction of a mile to several hundred miles. The term comes from the
fact that such routes are designated on the post-office registers by three
stars, these stars standing for "Celerity, Certainty and Security."

The most interesting feature of the star route system is the annual "let-
ting." For the purpose of making contracts for the 22,000 routes, the
country is divided into four general contract sections; each route in each
section is relet every four years, the sections being taken in turn year by

CIVIL SERVICE—GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT 1021

year for the purpose. Thus nearly 6,000 contracts are awarded at each
of the annual lettings. An idea of the fierceness of the competition may be
gained from the fact that usually about forty bids are received for each
route.

A number of enterprising men known as "speculative bidders" make a
special business of submitting bids for practically all the star routes. This
in one way accounts for the large number of bids received and for the very
low figure at which the bids are placed. Sometimes the figures of these
speculative bidders, even for a route covering hundreds of miles, differ by
less than ten cents. They have become so expert in estimating costs that
they can make "celerity, certainty and security" bids for routes in any part
of the country. They set themselves the task of studying the prevailing
conditions in the various sections of the country, the condition of roads,
obstacles to be overcome and the cost of stock, feed and labor. The longest
star route at present is from Juneau, Alaska, along the Yukon River, to
Tanana — 1,618 miles in all. Sometimes a single speculative bidder suc-
ceeds in getting as many as 1,000 or 1,200 contracts. These bidders, or,
more properly, contractors, in turn sublet the contracts to local bidders.

THE LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE

The theory of coast lighting is that each coast shall be so set with
towers that the rays from their lights shall meet and pass each other, so
that a vessel on the coast shall never be out of sight of a light, and that
there shall be no dark spaces between lights. This is the theory upon which
the United States is proceeding, and it plants lights where they are most
needed upon these lines. Hence from year to year the length of the dark
spaces on its coasts is lessened or expunged entirely, and the day will come
when all its coasts will be defined from end to end by a band of light by night
and by well-marked beacons by day.

Under the Lighthouse Service, there come scores of positions desirable
according to the ambition of the individuals and their past education and
training. Keepers of lighthouses and lightships, pilots, mates, and masters
of the district, and clerks, skilled laborers and workmen are all appointed
by the merit system in this service, with entrance salaries ranging from $400
to $1,200 a year.

LIGHTHOUSE KEEPERS

The appointment of lighthouse keepers is restricted to persons between
the ages of eighteen and fifty, who can read, write and keep accounts, are
able to do the requisite manual labor, to pull and sail a boat, and have enough
mechanical ability to make the necessary minor repairs about the premises,
and keep them painted, whitewashed, and in order. After three months
of service, the appointee is examined by an inspector, who, if he finds that
he has the qualities needed at that especial station, certifies that fact to the
Lighthouse Board, when, upon its approval, the full appointment is issued
by the Treasury Department.

1022 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Although but one grade of keeper is recognized by law, usage has di-
vided keepers into a number of grades, with different pay as well as different
duties, and with promotion running through the various grades. At one
lighthouse there may be but one keeper; at another, a principal keeper and
an assistant; and there is a station where there is a principal keeper with
four assistants, the fourth having the lowest grade and the lowest pay, and
the others having been appointed at that grade, and promoted as merit was
shown and vacancies occurred ; or they may have been transferred and pro-
moted from another station.

Young men who have seen some sea service are preferred as assistants
at the larger stations; and at stations requiring but one keeper retired sea
captains or mates who have families are frequently selected. At those sta-
tions where there are fog-signals it is customary, however, to have one as-
sistant who is able to operate its machinery and keep it in repair; and he is
usually one who has a certificate as a steam engineer, and is something of a
machinist. Such persons are graded and paid at a higher rate on their
original entry in the service than others.

Keepers are forbidden to engage in any business which can interfere
with their presence at their stations, or with the proper and timely perform-
ance of their lighthouse duties ; but it is no unusual thing to find a keeper
working at his station as a shoemaker, tailor, or in some similar capacity,
and there are light-keepers who fill a neighboring pulpit, who hold com-
missions as justices of the peace; and there are still others who do duty
as school teachers without neglecting their lighthouses. As the dwell-
ings of the light-keepers are often tastefully planned, well-built, and located
on picturesque sites, people in search of summer quarters have so be-
sought keepers for accommodation that the board has been compelled to
prohibit them from taking boarders under any circumstances.

The Light-House Board has done much to make keepers comfortable. They are
furnished with quarters for themselves, and in certain cases for their families, and when
so far distant from market as to make its carriage equal or exceed its cost, with fuel and
rations. Suitable boats are furnished stations inaccessible by land ; and at those stations
on shore, distant from markets, barns are built for their cattle and horses.

The Board has made no attempt as yet to pension those who become maimed or worn
out in its service. Keepers are under the law paid an average sum of $600 a year ; but the
rates range in individual cases from $100 to $i«,ooo a year. In March, 1889, Congress ap-
propriated $625,000 for the payment of its 1,150 keepers.

THE LIFE-SAVING SERVICE

The life-saving establishment divides the coasts into thirteen districts.
Each of these districts embraces a number of stations, the number varying
according as the district is long or short, or as it happens to be more or less
dangerous. There are two hundred and sixty-nine stations in all. The
greatest number of stations in any single district is in the one which em-
braces the coast of New Jersey, where there are forty-two stations. The
district which has the smallest number of stations is the one embracing the
Gulf Coast, where there are eight stations. The Great Lakes are divided

CIVIL SERVICE— GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT 1023

into three districts : the first includes Lakes Erie and Ontario, with a total
of eleven stations; the second, Lakes Huron and Superior, with eighteen
stations; the third, Lake Michigan, with twenty-nine stations. The Great
Lakes are thus guarded altogether by the crews of fifty-eight stations.
There is one station at Louisville, Kentucky. On the Pacific Coast, where
the breakers are remarkably high, and yet where there are comparatively
few disasters, there are sixteen stations. At the same time, on the Atlantic
Coast, where the danger points are more numerous than on the Pacific, and
where the greater number of ships are coming and going, there are one hun-
dred and ninety-four stations.

As there are at least six surfmen employed at each station all through
what is called the "active season," there are at least sixteen hundred surfmen
always on duty during the dangerous months. As the regular crew at some
of the stations is increased at certain seasons of the year by one, two or three
men, the total number of surfmen employed at such seasons is between
nineteen hundred and two thousand.

LIFE-SAVING STATION KEEPERS

Each station has a keeper, who has direct control of all its affairs. The
position held by this officer is one of the most important in the service.
He is, therefore, selected with the greatest care. The indispensable quali-
fications for appointment are that he shall be of good character and habits,
not less than twenty-one nor more than forty-five years of age; have suf-
ficient education to be able to transact the station business; be able-bodied,
physically sound, and a master of boat-craft and surfing. He is usually
nominated by the district superintendent, the initial step being left to that
officer because of the extensive acquaintance he is supposed to have with the
class of men from which the choice must be made by reason of long residence
among them.

So much depends, however, upon the selection that an effort is made to
eliminate, as far as possible, the chance that any political, social or personal
interests shall enter into it. In the vicinity of nearly all the stations there
are numbers of fishermen and wreckers who have followed their callings
from boyhood and become expert in the handling of boats in broken water,
and among these there is usually some one who by common consent is rec-
ognized as a leader. He is the man it is desirable to obtain for keeper.

A keeper's compensation does not exceed eight hundred dollars per
annum. The maximum amount is paid only to one or two, whose stations
are so isolated that they are obliged to secure an associate to reside with
them when the crews are off duty, and to such keepers as have distin-
guished themselves by bravery and effective service. The usual salary
paid is seven hundred dollars; to keepers of houses of refuge only four
hundred dollars.

1024 WORKERS OF THE NATION

LIFE-SAVING CREWS

The number of men composing the crew of a station is determined by
the number of oars required to pull the largest boat belonging to it. There
are some five-oared boats in the Atlantic stations, but at all of them there is
at least one of six oars. Six men, therefore, make up the regular crew of
these stations, but a seventh man is added on the first of December, so that
during the most rigorous portion of the season a man may be left ashore
to assist in the launching and beaching of the boat, and see that the station
is properly prepared for the comfortable reception of his comrades and the
rescued people they bring with them on their return from a wreck ; also to
aid in doing the extra work that severe weather necessitates. Where the
self-righting and self-bailing boat, which pulls eight oars, is used — mostly
at the Lake stations — a corresponding number of men is employed.

The crews are selected by the keepers from able-bodied and experienced
surfmen residing in the vicinity of the respective stations. A regulation
provides that the selection of keepers and crews shall be made solely with
reference to their fitness, and without regard to their party affiliations.
Another important regulation forbids a keeper to take into his crew his
brother, father or son, except where adherence to the rule would be detri-
mental to the service.

THE REVENUE CUTTER SERVICE

The revenue cutter service in various fields of usefulness and respon-
sibility covers in its operations the entire coast of the United States, from
the easternmost extremity of Maine to Brazos Santiago, Texas, the Great
Lakes, and the Pacific Coast from San Diego, California, to the Aleutian Isl-
ands in the North Pacific, the Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean to Point
Barrow.

This service is an integral arm of the public service, and is under the
control of the Treasury Department. Its office of central management is
vested in a division of the office of the Secretary of the Treasury, known as
the Division of Revenue Cutter Service, the chief of which is by law a cap-
tain in the revenue cutter service. The number of commissioned officers
authorized upon the active list is 222, composed of 144 line and 78 engineer
officers.

In the revenue cutter service cadets are employed at entrance salaries
of $500 per year, with a fair prospect of being promoted to higher positions
in time. Cadets must pass a good examination physically and educationally,
and those who have served as deck officers of seagoing vessels receive special
consideration. The marriage of a cadet in this service is equivalent to a
resignation.

The enlisted force of the revenue cutter service, numbering in the aggre-
gate about 1,000 persons of all grades or rates, is enlisted for a term of ser-
vice in the same manner that men are enlisted in the army, navy and marine
corps.

CIVIL SERVICE— GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT 1025

THE MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE

The marine hospital service receives its name from the fact that it has
charge of the marine hospitals which are located at our ports for the treat-
ment of sick and disabled seamen of the merchant marine. It has, by law,
however, many other duties and functions, particularly the conduct of
quarantine, the management of epidemics, the medical inspection of immi-
grants, the maintenance of a hygienic laboratory, the investigation of sani-
tary problems and other matters concerning the public health.

The service has for many years been under the direction of Dr. Walter
Wyman, the supervising surgeon-general, whose efficient management has
proven satisfactory to all authorities at home and abroad.

In the service there are many employes who combine the skilled, profes-
sional knowledge of the physician with the duties of a practical man of
executive ability. The acting assistant surgeons of the marine hospital ser-
vice receive as entrance salaries from $300 to $1,800, and hospital stewards
$600 to $864, with their board. In addition to these there are quarantine
attendants, such as nurses, masters, deck-hands, pilots, seamen, cooks, cabin
boys, shipkeepers, boatmen, and engineers.

THE QUARANTINE SERVICE

In 1902 over four hundred thousand immigrants arrived at the Port
of New York and were inspected by the officers of this department. This
number constitutes about four-fifths of all immigrants reaching the United
States in 1900, and required an average daily examination of more than one
thousand immigrants, besides the crew and passengers of many foreign
vessels not carrying immigrants. In order to properly perform this duty
it is imperative that Quarantine officers shall be familiar in a very practical
way with infectious diseases, and with the sanitary conditions at ports of
departure.

A Quarantine officer deals with two classes of vessels : first, those from
non-infected ports ; second, those from infected ports. The transatlantic mail
and express steamships may be taken as types from the non-infected ports.
The treatment of these vessels is comparatively simple, and is more or less
familiar to ocean travellers. On the arrival of a ship of this class at
Quarantine, it is promptly boarded by a medical officer, who is met at the
gangway by the captain, or his representative, and the surgeon of the ves-
sel. The latter presents his medical report regarding the health of the
passengers and crew.

The steerage passengers are made to pass in review, with their heads
uncovered. The uncovering of the head is not intended as a mark of re-
spect, but to expose the face, which is always involved in the eruption of
smallpox and some other infectious diseases. As each immigrant files by,
he is closely scrutinized, and if he presents any suspicious symptoms, he is
removed from the line and his case is more closely investigated after the

34-Vol. 2

1026 WORKERS OF THE NATION

general inspection is concluded. The steerage passengers are also care-
fully counted with a registering instrument, in order to insure an in-
spection of all of this class.

After the general inspection is completed, the sick are visited for the
purpose of detecting any who may be suffering with Quarantine diseases,
such as smallpox, typhus fever, etc. If all on board are found well, a pass
is issued to the captain giving him authority to proceed to New York. On
vessels coming from non-infected ports, saloon passengers and members of
the crew are not inspected — provided that a deposition is made by the ship's
surgeon that no cases of infectious diseases have occurred among them
during the transit of the vessel. This difference in the treatment of saloon
and steerage passengers is in a measure due to the fact that infectious dis-
eases are almost always transmitted by the latter class.

THE CUSTOM HOUSE SERVICE

The Custom House districts differ materially in their size and importance,
and the salaries of the different officers and employes are graded according
to the importance of the district. Applicants are examined for vacancies in
their particular districts. Thus the New York Custom House district is the
most important in the country, and the positions open there are occasionally
good ones. The classifications of the positions in New York include offices
with salaries ranging from $750 per annum to $2,500, and more. The
higher positions are not open to outside competition, but are filled by exami-
nation from those who have served in some lower capacity. Thus the posi-
tions of gauger and weigher, with larger salaries, are filled by promotions
from inspectors, assistant weighers and assistant gaugers. These latter offi-
•cers are paid at the rate of $3 and $4 per day, and to secure the positions ap-
plicants must pass special technical examinations in the measurement and
examination of vessels and their cargoes. Ordinary inspectors are paid $4
per day, and they are promoted in order to clerkships with salaries ranging
from $1,000 to $1,500 per year. Inspectresses in the New York Custom
House receive $3 per day. Examiners have more responsible positions, and
they are paid $1,800 and samplers $1,000.

CHAPTER IV
POLICEMEN, DETECTIVES, AND FIREMEN

The Policeman — The New York Police Force — Occupations that Make the Best Police-
men— The Mounted and Bicycle Police — Detectives and Detective Agencies — The
Training of a Detective — Modern Detective Methods — The Fireman — The New York
Fire Department — Methods of Promoting Firemen — The Training of a Fireman.

THE POLICEMAN

IN ALL the large cities, during the last ten or twelve years, attempts have
been made to lift the police force out of politics and keep it within the
bounds of the civil service law in matters of appointment and promo-
tion. When Mr. Roosevelt was president of the New York Police Board, the
police of the metropolis learned that the civil service rules were the order of
the day, and that men were appointed to the force or promoted to higher
places entirely on their merits, without regard to influence, creed or birth-
place, rewarding the good men and punishing the bad, heeding nothing save
the virtues or faults of either. In Chicago, in the last few years, the General
Superintendent of Police has tried as hard as Mr. Roosevelt in New York
to keep the force out of politics and conform to civil service requirements.
The heads of police departments in many other cities have from time to time
sought to emulate the examples of New York and Chicago, and at an an-
nual convention of the Chiefs of Police of the United States the majority
reported "progress in the attempt to 'civil service' their departments."

THE NEW YORK POLICE FORCE

For various reasons the New York Police force is more inten
that of any other city, perhaps because it happens to be the lai
force in the country. The personnel of the New York force is
most interesting feature, for it is recruited by men of all nationaliti<
creeds, and from all parts of our country.

The four principal elements in the personnel of the New York police
force are composed of the Irishmen, the Germans, the Americans, and the
Jews.

Probably ninety per cent of the force is made up of these four elements,
the foremost of which is the Irish. In our civil war, Irishmen made a fine
record as fighters; they have been fighting ever since — fighting the natural
enemies of society, fighting as policemen rather than as soldiers.

It can not be said that the predominance of Irishmen in the police force
is due to political influence, because at the time that Mr. Roosevelt enforced

(1027)

1028 WORKERS OF THE NATION

the civil service law, both in letter and spirit, paying no attention whatever
to the politics or religion of the applicants, giving no heed to anything save
their qualification for the place they sought, the number of Irishmen ap-
pointed and promoted was maintained in the same proportion to the number
of men of other nationalities, as during the years of "Tammany Police" —
four members of the force in every five being of Irish parentage. This pro-
portion holds good not only among the patrolmen, but in the higher places
among roundsmen, sergeants, captains, and inspectors. It is evident that
Irishmen are "born" policemen.

After the Irishmen or men of Irish parentage, in point of numbers, come
the Germans or those of German parentage. The Irishman has the distinct
advantage of the German in that he is not obliged to learn a new language.

After the German, numerically speaking, come the native Americans,
and Mr. Roosevelt himself admits that these furnish the largest proportion
of both the best and the worst men in the service. The explanation is that
the Americans enrolled in the police force, are, on the average, men of supe-
rior intelligence, and this intelligence tends to make them either better or
worse than their fellows, according as their course is shaped for good or
for evil.

The fourth leading element, or class, is the Jewish. There are more
Jews on the New York police force than the ordinary citizen imagines. A
number of Hebrew policemen have been promoted for marked proficiency
in the discharge of their duties and for conspicuous gallantry in saving life
or in capturing armed and desperate criminals.

There are representatives of other nationalities on the force, but they are
distinctly in the minority. They include men of Polish and Bohemian an-
cestry, several Frenchmen, and one or two Greeks and Russians.

OCCUPATIONS THAT MAKE THE BEST POLICEMEN

After consideration of the nationalities included in the personnel of a
police force, it may be interesting to state some of the sources from which
the men are drawn. The applicants most favored by the recruiting officers
are those who have served a term in the army or navy. A police inspector
states that the best men on the force are the honorably discharged soldiers
of the United States Army and Navy. In the case of foreigners, service in
their own armies counts as much in their favor as service in the American
army. The same inspector, who paid a tribute to the honorably discharged
soldiers on the force, says that the next best men are those who have served
a term in the German army.

It is a noticeable fact that a certain proportion of men who have had
neither military nor naval service, display a slight hesitancy in time of crisis
• — at that fatal moment which decides whether a matter shall go one way or
another. This is particularly true of countrymen who have not yet become
habituated to their new surroundings, who are not expert in adapting them-
selves to unfamiliar scenes and incidents, who are not prepared to meet the

POLICEMEN, DETECTIVES, AND FIREMEN 1029

first emergencies of the life of cities, who are not ready fighters. But once
these men have been thoroughly thrashed by a gang of toughs, their period
of weakness ends, and thereafter they can be absolutely relied upon; he who
escapes with his life from such a trial can evermore be depended upon for
any kind of rough or hazardous work.

Next to those who have served in the United States Army or Navy, the
best men on the force are those who have been in the railway service, espe-
cially those who have worked in the operating division as engineers, firemen,
conductors or brakemen. With the railroad men, in this instance, may be
included those who have worked as motormen on electric street railways.

Other applicants favored by police recruiting officers are those who have
been guards on the elevated roads, drivers of express wagons, and those
whose occupations have necessitated hard work out of doors.

A large proportion of the native Americans on the force are of country
birth. Very few of these men, of course, joined the police force immedi-
ately upon their arrival in the city. After leaving the farm or small town
they worked for a time in the city as drivers of wagons, or as mechanics,
or car conductors. The countryman, however, even after a year or two of
work in the city, needs breaking in when he joins the police force. If he
is made of the right stuff he will probably become an excellent patrolman,
and make a still better police official ; but if he is lacking at all in the physi-
cal or mental essentials he will go to pieces under the strain.

A favorite source from which members of the police force are drawn,
not only in New York, but in other cities as well, especially in places where
the civil service laws are enforced, is from the various societies, notably the
temperance societies of both the Catholic and Protestant churches.

Discriminations are made, however, in the matter of bartenders and
keepers of liquor saloons. In the old days in New York, more than one-
half the appointees had at one time or another served in places not approved
by temperance societies. But police officials have discovered that the men
who make the best policemen are those who do not crave strong drink;
hence the favor with which members of temperance societies are regarded.
In New York, under the reform administration, the various churches and the
east side college settlements are also drawn upon for recruits.

THE MOUNTED AND BICYCLE POLICE

The mounted policeman is even more modest than the seen-but-not-
heard small boy; for the dashing cavalryman of the "Finest" is seldom either
heard or seen. We hear of his heroism in seizing the bit of a runaway, but
we know not the sound of his voice. We know that he saves many lives
each week among riders and drivers in the Park, yet in peace times he is
rarely in evidence. The cause of this is that his beat is from eight to
twelve miles long, and there are not enough of his kind in Greater New York
to make a regiment.

In all the boroughs there are only about six hundred guardians of the

1030 WORKERS OF THE NATION

peace on horseback ; of which four hundred and fifty are in Manhattan and
the Bronx, and one hundred and fifty in Brooklyn. Until recently, the prin-
cipal duties of the mounted policeman were to stop runaways, ride at the
head of a procession, and look handsome. But now automobiles have been
added to his troubles, not to speak of the new orders by which he is required
not only to patrol the driveways, but to watch all the side streets, and even
leave the saddle, if necessary, to capture violators of the law.

Though the pay of a mounted policeman is no higher than that of the
patrolman afoot — eight hundred dollars the first year up to fourteen hundred
dollars the fifth year — yet the majority of sidewalk pacers envy the horse-
man. For the mounted man is the aristocrat of the service. He has cer-
tain advantages, in the way of having a pleasant beat instead of being
obliged to take his chances of passing his days among the sweltering hordes
of the foreign quarters. Each member of the mounted squad is responsible
for the health and appearance of his mount, though he is allowed the ser-
vices of a stableman to groom and feed. Horses for the squad are selected
with the utmost care, Kentucky thoroughbreds occupying nearly all the
stalls. And the man who wants to ride these animals must first qualify,
not only as a horseman, but as a rough rider.

The principal difference between the mounted and the bicycle squad
is the difference in the mount. The pay is the same.

THE DETECTIVE AND DETECTIVE AGENCIES

The organization of private detective agencies began just after the Civil
War. Messrs. Pinkerton and Bangs were the original founders. Next
came Ruffin, Hazen, and Flannery, not as a firm, but working individually.

Detectives have become a recognized factor in judicial processes, for pre-
vious to the establishment of criminal hunters as a class, people depended
upon the sheriff, the chief of police, or the city marshal to ferret out crimes.
To-day, where investigation and elaborate preparation for trials are re-
quired, attorneys employ private detectives on the preliminary work of cor-
ralling witnesses, and so on.

The five chief causes of crime to-day are: love of revenge, avarice,
temptation unresisted by those in position of trust, strong drink, and
women — chiefly the last named.

The great number of detective agencies now doing business in various
States, have, as their principals, either men who have followed the duties of
a policeman or detectives in some municipal department ; or who entered the
profession as young men, and, by dint of perseverance and honorable deal-
ing, have established a reputation, and sustained it until their names were
sufficiently well known to justify them in organizing an agency of their own.

" 'Tis the chase that pleaseth." This may have been applied to the pro-
fessional detective, for it is in the pursuit of some inhabitant of the Under
World that the Sleuth finds the great pleasure of existence ; just as the
bloodhound, perhaps, is happiest when following a scent. Private detectives

POLICEMEN, DETECTIVES, AND FIREMEN 1031

may be said to act as first aides to counsellors and attorneys. In the per-
formance of duties previous to a trial, the detective may even be called an
assistant attorney or coacher.

THE TRAINING OF A DETECTIVE

As to the men who are employed by an agency — the best assistants are
those who entered the profession as office boys or as young men, and who
have grown up in the harness, as it were. These are the tried and the true.
For their loyalty has been put to the test almost daily, and if they had at
any time been found wanting, they would not still be following the career
of a detective. Others, employed as assistants, are men who hail from
smaller cities or "off a farm." When an assistant proves to be apt and
quick-witted, the superintendent encourages the development of these quali-
ties in every practical way, and the newly employed operator or agent soon
finds that his good or bad points are being included in the superintendent's
reports to his chief.

The novice is required to observe certain rigid rules, the individuality of
which depends upon the kind of man who is at the head of the establishment.
The young agent is shown the importance of telling the whole truth under
all circumstances, to beware of the curse of whiskey, and, above all, to train
his memory, making it not only retentive, but absolutely reliable. It has
been noticed, in some instances, where young private detectives have been
employed to work up cases of divorce, that the agents themselves have fallen
off in the matter of morals. Hence the operating department of many agen-
cies refuses to accept tasks involving private family affairs, and thus the
moral standing of employes in these agencies is equal to the average to be
found in any business office.

MODERN DETECTIVE METHODS

First-class agencies resort to no questionable methods to obtain results,
do nothing but that which is within the bounds of the law ; and to prove that
this is so, and at the same time to show that the detective, like the laborer,
is worthy of his hire, a written report in detail is submitted almost daily to
clients.

The movements of dishonest persons being thus recorded, the reports
are brought forward at the proper time to outweigh the verbal statements
of suspected and guilty persons. And it might be stated that nine-tenths
of the time of a private detective is spent in noting the actions of persons
who handle money, jewelry, or other valuables for other people. If the
honest man, holding a position of trust, sometimes finds himself shadowed,
he need have no fear; for if his own conscience is not sufficient security, he
may rest assured that the private detective is not anxious to make the mis-
take of bringing the wrong person to the attention of his home office.

The principal uses which clients find for a detective agency are, first, to
know whether they are being deceived, and, second, to what extent the in-

1032 WORKERS OF THE NATION

formation gained can be used legally. In many instances, the attorneys for
the prosecution or the defence frame the case ready for court, only to find,
at the last moment, that certain things are either not clear or not positive,
or else that witnesses are not to be found. Word is then sent to a detective
agency, and an agent who is fitted both as to appearance and ability is se-
lected to find the missing witnesses, or to secure the proofs necessary to
complete the case in question.

Then comes the "missing person" who, demented, strays away from his
home, or who, having domestic troubles, leaves his family either to commit
suicide, or to do the Enoch Arden act of going West or abroad, to return,
after years of suffering, to immediate relatives. Cases of this kind are hard
to solve, mainly for the reason that the whole truth is seldom told. The
skeleton in the closet is only partly revealed, family pride or delicacy with-
holds important facts, and for these very reasons the "missing person" case
is frequently left on the files to gather the dust of years. Such cases are
rounded up eventually, only when "eternal vigilance" is the order left with
the agency.

Other "missing persons" are those who flee from creditors. These are
easily traced by their various questionable enterprises, which they invariably
start anew in foreign countries. Such a case was that of a Hebrew, who,
in 1893, fled from his creditors after having signed his brother-in-law's
name to notes amounting to $50,000. He went to Brazil, having forty-
eight hours' start of the detectives. He was found and settlements were
made. But, even so, this man was "missing" for four years.

A great many private detectives are employed by men representing the
vast commercial interests of this country. It is in this field that the so-
called "gentleman thief" abounds. Small salaried young men, who are in
daily contact with associates who wear fine clothes and jewelry, and are
perhaps land owners, become dissatisfied with their lot. In their desire to
dress as well as their associates, and to enjoy the advantage of an income
greater than they are receiving legitimately, they steal from their employers.
The firm is kept in ignorance of the drain upon cash sales, or upon certain
shipments which, as the result of collusion with truckmen, never reach the
consignee. The firm keeps its eye on the bookkeeper and the cashier, but the
other end of the establishment, the shipping department, is overlooked. The
drain still continues, and it is then that the aid of a detective agency is
sought ; and from that time on all the clerks and employes are "shadowed."

THE FIREMAN

During the last twenty-seven years the property losses in the United
States by fires amounted to more than $3,000,000,000. In 1900 the loss was
$160,000,000, and in 1901 nearly $150,000,000. Had it not been for the
various paid and volunteer fire departments of the cities and towns, the loss,
it is estimated, would have been twenty times as great.

In all cities men are taken into the paid fire service on probation.

POLICEMEN, DETECTIVES, AND FIREMEN 1033

Thirty days is the time the probationer is allowed in which to find out, or
for the instructor to find out, whether he is made of the right "stuff." He
must not only be "chesty," which is to say, physically perfect, but he must
possess nerve and the spirit of dare. He must not be one who will turn
dizzy when at a lofty height.

Every city fire department maintains what is known as a School of
Instruction. One of the first things a beginner is taught, is how to climb
a scaling ladder. Perhaps for the first two days the novice is allowed to do
nothing but clamber up and down a ladder from the ground to the first
story. He becomes at last so sick of the monotony of the first lesson, that
he only too gladly obeys the order to climb to the second story. Two days
are thus spent by the new man on each story, which means that not until
the twelfth day does he reach the roof.

Then he begins straddling sills and passing ladders up or down to his
mates; then how to come down life-lines, not only alone, but with a dummy
hanging around his waist. Saving the life of the dummy is one of the hard-
est things to learn. The new men first take down a stuffed image weighing
only seventy-five pounds, but gradually the weight is increased until at last
the image tips the scale at one hundred and fifty. Mighty pleased the fire-
man is when at last he is allowed to take down a real live man.

Thus every man in the paid fire department, in whatever city, is drilled ;
nor does his drilling end with his first months as a fireman. He must come
to school regularly three or four times a year. For the training school in
each city is not only for new men to drill in, but for veterans to practice in.

THE NEW YORK FIRE DEPARTMENT

The paid Fire Department of New York City was organized April
1865, and the expense connected with it during the first year of its exi
was about $560,000. Since the taking effect of the Greater Ne
Charter, on January I, 1898, there has been but one Commissioner
salary $7,500) for the entire municipality. The department numbe
officers and men.

The qualifications necessary for membership in the uniformed force are
as follows:

No person shall be appointed to membership in the fire department or continue to hold
membership therein, who is not a citizen of the United States, or who has ever been con-
victed of a felony; nor shall any person be appointed who can not read and write under-
standingly the English language, or who shall not have resided within the State one year
immediately prior to his appointment, or who is not over the age of 21 and under the age
of 30 years. Every member of the uniformed force shall reside within the limits of the
City of New York.

The rules of the Municipal Civil Service Commission contain the addi-
tional requirement that the applicant must not be less than 5 feet 6l/2 inches
in height, nor less than 136 pounds in weight.

1034 WORKERS OF THE NATION

METHODS OF PROMOTING FIREMEN

Promotions to the rank of officer in the uniformed fire force are held
yearly, or more frequently should the exigencies of the service require, and
the questions asked on the examination relate to their knowledge of the rules
and regulations and of the duties they would be called upon to perform in
the position to which they seek advancement. There is also forwarded to
the Municipal Civil Service Commission, signed by the Commissioner and
the Chief of Department, the record of the applicant in the Department as to
character, efficiency and conduct, which counts in making up the final rat-
ing, prior to the preparation of the eligible list.

THE TRAINING OF A FIREMAN

In the School of Instruction of the fire department of the larger cities,
every member of the force is taught to save life with the same precision of
movement and the same amount of drilling by which a soldier learns to be a
life destroyer.

During ordinary drills, especially when new hands are scaling the walls,
a rope net, like that used in a circus, is put up to catch any who may fall.
With certain injury, or possibly death, waiting for them below in case of a
fall, the men illustrate how a building may be scaled and life saved under
every possible condition.

Suppose the building beneath the men on the roof to be in flames. They
could reach earth quicker by life lines, certainly, than by the ladders. But
unless they happen to have carried rope with them, slung over their shoul-
ders, as firemen do in San Francisco and other cities, how are they to get the
necessary life line ? Have you ever seen the life savers of the seacoast throw
a rope to a sinking ship ? They shoot it from a mortar. Firemen shoot a
life line to the men on the roof in the same way, only instead of a mortar,
they use what seems to be an ordinary rifle, a weapon, however, that will
throw a projectile upward two or three hundred feet. The projectile car-
ries the rope with it, as a kite carries a string. For very high buildings,
there is another kind of weapon, one that looks like the long musket of the
Arab, and which will send a projectile as high as eight hundred feet.

In descending by the life lines, the firemen illustrate how human life is
saved by carrying persons down with them. When a fireman comes to
rescue you from a burning building, the best thing for you to do is to grip
the fireman around the waist ; that is, grasp the handles of his belt, or sim-
ply wind your arms around him, and yield yourself to his keeping. You
hang on, he does the rest. Don't volunteer to assist him.

Sometimes the firemen jump from the fifth or sixth story into a net, just
for practice. The net is a device recently adopted by the departments. It
is superior to the old rope nets, which seldom sustained the weight of a per-
son jumping from a lofty height, while oftentimes the sudden jar of the
fall pulled down those holding it, thus causing injury to all.

CHAPTER V

DOMESTIC SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS PUR-
SUITS

Domestic Service as an Occupation — Wages of Servants — General Conditions of Domestic
Service — Disadvantages of Domestic Service — Instructions in Domestic Science —
Dangerous Occupations — Employment Agencies — The Auctioneer — The Pawnbroker — •
The Undertaker

DOMESTIC SERVICE AS AN OCCUPATION

IT is estimated that between 11,000,000 and 12,000,000 persons, mostly
women, are engaged at domestic service in the United States. The
latest census returns give the number of married women in the country
at about 12,000,000. Of these we may safely say that at least 10,000,000 do
their own housework, or a part of it, which allows ample opportunity for
the 1,450,000, or more, persons, reported as domestic servants — over 1,200,-
ooo being women.

These figures seem surprisingly small, although, with the increase of
population, the "servant girl question" is constantly assuming aggravated
importance, and the number of available women willing to accept general
domestic service is perceptibly decreasing. From the standpoint of the em-
ployer these symptoms seem to indicate a "growing independence," which
is both annoying and incomprehensible. The scarcity of general servants,
however, is largely explained by facts noted in connection with the condi-
tions of employment. Thus, a canvass among the "intelligence offices" in
several large cities reveals the fact that, of all women seeking domestic serv-
ice, only about one-fourth will accept general service, the remainder being
"specialists" — cooks, waitresses, parlor maids, etc., etc. This fact obtains,
not only because employment at a special line involves less work and rela-
tively higher pay, but because the position of a general house servant, who
is supposed to cook, wait, do chamber and parlor work and other "chores,"
all equally well, is so arduous and confining as to discourage and repel the
majority of women.

The one-servant plan, adopted in the large proportion of American
homes, seems, therefore, to impose conditions that would be entirely inad-
missible in any other branch of industry, particularly in view of the fact that
most employers insist on maintaining a degree of style compatible with the
employment of several servants. These facts, taken in combination with
the increasing demand for competent cooks, waitresses, etc., to work solely
at their specialties, with consequently shorter hours and larger pay, naturally
operate to increase the distaste for general service, and encourage women

1036 WORKERS OF THE NATION

to wait for such favorable opportunities. Naturally, also, the more com-
petent workers will obtain good positions, leaving only incompetents avail-
able for general service, except where smaller exactions or higher wages are
offered as inducements.

Thus, the employer has the choice of paying more or demanding less.

WAGES OF SERVANTS

Although the wages paid in domestic service are relatively high, with
board and lodging provided, there is a growing tendency among young girls
to prefer employment in shops or factories, at even lower wages. Further-
more, very few such girls, when out of positions, will accept domestic serv-
ice, even with the most alluring inducements. This is the experience of
philanthropic workers and associations who come into constant contact with
them, and make every effort to provide them with work. The conclusion is
inevitable, therefore, that there are facts and conditions connected with such
service, which, in the minds of even the unemployed, more than counterbal-
ance the advantage in wages. Although most employers treat their do-
mestics with consideration and kindness, very many are most unreasonably
exacting, and quite careless of their comfort. Thus many servants are
obliged to sleep in poorly lighted, poorly heated, or poorly ventilated apart-
ments, sometimes in closets or garrets, and, occasionally, on the kitchen
floor. Often, also, wages are withheld for no good reason, or in conditions
that would justify no other industrial employer. On this point, the Legal
Aid Society of New York reports that out of 2,000 such complaints of do-
mestic employes, 75 per cent proved meritorious claims, more than one-half
of these showing grave mistakes as to mutual rights and duties on the part
of the employers. In the remaining 25 per cent the trouble was proved due
to similar errors on the part of the employes.

GENERAL CONDITIONS OF DOMESTIC SERVICE

Under the best conditions, the life of a domestic servant is quite devoid
of the social element, upon which all human beings depend so largely. Her
hours of work are indefinite, with no extra pay for overtime, while those
free for leisure and amusement are rare, uncertain and often interrupted.
Especially strong is the objection to the fact that her evenings are not her
own, and that a close, and often, unreasonable, supervision is exercised over
her right to entertain callers. Recently, statistics were gathered by repre-
sentatives of several benevolent organizations, regarding the opinions of
shop and factory girls on the subject of domestic service.

Out of 100 shop girls in Boston, 35 objected to the long hours, and 33
to the isolation of the life; while, out of 100 factory employes, 56 made the
first complaint, and over 30, the second. In both cases, the companionship
of fellow-workers, even with lower wages, seemed to more than counterbal-
ance other disadvantages. According to the findings of the Michigan
Bureau of Labor Statistics, only 51 domestic servants, out of 2,300 inter-

DOMESTIC SERVICE 1037

viewed, belonged to fraternal societies of any kind. In Boston, only 20, out
of 231 interviewed, belonged to clubs of any sort, and only 15 attended
classes for instruction in cooking, sewing, singing, or evening schools.
During the course of an extended investigation throughout the country, only
one association of domestic workers came into prominence. This is a union
formed in Syracuse, N. Y., with a membership of 500, the primary object
being to found and maintain two free beds for members, in a hospital,
should the funds for the purpose be realized.

DISADVANTAGES OF DOMESTIC SERVICE

Among the shop and factory girls interviewed by the Boston society and
others, there seemed to be strong sentiments against domestic service, on the
grounds of the restrictions imposed, particularly as to associates, and of
the "drudgery" of the life. By this latter expression they meant to indicate
the constant calls for every variety of work, at any and all hours, day and
night, without reference to their comfort or ability, and without extra pay.
A notable instance of the sort of thing objected to once occurred in New
York City, when a woman was sought for general housework ; to cook, wash
and perform all other duties, except sweeping, for a family of "only nine,"
in addition to tending the "two younger children," whenever the mistress
was out, all for $18 per month — and that under protest.

All things taken together, the conviction seems to be gaining ground that
domestic service is a badge of "social inferiority." Not only is the servant,
by the very nature of her engagement, debarred from social relations with
her employer's family, but even persons in "her own walk of life" seem to
consider her calling, in a very real sense, lowering and degrading. Thus,
the head of a certain "settlement" in New York relates, that a girl, belong-
ing to one of their working girls' clubs, being out of work, was employed to
keep the kindergarten room in order. Immediately she was ridiculed and
practically ostracized by her fellow-members. This social stigma seems
to affect the minds of men as well as of women. Consequently, girls looking
forward to marriage naturally hesitate to enter an occupation which is
liable to cut them off from association with such men as they would nat-
urally choose for husbands.

INSTRUCTION IN DOMESTIC SCIENCE

The large proportion of foreign-born servants are, of course, incom-
petent, being unaccustomed to the ideas and requirements of American life.
Thus, many a housekeeper complains that she is obliged to take a "green-
horn," and, after instructing her in all the essentials of a good servant, finds
that she leaves, "ungratefully enough," to accept an offer of higher wages.
Other housekeepers find their high ideals severely jarred by the "foolish,
skittish and unreliable character" of the average run of servants, until re-
minded by some wiser friends that "this is the reason that they are servants."

Other persons, taking a more serious and practical view of the matter,

1038 WORKERS OF THE NATION

have attempted to meet the demand for competent domestic workers, by
founding schools for training them. Some of these institutions also offer
systematic courses for housekeepers, one in Boston giving such thorough
instruction in such appalling subjects as "home sociology," "bacteriology,
with laboratory work/' sanitation, "chemistry of foods," dietaries, hygiene
of childhood, and numerous other subjects, including plain and fancy cook-
ery and first aid to the injured. The training given to women desiring to
prepare themselves for domestic service, however, is most thorough and ex-
cellent, barring the initial error of using high-sounding names for subjects,
and the result must be in most cases that very competent workers are pro-
duced. Upon the completion of a course in such a school, the student re-
ceives a certificate, and after three months' satisfactory service on probation,
is awarded a diploma. Such diplomas are graded,, according to the compe-
tence of the student, and fix the rate of wages to be received from grade A,
specifying $4.00 weekly for chambermaids and $5.00 for cooks, to grade
D, specifying $3.25 for maids and $3.50 for cooks.

The Young Women's Christian Association in Boston, and several other
cities, conducts courses of instruction in cooking and domestic service of
all varieties. The women's clubs of Chicago conduct a school in which
waiting, laundry and chamber work are taught by lectures and demonstra-
tions, in which several hundred employes, mostly cooks, are annually in-
structed.

The various settlements in large cities conduct cooking, and other do-
mestic-service classes, although, according to reports, most of the students
make use of their knowledge in their own homes, rather than as servants.
It has been found, however, that such instruction must be given mostly to
younger wromen, since such as can obtain employment at reasonable wages
are not inclined to pay for further training. In such schools as the Pratt
Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, the Armour
Institute, Chicago, and the Teachers' College, New York City, systematic
instruction is given in domestic science, especially for persons desiring to fit
themselves to teach these branches. The people seem to be awakening to the
necessity of such instruction, and many young ladies' schools of high class
are offering courses in cookery and general housekeeping. Indeed, the
greater part of the work in this line is done with persons of the employing
class or those who desire to fit themselves for housekeepers' positions.

The demand for teachers comes from colleges, normal schools, public
and private schools, industrial institutes, hospitals, reformatories, Christian
Association branches, settlements and numerous other educational and
benevolent sources. None of the graduates find difficulty in obtaining em-
ployment. A movement was inaugurated recently among the women's clubs
of New York, to have the public school system regularly adopt and con-
duct the domestic instruction of the State. As yet the success of this at-
tempt has not been what its projectors desired.

MISCELLANEOUS PURSUITS 1039

DANGEROUS OCCUPATIONS

That peaceful, no less than warlike, pursuits have their victims, is made
apparent by the loss of health, and even of life among artisans who work at
certain trades. There are occupations that kill. The word kill is here ap-
plied more particularly to the spirit. Life may be sustained in the bodies of
those engaged in such vocations, but the spirit dies. To one of the opera-
tives in a sweat-shop a visitor remarked :

"Why, you are working here without fresh air and without sunshine.
You come to your work at sunrise, you work all day by gaslight, and you
leave the shop after nightfall. I should think you would die."

"I am dead," replied the operator, "but no one has time to bury me."

In the foregoing pages of this work it is shown that in various trades
dangers to health and even to life are encountered — notably the metal pol-
isher, the match-maker, the worker in the chemical factory, the bridge builder
and the steeple-climber. These can all be classed as dangerous occupations,
to which many others may be added.

Under modern industrial conditions manufacturers are making every ef-
fort to minimize the dangers to health and life that are encountered in their
establishments, but it is impossible to remove such dangers entirely; they
are inseparable from certain callings, and to those engaged therein the
dangers are regarded as a matter of course. Nevertheless it seems that
many articles of manufacture, things which we class among the necessaries
of life, are produced at a frightful cost of bodily suffering and peril. "But,"
say the manufacturer and the operator, "some one must make these things ;
why not we?"

The natural presumption is that high wages are paid in these dangerous
callings; on the contrary wages are no higher than in other trades — and
yet for every vacancy in establishments in which the work is known to con-
stitute a menace to life and health, a number of persons are ever ready to
fill the gap. These applicants, though they know they are simply to fill the
place of those who have succumbed, still offer themselves for voluntary
martyrdom. Doubtless within their breasts lies ever the hope that they will
escape in this battle for bread, just as the soldier of another kind of battle-
field believes that while bullets lay low those around him, he will pass on
unscathed.

What are these dangerous callings? We will mention first one of the
least dangerous — that of the stone cutter. Can science devise a way by
which the stone cutter may pursue his trade without inhaling mineral dust?
At present it is stated as a fact that sandstone cutters, constantly inhaling
mineral dust, rarely live beyond two-score years and ten and that the ma-
jority of stone cutters die of lung troubles.

Many grinders suffer from what is known as "grinder's asthma." This
used to be a common complaint among" needle grinders, but in this industry
machinery has been introduced in needle works, so that the danger is now
done away with.

1040 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Consumption annually carries off thousands of file cutters, sieve makers,
grindstone makers, and others. In such occupations the introduction into
the lungs and bronchial tubes of mineral dust, soon causes a painful cough,
and the results are usually so serious that workmen cannot long pursue
labor of this kind. Even grinders and polishers of cut glass quickly contract
a disease which resembles lead poisoning ; their teeth break off at the stumps,
and the majority of them die before they have reached the age of forty.

The many trades in which artisans are afflicted with "the dust disease"
include diamond cutting. One of the most unpleasant features of the "dust
disease," occurring among those engaged in preparing the precious stones
just mentioned for personal adornment, is known as "wrist drop." This is
the direct outcome of lead poisoning, resulting from contact with the lead
used in the solder by which the rough gems are attached to copper rods when
the worker is getting the stone ready for cutting.

Women workers, too, suffer from the "dust disease," especially those
who work in feather factories. In such establishments the atmosphere is
charged with almost invisible particles of feathers, which causes inflamma-
tion in the eyes and congestion in the lungs of the workers. The sensitive
mucous membrane of the lungs and bronchial tubes becomes so coated with
the particles of feathers that within three years after entering such factories,
the women who prepare these ornaments for cvilization's "birds of a
feather" find their health seriously, if not fatally, impaired.

Lace makers also invariably have chronically inflamed eyes. Employes
of lace-making establishments are often obliged to wear colored spectacles,
and their eyes are frequently bloodshot and inflamed about the lids.

Among other callings which may be regarded as more or less dangerous
is that of the chimney-sweep. After a few years' work those engaged in
this occupation contract what is known as "chimney-sweep's cancer."

Even the butcher suffers more or less from the dangerous ills to which
the flesh is heir, as the result of day by day exposure to draughts and damp-
ness and cold. Your butcher, florid and robust as he is, may have the ap-
pearance of perfect health, but one day without warning he fails to appear at
the shop — he is at home suffering from an attack of rheumatism.

EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES

The working people have long considered the private employment agency
as their especial enemy. They claim that it very often robs them. So
frequent have been their complaints that several States have been led to
make official investigations, reports of which have been printed by the Labor
Commissioners. It was found in New York, for example, that thieving
employment agency keepers would continue advertisements day after day for
different classes of workmen when they had no places for them, thus rob-
bing the workmen of the money paid for fees. In Ohio cities, before the
free public employment offices were opened, there were similar dis-
honest employment agencies, charging men and women from one dol-

MISCELLANEOUS PURSUITS 1041

lar to fifteen dollars for securing them a place, and extorting a heavy fee
whether the place was secured or not. In St. Louis and Kansas City there
were thirty alleged labor agents who charged from fifty cents to twenty
dollars. To use an old phrase, "The profits were small but the swindle was
sure." The so-called labor agents had the audacity to sue their victims in
court to recover money for no service rendered, having the cases postponed
till the workman was tired out and thus forced to submit to their extor-
tionate demands. Frequently these private labor agents have their offices in
saloons. When in response to one of their lying advertisements fifty or a
hundred laborers appear and register, paying a fee of one dollar, they are
told to remain near at hand, and that they will be sent away in the evening
by free transportation. The free transportation, of course, does not come.
The men are kept hanging on until the next day, when the same story is told
them about the free transportation not having arrived, and they are thus
tricked until they have spent all their money in the labor agent's saloon.

This abuse became so flagrant that a demand for free public employment
offices arose. These bureaus now exists in many States, under the supervi-
sion of the State government, in connection with the State Labor Bureaus,
being free alike to employers and to workmen. Such free bureaus have
long existed in England, France, Germany, Russia, and Australia. In 1890
Ohio initiated the custom here by opening free employment offices in Cin-
cinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Toledo, and Dayton, which are still running.
New York came next, in 1896, with one State Free Employment Office in
New York City. Other States followed, and there are now employment
agencies in Seattle, San Francisco, St. Louis, Kansas City, St. Joseph, Chi-
cago, and in the State of Montana and elsewhere. The recently established
free labor office in Chicago is said to be the most successful. The proof of
the utility of the bureaus is the diversity of their patrons. Orders for help
are received from private homes, State institutions, hotels, boarding houses,
stores, and factories. Investigations of the character and ability of the ap-
plicants for work are invariably made. The status of employers is also
scrutinized. Many trades unions now have their own regular employment
bureaus.

THE AUCTIONEER

There are between 20,000 and 30,000 auctioneers in the United States,
and probably 5,000 auction houses. Auctioneers employ very little help,
while auction houses average only three employes each, with salaries rang-
ing from $10 to $50 per week. The duties of these employes vary. Some
of them do nothing but sell, others assist in various ways. Many of the
employes are not auctioneers but helpers and general utility men. The
amount of the bond required of an auctioneer or an auction house differs in
different cities. It runs from $200 to $5,000, occasionally $10,000. The
bond is placed with the city authorities who issued the license, and it must
be sigfned usually by holders of real estate.

When auctioneers are men of ability, they often earn large incomes.

35 — Vol. 2

1042 WORKERS OF THE NATION

Many fine "stock" auctioneers, who make sales for others, command $100
per day and expenses ; hundreds of them get $50 per day and expenses, and
thousands of them get $25 per day and expenses. The best auctioneer is
naturally the one who has the ability to bring the highest prices. He should
be an educated man, possess a strong constitution and an amiable disposi-
tion ; he should dress well ; he should be a natural talker, a lightning tacti-
cian, a good judge of human nature and quick at repartee. He should
thoroughly understand values and qualities of everything he sells. He
should so conduct himself as to carry conviction of his honesty and sin-
cerity. He should understand how to protect property he is selling without
the aid of by-bidders or stool pigeons. Rates of commission for selling
property run all the way from one-half of one per cent to ten per cent. All
depends upon kind and amount of property sold — each auctioneer fixes the
rate as best he can.

In New York, a $10,000 bond is required of every auctioneer for good
faith. Such bond costs about ten dollars, and can be had at any Security
Company's office. The percentages differ according to the importance of
the sale and the quality of the goods offered. The total charge is usually
1 5 per cent. Some auctioneers will take a sale for nothing, for the prestige.
The amount of fine art works and furniture sold at auction, varies. Some-
times a single sale brings as much as $500,000, and these sales of chattels
in New York City, alone, amount on an average to about $5,000,000 per
annum.

THE PAWNBROKER

In New York, Chicago and San Francisco there is one pawnbroker for
every 15,000 or 16,000 inhabitants. Boston has the greatest number of
pawnbrokers in proportion to its inhabitants — one for every 5,000. Wide
as is the range of articles accepted in pawn, a marked preference is shown
for those of gold and silver, rings and jewelry as a rule comprising about
eighty per cent of all pawn received. Clothing forms a very important item
of the trade, though the tendency of the brokers is to confine their trade to
jewelry and kindred articles. This is of course due to the extra amount of
work and storage room required for the care of clothing, and the possi-
bility of loss in its sale arising from changes in fashion, etc. For these
reasons the amount advanced on such pawn is extremely low.

THE UNDERTAKER

The undertaker is always in one place — he is ever at the end. Even the
man who dies in mid- Atlantic may not avoid the wares of the undertaker.
Lead coffins are carried by ocean liners.

As an occupation, that of undertaker requires a solemn nature, a sym-
pathetic manner, a subdued voice, and above all, nerves of steel, or no
nerves at all. Many a medical student, failing in his chosen career, turns
undertaker, turning to account his class-room practice of seeing and hand-
ling the gruesome without flinching. The great majority of boss under-

MISCELLANEOUS PURSUITS 1043

takers do business in a small way, making not more than $4,000 to $5,000 a
year.

A large undertaking establishment, conducted on a scale equal to that in
other lines of business, is a rarity. In New York, however, there is one es-
tablishment on Eighth Avenue occupying the whole of a large building. In
the basement are vaults, in the niches of which the dead may be placed pre-
vious to the funeral. On the ground floor is a huge salesroom, where every
possible kind of casket is exhibited. On the main floor above is an audi-
torium, larger than a village church, fitted with pews and an organ. Here,
funeral services may be held, the auditorium being rented for the purpose.
A quartet of mixed voices is ever in attendance to sing hymns at funeral
services. A florist in one of the upper stories supplies set-pieces on short
notice. Three or four funerals are often held in this auditorium during a
day, and a fifth in the evening. On the upper floors, the coffins and caskets
are manufactured. The president of this undertaking establishment is an
ordained minister of the Gospel, so that this company can supply even an
officiating clergyman for the last rites. The services over, the deceased is
then lowered on an elevator to the ground floor, and carried out to the
hearse.

The hearse generally used by this company is the most remarkable one
outside of India. It is as long as the longest electric street-car, and is drawn
by eight horses. It constitutes in itself a complete funeral procession, and no
extra carriages are needed. The casket, instead of being placed inside, as in
an ordinary hearse, is in this instance placed on the roof. The mourners
then take their places inside the hearse, sitting on long side seats, as in a
street-car.

There are about 6,000 funerals a day in the United States, which fig
suggests the number of undertakers. In burying the dead of the cou
not less than $100,000,000 a year is spent by the survivors.

The business is divided into several branches. The drygoods br
including seven or eight firms, with a total capital of $1,000,000, furni
yearly about $10,000,000 worth of trimmings. Another branch, embracin
about eighty-five manufacturers, supplies handles and plates. Two hundred
concerns make a specialty of the manufacture of coffins, or caskets. Twenty
firms prepare embalming fluids and implements ; and seven or eight concerns
build nothing but hearses.

Even to the very end, business enterprise makes us a ready-made people.
In life, ready-made shoes, hats, clothing; in death, ready-made coffins.
The undertaker need have nothing made to order. He can fit every tall or
short, stout or thin, person out of the stock on hand. Li Hung Chang,
when he visited the United States, brought his own coffin with him. That
coffin was unnecessary impedimenta — at any moment he could have had his
choice of a million coffins. Manufacturers of caskets have their "com-
binations"; the National Casket Company, with headquarters at Oneida,
New York, controls eleven plants, and has a capital of $6,000,000.

APPENDIX

TABLES OF STATISTICS

COMPILED FROM THE LATEST AVAILABLE SOURCES

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS, JANUARY I, IQO3 ....... 1046

TOTAL NUMBER OF PERSONS IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS 1046

SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN THE UNITED STATES

IN IQOO 1046

RELATIVE AVERAGE PAY IN ONE HUNDRED OCCUPATIONS IO47

THE FIFTEEN GROUPS OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES — COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, 1890

AND IQOO 1048

THREE HUNDRED AND FIFTY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES IO50

SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL COMBINATIONS IN IOOO IO6"5

SUMMARY AND DETAILS OF ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS . . I066

VALUE OF ELECTRICAL AND AUXILIARY MANUFACTURES IN THE UNITED STATES . . IO72

THE EXTENSION OF BANKS AND BANKING — l8g2-igO2 . . . . . . IO72

NUMBER AND CAPITAL OF ALL BANKS IN THE UNITED STATES, MARCH I, IQO2 . . 1073

COST OF TUITION AND OTHER EXPENSES AT THE PRINCIPAL COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

IN THE UNITED STATES 1074

STATISTICS OF NEW BOOKS PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES 1076

NUMBER OF PERIODICALS PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES, TERRITORIES AND CANADA 1077

SPECIALIZATION OF CITIES BY INDUSTRIES 1078

LOCALIZATION OF INDUSTRIES BY CITIES I07Q

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL COMBINATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES IN IQOO . I08o

SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS, IQOO . . . . . . . . IO82

SUMMARY OF FARM CROP STATISTICS FOR iSOQ 1083

MEMBERSHIP OF LABOR ORGANIZATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 1084

LIFE INSURANCE STATISTICS 1086

1046

APPENDIX

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS, JANUARY i, 1903

Population

Wealth

National Bank individual
deposits

Deposits in savings banks.

Number of savings bank
depositors

Deposits in state banks ....

Deposits in private banks. .

Loan and^ trust company
deposits*

Total bank and trust com-
pany deposits

New York bank clearings.

Total bank clearings

Gold, including certificates,
in circulation

National bank notes out
October 31 (1902)

Money in circulation

Circulation per capita ....

Gold in Treasury

Railway freight carried one
mile, tons

Value farms and farm prop-
erty

Value farm products

Value of all farm animals.

79,003,000
$94,300,000,000

$3,209,273,894
$2,750,177,290

6,666,672

$1,698,185,287

$131,669,948

$1,525,887,943

$9,315,193,912

$74,753,i89,436

$116,021,618,003

$938,793,298

$380,476,334

$2,249,390,551

$28.43

$559,302,051

150,000,000,000

$20,514,001,838
$3,764,177,706
$2,981,722,945

Wheat, bushels

Corn, bushels

Wool, pounds

Value of wool manufac-
tures

Cotton, bales

Value of cotton manufac-
tures

Value of silk manufactures

Gold production

Sugar production, tons ....

Petroleum production, gals.

Copper production, tons.

Coal production, tons . . .

Pig iron production, tons

Steel production, tons . . .

Manufactories, number .

Manufactures, value of
product

Factory employes, average
number

Factory wages paid

Value of m'dise imports...

Value of m'dise exports...

Value of agric'l exports...

Value of manuf'd exports .

Comm'l failures, number. .

Liabilities failures .

626,947,007

2^45,366,379

316,341,032

$316,800,000
10,680,680

$345,000,000

$107,256,258

$78,666,700

473,126

2,914,346,148

272,264

280,000,000

17,782,000

13,473,595

512,734

$13,039,279,566

5,719,137

$2,735,430,848

$903,320,948

$1,381,719,401

$851,465,622

$403,641,401

11,002

$113,092,376

TOTAL NUMBER OF PERSONS IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS

The number and proportion of males and females engaged in gainful occupations and
in each class of occupations in 1900, are shown in the following summary:

CLASSES OF OCCUPATIONS

Total

MALES

FEMALI

Number

All occupations

20 O74. 117

2T. JCA 2OZ

81 7

e IIQ QT2

183

Agricultural pursuits . .

-io 381,765

9,404,429

90.6

Q77,'7-l6

9.4

Professional service

1,258,739

828,163

65.8

430,576

•U.2

Domestic and personal service

5,580,657

3,485,208

6-5

2,095,449

37-5

Trade and transportation

, A 766 064

4 263 617

801

503,347

10.6

Manufac'ring and mechanical pursuits

7,085,992

5,772,788

81.5

1,313,204

18.5

SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN THE
UNITED STATES IN 1900

Number of establishments. . 512,726

Capital _ $9,874,664,087

Salaried officials, clerks,

etc., number 397,730

Salaries $404,837,591

Wage-earners, average no. 5,321.087

Total wages $2,330,273,021

Men, 16 years and over. . 4,120,716

Wages $2,022,899,275

Women, 16 yrs. and over

Wages

Children, under 16 years
Wages

Miscellaneous expenses . . .

Cost of materials used ....

Value of products, includ-
ing custom work and re-
pairing

1,031,747

$281,705,586

168,624

$25,668,160

$1.0-8.8^5,586

$7,36o,954>597

$13,040,013,638

APPENDIX

1047

RELATIVE AVERAGE PAY IN ONE HUNDRED OCCUPATIONS

The following table is compiled from numerous government reports. The average pay,
it will be seen, is surprisingly low, owing to the great number of unskilled hands in each
industry. The table is not given as an indication of what a person can earn in a particular
occupation, but to show the relative earnings per capita in the various occupations when
compensation is averaged for the total number engaged. They are thus reasonable approxi-
mations. Some of the figures seem wholly out of proportion — some too high, some too low.
But this is understood when we remember that where a great number of persons of all
grades are included in the industry or occupation the average is lower than where com-
paratively few are employed. Thus, the average earnings of textile designers, of whom
there are comparatively few, are higher than the average earnings of merchants, of whom
there are many — the majority being small dealers:

Wood engravers $1,650

Surgeons 1,625

Theatrical managers and showmen. . 1,600

Bankers and brokers 1,600

Electricians

Saloon keepers

Textile designers ,400

Stone and china decorators

Hotel keepers ,250

Lawyers ,200

Architects ,200

Teachers ,150

Dairymen ,150

Merchants ,15°

Dentists ,100

Engineers

Draughtsmen

Furniture workers

Physicians 1,050

Dyers 1,000

Furriers 1,000

Metal engravers 1,000

Actors 1,000

Livery stable keepers 1,000

Journalists 95°

Clergymen (house rents not included) 950

Meat dealers 95°

Painters (house) 925

Grocers 925

Gunsmiths 925

Restaurant keepers 925

Masons, bricklayers and plasterers. . . 920

Plumbers 92n

Electrotypers 9™

Hatters QOO

Musicians 9°°

Bookbinders 890

Goldbeaters 850

Watchmakers 840

Door, sash, and blind makers 79O

Glass workers 780

Boot and shoemakers 775

Blacksmiths 75O

Carpenters ... 75O

Farmers (including living) 75O

Conductors and motormen

Telegraphers 725

Cooks 725

Artists 72o

Photographers $700

Typewriters 700

Cigarmakers 675

Coppers 675

Printers 670

Millwrights 660

Harnessmakers 650

Soapmakers 645

Upholsterers 645

Quarrymen 640

Sawyers 635

Tailors 630

Locksmiths 625

Machinists 625

Pressfeeders 625

Foremen 625

Sailmakers 625

Coachmen

Barbers

Clerks

Cutlers

Moulders

Dressmakers . .
Boilermakers . .
Cabinetmakers

Tinsmiths

Carriagemakers

Draymen

Butchers

Soldiers

Authors

Agents

Millers

Waiters

Lumbermen and raftsmen

620
6-0
610
600
600
595
590
575

525
520
520
5io
500
500
500
400

Brewers 485

Tanners 47o

Farm laborers (besides board) 460

Weavers 450

Pedlers 440

Bartenders 425

Hunters, trappers and guides 42°

Gardeners 39O

Laborers ". 39°

Sailors 375

Confectioners 350

Stevedores 34O

Nurses (besides board) 29O

Hostlers (besides board) i75

(besides board) 144

1048

APPENDIX

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io66 APPENDIX

SUMMARY AND DETAILS OF ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS

OCCUPATIONS.

MALES.

FEMALES.

TOTAL.

23 956 115

5,329 807

29,285,922

Agricultural pursuits

9,458,194

980,025

10,438,219

3 793 555

665 791

4 459 346

1 825 061

222 597

2 047 658

Farm laborers (members of family) .... ....

1,925,247

441 066

2,366 313

Garden and nursery laborers
Dairymen and dairywomen

43,247
10,035

2,128
896

45.375
10,931

5 373 469

307 788

5 681 257

5,197 653

291 243

5,488 S96

Farmers (members of family)

154,343

14,710

169,053

Farm and plantation overseers

16,517

1,584

18 101

Milk farmers

4 956

251

5 207

Gardeners florists, nurserymen, etc

59 556

2 862

62,418

Gardeners

35,981
15 711

1,200
1 137

37,181
16 848

7 864

525

8 389

Lumbermen and raftsmen

72090

100

72,190

83 522

1 947

85 469

36 628

1 081

37 709

Stock herders and drovers

46 894

866

47,760

24 456

281

24 737

36 152

113

36 265

Other agricultural pursuits

5 359

247

5 606

Apiarists

1,324

1,375

4 035

196

4 231

Professional service

833 584

431 153

1 264 737

Actors professional showmen, etc

28,013

6,910

34,923

8 392

6 418

14 810

Professional showmen

16 228

397

16 625

Theatrical managers etc ... .

3 393

3,488

Architects designers, draughtsmen, etc

28 518

1 042

29,560

Architects

10,504

100

10.604

Designers, draughtsmen, and inventors

18,014

942

18,956

Artists and teachers of art

13 875

11 027

24 902

Clergymen

108 537

3,405

111,942

Dentists

28,896

787

29,683

FJlectricians

50 373

409

50 782

Engineers (civil, etc.)t and surveyors . . ...

43 451

43,535

Engineers (civil)

20,113

20,153

Engineers (mechanical and electrical)

14 410

14 440

Engineers (mining)

2 905

2 908

6 023

6 034

27 905

2 193

30098

Lawyers

113693

1 010

114.703

Literary and scientific persons

13,140

5,989

19,129

3 442

2 616

6 058

1 059

3 125

4 184

Chemists, assayers, and metallurgists
Musicians and teachers of music

8,639
39,887

248
52,377

8,887
92,264

Officials (government)

82,164

8,126

90,290

Officials (national government) .

34 159

6 436

40,595

Officials (state government)
Officials (county government)
Officials (city or town government)

4,070
22,054
21 881

275
723
692

4,345
22.777
22 573

Phvsicians and surgeons . .- . . . .

124 826

7,399

132,225

Teachers and professors in colleges, etc

118,748
111 936

328,049
327 586

446,797
439,522

Professors in colleges and universities

6 812

463

7,275

Other professional service

11,558

2,346

13,904

8 176

8,190

Not specified . . . .....

3 382

2,332

5,714

3 592 581

2 099 165

5691,743

Barbers and hairdressers . . .

125,801

5,582

131.383

88 497

440

88,937

Boarding and lodging house keepers
Hotel keepers

11,860
46,386

59,511
8,545

71,371
54.931

APPENDIX 1067

SUMMARY AND DETAILS OF ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS

OCCUPATIONS.

MALES.

FEMALES.

TOTAL.

Domestic and personal service — Continued.

Housekeepers and stewards

Janitors and sextons

Janitors

Sextons

Laborers (not specified) . .
Elevator tenders . . .
Laborers (coal yard)
Laborers (general) .

Longshoremen

Stevedores

Launderers and laundresses .
Laundry work (hand) . .
Laundry work (steam). .

Nurses and midwives

Nurses (trained)

Nurses (not specified) . ,
Midwives . .

Restaurant keepers

Saloon keepers

Servants and waiters

Servants

Waiters . .

Soldiers, sailors, and marines (U. S.).

Soldiers, (U. S.)

Sailors, U. S.)

Marines, U. S.)

Watchmen, policemen, firemen, etc

Watchmen, policemen, and detectives . .

Firemen (fire department).

8,421
48,585
43,282

5,303

2,516,263

12,661

9,361

2,464,207

20,916

9.118

51,302
39,278
12,024

12,291

758

11,533

29,162
81,789
280,409
215,818
64,591

126,744
103.902
18,450
4,392

130 312
115,736
14,576

Other domestic and personal service 34,759

Bootblacks 8,158

Hunters, trappers, guides, and scouts 10,020

Not specified 16,581

Trade and transportation 4,274,659

Agents 230,773

Agents (insurance and real estate) 117,142

Agents (not specified) 113,631

Bankers and brokers : 73,086

Bankers and brokers (money and stocks) 65,794

Brokers (commercial) 7,292

Boatmen and sailors 79,870

Boatmen and canalmen 13,093

Pilots... 4,971

Sailors 61,806

Bookkeepers and accountants 181,340

Clerks and copyists. . 546,830

Clerks and copyists 485,793

Clerks (shipping) 32,923

Letter and mail carriers 28,114

Commercial travelers 91,990

Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc 540,209

Draymen, teamsters, and expressmen 503,458

Carriage and hack drivers 36,751

Foremen and overseers 54,085

Foremen and overseers (livery stable) 3,236

Foremen and overseers (steam railroad) 35,205

Foremen and overseers (street railway) 1,021

Foremen and overseers (not specified) 14,623

Hostlers . . 65,302

Hucksters and peddlers 73,935

Livery stable keepers

Merchants and dealers (except wholesale) 758,755

Boots and shoes 14,812

Cigars and tobacco 14,273

Clothing and men's furnishings 17,805

Coal and wood 20,606

147,103

8,035

7,944

124,157
30
12

124,076
18
21

335,711

325,778
9,933

108,978

11,134

92,214

5,630

4,861

2,086

1,285,031

1,242,192

42,839

879
879

8,246
85

1,320
6,841

503,574

10,560

2,141

8,419

298

253

154

74,186

85,269

84,312

693

264

946

906
863

1,418

1,402

2,937
190

34,132

427

1,094

292

260

155,524

56,620

51,226

5,394

2,640,420

12,691

9.373

2,588.283

20,934

9,139

387,013

365.056

21,957

121.269

11.892

103,747

5,630

34,023

83,875

1,565.440

1,458,010

107,430

126,744

103,902

18,450

4,392

131,191

116,615

14,576

43.005
. 8.243
11,340
23,422

4,778,233

241,333

119.283

122.050

73.384

66.047

7,337

80,024

13,175

4,976

61,873

255,526

632.099

570,105

33,616

28,378

92,936

541,115

504,321

36,794

55,503
3,238

35,217
1,023

16,025

65,381
76,872
33,680

792,887
15,239
15,367
18,097
20,866

io68 APPENDIX

SUMMARY AND DETAILS OF ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS

OCCUPATIONS.

MALES.

FEMALES.

TOTAL.

Trade and transportation — Continued

56 168

1 178

57 346

Dry goods fancy goods, and notions

41,487

4 353

45 840

General store

32,089

942

33 031

146 887

9 670

156 557

Liquors and wines .

12 928

191

13 119

Lumber >

16,692

16 774

33 525

669

34 194

351 483

14 974

366 457

Merchants and dealers (wholesale)
Messengers and errand and office boys

42,049
65,032

261
6663

42,310
71 695

Bundle and cash boys

6,116

4,392

10 508

Messengers

43 159

1 301

44 460

Office boys.

15 757

970

16 727

Officials of banks and companies

72,975

1 271

74 246

Bank officials and cashiers

14 024

271

14 295

Officials (insurance and trust companies, etc )

5 227

112

5 339

Officials (trade companies)

20002

477

20 479

33 722

411

34 133

Packers and shippers

39 781

19 988

59 769

Porters and helpers (in stores, etc.)

53 708

566

54 274

Salesmen and saleswomen
Steam railroad employees

462,531
580 783

149,256
1 688

611,787
582 471

Baggagemen

19 075

19 085

Brakemen. ...

67461

67 492

Conductors

42,928

42 935

Engineers and firemen

107,105

107 150

Laborers . ....

248 628

948

249 576

Station agents and employees

45 371

621

45 992

Switchmen, yardmen, and flagmen

50,215

50 241

Stenographers and typewriters

26 306

86 158

112 464

Stenographers

23 553

75*274

98 897

Typewriters

2,753

10884

13 637

Street railway employees

68 890

68 936

Conductors

24025

24 038

Drivers „
Laborers

1,366
4 632

1,366
4 644

Motormen.

37 434

37 436

Station agents and employees

1 433

1 452

Telegraph and telephone linemen

14,765

14 765

Telegraph and telephone operators .

52 502

22 578

75 080

Telegraph operators
Telephone operators

48,656
3 846

7.229
15 349

55,885
19 195

Undertakers

15 876

324

16 200

Other persons in trade and transportation
Auctioneers

49,796
2,810

3,700
3

53,496
2 813

Decorators, drapers and window dressers

2 757

296

3 053

Newspaper carriers and newsboys

6 835

6 904

Weighers, gaugers, and measurers

6,491

179

6 670

Not specified

30 903

3 153

34 056

Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits

5 797 097

1 315 890

7 112 987

Building trades.
Carpenters and joiners

602 196

545

609 741

Carpenters and joiners

586 557

525

587 082

Ship carpenters

12 281

12 287

Apprentices and helpers

3 358

3 372

Masons (brick and stone)

160 881

167

161 048

Masons

149 191

155

149 346

Masons' laborers

9 274

9 284

Apprentices and helpers

2 416

2 418

Painters, glaziers, and varnishers

276,231

1 759

277 990

Painters, glaziers and varnishers

257 396

1 713

259 109

Painters (carriages and wagons)
Apprentices and helpers

Paper-hangers

17,316
1,519

21 763

34
12

241

17,350
1,531

22 004

Paper hangers

21 572

236

21808

Apprentices and helpers

191

196

APPENDIX 1069

SUMMARY AND DETAILS OF ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS

OCCUPATIONS.

MALES.

FEMALES.

TOTAL.

Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits — Continued.

Plasterers

Apprentices and helpers ,

Plumbers and gas and steam fitters

Apprentices and helpers

Roofers and slaters

Apprentices and helpers

Mechanics (not otherwise specified)

35,661

35,302

359

97,758

92,192

5,566

9,066

8,930

136

9,396

Chemicals and allied products.

Oil well and oil works employees , 24,573

Oil well employees , 18,001

Oil works employees 6,572

Other chemical workers 12,035

Chemical works employees 5,687

Fertilizer makers 1,308

Powder and cartridge makers 2,745

Salt works employees 1,671

Starch makers 624

Clay, glass, and stone products.

Brick and tile makers, etc 49,456

Brick makers 45,468

Tile makers 2,667

Terra cotta workers 1,321

Glass workers 47,378

Marble and stone cutters 54,382

Potters 13,200

Fishing and mining.

Fishermen and oystermen 72,005

Miners and quarrymen 569,625

Miners (coal) 343.668

Miners (gold and silver) 59,036

Miners (not otherwise specified) 132,386

Quarrymen 34,535

Food and kindred products.

Bakers 75,061

Butchers 113,834

Butter and cheese makers. 18,613

Confectioners 22,023

Millers 40,390

Other food preparers 27,269

Fish curers and packers 3,674

Meat and fruit canners and preservers 5,98£

Meat packers, curers, and picklers 12,799

Sugar makers and refiners 3,320

Not specified 1.491

Iron and steel and their products.

Blacksmiths 226,880

Blacksmiths 218,400

Apprentices and helpers 8,480

Iron and steel workers 287,427

Iron and steel workers 200,253

Molders 87,174

Machinists 282,861

Machinists 266,338

Apprentices and helpers 16,523

Steam boiler makers 33,079

Steam boiler makers 31,183

Helpers 1,896

Stove, furnace, and grate makers 12,430

Tool and cutlery makers 27,376

Wheelwrights 13,529

Wire workers 16,701

Leather and its finished products.

Boot and shoe makers and repairers 169,537

Boot and shoe factory operatives 69,320

126

123

2
2

53
10
43

2,779

1,053

1,391
195
138

478

127

350

2,621

143

2,940

1,805

1,370

624

4,346
378
648

9,219
186

5,173
147

3,266

977

752

196

185

3,370
3,040

571

508

746

1,786

39,519
37,425

35.706

35,346

360

7? 384

92,315

5,569

9.068

8,932

136

9,437

24,626
18,011
6,615

14,814
6.740
1.310
4,136
1,866
762

49,934

45.595

3,017

1,322

54,525
16,140

73,810
570.995
344.292

59095
133,010

34,598

79,407
114.212
19,261
31.242
40,576

32,442
3.821
9.251

13,776
3,351
2,243

227,076

218,585

8,491

290.797

203,293

87,504

283,432

266,846

16.586

33,087

31,191

1,896

12,473
28,122
13,539

18,487

209,056
106,745

APPENDIX
SUMMARY AND DETAILS OF ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS

OCCUPATIONS.

MALES.

FEMALES.

TOTAL.

Leather and its finished products — Continued.
Shoemakers (not in shoe factory)

99 G35

2008

101 643

Apprentices . . •

582

668

Harness and saddle makers and repairers

39,593
40 925

595
1 759

40,193
42 684

15068

702

15 770

Tanners . .

25,800

1,051

26,851

Trunk and leather-case makers etc

5472

1 579

7057

Trunk makers
Leather-case and pocketbook makers

3,470
2,002

187
1,392

3,651
3,394

Liguors and beverages.
Bottlers and soda water makers, etc
Bottlers

9,752
8,942
810

794
776
18

10,546
9,718
828

Brewers and maltsters
Distillers and rectifiers

Lumber and its manufactures.
Cabinet makers
Coopers
Saw and planing mill employees
Saw and planing mill employees

20,709
3,115

35.574
37,113
161,314
150,259

275
30

67
113
373
353

20,984
3,145

35,641
37,220
161,687
150,61?

11 055

11,075

Other wood workers
Basket makers

104,609
4,463
7 699

7,079
2.336
1,177

111,688
6,790
8873

Furniture manufactory employees
Piano and organ makers
Not specified

21,842
6,021
64,584

1,236
199
2,131

23,078
6,220
66,715

Metals and metal products other than iron and steel.
Brass workers
Brass workers
Molders

25,870
19,806
5,947

890
847
43

26,700
20.653
5,990

Helpers .

117

Clock and watch makers and repairers
Clock factory operatives

19,373
2,618
12 163

4,815
862
3,907

24,188
3,480
16,070

Clock and watch repairers

Gold and silver workers
Gold and silver workers

4,592

19,766
8 222

6,380
1 208

4,638

26,140
9,430

Jewelry manufactory employees.

11,544

5,172

16,710

Tin plate and tinware makers

68,838

1,775

70,613

Tin plate makers

6 954

277

7,231

Tinners and tinware makers

60,713

1,487

62,200

Apprentices (tinsmiths)

1,173

1,182

Other metal workers

54 308

2,320

56,628

Copper workers .

8,177

8,188

Electroplaters . . . ...

6,146

241

6,387

7 406

7,452

5 238

5.335

Molders (metals). . . . . . . .

2,925

236

3,161

Not specified

24,416

1,689

26,10f«

Paper and printing.
Bookbinders. ....

14,651

15,635

30,286

Box makers (paper) .

3,796

17,302

21,098

Engravers

10,703

453

11,156

Paper and pulp mill operatives

26 905

9,424

36,329

Printers lithographers, and pressmen .

139,344

15,989

155,333

Printers and pressmen

98,050

5,805

103,855

7 503

453

7,950

Compositors .

27,232

9,617

36,849

Electrotypers and stereotypers

3,145

3,172

Apprentices (printers)

3,414

3,501

Textiles.
Bleachery and dye works operatives

20,503

1,786

22,289

Bleachery operatives

3,739

646

4,385

Dye works operatives

16 764

1,140

17,901

Carpet factory operatives

10,371

9.017

19 388

Cotton mill operatives . .

l^'S 788

120,216

246,004

APPENDIX 1071

SUMMARY AND DETAILS OF ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS

OCCUPATIONS.

MALES.

FEMALES.

TOTAL.

Textiles — Continued.

Hosiery and knitting mill operatives 1 9 con

Silk mill operatives oo noo

Woolen mill operatives .'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.' .' '.'.'.'.'.'" 42566

Other textile mill operatives to 4o7

Hemp and jute mill operatives .'.'.' .' .' 1577

Linen mill operatives 'ooc

Print works operatives 4 953

Rope and cordage factory operatives

Worsted mill operatives 2*Q01

Textiles not specified '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 38,569

Dressmakers 2 128

Dressmakers !!!!.'!!!!! 2 1 16

Apprentices

Hat and cap makers 15,110

Milliners. 1 739

Milliners 1*718

Apprentices .!!!!!!! ' 21

Seamstresses 4 537

Shirt, collar, and cuff makers 8*491

Tailors and tailoresses i«i 'oqq

Tailors and tailoresses ....'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 160 025

Apprentices ......'...... 1 ',274

Other textile workers 8,941

Carpet (rag) makers \ l'$\6

Lace and embroidery makers 2,007

Sail, awning, and tent makers 3,183

Sewing machine operators 736

Not specified 1,099

Miscellaneous industries.

Broom and Brush makers 8,644

Charcoal, coke and lime burners '.'. 14^433

Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) 224 369

Glove makers , 4,503

Manufacturers and officials, etc 240,525

Manufacturers and officials, etc 155,240

Builders and contractors 56,785

Publishers of books, maps, and newspapers 10,667

Officials of mining and quarrying companies 17,833

Model and pattern makers 14,879

Photographers 23,442

Rubber factory operatives . 14,492

Tobacco and cigar factory operatives 87,966

Upholsterers 28,681

Other miscellaneous industries 380,949

Apprentices and helpers (not specified) 29,652

Artificial flower makers 437

Button makers 3,834

Candle, soap, and tallow makers 3,291

Corset makers • 815

Cotton ginners 1.381

Electric light and power company employees 5,858

Gas works employees 6,940

Piano and organ tuners. 4,251

Straw workers 929

Turpentine distillers 7,022

Umbrella and parasol makers 1,331

Well borers 6.650

Whitewashers 3,376

Not specified 305,182

34.490
32,437
30,630

51,182
1,942
1,265
1,093
2,999
4,140

39,743

344,948

342.703

2,245

7,623

86,142

84,155

1,987

146,542

30,941

68,978

68,684

294

21,105
5,700
7,316
409
5,036
2,644

1,578

177

7,773

3,438

2,883

150

303

102

204

3,587

7,374

43,498

2,158

91,062
2,045
2,338
3,019

731

7,201

303

15
44

1,911

70,220

47,120
54,460
73,196

104,619
3.519
2,100
6,056
7,591
7,041
78,312

347,076

344,819

2,257

22,733

87,881

85,873

2,008

151,379

39,432

230,277

228,709

1,568

30,046
7,616
9,323
3,592
5,772
3,743

10,222

14,476

224,546

12,276

243,963

158,123

56,935

10,970

17,935

15,083
27,029
21,866
131,464
30,839

472,011

31,697

2,775

6,853

4,022
8,016
1,395
6,161

6,955
4,295
3,997
7,099

3,242

6,661

3.441

376,402

1072

APPENDIX

VALUE OF ELECTRICAL AND AUXILIARY MANUFACTURES IN THE UNITED

STATES

(An estimate by "The Western Electrician.")

FOB THE

YEAR—

1900.

1901.

$1.200,000

$1,600 000

125 000

Auxiliary steam plant for electrical installations, such as pumps, condensers, sepa-
rators feed- water heaters injectors piping etc .

1 500 000

1 850 000

Bells buzzers push-buttons, call-boxes, annunciators

600 000

720 000

Belting used in electrical plants

550,000

600,000

4 000 000

6 000 000

Boilers for electrical plants (other than water-tube)

1 100 000

1 850 000

Cables underground aerial and submarine

15,000 000

18 000 000

Carbons for lamps, batteries, brushes or other electrical purposes
Cars and trucks for electric railways

1,625,000
3,000,000

1,985,000
3,700 000

Circuit breakers

230,000

1 600 000

1 700 000

Conveyors, coal and ash, used in electrical plants
Cranes and hoists, electrically operated
Dynamos and motors, including parts of machines, boosters, rotary converters,
etc., and all motor applications, such as automobiles, not specifically enum-
erated in this list ... . .

350,000
2,400,000

36 000 000

'esoiooo

2,730,000
41 500 000

Electroplating and other electrolytic apparatus not elsewhere specified

250 000
150 000

325,000
250 000

2 500 000

1 800 000

Engines gas gasoline or oil used to drive electrical machinery . . . .

900 000

950 000

Engines steam used to drive electrical machinery

15 000 000

16 425 000

Fans, electrically operated and direct-connected

1,100,000
700 000

1,350.000
800 000

Fixtures for electric lighting

3 850 000

4 200 000

175 000

Heating and cooking apparatus, electrical

225 000

285 000

Incandescent lamps

3,400,000

4,150,000

Instruments for measurement and meters of all kinds ; also ground detectors,
scientific and laboratory appartus, photometers, Leyden jars, X-ray outfits,
etc

2 500 000

3 250 000

Insulating material, fiber, tape, etc

1 200 000

1 135 000

Insulators (glass and porcelain)

1,325,000

1,600,000

Interior wiring supplies, as tubing, interior conduit, molding, junction boxes,
rosettes outlet boxes etc . . . .

850 000

1 050 000

Lightning arresters

310 000

390 000

Poles, cross-arms, brackets and pins

2 900 000

3 875,000

450 000

550 000

Railway supplies, electric, such as trolleys and other contact devices, strain insula-
tors cross-overs, rail bonds etc

950 000

1 575 000

Rheostats, car controllers, motor starters, etc.

775 000

1 050 000

Shafting, pulleys, clutches, etc., used in electrical generating plants

500 000

475 000

1 500 000

1 850 000

Storage batteries, including those used on automobiles

3 500 000

4 500 000

Telegraph instruments and apparatus

115 000

120 000

Telephones and telephone supplies, including telephone switchboards

17 500 000

18 750 000

300 000

Transformers stationary

2 600 000

3 250 000

Waterwheels, used to drive electrical machinery

850 000

1 125 000

Wire, bare

7 250 000

16 200 000

3 100 000

5 750 000

Wire weatherproof

6 250 000

8*500 000

Wire all other electrical

1,250 000

1,725,000

Miscellaneous, including switchboard panels, sign flashers, automatic stokers for
electrical plants, wire guards, .electrical tools and toys, projectors, solenoids.
etc

200 000

1 500 000

Total

$153,000,000

$192,470,000

THE EXTENSION OF BANKS AND BANKING — 1892-1902

Individual Deposits in National Banks . ...

1892.

$1 764 456 177

1902.
$3,209,273,894

Deposits in Savings Banks

1,712,749,026
4 781 605

2,750,177,290
6 666 672

Deposits in State Banks

648 513 809

1,698 185,287

Deposits in Private Banks

*93 091,148

131,669,948

Deposits in Loan and Trust Companies

411,659,996

1,525,887,943

Deposits in all Banks and Trust Companies

4 630 490 156

9 315 193 912

New York Bank Clearings

36 279 905 236

74 753,189.436

Total Bank Clearings

60 883 572 438

116,021,618,003

Money in Circulation

1,601,347,187

2,249,390,551

Circulation Per Caoita

24 60

28 43

Number of National Banks .

3 773

4,423

Total Capital and Surplus of National Banks . . .

925.444.439

1.132.161,907

* Includes only those reporting, estimated at about one-fourth of all.

APPENDIX

1073

NUMBER AND CAPITAL OP ALL BANKS IN THE UNITED STATES, MARCH i, 1902

(From the American Bank Reporter)

STATE.

Total State
Banks and
Trust Co. 's.

£ja

Total Sav.
Banks.

•al

g«

ll
g*

111

Maine

28
11
21
51
25
30

12
3
2
*18
*1
29

51
52
23
187
26
90

85
56
48
242
37
83

176
122
94
498
89
232

$12,347,800
6,352,000
7,502,800
*88,850,500
*18,622,250
26,287,244

New Hampshire

\ermont

Massachusetts

Rhode Island

Connecticut

Total New England States

166

214
122
76
251
17
48
6

65
149

"ii

*131
4
*12
6

429

102
27
28
46

551

305
45
130
558
21
82
12

1,153

48
51
39
20
39
19
41
17
29
325
9
89
60

1,211

770
194
245
986
45
190
29

2,459

239
171
165
158
299
68
153
160
122
600
168
381
234

2,918

936
568
1,089
586
430
1,368
657
811
598
602
189

$159,962,594

$61,917,544
177,607.600
28,378.850
*161, 287.385
3,968.975
37,206,040
7,860,900

New York State (city excepted)
New York City

Pennsylvania

Delaware ...

District of Columbia

Total Middle States

734

143
111
94
118
204
36
70
135
85
47
142
260
160

313

48
9
32
20
56
13
42
8
8
228
17
32
14

527

314

273
*595
267
151
557
282
127
64
70
74

259

$478,227,294

$15,136,952
9,709,340
5,900,415
8,032,679
18,495.302
2.693.350
9,232,100
6,972,400
9,993,300
32,987,940
5,563,387
27,662,120
14,960,660

Virginia

West Virginia

North Carolina *

South Carolina

Georgia .

Florida

Alabama

Mississippi

Louisiana. . .

Texas

Kentucky
Tennessee

Total Southern States

1,605

307
154
218
234
178
579
259
611
406
413
65

786

315
141
276

85
101
232
116
73
128
119
50

$167,339,945

$90,073,610
31,347,935
*91,749,150
30,220,812
19,871,890
49,247,451
26,832,800
71,404,120
16,881,000
19,707,850
9.647,100

Ohio

Indiana

Illinois . ... . ....

Michigan

Iowa
Minnesota
Missouri

Kansas .... .....

Nebraska

Total Western States
North Dakota

3,424

165
191

203
45
68
7
19
38
174
23
23
11
21
11
3

2,774

9
61
34
23
46
5
6
22
4
14
20
8
12
11
2

277

'64

429
259

'64

1,636

44
40
51
30
35
1
7
67
66
15
24
13
13
14
1

7,834

218
292
352
98
149
13
32
127
244
52
67
32
46
36
6

$456,983,718

$4,135,500
5,376.364
92,044,158
14,977.700
7,981,700
727,000
999,300
3,739,500
3,502,800
1,802,165
4,618,505
1,308,800
5,061,800
1,328,867
225,000

South Dakota

Oregon
Washington

Arizona

Oklahoma

Idaho

Utah

Alaska

Total Pacific States

Recapitulation.
6 New England States

1.002

421

1,764

$147,829,159

166
734
1 ,605
3,424
1,002

65
313

527
2,774
277

551
1,153
786
1,636
421

1,211

2,459
2.918
7,834
1,764

16,186

$159,962,594
478,227,294
167,329,945
456,983,718
147,829,159

6 Middle States

13 Southern States
11 Western States

15 Pacific States

Grand Total, United States

6,931

3,956

752

4,547

$1,410,342,710

*Bankers and brokers at Boston, New York City, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Chicago and Providence not
ncluded.

1074

APPENDIX

COST OF TUITION AND OTHER EXPENSES AT THE PRINCIPAL COLLEGES AND

UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

COLLEGES.

TUITION; COST
PER ANNUM.

X .g

A Sd

X H H
Wfc B

sg'S
111

COLLEGES.

TUITION; COST
PER ANNUM.

LIVING EX-
PENSES,
BOARD, ETC.

Adelphi College

$180
15
24
38
45
50
40
110
None
30
50
75
150
16
None
30
36
150
50
60
80
36
None
125
75
105
150
40
50
40
45
40
35
32
100
40
75
22
24
50
36
42
40
16
None
100
40
37
60
60
None
35
200
100
40
55
150
75
70
30
110
60
40
60
39
33
None
36

24
45
None
48

$200
156
160
150
150
160
150
300
250
100
120
200
300
80
150
144
101
450
140
150
120
250
64
270
450
400
350
152
250
150
120
150
120
125
216
150
330
110
120
170
120
120
90
50
80
200
100
150
135
160
N ne
250
340
240
72
180
350
160
128
100
300
170
100
200
250
180
200
200
100
114
189
143
125
150

$10
18
30
25
46
20
15
50

80
18
35
15
8
None
56
18
25
40
20
10
55
40
25

150
18

20
20
15
35
25
10

30
31
15
20
15
10
10
None

20
25
50
None
25
42
20
10
20
15
12
10
15
100
60
15
100

25
60
18
125
30
50
15
30

Elmira College
Emory and Henry College
Emory College

$75
50
60
30
36
30
32
14
50
40
None
50
33
None
42
45
100
None
45
50
50
38
30
45
52
60
75
36
50
100
None
None
150
150
50
60
50
25
1.50
45
80
60
18
60

50
30
50
39
None
55
None
41
66
200
30
38
22
30
75
36
50
100
40
40
None
100
6
40
125
20
30
40
40

$245
155
150
200
180
150
120
90
137
95
129.50
75
150
225
108
160
312
None
120
150
130
105
96
135
90
200
350
126
175
100
200
125
700
350
200
125
100
108
117
150
140
185
175
100
90
100
125
150
250
350
185
175
110
156
175
150
120
102
100
225
100
350
156
150
500
130

130
146
320
200
100
120
150

$35
25
30
None
5
30
5
10

80
25
20
None
100
20
35
None
10

15
10
5

20
50
12
35
10
50
100
25uE
30
75
20
10

123
25
45
12

35
40
10
15
15
25
50
30

20
10
20
50
10
15
75
50
30
60
30
15
25

20
15
15
50

12
30
20

Albion College . . .

Alfred University
Allegheny College

Emporia College
Fairmount College

Fargo College
Findlay College
Fisk University
Fort Worth University .
Franklin College (Ohio)
Franklin & Marshall Col
Furman University
Gale College
Gen'l Theol Sem (P E )

American Univ. of Harriman . .
Amherst College
Aidover Theol. Sem

Arkansas College

Armour Inst. Technology
Asheville College

Atlanta University

Auburn Theological Sem

Geneva College
Georgetown College (Ky.)
Georgetown Univ. (D. C.)
Girard College

Baker University
Baldwin University
Barnard College
Bates College

Baylor University

Bellevue College

Greensboro Female Col
Greenville and Tus. Col
Greer College
Grove City College

Beloit College

Boston University

Bowdoin College
Brown University

Guilford College

Gustavus Adolphus Col
Hamilton College
Hamline University
Hampden-Sidney College

Bryn Mawr College
Buchtel College

Bucknell University
Burritt College

Butler College
Carleton College
Carson and Newman Col
Carthage College

Hanover College

Hartford Theol. Sem
Harvard University

Case School Appl Science

Catawba College
Catholic University .
Cedarville College

Hendrix College

Henry College

Central Univ. of Iowa

Hifisdale College

Central Univ. of Ky
Central Wesleyan College
Charles City College

Hiram College

Hobart College

Holy Cross College
Hope College (Mich.)
Howard College (Ala )

Charleston College

Claflin University

Clark University (Ga ) .

Howard University (D. C.)
Howard iPayne College

Clark University (Mass.)
Clemson Agri. College

Coe College

Colby College .

Colgate University
College of City of N.Y
Colorado College
Columbia University

Indiana University

Iowa State College

Iowa Wesleyan Univ

Columbian University
Concordia College
Converse College

Johns Hopkins Univ

Cornell University (N. Y.)
Creighton University
Cumberland University
Dakota University
Dartmouth College
Davidson College

Kansas Wesleyan Univ
Kentucky University
Kentucky Wesleyan Col
Kenyon College
Keuka College

Defiance College

Lafayette College (Pa.)
La Grange College

Delaware College

Denison University . . .

Denver University

Lane Theological Sem
La Salle College

De Pauw University

Des Moines College
Dickinson College ... .

Lebanon Valley College
Lehigh University
Leland Stanford, Jr., Univ

Doane College

Drake University

Drew Theol. Seminary

Drury College
Earlham College . .

Liberty College
Lima College

APPENDIX

COST OF TUITION AND OTHER EXPENSES AT THE PRINCIPAL COLLEGES AND
UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

COLLEGES.

TUITION; COST

PER ANNUM.

LIVING EX-
PENSES,
BOARD, ETC. |

lii

o|«

COLLEGES.

TUITION; COST

PER ANNUM.

LIVING EX-
PENSES,
BOARD, ETC.

OTHER EX-
PENSES; FEES,
BOOKS, ETC.

Lincoln College (111.)
Livingston College

$10
8
35
40
100
30
18
80
200
None
36
30
50
10
15
80
40
36
400
36
35
50
40
33
9
50
100
300
42
41
20
None
40

None
180
200
40
40
78
20
75
25

None
46
None
30
50
35
55
30
41
25
40
30
110
100
12
40
60
150
40
None
160
46
25
200
30
75
200
70
28
50

$230
64
175
250
250
175
74
300
280
200
126
115
125
108
150
145
125
90

lie

130
120
125
130
58
150
180

99
115
125
150
100
88
100
400
100
200
135
300
80
250
135
225
200
350
90up
200
230
115
180
220
300
144
110
244
290
200
72
160
175
304
63
120
500
140
300
300
162
160
370
175
100
150

$12
10
30
8
20
30
10

35
25
50
25
10
23
125
45
40
20
25
6
20
66
15
35
15
10

14
20
18
25
30
30
8
30
55
20
20
10
35
10
75
20
126
15
50
30
20
150
12
25

15
25
4O
26
40
50
6
20
60
25
15
12

20
55

31up
45
31
15
40
40

Rock Hill College

$60
75
None
22
36
32
100
40
None
50
60
36
20
75
16.50

50
40
60
100
75
60
50
50
60

30
15
None
50
50

135
42
36
100
100
50
50
100
85
38
36
75
30
None
40
None
30
None
120
75

$260
216
125
58
100
133
300
133
105
120
350
110
200
300
75
350
150
160

170
290
150
160
200
225
140
80
225
200
200
400
400
130
72
300
300
150
125
250
148
110
100
220
75
lOOup
130
250
150
250
555
120up
200
lOOup
150
233
320
171
165
250
160

180
200
300
225
135
120
200
85
120
150
200
500

$50
54
25
20
24
12

75
20
25

16
50

15
30
20
20
25
7

None

25
50
50
50
15
250

37
40
35
27
10
25

33
50

125

25
25
25
50

200
65
5
12
35
50
5
35
15
35
43
50
20
25

Rutgers College
San Francisco Theo. Sem
Shaw University
Shuurtleff College
Simpson College

Lombard College

Macalester College

Manhattan College

Marietta College

Maryville College
Mass. Agricultural Col
Mass. Inst. Technology
McCormJck Theol Sem

Smith College
South Carolina College
Southern Bapt. Theol. Sem
Southern University
S'thwestern Univ. (Tex.)
Southwest Kansas College
State College of Kentucky
State Univ. of Iowa

McKendree College . .

McMinnville College
Mercer College
Miami University
Michigan Agri. College
Middlebury College
Midland College...

State Univ. of Kentucky
Stevens Institute Tech

Milligan College
Mills College

St. Benedict's College
St. Francis Xavier Col
St. John's College (DC)

Milton College
Mississippi College
Missouri Valley College
Monmouth College

St. John's College (Md.)
St. John's College (N. Y.)
St. John's Univ. (Minn.)
St. Lawrence University
St. Louis University

Morris Brown College
Mount Angel College
Mount Holyoke College
Mount St . Mary's College
Mount Union College
Muskingum College .
Nebraska Wesleyan Univ
Nevada State University
Newberry College

St. Mary's College )Kan.)
St. Mary's College (Ky.)
St Olaf College

St Stephen's College . ...

St. Thomas Villanova Col

St Vincent's College

Swarthmore College
Syracuse University

Tabor College

Newton Theol Inst ....

New York University

Trinity College (Ct.)

Trinity College (D. C.)
Trinity College (N. C.)
Trinity Univ (Tex )

North Carolina College
Northern Illinois College
Northwestern Univ (111 )

Tufts College

Norwegian Luther Col
Oberlin College
Ogden College

Tulane University
Union College (Ky )

Union College (Neb.)
Union College (NY)

Ohio State University
Ohio Univ (Athens O )

Ohio Wesleyan Univ
Oregon Agri. College

Oxford College

Univ. of Arkansas

Pa ific College (Ore )

Univ of Chicago

Park College

Univ of Colorado

Peabody Normal College

Penn College (Iowa)
Pennsylvania College
Pennsylvania College

None
30

Univ. of Kansas
Univ. of Maine
Univ. of Michigan

Pennsylvania State Col
Philander Smith College

Pomona College
Pratt Institute
Presbyterian Col.of S.C
Princeton Theol. Sem
Princeton University
Pritchett College

Univ. of Mississippi
Univ. of Missouri
Univ. of Montana
Univ. of Nashville
Univ. of Nebraska
Univ. of New Mexico
Univ. of North Carolina
Univ of North Dakota

None

100
None
100
None
50
200

Purdue University
Radcliffe College

Univ. of Notre Dame
Univ of Oklahoma

Randolph (Woman's)
Rensselaer Poly. Insl

Univ. of Omaha
Univ of Oregon

Rio Grande College
T?/->Qnr>t<» Hnllec'e . .

Univ of the Pacific

Univ. of Pennsylvania

1076

APPENDIX

COST OF TUITION AND OTHER EXPENSES AT THE PRINCIPAL COLLEGES AND

UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

COLLEGES.

TUITION; COST

PER ANNUM.

LIVING EX-
PENSES,
BOARD, ETC.

*g"g-

w£ s

COLLEGES.

TUITION; COST

PER ANNUM.

LIVING EX-
PENSES,
BOARD, ETC.

OTHER EX-
PENSES; FEES,
BOOKS, ETC.

Univ. of Rochester
Univ of the South

$60

100

$185
200

$50
30

Washington University
Wavnesburg College

$150
30

$300
175

$50
25

Univ of South Dakota

300

Wellesley College

175

225

250

Wells College

100

300

110

145

175

Wesleyan University

300

None

180

120

Western College

175

Univ of Utah

200

Western Maryland Col

180

200

Western Reserve Univ

250

200

225

Western Univ. of Penn .

100

200

Univ of Washington

None

125

Westminster Col. (Mo.)

150

Univ of Wisconsin

200

Westminster Col. (Pa.)

150

140

West Virginia University

200

Univ. of Wyoming

None

225

Wheaton College

200

150

Whitman College

240

Vanderbilt University

200

Wilberforce Univ

Yassar College . .

115

300

None

Wiley University

Vincennes University

150

Willamette University

140

Virginia Military Inst

75
30

165
106

125
35

William & Mary College
William Jewell College . . .

35
40

108
50

Wabash College

125up

Williams College

105

481

Washburn College

300

Wilmington Col. (Ohio)

100

Washington Col (Md )

105

Wilson College

190

Washington Col. (Tenn.)

Woman's Col. (Bait.)

125

250

Washington & Lee Univ

180

Yale University

150

1,000

100

STATISTICS OF NEW BOOKS PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES

(From "The Publishers' Weekly.")

DO.

1901.

CCASSESL

o
o
«

New Editions

New Editions.

iii
1*1-

>>! -p

•°3-3ti

ja.r

IIS

>>(B-rH 3

•°JrfS

sosa

lltf

PQ C3 03 V

Books by English
authors, imported
in editions.

Fiction

616

662

1 320

914

981

1 028

225

Literature and Collected Works

187

356

423

297

218

'309

1Q3

Juvenile

482

161

434

400

133

431

210

529

366

136

Law .

513

480

534

Theology and Religion

411

476

305

109

119

Poetry and Drama

192

208

174

274

235

125

Biography Correspondence

225

340

170

126

132

Medicine Hygiene

146

106

186

253

Phvsical and Mathematical Science

160

250

215

History

221

264

204

Political and Social Science

258

244

210

Description Geography Travel

150

202

Ql 1

Fi ne arts • 11 Gift Books

145

157

119

Useful Arts

122

160

131

Philosophy.. . ."

1 1

1 c

Domestic and Rural

Humor and Satire

Works of Reference

Totals

4 490

1 866

2 645

5 496

4 701

2 J22

1 318

4,490

2.645

2,122

6 356

8 141

8.141

APPENDIX

T077

NUMBER OP PERIODICALS PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES, TERRITORIES

AND CANADA

(From the Annual Report of N. W. Ayer & Son.)

88UE8

STATES, TERRITORIES AND
CANADIAN PROVINCES.

•£S
^

i,^

Weekly.

*£

&%
c

Semi-
Monthly.

Monthly.

«|

Quarterly.

Miscel-
laneous.

Total-
all issues.

NEW ENGLAND STATES.
Connecticut

109

Maine

Massachusetts

452

136

128

Rhode Island

Vermont

NEW YORK.
New York

171
191

24
53

906
1 126

10
12

14
31

214

542

2
17

29
33

2
3

1,3"
2 Q]

MIDDLE STATES.
Delaware
District of Columbia

6
4
16

27
28
148

3
3

4
38
29

1
1

3
5

:
'

New Jersey

294

Pennsylvania

932

217

1 4'

SOUTHERN STATES.
Alabama

281
20

40
4

1,429
205

7
2

20
4

308
13

2.K

<2.i

Arkansas

228

134

Georgia

269

Kentucky

239

157

Mississippi

207

North Carolina

184

South Carolina

107

Tennessee

237

Texas

698

Virginia

165

West Virginia

158

WESTERN STATES.

358
112

6
3

105
21

2,988
464

60
8

267

10
1

21
1

2
]

3,81
65

Colorado . .

285

Idaho

183

1 199

249

1 T

152

612

Iowa

915

1,1;

Kansas

624

609

Minnesota

619

773

113

1,C(

(

Nebraska

561

North Dakota . .

173

Ohio

166

820

134

1,2(

169

2C.

South Dakota

258

Utah

193

551

TERRITORIES.
Alaska ....

1,169
5

295

9,075
8

119

1,056
1

11,8^
]

Hawaii

Indian Territory

105

(

Oklahoma

180

Porto Rico

CANADIAN PROVINCES.

79
11

5
6

411
39

25
2

Northwest Territories

S\\

b>y

441

•/ V

/•

Suebec

~\ I*

i i

117

789

140

. v

io;8

APPENDIX

SPECIALIZATION OF CITIES BY INDUSTRIES

SUMMARY, igoo

SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES.

SPECIALIZED CENTRES.

AVERAGE NUMBER OF
WAGE-EARNERS IN
SPECIALIZED CENTERS

All in-
dus-
tries.

Speci-
fied
indus-
try.

Per

cent, ol
special-
ization,

South Omaha, Neb
Kansas City, Kan
McKeesport, Pa

6,606
10,544
7,605
9,150
4,992
6,116
4,473
780
4,296
2,712
1,420
1,270
2,290
1,427
1,903
32,780
5,544
16,409
7,159
19,032
10,986
10,600
3,028
30,190
8,111
3,884
2,162
5.1°6
21,564
22,358
8,673
6,638
7,531
14,914
19,301
16,055

5,938
7,664
6,753
6,644
3,320
3,871
3,908
671
3,113
1,497
1,152
983
1,463
S90
985
26,371
4,361
12,286
4,604
10,616
8,498
7,376
2,306
15,943
6,075
2,316
1,550
2,886
14,822
10,998
3.685
2,359
2,048
2,616
2,984
2,454

89.9
72.7
88.8
72.6
66.5
63.3
87.4
86.0
72.5
55.2
81.1
79.1
63.9
62.4
51.8
80.4
78.7
74.9
64.3
55.8
77.4
69.6
76.2
52.8
74.9
59.6
71.7
56.5
68.7
49.2
42.5
35.6
27.2
17.5
15.5
15.3

Iron and stee1

Pottery terra cotta and fire-clay products

Youngstown, Ohio
Newcastle, Pa

Johnstown, Pa
East Liverpool, Ohio
Bethel, Conn

I'ur hats

Glass

Danbury, Conn
Orange, N. J
Tarentum, Pa
vjharleroi, Pa

Millville, N. J
Gas City Ind

Alexandria, Ind
Fall River, Mass
Warwick, R.I
New Bedford, Mass

Manchester N H

Brockton, Mass
Haverhill, Mass
West Hoboken, N. J
Patterson, N. J
Gloversville, N. Y
Johnstown, N. Y

Silk and silk goods

Gloves, leather
Jewelry

North Attleboro, Mass . .
Attleboro, Mass
Troy, N.Y

Collars and cuffs

Worsted goods . . . . ...

Lawrence, Mass
Cohoes N Y

Hosiery and knit goods

Agricultural implements

Plated and britannia ware

Meriden, Conn
Waterbury , Conn
Bridgeport, Conn
Wilmington, Del

Corsets

Leather, tanned curried and finished

APPENDIX

LOCALIZATION OF INDUSTRIES BY CITIES
SUMMARY, 1900

INDUSTRIES.

Value of
products in
the United
States.

Cities.

Value of
products in
the city
named.

Per
cent, ol
the
United
States
in the
city
named.

Collars and cuffs
Oysters, canning and preserving
Coke . .

$15,769,132
3,670,134
35,585,445
17,140,075
48,192,351
16,721,234
16,721,234
16,721,234
10,569,121
10,569,121

698,206,548
698,206,548
12,608,770
46,501,181
46,501.181

46,501,181
46,501.181
101,207,428
107,256,258
103,754,362
14,878,116
14,878,116
120,314,344
120,314,344
120,314,344
27,811,187
27,811,187
27,811,187
30,343,044
118,430,158
56,668,313
95,482,56o
803 968 273

Troy, N. Y
Baltimore, Md
Connellsville, Pa . .
Waterbury, Conn . .
Philadelphia, Pa . .
Gloversville, N. Y...
Johnstown, N. Y.. .
Chicago, 111
Providence, R. I . .
Manhattan and
Bronx boroughs,
N.Y.
Chicago, 111
Kansas City, Kans.
Meriden, Conn
Providence, R. I. . .
Manhattan and
Bronx boroughs,
N.Y.
Newark N J

$13,460,196
2,364,968
17,128,112
8,188,492
21,986,062
6,487,227
2,576,048
2,209,529
3,834,408
2,741,994

248,811,997
73,205,027
4,129,896
12,719,124
9,172,849

7,364,247
5,701,802
24,848,649
26,006,156
24,411,307
3,224,198
1,893,956
24,678,138
16,603,252
16,242;250
5,007,095
3,453,619
3,075,470
5,050,539
18,340,012
8,477,178
13,040,905
90,798,086
4,785,142
18,187,231
29,286,526
19,844,397
2.429,686

85.3
64.4
48.1
47.8
45.6
38.8
15.4
13.2
36.3
25.9

35.6
10.5
32.8
27.4
19.7

15.8
12.3
24.5
24.2
22.7
21.7
12.7
20.5
13.8
13.5
18.0
12.4
11.1
16.6
15.5
15.0
13.7
11.3
10.8
8.9
8.6
7.6
4.3

Brassware

Carpets and rugs, other than rap
Gloves '

Silverware

Slaughtering and meat packing, wholesale

Jewelry

Agricultural implements
Silk and silk goods

Attleboro, Mass . . .
Chicago, 111
Paterson, N. J
St. Louis, Mo
Bridgeport, Conn. . .
New Haven, Conn .
Lawrence, Mass . . .
Providence, R. I
Philadelphia, Pa . .
Danbury, Conn . . .
Newark, N. J
Philadelphia, Pa . .
Waterbury, Conn . .
Philadelphia, Pa . .
Baltimore. Md
Philadelphia, Pa . .
Pittsburg, Pa
Trenton, N. J
Philadelphia. Pa . .
Fall River, Mass.. .
Brockton, Mass . . .
Pittsburg, Pa

Corsets
Worsted goods . .

Fur hats

Woolen goods

Hosiery and knit goods

Pottery, terra cotta, and fire-clay products

44,263,386
204,038,127
339,200,320
261,028,580
56,539,712

Boots and shoes, factory product
Glass

io8o

APPENDIX

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL COMBINATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES

IN 1900

NAME OF COMBINATION.

Num-
ber of
pants
con-
trolled.

Authorized
Capitali-
zation.

NAME OF COMBINATION.

Num-
ber of
plants
con-
trolled.

Authorized
Capitali-
zation.

IRON AND STEEL AND
THEIR PRODUCTS.

Alabama Consolidated Coa

42
(
15
65

1'
6
10
17

(
1(

22
2(

8
35
14
11

1
1

17
21

5,000,000
2,000,000
70,000,000

20,000,000
2,500,000
10,000,000
53,000,000

90,000,000
4,200,000
33,000,000
50,000,000

4,000,000
700,000
14,000,000
3,000,000
5,000,000
200,000,000
3,300,000
1,800,000
8,000,000
27,500,000

30.000,000
3,000,0'jO
1,000,000
3,000,000
59,000,000
80,000,000
8.000,000
350,000
11,000,000
2,000.000
55,000,000
15,000,000
3,000,000
4,000,000
1,500,000
25,000,000

30,000,000

10,000,000
5,000,000

Royal Baking Powder Co
Seacoast Packing Co

3(
25
16

$
20,000,000
8,000,000
5,000,000
25,000,000

Standard Sardine Co

United States Flour Milling Co

Total food and allied pro
ducts

American Axe and Tool Co . .
American Bridge Co
American Iron and Steel Mfg
Co

277

57
47

5
17

3"
22

2(
3,1

305,875,000

40,000,000
34,799,400
33,500,000

5,000.000
6,000,000
6,000,000
3,000,000
25,000 000
7,500,000
12,000,000
10,500,000

110,000,000
6,000,000
50,000.000

CHEMICALS AND ALLIED PRO

DUCTS.

American Agricultural Chem
ical Co

American Ordnance Co
American Radiator Co

American Sheet Steel Co ....
American Steel and Wire Co.
of New Jersey
American Steel Casting Co.. . .
American Steel Hoop Co ....

American Cotton Oil Co
American Linseed Co
Barrett Manufacturing Co.
The
Celluloid Co., The
Continental Cotton Oil Co. ...
Fisheries Co., The
General Chemical Co
Grasselli Chemical Co
National Salt Co
National Starch Manufactur-
ing Co

American Wood Working Ma-
chine Co
Atlas Tack Co
Central Foundry Co

Empire Steel and Iron Co ....
Federal Steel Co

Herring-Hall-Marvin Co
International Heater Co
International Power Co

International Steam Pump Co
National Enameling am
Stamping Co

Standard Oil Co

United Starch Co
Virginia-Carolina Chemical Co

Total chemicals and alliec
products

National Malleable Castings Co
National Saw Co

295

18
12
14
13

17
8

349,299,400

75,000,000
20,000,000
3,000,000

65,000,000
4,000,000
600,000
20,000,000
3,000,000
30,000.000
10,000,000

5,000 000

National Shear Co
National Steel Co

METALS AND METAL PRODUCT*
OTHER THAN IRON AND STEEL

Amalgamated Copper Co , . . . .

National Tube Co

Niles-Bement-Pond Co
Ohio Tool Co., of Auburn, N.Y
Otis Elevator Co
Pittsburg Stove and Range Co
Republic Iron and Steel Co ...
Shelby Steel Tube Co .

American Shot and Lead Co . .
American Smelting and Refin-

Standard Chain Co
Steel Tired Wheel Co

Susquehanna Iron & Steel Co
United Shoe Machinery Co ...
United States Cast Iron Pipe
and Foundry Co
Virginia Iron, Coal, and Coke
Co

American Type Founders' Co. .
^herokee-Lanyon Smelter Co. .

VI agnus Metal Co
National Lead Co
STew Jersey Zinc Co
Standard Sanitary Manufactur-

Wheeling Steel and Iron Co. . .

Total iron and steel and
their products

489

4
2
6
6

6
1
5
20
4
•5
13
5
95
5
3
12

952,850 000

20,000,000
2,000,000
3,400,000
9,000,000

3,000.000
125,000
75,000,000
3,500,000
2,000,000
500,000
500,000
40,000,000
55,000,000
5,000,000
20,000,000
4,000,000

4,850,000

Total metals and metal
products other than
iron and steel

LIQUORS AND BEVERAGES
Lmerican Distributing Co

113

2
36

13
9
2

9
2
5
4
2
3

235,600,000

5,000,000
30,000,000

35,000,000
10,000,000
3.000,000

5,000,000

6,000,000
700,000
3,800,000
1,500,000
400,000

32,000,000

FOOD AND ALLIED PRODUCTS.

American Beet Sugar Co
American Caramel Co
American Cereal Co

American Chicle Co
American Pastry and Manu-
facturing Co
American Preserve Co

American Spirits Manufactur-
ing Co
California Wine Association . . .

American Sugar Refining Co. . .
California Fruit Canners' Ass'n
Columbia River Packers' Ass'n
Continental Biscuit Co
Continental Creamery Co
Glucose Sugar Refining Co
National Biscuit Co
National Rice Milling Co
National Sugar Refining Co ...
Pacific Coast Biscuit Co
Pillsbury - Washburn Flour
Mills Co., Ltd

Chicago Consolidated Brewing
and Malting Co
Cleveland and Sandusky Brew-
ing Co
Connecticut Breweries, Ltd.. . .
Consumers Brewing Co
Drie Brewing Co
Cvansville Brewing Ass'n ....
ndianapolis Brewing Co
Kentucky Distilleries and
Warehouse Co

APPENDIX

1 08 1

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL COMBINATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES

IN 1900

NAME OF COMBINATION.

Num-
ber of
plants
con-
trolled.

Authorized
Capitali-
zation.

NAME OF COMBINATION.

Num-
ber of
plants
con-
trolled.

Authorized
Capitali-
zation.

LIQUORS & BEVERAGES — Con.
Maryland Brewing Co . . .

16
4
3

12
18
11

6
3

2
3

10
12
5
6

$
6.500 000
2,790,000
2,000,000

3,000,000

5,600,000
13,000,000
5,250,000
1,023,300
1,000,000
509,250
1,375,000

24,000,000
5,600,000
3,500,000
5,000.000

PAPER AND PRINTING.

American Lithographic Co ....
American Straw Board Co ....
American Writing Paper Co . .
International Paper Co
National Wall Paper Co . ...

1
17
25
32
18
17
9

$
4,0.00000
6.000,000
25.000,000
45,000,000
30,000.000
27,000,000
5,000,000

New Orleans Brewing Co
New York and Kentucky Co . .
Paterson Brewing and Malting
Co

Pennsylvania Central Brewing
Co

Union Bag and Paper Co
United States Envelope Co ...

Total paper and printing. .

CLAY, GLASS, AND STONE PRO-
DUCTS.

American Cement Co
American Clay Mfg. Co

St. Louis Brewing Ass'n
San Francisco Breweries, Ltd. .
Seattle Brewing & Malting Co.
Springfield Breweries, Ltd
Springfield Breweries Co

119

3
28
39
28
36
1
7
5
19
10
5
6

2
13
1

142,000,000

500,000
10,000.000
17,000.000
2,100.000
9,000,000
5,000.000
2,200,000
2,000,000
4,000,000
10.000.000
200,000
3.000,000

240,000
5,000.000
2,250,000

Standard Distilling and Distri-

United Breweries Co
United States Brewing Co., Ltd
United States Brewing Co

Total liquors and bever-

American Window Glass Co ...
Baltimore Brick Co
Illinois Brick Co

International Pulp Co
Macbeth-Evans Glass Co
National Fire Proofing Co
National Glass Co
Pittsburg Plate Glass Co

258

35
17
4

•

212,547,550

30,000.000
60,000,000
25,000,000
74,000,000
1,000,000
3,000,000

VEHICLES FOR LAND TRANS-
PORTATION.

American Bicycle Co
American Car an i Foundry Co.
Pressed Steel Car Co
Pullman Co., The
Standard Wheel Co
Southern Car and Foundry Co .

Total vehicles for land
transportation

TOBACCO.

American Snuff Co
American Tobacco Co
Continental Tobacco Co
Havana- American Co., The .. .

Total tobacco

TEXTILES.
American Felt Co

Trenton Potteries Co
United States Clay Manufact-

United States Glass Co
Western Stone Co

Total clay, glass, and stone
products

LUMBER AND ITS MANUFACT-

TURES.

American School Furniture Co.
Brunswick-Balke-Collender Co.
Diamond Match Co
Hey wood Bros. & Wakefield Co.
National Casket Co
National Cooperage and Wood-

203

17
2
9
4
11

7
3

72,490,000

10,000,000
1,500,000
15,000.000
6,000,000
6,000,000

500,000

2,000.000
2,500,000

9
15
9
8

193,000,000

25,000,000
70,000,000
100,000,000
10,000,000

United States Bobbin and
Shutt1". Co

5
3
10
30

7
9

205,000,000

5,000,000
15.000,000
12,000,000
65,000.000

9,500,000
11,500,000
12,000,000
10,000,000
3,000,000

Yellow Pine Co

Total lumber and its manu-
factures

MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES.

American Glue Co
American Hard Rubber Co ...
American Tee Co.
American Shipbuilding Co
American Soda Fountain Co. . .
Central Fireworks Co
Commonwealth Roofing Co ...
Consolidated Ice Co
Consolidated Railway Electric
Lighting and Equipment Co.
Electric Boat Co
General Aristo Co
National Carbon Co
Pittsburg Coal Co
Rubber Goods Mfg. Co
United States Rubber Co
United States Whip Co ...

Total miscellaneous in-
dustries

Total for all groups . . .

6
3
7
11

7
6
6

3
3
5

5
14
5
4

43,500,000

1,800,000
2,500,000
40,000,000
30,000,000
3,750,000
3,500.000
500.000
4,000,000

16,000,000
10,000.000
5,000,000
10,000,000
64,000,000
50,000,000
50,000.000
2,200,000

American Grass Twine Co

American Woolen Co
Mt. Vernon-Woodberry Cotton
Duck Co
New England Cotton Yarn Co..
Standard Rope and Twine Co. .
Union Tanning Co
United States Finishing Co

Total textiles

LEATHER AND ITS FINISHED
PRODUCTS.

American Hide and Leather Co
Elk Tanning Co
Penn Tanning Co
Union Tanning Co . . . .
United States Leather Co

Total leather and its
finished products

30
23
14
18
23

133,000,000

35,000,000
13,500,000
13,500,000
10,000000
128.000,000

97
2,203

293,250,000
$3,337,411,950

108

199,000,000

1082

APPENDIX

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and
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APPENDIX

1083

SUMMARY OF FARM CROP STATISTICS FOR 1899

(From the latest available tables.)

CROPS.

Acres.

Unit of
measure.

Quantity.

Value.

Corn

94,916,911
52,588,574
29,539,698
4,470,196
2,054,292
807,060
178,584
351,344
266,513
2,110,517

Bushels . .
Bushels . . .
Bushels . . .
Bushels . . .
Bushels . . .
Bushels . . .
Pounds . . .
Pounds. . . .
Bushels . . .
Bushels . . .
Bushels . . .
Bushels . . .
Tons

2,666,440,279
658,534,252
943,389,375
119,634,877
25,568 625
11,233,515
90,947,370
283,722,627
5,169,113
19,979,492
1,349,209
3,515,869
84,011,299
4,566,100
9,534,707
868,163,275
11,750,630
49,209,704
11.964,957
187,427
5,064,844
143,388
9,440,269
273,328,207
42,526,696
11,791,121
21,495.870

"11,928, 770
2,056,611

$828,258,326
369,945.320
217,098,584
41,631,762
12,290,540
5,747,853
3,588,414
7,891,613
1,367.040
19,624,901
5,359,578
2,868,839
484,256.846
46,950,575
323,758,171
56,993,003
546,338
4,081,929
7,271,230
143,618
7,634,262
134,084
7,909,074
98,387,614
19,876,200
6,637.625
73,627
113,871,842
1,074,260
1,562,451

Wheat

Oats

Barley

Rye.. ::

Buckwheat

Broom corn

Rice . .

Kafir corn

Flaxseed

Clover seed

Grass seed

Hay and forage

61,691,166

' '24,275,161
1,101,483
16,042
55,613
516,658
8,591
453,867
25,738
968,371
2,938,952
537,447
47,983
3,069
2,115,570

Cottonseed

Tons

Cotton

Bales
Pounds. . . .
Pounds
Pounds. . . .
Bushels . . .
Pounds . . .
Bushels ...
Bushels . . .
Bushels . . .
Bushels ...
Bushels . . .
Bushels ...
Pounds. . . .

Pounds. . . .
j aliens. . . .
Tons
Tons
Tons
Pounds. . . .
Gallons

Tobacco

Hops

Peanuts

Dry beans

Castor beans

Potatoes

Sweet potatoes

Chicory

Miscellaneous vegetables

Maple sugar

Maple sirup

Sugar cane

452,673

(a) Cane sold

1,298,620
1,453,447
664,020,814
10,379,210
12,293,032
291,703
16,972,783
793,353

'" 13,010, i 34
212,366,646

4,611,239
5,018,469
24.584,459
796,990
4,293,475
815,019
3,288,083
3.323,240
25,030,877
14,090,937
83,751,840
8,549,863
1,950,161
109,989,868
18,759,464
826.019
10,123873
36,523
1,452,613

(6) Cane kept for seed

jallons. . . .
Tons
Gallons . . .

Sorghum cane

293,152

Sugar beets

110,170
309,780
282,473
6,064,887
165,858

Tons

Centals . . .
Bushels . . .

Small fruits

Subtropical fruits . .

Nuts

9,314
10,106
59,492
521
23,793

Miscellaneous seeds

Willows

Miscellaneous

1111^1111

Total

289,821,559

$3,020,128,531

1084 APPENDIX

MEMBERSHIP OF LABOR ORGANIZATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES

NAME OF ORGANIZATION membership

Amalgamated Association of Elastic Web Weavers 355

Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employes of America 4,500

Amalgamated Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers 32,000

Amalgamated Carpenters and Joiners 3,000

Amalgamated Lace Curtain Operatives of America 1,000

Amalgamated Society of Engineers (machinists, etc.) 2,500

Amalgamated Woodworkers' International Union of America 17,000

American Federation of Musicians 6,500

American Flint Glass Workers' Union 9,000

American Wire Weavers' Protective Association 235

Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers, Amalgamated 8,500

Boot and Shoe Workers' Union 13,500

Brickmakers' National Alliance 3,000

Brotherhood of Boilermakers and Iron Ship Builders 5,400

Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers 35,ooo

Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen 36,600

Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen 45,ooo

Brotherhood of Railway Trackmen 4,500

Chain Makers' National Union of United States of America 400

Coopers' International Union of North America 4,500

Coremakers' International Union 4,000

Cotton Spinners' Association 2,850

Federal (American Federation of Labor) Labor Unions 235,000

Glass Bottle Blowers' Association of the United States and Canada. 4,000

Glass Workers' National Union 500

Granite Cutters' National Union 12,000

International Association of Allied Metal Mechanics 2,200

International Association Amalgamated Sheet Metal Workers 3,5oo

International Association of Machinists 45,ooo

International Association of Operative Plasterers 7, 120

International Association of Watch Case Engravers 500

International Broommakers 1,000

International Brotherhood of Blacksmiths 10,000

International Brotherhood of Bookbinders 4,000

International Brotherhood of Oil and Gas Well Workers 500

International Brotherhood of Stationary Firemen 2,600

International Carriage and Wagon Makers 2,000

International Cigar Makers' Union of America 35,ooo

International Jewelry Workers' Union of America 1,200

International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union 2,000

International League of Hotel and Restaurant Employes 10,100

International Longshoremen's Association 20,000

International Mosaic Tile Layers' Union 800

International Printing Pressmen's Union 10,000

International Protective Union of Building Laborers 10,000

International Seamen's Union 9,515

International Tinplate Workers' Protective Association of America 2,500

International Typographical Union 32,900

International Union Bricklayers and Masons 45,ooo

International Union of Journeymen Barbers 6,000

International Union of Laundry Workers 5,ooo

International Union of Steam (stationary) Engineers 7,500

International Union of United Brewerymen 22,500

International Union of Wood, Wire and Metal Lathers 1,000

Iron Molders' Union of North America 20,000

APPENDIX 1085

Journeymen Bakers and Confectioners' International ........................... 9,000

Journeymen Tailors' Union of America ....................................... 9,000

Knights of Labor ............................................................ 120,000

Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America ........................ 8,320

Metal Polishers' and Brass Workers' Union of North America ................... 19,000

National Alliance of Stage Employes .......................................... 3,800

National Association of Steam Fitters and Helpers ............................. 2,000

National Brotherhood of Coal-Hoisting Engineers .............................. 950

National Brotherhood of Electrical Workers of America ....................... 8,000

National Brotherhood of Operative Potters .................................... 2,500

Order of Railroad Telegraphers ............................................... 15,000

Order of Railway Clerks of America ....... ................................... 9,000

Order of Railway Conductors ................................................. 25,280

Pattern Makers' League of North America .................................... 2,400

Plate Printers' Union of United States ....................................... 1,000

Progressive Union of Mine Workers (iron) ................................... 4,500

Retail Clerks' International Protective Association ............................. 30,000

Stove Mounters' International Union .......................................... 1,400

Switchmen's Union of North America ......................................... 5,ooo

Table Knife Grinders' National Union ........................................ 600

Team Drivers' International Union ............................................ 5,000

Threshermen's Protective Association of America .............................

Tobacco Workers' International Union ....................................... 7,000

Trunk and Bag Workers' International Union ---- . .............................. 32o

Union' of Horse Shoers of United States and Canada ........................... 4,600

United Association of Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters, etc .................... 15,000

United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America .................... 70,000

United Brotherhood of Leather Workers on Horse Goods ....................... 3,7oo

United Brotherhood of Paper Makers of America .............................. 1,000

United Garment Workers of America .......................................... 22,000

United Hatters of North America ............................................ 7»5OO

United Metal Workers' International Union .................................... i,5oo

United Mine Workers of America (coal) .................... • ................. 275,000

United Textile Workers of America ........................................... 4.ox

Upholsterers' International Union of North America ............................ i,°oc

Window Glass Cutters' League of America ........... . .........................

Window Glass Flatteners' Association of North America .......................

Western Federation of Miners (gold, silver, copper) ............................ 4O,OCK

Wood Carvers' Association of North America ..................................

Total

io86

APPENDIX

LIFE INSURANCE STATISTICS

Although possibly the most prosperous and powerful business organization in the
country, American life insurance is of comparatively recent date.

In 1898, there were sixty companies, and they held insurance in force in the enormous
total of $6,800,000,000. Of this $1,100,000,000 was what is known as industrial insurance.

In 1899, there were sixty-nine companies, with a total of insurance in force of
$7,774,000,000.

In 1900, the grand aggregate of insurance in force held on the lives of persons in the
United States by seventy-six American companies was more than $8,500,000,000. In 1902,
the amount exceeded eleven billion — including both industrial and ordinary insurance.

The vast growth of the business may be better appreciated when it is compared with
the development of life insurance in Great Britain. Although the English life insurance
companies have been in the field for about two centuries, or four times as long as the
American, the insurance in force held by them amounts to about $3,500,000,000, or much
less than half the total held by the companies of the United States.

The total "admitted" assets of the American companies is some $1,595,000,000.

The profit in insurance may be inferred from the fact that the total yearly income is
about $365,368,000.

Since 1871, the insurance companies of the United States have paid out to their policy-
holders more than the national debt, even at its highest point.

The Superintendent of Insurance of New York gives the following summary concerning
insurance companies doing business in the Empire State, April 30, 1901 :

COM-
PANIES.

No.

Assets.

Liabilities,
except capital

Capital.

Surplus.

Risks
in force.

Fire

TOO

$313,875,420

$148,200,737

$79,259,239

$107,034,939

$22,423,334,216

Marine ....
Life
Casually . . .

13
40
3i

17,407,568
1,723,737,723
47,326,359

4,612,549
1,565,459,781
18,865,766

200,000
10,340,500
14,894,000

12,595,019
158,277,942
13,566,592

621,263,991
8,345,379,153
4,416,101,854

Totals

253

^2,102,347,070

$1,737,138,833

$104,693,739

$291,474,492

$35,806,079,214

INDEX

Abattof-% by-products of the,
203; waste, fertilizer from, 503

Academy, for Brewers, an, 235;
of Fine Arts, Pa., 957

Academy, United States Naval,
1009

Academy, West Point, the, 1002;
conditions at, 1003

Accountants, expert, 474; women
as, 473

Accumulators, electric, 110

Acting as a profession, 971

Actors, American, number of,
970; as professionals, 971, con-
ditions of success, 972; Fund,
the, 972; "hide away" engage-
ments of, 973; Order of Friend-
ship, 972; vaudeville, 974

Addressing machine, the, 8

Advertisement writers, 455; pay
of, 456; women as, 457

Advertisement writing, schools
to teach, 456

Advertisements, illustrated, 955;
newspaper, 192, 193; value of,
405; "want," 450

Advertising, agents and agen-
cies, 453-5; bulletin-board, 451;
business, the, 449; department,
newspaper, 454; in periodicals,
452; local and general, 450;
man, the, 453; managers, de-
mand for, 456; newspaper, 449,
452; professional side of, 453;
representative, the, 453; street
car, 451; supplementary, 451;
trade-papers, 453; women in,
457; yearly expenditure for,
449

Agencies, literary, 925

Agents, advertising. 453, 455;
book, 465; business house, 463;
commission, 464, 697; express,
613; general freight, railway,
521; general passenger, rail-
way, 521; insurance, 440, 441,
442, 443, 447; labor, 1041; real
estate, 465; real estate, women
as, 466; station, railway, 536,
539, 547; subscription, 465; sup-
ply, 465

Agricultural machinery, 71; ex-
ports of, 14

Agriculture. See also Farming

Agriculture, chemists in, 840;
college of, 693, 704, 706; de-
partment of, 861; experts in,
demand for, 708; government
aid to, 693, 706, 707; graduates
in, outlook for, 705; instruc-
tion in, 704, 705. 706, 707; in
the United States, 690; mod-
ern, 692; persons engaged in,
6, 690; products of, exports,
690; students in, employment
for, 707

Air, compressed, industrial use
of, 62, 101, 135; locomotive, 131

Air-brake, the, 510, 530; instruc-
tion cars, 533, 538; Westing-
house, the, 532

Ale Brewers' Association, 234

Alewives, annual catch of, 805

Alumina, increased demand for,
618

Aluminium, 54; culinary uten-
sils, 54; electrolytic, 104;
horseshoes, 54; in lithography,
168, 173; in the pin industry,
493; ore mining, 618; output
of, in 1902, 618; sheet, 56, toilet
articles, 54; total production,
857; vs. silver leaf, 54; wire,
104

Ambassadors, American, 997

Ambulance, chasers, 882; system,
the, 897

American Dramatists' Club, 968

American, Express Company,
the, 614; Federation of Labor,
26, 27, 603: Nowspaper Pub-
lishers' Association, 193; Press
Association, 194; Smelting and
Refining Co., 19; Thread Com-
— -•"•, the, 300; Window Glass
company, the, 325

Angora goat hair, 782, 784

Animals, domestic, 777

Anthracite. See Coal

Apartment houses, rents of, 466

Apiculture. See Beekeeping

Apothecary. See Pharmacist

Apple exports in 1902, 749;
growing, centres of, 749; in-
dustry, the, 749

Apprentice, laws, 40, 41; Naval,
the, 1011

Apprentices, railway. See Rail-
way; stable, 982; teaching of,
40, 41

Apprenticeship, Naval system of,
40

Architect, training of the, 959

Architects, earnings of, 961; ex-
penses of, 961; salaries of, 960

Architectural League, the, 958

Architecture, mercantile, mod-
ern, 95; profession of, 958

Arc lamps, electric, 106

Armor plate, 50

Army, officers, training of, 1002;
organization of the, 1001; pro-
motion in the, 1005; regular,
the, 1001; United States,
strength of, 1001

Art, American, status of, 949,
950; education in United States,
957; glass, 329; in printing, 163;
press, rotary, the, 408; of sell-
ing goods, the, 408; of win-
dow dressing, 405; Schools,
American, 957; Students'
League, the, 949, 957

Artisans, American, efficiency
of, 9

Artists, as scene painters, 977;
earnings of, 950; models, 966

Arts and Crafts, the, 949

Asphalt, Bermudez, 671; indus-
try, the, 671; the father of,
672; pavements, 500, 671; pro-
ducing countries, 673; produc-
tion of, 673; Trinidad, 672, 673

Assay offices, employes of, 368;
United States, 366

Assaying, operation of, 367

Associated Press, the, 194, 943;
operations of, 944

Association, Ale Brewers', 234;
Carriers', Lake, 576; Live
Stock, National, 783; Long-
shoremen's, 611; Meat Cut-
ters', 205; Metropolitan Street
Railway, 567; of Plumbers and
Fitters, 98; of Street Railway
Employes, 508; Vaudeville
Managers', 973; Women Sten-
ographers', 472

Associations, building, 384, 385;
cattle breeders', 774; depart-
ment store, 416, 417; hog breed-
ers', 774; horse breeders', 774;
press, 942; retail protective,
414; sheep breeders', 774; stove,
123; travelling salesmen's, 461;
truck farmers', 757

Asthma, grinder's, 1039

Astronomers, 853; night's work
of, 855; workshops of, 854

Atbara bridge, t_e, 14, 37

Auctioneer, the, 1041

Author and publisher, relations
of, 188, 917

Authors, earnings of, 918

Automobile accidents, 141; boil-
ers, 138; cost of, 139; electric,
the, 139, 497; gasoline, the,
138; in commerce, 140; mail
delivery, 140; motors, 140, 497;
mowers, 140; steam engines,
138; trade papers, 140

Automobiles, 137; three types of,
the, 137

Autoplate, the, 166, 168

Bacteriology, the field of, 891

Bag industry, capital invested
in, 488; hands employed in,
488

Bags, daily output of, 488; loan-
ing, business of, 488

Bakery products, 210

Baking industry, the, 206

Baling cotton, 717; process of,
268

Ballet dancer, the, 976

Banana trust, the, 746

Bananas, how sold, 746

Band, the, 992
1087

jo88

INDEX

Banjos, annual output of, 358

Bank, bookkeeper of a, 380; cap-
ital, law as to, 374; cashier,
the, 378; clerks, promotion of,
380; daily routine work in a,
376; great, how conducted, 376;
loans, 374; operations of a,
374; president, duties of, 376,
377; president, salary of a, 377;
safes and vaults, 79; safe-de-
posit vaults, 504; savings,
operations of a, 382; teller,
note, 380; teller, paying, 378;
teller, receiving, 379

Banking business, the, 373; pow-
er of the United States, 373;
system, national, the, 373

Banks, investments of, 375; Na-
tional, depositories, 3r5; Na-
tional, resources of, 373; sav-
ings, 381; savings, interest
paid by, 382; savings, salaries
paid, 380; savings, total de-
posits of, 381; taxes paid by,
376

Bar, practice at, conditions of,
878

Barley, crop, United States,
average of, 690

Barley sugar, 230

Barrel making, 85

Barrel staves and heading, 85,
86

Baskets, grape, manufacture of,
240, 750

Bass, black, annual catch of,
807

Bath tubs, Dresden china, 94;
porcelain, 335;

Batteries, storage, 110, 111, 139,
497

Battleship, building of a, 152;
preparation of a, 1007

Bauxite mining, 618

Beds, folding and metal, 87

Bee colonies, number in 1900,
772; keeping, 770

Beef, canning of, 203

Beer, adulteration of, 237; an-
nual consumption of, 232, 233;
bottled, 244; how made, 235;
lager, industry, 233

Beet sugar, 199, 224; acreage de-
voted to, 719; annual output,
719: consuimtion of, in 1901,
227; crop, 718; output of, in
1899, 227; process, 225

Bell, diving, the, 610

Bell Telephone Company, the,
433, 434

Berry industry, the, 749

Beryl, deposits of, Montana, 670

Bessemer steel process. See
Pteel

Betterment, industrial, 32, 73,
341, 350, 415, 559

Beverages and liquors, 232

Bicycle, American-made, de-
mand for, 14; development of
the, 126; industry, the, 143;
machines, 144; manufacture of
a, 144; motor, the, 145; police,
1029; sales in 1900, 144

Binding, book, 169; cloth, 189;
book, machinery, automatic,
164

Biscuit, American, 198, 210; fac-
tory, a large, 211; making,
materials used in, 211; mak-
ing, process of, 212

Bitumen. See Asphalt

Blacksmithing, 68

Blankets, manufacture of, 273

Blasting gelatine, 344; powder,
343; submarine, 610

Block signal system, the. See
Railway

Blood, utilization of, 204

Bluefish, annual catch of, 805

Bluestone quarried in 1902, value
of, 674

Boarding house business, the,
476, 483; women owners of,
483

Boats, fire, New York City, 581;
| harbor, variety of, 580; Her-
reshoff, the, 155; pilot, 606; po-
lice, New York City, 581; tor-
pedo, 1007; wooden, building
of, 155

Boiler, "flash," the, 138; loco-
motive, building a, 132; Ser-
pollet, the, 138

Boilers, steam, 63

Bonds, United States, manufac-
ture of, 370- paper for, 371

Bones, utilization of, 204

Bonnets, designers of, earnings,
298; old, making over, 298

Book agents. See Agents

Book, buyers, Americans as,
186; cost of making a, 189;
cover designers, 956; cov-
ers, ornamental, 170; life of
a, 188; machinery, fa 89;
manufacture, 188; markets,
the chief, 186; printing ma-
chinery, 189; printing presses.
See Press; publication, in-
crease in, 187; publishing in
the United States, 185; statis-
t'"". publishing, 187; type-
writers. See Typewriters; writ-
ing, 919

Book-hacking machine, the, 170

Bookbinding. See Binding

Bookkeepers, bank. See Bank;
women as, 473, 474

Books, American, export of, 187;
best selling, the, 187; classes
of published, 187; modern,
prices of, 189; school, sale of,
187

Boot and shoe industry, hands
employed in, 309; output of,
310; the, 309; centre of, 310

Boot machines, 309

Boots and shoes, prison-made,
311; rubber, 317, 318, 319

"Bosses," political, 995

"Boston system" in clothes
making, 285

Bottles, manufacture of, 331, 332

Bottling industry, the, 244

Bows, violin, how made, 359

Box industry, capital invested
in, 488; hands employed in,
488; materials used in, 488

Boys, office, in Wall Street, 390

Brake, air, the, 128, 510, 530, 532,
533. 538

Brakemen. See Railway

I Brandy, manufacture of, 238
! Brass, button manufacture, 489;
cartridges, how made, 3itt; in-
dustry, the, 52; rolling of, 53;
wire for pins. See Pin

Breweries, and brewmaster.s,
233; tax paid by, in 1900, 233

Brewers, academy for, 235; as
saloon owners, 399; wages
paid to, 234

Brewing, hops consumed in, in
1900. 727

Brew master, the, 235

Brick, machine, the, 59; making,
334; plants, output of, in 1900,
334; vs. stone for walls, 93

Bricklayers' Union, the, 95;
wages paid to, 93

Bridge, Atbara, the, 14, 37;
Brooklyn, the, 99; builders,
feats of, 37; construction, 88,
99; East River, new, 100;
foundations, 101; workmen,
special, 100

Bridges, steel, construction of,
99

Brimstone used in match indus-
try, 486

Briquettes, iron. See Iron

Bristles, utilization of, 204

Broadcloth, manufacture of, 273

Brokers, "curb-stone," 393; ear-
nings of, 393; expenses of, 394;
live stock, 201; real estate, 4r6;
Real E~t.at.e, Board of, 4G7;
Wall Street, 393

Broom corn. See Corn

"Bucket shops," operation of,
395; Produce Exchange, 396

Buckwheat, United States, acre-
age of, 690

Buffalo-fish, annual catch, 807;
maize, 348

Builder, task of the, 91

Building, and loan companies,
384, 385; cantilevers in, 93;
framework, steel, 90; Park
Row, the, 90, 91; tallest, in
world, 90; trades, the, 88, 93,
97

Buildings, construction of, 88,
91; fireproof, 89; modern
plumbing in, 96; rapid erec-
tion of, 92; "skyscraner," 89

Bulbs, electric lamp, 107, 108;
X-ray, 108

Bullets, casting, process of, 347

Burner, steam carriage. 138

Business, colleges. See Col-
leges; how to learn a, 7; or-
ganization in, 404

Butchers, packing house, 205

Butte, the great copper camp,
646

Butter, annual production, 764:
cocoa, 231; imports and ex-
ports, 759; making, co-OT>era-
tive, 764; manufacture, centres
of, 764: sales of, 759; trade,
the, 765

Butterine, 269

Button machines, patents on,
490; making, capital invested
in, 488; manufacture, 488;
pearl, industry, 490

Buttons, annual sales of, 488;

INDEX

1089

brass, manufacture of, 489;
celluloid, 489; composition, 489;
home, how made, 489; ivory,
manufacture of, 489; pearl.
See also Mussel Fishery
Buyers, American, abroad, 462
By-products, ovens, coke, 665;
abattoir, 203; cotton-gin, 269;
oil refinery, 842; resin indus-
try, 495; starch industry, 348

Cab service, electric, New York,
498

Cabinet making, 86

Cable, business, the, 419; Com-
pany, Commercial, the, 421;
Hong Kong- Australia, the, 420;
laying ships, 430; making in-
dustry, the, 429; sheathing
machines, 429; Skagway-Ju-
neau, the, 429; submarine, the,
428; laying of a, 430; manu-
facture of, 428

Cables, electric, insulated, 112;
telephone, 113

Cadets, revenue cutter, 1024;
Naval, training of, 1010; train-
ing of, 1003

Caisson, foundation process,
the, 93, 101; workers, wages
paid to, 102; working com-
plaints, 162

Caissons, East River bridge, 101,
608

Calcium carbide, production of,
104

Calfskin, applications of, 306

Calico, American, 262; manufac-
turer, profit of the, 8

California, fruit. See Fruit;
Fruit Exchange, 697

Camera, various uses of the, 966

Cameras, American, exports of,
14

Canal, Erie, the, 578; fleet, the,
578; Sault Ste. Marie, the, 578;
Suez, tolls, yearly, collected
by, 569

CanaK United States, mileage
of, 578

Candle-dipper, mechanical, 59;
manufacture, 349, 350

Candy, adulterants of, 229;
American, exports of, 228; an-
nual sales of, 228; cheap, com-
position of, 229: colors used in,
229; glucose, 229; how to test
the purity of, 229; machinery,
manufacture of, 228; making,
228, 229; purest, of commerce,
230*; rock, 230
Cane sugar. See Sugar
Canned poods, value of, m 1900
215; yearly consumption of, 401
Canneries, annual output of,
215; California, fruit, 216
hands em^loved in, 215
Canning, beef. 203: corn, opera

219; sea-

Can, tin, industry, the, 499
ans, tin, how made, 499

Cantilevers in building, 93

Canvassers, business house, 463
ape Nome gold diggings, 656
ap industry, the, 295
aps, cartridge, how made, 346

Captain, ship, the. See Steam-
ship

3ar, buffet, the, 532; building,
126; couplers, automatic, 134,
516, 517; dining, the, 510, 531,
532; drawing room, the, 135,
510, 522, 531; driver, modern,
training of, 564; refrigerator,
the, 205, 687, 743; sleeping, the,
510, 531

Caramel, or burned sugar, 230

Cargoes, ocean steamship, 584;
"tooth pick," 584
armen, Railway, Brotherhood
of, 557

Carnations, annual output of,
754

arnegie and his employes, 36;
success of, reasons for, 35
arp, German, annual catch, 807
arpet cleaning, mechanical, 62;
industry, the, 254, 276; looms,
improved, 276; machines,
American, 276; mill centres,
276; surface, how produced,
277; tapestry, 277; weavers,
wages paid to, 276; weaving,
277; wools used in 1900, 783;
woven ply, the, 277

Carpets, annual exports of, 276;
annual output of, 276; Axmin-
ster, 276, 277; Brussels, 276,
277; ingrain, output of, in 1900,
276; moquette, 276, 277; pile,
277; Wilton, 276, 277

Carriage, exports in 1900, 143;
indu-try, the, 137, 141, 143;
plants, large, 142, 143; robes,
output of, in 1900, 273; school,
technical, H2; electric motor,
497

Carriers, cash, mechanical, 413

Cars, air-brake instruction, 533,
538; American, exports of, 14;
foreign demand for, 133; elec-
tric, U. S., number, 498;
freight, carrying capacity of,
128; now in use in the U. S.,
508; output of, in 1901, 133;
Pullman, 135, 510; railroad and
street, 126, 133; snow-sweep-
in a;, 134; steel, 14, 135; street,
133, 134, 560; tank, 18; water
sprinkling, 134
Cartoonists, newspaper, pay of,

"L92

Cartridge shells, how made, 346
(-n-.e-inakiTie machine, 170
Cashiers, bank: See Bank. Ho-
tel. pee Hotel. Women as, 474
Casket combinations, 1043
Catalysis process, 339
Catfish, annual catch, 807
Catholic PTmrnh. 8p5J
Cattle, breeders' ***<>c.;ail0™:
774- how slaughtered,
market, the, 776; neat, num-
ber in U. S., 778: packing, 200
776; raising, 777; sources of
Q_Vo1. 2

supply, 775, 776; tails, utiliza-
tion of, 204

Cattlemen, organizations of, 773
Caviar, manufacture of, 802
"Celtic," steamer, the, 572
Cement, manufacture of, 668
Centralization in the United

States, 15
Cereal crops of the United

States, value, 6

Cereals, acreage devoted to, 712;
consumed in 1900, 206; rolled,
207

Chalk-plate, the, 954
Champagne, manufacture of,

242; "sparkle" of, 242
Chef, hotel, the, pay of, 480;

steamship, the, 589
Ciiemical, engineering. See En-
gineering; products, electro,
104; processes, improved, 339;
industry, capital invested, 338;
the, industry, 338; wages paid,
338
Chemicals, manufacture of, 339;

match, consumption of, 487
Chemist in agriculture, 840; in
the law courts, 840; training
of a, 839

Chemistry as a profession, 838
Child labor. See Labor
Chimney climbing, 99; sweep's

cancer, 1040

Chinese as farm hands, 701
Chocolate, and cocoa, 230; man-
ufacture of, 199, 231
Choir singers, 990
Cholera, hog, loss due to, 907
Chorus, girl, the,988 ; man, the,9S9
Church, Catholic, the, 868; Jew-

i°h. the, 871

Churches, as employment agen-
cies, 875; Catholic, number of
876; Congregationalist, num
ber, 876; Episcopal, number of
876; Jewish, number of, 876
Lutheran, number of, 876
Methodist, number of, 876;
Presbyterian, number of, 876
Cider, annual output of, 742
Cigar, boxes, annual value of,
488; makers, number of, 252;
Makers' Union, 252; making
centres, the, 249; making,
wages paid in, 252, 253; Stores,
United, 399; trades, the, 2
Cigarette, consumption of, 250;
imports and exports, 248; ma-
chines, 250; making, centres
of, 59, 246, 249; railway war on
the, 542

Cigars, American, sunerior'ty
of, 252; "Habana," of Florida,
248- imports ana export", 248;
manufacture of, 246, 250: rev-
enue tax on, 249; smoked in
the United States, 1902, 245,
value as a trade article, 252
Circus, bill-posters, 982: busi-
ness, American, 980; "follow-
ers," 981: managers, 980; per-
formers, 981

Citras fruH«. See Fruit
Civil Service, 1015; classified,
1017: employment, 1017; exami-
nations, 1016

1090

INDEX

Clams, annual yield, 804, 805

Clay, deposits of Missouri, 625;
machines, output of, 334;
products of, 333; workers, a
field for, 333; working indus-
try, the, 333

Chauffeur, the, 140

Check tabulating machine, 379

Cheese, "American," annual
output, 767; annual exports of, !
759, 764, 767; annual sales of,
759; factories, number in
United States, 763, 767; fancy j
varieties of, 767; imports of, |
759; manufacture, centres of,
767

Chicken farming. See Farming

Child labor. See Labor

Clearing Houses, 382, 383

Clergy, Catholic, the, 868

Clergymen. See Minister

Clerks, drug, duties of, 904;
Government, women as, 474;
hotel, requisites of, 480; in
stores, 406

Climates favorable to industry,
11

Clock, and watch trade, the, 357;
exports, 357; factories, output
of, 357; industry, the, 354;
making, centres of, 355, 357

Cloth, Angora goat, 784; hats
and caps, 295; wire, yearly
consumption of, 403

Clothes making, "factory" sys-
tem, 285; "home" system, 286;
"over," 289; "task" system,
286; "sweating" system, 285

Clothes mending as a trade, 289 j

Clothing, annual output of, 283; |
classification of, 284; designer,
the, 284, 289; finishing, 284; in-
dustry, the, 283; industry,
chief centre of the, 283; in-
dustry, specialization in, 284;
industry, "task" system in,
283; industry, wages paid in
the, 285; rubber, «18; trade,
foreigners in the, 286; wo-
men's, 288; workers, nationali-
ties of, 28T

Cloths, cotton, manufacture of,
261

Coal, anthracite, mined, in 1901,
13, 627; bituminous, mined, in
1901, 627; burned by fleets of
the world, 569; cost of min-
ing, 636; exports in 1900, 626;
fields, anthracite, conditions
in, 633; handlers, dock, wages
paid, 612; marketed, output in
1901, 626; miner, life of the,
628; miner, training of the,
630; mines, American, foreign- j
ers in, 630; mines, number of j
men employed, 619; miners' j
duties, laws as to, 619; miners, I
total number of, 628; output,
value of, by States, 626; prod- ;
uct of the United States, 6, 13,
616, 626; region, anthracite,
annual wages, 636; strike,
great, of 1902, 635, 636, 637;
strikes of, 1897, 1900, and 1902,
632; tons, mined In 1902, 618; !
used in paper making, 159; j

yearly consumption in the
United States, 629

Coal-tar colors, consumption of,
497

Coasting fleet, American, the,
572; vessels, crews of, 601

Cocoa, and chocolate, 230; but-
ter, 231; "nibs," 231; products,
230; sources of supply, 230

Codfish, annual catch of, 804, 806

Coffee, annual consumption of,
401

Coin, gold, stock of, in United
States, 654; silver, stock of, in
United States, 654

Coinage, United States, value
in 1901, 366

Coining, process of, 366, 369

Coins, gold and silver, 369

Coke, industry, the, 665; manu-
facture, process of, 665; ovens,
improved, 665; where pro-
duced, 665, 666

Collar and cuff, industry, cen-
tre of, 301; operatives, Troy,
303; manufacture, 301, 302

College, men in journalism, 936;
of Cardinals, the, 868; profes-
sors, earnings of, 915

Colleges, agricultural, 693, 704,
706; business, 39, 474; in the
United States, 909; of Pharm-
acy, 903; of the Jesuits, 868;
veterinary, 908

"Collier's Weekly," 179, 196, 947,
965

Color, presses, 178; printing in
advertising, 449; printing, Ives
process of, 167

Color photography, See Photog-
raphy

"Columbia," the, 155

Combination, a great, how or-
ganized, 18; cotton seed oil,
the, 269; cotton, the, 261, 263;
glue, the, 496; industrial,
greatest, 21; in cheese mak-
ing, 767; lead, the, 647; linen
thread, the, 300; match, the,
487; meat packers , the, 200;
petroleum, the, 664; rubber,
the, 25, 317; salt, the, 680, 681;
steamship, the, 571; sugar re-
fining, the, 221; tannery, the,
305; theatrical manager, 971;
toy, the 493; wool, 271

Combinations, advantages of,
17; casket, 1043; gas, 118; glass,
321, 325; newspaper, 194; paint
and oil, 340; railway, 511, 514;
starch, 347; trade, effect of, 4

Commerce, foreign, of the
United States, 9, 12; world's
total, the, 12

Commercial Cable Company,
the, 421

Commission, agent, the farmer
and, 697; merchants, 464

Company stores, 31, 264, 620, 621;
tenements at mines, 621

Composers, American, 983

Composing machines, 180, 183

Compositors, 165

Comptroller, of the Currency,
the, 373; of the Treasury, the,
373

Comstock lode, silver product

of, 625

Concert singer, the, 989
Conductors, car. See Railway;

Railway, Order of, 555
Conduits, electrical, 113
Confectioners' Association, Na-
tional, 229
Confectionery, manufacture of,

228

Consolidated Exchange, the, 392
Consular service, the, 998-
Consulates, United States, num-
ber of, 998

Consuls, how appointed, 999; re-
ports of, 1000; United States,
pay of, 999

Consumers' League, the, 418
Consumption among workers,

1040
Continental Tobacco Company,

the, 15

Converter, the Bessemer, 46
Conveyors, mechanical, 63
Convict labor, 311
Cookery, Schools of, 1038
Cooperage industry, the, 85
Coopers, hand, demand for, 86
Copper, electrolytic, 104; indus-
try, the, 52; Lake Superior,
output of, in 1901, 645; mines
of Michigan, 645; mines of
Montana, 645, 646, 647; mining
industry, the, 645; output of,
in 1902, 617; production, the
world's, in 1900, 645; pro-
duction, United States, in
1900, 52, 645; rolling of, 53;
smelting and refining, 651, 652;
sulphate from assaying, 367
Copyright Law, Federal, 968; on

plays, 968, 969

Cordage and twine, annual out-
put of, 500; industry, the, 499
Corn, broom, annual output of,
713; cannery, operations in a,
216; crop of United States,
acreage of, 690, 712, 780;
"gluten," 348; oil, 348; prod-
uct of the United States, 6;
starch, how made, 347, 348
Corporation counsel, 884
Correspondence schools, 57, 258,

537, 911

Correspondents, newspaper, 192,
193. See Newspaper; women
as, 474

Cosmetics, manufacture of, 349
Costumer, stage, the, 969
Costumes, tailor-made, 289
Cotton, annual output of, 713;
baled, annual output of, 268;
baling, systems of, 2C8, 717;
"belt," the, 713; cloth indus-
try, profit in, 8; cost of rais-
ing, 714; crop, marketing the,
717; crop, the, 690, 713; crop,
United States, acreage of, 690,
713; exports of the United
States, 5, 6; fields, negro labor
in, 714; gin, Whitney, the,
268; ginnery, annual output
of, 268; ginnery, daily yield of,
268; ginning, process of, 268;
goods, exports and imports,
262; handling, mechanical, 717;

INDEX

1091

how picked, 716; Industry,
centres of the, 261; industry,
hands employed in, 261, 266,
267; industry, progress in, 264,
manufacture, 254, 255; mill
hands, status of, 264; mill ma-
chinery, 264; mills, child labor
in, 266, 267; mills, division of
labor in, 9; mills, earnings of,
262; mills, localization of, 10;
mills, negro labor in, 267;
mills, Northern, 261, 263;
mills, Southern, 262, 264;
mills, wages paid in, 260, 263,
264; picker, Mason, the, 717;
planter, the, 715; production
of the United States, 6; "sea
island," output of, 714; tons,
annually baled, 713, 714;
trusts, 2G1; weaving, progress
in, 265; yarns, manufacture of,
263

Cottonseed, annual output of,
713; fertilizer from, 503; oil,
269; products, 269

Counters, money, women as,
474; "quick-lunch," 485

Couplers, car, automatic, 134,
516, 517

Court, United States Supreme,
888

Cowboy, modern, the, 778

Cows, dairy, 760; in United
States, number, 773

Crabs, annual catch of, 805

Cracker baking, electricity in,
125; bakery, a large, 211

Crackers, American, 198, 210

Crafts and arts, American, 949

Cranberry culture, acres de-
voted to, 743

Crane, travelling, electric, 61

Cream, annual sales of, 759; col-
lecting of, 761, 765

Creameries, 760, 761, 763, 764;
co-operative, 696

Credit man, the, 475

Crews, life-saving, 1024; of coast-
ing vessels, 601; of Lake ves-
sels, 602; of Mississippi River
craft, 602; ship's, in the mer-
chant marine, 591, 593

Crimp, the, or shipping agent,
600

"Crimping" system of merchant
navies, 600

Cripple Creek, gold production,
in 1901, 655

Crockery, manufacture, 335

Crookes tubes, 108

Crops, great, summary of the,
712

Cudbear, imports of, 497

Cuff manufacture, 301

Curb market, Wall Street, 393

Currency, Comptroller of the,
373; mutilated, redemption of,
372; notes, fibre paper for, 372

Currying leather, process of, 308

Curtains, lace, manufacture of,
262

Custom House service, the, 1026

Cutch, annual consumption of,
497

Cut-Flower Exchange, New
York, 755

Cutlery, table, yearly value, 403
Cycles, motor, 145

Dairy, cows, 760; industry, the,
759; products, annual value,
759; waste, utilization of, 780

Dairying, syndicate system, 763

Dancer, earnings of the, 977;
professional, the, 976; stage,
training of the, 976

"Defender," the, 155

Dentist, American, the, 905

Dentistry, as a profession, 905;
education in, 906

Department store system. See
Store

Designer of costumes, the, 969

Designers, American, need of,
38; book-cover, 956; clothing,
284, 289; field of, 955; milling,
298; ring, wages paid to, 354

Detective, agencies, 1030; meth-
ods, modern, 1031; private, the,
1032; the, 1030; training of a,
1031

Diamond, a new use for the,
352; cleaving machine, 352;
cutters, 352; districts of
United States, 670; fields of
South Africa, the, 669

Diamonds, famous, 669; how
mined, 669; rough, imports of,
670

Diffusion process, beet sugar,
the, 226

Diplomatic service, the, 996

Dr>lor-at<;, how appointed, 998;
pay of, 997

Directories, publication of, 186

Distilleries, liquor, 238; turpen-
tine, 495

Divers, dangers run by, 609, 611;
deep-sea, 608; day's work of,
608; equipment and methods
of, 609; submarine, 608; varied
duties of, 610

Diving, bell, the, 610; suit, mod-
ern, the, 609

Dock laborers' organization, 611

Doll manufacture, 493

Doirestic service. See Servants

Dough mixing, mechanical, 213

Drama, American, the, 968

Dramatic schools, 925, 971

Dramatists, American, the, 9G8;
Club, American, 968; women, 969

Dressmakers, wages paid to, 289

Dressmaking establishments, 289

Drills, pneumatic, 62

Drug clerks, duties of, 904

Druggists, 903

Drummers. See Travellers, Com-
mercial

Dry goods trade, centre of the,
400; wholesale, the, 400

Du-t diseases, the, 10^0

Dyeing and finishing fabrics,
25«; changeable effect in, 256;
hands employed in, 25fi: im-
provements in, 256; mordants
u*ed in, 256, 257; textiles, 25fi

Dyers, liquid, output of, in 1900,
311

Dye^tuffs, annual output of, 497;
manufacture of, 496, 497

Dynamite, manufacture of, 344
Dynamo, modern, the, 115
Dynamos, alternating current,
109; and electric motors, dif-
ference, 110; direct current,
output of, 109; great, of Niag-
ara plant, 110; horsepower
used by railways, 498; in
United States, lamp capacity
of, 109; manufacture of, 109

Eating houses, United States,
number of, 484

Ebonite, how made, 319

Editor, Sunday, the, 941

Editors, newspaper, salary of,
19?. See Newspaper; women,
935

Education, agricultural, 704, 706;
art, in United States, 957;
business, 37, 39; board of,
work of a, 910; by mail, 57,
258, 537, 911; dental, 906; in-
dustrial, 37; medical, 896; mu-
sical, in United States, 984; of
navigators, 590; of railway
men, 537; of the veterinarian,
908; textile, in United States,
257

Eels, annual catch of, 805

Egg trade, the, 770

Eggs, annual consumption of,
770; and poultry products, an-
nual value, 759; industrial use
of, 770

Electric, accumulators, 110; au-
tomobiles, 139, 497; cables, in-
sulated, 112; cab service, New
York, 498; conduits, 113; head-
light, the, 133; heaj, how pro-
duced, 125; heaters, domestic,
125; heating, 124; lamp bulbs,
107, 108; lamp, Nernst, the,
109; lamp sockets, manufac-
ture of, 108; lamps, arc, 10G;
lamps, incandescent, 107, 108;
lamps, surgical, 108; light
companies, Edison, 117; light
plants, number of, 117; light
plants, private, 117; lighting,
97, 103, 116; lights, incan-
descent, 107; locomotives, 131;
motors, 61, 103, 110, 115, 122,
497, 498; power, 60, 122, 123;
railway plants, 105, 5CO; rail-
ways, foreign, 105; railways,
mileage of, 498; railways,
street. See also Railway; seal
fur, 294; supply indurtry, 116;
tanning, 308; typewriters, 76,
77; welding, 125

Electrical, apparatus, manufac-
ture of, 105; devices, patents
on, 104; engineering. See Engi-
neering; industries, the, 103;
inventors. See Inventors; pho-
tography, 966; trades, the, 114

Electrician, requisites of the,
114

Electricity, capital invested in,
114; future applications of,
114; in the chemical industries,
339; in hat making, 125; in
medicine, 895; in shipbuilding,
105; present importance of,

IOQ2

INDEX

j.04; vs. gas, 119; vs. horse and
cable power, 560

Electrolysis in metallurgy, 104

Electro-therapeutics, 895

Electrotyping, 168, 189

Elevator, Washington monu-
ment, 91

Elevators, 90; brewery, 230;
grain, 198, 208, 209; shaft walls
of, 89

Emerald mines of the United
States, 670, 671

Employers, labor unions and, 28;
liability laws for, 35; respon-
sibilities of, 32, 35

Employes, railway, qualifying
as, 540, 541, 542; A. Carnegie's,
36; club organizations of, 34;
colliery, pay of, 634; cotton
mill, 264, 266, 267; factory, 8;
farm machine mills, 72; fe-
males, exercise LOT, 33; furni-
ture factory, 87; hotel, number
of, 476, 479; hotel, skilled labor
for, 481; housing of, 2G3, 264;
improved condition of, 32; ma-
chine shop, 67; match factory,
487; Metropolitan Street Rail-
way, 566; of trusts, the, 23;
print works, risks run by, 341;
railway, accidents to, 516; rail-
way, discharge methods, 547,
548; railway, earnings of, 539;
railway, labor hours of, 549;
railway, reprimands of, 546;
railway, street. See Railway;
railway, wages of, 539, 540; re-
tail store, 406; Schwab's views
on, 24; soap factory, 350;
United States mint, 368; wo-
men, of the Government, 474

Employment agencies, 1040

Engine, steam, Thurston on the,63

Engineer, civil, the, 821; elec-
trical, qualifying as a, 833;
mechanical, qualifying as, 830;
mining, qualifying as a, 827;
training of an, 818

Engineering as a profession,
815; chemical, 841; chemical,
training for, 843; classification
of, 817; conditions of success,
819; electrical, 833; gas, 832;
marine, 836; mechanical, 828;
mechanical, schools, 830; min-
ing, 826; municipal, 825; rail-
road, 822; sanitary, 826;
schools, 818; specialization in,
818; steam, 831; structural,
824; telephone, 836

Engineers, achievements of, 816;
as business men, 820; colliery,
pay of, 634; dock, wages paid,
612; earnings of, 820; electri-
cal, training of, 835; insti-
tutes of, 821; Locomotive,
Brotherhood of, 553; locomo-
tive, instruction of, 538;
steamer, pay of, 598

Engines, gas, 63, 121; steam,
63; steam, automobile, 138;
steam, logging, 83

Engraving, and Printing, Bu-
reau United States, 370; half-
tone, process " of, 167; pholo,
process, 167; "process," 169

Entertainment bureaus, 979

Etching, line, how made, 954;
zinc, 168

Exchange, Cut-Flower, the, 755;
Fruit, California, 697

Exchanges, milk, 761; wool, 783;
stock, mining, 625; New York,
the, 391, 392

Explorers, work of, 856

Explosives, high, how made, 344;
manufacture of, 342, 344

Exporter, manufacturer, the, as
an, 13

Exports, agricultural, 690; ap-
ple, 749; barbed wire, 403; bi-
cycle, 144; biscuit, 211; book,
187; candy, 228; canned goods,
215; carpet, 276; carriages, in
1900, 143; cheese, 759; cigar
and cigarette, 248; clock, 357;
coal, in 1900, 626; condensed
ir ilk, 14, 759; cotton goods,
262; cottonseed oil, 269;
cracker, 211; flour, 209; fruit,
742; fur, 291; glass, in 1900,
322; ice, 606; kerosene, 663;
lock and hinge, 403; loom, 265;
perfumery, 349; petroleum,
663; pickle and sauce, 217;
sewing machine, 74; shoe,
311; shoe machine, 310; table
ware, 330; tobacco, 248, 722; of
the United States, 4, 5, 6, 9,
13, 14; of the world, the, 12;
pocket knife, 403; watch, 357;
wheat and cotton, 5; wool, 781

Express, agents, 613; companies,
force employed by the, 613;
companies of the United
States, 613; companies, miles
covered by, 614; Company,
American, 614; company meth-
ods, 613; money-order system,
the, 614; service, the, 612;
train, modern, the, 615

Expressmen, wages paid to, 614

Factory, tenements at Holyoke,
300; workers, dexterous, 9; em-
ployes, 8

Faience, Feroza, 335; Rookwood,
336

Farm, "bonanza," management
of a, 737, 738; food products,
exports in 1900, 731: great, la-
bor on a, 740; hands, Chinese
and negro, 701; hands, classes
of, 702; hands, earnings of, 702,
703; hands, prosperity of, 701;
implements industry, 71; im-
plements, value of, P94; labor,
700; lands of Oklahoma, 788;
live stock, value of, 694; ma-
chinery mills, employes of, 72;
machines, yearly output of, 72;
machine, hands, training of,
740; products, total value of,
694; properties, total value of,
694; wheat, great, conduct of,
736

Farmer, and commission agent,
697; dependence of, on ma-
chinery, 732; modern, the, 692;
status of the, 691

Farmers, as tenants, 699; home

study for, 709; organization
among, 696, 697; reading
courses for, 709; sugar-beet,
number of, 719; tobacco, num-
ber of, 719; truck, 756

Farming. See also Agriculture;
a business enterprise, C95; cen-
tres of United States, 693;
chicken, 768, 769; cost of, re-
duced by machinery, 733; flow-
er. See Flower Industry; Gov-
ernment aid to, 693, 706, 707;
lands, total acreage of, 694;
machine, 730; machine, results
of, 734; specialization in, 692;
"syndicate," 694, 695, 696;
truck, 756, 757

Farms, abandoned, 795; and
crops, mortgages on, 698;
classes of operators of, C94,
699; general statistics of, 693:
Pacific coast, machinery on,
735; peanut, 753; value of, in-
creased by machinery, 731;
Western, machinery on, 735

Federal, Copyright Law, 968;
Steel Company, the, 22

Felt, applications of, 275; hats,
how made, 296; how made, 296;
industry, output of, 275

Fertilizer, from abattoir waste,
503; from fish scrap, 503; from
garbage reduction, 503; from
cottonseed waste, 503; from
phosphate rock, 503; from
spent bone black, 503; lime-
stone as, 625

Fertilizers, annual output of, 502;
as a by-product, 204, 502, 503;
manufacture of, 502

Fever, Texas, loss due to, 907

Fibre, paper for greenbacks, 372;
soda, how made, 160; sulphite,
how made, 161; wood, in paper
making, 158

Fibres, textile, imports of, in
1902, 13: textile, the, 254

Filaments, lamp, how made, 107

File industry, the hands em-
ployed in, 403

Financial, status, at beginning
of 1903, 365; system, divisions
of the, 364

"Finland," the, 151

Fire, alarm telegraph, the, 424;
arms, manufacture of, 77; how
rifled, 78; boats, New York
City, 581; box, locomotive,
Wootten, the, 129; Department,
New York, 1033; insurance.
See Insurance

Fireman, promotion of the, 1034;
qualifications of a, 1033; the,
1032; training of a, 1034

Firemen, and stokers, ship, 586;
colliery, pay of, 634; Locomo-
tive, Brotherhooi of, 554; loco-
motive, instruction of, 538;
steamer, pay of, 597

Fireproof, buildings, 89; build-
ing materials, 89

Fires, United States, losses by,
1032

Fireworks, manufacture of, 345

Fish, as food, preparation of,
801; canneries, 217, 218, 219;

INDEX

1093

Commission, United States,
799; scrap, fertilizer from, 503;
traps, construction of, 219

Fisheries, Department, employ-
ment in, 800; of inland waters,
807; of Middle Atlantic States,
804; of the Great Lakes, 806,
807; of the Pacific States, 805;
of Gulf States, 805; Miscellane-
ous, 814; New England, statis-
tics, 803; South Atlantic States,
805; vessels employed in, 800

Fishery, lobster, the, 810; ma-
rine, tonnage of the, 800; mus-
sel, the, 809; pearl, 610, 807;
products, annual value, 801;
products, preservation of, 802;
salmon, 805, 806; sponge, 811;
whale, 803, 806, 813; oyster, 803,
804, 805, 806, 811

Fishing, industry, extent of, 800;
properties, capital invested,
800; industries, the, 798; re-
sources of America, 798

Flagpole, repairing a, 98

Flannels, production of, 273

"Flash," in journalism, 940

Flax, crop, acreage of the, 713;
imports for thread industry,
300; production of the United
States, 300; products, 499

Fleet, canal, the, 578; coasting,
American, the, 572; fruit
steamer, the, 744; merchant,
of the United States, 570;
merchant, English, crews of,
591; Mississippi River, the,
577; New York Harbor, 580;
of the Great Lakes, the, 570,
573; of yachts, the, 579; tug-
boats, the, 581

Fleets, Atlantic and Pacific, 571;
merchant, of the world, 569

Floor, arches, tile, 89; walker,
requisites of a, 407

Floriculture, 753, 754, 755

Florists, American Society of,
755; census of, 754; exchanges,
755

Flour, mill industry, the, 206;
milling processes, 207; mills,
large, output of, 208; mill, the
modern, 206

Flower, culture, acres devoted
to, 753; culture, specialization
in, 754; industry, centres of
the, -753; industry, value of
products, 753; trade, retail,
755; trade, extent of, in New
York, 754

Flowers, cut, trade, 754

Folding machines, auto, feed, 169

Food, Marine. See Fishing In-
dustry; preservation of, 199,
214; products, farm, exports in
1900, 731; sea, canned, 217;
products, 198; staples, tropical,
imports of, 13; supply of ocean
steamers, 588, 589; supply of a
great hotel, 479

Foods, cereal, crushed, 207; ce-
real, rolled, 207; perishable,
expressing, 615

Footwear, for horses, 402; manu-
facture of, 209; rubber, 318, 319,

Foresters', assistants, positions
for, 858; positions for, 858

Forestry, Bureau of, the, 857,
859; profession of, 857; work,
preparation for, 858

Forging, gun, 48; iron and steel,

| Foundations, "skyscrapers," 93;
"raft footing," 93; deep, how
sunk, 101; bridge, 101

Founding, type, 179

Foundry, products, special, 71;
work, 68

Fountains, soda-water, 243
I Franklinite iron ore, 79
I Freight, handlers, dock, wages
paid to, 612; railway, annually
carried, 508'

I Fruit, auction sales of, 745; Cali-
fornia, 746, 747; canneries, 215,
216; citrus, 742; classification
of, 742; crop, acreage of, 712:
dried, annual output, 742; Ex-
change, California, 697; exports
in 1902, 742; imports in 1902,
742; industry, the, 741; market,
New York, the, 744; orchards,
product of, 742; preservation,
743; pushcart men, 745; small,
acreage devoted to, 742; steam-
ers, construction of, 744;
transportation, 743, 744

"Fudge," or "stop press" bulle-
tin, 940

Fuel, natural gas s, 666, 668;
oil, for locomotives, 133, 662

Funerals, daily number in
United States, 1043

Fur, bearing animals, rare, 293;
companies of Canada, the,
293; dealers and jobbers, 291;
different varieties of, 294;
"electric seal," 294; ermine,
294; factory, processes em-
ployed in, 290; fairs of Europe,
291; fox, blue and black, 294;
imports and exports of, 294;
industry, the, 290; industry,
annual output of, 290; indus-
try, branches of the, 291; in-
dustry, hands employed in, 290;
industry, wages paid in, 290;
in hat making, 295; market,
London the chief, 294; most
expensive, the, 294; sable,
American, 294; sable, Russian,
294; seal, the, 291; sea-otter,
value of, 294; skunk, 294;
trade, chief centre of, 291

Furnaces, glass, improved, 321;
manufacture of, 124

Furnishings, men's, 301

Furniture, factory employes, 87;
industry, the, 86; market,
greatest, the, 87; plush, Amer-
ican, 282

Fustic, annual consumption of,
497

Games, manufacture of, 492

Gardening, market, 756

Garnets, mining of, 670

Gas, carbonic, manufacture of,
244; coal, industry, the. 118;
consumption, annual, in United
States, 118; engine, the, 64,

121; engineering. See Engi-
neering; fitter, the, 95, 96; fit-
ting supplies, 93; gasoline, 139;
house trick, the, 940; industry,
capital invested in, 118; indus-
try, development of the, 119;
motors, efficiency of, 65; motor,
Otto, the, 64; natural, con-
sumed in 1900, 667; natural,
industry, 666; natural, indus-
try, Kansas, 667; oil, 118;
plants of the United States,
number, 119; power, 121; prices
of, average, 119; storage of,
Pintsch system, 134; stores, in-
troduction of, 119; trusts, the,
118; vs. electricity, 119; water,
industry, the, 119

Geissler tube, the, 108

Gelatine, blasting, 344; from
waste material, 204

Gems, precious, of the United
States, 670, 671

General Electric Company, the,
116

Generators, electric, 122; steam,
63

Gin, cotton, Whitney, the, 269

Gin, manufacture of, 238

Ginghams, American, 262

Ginnery, cotton, daily output of,
2G8

Ginning, cotton, 267, 717

Glass, annealing of, 327; art, 329;
blowing, 323, 325; bottles and
jars, how made, 331, 332; cast-
ing and rolling, 322; "cathe-
dral," 329; colored and stained,
329; cutting, 323; exports in
1900, 322; furnaces, improved,
321; imports in 1900, 322; in-
dustry, centres of the, 321,
322; jars, machines for mak-
ing, 323; La Forge and Tif-
fany, 329; lamps, yearly output
of, 333; lime vs. lead, 329; ma-
chinery, 328, 330; making, co-
operation in, 326; plate indus-
try, wages paid in, 328; indus-
try, the, 321; plate, how made,
327; plate, yearly output of,
328; plate, polishing, 328; press-
ing, 323; table ware, exports
of, 330; tubes, manufacture of,
326; trades, foreigners in the,
324; trusts, 321, 325; ware,
blown, 330, 331; ware, cut,
output of, in 1900, 331; ware,
Favrille, 329; ware, molded,
329, 331; ware, pressed and
blown, 329, 330; working, meth-
od of, 322, 323; window, mak-
ing, 323, 325, 326; window,
yearly output of, 325; wire-
strengthened, 329

Glove, industry, centres of the,
315; industry, hands employed
in, 315; industry, leather used
in, 316; industrjj^_tfce^315; in-
dustry, wag<B<-^aa^tJjK 315;
making

Gloves, ho

Glower, Nn, t 109 O

Glucose,
or grape|
ture of,

1094

INDEX

Glue, from ^aste material, 204;
manufacture, capital invested
in, 496; trust, the, 496

Gluten, corn, 348

Glycerine from waste products,
204

Goat, Angora, hair, industry,
782, 784; raising, 784; skin, ap-
plications of, 306, 313

Gold, Cape Nome, output in 1900,
656; and silver output of
United States, 653; and silver,
world's production of, 153; coin,
stock of, in United States, 654;
coins, how minted, 3G9; decep-
tive weight of, 367; how as-
sayed, 367; industrial use in
United States in 1900, 654; In-
dustrial use, world's, in 1900,
654; mine prospectors, 660;
miners, Klondike, wages of,
656; miners, Western, wages
of, 654; mining, hydraulic, 659;
mining in Cripple Creek, 655;
mining in Rocky Mountain
States, 654; mining in the
Klondike, 656; mining, river,
658; output of, in 1902, 617;
output of United States in
1900, 653; pen manufacture.
See Pen; smith, art of the, 351;
sweepings, mint, value of, 368;
United States imports of, 654;
world's production of, in 1900,
653

Government officers, salaries of,
996

Grain, elevators, 209; specula-
tion in, 398; scoopers, wages
paid to, 612; trimmers, wages
paid to, 612

Gramophone, the, 111

Granite, cutters, labor conditions
of, 678, 679; Cutters' National
Union, 678; cutters, number
of, 678; cutters, wages paid to,
678; output of, in 1902, 674;
quarries, 676

Grape, baskets, manufacture of,
240, 750; Catawba, the, 238;
crop, acreage of the, 712; cul-
ture of, 239, 240; culture, Cali-
fornia, acres devoted to, 749;
district, Chautauqua, 750; in-
dustry, the, 749; juice, ship-
ments of, 750; pickers, wages
paid to, 750; sugar, or glucose,
229; trade, profits of the, 750

Graphite, artificial, 104; pencil,
where mined, 492

Graphophone, the, 111

Graphotype, the Goodson,166, 183

Grazing business, the, 774

Great Lakes, carrying trade of
the, 574

Greenbacks, manufacture of, 370

Greenhouse establishments, 753,
754 '

Grist mill industry, the, 206

Grocery, trade, aggregate sales
of, 401; trade, centre of the,
400; trade, wholesale, the, 400

Guano, 503

Guitars, annual output of, 358

Gum, asphaltum. See Asphalt;
drops, cheap, how made, 229

Gun, forgings, 48; powder, black,
output of, 343; powder, blast-
ing, 343; powder, composition
of, 343; powder, how made,
343; powder industry, the, 342;
powder, prismatic, 343; powder,
smokeless, 343; projectiles, 49

Guns, heavy, how made, 49; how
rifled, 78; manufacture of, 77

Haddock, annual catch of, 804

Hair, Angora goat, industry, 782,
784; waste, utilization of, 204

Half-tone plates, how made, 167,
171, 954; tone, printing, 179

Halibut, annual catch of, 804

Hammer, pneumatic, 62; 250-ton,
a, 43

Harbor, New York, craft of, 580

Hardware, trade, the branches
of, 402, 403; builders', indus-
try, the, 403; trade, the cen-
tres of, 402; trade, wholesale,
the, 402

Harness, and saddlery, 314; mak-
ing, capital invested in, 315;
making, centre of, 315; making,
hands employed in, 315; trim-
mings, rubber, 318

Harvesting Works, McCormick,
the, 73

Hat, beaver, the old, 297; indus-
try, the, 295; industry, centre
of the, 295; machines, 296

Hats, cloth, 295; "derby," 296;
felt, how made, 296; straw,
American, 295; silk, how made,
297; "soft," 295; women's, 298;
wool, 295

Hay crop, United States, acre-
age of, 690

Headlight, electric, 133

Headwear, manufacture of, 295

Hearse, remarkable, a, 1043

Heat, electric, how produced, 125

Heaters, car, electric, 125; coffee,
electric, 125; electric, domes-
tic, 125; electric, in the indus-
tries, 125; electric, output of,
in 1900, 125

Heating, apparatus, 97, 116, 123,
124; electric, 124; gas, 119

Hemp, products of, the, 499

Herring, annual imports of, 802;
annual catch of, 804, 805, 806

Hides, how prepared, 306; va-
rieties of, 306

Hod carrier, mechanical, 92

Hoe industry, hands employed
in, 403

Hog, breeders' associations, 774;
cholera, loss from, 907; rais-
ing, 780

Hogs, daily slaughter of, 200;
curing and packing, 200; how
slaughtered, 202; number in
the United States, 780

"Hogs," sand, or caisson work-
ers, 100, 102

Hoisters, dock, wages paid, 612

"Home" system of clothes mak-
ing, 286

Homestead, entries, 786; laws,
the, 786

Homesteaders, 785

Honey, industry, the, 771; out-
put in 1899, 772

Hoofs,cattle,utilization of, 204,489

Hop, crop, marketing the, 727;
crop, the, 726; culture, acres
employed in, 726; culture, lead-
ing States in, 726; hands,
wages paid to, 727; picking,
726, 727; substitutes, 237

Hops, annual production of, 726;
curing of, 727; exports of, 727;
used by brewers in 1900, 727

Horse breeders' associations, 774;
jockey, the, 982; raising, 779;
shoes, aluminium, 54; train-
ers, wages of, 982

Horses, United States, census of,
773, 777

Horticulture, business of, an-
nual extent, 753

Hose, rubber, 318

Hosiery, industry, the, 254;
manufacture of, 298

Hospital, marine, service, 1025;
marine, United States, 604;
relief, railway. See Railway

Hospitals, service, the, 897

Hotel, business, the, 476; cafes,
484; cashier, the, 480; clerks,
qualifications of, 480; chef, du-
ties of the, 480; chef, salary
of, 480; employes, skilled la-
bor, 481; employes at the
front, 479; employes, number
of, 476; great, capital invested
in, 479; great, staff of a, 479;
great, supplies consumed, 479;
head waiter, tne, 484; help,
pay of, 482; housekeeper, du-
ties of, 48L; management, 477,
478; manager, the, 479; mod-
ern, vs. the old inn, 478; mod-
ern, the, conduct of, 478; pro-
prietor, the, 478; restaurant,
the, 484; statistics, 476; stew-
ard, duty and pay of, 480; tip-
ping system, 482; waiters, ear-
nings of, 482; waiters, nation-
ality of, 482

Hotels, capital invested in, 476;
of the sea, the, 587; resort, 483;
"that pass as such," 477; trav-
ellers' in the United States,
477; United States, number of,
476

Housekeepers, schools for, 1038

Hudson's Bay Fur Company, 293

Hydraulic, gold mining, 659;
"monitor" or "giant," the,
659, 660

Ice, artificial, 687, 688; artificial,
cost of, 687; artificial, refrig-
erator, 205; business, capital
invested in the, 686; business,
men employed in, 686; harvest-
ing regions, the, 686; industry,
the, 686; machines, patents on,
687; natural, annual consump-
tion, 687; natural, exports of,
686; trade, zones of the, 687

Idaho, public lands in, 789

Illustrating, "half-tone." 167,
171, 954; "line-cut," 171; me-
chanical side, 953; processes of,
167, 168, 171

INDEX

Illustrations, advertisement, 955

Illustrators, 952

Immigration, effect on United
States industries, 55, 87, 95,
252, 260, 283, 285, 286, 316, 324,
353, 630

Imports, clock, 357; cotton goods,
262; dyestuffs, 497; fruit, 742;
fur, 291; glass, in 1900, 322;
gold, 654; of German toys, 492;
of the world, 12; of tropical
products, 13; of woollen goods,
274; perfumery, 349; silk, raw,
279; United States, in 1902, 13;
watch, 357; wool, annual, 272;
worsted, in 1900, 274

Incubator and its work, 769

Indigo, annual consumption of,
497; imports, 497

Industrial, betterment, 32, 33, 73,
341; combinations, 15; educa-
tion, 37; insurance. See In-
surance

"Industrials," capitalization of,
total, 16

Industries, effect of climate on,
11; localization of, 10

Insulation in electricity, 112

Insulators, porcelain, 337

Insurance, accident, 31; accident,
railway, 557; agents, earnings
of, 442; agents, women as, 443;
business, the, 439; commercial
travellers', 462; companies,
losses of, 444, 446; compulsory,
for miners, 654; co-operative,
444; fire, 444; fire, agents, 446,
447; fire, methods in, 447; fire,
expenses in, 447; Ore, profits
in, 445; fire, taxes on, 447; in-
dustrial, 439, 441; in labor
unions, 31; life, 439, 440; life,
agents, 440, 441; life, field
workers, 440; life, in United
States, January, 1903, 439; life,
of women, 443; life, statistics,
439, 440; marine, 444, 448; ma-
rine, "Lloyds," 448; miscella-
neous, 444; inland navigation,
444; ordinary, agents, 439, 442;
policies, "valued," 445; trans-
portation, 444

International, Paper Company,
157, 161; Telegraph Bureau, 419;
Typographical Union, 1C4, 166

Invention, how to market an,
853; how to protect an, 852

Inventors, achievements of, 847;
Americans as, 845; electrical,
105, 848; opportunities for, 849;
reward of, 849; training of,
846

Iodine, test for starch, the, 229
"Iowa," the, 153
Iridium for pen nibs, 492
Iron, age, the, 638; anthracite,
45; bituminous, 45; briquettes,
642; casting, molding for, 68;
galvanized, 56; industry, the,
43; miner, life of the, 643;
mines, labor conditions in, 643;
mining industry, 638; mining,
methods of, 640; mining region,
Lake Superior, 643; ore,
Franklinite, 79; ore mining,
force engaged in, 643; ore pro-

duction, 639; ore reduction,
machinery in, C42; ore reduc-
tion, "magnetic" process, 640;
pig, classification of, 45; pig,
industry, growth of, 13; pig,
manufacture of, 44, 45, 46; pig,
output in 1900, 46, 47; pig, out-
put in 1901, 13; pig, output in
1902, 618; plates, tinned, 51;
producing States, the, 639;
pyrolignite, consumption of,
497; ships, building of, 150;
workers, 44, 54

Irrigation, increase of farms by,
792; land, by corporations, 793;
problem, summary of the, 795

Ivory, button manufacture, 489;
nuts, industrial use of, 489

Jack, black-jack, or rosin-jack.
See Zinc Ore

Jackie, the, 1013

Jars, glass, manufacture of, 323,
331

Jewelry, American vs. foreign,
351; manufacture of, 351

Jewish church and clergy, 871

Jews, as policemen, 1028; as tail-
ors, 287; in the United States,
number, 871

Jockey, the, 982

Journalism. See also Newspaper;
as a profession, 928; college
men in, 936; daily, growth of,
191; education in, 930; monthly,
947; new, the, 929; profession
of, 928; weekly, 946; women in,
934; "yellow," 934

Journals, technical, 197; trade,
197, 453; weekly, pictorial, 195

Judges, salaries of, 888

Judiciary, the, 888

Jute, goods, 499; products of, 499

"Kearsarge," the, 153
"Kentucky," the, 152, 154
Kerosene, exports of, 663
Kick-machine, the, 145
Kid leather, glazed, vs. French,

304

Kindergarten work, 912
Klondike, gold mining in the, 656
Knife industry, hands employed

in, 403

Knights of Labor, 27
Knit goods industry, the, 298
Knitting, machine needles, 494;
machines, automatic, 298; in-
dustry, hands employed in, 298;
industry, centres of, 298; stock-
ing, process of, 298
Knives, pocket, exports of, 403;

pocket, manufacture of, 403
"Kroonland," the, 151

Labels, union, use of, 283
Labor, agents, 1041; Bureaus,
State, 1041; cheap, oversupply
of, 285; child, in clothing in-
dustry, 283; child, in cotton
mills, 266, 2C7; child, in mines,
622, C23; child, in the shoe in-
dustry, 310; child, in petro-

leum refining, 664; child, in
silk mills, 280; child, on sugar
beet farms, 719; child, in the
wool industry, 270; child, in
watch factories, 355; child, pro-
hibition of, 200; Chinese, on
farms, 701; Chinese, on steam-
ers, 859; conditions, review of,
26; conditions in paint fac-
tories, 341; convict, 311; cost
of, in building, 91; farm. See
Farm; Federation, American,
26, 27; hours on farms, 701;
hours on the water, 599; hours,
railway, 549; hours, the law as
to, 205, 260; Knights of, 27; ne-
gro, in cotton mills, 267; or-
ganizations, railway. See Rail-
way; skilled, in hotejs, 481;
Sunday, on railways, 550; ne-
gro, in cotton fields, 714, 715,
716; negro, on farms, 701; ne-
gro, on Mississippi, 602; or-
ganizations, 26, 32; status in
thread mills, 300; troubles,
the cause of, 30; unions and
employers, 28; unions, mem-
bership of, 26; unions, Schwab
on, 28

Laborers in mid-air, 98

Lace, curtains, manufacture of,
262; goods industry, the, 298;
makers, complaints of, 1040

Lager beer industry, the, 233

Lake, Carriers' Association, 576;
Superior iron mining region,
643; vessels, crews of, 602

"Lamb," Wall Street, the, 387

Lamp, chimneys, how made, 332;
chimneys, output in 1900, 331;
electric, Nernst, 109; filaments,
how made, 107; sockets, manu-
facture of, 108

Lamps, electric, 106, 107, 108;
glass, yearly output of, 333

Land Office, United States, draw-
ings, 786

Lands, irrigated, colonies in,
794; public, in Idaho, 789; pub-
lic, in Missouri, 788; public, in
Oklahoma, 787; public, of
United States, 785; public, in
Oregon, 791; public, in New
Mexico, 791; public, irrigation
of, 791, 782, 793, 794; public, in
Washington, 790; unappropri-
ated, acreage, 1902, 785

Landsman, the, 1013
I Lard, handling, in Chicago, 4
' Lathe, the geometric, 371

Lathes, improved, 61

Laundering, 303

Law, as to bank capital, 374; as
to coal miners' work, 634; as
to coal miners' duties, 619; as
to sale of matches, 487; child
employment, 407, 622; Copy-
right, Federal, 968; home
study of, 886; labor-hours, 205,
260; office study of, 885; office,
the, 881; practice, conditions
of, 878; practice, civil court,
883; practice, criminal court,
883: profession of, the, 878;
safety annliance, the, 517: sail-
ors' contract, 597; schools, 884;

1096

INDEX

school graduates, 885; the spe-
cialist in, 880; union label, 31

Laws, as to button making, 765;
for the control of yachts, 580;
homestead, 786; navigation,
provisions of, 147, 572; patent,
defects in, 339, 851; railway
labor-hour, 549; to protect ap-
prentices, 40, 41; to protect
employes, 35; to protect metal
polishers, 57; to protect sail-
ors, 596

Lawyers, "ambulance chaser,"
882; corporation, 884; fees of,
884; women as, 886, 887

Lead, combination, the, 647;
Company, National, the, 647;
industry, hands employed in
1902, 647; metallic, product in
1902, 647; mining industry, the,
647; of the market, sources of,
647; output of, in 1902, 618;
pencils. See Pencil; smelting
and refining, 651, 652; "soft,"
647; United States, product in
1900, 648; white, manufacture
of, 341; white, yearly output
of, 341; world's production of,
in 1900, 648

Leather, blacking, process of,
309; chemical tanning of, 304;
chrome-tanned, 306, 308, 309;
"Cordovan," 306; "Curacoa,"
306; different varieties of, 305;
enamelled, 309; factories, new
methods in, 305; horsehide,
306; how curried, 308; how fin-
ished, 309; how pebbled, 308;
gloves, manufacture of, 315;
goat, varieties of, 306; imports
of, 311; industry, the, 304;
kangaroo, 306, 313; "patent,"
309; russet, 306; skins used for,
304, 306; sole, manufacture of,
307; Tampico, 306

Lecturers, 979

Lehr, glass-annealing, 327

Lenses, telephotographic, 966

Letter carriers, 1018, 1020

Librarians, 927; degrees for, 927;
salaries of, 927; schools for,
927

Libraries, circulating, 927; of
the United States, 926; travel-
ling, 926

Life insurance. See Insurance;
saving by firemen, 1034; sav-
ing crews, 1024; Saving Ser-
vice, the, 604, 1022; saving sta-
tion keepers, 1023

Light, apparatus, 116; house
keepers, 1021; house service,
the, 1021

Lighting, electric, 97, 103, 106,
107, 116; the United States
coasts, cost, 604

Lights, electric, incandescent,
107

Lime, bone phosphate of, 503;
stone, output, 1902, value of,
674; stone, quarrying of, 674

Line-cut illustrations, 171

Linen, goods, 499; industry,
hands employed in, 300; man-
ufacture, 255, 299; thread, 300;
thread combination, the, 300

Lingerie, manufacture of, 288

Linotype machine, the, 165, 180

Linseed, oil industry, the, 340;
oil, yearly output of, 341

Liquor, distilled, industry, the,
237, 238; industry, the, 232;
malt, industry, 233

Liquors, and beverages, 232; ex-
cise taxes on, 237

Lisle thread, how made, 299

Literature, "hacks" in, 916, 919;
profession of, the, 916

Lithographic, color printing, 168;
presses, 172

Lithography, aluminium in, 168, 173

Live, stock in the United States,
773; stock. See also Stock
Yards; stock markets, princi-
pal, 776; stock production,
areas of, 775

Lloyds, origin of, 448

Loan and building companies,
384, 385

Lobster, fishery, 810; annual
catch of the, 804, 810

Locks, door, exports of, 403;
time, for safes, 79

Locomotive, boilers, 132; com-
pound, the, 129, 130; com-
pressed air, the, 131; construc-
tion, 131; different types of the,
128; engineer, the, 527, 528, 538;
Engineers, Brotherhood of, 553;
exports, 14, 128; firemen, 527;
Firemen, Brotherhood of, 554;
firemen, instruction of, 538;
freight, cost of a, 127; indus-
try, the, 126; life of a, 127;
manufacture, 127; plants of
United States, capacity, 127;
railway, inventor of, 508; out-
put in 1901, 127; up-to-date,
the, 128; Vauclain, the, 127;
weight of a, 132; works, Bald-
win, 127

Locomotives, American, exports
of, 507; electric, 131; hauling
capacity of, 129; oil fuel for,
133; railway, of the United
States, 508

Lodging houses, 483

Loggers, operations of, 83, 84

Logging, camps, 81; engines,
steam, 83

Logwood, annual consumption
of, 497; extracts, imports of,
497; imports, 497

Longshoremen, 611; Associa-
tion of the, 611; on the Great
Lakes, 612

Loom, fixers, school for, 258;
improvements in the, 265, 280,
281; Northrop, the, 259, 265;
ribbon, the, 281; silk velvet
ribbon, 280

Looms, silk, American, 280, 281;
carpet, power, 276; foreign, de-
mand for, 265

Lumber, business, promotion in
the, 482; cutting, method of,
81, 82, 83, 84; Handlers' Union,
611; industry, the, 80; loaders,
dock, wages paid, 612; piano,
360; telegraph pole, 103

Lumbermen, Eastern, 83; wages
paid to, 83; Western, 82

Lunch rooms, quick, 484
Luncheons, clubs of New York,

the, 485; gratuitous, for clerks,

485
Lyceum bureaus, 979

Machine, addressing, the, 8;
book rounding, the, 170; book
stitching, the, 169; brick, the,
59; check tabulating, 379;
farming. See Farming; knit
goods, 254; match the, 59;
paint-spraying, 62; paper fold-
ing, 169; pin, the, 8; political,
the, 994; ring-spindle, the, 259;
shop, effect of unions jn, 66;
shop, employes, 67; shop prac-
tice, 60, 66; shop products, 71;
trades, the training for, 66;
type-casting, 166; vs. hand
work, 58

Machinery, agricultural, 71, 731;
binding, 164, 169; book, fast,
189; cordage, 500; cotton mill,
264; farm, 72; in the building
trades, 92; iron ore reduction,
642; metal working, 60; silk,
American, 279; spinning, new,
259; steel and iron works, 43;
tin can, 499; trade, the, 58

Machines, boot and shoe, 309,
312; button, 489, 490; carpet,
American, 276; carriage build-
ing, 142; cigarette, 250; cloth
cutting, 284; composing, 180;
glass, 328, 330; glass jar, 323;
glove-making, 317; hat, 296;
knitting, 298; labor-saving, 8;
organ, 363; pin, 494; rice, 724;
sewing, 73, 75; shoe, exports
of, 310; silk-throwing, 280;
talking, 111; textile, vs. hand-
work, 259; typesetting, 59, 165,
180, 183, 184; typewriting, 75,
76; watch making, 354, 356

Mackerel, annual catch of, 804

Mackintoshes, yearly output of,
318

Madder, imports of, 497

Magazine, advertising, 453; ar-
ticles, 921; buyers, number of,
453; illustrators, 953; making
a, 948; monthly, the, 947

Magazines, circulation of, 196;
ten-cent, 193

Magistrates, salaries of, 888

Mail, delivery, automobile, 140;
order business, the, 503

"Maine," the, 152

Malt, how prepared, 236; liquor
industry, the, 233; substitutes
for, 237

Management, private estate, 469

Managers, advertising, demand
for, 456; apartment house, 467;
circus, 980; general, railway,
see Railway; hotel, see Ho-
tel; office buildings, 467, 468;
plantation, wages of, 702;
stage, 969; theatrical, 969, 971,
973

Mandolins, annual output of, 358

Man-of-war's men, 1011

Mantels, ready made, 85

Mantle, Welsbach, the, 118, 119

INDEX

1097

Manufacturer, the, 3, 6; the, as
an exporter, 5; profits of the,
8; starting as a, G; United
States, feats of the, 4

Manufacturers' National Associ-
ation, 5

Manufactures, United States, ex-
ports of, 9; United States a
leader in, 6; United States,
sold in 1902, 5; United States,
value per capita, 9

Manufacturing, average profits
of, 8; plant, the, 7; United
States, hands employed, 6

Maple, sugar consumed in 1901,
227; sugar manufacture of, 228

Marble, artificial, how made, 502;
deposits, where found, 675;
monuments, 679; output in
1902,value,674; quarries, 675,677

Marbles, playing, manufacture
of, 337

Marine, Corps, the, 1014; engi-
neering. See Engineering; hos-
pital service, 1025

Market, gardening, 756; men,
757; place, American, 758

Masts, export of, 83

Match, boxes, machine-made,
487; industry, hands employed
in, 486; industry, lumber con-
sumed in, 486; trust, the, 487

Matches, boxing, 9; daily con-
sumption, 486; manufacture of,
59, 487; safety and parlor, 487

Mates, ship's, pay of, 598

Mats, rubber, 318

Matting, Chinese, imports of, 276

Meat, American, exports of, 5;
cutters and butchers, 205; in-
spection, official, 203; packing
industry, the, 198, 199, 200; pre-
serving, Appert process, 205;
transportation of, 204

Medicine, beginner in, 898; edu-
cation in, 896; general prac-
titioner in, 892; practice of,
conditions, 890; practice of,
specialists, 891

Medicines from by-products, 204

Melodeon, the, 363

Menhaden, annual catch of, 805

Merchant, fleets of the world,
569; fleet of the United States,
570; marine, crews of the, 591,
593; marine, officers of the,
595; steamers, aggregate value
of, 569; steamers, yearly ear-
nings of, 569

Merchants, commission, 464; of
the United States, 399; young,
advice to, 404

Mergers, railway, 511

Merit system, the, 35, 681

Messenger call, district, the, 424

Metal, building framework, 89;
button manufacture, 489; forg-
ing, 68; industries, the, 42;
polishers, earnings of, 124; pol-
ishers, work of, 57; polishers,
law to protect, 57; sheet,
structural, 56; sheet, trades,
the, 56; workers, 54; working
machinery, 60

Metallurgy, as a profession, 857;
electrolysis in, 104

Metals, precious, process of ex-
traction, 657

Mica, mining, 668; sheet, selling
prices of, 668

Military duty, men liable to,
1006

Militiamen, 1006

Milk, annual sales of, 759; con-
densed, annual, output of, 762;
condensed, exports of, 14, 759;
condensed, how made, 763; con-
densed, industry, 762; con-
sumption of, in New York, 761;
exchanges, 761; inspection, 761;
Producers' Union, the, 697;
separator, centrifugal, 765;
skimming stations, 763; trade,
the, 760, 761; transportation of,
761

Milkman, the, 761

Millinery, annual output of, 298;
capital invested in, 298; design-
ers, 298; hands engaged in, 298;
industry, the, 297; industry,
wages paid in, 298; teachers
of, 297

Milling, flour, cereals used in,
in 1900, 206; flour, process of,
207; flour, industry, the, 206;
flour, roller system of, 206

Mine, superintendents, 620;
Workers, United of America,
632

Mineral water, industry, the, 243

Minerals, annual product, value
of, 616; United States, value
of, 6

Miners, American, 619; anthra-
cite, pay of, 633; coal, life of,
628; coal, training of, 630; coal,
total number of, 628; coal,
United States, total number,
619; gold, Colorado, wages of,
654; iron, life of, 643; iron,
United States, total number of,
619; Klondike, wages of, 656

Mines, accidents in, 623; coal,
foreigners in, 630; company
store system at, 620, 621; com-
pany tenements at, 621; cop-
per, Lake Superior region, 645;
copper, of Michigan, 645; child
labor in, 622, 623; copper, of
Montana, 645, 646; gold, "salt-
ing," 661; iron, labor condi-
tions in, 643; of the United
States, the, 616; ore, Western,
labor conditions at, 650; United
States, number of persons
employed, 6, 619

Miniature painting, 951

"Minimum scale," the, 29

Mining, copper, 645; diamond,
669; exchange, largest, the, 625;
gold, hydraulic, 659; gold, in
Rocky Mountain States, 654;
gold, in Cripple Creek, 655;
gold, in the Klondike, 656; en-
gineering. See Engineering;
in America, 6; in America,
conditions of, 619; industries,
profits in, 624; iron, methods
of, 640; iron ore, force en-
gaged in, 64S; lead, industry,
647; mica, 668; placer, meth-
ods of, 657, 658, 659; river, 658;

schools, 828; silver, In Rocky
Mountain States, 654; zinc, 648;
zinc, novel features of, 649;
zinc ore, cost of, 649, 650

Minister, qualifying as a, 863

Ministers, salary of, 865; num-
ber of, 864

Ministry as a profession, 862

Mints, United States, employes
of, 368; United States, opera-
tions at, 366

Missionaries, 872; achievements
of, 872; as printers, 874; medi-
cal, 874; salary of, 875

Missionary, work, 872, 873; work,
candidates for, 874

Mississippi River, craft, crews
of, 602; river fleet, 577; traflic
statistics, 577

Missouri, public lands of, 788

Mittens, manufacture of, 315

Models, artists', 966; profes-
sional, life of, 967

Mohair industry, the, 782

Molasses, annual output of, 718;
beet, use of, 227; centrifugal,
227; sugar consumed in, 1901,227

Molding for iron casting, 68

Money, "countess" of the Treas-
ury, the, 474; mutilated, count-
ing, 372; order system, express,
614; paper, United States, man-
ufacture of, 370

Monoline, Scudder, the, 166, 182

Monotype, Lanston, the, 166, 182

Monument, dealer, success of,
the, 680; industry, wages paid,
679

Monuments, marble, 679; value
of the, output of, 679

Moquette, manufacture of, 276,
277

Mordants and mordanting, 256,
257

Mortars, steel, 50

Mortgages on farms and crops,
698

Motorman, electric car, the, 563;
promotion of the, 565; training
of the, 564

Motors, automobile, 139, 497;
electric, 61, 103, 110, 115, 122,
498; gas, 64, 65, 121; steam, 63;
street car, 122, 498

Mowers, automobile, 140

Mullets, annual catch of, 805

Museum, of Art, Detroit, 957;
of Fine Arts, Boston, 957

Music, boxes, manufacture of,
358; church, 990; education in,
984

Musical instruments, manufac-
ture of, 357

Musicians, American, 983; band,
992; earnings of, 984; orches-
tra, pay, 992; student, abroad,
984

Mussel fishery, the, 490, 809

Mussels, pearl, 490, 808

Mutton, production of, 781;
sheep, distribution of, 781

Nail mills of United States, out-
put, 402
Nails, horseshoe, hands em-

1098

INDEX

ployed on, 402; manufacture
of, 59

National, Academy of Design,
958; Association of Manufac-
turers, 5; Glass Company, the,
321; Guard, the, 1006; Lead
Company, the, 647; Linseed' Oil
Company, the, 340; Live Stock
Association, 7,J; Salt Com-
pany, the, 680, 681; Starch
Manufacturing Company, 347

Naval, Academy, the, 1009; ap-
prentices, training of, 1012

Navigation, canal, 578; Great
Lake, 573, 574; laws, 147, 572;
Mississippi River, 577

Navigator, education of the, 590

Navy, active list of the, 1008;
enlisted force of, 1010; of Great
Britain, 591; personnel of the,
1007; promotions in, 1013; ships
of the, 1008; United States, the,
1007; yards, United States, 150

Needles, cutting the eye of, 9;
how made, 494, 495; knitting
machine, 494; sewing machine,
494

Negroes, as farm hands, 701; in
labor unions, 27; labor in the
cotton field, 714, 715; labor on
Mississippi, 602

New Mexico, public lands of, 791

Newspaper, advertisements, 192,
449; "ad." department of, 454;
bureau, Washington, 933; car-
toonists, pay o 192; circula-
tion of a, 193, 946; combina-
tions, 194; correspondents, 192,
931, 932, 933; country, the, 941;
daily, on shipboard, 589; daily,
growth of the, 191; daily, staff
of, 936; editors, salaries of, 192,
936; editors, 935, 936, 941; even-
ing, the, 193, 939, 940; fra-
ternity, the, 928; illustration,
952; making of a, 937; men,
daily work of, 937, 938; office,
day's work in, 937; office, night
work, 938; "patent insides,"
the, 194, 453; photographers,
965; pictorial, the, 195; presses.
See Press; publishing, 190; re-
porters, 929, 930, 931; reports,
"pony," 945; running expenses
of a, 192; space rates, 935;
Sunday, the, 192, 941; syndi-
cates, 193; trains, Sunday, 455;
weekly, the, 196, 946; woman,
the, 934, 935; work, subdivi-
sion of, 939

Newspapers, co-operative, 194,
453; daily printed in New
York, 455; hourly output of,
192; profit and loss on, 191

Niagara Falls power plant, 123

Nickel deposits of North Caro-
lina, 625

Nitroglycerine, how made, 344;
output of, in 1900, 344

Northern Securities Company,
the, 514

Novelists, 920

Novels, dramatization of, 969
Nurseries, annual product of,
753; palm, Jamaica, 753; plant,
of United States, 753

Nurses, American, trained, num-
ber, 901

Nursing, as a profession, 901;
profession, training for, 902

Nut, industry, the, 752, 753;
orchards, profit on, 752

Oak bark, yellow, consumption

of, 497
Oat crop, United States, acreage

of, 690, 712
Oats, rolled, 207
Occupations, dangerous, 1039
Officeholders, salaries of, 996,
999; Federal, salaries of, 996;
holding under fee system, 996;
political, securing a, 994
Officer, Navy, duties of a, 1007
Officers, Army, training of, 1002;
Consular, pay of, 999; Custom
House, 1026; Marine Corps,
1014; Naval, training of, 1010;
Quarantine, 1025; revenue cut-
ter, 1024

Oil, cake, corn, 348; corn, 348;
cottonseed, exports of, 269;
cottonseed, application of, 269;
cottonseed, yearly output of,
269; fuel for locomotives, 133,
662; gas, manufacture of, 118;
linseed, industry, 340, 341; of
tar, 495; refinery by-products,
842

Oklahoma, public lands in, 787
Oleomargarine, annual output,

766; how made, 766
Omnibuses, electric motors for,

497

Onion crop, annual, 755
Opals, imports of, 670; popular-
ity of, 353

Opera, comic, writing of a, 989;
mode of protecting, 968; re-
hearsals, 987, 988; staging an,
987

Orchard fruits. See Fruit
Orchestra, musicians, pay of,

992; the, 991

Ore, iron, Franklinite, 79;
. steamers, Great Lake, the,
575; unloader, automatic, the,
576; trimmers, wages paid to,
612; mine, Western, labor con-
ditions at a, 650; zinc, or
"jack," 649

Oregon, public lands in, 791
Ores consumed in 1900, 45
Organ, industry, the, 362, 363;
pipe, the, 362; reed, the, 362,
363

Organette, the, 363
Organization, business, impor-
tance of, 404, 478
Organzine, spinning, 280
Otter, sea, the, 293, 806, 814
Ovens, coke, improved, 665
Oyster, canning, 11, 220; fishery,
the, 803, 804, 805, 806, 811

Packing, hog and cattle, 200;
house, the, 200, 201; house
butchers, 205; machines, to-
bacco, 251; meat, 198, 199

Paint, and oil trusts, 340; and

varnish trade, 341; factories,
number of, 341; industry,
wages paid in, 340; spraying
machine, 62; works, employes
of, 341

Painters, American, 950; ear-
nings of, 950; miniature, 951;
portrait, 951; scene, 969, 977

Paints, colored, yearly output of,
341; mixed, output of, in 1900,
341

Paper, applications of, 156;
banknote, manufacture of, 370;
book and magazine, 160; Com-
pany, International, 25; cut-
ting machines, improved, 169;
fibre for currency, 372; for
newspapers, 156, 159; industry,
the, 156; mills of the United
States, 157; machine, Fourdri-
nier, 158; manufacture, process
of, 158; money, manufacture
of, 370; note and bond, 371;
trust, the, 157; United States
currency, counting, 372; used
in book work, 189; wood-pulp,
157, 188

Papers, technical, 197; trade, au-
tomobile, 140; trade, 197, 453;
See Newspapers; weekly, illus-
trated, 195

Paraffine used in match indus-
try, 486

Parlor, cars, 135, 510, 522, 531;
matches. See Match

Passenger, agents. See Railway;
fares, railway, average, 522;
service, Atlantic and Pacific,
571; traffic, railway, 508

Patent, how to sell a, 852; "in-
sides," newspapers, 194, 453;
laws, defects in, the, 339, 851;
leather, 309; Office, personnel
of, 851; system, the, 851

Patents, annually issued, '845;
button machine, 490; on car-
riage devices, 143; on con-
densed milk, 763; on electric
inventions, 105; on refrigerat-
ing processes, 687

Patrons of Husbandry, the, 697

Pattern, makers, 69; Makers'
League, the, 70

Pavement, artificial stone for,
501; asphalt, 671

Pavements and roads, 500

Paving, industry, the, hands
employed in, 500; material,
annual output of, 500

Pawnbrokers, the, 1042

Peanut, crop, acreage devoted
to, 753; farms, yield to the
acre, 753; farmers, number of,
753; region, great, the, 753

Pearl, button industry, 490; div-
ers, 610; fishery, 610, 807;
fresh-water, 490; mothcr-of,
490; ocean, 490

Pearls, annual yield of, 809

Pecan, culture of the, 752

Pedagogy, School of, New York,
912; science of, modern, 913

Pelts. See "Fur"

Pelzer, private town of, 263

Pencils, lead, how made, 492

Pen, fountain, the, 492; indus-

INDEX

1099

try, the, 490, 491; stylographic,
the, 492

Pens, annual consumption of,
490; gold, how made, 491, 492;
steel, how made, 491

Pension, fund, seamens', 586;
relief, railway. See Railway

Perfumery, industry, the, 349;
exports and imports of, 349

Periodicals, publication of, 190

Petroleum, combination, the, 664;
crude, how measured, 664; ex-
ports of, in 1900, 663; fuel for
locomotives, 662; industry, the,
662, 663; output of, in 1902, 618;
pipe lines, 662; production, 616,
663; refined, output in 1900, 663;
refining, hands engaged in, 664;
Texas and California, 618; vs.
coal as fuel, 133; wells,
United States, 6

Pharmacists, 903

Pharmacy, colleges of, 903

Philippine service, the, 1015

Phonograph, the, 111

Phosphorus, disease caused by,
487

Photo-engraving, process of, 164

Photographers, earnings of, 964;
newspaper, the, 962, 965; studio,
962, 963

Photographic studio, the, 964

Photography, as a profession,
962; color, 966; electrical, 966;
retouching in, 964; schools of,
963; training in, 964

Physical culture for workers, 33

Physician, country, the, 893; in
court, the, 894; in public life,
894; the, as business man, 893.
See also Medicine; woman as
a, 899; young, trials of, 898

Physicians, organization among,
900; young, mistakes of, 897

Piano, accessories, manufacture,
358; attachments, 362; case in-
dustry, centre of, 357; how
made, 360, 361; industry, 357,
359; player, pneumatic, 362;
renting, 360

Pickles, manufacture of, 217

Pike, annual catch of, 807

Pilot, boat "New York," the,
606; boats, mode of operating,
606, 607; Commissioners, Board
of, 605; power and fees of the,
607

Pilot at sea, the, 606

Pilotage, charge for, 607

Pin, industry, centre of the, 493;
machines, 494

Pins, how made, 494

Pilots' Club, the, 605

Pilots, organization of, 605

Pipe, lines, natural gas, length
of, 667; lines, petroleum, 17,
662; making, industry, the, 246

Pisciculture, 799, 800

Pitch, brewers' and common,
495, 496: "glance," 672; "lake,"
673; lake of Trinidad, the, 672,
673; "land," 673

Placer, meaning of the wo*d,
657: mining, methods of, 657

Planes, exports of, 14

Planing mill products, 84

Planter, rice. See Rice; to-
bacco. See Tobacco
Plate, aluminium, 54; armor, 50;
glass, how made, 327; terne,
50; tin, 50; tin, coke and char-
coal, 52
Plates, roofing, 51; steel, tinned,

Play, making of a, 968; mode of
protecting a, 968; writers, fe-
male, 969

Players' Club, the, 972
Plays, copyright on, 968, 969
Plows, hand and steam, 71
Plumber, licensed, the, 96; trade

of the, 95

Plumbers' and Fitters' Associa-
tion, 98

Plumbing establishments, 93
Plush, Angora goat hair, 784;
furniture, 282; manufacture of,
282; seal, 282; velvet, 282
Poetry as a paying art, 920
"Point," in printing, 180
Police, bicycle, 1029; boats, New
York City, 581; force, New
York, 1027; mounted, 1029
Policeman, the, 1027
Polishers, glass, disease of, 1040;
metal, earnings of, 124; metal,
law to protect, 57; metal, work
of, 57

Polishing, glass, 328
Political "machine," the, 994
Politics, as a business, 994; as

a profession, 993
Porcelain, insulators, 337; pro-
duction of, 337
Portrait painters, 951
Posing for artists, 966, 967
Positions, Civil Service, 1015,

1016

Postal, routes, "star," 1020; ser-
vice, the, 1018; service, rail-
way, 1020; system, organiza-
tion of, 1019

Postmasters and postmen, 1019
Post Office, Department, the,
1018; Department, Auditor of,
365; United States, number of,
1019

Potato, crop, United States,
acreage of, 690, 712, 755; sweet,
annual crop, 755
Pottery, centres, the, 336; China,
335, decoration, American, 336,
337; Feroza faience, 335; how
made, 337; modern, 336; prod-
ucts, 335; Rookwood, 336; table
and sanitary, 336
Poultry industry, the, 768
Powder, blasting, 343; industry.
See Gunpowder; smokeless,
343, 344; tooth, 349
Power, apparatus, 116; com-
pressed air, 62; electric, 122,
123; gas, 121; motive, appli-
ances, 63; plant, Niagara
Falls, 123; pneumatic, 61;
steam, 120; transmission, elec-
tric, 123; used in manufac-
tures, 119, 120: water, 11, 121
Preacher, qualifying as a, 863
Preserves, manufacture of, 217
Press, art, rotary, 178: Associ-
ated, the, 194; associations, 942;

Association, American, 194;
building, 171; gangs, the, 599;
lithographic, the, 172; print-
ing, perfecting, the, 172, 177,
178; printing, duodecuple, 176;
printing, Hoe, 172, 173, 174, 177,
178; printing, octuple, 175;
platen or job, 171; printing,
quadruple, 174; printing, sex-
tuple, 174; technical, the, 197
Presses, printing, color, 178;
printing, cylinder, 172; print-
ing, the "American's," 174;
printing, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176,
177, 178; printing, weekly
paper, 176

Priesthood, training for the, 868
Prima Donna, qualifying as, 986
Priming-caps, how made, 346
Printing, and Engraving, Bu-
reau, United States, 370; art
in, 162; color, in advertising,
449; "equality scale" in, 165;
half-tone work, 179; illustra-
tions, 164; in colors, 167, 168,
171; industry, the, 162; ma-
chine, a great, 176; Office, Gov-
ernment, the, 165; offices, job,
162, 164; office, steamship, the,
589; offices, women in, 165; pa-
pers, co-operative plan, 194;
plant, cost of a, 164; plates,
half-tone, 167, 171; plates, line-
cut, 171; plates, zinc etched,
168; presses. See Press; trades,
the, 164

Prisms, Laxifer, 329
Process work, 164, 167, 954
Produce, Exchange, the, 392; Ex-
change bucket shops, 396; spec-
ulation, 398

Professors, college. See College
Projectiles, steel, 49
Promoters, profits of, 19
Proprietor, hotel, the. See Hotel
Prune, industry, the, 751; orch-
ards of California, 751
Prunes, how prepared, 752
Publicity and business progress,

449

Publisher, the, 185; as an edu-
cator, 186; and author, rela-
tions of, 188, 917

Publishers', Association, News-
paper, 193; co-operative, 925
Publishing, book, in United
States, 185, 187; industry, the,
185; newspaper, 190; of periodi-
cals, 190
Pullman, cars, 135, 510; town of,

the, 136
Pulp, chemical, 161; wood, 156,

160, 161

Pulpit, influence of the, 862
Pulpits, vacant, number of, 865
Punch-cutter, type, Benton, 166
Pupils, number in the United

States, 909

Pursers, ship, duties of, 587
Pursuits, dangerous, 1039
Pushcart men. See Fruit
Putty, annual output of, 341

Quarantine service, the, 1025
Quarries, American, capital in-

I 100

INDEX

vested in, 674; granite, 676;
marble, 675, 677; marble, em-
ployes of, 676; State, 676;
United States, production of,
674

Quarrying, industry, the, 672;
operations of, 677

Quarrymen, at work, 677; total
number of, 674

Quick-lunch rooms, 484

Quicksilver product in 1902, 618

Radiators, steam vs. stoves, 123;
steam, manufacture of, 123

Raft-footing, 93

Railroading as an occupation,
535

Rails, steel, exports of, 14

Railway, accidents, 516; appren-
tices, 550; baggage charges,
522; Belmont, the, 514; benefit
and pension departments, 557;
brakemen, 529, 530; Brother-
hoods, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557;
business departments of a, 518;
capitalization, value of, 16; car
ferry boats, 574, 581; combina-
tions, 511, 514; companies of
United States, number, 509;
conductors, 531, 536; depart-
ment of Y. M. C. A., 559; dis-
cipline, Brown system of, 545;
electric, motorman, 563; em-
ployes, accidents to, 516; em-
ployes, education of, 537; em-
ployes, wages of, 539, 540;
employes, number of, 508; em-
ploye, qualifying as a, 540,
541; employes, discharge meth-
ods, 547, 548; employes, repri-
mands of, 546; engineering.
See Engineering; fares, pas-
senger, 522; general passenger
agent, 521; general manager of
a, 520, 536; general superin-
tendent of a, 522; labor or-
ganizations, 552, 553, 554, 555,
556, 557, 558, 559; locomotive
engineers, 528, 536; manager,
requisites of a, 521; men, ear-
nings of, 538, 539; men, labor
hours of, 549; men, training of,
537; mergers, recent, 511; mile-
age of the United States, 509,
512; mileage of the world, 509;
Morgan, the, 513; operating de-
partment of a, 522; pension re-
lief, 558; plants, electric, 105,
560; postal service. See Postal
service; president, the, 519;
relief departments, 558; rolling
stock of United States, 508;
savings fund, the, 558; service,
discipline in the, 544; service,
improvements in, 509; service,
opportunities in, 536; service,
promotion in the, 542, 543, 544;
service, telegraphic, 426; sig-
nals, systems of, 523; statis-
tics, 508; street, electric, first,
560; street, employes, oppor-
tunities, 560: street, manage-
ment of a, 562; Street, Metro-
politan, 562, 566, 567, 568;
street, New York, employes,

566; system, Gould-Rockefeller,
513; system, Harriman, the,
513; system, Morgan-Hill, the,
513; system, Pennsylvania, 513;
system, organization of a, 518;
system, Vanderbilt, the, 512;
time-table, how made, 533;
trackwalker, the, 549, 551;
traffic department of a, 521;
traffic, extent of, 126; train,
braking a, 532; train despatch-
er of, 523, 524, 525; train, mod-
ern, the, 126; transcontinental,
the, 13; transportation, 507

Railways, aggregate value of,
509; American, passenger ser-
vice of, 522; annual receipts of,
508; community of interests,
515; electric, foreign, 105; elec-
tric, in the United States, 560;
electric, statistics, 498; electric,
mileage of, 498; freight traffic
of, 508; of the United States,
6, 13, 507; passenger traffic of,
508; separate lines of, 514;
street, 560; street, capital in-
vested in, 498; street, electric
motors for, 498; subsidized,
511; Sunday work on, 550; to-
tal capital, 509

Raisin industry, the, 750, 751

Raspberry culture, acreage de-
voted to, 743

Real, estate agents, 465; estate
agents, women as, 466; Estate
Board of Brokers, 467; estate
brokers, 466

Refrigeration, mechanical, 688;
processes, patents on, 687

Refrigerator car system, 205, 687,
743, 744

Rehearsals, theatrical, 987, 988

Reporters. See Newspapers

Resin, industrial uses of, 496;
industry, by-products of, 495;
industry, the, 495

Restaurant, business, the, 476,
484; hotel, the, 484

Restaurants, department store,
485; midnight, 485; number of,
in the United States, 484;
quick lunch, the, 484

Revenue, cutter cadets, 1024;
cutter service, the, 1024

Rheostat, the, 125

Ribbon, manufacture of, 280

Rice, annual output of, 723; cost
of raising, 723; crop, the, 722;
crop, acreage devoted to, 722;
culture, lowland, 724; culture,
upland, 725; fields, use of ma-
chinery in, 724; harvesting and
marketing, 725; how cultivated,
724; mills, centres of, 725;
planter, the, 723; region, great-
est, the, 723; varieties of, the,
723; yield of, 723

Rifle, bullets, how cast, 347;
cartridges, how made, 346;
plant, a New Haven, 77

Rifles, manufacture of, 77

Rifling firearms, 78

Ring, designers, wages paid to,
354: spinning machine, the, 259

Rings, finger, manufacture of,
352, 353; children's, demand

for, 353; machine-made, 353;
settings, styles of, i)53, 354
River, and harbor improvements,

604; gold mining, b58
Riveting by machine, 92
Roads, and pavements, 500; bad,
loss through, 500; wagons, cost
of transportation in, 501
Rolls, crushing, 207
Roofing plates, 51
Rope, machinery, 500; making

industry, 499

Roses, annual output of, 754
Roustabout, the, 603, 716
Rubber, annual consumption of,
317; balls and stamps, 318; belt-
ing, 318; clothing, 318; Com-
pany, United States, 317;
crude, the, supply of, 320;
ebonite, 319; erasers, 318; foot-
wear, 317, 318, 319; Goods Man-
ufacturing Co., 317; goods, me-
chanical, 318; Goodyear, treat-
ment of, 317, 319; goods, manu-
facture of, 318; hard, goods,
318; horse coverings, 318; hose,
318; how vulcanized, 318; in-
dustry, the, 317, 318; insulated
wire, 318; in the harness
trade, 318; mackintoshes, 318;
producing trees, 319; tires, an-
nual value of, 318; trees, culti-
vation of, 320; trusts, 25, 317;
waste, renovation of, 320;
whence derived, 319, 320
Rugs, American, output 1900,
277; floor, manufacture of, 276
Rum, manufacture of, 238
Rye crop, United States, acreage
of, 690

Saddlery and harness, 314
Safe deposit business, the, 504
Safes, American, export of, 79;
manufacture of, 79; time-lock
for, 79

Safety-appliance law, the, 517
Sailor's Snug Harbor, the, 604
"St. Louis" and "St. Paul," the,

147, 151, 572, 584, 586, 595, 599

Salaries of officeholders, 996, 999

alesmen, American, abroad, 462;

travelling, number of, 458

Saleswomen, retail, 406, 407, 417;

wages paia to, 408
Salmon, fishery, the, 805, 806;
canning of, 199, 218; how
caught, 219

Salt, annual output of, 683, 684;
combination, the, 680, 681; de-
posits, where found, 682; in-
dustrial uses of, 680; indus-
try, the, 680; industry, units
of measure in, 683; in silver
mining, 684; manufacture,
processes of, 683, 684, 685; res-
ervation, New York, 684;
sources of supply of, 683
Salting gold mines, 661
Salvation Army, work of the. 87fi
"Sand-hogs," or caisson work-
ers, 102
Sandstone, cutters, disease of,

1039: quarried in 1902, 674
Sapphire mines of the United
States, 670, 671

INDEX

ion

Sapphires, Georgia, 625

Sardines, canning of, 199, 218,
219

Sauces, manufacture of, 217

Savings, banks. See "Banks";
fund, railway. See Railway

Saw, mills in Maine, 85; mill
products, 84

Saws, manufacture of, 403

School, Auchmuty, the, 38;
books, sale of, 187; brewers',
New York, 235; building-trade,
94; carriage, technical, 142;
loom fixers", 258; night,
Cooper Union, 38; night, Y.
M. C. A., 38; of Design, Cin-
cinnati, 957; of Design, Mass.,
258; of Design for Women, 957;
of Fine Arts, St. Louis, 957;
ships, German and American,
595; Textile, Philadelphia, 257;
training, for deck officers, 595;
training, for motormen, 564;
training, United States, 1011;
Williamson, 38

Schools, agricultural, 706; art,
American, 957; business, 37,
39; correspondence, 57, 258, 537,
911; dental, 906; dramatic, 971,
975; engineering, 818; for ad-
vertisement writers, 456; for
iron founders, 38; for librari-
ans, 927; for servants, 1038;
for window trimmers, 406; in
the United States, 909; law,
884; manual training, 37, 67,
94; mechanical engineering,
830; mining, 828; night, for
weavers, 258; of photography,
963; Sunday, 867; system, pub-
lic, 909; technical, graduates
of, 37; textile, American, 38,
257, 258; theological, 865; trade,
graduates of, 94

Schooner "Eleanor A. Percy,"
154

Schooners, coasting, large, 154,
573

Science, domestic, instruction in,

1037

Scientists in government em-
ploy, 860

Scissors and shears industry,
403

Sculptors, American, 951

Sea, faring, discomforts of, 592;
faring men, average, 593; far-
ing men, creature comforts of,
596; faring men, life of, 594;
faring men, wages paid to, 596;
food, canned, 217

Seal, "electric," of furriers, 294;
fur, breeding grounds of the,
291; fur, the, how caught, 291,
806; plush, 282; restrictions on
the capture of, 292; skins, ex-
ports of, 292

Seaman, able, pay of the, 598;
American, bill of fare of, 597;
creature comforts of the, 596;
the, 590; training of a, 1012;
method of employing a, 599
Seamen's, institutions, 603;
Union of the Pacific, 594;
unions, 603
Seed, crop, the, 728; Distribu-

tion, Congressional, 728; how
tested, 728; trade, wholesale,
the, 401

Selling, art of, the, 408

Seltzer water, manufacture of,
244

Servants, domestic, 1035; gen-
eral conditions, 1036; instruc-
tion of, 1037; schools for, 1038;
wages of, 1036; women, 1035

Service, domestic, disadvantages
of, 1037

Sewing, machines, exports of, 74;
machine industry, the, 73; ma-
chine needles, 494; machine,
shoe, 314; machine, Singer's,
75

Shawl fabrics, output of, in 1900,
274

Sheep, breeders' associations,
774; in United States, number,
773, 780; mutton, distribution
of, 781; packing, 200; raising,
780; skin, applications of, 306;
States, principal, the, 780

Sherries and ports, domestic,
239

Ship, battle, building a, 152;
building industry, the, 146;
building in navy yards, 149;
building, labor in cost of, 149;
building in private yards, 148;
building, iron and steel, 150;
building on the Lakes, 149;
building plants, American, 148;
modern, of the Great Lakes,
574; of war, preparation of,
1007; propulsion, turbine, 64;
sailing, the largest, 154; steam,
building a, 151; sunken, how
raised, 610; wooden, building,
155; wooden, "George W.
Wells," 154

Shipping, tonnage tax on, 604

Ships, American, tonnage of,
1901, 147; cable-laying, 430;
foreign and American, condi-
tions on, 597; of the Navy,
1008; sailing, 154; . training,
United States, 1007, 1010, 1012

Shipyard, Cramps', 148
I Shirt, manufacture, 301; waist

factory, "model," 288
| Shirts, machine-made, 302
I Shoddy, consumption of, 273, 781

Shoe, and boot industry, the,
309; factories and machines,
312; factories, total number of,
310; machinery, exports of, 310;
machines, 309; manufacture,
process of, 312, 313

Shoes, American, exports of, 311;

I and boots, rubber, 317, 319;

! prison-made, 311; ready-made,
variety of, 310

Shoppers, women, how to treat,
408

Sidewalks, artificial stone for,
501

Signal, system, "block." See
Railway; system, torpedo. See
Railway

Silk, culture in the United
States, 255; designs, weaving,
282: bats, how made, 297: in-
dustry, the, 255, 278; industry,

United States, father of, 278;
looms, American, 280; ma-
chinery, American, 279; mills,
hands employed in, 279, 280;
mills, output of, in 1900, 278;
product of Prance and United
States, 279; raw, greatest
market for, 279; raw, where
produced, 279; raw, imports of,
in 1900, 279; ribbon, how made,
280; spinning, 280; velvets, 282;
weaving, 280

Silver, and gold, output of
United States, 653; and gold,
world's output, 653; coins, how
minted, 369; coin, stock of, in
United States, 654; how as-
sayed, 367; mining in Rocky
Mountain States, 654; output
of, in 1902, 617; product of
Comstock lode, 625; plated
ware, 352; prints, how made,
955; smith, art of the, 351

Singer, choir, the, 990; in con-
cert, the, 989; in opera, the,
986; pay of the, 985

Singing as a profession, 985

Skins. See Fur and Leather

'Skyscrapers," 89

Slate, goods, manufacture of,
677; marbleized, 677; roofing,
annual output of, 677; quarries,
676; quarried in 1902, 674

Slaughtering industry, the, 199,
776

Slaughter pen, by-products of,
203

Smelting, capital invested in,
651, 652

Snuff, consumption of, in 1902,
246; manufacture of, 250, 251

Soap, and candle industry, 349,
350; from waste material, 204;
imports and exports of, 350

Society of American Artists, the,
958

Soda, fibre, how made, 1GO; wa-
ter fountain industry, 243; wa-
ter, manufacture of, 243

Soldier, private, the, 1004; train-
ing of the, 1005

Solicitors, business house, 463

Soloists, salaries of, 990

Song writers, 990

Sorghum cane, annual product,
718; crop, acreage of, 718; sirop,
manufacture, 718; sugar, 227

Specialists, trained, salaries of,
25

Speculation, produce, 398; stock,
396

Spelter, production of, 53; home
consumption of, in 1900, 648

Spindle, Rabbeth, the, 8

Spindles, cotton, improved, 265

Spinners, wages paid to, 259, 206

Spinning, machine, ring, the,
259; machinery, cotton, 264;
organzine, 280; silk, 280

Spirits, distilled, consumption

of, 238
| 'Spoils system," the, 995

Sponge fishery, 811

Stage, manager, the, 969, 971,
973: professional jealousy on,
988; scene painters, 977; sue-

I1O2

INDEX

cess, conditions of, 972; train-
ing for the, 975
Staging an opera, 987
Stamps, postage, paper used for,

371
Standard Oil Company, the, 15,

664

Starch, corn and wheat, 347;
corn, how made, 347, 348; fac-
tory, by-products of, 348; glu-
cose, 348; industry, the, 347;
iodine test for, 229; pearl, 348;
potato, 347, 349; trusts, 347
Star, postal routes, 1020; routes,

letting of, 1021
Statistics, industrial, 15
Staves and heading, barrel, 85,

Steamboats, Mississippi, tonnage
of, 577; boilers, 63; engines,
63; engine, automobile, 138; en-
gines, logging, 83; engine,
Thurston on the, 63; engineer-
ing. See Engineering; fitter,
the, 97; radiators, manufac-
ture, 123; radiator vs. stoves,
123
Steamer, cargo, modern, value

of, 611; the tank, 18
Steamers, fruit, construction of,
744; Great Lake, crews of, 602;
merchant, aggregate value of,
569; ocean, hands employed on,
571; ore, how unloaded, 575,
576; "whale-back," 574, 575
Steamship, captain, the, 585;
great, building a, 151; line, or-
ganization of a, 582; ocean,
cargo of an, 584; ocean, life
on an, 587, 588; ocean, navigat-
ing department, 585; ocean,
steward's department, 588;
ocean, as a hotel, 587; opera-
tions when in port, 583; trust,
the, 571

Steam turbine, 63
Steel, acid process, 48; basic
process, 48; Bessemer, 46, 47;
bridges,- construction of, 99;
cars, manufacture of, 135; !
Company, Federal, 22; Cor- |
poration, United States, 21;
frames for buildings, 90; gun
forgings, 45; industry, the, 13,
43; molten, shipment of, 4;
open-hearth, 47; pen manu-
facture. See Pen; production
of, 13; production of United
States Steel Corporation, 22; j
projectiles, manufacture of, 49; !
rails, exports of, 14; rails for i
trolley lines, 104; ships, build- |
ing of, 150; structural, 90; tem-
pering of, 69; trust, the, 22; i
varieties of, 46; workers, 44,
54

Stenographers, 470; as bookkeep- \
ers, 473; court, salary of, 472; j
earnings of, 470; law, 473;
railroad -office, 472; Women,
Association of, 472
Stereotyping, 166, 168
Stevedores, 611
Steward, hotel, the, 480; ship,

the, 588
3titching-machinesf book, 169

Stock, brokers. See Broker;
companies, United States, 446;
Exchange, the, how conducted,
391; exchanges, mining, 625;
raising industry, 773; raising
States, the, 776; speculation,
396; ticker, the, 424; yard, the,
201

Stocking knitting, process of, 298

Stocks, buying and selling, 388,

389; buying on a margin, 387,

389, 395

Stokers, and firemen, ship, 586;

| Chinese, 598; mechanical, 63;

i steamer, pay of, 5

\ Stone, artificial, how made, 501;
carving, mechanical, 92; cut-
ters, diseases of, 1039; masons,
dangerous tasks, 99; masons,
wages paid to, 93; monuments,
679; precious, industry, 670;
quarrying of, 674
Storage, batteries, 110, 111, 139,
497; cold, 204, 743; cold, ware-
houses, 743

Store keeping, success in, 403
Stores, Company, 31, 264, 620;
department, advertising of, 415,
450, 452; department, behind
the scenes, 413; department,
comforts in, 415, 416; depart-
ment, conduct of, 411; depart-
ment, credit given in, 414; de-
partment, delivery system of,
413; department, economics of,
409; department, employes of,
415; department, general con-
ditions, 414; department, lunch
room of, 416, 485; department,
personnel of, 412; department,
salaries paid in, 411, 412, 413,
415; department, sales of, 411;
department, social life in, 410,
416, 417; retail, employes of,
406, 408; Wanamaker, success
of, 35

Stories, short, market for, the,
923; short, writing of, 921;
qualifying as a writer of, 922

Stove, associations, 123; indus-
try, the, 123, 124

Stoves, electric, 124; gas, vs.
coal, 119

Strawberry crop, acreage de-
voted to, 742

Straw, hats, American, 295;
matting, imports of, 276

Street, cars, 133; railways. See
Railway

Strike, coal, great, of 1902, 635,
636, 637; labor, New Orleans,
the, 27

Strikes, coal, of 1897, 1901 and
1902, 632; labor, cause of, 29, 32

Sturgeon, annual catch of, 807

Suction table, the, 252, 253

Suez Canal, tolls yearly collected
by, 569

Sugar, barley, 230; beet. See
Beet; beet, 199, 224; beet, con-
sumed in 1901, 227; beet, fac-
tory, the, 225; beet, output of,
in 1899, 227; burned, 230; cane,
acreage devoted to, 718; cane,
annual output of, 718; cane,
consumed in 1901, 227; cane,

culture of, 221; cane, manu-
facture of, 222; cube, 224;
grape, or glucose, 229; how
granulated, 224; how refined,
221, 222; imports, in 1901, 227;
industry, the, 199; inverted,
229; loaf, how made, 224;
maple, consumed in 1901, 227;
maple, manufacture of, 228;
molasses, 227; of milk, 767;
raw, whence imported, 221; re-
finery, the largest, 221; sirop,
annual output of, 718; sorg-
hum, 227; statistics, 227; string,
227; trust, largest, the, 221

Sunday, editor, the, 941; news-
paper, the, 941; school teach-
ers, 867

Supper and tea rooms, 484

Surgeons, 895; dental. See Den-
tistry; marine hospital, 1025;
ship, 587; veterinary. See Vet-
erinary

Surveyor, land, the, 821
'Sweating" system, the, 284,
285'

"Sweat-shop," the, 284, 285

Synagogues, number in United
States, 871

Syndicate, dairying, 763; farm-
ing. See Farming

Syndicates, newspaper, 193; or-
ganization of, 19

Table, cutlery, manufacture of,
403; suction, the, 252, 253;
ware, glass, exports of, 330;
ware, plated, 352; ware, white,
336

Tabulating machine, check, 37B
Tailoring, nationalities employed

in, 287

Tailor-made costumes, 289
Talking machines, 14, 111
Tanneries, American, number

of, 304

Tannery Combination, the, 305
Tanning, capital invested in, 305;
chemical, 304, "M>, 308, 309;
electric, 308; industry, the,
305; processes of, 304, 305, 306,
307, 308, 309
Tar, oil of, 495; wood, how

made, 495
Tariff, effect of the, on wool

trade, 272

'Task" system, the, 284, 288
Tea, and supper rooms, 484; an-
nual consumption, 401; crop,
profit from, 729; culture, Amer-
ican, 728, 729; factory, cost of
a, 729; manufacture, process
of, 728, 729; yearly imports of,
729

Teacher, qualifications of a, 912
Teachers', bureaus, 914; earnings
of, 914; licensing of, New
York, 913; number of, in
United States, 909; training of,
913, 914

Telautograph, Gray's, 425

Telegraph, apparatus, Marconi,

432; apparatus, yearly output

of, 425; Bureau, International,

419; business, the, 419; cables,

INDEX

1103

insulated, 113; code, interna-
tional, 420; fire alarm, 424;
line, Adelaide— Port Darwin,
420; lines, extension of, 420;
lines, International, length of,
420; lines, operation of, 423;
messenger call, 425; messages
sent in 1901, 421; messages sent
yearly, 422; poles, how pre-
pared, 422, 423; Postal, 420;
Postal and Cable, capital, 421;
service, railroad, 426; system
of the United States, 420, 424;
system of the world, 419; West-
ern Union, 420, 421

Telegraphers, 425, 426; earnings
of, 427; Railroad, Order of,
556; railway, labor hours of,
549; training of, 427

Telegraphing in Chinese, 420

Telegraphy, applications of, 424;
submarine, 428; wireless, 431

Telephone, apparatus, manufac-
ture of, 434; cables, 113; Com-
pany, the Bell, 433, 434; engi-
neering. See Engineering; ex-
change, conduct of a, 437; ex-
change, operations in, 436; line,
construction of, 422; service,
labor conditions, 438; statis-
tics, 434; trust, the, 433; sys-
tem of the United States, 434;
systems of the world, 433

Telephones, manufacture of, 434

Telephonists, routine work of,
436; women as, 435; wages paid
to, 437

Telephotographie lenses, 966

Tellers, bank. See Bank

Temper colors, 69

Tempering, pens, 491; steel, 69

Tenements, company, 263, 621;
farm, 701

Terne plate, 50

Terra cotta, enamelled, 89; man-
ufacture of, 334; tiles, 89; vs.
stone, 93

Textile, eduction, 257; fibres, im-
ports of, 1902, 13; fibres, the,
254; industries, the, 254, 255;
industry, branches of the, 256;
machines vs. hand work, 259;
School, Philadelphia, 257;
trades, the, 259

Textiles, combined, 254; dyeing
and finishing, 256; woollen, 272

Theatre, hands, number in
United States, 970; trusts, 971

Theatres, continuous perform-
ance, 973; of the United
States, 970

Theology, schools of, 865; stu-
dents of, 866

Therapeutics, electro, 895

Thread, linen, 300; lisle, 299;
mills, labor status in, 300

Tile, manufacture, 334

Tiles, terra cotta, 89

Timber, commercial, 80; prod-
ucts, principal, 84; regions of
the United States, 80, 81

Time tables. See Railway

Tin, can industry, the. See Can;
plate, 50, 51; plate used in
canneries, 215; workers, 54

Tinning, process of, 52

Tipping system in hotels, the,
482

Tires, rubber, annual output, 318

Title and guarantee companies,
882

Tobacco, a food product? 245;
annual output of, 719; "belt,"
the, 719; chewing, 250; con-
sumed in 1902, 246; crop, how
harvested, 721; crop, United
States, acreage of, 690, 719; ex-
ports of, 248; factories, num-
ber of, 246; how cured, 721;
farmers, number of, 718; grow-
ing under cover, 721; how
grown, 720; imports of, 248;
industry, the, 245; kinds raised
in the United States, 720;
market, the, 721; packing ma-
chines, 251; pipe manufacture,
246; planter, the, 720; plug and
long cut, 246, 251; production,
home, 247; raising for export,
722; smoking, 250; stemming
industry, the, 246; trust, the,
24; where raised, 247; worm,
the, 720

Toilers in mid-air, 98

Toilet articles, manufacture of,
349

Tools, forming, automatic, 61;
machine, 60; manufacture of,
58, 62, 403; pneumatic, 61

Tooth powder, 349

Torpedo, boats, 1007; signal sys-
tem, the, 524

Towelling, manufacture of,

Town, of Pelzer, private,
Pullman, 136

Toy, factories, Amer
making, 492; trust, Ifrie,

Toys, annual output
ports of, 492

Trackmen, Railwayf \B
hood of, 556

Trade, and general
364; foreign, of the Un
States, 12; combinations, mod-
ern, 4; unions, 26, 30; retail,
the, 403; wholesale, the, 399

Train, braking a. See Railway;
despatches the. See Railway;
"express," modern, the, 615;
railroad, vestibuled, 126, 510

Trainmen, Railway, Brotherhood
of, 555

Transportation, by land, 507;
by water, 569

Traprock quarried in 1902, 674

Travellers, commercial, 458;
commercial, associations, 461,
462; commercial, conditions,
461; commercial, how paid, 458;
commercial, on the road, 460;
commercial, requisites of, 459;
hotels in United States, 477

Travel, modern means of, 60

Treasuries, sub, employes of
the, 368

Treasury. United States, th^. 35fi

Tree, rubber, cultivation of, 320

Trees, timber of the United
States, 81, 82

Truck, farmers' associations,
757; farming. See Farming

Trust, banana, the, 746; cotton-

seed oil, 269; glue, the, 496;
lead, the, 647; linen thread,
300; match, the, 487; meat
packers', 200; paper, the, 157;
salt, the, 080, 081; steamship,
the, 571; steel, the, 22; sugar,
largest, 221; system, the old,
23; tannery, the, 305; tele-
phone, the, 433; tobacco, the,
24; toy, the, 493; wool, the, 271

Trusts, casket, 1043; employes
of, 23; cotton, 261, 263; gas,
118; glass, 321, 325; Have-
meyer's views on, 18; paint
and oil, 'JiO; management of,
20; mother of the, 18; organi-
zation of, 19; Rockefeller's
views on, 16; rubber, 317;
Schwab's views on, 16; starch,
347; C. R. Flint on, 20; the-
atrical, 971; trade, modern, ef-
fect of, 4

Tubes, Crookes, 108; gun, how
made, 48; vacuum, electric
light, 108; vacuum, Moore, 108

Tugboats, fleet of, the, 581

Tumblers, glass, how made, 332

Turbine, water wheels, 65, 122;
ship propulsion, 64

Turbines, steam, 63

"Turbinia," steamer, 64

Turf, American, the, 982

Turpentine, how made, 496; in-
dustry, the, 495

Turquoise, Nevada, 670

Turtle fishery, 814

ine, and cordage industry,
, 499; and cordage, annual
of, 500; binder, manu-
of, 500

sting machine, Barth,
leAXJdistributers, 166, 184;
fofuOJng, 179; measuring,
" system, 166; setting
ines, 59, 165, 180, 182, 183,
f writers, book, 76; writers,
development of, 76; writers,
electric, 76, 77; writers, ex-
ports of, 76; writers, long dis-
tance, 77; writers, manufac-
ture of, 75; writers, operators
of, 75, 471; writers, postal, sal-
ary, 1018; writers, power, 76;
writers' work legalized, 76

Undertaker, the, 1042

Underwriting. See Insurance

Union, Cigar Makers', 252, 253;
labels, use of, 30, 253; Milk
Producers', the, 697; Stock
Yards, the, 203

Unions, and the machine shop,
66; labor, membership of, 26,
27; labor, number of, 28; la-
bor, Schwab on, 28; seamen's,
603; trade, incorporation of,
30

Unio. See also Mussel Fishery;
the, or fresh-water mussel,
490

United States, armory, Spring-
field, 77; banking power of
the, 373; Fish Commission, 799,
800; foreign trade of the. 9,
12; Leather Co., the, 15; mar-

HO4

INDEX

vellous progress of, 3; Mili-
tary Academy, 1002; mints,
the, 366; Rubber Co., the, 317;
Steel Corporation, the, 21, 24;
the, as manufacturers, 5; Su-
preme Court, 888; Treasury,
the, 365

University, conduct of a, 910;
extension, 911

Varnish, factories, number of,
341; industry, the, 340, 341;
industry, materials used in,
341; output of, in 1900, 341

Vaudeville, actors' organization,
975; managers, 973; Managers'
Association, 973; refined, con-
tinuous, 974; theatres, 973

Vaults, and safes, manufacture
of, 79; safe deposit, 504

Vegetable, growing under glass,
755; industry, the, 755

Vehicle building industry, the,
126

Vehicles, electric, output of, in
1902, 497

Velocimeter, the, 78

Velvet, manufacture of, 282. See
Carpet and Plush

Vessel, steel, "Edward Sewall,"
154

Vessels, American, total num-
ber of, 570; coasting, crews of,
601; of the Navy, 1008; wood-
en, built in 1900, 155

Vestibule platform, Pullman,
134; trains, 126, 134, 510

Veterinary, profession, the, 907;
surgeon, education of, 908;
surgeons, openings for, 908

"Vigilant," the, 155

Vinegar, annual output of, 742

Violets, annual output of, 754

Violins, annual output of, • 358;
manufacture of, 358, 359

"Viper," torpedo-boat destroy-
er, 64

Volunteers, Army, 1006; of
America, work of, 877

Vulcanite, how made, 319

Wagon industry, the, 137, 141,
142

Wagons, road, electric motors
for, 497

Waiters, head, hotel, 484; ho-
tel, earnings of, 482; restau-
rant, 484

"Walking delegates," 30

Wall Street, brokers, 393;
"bucket shops," 395; business
of, 386; "curb market," 393;
history, notable event in, 514;
"lamb," the, 387; stock spec-
ulation in, 397, 398; office boys
in, 390; young men in, 387

Walrus fishery, annual yield,
806

War correspondents. See News-

Warehouses, bonded, 237; cold

Ftorasre, capacity of, 743
War«hin, preparation of a, 1007
Washington, correspondent. See

Newspaper; public lands in,
790

Waste, collection of, the, 876;
cotton-gin, 269; dairy, utiliza-
tion, 780; oil refinery, 842;
rubber, renovation of, 320;
slaughter house, fertilizer
from, 503; starch factory, 348;
packing house, use of, 204

Watch, and clock trade, the,
357; case industry, the, 355,
356; "clock," the, 356; crys-
tals, manufacture of, 326;
"dollar," the, 355; factories,
wages paid in, 355; imports,
decline in, 357; industry, the,
354; life of a, 354; machine-
made, the, 355; makers, re-
quisites of, 354; making, cen- j
tres of, 354, 357; making,
Swiss, 354; movement indus-
try, the, 355, 356; "register
dial," the, 355

Water, carbonated, 243, 244; gas,
118, 119; melon industry, the,
748; mineral, 243, 244; power,
121; seltzer, 244; soda, 243;
wheels, turbine, 65; wheels,
United States, horsepower, 122

Watervliet Arsenal, the, 48

Weaving, carpet, 276, 277; ma-
chine, Szczepanik, 282; ma-
chinery, cotton, 259, 264; silk,
280; silk designs, 282

Welding, electric, 125

Whale, back, steamers, 574, 575;
fishery, the, 803, 806, 813

Wheat, daily consumption of,
209; American, exports of, 5;
area of the Pacific Coast, 735;
crop, a, how raised, 739; crop,
United States, acreage of, 690,
712; farm, great, conduct of,
736: markets, seat of the, 210;
rolled, 207; starch industry,
the, 347; used' in milling, 207

Whey, industrial use of, 767

Whiskey, annual consumption
of, 232; manufacture of, 238;
tax on, 237

Wind instrument industry, the,
358

Window, Glass Company, Amer-
ican, 325; glass, how made,
325; glass, annual output of,
325; trimming, art of, 405

Wine, American, output of, in
1900, 240; California, 239, 750;
champagne, 242; classification
of, 241: district, the greatest,
239; "dry" and "sweet," 241;
how "fortified," 241: industry,
the, 238; machine-made, 240;
making, process of, 240

Wineries, American, 240

Wire, aluminium, 104; barbed,
exports of, 14, 403; barbed, in-
dustry, 403; cloth, yearly con-
sumption of, 403; insulated,
104, 112, 113, 318; nail mills,
output of, 402

Woman's League, Professional,
972

Women, as bookkeepers, 473;
as counterfeit detectives, 474;
as editors, 935; as lawyers,

886; as models, 966; as money
counters, 372; as real estate
agents, 466; as physicians, 899;
as reporters, 934, 935; as
trained nurses, 901; boarding
house keepers, 483; dramatists,
969; in advertising, 457; in
button making, 491; in collar
making, 301; in oil refineries,
CG4; in printing trade, 165; in-
surance agents, 443; in the
cotton mill, 2u<, 267; in the
silk industry, 2SO; in textile-
trades, 255, 259; new field for,
289; Stenographers' Associa-
tion, 472

Wood, annual consumption of,
80; for musical instruments,
358, 359, 360; hard, 85; pulp,
daily consumption of, 161:
pulp industry, the, 122, 160,
161; pulp, paper, 157, 188;
making industry, the, 80;
working factories, centre of,
47

Woods, industrial, 81

Wool, carpet, used in 1900, 783;
consumed in 1900, 781; ex-
changes, 783; exports in 1900,
781; foreign, 782, 783; hats,
manufacture of, 295; imports
of, 272, 782; industry, effect of
tariff on, 272, 782; industry,
the, 270, 271, 272, 783; indus-
try, tendency of the, 783; man-
ufacture, 254, 255; marketing,
centres of, 783; product of
1900, 781; short-staple, comb-
ing, 274; supply, the, 781;
trust, the, 271

Woollen, braids, output of, in
1900, 275; cloth industry, profit
in, 8; dress goods, imports of,
274; dress goods, output of, in
1900, 274; goods, 272, 273

Worsted, braids, output of, in
1900, 275: coatings, output of,
in 1900, 274; cotton-warp, 274;
goods, 274, 275; industry, prog-
ress of, 274; yarn used in 1900,
783

Wrist drop disease, the, 1040

Writers, advertisement, pay of,
456; comic opera, 989; dra-
matic, 968, 969; "hack," 924;
song, 990

Yarn, carpet, manufacture, 783;
lisle, how made, 299; manu-
facture of, 263, 275; total sales
of, in 1900, 275; worsted, used
in 1900, 783

Zinc, annual profits on, 649;
etchings, how made, 168, 954;
mines, Kansas, 625; mines,
product of, marketing, 650:
mining industry, the, 648;
mining, novel features of, 649;
mining region, the great, 648;
ore, cost of mining, 649, 650;
ore, or "jack," 649; output of,
in 1902, 618; oxide, yearly out-
put of, 341; product of United
States in 1900, 648; smelting
and refining, 651, 652

HULETS, GILSON

Workers of the Nation
Volume II

HC.
106
,W6

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Full text of "Workers of the nation; an encyclopedia of the occupations of the American people and a record of business, professional and industrial achievement at the beginning of the twentieth century"

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