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W U K S
THE I.ATE
/
II GRACE 11 A Y iM A N VV 1 1. SON,
M.A., F.R.S.,
MEMBER OP THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF
CALCUTTA AND PARIS, AND OF THE ORIENTAL SOCIETY OF GERMANY;
FOREIGN MEMIiER OP THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE;
MEMBER OT THE IMPERIAL ACADEMIES OF ST. PETERSUURGH AND VIENNA,
AND OP THE ROYAL ACADEMIES OF MUNICH AND BKIfLIN;
PH.D. BRESLAU; M. D. MARBURO , ETC.;
AND BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKIUT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.
VOL. II.
LONDON:
TRiJBNER & CO., GO, PATERNOS'ri<:K ROW.
18G2.
ESSAYS AND l.ECTURES
CHIBFLT ON THE
RELIGrON OF THE HINDUS.
BY THE LALE
H. H WILSON, M.A., F.R.S,
BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVKRSITY OF OXFORD,
ETC., ETC.
COLLECTED AND EDITED BY
DR. REINHOLD ROST.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL, II.
MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS AND LECTURES.
LONDON:
TRUBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER HOW.
1802.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
I. Notice of Three Tracts received from Nipal . . 1-30
II. Two Lectures on the Religious Practices and
Opinions of the Hindus 40 120
III. Sunnnary Account of the Civil and IJch'gious
Institutions of the Sikhs 121-150
IV. The Religious Festivals of the Hindus l.jl-24fi
V. On Human Sacrifices in the ancient Religion of
India 247-2fi0
VI. On the supposed Vaidik Authority for the Burning
of Hindu Widows, and on the Funeral Cere-
monies of the Hindus 270 202
VII. Remarks by R:ija Radluikanta Deva on the pre-
ceding article ; with observations -03 - 300
VIII. On Ruddha and Buddhism 310-37S
IX. Account of the Religious Imiovations alt(in|it<Ml
by Akbar 370 - too
Index »"1 •"■•
I.
N T I (' K
OF
THREE TRACTS RECEIVED FROM
NEPAL.
From the Asiatic Researches, Vol. XVI, Calc. 182S, p. 450— 78.
J. HE accounts hitlierto published of the Religious
System of the Nepalese are far from being compre-
hensive or satisfactory. They only establish the general
conclusion that there are two predominant forms of
belief, as well as two principal divisions of the people,
the Pdrvatiya, or Mountain Hindus, who follow the
faith of the Brahmans, and the Newdrs, or original
inhabitants, who adhere to the worship of Buddha.
The indistinctness and inaccuracy that pervade the
descriptions of KiRKrATRiCK and Buchanan are not
however, in all probability, the fault of the describers.
Much is, no doubt, attributable to their want of ac-
cess to original authorities, on which alone dependence
can be placed for a correct view of any mode of faith
in India. The Spirit of Polytheism, always an ac-
commodating one, is particularly so in this country,
and the legends and localities of one sect are so readily
1
2 NOTICE OF
appropriated by another, that it speedily becomes dif-
ficult to assign them to their genuine source. In like
manner formula and ceremonies very soon become
common property, and whatever may be the ruling
principles, the popular practice easily adopts a variety
of rites that are peculiar to different creeds. This is
every where the case throughout Hindustan, and the
sectaries of Vishnu often assimilate to those of Siva,
whilst the worshippers of the female Principle are
constantly identifiable with both. Nepal, evidently,
constitutes no exception, and the worship of Siva,
and Tantra rites, are so widely blended with the
practices and notions of the Buddhists , that an accu-
rate appreciation of the latter is no longer derivable
from any but original and authentic sources, or the
ancient works of the Bho'tiyas in which the pure and
primitive doctrines are enshrined.
Of the number and character of those works which
are the authorities of the Bauddhas of Nepal, the
only description on which any reliance can be placed
is contained in the preceding comnjunication*, from
Mr. Hodgson, to whose active and intelligent zeal the
Society is so largely indebted. It yet remains , how-
ever, to estimate*'* the contents of the volumes he
* [Notices of the Languages, Literature, and Religion of the
Bauddhas of Nepal and Bhot. As. Res. XVI, 409-49. Reprinted
in the "Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of the Bud-
dhists", By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. Serampore: 1S41 , p. 1-49.]
** [On the results of the estimate since made compare Mr.
Hodgson's "Quotations from original Sanskrit authorities", in
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 3
has enumerated, and which tor the far greater part,
it is beheved, are written in the language of Tibet,
and not in Sanskrit, as he seems to suppose. We must
wait therefore for the acquirement of this language
by European scholars, before we can pronounce with
confidence upon the character and contents of the
Bauddha Scriptures , and how far they may be origi-
nals or translations. If the latter, which, except to a
limited extent, is very unlikely, we may safely assert,
that the Sanskrit originals are no longer procurable
in Hindustan.
The paper already referred to furnishes us also
with the only outline of the Bauddha philosophy and
mythology that can be consulted with advantage, for,
although some of the particulars are to be found in
Georgi's ponderous volume, they are so obscured by
his parade of learning, and spirit of theory, that they
are to be selected only with great trouble and uncer-
tainty. The account given by Pallas, as quoted by
Buchanan, seems also to be derived from oral m-
formation only, and to be confined to superficial and
popular details. To what extent the Doctrines or Divi-
nities of Bho't Buddhism are of local origin or modifi-
cation, can only be determined when the condition in
which this form of faith exists in other countries is
Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, Vol. V, p. 28 ff., 71 ff. (reprintrd in his
"lllu:<tiations" p. SJ4-13G), ami Rurnoufs 'aiitroductiun a liiiMuirc
(lu Biuklhisme indieu". Paris: lSt4, p. 1 fl" J. H. Saint-llilaire,
"Bouddha et sa religion". Paris: ISOU, [>. ix ff. A. Wehi-r,
"Ind. Studien", III, 135 ff.]
4 NOTICE OF
more authentically explained; but as far as we may
infer from what has yet appeared in the Asiatic Re-
searches, or elsewhere, on the Buddhism of Ceylon
and Ava, many and important varieties occur between
the heavenly hierarchy of those countries and oiBho't.
Of the scale of Buddhas which prevails in the latter,
we have no trace whatever in the communications of
Buchanan, Mahony and Joinville. Their enumeration
of the human Buddhas, the only Buddhas of whom
they speak, differs also from that of Mr. Hodgson.
Amidst the perplexity that this disagreement is cal-
culated to occasion, any further illustration that is
available will be, no doubt, welcome to the Society,
and I have therefore thought that the following notice
of the only works sent down by Mr. Hodgson, which
I have been able to distinguish as connected with the
religion of Nepal in any language known to me, might
not be unacceptable. The works are short, and are
evidently of a popular, not a scriptural character. As
authorities, therefore, they are of no great value,
although they may be taken as guides to common and
corrupt practice and belief. They evidently, however,
spring from the mythological system sketched by Mr.
Hodgson, and so far corroborate his statements, as
well as derive confirmation from his remarks, whilst
they serve also to shew how far the Buddha creed
has been modified by Tdnirika admixture.
The works in question are three tracts, comprised
in one volume, and severally entitled — Ashlami vrata
Vidhdna, Ritual for the religious observance of the
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROI^I NEPAL. 5
Eighth (day of the hinar fortnight), Naipdlhja Deuatd
Kalydna Panchavinsatikd, Twenty -five Stanzas in-
vocatory of the favorof the Deities of Nepal — iindSa2)ta
Buddha Stotra, Praise of the sevQnBuddhas. The text
of these tracts is Sanskrit, interspersed with a gloss
in Neivdri, copiously infused with pure Sanskrit terms.
The two latter are so short that they may he trans-
lated entire. A specimen of the first will be sufficient.
TRANSLATION.
SAPTA BUDDHA STOTRA.
"I adore Jinendra, the consuming fire of sorrow,
the treasure of holy knowledge, whom all revere,
who bore the name Vipasyi, who was born in the race
of mighty monarchs, in the city Bandumati, who was
for eighty thousand years the preceptor of gods and
men, and by whom, endowed with the ten kinds of
power, the degree of Jinendra was obtained at the
foot of a Pd'taJd tree.
"I adore Sikhi, the mine of heavenly wisdom, the
supreme sage who crossed the boundaries of the
world , who was born of a royal race in the great city
Ariina, whose life, adorned with every excellence,
extended to the term of 70,000 years, by whom, out
of affection for mankind, holy wisdom was obtained
at the foot of a Pundarika.
"I adore Viswabhu, the friend of the universe, the
king of virtue, who was born in Amqmmd, of a race
of illustrious monarchs, whose life lasted 60,000 years,
6 NOTICE OF
and who, liaving triumphed over earthly afflictions,
obtained immortaUty at the foot of a Sal tree.
"I adore Krakuchchhanda, the Lord of Munis, the
unequalled Sugata, the source of perfection, who was
born in Kshemavati, of a family of Brahmans, revered
by kings; the life of that treasure of excellence was
40,000 years, and he obtained, at the foot of a Swisha
tree, the state o:' Jinendra, with the weapons of
knowledge that annihilate the three worlds.
"I adore Kanaia Muni, the sage and legislator,
exempt from the blindness of worldly delusion, who
was born in the city Sohhanavati, of a race of Brah-
mans honoured by kings. His resplendent person
existed thirty thousand years. The degree oi Buddha
was obtained by him , munificent as the mountain of
gems, at the foot of an Udumhara tree.
"I adore Kasyapa, the Lord of the world, the most
excellent and eminent sage, who was born at Benares,
in the family of Brahmans venerated by princes; the
life of his illustrious frame endured 20,000 years, and
the waters of the three worlds were dried up by the
lamp of divine wisdom , which he acquired at the foot
of a Nyagrodha tree.
"I adore Sakya Sinha, ih^ Buddha, the kinsman
of the Sun, worshipped by men and gods, who was
born at the splendid city of Kapilapur, of the family
of the chief of the Sdkya kings , the life of which best
friend to all the world lasted 100 years. Having spee-
dily subdued desire, unbounded wisdom was acquired
by him at the foot of the Aswattha tree.
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 7
"I adore the Lord Maitreya, the cliief of Sages,
residiiii;' at T((6'/ittcq)}ir, who will assume a mortal birth
at Ketuniati, in the family of a Brahman honoured
by the king, and who, endowed with immeasurable
excellence , will obtain the degree of Buddha , at the
foot of a Nag a tree; his existence will endure 8000
years.
"Having praised the seven Buddhas, supreme over
all, and resplendent as so many Suns, as well as the
future eighth Buddha, Maitreya, dwelling at Tushita-
pur, may the merit of such praises be quickly pro-
ductive of fruit, so that having divided all corporal
bonds I may speedily obtain the final liberation of
• the holy Sages."
REMARKS.
The enumeration given in these verses is, therefore,
very different from that of Dr. Blchanan and Capt.
Mahony, and instead of five or six we have eight
deified Buddha teachers or human Buddhas: the
former writer has only specified two names, Gautama
and Sakya, of which the first does not occur in the
Nepal list, whilst in another place he observes that
Sakya is considered by the Burmese Buddhists as an
impostor : the latter has mentioned the names of the
Buddhas, and they are evidently the same as the last
five of the Nepal Stotra.
Kakoosondeh, or Krakuchhanda,
K0NAC4AMMEH, „ KaNAKA,
Kaserjeppeh, „ Kasyapa,
8 NOTICE OF
GoTTAMA, or Sakya,
Maitree, „ Maitreya,
possibly the other three are regarded as Buddhas of
a different Kalpa, or period, and therefore only were
omitted in the list furnished to Capt. Mahony (Asiatic
Research. VII, 32): the Nepal enumeration, however,
is not a mere provincial peculiarity, nor of very
modern date, and the same must have prevailed in
Hindustan, when here were 5«i<c?(//m5 in the country.
Hemachandra^ wio w^ote his vocabulary, probably
in Guzerat, in the 12th century, specifies the same
Buddhas as the Sapta Buddha Stotra, or Vipasyi,
Sikhi, Viswabhu, Krakuchhanda, Kdnchana, Kdsyapa,
and Sdkya Sinha^.
How many of these Buddhas are real personages,
is very questionable. Kasyapa is a character known
to the orthodox system, and perhaps had once exis-
tence: he seems to have been the chief instrument in
extending civilisation along the Himalaya and Cau-
casian mountains, as far as we may judge from the
traditions of Nepal and Kashmir, and the many traces
of his name to be met with along those ranges.
Sakya, as identifiable with Gtautama, was possibly
the founder of the Bauddha system as it now exists,
in the sixth or seventh century before Christianity*
The names of the cities in which these Buddhas are
said to have been born, or to have appeared in a
human form, are not verifiable, with the exception
* [si. 236.]
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 9
of Benares*. They contribute therefore to throw
doubt on the reaUty of the persons. The extravagant
periods assigned to their hves is another suspicious
circumstance. But these periods are, no doubt, con-
nected with some legendary classification of the Kal-
pas, or ages of the world, in which mankind enjoyed
a length of life far exceeding any thing in these de-
generate days. So Georgi states that, in the second
age of the world and the first of men , the limit of life
was 80,000 years; in the third age it was 40,000; in
the fourth it was 20,000, and in the fifth one hundred.
The Buddhas therefore only partake of the longevity
of the periods to which they belong.
The omission of the name of Gautama proves that
he is not acknowledged as a distinct Buddha by the
Nepalese, and he can be identified with no other in
the list than Sakya Sinha. The Newdri comment
adds, that the latter was born in the family of Sud-
DHODANA Raja, and Suddhodana is always regarded
as the father of Gautama. Other names in the text,
which are translated as epithets , Adihjabandhu , the
friend of the sun, and Lokaikabandhu, the sole or
superior friend of the world, occur as synonymes of
Gautama as well as Sakya Sinha, as in the vocabu-
laries of Amara and Hemachandra; "Sakya Jluni,
Sakya Sinha, Sarvdritha Siddha, Saitddhodani (the
* [Compare, however, St. Julion, ''Voyages ties pelerins
Bouddhistes", I, 315 f. R. Spence Hardy, "Manual of Buddhism",
96 f. Burnouf, "Introduction", 116 & 388.]
10 NOTICE OF
son of Suddhodaiia)^ Gautama, Arkabandhu (the
kinsman of the sun), Mdyddevi Suta." AmaraKosha'^.
"The seventh Buddha is named Sdkya Shiha — A7'ka-
hdndhava, the parent of Ildhula (Rdhulasu), Sar-
vd7'ttha Siddha, Gotamdnwaya (of the family of Go-
tama^, Mdyd Suta (the son of Aldyd), Suddhodana
Siifa (the son of Suddhodana)^ Devadattdgraja (the
elder brother of Devadatta).'''' He^nachandra^"'^. On
what authority Buchanan asserts that the Priests of
Ava consider Gautama and Sakya as distinct, and
the latter as a heretic, he has not mentioned; but, as
I have had occasion to remark elsewhere, no such
distinction is made in the Pali version of the Aiiiara
Kosha, which is used by the Priests of Ava and Ceylon.
GautaiMA, and Sakya Sinha, and Adityabandhu, are
there given as synonymes of the son of Suddhodana.
"Huddhodani cha Gotamo Sakyasiho tathd Sakya-
muni cK Adichchabandhu cha " ***.
It may seem scarcely worth while to notice the
mention made in these verses of the acquisition of the
state of a Buddha, or of a condition exempt from the
infirmities of humanity, under particular trees: the
meaning is, according to the Translation, that the
sages chose such spots for the performance of their
Tapas , or course of religious austerities. The speci-
fication, however, may be turned probably to some
account. It is often exceedingly difficult to discrimi-
nate between Bauddha and Jain sculptures, and to
* [I, 1, 1, 10.] ** [236. 237.] *** [si. 4. 5.]
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. I 1
deckle to which sect images and architectui-al ivniains
belong — any characteristic peculiarity will therefore
be very acceptable to Indian antiquarians and travel-
lers, and a figure, in other respects possessing the
usual features, the spiral locks, thick lips, and large
ears of a Jina, or a Buddha, engaged in devotion,
under the shade of a tree, may generally, perhaps, be
ascribed with safety to the latter. It is more common
to find the Jain Pontiffs shaded by the expanded
hoods of the many-headed snake.
The next work takes a wdder range than the pre-
ceding in its enumeration of the objects of veneration
in Nepal, and comprehends so many local peculiari-
ties, that a correct translation of it is impracticable
any wdiere out of Nepal, except by a person familiar
with the country and the system. The translation
originally made was, therefore, referred to Mr. Hodg-
son, to whose revision and explanatory remarks it is
indebted for any pretension to accuracy. The notes
appended to the translation are almost wholh- de-
rived from communication with him on the subject
of the text.
TRANSLATION.
NAIPALIYA DEVATA KALYANA PAN(^n A-
VINSATIKA.
May the first-born, the Holy Swayamhhu, A.nuta-
RUCHi, Amogha, Akshobhya, the splendid Vaiho-
12 NOTICE OF
CHAN A, Manibhava, the King of sages and the Pare
Vajrasattwa', preserve you in your sojourn in the
world; may Sri Pkajna, Vajradhatwi, the all-bounti-
ful holy Taha, and the rest^, be propitious to you —
I adore them.
2. May the goddesses Sampat Prada, Ganapati-
HRIDAYA, VaJRAVIDRAVINI, UsHNI'sHARPANA, KiTIVARA-
VADANA, Grahamatrika , Kof iLAKSHAKSHi, witli her
' These, as will have been seen by the preceding dissertation
of Mr. Hodgson, are the personages of the Aiswarika, or Theis-
tical pantheon — the Adi Buddha, or self-existent original Creator
— the five Dhydni Buddhas, under other appellations, correspond-
ing severally to Amitabha, Amoghasiddha, Akshobhya, Vairo-
CHANA, and Ratnasambhava (as in As. Res. XVI, p. 441), and a
sixth Buddha, Vajrasattwa, emanating from Adi Buddha — the
secondary agent in the creation of immaterial substances — the
other five being charged with the creation of material bodies.
[Burnouf, "Introduction", 525. W. Wassiljew, "Der Buddhis-
mus", St. Petersburg: 1860, I, p. 205 f.]
' These female divinities are, in the vulgar Aiswarika system,
the wives of Adi Buddha and the Dhydni Buddhas. The powers
of inert matter are typified by a Goddess in the Swdbhdvika
system; but neither in that nor the primitive Aiswarika doctrine
are the intellectual Essences of the divine Buddhas linked to
female forms — either literally or figuratively, as their Saktis, or
active energies. The complete list of these Goddesses, and their
appropriation, are specified by Mr. Hodgson, as follows: —
Adi Buddha, his Wife Prajna.
VaIROCIIANA, „ VAJRADH.\TWi.
Akshobhya , „ Lochana.
Ratnasambhava , „ Mamukhi.
Amitabha, „ Pandara.
Amogiia-siddha , „ Tara.
Vajrasattwa , „ Vajrasattwatmika.
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 13
train, and the protecting^ Pancharaksha, be propi-
tious to you — I adore them.
3. May Ratnagarbha, Dipankaha, the Jwa Mani-
KUSUMA, ViPASYI, SiKHI, ViSWABHU, KaKLTSA*, Ka-
NAKA, the Muni of Munis Kasyapa, and Sakya Sinha^,
the Buddhas past, present, and future, the ocean of
whose excellence is not to be passed by the ten facul-
ties, be propitious to you — I adore them.
4. May the chief of sages and saints, the excellent
son of J/?irt, Avalokiteswara, may Maitreya, A.Van-
TAGANJA, Vajrapani , and the great chief Manjunath,
Sarvanivarana, and the illustrious pair Kshitigarbha
and Khagarbha^, be propitious to you — I adore them.
' These Goddesses are considered by Mr. Hodgson as be-
longing to the genuine Bauddha system and the Swdb/iddka
school — being spontaneous manifestations of matter, like other
existent beings, man included. Some of them are known by other
names, as Sampatprada, the giver of wealth, is also Vasln-
DiiAKA, the earth — Kitivaravadana, the hog-faced, is also Ma-
Ricfii, perhaps intending Radiance; Kotilaksiiaksiii, the innumer-
ably-eyed, is named Pkatincira. The Panc/iarakshdh , the five
Rakshas, or protecting powers, are styled Pratisaha, Maiiasaha-
SRAPRAMARDDINI, MAIIAMAYlRi, MaIIASETAVATI, and MaIIAMANTRA-
NUSARINI. Without possessing the legends attaclied, no doubt,
to each it would be unsafe to analyse these terms.
* [i. e. Krakuciiciiiianda.]
* We have here Ten mortal Buddhas. The last seven have
been already the object of remark. The three lirst are assigned
by some, not the best authorities, to the Satija yuga.
2 These nine are Bodhisattivas , supposed to bear lo the
Dhydni, or celestial liuddhax, the relation of Sons: tliiis -
14 NOTICE OF
5. May that collective aggregate of the five Buddhas
preserve you, who, for the preservation of mankind,
created, from his own abode, the one light ^ in the
supreme Lotus , ii2iUiQc\ Ndgavdsa, which sprang from
the root planted by ViPAS\i, which being one portion
became five-fold, and which plays eternally — I adore it.
6. May that mysterious portion of Prajxa as
Glhyeswari^ born of the Lotus with three leaves,
AvALOKiTEsWAKA, is the Soii of Amitabiia.
Maitreya, „ Vairochana.
Anantaganja, „ Akshobhya.
Samantabiiadra, „ Vairochana.
VaJRAPANI, „ AKSriOBflYA.
Man J u N A T 1 1 , „ Ditto .
Sarvanivarana VisiiKAMBiii, „ Amogha.
KsnniGARBiiA , „ Ratnasambhava.
KiiAGAKBiiA, „ Amitabiia.
Of these the first, who is the same with Padmapani, the fourth
and the fiftli, are included in original systems amongst the
.Dhychiibodlnsattwas , but the others are of mortal origin, and,
therefore, very inconsistently derived from celestial progenitors.
^ The object of invocation is the Adi Buddha, in the form of
Light, manifested on the Sambhundth mountain; the flame is said
to burn eternally in the centre of the hemisphere of Samhhu
Chaitya.
^ The Sakti of Adi Buddha is here addressed as manifested
in the element of water, the following legend is cited by Mr.
Hodgson from the Samhhu Purdna — "When Manjunatii had let
off the waters, the luminous form of Buddha appeared. Manju-
nAtii resolved to erect a temple over it, but water bubbled up
so fast that he could find no foundation. On his having recourse
to prayer, the Goddess Guiivkswari appeared, and the water
subsided — Gi'IIYEswari, the Goddess of the hidden form, is very
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 15
by the will of Manjudeva, void of being, the perso-
nification of desire, favourable to many, and praised
by Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, who in Durga, the
giver of boons, was manifested on the ninth day of
the dark half of the month Mdrgaslrsha, be projji-
tious to you — I adore her.
7. May Swayambhu, in a visible form as lialna
Lingesivara, of the Srivatsa shape, the chief of the
eight Vitardgas^ , the raft by which the ocean of liie
like an adoption from Salva mysticism." This, and the preceding
verse, are both very obscure.
' This, and the folh)wing seven verses, refer to the eight
YUardgas of the nine Bodliisatticas addressed in verse four, all
but the first manifested portions of themselves under some vi-
sible but inanimate shape, thus
Maiti^eya, was visible as a flame called Srivalsa.
Anantaganja,
as a
Lotas.
Samantabiiadka
as a
Flag.
Vajrapani
as a
Water-Jar.
Manmlnatii,
as a
Chauri.
ViSIIKAMBIli,
as a
Fish.
KsiiniGAKBIIA,
as a
Umbrella.
Kiia<;akbha,
as a
Conch Shell.
These are called YUardgas, the exempt from Passion, or ralhcr
perhaps the liberators from Passion—as the compound admits of
either sense. They are also called tiie eight Maugalas, or auspi-
cious objects. They are found sculptured on Bauddha monu-
ments, and especially on the stone or marble Feet, which are
frequently placed in the temples of the sect. They appear to
have been merely the symbols of the Bodhisattwas; but iIk y have
been connected evidently in popular belief with notions dt-rivcd
from the Hindu religion and local legends, and bear llic characlii
of so many Lingas erected by dilffreiit individuals, some of whom
are specified. [Burnouf. '-Lotus'", i;i7.j
16 NOTICE OF
may be crossed , who was produced from a portion of
Maitreya uniting with the Hght of Ratnachuda ^ in
the forest rock, be propitious to you — I adore it.
8. May Gokakneswara, the son^ of Khaganja, in
the form of a Lotus, assumed on the bank of the
Vdgmati, by desire of Lokanath, to preserve the
wicked Gokarna^ engaged in austere devotion, and
who , for the benefit of mankind and their progenitors,
is still at the confluence of the rivers % be propitious
to you — I adore him.
' Ratnachuda or Manichuda, he of the jewel- crest: he is
said to have been a King of Saketa Nagar , on whose head grew
a gem of inestimable value , which he offered to the Gods , and
which was united with the portion of Maitreya to form the
Jewel-lAxigSi. The Srivatsa is, properly, the Jewel worn by
Krishna, but is here understood to imply a waving flame.
Amongst the ancient Bauddha sculptures at Amaravati , on the
Krishna, and removed by Colonel Mackenzie, was one of a
Lingam, surmounted by a flame of this description.
^ The Vitardga is styled Khaganja Tanaya, meaning, however,
emanation or derivation, not literally son.
^ GoKAKNA is said to have been a prince of Panchdla. The
name of the Vitardga, in conjunction with his appellation, is
a clear indication of a Linga being intended, these symbols,
throughout all India, being commonly named from some circum-
stance connected with their first erection; with Isicara, the name
of Siva , affixed. Gokarneswara is , therefore , the Linga set up
by GoKARNA. It is probable, however, that Gokarna is a fa-
bulous person, and that the real origin of the name is the exis-
tence of a similar Lingam on the Malabar Coast , which has been
very celebrated for some centuries.
* Of the Vdgmati and Amoghavati , where oblations to an-
cestors are offered.
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 1 7
9. May Mahesa, named Kila\ the Vitardfja, ema-
nating from Samantabhadra, in the form of a flag,
on the holy mountain", for the benefit of mankind,
frightening, as with a stake, the fierce serpent Ku-
lika\ the King of the Nag as, —
10. May that Sarvesivara, the son of the great
Jina, holding a trident and a bell, a portion of Va-
jrapani, in the form of a water -jar, assumed at the
command ofLoKESWARA, to cherish Sarvapad a'*, and
left on earth for the benefit of mankind ^ be propitious
to you — I adore him.
11. May Garttesa^', the all-bestowing form assumed
by Manju Deva, for a portion of himself, in order to
awake the ignorant, and idle, and sensual Manju-
gartta\ and convert him (it) to a profound and learned
sage (or region), be propitious to you — I adore him.
' Or Kileswara.
^ The text has Srigiri, wliich the comment calls Chdrugiri.
' KuLiKA is one of the eight chiefs of the Ndgas, or serpents
of Pdtdla.
* A sage also named Vajraciiarya, but the term is also used
in a generic sense.
* The Linga is called Ghaieswara.
^ The emblem of Manju Deva is a Chauri; but Gartta is a
cavern, a hole, or hollow. The text in this instance, therefore,
does not preserve its symbolic consistency as in the preceding
stanzas.
^ The comment seems to understand by Manju-gartta, Nepal,
the hollow or valley of xManjideva, who, according to Mr.
Hodgson, appears to be a historical personage. [Burnouf, ''Lotus
de la bonne loi", 500 f.]
9
18 NOTICE OF
12. May that pious Sarvanivarana Vishkambhi,
desirous of the form of a fish, and decorated with the
lord of snakes, who gave all to the sage Udiya, and
throwing off a portion of himself became the passion-
less Vitardga, Phanindreswara^ , be propitious to
you — I adore him.
13. As Udiyana", shaded by his umbrella, was
engaged in devotion on the bank of the Vd/jmati,
Prithwigarbha suddenly appeared and established
that portion of himself , the Vitardga Gandhesa^ , the
friend of all , standing in the presence of Lokanath,
may he be propitious to you — I adore him.
14. As Udiyana, having obtained super -human
faculties from his austerities, was delighted, remem-
' A fish is the symbol of Vishkambhi; but it is clear that in
this, as in other stanzas, the primitive symbol is lost sight of in
the new Livgamite personification, which is more especially re-
ferred to in every instance, and which is not always alluded to
luider the same type. In this case it is the Imara^ or Linga,
of the Lord of Hooded Snakes.
^ The person mentioned in this, and alluded to, although not
named (in the original) in the next verse, is no further specified
than as an Achdrija, or holy man. Lokanath, Lokeswara, and
tlie son of Amita, are considered by Mr. Hodgson to imply
Padmapani, who is held to be the especial Lord of the eight
Vitardgas.
^ The authors of this nomenclature seem to have been rather
at a loss for an appropriate name, and have apparently taken
Gandhesa, the Lord of Odour, from smell being the property of
the element of earth, from which the Bodhisattiva, named Pritiiwi
and KsHixi-GARBiiA , derives the first member of his name.
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 19
bering the son of Amita, and blowing the shell Kha-
GARBHA, his heart devoted to the will of Lokeswara,
was manifest; may he who, having established a por-
tion of himself as Vikramesa^ , resumed to his own
abode, be propitious to you — I adore him.
15. May the holy Tirtha^ Punya, where the Nag a
' The same remark applies still more especially to this form
— Vikrama, valour, prowess, being used to signify the austerities
practised by the Sage.
^ From this verse to the 18th, the twelve great Tirthas, or
places of pilgrimage in Nepal, are addressed. They are all at
the confluence of rivers, the greater number of which axe mere
mountain torrents. The circumstances from which they derive
their sanctity, are briefly alluded to in the text; the legends are
related in the Sambhu Purdha, and are too prolix to be cited,
the places themselves, which are still numerously frequented,
are all identified by Mr. Hodgson as follows:
Punya T. at Gokarna, where the Vdgmati and Amoghaphala-
ddyini rivers unite.
Santa T. at Guhyekcari Ghat, where the Manddrikd flows
into the Vdgmati.
Sankara T. immediately below Patau, at the confluence of
the Vdgmati and Manimati.
Rdja T. at Dhantila, where the Rdj-manjari runs into the
Vdgmati.
Kdma T. called in Newiiri Phusinkhel , at the junction of the
Kesavati and Vimalavati; the former is now know as the Vishtiuvati.
Nirmala T. at the junction of the Keiavati and Bhadravati at
a place called Bijisoko.
Akara T. at the junction of the Kesavati and Suvan'iavati.
, J?}d7ia T. at the confluence of the Kesavati and Pdpandsini.
Chintdmani T. at Pachilivaivi, where the Kesavati and Vdgmati
unite, just below the present capital — this is the chief Sangam,
or conflux of rivers in Nepal.
2»
20 NOTICE OF
obtained rest from Tarkshya; may the holy Tirtha
Santa, where Parvati performed penance to allay
dissension; may the holy Tirtha Sankara, where
RuDRA, with his mind fixed on obtaining Parvati,
practised severe austerities, be propitious to you —
I adore them.
16. May the holy Rdjatirtha, where Virupa ob-
tained the sovereignty of the earth; may the holy
Kdmath'tha, where the hunter and deer went to Indra''s
heaven; may the holy Tirtha Nirmaldkhya, where
the Sage Vajracharya performed his ablutions, be
propitious to you — I adore them.
17. May the holy Tirtha Akara, where treasure is
obtained by the despairing poor; may the \io\y Jiidna
Tirtha, where the only wisdom is obtained by the
ignorant paying reverence to the stream; may the
holy Tirtha Chintdmaiii, where every desire is ob-
tained by those duly performing ablutions there, be
propitious to you — I adore them.
18. May Pramoda Tirtha, where ablution secures
pleasure; may Satlakshana Tirtha, where waters en-
gender auspicious attributes; may Sri Jay a Th^tha,
where Balasura bathed when he undertook to sub-
due the three worlds, be propitious to you — I adore
them.
Pramoda T. at a place called Danaga, where the Vdgmati
and Ratnavati unite.
Satlakshana T. at the junction of the Vdgmati and Chdru-
mati rivers.
Jaya T. at the junction of the Vdgmati and Prahhdvati.
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 21
19. May the goddesses Vidyadhari, Akasayogini,
Vajrayogini, and Hariti^; may Hanuman, Ganesa,
Mahakala% and Chuda BhikshmP; may Braiimani
* These four goddesses belong to the Siodhhdvika system.
According to one comment, Vidyadhari and Akasayogini are pro-
duced from tlie Lotos in the Solar sphere — above Sumeru, which
is above the earth; below^ the earth is the region of water —
below that, of fire, and below that, of air. Vajrayogini is a
goddess of a superior, Iluritl of an inferior rank. [St. Julien,
Mem. sur les Contr. Occident., I, 120, Note.] These goddesses
resemble the Yoginis and Yakshiiiis of the Tdntrika system in
their terrific forms, malignant disposition, and magical powers,
and in having each her Vija Mantra, a mystical syllable, appro-
priated to prayers addressed to her. Hdriti has a temple in the
precincts of Sambhundth , and is worshipped as Siiala by the
Brahmanical Hindus. [Burnouf, "Introduction", 550 f.]
® These three divinities , adopted fi-om the orthodox Pantheon,
are great favorites with the Bauddhas of Nepal, the legends justi-
fying their adoption being ingenious and popular. The prevailing
notion of these and similar importations from the Brahmanical
theocracy is, that they are the servants of the Buddhas, and are
only to be reverenced in that capacity. It is related of Hanu-
man, in the Lankdvatdr , that when Ravan found himself over-
matched by the monkey, he took refuge in a temple of Sakva,
Hanuman, unable to violate the sanctuary, applied to Rama,
who recommended him to go and serve the Buddha. In Sakva's
temple are found images of Ravan, Hanuman, Maiiakala and
HarIti. Mahakala is considered by the Swdbhdvikas as self-
born, and is invoked by them as Vajravira. The Aiswarika^
regard him as the son of Parvati and Siva. [See also St. Julien,
1. 1. I, 43, Note.]
^ CiiUDA Bhiksiiini is a female mendicant. Banddha Ascetics
are classed in four orders, the Arhan, or perfect saint, Srdvaka,
studious sage, Chailaka, naked ascetic, and Bhikshu , mendicant.
[See Hodgson's "Illustrations", 75, and Burnouf, "Lotus", 3D2.J
22 NOTICE OF
and the rest*, with Sinhini, Vyaghrini^ and Skanda'',
be propitious to you — I adore them.
20. May the lesser Tirthas, the source and term
of the Vdgmati, and the rest^; the Kesa Chatty a, on
the Sankochha^ hill, the Lalita Chatty a, on the Ja-
iochha hill% the Devi of the Phullochha hilP, and the
Bhagavati, of the Dhydnaprochha hilP, be propitious
to us — I adore them.
^ Brdhmani and the rest are the Mdtrik'ds, the divine mothers,
or personified energies of the Hindu gods.
^ Sinhini and VydgJirini, or the Lion and Tiger -goddesses,
are inferior spirits attached to the Mdtris.
^ Skanda is the Hindu deity, according to the Aiswarikas ;
according to the Swdhhdvikas , self- engendered.
* These are four pools at Vdgdwdra, named Tdrd T., Agastya
T., A'psara T., and Ananta T. — Mr. Hodgson classes the source
and term of the chief river Vdgmati, amongst the greater Tirthas,
but the text cannot be so understood.
* Sankochha hill is called, by the Gorkhas, Sivapura; by the
Neiodrs, Shipphucho: the Legend of Kesa Chaitya states, that
Krakuchchhanda Buddha here cut off the forelocks of 700 Brah-
mans and Kshatriyas, or, in other words, made them Bauddfias;
half the hair (kesa) rose to heaven, and gave rise to the Kesa-
vati river, the other half fell on the ground, and sprung up in
numberless Chaityas of the form of Lingas. [See also Hodgson,
"Illustrations", 168.]
® Lalita Chaitya is said to have been founded by the disciples
of ViPASYi; the hill on which it stands is the Arjun of the
Gorkhas, the Jamachho of the Newars.
' The goddess is Vasundhard , in the form of a conical stone:
the hill is called, by the Gm-khas, Phulchok.
Anotlier goddess, a portion of Guhyeswari, in the shape of
a conical stone. The hill is called, by the Gorkhas, Chandragiri.
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 23
21. May tlic Chatty a of Sri Manju liill, erected by
his disciples'; may the five deities established in the
cities founded by Sri Santa -; may the Puchhcujra
mountain, where Sakya expounded the unequalled
Fi(rdna'\ be propitious to you — I adore them.
22. May the King of Serpents, the Ndga, the de-
stroyer of Vighnai'dja, residing with his train in the
Adhdra lake'; may the five Lords of the three worlds'',
Ananda Lokesivm^a, Harihariharivaha Lokeswara,
Yakshamalla Lokesioara, Amoghapasa Lokeswara,
and Trilokavasankara Lokeswara, be })ropitious to
you — I adore them.
' Srimanju hill is the western part of mount Sinnblm: between
which and Srimanju there is a hollow, but no separation.
- Santasri, according to the Samhhu Purdna, was a Kshalriya
King of Gaur, named Pkacuani)A Deva, who, having come to
Nepal, was made a Bauddha by Ginakar Bhikshu: the five divi-
nities are Vasundiiara Devi in Vdsupur, AgxNI Deva in Agnijmr,
Vayu Deva in Vdyiqmr, Nagadeva in Ndgpur, and GuiiYADEvi in
SdntapiLr. They are all on mount Samhhu round the great temple.
^ The Puchhdgra mountain is the hollow of mount Sand'hu;
the Purdna intended is the Sumbhupurdna [i. e. Svoi/ainh/iitiutrdiia.
See Burnout; "Introduction", 581. Hodgson, "lllustralions"', 'i.').]
* The Ndga here is Kakkota, one of the eight I^dgas, who
in Nepal, as well as in Kashmir [Raja Tar. Ill, 530.], is re-
ported to have resided in the waters which filled those val-
leys; when the country was drained, he repaired to a reservoir
near Kathmandu. The Adhdra tank is called, by the Newiirs.
Tadahong.
5 The five Lokem-aras, regents of the worlds, are Rodhi-
sattwas: Ananta is called by the Newiirs Chobhd Dev, and
Yakshamalla, Tuyu Khwd.
24 NOTICE OF
23. May the divinities Hevajra, Samvaua, Chanda-
viRA, Trilokavira and Yogambara, with their train;
may the destroyer of Yama and the rest of the ten
Kings of wrath, with all hidden and revealed spirits;
may Aparimitayu Namsangiti, be propitious to you^
— I adore them.
24. May Manjunath% who having come from
Sirsha, with his disciples, divided the mountain with
his scymitar, and on the dried-up lake erected a city,
the pleasant residence of men, worshipping the deity
sitting on the elemental Lotus , be propitious to you —
I adore him.
25. May Abjapani, the chief of the companion train
of Hayagriva, and Jatadhara^ who came to the
mountain Potala after having gone from Saukhavati^'
' Most of these belong to the Bauddha system and the Stcd-
bhdvika division, Aparimitayu and Nam Sangiti are both Bxiddhas,
to each of whom various associates are attached.
^ Some observations on the historical purport of this and the
next verse will be subjoined to the text.
' The construction of this passage might warrant the use of
Jaiddhara as the epithet of HayagrIva , the wearer of the Jaid,
or matted hair, denoting a follower of Siva, particularly as Haya-
GuivA is said to be a Bhairava, one of Siva's attendants: but the
comment calls Jaiddhara a Lokeswara: according to Mr. Hodgson,
also Hayagriva and Jatadhara are two of the menial attendants
of Abjapani or Padmapani, one of the Dhydni Buddhas; others
are named Sudhana, Kumdra, Ajita, Apardjita, Marsainya, Varada,
Akdlamrityu, Jaya, Vijaya, Ahhayaprada , and Dhanada, most of
which names are well known to the Hindus as those of the
attendants on Siva and Pdrvati.
* [Koppen, "Religion desBuddha", H, 28. Wassiljew, 1. 1. 1, 222.]
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 25
1
o
to Venga, and being afterwards called by the Kinf
to remove accamiilated evils, entered Lalitajnir, be
propitious to yoii — I adore him*.
REMARKS.
Besides the peculiar purport of the allusions con-
tained in the preceding verses, they suggest a few
general considerations which may be here briefly ad-
verted to.
It is clear that the Bauddha religion , as cultivated
in Nepal , is far from being so simple and philosophical
a matter as has been sometimes imagined. The ob-
jects of worship are far from being limited to a few
persons of mortal origin, elevated by superior sanctity
to divine honours, but embrace a variety of modifi-
cations and degrees more numerous and complicated,
than even the ample Pantheon of the Brahmans. A
portion of the heavenly host is borrowed, it is true,
from the Brahmanical legends, but a sufficient variety
is traceable to original sources, both amongst the
Swdhhdvikas and Aiswarikas, and either spontane-
ously engendered, or created by some of the mani-
festations of the Adi Buddha, or Supreme Being. Such
are the Bodhisattwas, and the Lokeswaras, and a
' The Deva; the Comment says Narendra Deva, a King
of Nepal.
* [A translation of the same Tantra , I.y Mr. llocl^oii, apiuaiftl
in the Journal As. Soc. Bengal, XII, 400-401); but iinloriuiial.ly
it is disfigured by numerous misprints.]
26 NOTICE OF
number of inferior divinities, both male and female, that
are not borrowed from either the Saiva or Sdkta sects.
It is a subject of important inquiry, in what degree
these divinities are peculiar to Nepal, and whether
they are acknowledged by the Bauddhas in other
countries. There can be little doubt, that they are
recognised by the Bauddhas of Tibet and Chinese
Tartary, and some of them are traceable in China. It
is very doubtful, however, if they form part of the
theocracy of Ceylon, Ava, and Siam. In the first of
these we find inferior divinities, some of them females,
worshipped ; but they do not, as far as any description
enables us to judge, offer any analogy to the similar
beings reverenced in Nepal. In Ava and Siam nothing
of the kind apparently occurs, although in the exis-
tence of Nats, it is admitted, that other animated
creatures than man and animals exist. It has already
been observed, that nothing analogous to the Meta-
physical , or Dhydni Buddhas occurs in the Buddhism
of Southern India.
There is, however, some evidence to shew, that
the whole of the Nepal hierarchy of heaven , even of
the Swdbhdvika class, is not confined to the nations
of the North. In the vocabulary of Hemachandra*
we have the names of sixteen goddesses, at a little
distance from the synonymes of the Buddhas, entitled
the Vidyddevis, who are unknown to the Brahmanical
system. One of these is Prajnapti, who may be the
* [239. 240.]
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 27
same as the Prajad of our text. It is however, in
the vocabulary, entitled the Trikcvnda Sesha, that the
fullest confiriiiation occurs, that many of the inferior
personages belonging to the Bauddhas were known in
India, when that faith was current there. Besides the
names of Sakya and those of general or individual
Buddhas, as SwayAxMBhu, Padmapani, Lukanath,
LoKESA, ViTAEAGA, AvALOKiTA, and Manjlsri, that
work specifies a variety of goddesses, whose titles
are found in the text as Tdrci, Vasundha7'd, Dhanadd
or Sampatpradd, Mdrichi, Lochand, and others. The
vocabulary is Sanskrit, and is apparently a compila-
tion of the tenth or eleventh century'.
The allusions in the twenty-fourth and other verses
to Manju Natii seem to point to him as the first
teacher of the Bauddha religion in Nepal. Tradition
assigns to him the same part that was performed by
Kasyapa in Kashmir^, the recovery of the country
from the waters by which it was submerged, by giving
them an outlet through the mountains: this he per-
formed, according to the text, by cutting a passage
with his scymitar. He is described in the same stanza,
as coming from Sirshd, which the Newdri comment
says is the mountain oi MahdcJun, and the Sauibhu
Purdna also states the same. The city founded by
Manju, called Manju Pa't'tan*, is no longer in exis-
^ Introduction of Wilson's Dictionary p. xxvii.
* As, Res. Vol. XV. [Burnouf, "Lotus", oOo.]
• [Lassen, Intl. All., Ill, 777 f. Buruouf, "Lotus", 5U4.J
28 NOTICE OF
tence , but tradition places it half-way between Mount
Sambhu, and the Pasupati Wood, where the remains
of buildings are aften dug up. Both Buchanan and
KiRKPATRiCK advert to the legend of Manju's drying
up the valley of Nepal, and express themselves satis-
fied that it is founded on the fact of the valley having
once been an extensive lake. Manju has a number
of synonymes in the Trikdnda^ as Manjusri, Manju
Ghosha, Manjubhadra, Kumara, the youth or prince;
NiLA, the dark-complexioned; Vadiraj, the King of
controversy; Khadgi, wearing a sword; Dandi car-
rying a staff; Sikhadhara , having a lock of hair on
the crown of his head; Sinhakeli, who sports with a
Lion; and Sardulavahana, who rides on a Tiger:
some of these epithets are, of course, not to be under-
stood literally, but their general tendency is to assign
to Manju the (character of a Military Legislator, one
whose most convinchig argument was the edge of
his sword.
The religion introduced by Manju and his disciples
was, possibly, that of pure Buddhism, either in the
Sivdbhdvika or Aiswarya form; but whence were the
Brahmanical grafts derived? It is not extraordinary
that we should have Siva, or Vishnu, or Ganesa, or
perhaps even Hanuman, admitted to some degree of
reverence, for there is nothing in the Bauddha doc-
trines negative of the existence of such beings, and
the popularity of the legends relating to them with
the whole Hindu people recommended them to the
favour and adoption of their neighbours; but the Sdkta
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 29
form of Hinduism is a comparatively obscure and
unavowed innovation, and had not therefore the same
claims to consideration. It is, nevertheless, the chief
source of the notions and divinities foreign to />?/</-
dhism ^'i\X\ those Baudd has , amongst whom the P^/?i-
chavinsati is an authority. It could only have been
brought to their knowledge by contiguity, for the
Tantras , and Tdntrika Pur anas , form a literature
almost peculiar to the eastern provinces of Hindustan,
the origin of which appears to be traceable to Kama-
RUP or western Asam. There is no doubt that the
system has principally prevailed in Bengal, Rungpore,
Cooch Behar, and Asam; and, following the same
direction, has probably spread into Nepal. There seem
to be some hints to this effect in the concluding stanza
of the Tract that has been translated.
The literal purport of this verse is, that Abjapani,
whoever he might be, came to Lalitajmr, after having
gone from SauMiavati to Banga. Saiikhavati is called
a Lokadhdtu , a peculiar Bauddha division of the uni-
verse, and probably not in this w^orld; but Banga desa
is never applied to any country, except the east or
north of Bengal. Abjapaj^i, or Padmapani, is a meta-
physical Bodhisattwa, but in the present work all
these nonentities are converted into substances, and
he is therefore a mortal teacher of the Bauddha faith,
or employed for the occasion in that capacity. He
was invited, the tradition records, to reside in Nepal
on the occasion of a famine, by Narendra Deva, Kaja
oi Bhatgong , and Bandhudatta, a Vajrdchdrya, and
30 NOTICE OF
came in consequence. He comes attended by Bhai-
ravas and wearers of Ja'tds, and may therefore be
suspected of having come in the garb of a tiaiva priest,
if not as his identical self, yet as an Ansa, or portion,
which the orthodox Bauddhas leave out of view.
They have, however, no objection to the Siva Mdrgis
worshipping Abjapani under any name they please,
and his annual festival is attended by all sects alike.
The invitation of a foreign teacher by Narendra
Deva is noticed by Colonel Kirkpatrick; but the in-
dividual is called by him Matsyendra Nath% one of
the first propagators, apparently, of the Pdsupata
form of the Saiva religion, which seems to be that
prevailing in Nepal. There is also mention of some
alteration of the national rites, by another Prince of
the same denomination , by w^hich it is recorded a fall
' An original legend sent me by Mr. Hodgson narrates, that
the Lokekoara Padmapani descended by command of Adi Buddha
as Matsyendra. He hid himself in the belly of a fish, in order
to overhear Siva teach Parvati the doctrine of the Yoga, which
he had learned from Adi Buddha, and which he communicated
to his spouse on the sea -shore. Having reason to suspect a
listener, Siva commanded him to appear, and Padmapani came
forth, clad in raiment stained with ochre, smeared with ashes,
wearing ear-rings, and shaven, being the chief of the Yogis: He
was called Matsyendra Natha, from his appearance from a fish
(Matsya), and his followers took the appellation Ndth. We have
in this story a decided proof of the current belief of a union
between the Yoga sectaries, and the Bauddhas, eff"ected, perhaps,
by the Yogi Matsyendra, known in Hindustan as the pupil of
GoRAKiiNATii, but converted by the Bauddhas into a manifestation
of one of their deified Sages. [See Vol. I, 214.]
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 31
of snow was obtained. The first Narendradeo ap-
pears to have Hved in the 7th, the second in the 12th
century. The first would answer well enough for the
introduction of the Pdsupata creed, which might have
been popular in India about that time, and the latter
date is that about which the Tdntrika ritual seems to
have obtained currency. It is not unlikely that the
expressions in the Panchavinsati refer to one or other
of these events, although, as usual, in all such appro-
priations of legendary history, the circumstances are
adapted to the peculiar notions of those by whom they
are borrowed. According to local traditions, the in-
vitation of Padmapdni occurred in the fifth century,
or 1381 years ago*.
ASHTAMI VRATA VIDHANA.
This tract is of much greater extent, than either of
the preceding, but is of less value for the illustration
of ideas originally Bauddha. It belongs to that faith,
but is still more copiously interspersed with notions
from a foreign source than even the preceding, being,
in fact, a ritual of the Tdntrika practices of persons
professing the religion oi Buddha. A few observations
and extracts will be sufficient to give an idea of its
character, and of the observances it enjoins.
The eighth lunar day of every half month is a day
* [See Koppen, "Religion des Buddha", II, 21-32.]
32 NOTICE OF
peculiarly appropriated to religious ceremonies in the
orthodox system. In the Vaidik creed it was custom-
ary to fast, and offer oblations to the gods in general
on this day, and the Paurdniks made it sacred to
different divinities , particularly to Vishnu. The Tcin-
trikas have devoted the eighth day of certain months
to the celebration of rites, which have no exclusive
object, but are intended to secure the prosperity of
the observer, and in this they have been apparently
imitated by the Bauddhas of Nepal.
The opening of the work, announcing the intention
of the worshipper, refers briefly to several of the
leading topics of the verses of the Panchavinsatikd.
Thus:
"In the period of the Tathdgata Sakya Sinha, in
the Bhadrakalpa, in the Lokadhdtu named Sahd, in
the Vaiwaswata Manwantara , in the first quarter of
the Kali age, in the Bharata division of the earth, in
Northern Pcmchdla, in the Devasuka Kshetra, in the
Upachhandoha Piiha; in the holy land Arydvartta;
in the abode of the King of Serpents, Karkota, in
the lake called Ndgavdsa, in the region of the Chatty a
of SwAYAMBHU, in the realm over which Guhyeswari
Prajna presides , and which the fortune of Manju Sri
protects, in the kingdom oi Nepal, of the form of that
of Sri Samvara, and invincible, encircled by the eight
Vitardgas, Manilingesioara, Gokarneswara, Kileswara
and Kumbheswara, Gartteswara, Phanikeswara, Gan-
dhesa and Vikrameswara, watered by the four great
rivers Vdgrnati, Kesavati, Manimati, and Prabhdvaiif
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEl'AL. • 33
sanctified by the twelve greater and six lesser Tirthas,
and by the edifices on the four mountains, governed
by the seven Sages, honoured by the Yoginis, the
eight Mdtrikds, the eight Bhairavaa , Sinhini, Vyd-
ghnni, Ganesa, Kimidra, Mahdkdla, Hdriti, Hanumdn,
the ten ministers of wrath. In such a place, at such
a time, before such a divinity, I (naming himself and
family) perform this rite, with my wife and house-
hold." The objects of the ceremony are then enun-
ciated, generally, aversion of all evils, the preserva-
tion of health , and the attainment of fortune. Most of
the allusions have been already explained, and others
belong to Bi'ahmanical Hinduism. The name of the
Lokadhdtu, or division of the universe, Saha, is appli-
cable apparently to the Himalaya range, and includes
Kashmir, as we know from the Rdja Tarangini^.
The ceremonial of the Tantras is distinguished by
the repetition of mystical syllables, the employment
of Yantras, or diagrams, a superabundance of gesti-
culations, the adoration of the spiritual teacher, or
Guru, and the fancied identification of the worshipper
with the divinity worshipped. In all these , as well as
' See As. Res. Vol. XV, p. 110, where Kashmir is termed, in
the Ndgari text [I, 172.], Sahalokadhdtu , rendered erroneously
'the essence of the world,' the adnussible, although not the
technical purport of Lokadhdtu , in composition with Salui, no
available information then suggesting the latter to be a propi-r
name, and the former a division of the Universe in Jiauddha
Geography. [For the explanation of the term Sahalukad/idlu,
world of patience, see Burnouf, '• Introduction "', 51)4-7, and
Koppeu, "Religion des Buddha'', I, 2G-4.]
3
34 NOTICE OF
in the order and nature of the presentations, the
AsMami Vidhdna is as apphcable to Calcutta as to
Kathmandw, the only difference being in the object
or objects addressed: in the present case, the princi-
pal person propitiated is Amoghapasa, apparently the
same with Swayambhu Natha ; but prayers are made,
and offerings are addressed to all the personages of
the Bauddha Pantheon , and to a great number of the
divinities of the Hindus, especially to the temfic forms
of Si\A and Sakti, and to all the Bhutas, or spirits
of ill, and the Yoginis and Ddkinis , the perpetrators
of all mischief. A few passages will substantiate the
accuracy of these assertions.
In the hall where the ceremony is held various
Mandalas^ , or portions are marked off and appro-
priated to the different objects of the rite, and a com-
plete course of worship is addressed to each. The
following is that directed for the Buddha Mandala.
The directions are, in general, in Neiudri, the texts
and prayers to be repeated in Sanskrit.
Let the sacrificer touch the Buddha Mandala with
his fore-finger, repeating: "The universal Tathdgata,
may all be propitious." He is then to address himself
to the Durvd^ (or holy grass which is placed in the
' The Mandala is sometimes an imaginary circle on the body of
the worshipper; but it is defined here to be made witli various sub-
stances, according to the means of the performer of the rite, as with
gold dust, or pounded gems, or stone. [See alsoWassiljew, 1. 1. 1, 212.]
* [Dr. Ainslie, in his "Materia Indica", Vol. II, p. 27 f., gives
a description of (his beautiful grass and its properties.]
BAUDDHA TRACTS FROM NEPAL. 35
centre of the circle). "Oiii. I adore the Vajra^ Diirvd
— glory be to it." He is then to throw flowers, or
wave incense in the air, saying: "May all the Buddhas
residing in all quarters gather round me. I, such a
one so named, observing this rite, have become a
mendicant (Bhikshu). Let all the Buddhas approach,
who will grant me the permission of my desires. I
wave this Vafra Pushpa, in honor of the auspicious
teachers, the possessors of prosperity and the Lord;
I invite them to appear."
The worshipper is then to present water to wash
the feet, and to rinse the mouth (saying: "Receive
water for the feet of the Saint of Ski Buddha; Sivdhd,
Receive the Achamana; Sivdhd^').
The Pushpa Nydsa (presentation of flowers) next
occurs; with these ejaculations: "Om! to the holy
Vairochana: Swdhd. Om! to the holy Akshobiiya:
Sivdhd. Om! to the holy Ratnasambhava: Sicdhd.
Om! to the holy Amitabha: Sivdhd. Om! to the holy
Amogha Siddha: Sivdhd. Om! to the holy Lochana:
Swdhd. Om! to the holy Mamaki: Sivdhd. Om! to
the holy Tara: Swdhd.''''
This is followed or accompanied by the presentation
of incense, lights, water, and whole rice.
Then ensues the Stotra, or praise: "I ever oiler my
salutation with my head declined; To the holy bene-
' The term Vajro, wliich si^'iiifies 'the thuiulerbolt', or 'ji diamond',
is employed in these compounds, evidiMitly in the sense of auspicious,
holy, or sacred, [Burnouf, "Introduction •% 'y21 , or serving for
the removal or keeping off of diflkuhies. See Wassiljew,!. 1. 1,21 1.]
3*
36 NOTICE OF
factor of the world Vatrochana. To the holy Aksho-
BHYA. To the illustrious Ratnodbhava, the best of
Saints. To Amitabha, the Lord' of the Munis. To
the holy Amogha Siddha, the remover of the ills of
the Kali age. To Lochana, to Mamaki, and to Tara,
named Pandura. I adore Sakya Sinha , the ruler of
all, propitious, the asylum of clemency, the all -wise,
the lotus-eyed, the comprehensive Buddha.'^''
The Desand, a sort of confession, is next performed.
"Whatever sin may have been committed by me, child
and fool that I am, whether originating in natural
weakness, or done in conscious wickedness, I confess
all , thus standing in the presence of the Lords of the
world, joining my hands, afflicted with sorrow and
fear, and prostrating myself repeatedly before them.
May the holy Sages conceive the past as with the past,
and the evil I have done shall never be repeated."
This is to be said by the disciple before the Guru,
placing his right knee in the Mandala on the ground;
He then continues: "I, such a one, having uttered
my confession, take refuge with Buddha from this
time forward, until the ferment of ignorance shall
have subsided; for he is my protector, the Lord of
exalted glory, of an imperishable and irresumable
form, merciful, omniscient, all -seeing, and free from
the dread of all terrors; I do this in the presence
of men."
To this the G2iru is to reply repeatedly: "Well
done, well done, my son; perform the Nirydtana.''''
The worshipper accordingly takes rice, flowers, and
BAUDDHA TRACJS FROM NEPAL. 37
water, and performs the rite, or sprinkles them on
the Mandala, with this text: "This is the Lord Ariiat,
the comprehensive Buddha, replete with divine know-
ledge, Sugata, knowing the universe, the supreme,
the curber of the wild steeds of human faults, the
ruler of the mortals and immortals : Buddha. To him,
gem oi Buddhas, I address the rites performed to this
flower Mandala^
The offering is then made with this formula: "Om!
NamaK to the gem of Buddhas, whose heart i!^ laden
with the burthen of compassion, the supreme spirit,
the universal intellect, the triple essence, the endurer
of ills for the benefit of existing beings; accept this
offering, savoury and fragrant, and confirm me and
all men in the supreme all -comprehending wisdom,
Om, Am, Hrit, Hum, Phat, Swdhd.''''
The whole of the above is thrice repeated, with
what are called the Dharma, Sangha, and 2Iu/a
Mandalas. The names of the Buddhas being changed,
and the prayers varied in length, though not in pur-
port: these, however, form but a small part of the
whole ceremony; although it is made up entirely of
such prayers and observances.
After worship has been offered to the dilferent
Buddhas, Bodhisattwas , regents of the quarters, and
other mythological beings, the ceremony concludes
with the following address to the "spirits of heaven
and goblins damned".
"Glory to Vajrasattwa — Gods and demons. Ser-
pents and Saints, Lord of the plumed race, and all
38 NOTICE OF
Gandharbas, Yakshas, Regents of the planetary orbs,
and spirits that dwell upon the earth. Thus, kneeling
on the ground, I invoke you. Let all, hearing my
invocation, approch with their wives, and children,
and associates. Hear Demi -Gods, w^ho frequent the
brow of Meru, the groves of Indra, the palaces of the
Gods , and the orbit of the sun , spirits who sport in
streams, in ponds, in lakes, in fountains, and the
depths of the sea. Goblins, who dwell in villages, in
towns, in the deserted temples of the Gods, in the
stalls of Elephants, and the cells of Monks, Imps,
that haunt the roads, the lanes, the markets, and
where cross -ways meet. Ghosts, that lurk in wells
and thickets, in the hollow of a solitary tree, in fu-
neral paths, and in the cemeteries of the dead, and
Demons of terrific form , who roam as bears and lions
through the vast forest, or rest in the mountain's
caverned sides. Hear and attend. Receive the lights,
the incense, the fragrant wreaths and the offerings of
food presented to you in sincerity of faith; accept,
eat and drink, and render this act propitious. Indea,
the thunder- bearer, Agni, Yama, Lord of the earth,
Lord of the main, God of the winds. Sovereign of
riches, and King of spirits (Isana), Sun, Moon, pro-
genitors of mankind, accept this offering of incense,
this offering of lights. Accept, eat and drink, and
render the act propitious.
Krishna Rudei, Maha Rudri, Siva, Uma, of black
and fearful aspect, attendants of Devi, Jaya, Vijaya,
Ajita, Aparajita, Bhadrakali, Mahakali, Sthala-
BAUDDFA TKACTS FROM NEPAL. 39
KALI, YOGINI, InDRI, ChANDI, GhoIu', VrDHATRI, DuTI,
JaMBUKI, TrIDASKSWARI, KaMBOJINI, Dl'l'ANl, ClIU-
SHiNi, Ghorarupa, Maharupa, DmsiiTARui'A, Kapa-
LENi, Kapalamala, Malini, Khatwanga, Yamahard-
DIKA, KhADGAHASTA , PaRASUHASTA, VAJHAriASTA,
Dhanuhasta, Pancitadakini, Mahatattwa. The ac-
complisher of all acts, the clelighter in the circle of
the Jogis, the Lord of Vajreswapj, all hear and obey
this the order of Vajrasattwa, who was created by
the Yoya of the unimpassioned form of Tathdgata.
Om-Ka - ka - kardana - kardana ! Khd - khd , khddana-
khddanal destroy, destroy, all obnoxious to me; Gha
gha, ghdfaya, ghdtayal cherish and preserve the life
and health , the wishes and the prosperity of the sa-
crificer, the holder of the tlmnder-bolt, commands:
Hrum, Hrum, Hncm, Phat, Phaf, Phat; Sivdhd!"
Such is the nonsensical extravagance with which
this and the Tdntrika ceremonies generally abound;
and we might be disposed to laugh at such absurdities,
if the temporary frenzy, which the words excite in
the minds of those who hear and repeat them witli
agitated awe, did not offer a subject worthy of serious
contemplation in the study of human nature.
40 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
II.
TWO LECTliRES
ON THE
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
OF THE HINDUS.
Delivered before the University of Oxford on the 27th and
28th of February, 1840.
LECTURE I.
It has always been my wish and intention to offer
to those members of tlie University who may take
an interest in the subject, a general view of the insti-
tutions and social condition, the literature and the
religion of the Hindus. The purj)ose, although unful-
filled, is not abandoned. Various impediments have
retarded its accomplishment, and still delay its execu-
tion ; but I hope, at no very distant period, to be able
to carry it into effect. In the mean time, the invitation
which has been addressed to the University by the
Bishop of Calcutta, and which, I am happy to think,
has been accepted , to contribute to the religious en-
lightenment of a benighted , but intelligent and inter-
esting and amiable people, has suggested to me the
propriety and the duty of giving some earnest of my
desire to render to any who may apply their talents
OF THE HINDUS. 41
and learning to the proposed task — a task peculiarly
appropriate to a society equally eminent for piety and
erudition — whatever assistance the direction of my
studies, my personal knowledge of the Hindus, and the
extent of my ability may qualify me to afford them.
The task that has been proposed to the members
of the University is twofold. They are invited to
confute the falsities of Hinduism, and affirm to the
conviction of a reasonable Hindu the truths of Chris-
tianity. For the second branch of this undertaking
the qualifications are widely disseminated. Deep im-
pressions of the importance of Christian truth , and of
the obligation to extend it to the ends of the earth —
knowledge of that truth, and skill to make it known
— are not likely to be deficient in this University.
For the effective performance, however, of the first
branch of the undertaking, some preparation is re-
quisite — some preliminary study is necessary— some
information not yet sought for is to be obtained. It
is obviously essential to know that which we engage
to controvert. It is indispensable that we should be
well acquainted with the practices and doctrines and
belief, the erroneousness of which we would demon-
strate; and in this respect whatever may be the zeal
and the ability, the like extent of available fitness
cannot at present be reasonably expected. Yet the
plan submitted to the University requires this fitness,
and judiciously requires it. Besides the general prin-
ciples upon which the necessity of such competency
is obvious, it is still more imperative in regard to the
42 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
circumstances and character of those with whom we
have to deal. The Hindus will not listen to one who
comes amongst them strong only in his own faith and
ignorant of theirs. "Read these translations," said a
very worthy clergyman to a sect of religionists at
Benares, who were already seceders from idolatrous
worship, and were not indisposed for argument upon
the comparative truth of different creeds. "We have
no objection to read your books," was the reply, "but
we will enter into no discussion of their contents with
you until you have read ours." This was inconvenient
or impracticable, and no further intercourse ensued.
This is one instance out of many where precious op-
portunities have been lost, because the only means of
communicating fully with the natives — conversancy
not merely with their language but with their litera-
ture — has been wanting or incomplete; and with an
acute and argumentative people like the Hindus you
must satisfy them that they are in error before you
can persuade them to accept the truth. To overturn
their errors we must know what they are ; and for the
purpose of conveying to you some notion of their
nature and extent, and of putting you in the way of
acquiring more precise information on the subject, T
have thought it possible that even some brief obser-
vation may be of use. With this hope I propose to
give in this and a succeeding Lecture a general sketch
of the principal religious practices and opinions of
the Hindus.
The account which it is thus proposed to submit to
OF THE HINDIS. 43
you must be unavoidal)ly of a very general nature.
The interval that has elapsed since the invitation was
accepted has not permitted the preparation of a very
comprehensive detail; nor is the subject, perhaps, in
that stage of its consideration in which minuteness of
detail would be of advantaiie. What is now wanted,
and that as early as possible , is some determinate di-
rection in which inquiry may be prosecuted — some
definite point to which the thoughts may be made to
converge. In a topic necessarily unfamiliar to the
customary tenor of academic study, it is not possible
that any exact ideas should have been yet formed as
to the degree or kind of preparation that is requisite,
and few are likely to be acquainted with the situation
and sufficiency of those stores from which they must
provide their outfit for an untried voyage. The scene
is so new, the prospect so indistinct, that enterprise
may lose heart, and zeal may languish in vain aspi-
rations, unless something of a chart, however rude
and imperfect, be laid before the adventurer whilst
he yet hesitates to make his first advance. It is this
help which it is my present purpose to supply, in
the hope that some, who, although competent to do
honour to themselves and the University, might shrink
from encountering they know not what, may be in-
duced, if the mist may be in some degree cleared
away, to look a little nearer, advance a little farther
into the now -seeming labyrinth, assured that every
step they take the path will become less intricate,
and the goal be more perceptibly in view: assured.
44 RELIGIOUS rKACTICES AND OPINIONS
too — unless my own experience deceive me — that
there will not be wanting on their journey objects, if
not of beauty, yet of exceeding curiosity and interest,
to enliven their way, and beguile them of the con-
sciousness of fatigue.
The history of the Hindu religion, although not
traceable with chronological precision, exhibits un-
equivocal proof that it is by no means of that un-
alterable character which has been commonly ascribed
to it. There are many indications which cannot be
mistaken, that it has undergone at different periods
important alterations in both form and spirit. These
are little heeded, have been little investigated, and
are little known by even the most learned of the
Brahmans. Some have been pointed out by the late
Hindu reformer Raja Rammohan Roy, but even he
was unaware of their full extent, and they are of
themselves fatal to the pretensions of the Hindu faith,
as it now mostly prevails, to an inspired origin and
unfathomable antiquity.
The oldest monuments of the Hindu religion are
the Vedas. It is much to be regretted that we have
not a translation of these works in any of the lan-
guages of Europe; if we had, they would no doubt,
in like manner as the Koran of the Mohammedans and
the Zend-avesta of the fire - worshippers of Persia,
supply us with irrefutable arguments against the cre-
dibility of the religion of which they were once the
oracles. A summary of the contents of the Vedas —
as satisfactory as a summai-y can be — was published
OF THE HINDCS. 45
by Mr. Colebrooke, the most eminent of ull our Sans-
krit scholars, in the eighth volume of the Researches
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal'. The account, with
a variety of instructive dissertations on the religion,
philosophy, science, and literature of the Hindus,
has been reprinted in a Collection of Miscellaneous
Essays % published by Mr. Colebrooke, or rather for
him, not long before his death. The text also, with
a Latin translation of one book out of eight, of one of
the Vedas, the Kig-Veda, has been printed by the
Committee of the Oriental Translation Fund''. It was
' Asiatic Researches. Transactions of a Society instituted in
Bengal, for inquiring into the History, &c. , of India. 20 Vols.
4to. Calcutta.
- Miscellaneous Essays, by H. T. Colebrooke. 2 Vols. Svo.
London. Allen and Co. 1837. [2nd ed. London, 1858.]
^ Rig-veda Sanliita. Liber Frinnis. 1 Vol. 4to. London.
Oriental Translation Fund. Allen and Co. 1838.
[Since the above was written, the Sdmaveda has been edited
and translated by Stevenson (1842) and Benfey (1848); the xcMte
Yajurveda edited by Weber (1849 ff.); the black Jajurveda is in
the course of publication in the Bibliotheca Indica; the Alliarva-
veda has been edited by Rotli and Whitiu'y (1855 11'.). and an
edition of the Bigveda with the commentary of Sayana was com-
menced by M. Miiller in 184i) , which is still in progress. Prol'.
Wilson's translation of the Rigveda (1850-57, 3 Vols.) reachrs to
the end of the 4th Asht'aka. Dr. Aufrecht is editing the text of
the Rigveda in Roman characters (Vol. I, 1861). On Vcdic lil»'-
rature generally see Weber's Vorlesungen iiber indische l.iteratur-
geschichte (1852), his Indische Studien (5 Vols. 1850 tU), Miiller's
history of ancient Sanskrit literature (185'J), and Goldstiicker's
article on the Vedas in the English Eiicyi'lopri'dia (Arts and
Sciences, Vol. VIIL 18GI).]
46 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
the work of Dr. Rosen, a distingaished oriental scholar,
who died in the prime of life and in the spring of
his fame. A portion of the same Veda has also been
translated by the Rev. Mr. Stevenson, and published
at Bombay.
From these authorities a tolerably correct notion
may be formed of the character of the Vedas. They
are four in number, Rich, Yajush, Saman, and Athar-
van, or, as usually compounded, Rig-veda, Yajur-
veda, Sama-veda, and Atharva-veda. The latter,
however, differs, as far as it is known, materially in
purport and even in style from the others; it is rarely
met with, and is not uncommonly omitted from the
specification of the Vedas even by early writers , who
•not unfrequently speak of the Vedas collectively as
but three. It evidently enters in a less degree than
the rest into the formation of the national religion as
taught by the Vedas. Neither of the Vedas can be
considered as a distinct work, composed upon a de-
finite plan, having either a consistent method oi* a
predominating subject. Each is an unarranged aggre-
gate of promiscuous prayers, hymns, injunctions, and
dogmas, put together in general, though not always,
in similar succession, but not in any way connected
one with the other. It is not at all unusual for even
what is considered as the same hymn, to offer per-
fectly isolated and independent verses, so that they
might be extruded without injury to the whole. In
the belief of the Hindus, the Vedas were coeval with
creation, and are uncreated, being simultaneous with
OF THE HINDUS. 47
the first breath of Brahma — the creative power. This
is sometimes questioned; but the opinion is universal
that Brahma was their author, and that they were
amongst the first created things. There are, however,
legends of their having been lost; and there is one
account of their recovery, which states that they
were then taught to a number of Brahmans by a son
of Brahma. This refers, probably, to the period oi'
their composition by different Brahmans. They them-
selves furnish evidence of their composition by dif-
ferent hands , and at different periods. Each hymn is
said to have its Rishi — the sage by whom it was first
communicated; and these Rishis comprise a variety
of secular as well as religious individuals, members
of the Kshatriya or military, as well as the Brahma-
nical order, who are celebrated at different ?eras in
Hindu tradition. It is also admitted that the Vedas
existed in a scattered form until the parts of which
they now consist were collected and arranged in their
actual form by a person of very equivocal origin —
the son of a Rishi, by the daughter of a fisherman, and
therefore, properly speaking, of very impure caste —
and who from his arranging the Vedas is known by
the name of Vyasa — the arranger. He is supposed
by the Hindus to have lived about 5000 years ago.
It seems not improbable that he, or the school of
which he is the reputed foimder, tiourished about
thirteen centuries before the Christian era. He was
assisted in his labour, it is reported, by various sagvs,
and it is here agahi evident that the composition of the
48 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
Vedas was the work of many hands — of a school or
religious community which first reduced the straggling
institutes and practices, and popular prayers and
hymns of the people, into a compact and permanent
authority. The proceedings of Vyasa and his coad-
jutors, and the formation of various branches from
the main stem , or of subordinate and subsequent from
one primary and principal school, are described by
Mr. Colebrooke, and will also be found detailed in the
Yishhu Purana\ of which a translation is about to
appear from the press of the University.
In the state in which they are now found, the
Vedas are each distinguishable into two portions —
a practical and a speculative: the one still forms the
chief basis of speculative opinion ; the other is, except
in a few particulars, obsolete.
The practical portion of the Vedas consists of little
else than detached prayers addressed with a few ex-
ceptions to divinities no longer worshipped, some of
whom are even unknown. There is one for instance
named Ribhu, of whose history, office, or even name,
a person might ask in vain, from one end of India to
the other. The prayers have consequently gone out
of fashion along with their objects, and when they are
employed they are used as little else than unmeaning
sounds, the language in which they are written differing
much, both in words and construction, from the
* The Vishnu Purana, A System of Hindu Mythology and
Tradition, translated from the original Sanskrit. 1 Vol. 4to.
London. Murray. 1840,
OF THE HINDUS. 49
Sanskrit of later writings. In many parts of India the
Vedas are not studied at all; and when they are
studied it is merely for the sake of repeating the
words; the sense is regarded as a matter of no im-
portance, and is not understood even by the Brahman
who recites or chaunts the expressions. Now this is
in itself a vital departure from the sacred institutes
of the Hindus, by which the first portion of life, the
first of the four orders or stages through which all
males of the three first castes, the Brahman, Ksha-
triya, and Vaisya, were peremptorily commanded to
pass, was that of the religious student; the term of
whose studentship was to be spent with a Brahman
teacher of the Vedas, and the sole object of whose
studies was the understanding of the Vedas. For a
Brahman to be wholly ignorant of the Vedas was a
virtual degradation. "A Brahman," says Manu, "un-
learned in holy writ, is extinguished in an instant
like dry grass on fire*." "A twice born man (that is,
a naan of either of the three first castes) not having
studied the Veda, soon falls, even while hving, to
the condition of a Siidra, and his descendants after
him**." It is also declared that a Brahman derives
not that name from birth alone, but from his know-
ledge of the Vedas***. According therefore to the
letter of the law, there are very few Brahmans now
in India who have a right to the respect and privileges
which the designation claims.
[Ill, IGS.] *^- [II, lOS.] **^- [XI. 84.]
4
50 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
The religion of the Vedas, as far as we are ac-
quainted with it, differs in many very material points
from that of the present day. The worship they pre-
scribe is, with a few exceptions, domestic, consisting
of oblations to fire , and invocations of the deities of
fire, of the firmament, of the winds, the seasons, the
moon, the sun; who are invited by the sacrificer, if
a Brahman, or by his family priest, if he is not a
Brahman, to be present and accept the offering, either
oiled butter, or the juice of the Soma, a species of
asclepias, which are poured upon the sacrificial fire,
in return for which they are supplicated to confer
temporal blessings upon the worshipper, riches, life,
posterity; the short-sighted vanities of human desire,
which constituted the sum of heathen prayer in all
heathen countries.
The following is the second hymn of the Rig-veda:
1. Approach, Vayu (deity of the air); be visible:
this Soma juice has been prepared for thee; approach,
drink, hear our invocation.
2. Those who praise thee, Vayu, celebrate thee
with sacred songs, provided with store of Soma juice,
and knowing the season suitable for their oblations.
3. Vayu, thy assenting voice comes to the sacrificer,
it comes to many through the offering of the libation.
4. Indra and Vayu, this juice has been prepared;
come with benefits for us; verily the libation desires
you.
5. Vayu and Indra, observe the libations, being
present in the offerings; come quickly.
OF THE HINDUS. 51
6. Vayu and Indra, mighty men, approach the priest
of the sacrificer quickly, on account of his prayers.
7. I invoke Mitra (the sun), the source of purity;
I invoke Varuna, able to destroy; both cherishing
earth with water.
8. Mitra and Varuna, be pleased with this propi-
tiatory offering; for to you, assuredly, do sacrifices
owe their success, as the waters do their abundance.
9. Mitra and Varuna, all wise divinities, born for
the benefit of multitudes, and multitudinously pre-
sent, give efficacy to our acts.
The titles and functions of the deities commonly
addressed in these invocations give to the religion of
the Vedas the character of the worship of the ele-
ments, and it is not unlikely that it was so in its
earliest and rudest condition. It is declared in some
texts that the deities are only three; whose places are
the earth, the middle region, between heaven and
earth, and the heaven; namely, fire, air, the sun.
Upon this, however, seems to have been grafted some
loftier speculation, and the elements came to be re-
garded as types and emblems of divine power, as
there can be no doubt that the fundamental doctrine
of the Vedas is monotheism*. "There is in truth,"
say repeated texts, "but one deity, the Supreme
Spirit." "He from whom the universal world pro-
ceeds, who is the Lord of the universe, and whose
work is the universe, is the Supreme Being." In-
* [Colebr., Essays, p. 12 ff. M. Miiller, History of ancient
Sanskrit Literature, p. 558- 71.]
A*
52 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
junctions also repeatedly occur to worship Him, and
Him only. "Adore God alone, know God alone, give
up all other discourse;" and the Vedant says, "It is
found in the Vedas, that none but the Supreme Being
is to be worshipped, nothing excepting him should
\^ be adored by a wise man."
It was upon these and similar passages that Ram-
mohan Roy grounded his attempts to reform the
religion of his countrymen, to put down idolatry, and
abolish all idolatrous rites and festivals, and substi-
tute the worship of one God by means of prayer and
thanksgiving. His efforts were not very successful,
not so successful as they might have been, had he
confined himself to their legitimate objects; but he
involved himself in questions of Christian polemics
and European politics, and intermitted his exertions
for the subversion of Hindu idolatry. He did not,
however, labour wholly in vain; and there is a society*
in Calcutta, which although not numerous is highly
respectable, both for station and talent, which pro-
fesses faith in one only Supreme God, and assembles
once a week, on a Sunday, to perform divine service,
consisting of prayers, hymns, and a discourse in Ben-
gali, or Sanskrit, on moral obligations, or the attri-
butes and nature of the Deity. A leading preacher
at those meetings, when I left India, was a learned
Brahman, who was professor of Hindu law in the
Sanskrit college of Calcutta: and another influential
* [the Tattvabodhini sabha.]
OF THE HINDUS. 53
member, a man also of Brahmanical birth, of uoocl
family, and of property, set on foot, and 1 believe
still continues, an English newspaper, called the Re-
former, in which the opinions of the party, not only
on religion, but on the measures of the government
of India, are advocated, by natives solely, although in
our language, with remarkable boldness and ability.
To return however to the purpose of the Vedas.
It seems very doubtful, if at the time of their com-
position idolatry was practised in India: images of
the deified elements are even now un worshipped, and
except images of the sun, I am not aware that they
are ever made. The personification of tlie divine
attributes of creation, preservation, and regeneration,
Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, originate no doubt with
the Vedas, but they are rarely named, they are blended
with the elementary deities, they enjoy no preemi-
nence, nor are they ever objects of special adoration.
There is no reason, from the invocations addressed
to them in common with the air, water, the seasons,
the planets, to suppose that they were ever wor-
shipped under visible types. Ministration to idols in
temples is held by ancient authorities infamous ; Manu
repeatedly classes the priest of a temple with persons
unfit to be admitted to private sacrifices, or to bc;
associated with on any occasion*; and even still, the
priests who attend upon the images in public are con-
sidered as of a scarcely reputable order by all Hindus
* [III, 152. 180.]
54 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
of learning and respectability. The worship of images
is declared to be an act of inferior merit even by
later authorities, those perhaps with which it origi-
nated, and it is defended only upon the same plea
which has been urged in other times and other coun-
tries — that the vulgar cannot raise their conceptions
to abstract deity, and require some perceptible object
to which their senses may be addressed. "Corre-
sponding to the natures of different powers and qua-
lities," it is said, "numerous figures have been in-
vented for the benefit of those who are not possessed
of sufficient understanding." And again: "The vulgar
look for their gods in water; men of more extended
knowledge, in the celestial bodies; the ignorant, in
wood, bricks, and stones." It is almost certain there-
fore, that the practice of worshipping idols in temples
was not the religion of the Vedas.
The dwelling-house of the householder was his
temple: if qualified, he was his own priest; but this
practice even among the Brahmans probably soon
fell into desuetude, as they more extensively engaged
in secular avocations, and it became almost univer-
sally the practice to retain a family priest. This is
still the custom. Instead of being however a Brah-
man of learning and character, he is very commonly
illiterate, and not always respectable. The office has
also undergone an important modification. The family
priest was formerly also the Guru, or spiritual adviser
of the family. The priest now rarely discharges that
function, he merely conducts the domestic rites; and
OF THE HINDUS. 55
the Guru, to whom extravagant deference, such as is
clue to deity alone, is paid, is a very different indivi-
dual , very usually not a Brahman at all , but a member
of some of the mendicant orders that have sprung up
in comparatively modern times, a vagrant equally
destitute of knowledge, learning, and principle.
Again; although Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva are
named in the Vedas, yet it is very doubtful if even
the names of those incarnations and types, under which
they are now exclusively worshipped, occur. Rama
the son of Dasaratha, Krishna the son of Vasudeva,
are, it is believed, unnoticed in authentic passages of
the Sanhita or collected prayers, and there is no
mention of the latter as Govinda or Gopala the infant
cowherd, or as the uncouth and anomalous Jagan-
nath. The only form in which Siva is now wor-
shipped, the Linga or Phallus, it is generally agreed,
has no place whatever amongst the types and em-
blems of the mythos of the Vedas. It is clear there-
fore that the great body of the present religious prac-
tices of the Hindus are subsequent in time and foreign
in tenor to those that were enjoined by the authorities
which they profess to regard as the foundations of
their system.
Some parts of the private and domestic ceremonial
of the Vedas are however still in use, although mixed
up with much extraneous matter. For these I may
again refer to Mr. Colebrooke, who published origi-
nally in the lifth and seventh volumes of the Asiatic
Researches three papers on the religious ceremonies
56 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
of the Hindus and of the Brahmans especially. They
are reprinted in his Essays*, and describe the con-
stant and occasional offices of the Hindus, the rites
to be performed daily, and those appropriated to
seasons of joy or sorrow, those by which marriage is
consecrated and death is solemnized.
Characteristic features in these observances — and
they are common to all formal religions — are the pro-
digal demand which they make upon the time of the
observer, and the minuteness of their interference in
all the most trivial actions of his life. The Hindu
rules compel a Brahman to get out of bed before day-
light, and prescribe how many times he shall rince
his mouth, and with what sort of a brush and in
what attitude he shall clean his teeth. He is then to
repair to a river, or piece of water, and bathe. This
is not a simple ablution , but a complicated business,
in which repeated dippings alternate with a variety
of prayers, and a still greater variety of gesticulations.
The whole is to precede the rising of the sun , whose
appearance is to be waited for and welcomed with
other gesticulations and other prayers**. The most
celebrated of the latter is the Gayatri , held to be the
holiest verse in the Vedas , and personified as a god-
dess, the wife of Brahma, It is preceded by a myste-
rious monosyllable, the type of the three divinities,
Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, and the essence of the Vedas
— OM, and by three scarcely less sacred words, Bhur,
* [Ed. 1858, p. 76-142.]
** [See for details the Acharadarsa. Benares: 1856, p. 1-64.]
OF THE HINDUS. 57
Bhuvar, Sivar, denoting earth, atmosphere, lieaven.
The prayer is merely, "Let us meditate on the sacred
light of that divine sun, that it may illuminate our
minds*." This is to be repeated mentally as often as
the worshipper can do it whilst he closes his moutli
and nosti'ils, effecting the latter by rule. It is the
most orthodox of the gesticulations, and is performed
by placing the two longest fingers of the right hand
on the left nostril, inhaling through the right, closing
the right with the thumb, and when the breathing
can no longer be suspended raising the fingers and
exhaling by the left nostril. There are other gesti-
culations'"'*, all, to our seeming, very absurd, but
they are not subjects of ridicule, because they are
seriously and reverentially practised by men of even
sense and learning. The excuse made for them is
that they contribute to fix the attention, and prevent
the thoughts from straying. It cannot be regarded as
a very arduous attempt to shew how ill calculated
must be the subject of an individual's meditations to
occupy his mind, how little either his undei'standing
or his feelings can be interested in his devotions, if
he is obliged to have recourse to sleight of hand to
prevent their being put to flight.
After his morning ablutions, a Brahman ought to
devote part of his time to the perusal of the Vodas.
This , as already intimated , is never done ; but other
works — the Puranas — may sometimes be substituted.
* [Rigveda M. Ill, 62. 10.]
** [See "The Sundhyii", by Mrs. Belnos, plates C unci 'J- 12.]
58 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
Then follows domestic worship, now idol worship;
for in most houses there is an image of the favourite
deity of the householder , in a room or recess appro-
priated to its accommodation. And to this the family
Brahman, in the presence of the master of the house,
makes offerings, and addresses prayers, diversifying
his recitation by blowing a conch-shell, ringing a bell,
beating a drum, waving lights, or other unmeaning
accompaniments. A considerable portion of the fore-
noon is thus unprofitably expended. There is no doubt
that many Hindus of respectability feel these rites as
grievous burdens , although the influence of prescrip-
tion, example, and fear of scandal, prevent them from
casting them off.
The marriage ceremonies of the Hindus vary much
with caste and condition, but they are always, in
relation to the circumstances of the parties, trouble-
some and expensive. It is very little the object of
the rite to impress upon the married couple any re-
verence for the union so contracted. Some injunctions
are directed to the bride; as, "Be gentle in thy as-
pect; be loyal to thy husband; be amiable in thy
mind, be lovely in thy person*." But no reciprocity
of duty is recommended to the bridegroom. The
greater number of the prayers and invocations are
mythological and unmeaning. It may be remarked of
the rite, however, that it evidently contemplates re-
sponsible persons. The Vedas then did not sanction
* [Colebr. , Essays, p. 133.]
OF IJIK HINDIS. 59
the marriage of children. In fact, it was imposssihle
for a man to marry before maturity, as nine years
are specified as the shortest term of his stiidentsliip,
until the expiration of which he was not allowed to
marry. He did not enter his studentship till lie was
seven or eight, and therefore, at the earliest, he could
not have been married before he was seventeen: an
early age enough, in our estimation, but absolute
manhood, as compared with the age of nine or ten,
at which Hindu boys are, according to the present
practice, husbands. There is no doubt that many
other innovations for the worse have been made in
the marriage ritual and usages of the Hindus. And
the whole system, the premature age at which the
parties are married , the practice of polygamy , and
the circumstances under wdiich the alliance is com-
monly contracted, involving the utter degradation of
the female sex, is equally fatal to the development of
the moral virtues and intellectual energies of the man,
and is utterly destructive both of public advancement
and domestic felicity.
The funeral ceremonies originate also in part trom
the Vedas. It may be necessary here to explain that
the use of forms and prayers, derived from the Vedas,
is not incompatible with the neglect of the study of
these w^orks. The necessity of an acciuaintance witli
the text has been obviated by the compilation of ma-
nuals and breviaries, if they myy be so termed, m
which the rules are laid down, and the lurniul:"
(whether from the Vedas or other authorities) arc
60 RELIGIOUS PEACTICES AND OPINIONS
inserted. These are always modern. The great au-
thority for Bengal is a Pandit, who lived less than a
century ago, named Ragliunandana. He composed
eighteen works of this kind, denominated Tattwas.
One treats of daily rites; one of weekly or monthly
rites; one of marriage; one of obsequies, and the like.
These are the sources, not always exempt from sus-
picion of unfaithfulness or interpolation, and always
objectionable as confounding authorities, and at-
taching weight to works of various eras, and of very
opposite tendency, by which the practices of the
Hindus are regulated.
The Hindus, as is well known, burn their dead; a
usage recommended by the peculiarities of climate,
and the habits of the people, as much as by au-
thority. The custom of carrying the dying to the
banks of the Ganges, or some river considered sa-
cred, has no warrant from antiquity, any more than
it has from reason or humanity. The final com-
mitment of the corpse to the funeral pile is deco-
rously conducted. The tone of the ceremony, though
not open to much exception, is cold and selfish.
It offers no consolation from the future condition of
the dead, although it rebukes the natural emotions
of the living: it represses affliction by expatiating
upon its inutility; it seeks not to soothe sorrow by
inspiring hope.
The practice of the Sati*, the burning of the widow
* [L. V. Orlich, "Indien", 1861, II, 2, 234-40.]
OF THE HINDUS. 61
on her husband's funeral pile, is now* prohibited in
the territories subject to the British government. Its
prohibition was prudently gradual, and was facilitated
by the difference of opinion entertained by the Hindus
themselves as to its obligation, as well as by those
natural feehngs of which not even superstition can
wholly divest mankind. Although noticed by the
historians of Alexander's invasion**, and therefore
then prevailing, there is no authority, it is believed,
for the practice in the Vedas***. There is certainly
none even in the laws of Manu.
A peculiar feature in the funeral ceremonies of the
Hindus is the performance of the Sniddhaf : periodical
offerings of cakes, of flesh, or other viands, and liba-
tions of water, to the manes. These are incumbent
on every householder, and are presented on a variety
of occasions. They are offered in the first instance
to such of his own ancestors as are deceased, and
then to the general body of the progenitors of man-
kind, to the collective Pitris, or Patres of the human
race. When a person dies, the nearest of kin pre-
sents an obsequial oblation to his ghost daily, for ten
days, and again at stated intervals for a twelvemonth.
* [since 1829. See Neumann, Geschichte (k'S eiiglisolicii
Reiches in Asien. II, 1G8-73. J. W. Kiiye, Admiiiistnition of
the E. I. Company, p. 538 f.]
** [See die quotations in Lassen's Ind. All., Ill, ;iJ7.J
*** [See No. V. of this volume.]
f [Full particulars of this are coutaineil in I lie Siaddliav ivcka.
Benares: 185G.]
62 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
A ceremony is then performed by which the spirit of
the defunct is supposed to be associated with the
Pitfis, and to take his place in their sphere or heaven.
On every anniversary of his demise the rite is re-
peated. These Sraddhas are imperative, but the Pitris
should be worshipped once every fortnight at least;
and offerings should be made to them on every occa-
sion of private or public festivity, and whenever a
householder is desirous of acknowledo;ino- or soliciting
any temporal good. The character, offices and situa-
tion of the Pitris formed, no doubt, part of the ancient
system, and various appellations and functions are
ascribed to them in the laws of Manu*, and in some
of the Puranas. The subject is little considered or
understood in the present day. The inefficacy of all
such ceremonies has not escaped the satire of some
of the Hindus themselves ; and it would not be diffi-
cult to shew that their object is incompatible with the
condition of the soul after death, as it is more com-
monly represented by their own authorities.
These are some of the practices of the domestic
worship of the Hindus , which , although very mate-
rially modified, are no doubt referable to their original
institutes. The public worship of the Hindus has,
unquestionably, undergone still greater change.
The system of the universe and the theory of crea-^
tion as universally received by the Hindus, no doubt
originated with the Vedas, and consequently the three
* [III, 192 ff. Vishnu Purana p. 320 ff.J
OF THE HINDUS. 63
great divinities of their mythology, Brahma, Vishnu,
and Siva, must have been devised about the same
time, as they are nothing more than the personified
attributes of the Supreme Being in action, or his
powers to create, preserve, and destroy, or, rather,
regenerate — manifested. Brahma is the creator, Vishnu
the preserver, Siva the regeneratoi*. Their invention
was j)robably at first Httle more than a metaphor, a
personification, or allegory. It has been mentioned,
that little beyond their names appears in the Vedas
regarding them, and it is doubtful how far any de-
finite figures, any images of them, any temples for
them, any worship of them, formed part of the an-
cient relioion. It is doubtful if Brahma was ever
worshipped. Indications of a local adoration of him
at Pushkara, near Ajmir, are found in one Purana,
the Brahma Purana"'', but in no other part of India
is there the slightest vestige of his worship ■^■■■". Of Siva
it is also to be remarked, that he receives worship
under one form alone — that of the Linga or Phallus,
of which, as before observed, no notice occurs in the
Vedas. Some of the continental mythologists , there-
fore, have been egregiously mistaken in asserting that
the primitive worship of India was that of the phallic
emblem of Siva. When this type was introduced is
uncertain: it was, probably, prior to the Christian
era. The worship was in its most flourishing state at
the date of the first Mohammedan invasion, the end
^■- [Jouiual R. As.Soc.,Vul.V,72.] ** [Lassen, hid. Alt.. 1.77G.J
64 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
of the tenth century , when twelve celebrated Lingas
were enshrined in as many of the capital cities of
India. Somnath was one of them, the destruction of
whose temple by Mahmud , of Ghizni , is narrated by
Gibbon. The worship of the Linga is now in a some-
what dubious condition in different parts of India.
In the south, it gives a name and a principle of com-
bination to a particular sect — the Jangamas or Linga-
yits*, whose chief priests are Pariahs, outcasts, —
althouah the votaries include Brahmans, and Brah-
mans are in some of the temples ministering priests
under a Pariah pontiff. In Bengal, although the
temples are numerous, they are ordinarily mean and
are little frequented, and the woi'ship is recommended
to the people by no circumstances of popular at-
traction. It has no hold upon their affections, it is
not interwoven with their amusements , nor must it
be imagined that it offers any stimulus to impure
passions. The emblem — a plain column of stone, or,
sometimes, a cone of plastic mud — suggests no offen-
sive ideas ; the people call it Siva , or Mahadeva , and
there's an end. They leave to Europeans speculations
as to its symbolical purport. It is enough for them
that it is an image, to which they make a prostration
or to which they cast a few flowers. There are no secret
rites, no mysterious orgies celebrated in its honour.
Vishnu, the preserving power, is a much more po-
pular divinity, not in his own person, however, but
* [See above Vol. I, 21G ff. Lassen, Ind. Alt., IV, 623.]
OF THE HINDIS. 65
in some of his Avataras — descents or incarnations,
especially as Rama or Krishna, I have already stated
that it is very doubttul if these incarnations are ad-
verted to in the Vedas, at least in the text*. They
are mentioned in some of the Upanishads, supple-
mentary treatises of the Vedas, but these composi-
tions are evidently from their style of later date than
the Vedas, and some of them, especially those re-
ferring to Rama and Krishna, are of very questionable
authenticity.
The history of these two incarnations of Vishnu,
Rama and Krishna, gives to the adoration paid to
them every appearance of Hero worship. They were
both of royal descent, and were both born on earth
like true knights-errant to destroy fiends, giants, and
enchanters, and rescue hapless maids and matrons
from captivity and violence. Poetry exaggerated their
exploits and mythology deified the performers. The
story of Rama is told in the mytho- heroic poem, en-
titled the Ramayana, of the first two books of which
a translation in very choice Latin, by the celebrated
A. von Schlegel, has been published. No fault is to
be found with the character of Rama as a hero, except
the impossibility of his feats; but he is described as
a dutiful son, an affectionate husband, an intrepid
warrior, and a patriotic prince. His wife, Sita, is
a model of a wife,— gentle, devoted, enduring, and
obedient. The worst that can be said of either is, that
[Lassen, lud. Alt., L IbS. 11, HuT i\. IV, JTS ft".]
66 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
their poetic celebrity has been abused , and has given
rise to sects of votaries, who think that the I'epetition
of their names is a sufficient substitute for all moral
and religious merit. Most of the mendicant orders
choose Rama for their patron.
The worship of Krishna may be traced to the other
of the two great mytho- heroic poems of the Hindus,
the Mahabharata. In the accounts there given of him
there is more of mysticism than in the story of Rama;
but even there he does not appear under the character
in which he is most popular, that of the infant Gopala,
the boy Cowherd, and the juvenile lover of Radha.
It is in these capacities that he is now most exten-
sively worshipped; and they are no doubt fictions of
comparatively modern invention. Vishnu was born
as Krishna for the destruction of Kansa, an oppressive
monarch, and, in fact, an incarnate Daitya or Titan,
the natural enemy of the gods. Kansa being fore-
warned of his fate seeks to anticipate his destroyer;
but Krishna is conveyed secretly away from Mathura,
the capital of Kansa, and is brought up as the child
of a cowherd at Vrindavan, a pastoral district near
Mathura. It is whilst thus circumstanced that he has
been exalted into an object of adoration, and the
mischievous follies of the child, the boy, and the lad,
are the subject of popular delight and wonder. His
male companions are not very prominent in the tale
of his youth; but the females, the deified dairy-maids,
play a more important part in the drama. Amongst
the most conspicuous is the one 1 have named, Radha:
OF THE HINDUS. 67
and she receives scarcely less universal homage than
Krishna himself. The adoration of the forms of Siva
or Vishnu is advocated not upon the original prin-
ciple, that worship addressed to them is virtually
addressed to the Supreme, they being merely repre-
sentations of his power, Init upon the novel doctrine,
that one or other of theni is himself the Supreme:
and not only this, but in the true spirit of pantheism
that he is all things. This is asserted of Siva by the
Saivas; of Vishnu, by the Vaishnavas. This notion,
which is very widely disseminated, seems to have
orighiated with the next great class of the sacred
writings of the Hindus, the Puranas.
The Puranas are eighteen in number: some of them
are voluminous compositions. It is said that they
were the work of the same Vyasa by whom the Vedas
were arranged, and they are held in almost equal
estimation. According to a definition* furnished by
many of them , a Puraha should treat of five topics —
primary creation, secondary creation, the families of
the patriarchs, the reigns of the Manus, and the dy-
nasties of kings. The actual Puranas conform in no
one instance to this definition : the authors are often
declared to be others than \'ya^^a, and they ofter many
internal proofs that they are the work of various
hands, and of different dates, none of wliich are of
very high antiquity. 1 believe the oldest of them not
to be anterior to the eighth or ninth century; antl tlir
* [Wilson. Vi^lll■lul^l^.. l'- \ l- : lUiriiour. lili;ii;a\ . Pur.. 1. M.nH'.]
5*
68 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
most recent to be not above three or four centuries
old. In the present state of Hindu belief the Puranas
exercise a very general influence. Some of them, or
portions of them, are publicly read and expounded
by Brahmans to all classes of people. Most Brahmans
who pretend to scholarship are acquainted with two
or more of them, and 23articular sections, as the Devi
Mahatmya, are amongst the most popular works in
the Sanskrit language. Prayers from them have been
copiously introduced into all the breviaries; obser-
vances of feasts and fasts are regulated by them;
temples, and towns, and mountains, and rivers, to
which pilgrimages are made, owe their sanctity to
legends for which the Puranas or the Mahatmyas,
works asserted, often untruly, to be sections of them,
are the only authorities ; and texts quoted from them
have validity in civil as well as religious law. The
determination of their modern and unauthenticated
composition deprives them of the sacred character
which they have usurped, destroys their credit, im-
pairs their influence, and strikes away the main prop,
on which, at present, the great mass of Hindu idolatry
and superstition relies. That the Puranas represent
in many instances an older, and probably a primitive
scheme of Hinduism, is no doubt true; they have
preserved many ancient legends; they have handed
down all that the Hindus have of traditional history,
and they furnish authoritative views of the essential
institutions of the Hindus , both in their social and
religious organisation. But in their decidedly sectarial
OF THE HrNDXJS. 69
character, in their uncompromising advocacy of the
pre-eminence of some one deity, or of some one of
his manifestations, in the boldness with which they
assert his pantheistic presence, in the importance
they attach to particular observances, as fasting on
the 8th, 11th, and 14th days of each half month, in
the holiness with which they invest particular loca-
lities, in the tone and spirit of their prayers and
hymns, and in the numerous, and almost always fri-
volous , and insipid , and immoral legends, which they
have grafted upon the more fanciful, dignified, and
significant inventions of antiquity, they betray most
glaringly the purposes for which they were com-
posed, the dissemination of new articles of faith, the
currency of new gods. The Hindus are not much dis-
posed to scrutinize with critical suspicion the history
of a composition reputed sacred: yet even they have
been unable to avoid a controversy amongst them-
selves respecting the authenticity of the most popular
of all the Puranas, the Bhagavata" ; and many learned
Brahmans maintain that it is the work of an unin-
spired writer, a celebrated grammarian, named \ opa-
deva, who flourished in the twelfth century. This is
strenuously denied by those with whom it is the text-
})ook for their worship of the infant Krishna; but
there is no doubt of the fact. There is ecpially little
doubt that another of these works, the Brahma \ai-
vartta Puraha, is still more modern. It is dedicated
[Burnouf, Bhiigav. Pur., 1., p. i-ui fl".]
70 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
in great part to tlie juvenile Krishna, and his favourite
mistre»ss, Radha; and although the worship of Radha
is now so exceedingly popular, particularly in western
Hindustan, yet her person, and even her name, are
unknown to all the other Puranas, to the heroic
poems, and even to the popular literature of the Hin-
dus, to the plays, poems, and tales which are not
compositions of the last three or four centuries.
It would occupy too much time to enter into any
further details upon this subject. The grounds upon
which the opinions intimated have been formed may
be found in analytical descriptions of the contents of
several of the most popular of the Puranas which
have been published in the Journals of the Asiatic
Societies of Bengal and Great Britain, and in the pre-
face to the Vishnu Purana to which I have previously
referred \
There seems good reason to believe that the Pu-
ranas in their present form accompanied or succeeded
a period of considerable religious forment in India,
and were designed to uphold and extend the doctrines
of rival sects , which then disputed the exclusive di-
rection of the faith of the Hindus. It began perhaps
in the third or fourth century of our tera, having for
its object the extermination of the Buddhists, who in
' Analysis of the Agni Piinina: Journ. As. Soc. of Bengal,
Vol.1, p. 81; of the Brahma Vaivartta P., ib. p. 217; of the Vishnu
P., ib. p. 431; of the Vayu P., ib. p. 535; of the Brahma P.,
Journ. Royal As. Soc. of Great Britain, Vol. V, p. 61; of the
Padma P. , ib. p. 280.
OF THE HINDUS. 71
consequence were driven out of India to Siani, -Java,
China and Tibet. When the Biiddliists, whom all
parties considered heterodox were expelled, their
enemies began to (juarrel amongst themselves, and in
the eighth or nintli century a reformer named Sankara
Acharya^'' is celebrated for having refuted and sup-
pressed a variety of unorthodox professors, and estab-
lished the preferential worship of Siva. He instituted
in support of his doctrines an order of mendicants
which still subsists, and he is in an especial manner
regarded as the founder of a system of belief adhered
to by Brahmans of learning, particularly in the south
of India. The triumph that he obtained for the deity
he patronized did not long survive him. Early in the
eleventh century Raman uj a *^", a follower of Vishnu,
undertook to depose Siva and set up his own di\inity,
not only in the belief of the people, but in the more
substantial benefits of temples and endowments. Tra-
dition records, that the great temple of Triveni, one
of the largest and richest in the Peninsula, now dedi-
cated to Vishiiu, was wrested from the rival \otaries
of Siva by Ramanuja and his followers. The ascen-
dency of the Vaishiiavas was not undisputed in the
south, and a new sect of Saivas, to whom I have
alluded, the Lingayits, sprang up in opposition to
them: the contest was carried on with popular vio-
lence, and in one of the disturbances that ensued, the
* [Lassen, Iiul. Alt.. IV, 618 ff., 83(1 ff.]
** [1. 1. 608 f. Wilson, Sketch of the Rel. Sects, p. ;J4 46.]
72 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
Raja of Kalyahpur was killed and his capital de-
stroyed. The Mohammedan invasion of the south
crushed both the contending parties, and the pre-
dominance of the same power in Upper India pre-
vented the like violence of collision. The Vaishnavas
there spread with little resistance under the followers
of Ramanand, a disciple of Raman uja, to whom, or to
whose pupils, the greater proportion of the mendicant
orders in Hindustan owe their origin, and under two
Brahmanical families, one in the west sprung from a
teacher named Vallabha, who established themselves
as hereditary priests of the juvenile Krishna, and one
in Bengal and Orissa descended from Nityanand and
Adwaitanand, two disciples of Ohaitanya, a teacher,
with whom the popularity of the worship of Jagan-
nath originated. A particular description of all the
different divisions of the popular religion of the Hindus
may be found in the sixteenth and seventeenth vo-
lumes of the Asiatic Researches ^
These different orders and families are now almost
exclusively the spiritual directors of the people. Some
of them are rich and of Brahmanical descent; some
are poor and composed of persons of all castes. They
are almost all, whether rich or poor, illiterate and
profligate. Such literature as they occasionally culti-
vate — and it is one of the means by which they act
upon the people — is vernacular literature, composi-
' Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus, As. Res.
Vol. XVI, p. 1 , and XVII, p. 169. [Vol. I. of Wilson's Essays.]
OF THE HINDUS. 78
tions ill the spoken languages. These are niostlv songs
and hymns addressed to V^ishnu , Krishna or Kadha,
tales and legends of individuals celebrated amongst
them as saints, always marvellous, mostly absurd,
and not imfrequently immoral, and vague and dogma-
tical expositions of elements of belief, which, although
in some degree discoverable in the Puranas, have
assumed a novel and portentous prominence in the
doctrines of the Vaishnava teachers and the practices
of the people. These elements are passionate devotion
and all-sufficient faith.
Whatever may have been the mistaken veneration
entertained by the early Hindus for personified ele-
ments and attributes, or even for deified mortals, the
language of invocation and prayer, though reverential,
is calm and unimpassioned. The hymns of modern
fanatics are composed in a very different strain , and
breathe a glowing fervour of devotion which might
almost be mistaken for sensual love. Something of
this may have been borrowed from the Mohamme-
dans, amongst whom the Sufis have always employed
the language of earthly rapture, to describe the
yearnings of the human soul, to be reunited with that
divine spirit from which it is supposed to have ori-
ginally proceeded. "Oh! the bliss of that day," says
a Persian mystic, "when I shall depart from this de-
solate mansion, shall seek rest for my soul, and shall
follow the traces of my beloved." They possibly
derived their notions from one branch of the Hindu
philosophy, the Vedanta; but they pursued the figure
74 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
until tliey lind converted it into a gross deformity,
and ("iiriiished a model adapted to the ardent imagi-
nation of irrational enthusiasm. A remarkable spe-
cimen of this style has been given to English readers
by Sir William Jones, in his translation of the songs
of Jayadeva ^'' ; where, although to the uninitiated the
hero and heroine appear to be actuated by human
passions alone, yet the initiated find in the fervent
desires and jealous tortures of Radha the anxieties,
the hopes, the fears, the longings of the soul; and in
the steady, though sometimes seemingly inconstant
love of Krishna the affection which the Supreme Being
bears amidst all his misgivings and fallings off to man.
As a brief and inoffensive specimen of this kind of
composition , I will quote a few stanzas attributed to
a lady named Mira Bai, pnncess of Jaypur, and one
of the Sadhwis, or female saints of the Vaishnavas,
addressed to Krishna as Rana-chhor, a curious title
to have been given him, as it means the coM'^ard, the
runaway from battle.
"0 sovereign Rana-chhor, give me to make Dwa-
raka my perpetual abode. Dispel with thy shell,
discus, and mace, the fear of Yama (the deity of
death). Eternal rest is pilgrimage to thy sacred shrines.
Supreme delight is the sound of thy shell, the clash
of thy cymbals. I have abandoned my love, my pos-
* [Works IV, 235 ff. See also Lassen's edition of the Gita-
govinda, p. xi-xni. Ind. Alt., IV, 816. G. de Tassy, Histoire
de la lit. hind,, II, 54-64.]
OF thp: hindvs. 7o
sessions, my |)riiic'ipaUty, my husbaiKl. iMi'i-a tliv ser-
vant comes to thee for refuge — take her wholly to
thee. Lord of Mira, Girdhara her beloved, accept
her, and nevei- let her more be separate from thee.''
Upon which, says the legend, the image opened —
Mira leaped into the fissure — it closed — and the
princess disappeared for ever^'.
The other [principle which I have specified, and
which is closely allied with the preceding, is the ab-
solute sufficiency of faith alone, wholly independent
of conduct, to insure salvation. This doctrine is car-
ried to the very utmost of that abuse of which it is
susceptible. Entire dependence upon Krishna, or any
other favourite deity, not only obviates the necessity
of virtue, but it sanctifies vice. Conduct is wholly
immaterial. It matters not how atrocious a sinner a
man may be, if he paints his face, his breast, his
arms, with certain sectarial marks: or, which it better,
if he brands his skin permanently with them with a
hot iron stamp; if he is constantly chaunting hymns
in honour of Vishnu; or, what is equally efficacious,
if he spends hours in the simple reiteration of his name
or names; if he die with the wortl Hari or Rama or
Krishna on his lips, and the thought of him in his
mind, he may have lived a monster of inli|tiity — In-
is certain of heaven.
Now these doctrines and practices, however popu-
* [Rel. Sects of the Hindus, p. i;JS. (!. dv Tassy. I. I. II.
21-26.]
76 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
lar with the multitude, and although traceable to au-
thorities held in high estimation, are not looked upon,
it may be easily imagined, by Brahmans of learning,
with any profound deference. Their tendency is in a
great degree to supersede all ritual, whether of the
Vedas or Purai'ias, and to divest the authorized ex-
pounders of those w^orks of all influence and control
over the acts and thoughts of the people. They will
therefore not be indisposed to acknowledge that the
objects of this fervour of devotion are wholly un-
worthy of it , and that its inculcation is calculated to
destroy all moral and religious principle.
Whilst most of the existing sects have thus out-
raged even Hinduism , it is consolatory to find that a
few have taken a different direction; and although
they have stopped short of the truth, they have dis-
played a disposition to seek it which may turn to
good account. There are several sects that have
abandoned all worship of idols, that deny the efficacy
of faith in any of the popular divinities, and question
the reasonableness of many of the existing institu-
tions: they substitute a moral for a ceremonial code,
and address their prayers to one only God. These
sects are not numerous, but they are in general re-
spectable. Such however is the want which is felt by
the Indian mind of somethino; tangible on which to
lean, that they have mostly lapsed into something
very like an idolatrous worship of their founder. Still
they prove that the people are not all satisfied with
the superstitions of their forefathers, and that some
OF THE HINDIS. 77
among thein are inclined to inquire, and think, and
determine for themselves. That they offer a favour-
able soil in which to implant the seeds of Christianity
has been lately shewn by the conversion of the in-
habitants of several villages in the viclnitv of Krishna-
gurh, who had for some time past seceded from tlie
prevailing practices, and under teachers of their own
had adopted a theistical belief.
There is still another and a very important division
of the Hindu religion to be noticed , so far is it from
being a consistent and homogeneous system. The
history of this is very obscure, and the origin of the
authorities on which it rests is unknown. Tradition
is silent as to the authors of the Tantras — they are
mythologically ascribed to Siva, and are generally in
the form of a colloquy between him and his wife Par-
vati. They are very numerous, and some are of con-
siderable volume: but they are not included in any ol"
the ordinary enumerations of Hindu literature, and
were, no doubt, composed after that literature was
complete in all its parts. They are specified in some
of the Puranas, to which they must be therefore an-
terior*'. They have been but little examined by Euro-
pean scholars, but sufficient has been ascertained to
warrant the accusation that they are authorities for
all that is most abominable in the present state of tlic
Hindu religion.
The ereat feature of the religion taught l»y the
[Lasseu, liul. Alt.. IV, G33 f. NVilsm,. H.l. Si^cts, p. iMs tV.J
78 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINiaNS
Tantras is the worship of Sakti — Divine power per-
sonified as a female, and individualized, not only in
the goddesses of mythology , but in every -woman ; to
whom, therefore, in her own person religious worship
may be and is occasionally addressed. The chief ob-
jects of adoration, however, are the manifold forms
of the bride of Siva: Parvati, Uma, Durga, Kali,
Syama, Vindhyavasini, Jaganmata, and others. Be-
sides the usual practices of offerings, oblations, hynms,
invocations, the ritual comprises many mystical cere-
monies and accompaniments, gesticulations and dia-
grams, and the use in the commencement and close
of the prayers of various monosyllabic ejaculations of
imagined mysterious import. Even in its least ex-
ceptionable division it comprehends the performance
of magical ceremonies and rites, intended to obtain
superhuman powers, and a command over the spirits
of heaven, earth, and hell. The popular division is,
however, called by the Hindus themselves the left-
hand Sakta- faith. It is to this that the bloody sacri-
fices offered to Kali must be imputed; and that all
the barbarities and indecencies perpetrated at the
Durga Pnja, the annual worship of Durga, and the
Charak Puja, the swinging festival, are to be ascribed.
There are other atrocities which do not meet the
public eye. This is not an unfounded accusation, not
a controversial calumny. We have the books — we
can read the texts — some of them are in print, veiled
necessarily in the obscurity of the original language,
but incontrovertible witnesses of the veracity of the
OF THE HINDUS, 79
charge. Of course no respectable Hindu will adinit
that he is a Vamachari, a follower of the left-hand
ritual, or that he is a member of a society in which
meat is eaten, wine is drunk, and abominations not
to be named are practised. The imputation will be
indignantly denied, although, if the Tantras be be-
lieved, "many a man wdio calls himself a Saiva, or a
Vaishhava, is secretly a Sakta, and a bi'other oi' tin-
left-hand fraternity." But what can any Hindu of
reason and right feeling say in vindication of a system
which has suffered such enormities to be grafted upon
it, which could alford any plea, any suggestion, any
opening for abuses of which he admits, when he
dares not avow them in his own case, the shame and
the sin?
For further information on this subject, I nnist
once more refer you to the 16th and 17th volumes of
the Asiatic Researches.
From the survey which has thus been submitted to
you, you wdll perceive that the practical religion ol"
the Hindus is by no means a concentrated and com-
pact system, but a heterogeneous compound, ma<le
up of various and not unfrequently incompatible in-
gredients , and that to a few ancient fragments it has
made large and imauthorized additions, most of which
are of an exceedingly mischievous and rlisgraceful
nature. It is, however, of little avail yet to attempt
to undeceive the multitude; their superstition is l)ased
upon ignorance, and until the foundation is takeu
away, the superstructure, however crazy and rolli-u.
80 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
will hold together. By what means this object may
be best accomplished, admits of difference of opinion;
but there can be no disaorement as to the general
conclusion, that all means which hold out promise of
success, which are honest, rational, and benevolent,
should be tried, as far as may be consistent with the
most scrupulous regard for the obligations of our po-
litical position in India, upon the permanence and
integrity of which depends every hope of ultimate
success.
The means suggested by the plan submitted to the
University, are in every respect unexceptionable: you
are invited to employ knowledge and argument in
endeavouring to convince intellio-ent and learned Hin-
dus of the defects and errors of their religion. This is
probably not difficult of accomplishment to a certain
extent; many, perhaps most, educated Hindus con-
template with indifference or contempt the practices
and belief of the majority of their countrymen. There
are, however, obstacles of some magnitude to be
overcome, before conviction can be hoped for.
The whole tendency of Brahmanical education is
to enforce dependence upon authority. In the first
instance upon the Guru, in the next upon the books.
A learned Brahman trusts solely to his learning; he
never ventures upon independent thought; he appeals
to memory; he quotes texts without measure, and in
unquestioning trust. It will be difficult to persuade
him that the Vedas are human and very ordinary
waitings, that the Purahas are modern and unauthentic,
OF THE HINDUS. 81
or even that the Tantras are not entitled to respect.
As long as he opposes authority to reason, and stifles
the workings of conviction by the dicta of a reputed
sage, little impression can be made upon his under-
standing. Certain it is, that he will have i-eeourse to
his authorities, and it is therefore important to shew
that his authorities are worthless.
Another serious obstacle is opposed by his tem-
poral interests. Although the learned Brahman does
not participate in the profits of religious offices, yet
he derives no small share of emolument and con-
sideration from his connexion with religion, as the
interpreter of the works in which it is taught. A
Pandit, a learned Brahman, although he takes no
part in the ceremonial of religious festivals, or mar-
riage feasts, or funeral solemnities, is always invited
as a guest, and presents are made to him, of value
proportionate to his reputation. They constitute, in-
deed, his chief, often his sole means of subsistence,
as well as of that of his scholars, whom he is obliged
by the law to teach, without gratuity or fee, and
whom it is his duty also in part to support. The jjre-
dominance of a foreign government, and one which,
notwithstanding the plausibiHty of its professions,
sympathises not at all with any class of its iialive
subjects, excludes a learned Hindu from any liopi' of
the patronage of the state, and we need not woikUm-,
therefore, if be should be reluctant to acknowledge
the truth, by which he may starve, and should ding
to the error, by which alone he lives.
82 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
There is still another and a weighty obstacle to
conviction , which arises from the state of the native
mind, especially amongst men of learning. Their
toleration is so comprehensive, that it amounts to in-
difference to truth. The Brahmans who compiled a
code of Hindu law, by command of Warren Hastings,
preface their performance by affirming the equal merit
of every form of religious worship. Contrarieties of
belief, and diversities of religion, they say, are in
fact part of the scheme of Providence; for as a painter
gives beauty to a picture by a variety of colours , or
as a gardener embellishes his garden with flowers of
every hue, so God appointed to every tribe its own
faith, and every sect its own religion, that man might
glorify him in diverse modes, all having the same
end, and being equally acceptable in his sight. To
the same effect it is stated by Dr. Mill in the preface
to the Khrista Sangita, or sacred history of Christ, in
Sanskrit verse, that he had witnessed the eager re-
ception of the work by devotees from every part of
India, even in the temple of Kali, near Calcutta, and
that it was read and chaunted by them, with a full
knowledge of its anti- idolatrous tendency, close to
the very shrine of the impure goddess. "No one ac-
quainted with India," he adds, "will rate these facts
at more than their real worth, and to those who, in
ignorance of the genius of paganism, might found
erroneous conceptions on them, it may be sufficient
to recall to mind, what is the most melancholy trait
in the history of this work, the readiness with M'hich
OF THE HINDUS. 83
these devotees of superstition can assume the ideas
of a faith most opposed to it." This indifference is
undoubtedly the most formidable impediment \vlth
which argument has to contend, but it is not in ilic
nature of things, it is not, we may presume ti> ))e-
lieve, in the dispensations of Providence, that truth
should not ultimately prevail. Its effects may not be
confessed, though felt; its hifluence may not be mani-
fested, though implanted. The seed lies long beneath
the soil, but it germinates, though in darkness: and
it rises at last into daylight, and ripens into the nu-
tritious f'-rain, blossoms in the beautiful tlower, and
expands into the vast and majestic monarch ol' the
forest.
In my next lecture I propose to take a view oi' the
opinions of the Hindus on the existence and character
of God — the creation of the universe — tlie nature ol
the soul — and the destiny oi' man.
LECTURE II.
We yesterday considered the state of the lliiuhis
in regard to those practices of a religious (diaiMcler
which are prevalent in India. The (h)mestic worship
which originated with the Vedas, and of whieli |m.i--
tions are still retained in the daily and uecasional
observances of individuals in their purilii-atiou-. th^-n-
marriao-e, and their funeral ceremonies, and the pubhc
worship of the Divine attributes of creation, preser-
0*
84 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
vation , and regeneration, referable to the same works,
first engaged our attention. We then adverted to the
introduction of Hero worship by the my tho - Heroic
poems, its dissemination under new modifications by
the Puranas, and its still further alteration and adap-
tation to the taste of the people by persons and
orders of modern date, who had introduced new divi-
nities and new elements of belief in the passionate
devotion and all-sufficient faith of which Krishna was
in particular the object, and we lastly noticed the
mystical and debasing rites which, founded upon the
class of works called Tantras, were exercising at pre-
sent a most baneful influence upon the manners and
principles of the Hindus. These circumstances, al-
though comprehending even the better informed and
more learned amongst the natives of India, apply still
more particularly to the religious practices of the
people at large. We have now to treat of topics which
concern the educated and learned more especially —
to the opinions which they have been taught, by men
whom they consider as little lower than divinities, to
entertain on some of the most important subjects of
reflexion, which in all ages have exercised and tested
the energies of the human mind.
The speculative notions of the Hindus originate, in
a great degree, with the same authorities that have
enjoined their religious practices. Although in their
widest scope familiar only to the learned, and to
some only amongst them, yet the subjects of specu-
lation, and the modes in which they are investigated.
OF THE HINDUS. 85
are not wholly unknown to the literature of the people.
The Indian mind, even amongst the least instructed,
has a ready tendency to contemplative reflexion, and
delights in subtle and metaphysical research. We
need not be surprised, therefore, to find the great
mysteries of the universe, some attention to which is
forced upon the least civilized portions of the human
race, favourite objects of inquiry amongst the Hindus
from the earliest periods of their traditional history,
or that they should from the first have expatiated
freely in conjecture and hypothesis, how the universe
came to be and whence, what is the nature of man,
what his origin, and what his destination. What were
at first conjectures only were soon transmuted into
dogmas. These were next moulded into systems, and
a variety of works have in all ages been composed by
Hindu writers, in which it is attempted, with con-
siderable profundity of thought and subtlety of rea-
soning, and with still more unhesitating positiveness,
to solve all the most dark and difficult perplexities of
our condition , but leaving them , as all the efforts of
human wisdom unassisted by revelation have ever
left them, still in darkness and perplexity.
The Hindus boast of six different schools or systems
of metaphysical philosophy. They arc called the
Purva Mimansa, Uttara Mimansa, or Vedanta. the
Sankhya, the Patanjala, the Nyayika, and the \ ai-
seshika: these, although some of them oiler irrecon-
cilable contradictions to essential doctrines of tlu-ir
religious belief, are recognised by the Brahmans as
86 EELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
orthodox, and attributed to authors of saintly repu-
tation. There are other schools, as those of the Char-
vakas, Buddhists, and Jains, which, although in
some respects not more at variance with received
opinions than the preceding, are stigmatized with the
reproach of infidelity and atheism. The cause of this
difference is sufficiently obvious, and is characteristic
of a state of feeling which prevails as much in the
present as in any former period. The orthodox schools
of philosophy do not disparage the authority of the
Vedas, they do not dissuade the celebration of the
acts of formal devotion which the Vedas or Puranas
enjoin, although they argue their utter inefficacy as
means of final and permanent felicity. They recom-
mend their performance, however, as conducive to
that frame of mind in which abstract contemplation
may be safely substituted for devotional rites, and
even admit of external observances after the mind is
in pursuit of true knowledge, as long as such cere-
monies are practised from no interested motive, as
long as they are observed because they are enjoined,
and not because any benefit is either to be expected
or desired from their practice. Again, the writings of
the orthodox philosophers meddle not with existing
institutions: and least of all do they urge or insinuate
any consideration to detract from the veneration, or
trespass upon the privileges, of the Brahmans. As
long as these precautions were observed, the Brah-
mans did not, nor would they now, object to any
form of doctrine having in view the establishment of
OF THE HINDUS. 87
merely abstract propositions. The case was very
different with the heterodox schools. They went from
abstractions to things. The Charvakas condemned all
ceremonial rites, ridiculed even the Sraddha, and
called the authors of the Vedas fools, knaves, and
buffoons""'. The Buddhists and Jains denied the in-
spiration of the Vedas and the sanctity of the Brah-
manical character, abrogated the distinction of caste,
invented a set of deities for themselves, whom they
placed above those of the Hindu pantheon, and orga-
nized a regular hierarchy, a priesthood, and a pontiff;
an institution still subsisting in the trans-Indian coun-
tries, of which the grand Lama of Tibet is the head.
It is a remarkable historical fact, that this organi-
zation was found too feeble to oppose, in India, the
apparently loose and incoherent, the undisciplined,
the anarchical authority of the Brahmans. It had,
however, the effect of exciting their apprehensions
and their hatred to such an extent, that it became
proverbial with them to say, "If your only alternative
be to encounter a heretic or a tiger, throw yourself
before the latter; better be devoured by the animal
than contaminated by the man." There may be a
few Charvakas in India, but their opinions are un-
a vowed. The Buddhists have totally disappeared. The
Jains are found in some numbers and influence in the
west of India, but are little heard of elsewhere.
Besides the acknowledged schools or systems of
* [Sarvadarsan;i Sangraha, p. 6, si. 10.]
88 KELIGIOUS PEACTICES AND OPINIONS
philosophy, there is another, which, without being
considered as one of the number, and without claim-
ing the character of a system , is , nevertheless , to be
included in the list, as it presents a peculiar scheme
of doctrine on metaphysical subjects, and exercises
more influence over popular opinion than any of the
rest; this is the Pauranik school, the philosophy of
the Puranas: it may be termed also the Eclectic
school, as it has evidently derived its principles from
different systems , and formed them into a miscella-
neous combination of its own contrivance. It is not
put forward as a new scheme, but is subsidiary to
the popularization of particular objects of worship,
for which the Puranas, as we remarked yesterday,
seem to have been composed.
The Vedas are authority for the existence of one
Divine Being, supreme over the universe, and existing
before all worlds. "In the beginning," it is said,
"'this all (this universe) was in darkness." "He (the
Supreme) was alone, without a second." "He re-
flected, I am one, I will become many." \A^ill was
conceived in the Divine mind, and creation ensued.
This being the doctrine of the Vedas is that also of
the Vedanta^ the purport of which school is declared
to be the same as that of the Vedas — their end (anta)
or aim. I mentioned before that the Vedas comprise
two portions, one practical, one speculative. The
speculative or theological portion of the Vedas is ex-
plained chiefly in separate treatises, called Upanishads.
These are for the most part short , and are commonly
OF THE HINDUS. 89
mystical and obscure. The ordinary enumeration of
them is iifty-one*. There are some others, but they
are probably spurious. The whole fifty -one were
translated into Latin, and published by Anquetil du
Perron in 1801, under the title of "Oupnekhat, sen,
Theologia et Philosophia Indica'.*' His translation
was made from a Persian version, translated by order
of a Mohammedan prince, the elder brother and un-
successful comjDetitor of Aurengzeb, Dara Shukoh.
Persian translators are not very careful, nor is the
Latinity of Anquetil du Perron remarkable for pre-
cision. His version, therefore, is almost as unintel-
ligible as the original Sanskrit"""'. Some of the Upa-
nishads have been rendered into very good English
by Rammohan Roy^; and the whole are in course of
translation into French, by a Prussian gentleman,
M. Poley ■'■■"■'" . There will be no difficulty, therefore,
* [AccorJing to more recent authorities, 108. See Journal
As. Soc. Bengal, Vol. XX, GOT -19. Weber, Ind. Stud., Ill,
324-26. Miiller, History of ancient Sanskrit Lit., 325-27. Also
Dr. Roer's edition of the Taittiriya and Aitareya Upaiiisliads.
Calc. 1850, pref. p. v.]
' Oupnekhat &c. 2 Vol. 4to. Parisiis (IX.) 1801.
** [An analysis of these Upanishads, by A. Weber, is to be
found in his "Indische Studien ", Vols. I &. II.]
* Translation of several principal l)ooks , passages, and ifxis
of the Vedas, by Raja Rammohan Roy. Svo. London. Allen
and Co. 1832.
x»;v j-rpjj^, translation of only tAVo of these, (lie Mundaka and
Kathaka, has been published. In the ^' Hil)liotheca Indica" tlic
vfollowing Upanishads have appeared in te.xt and Knglish trans-
90 RELIGIOUS PKACTICES AND OPINIONS
in aC(iuii'ino- whatever information the Upanishads
may atibrd regarding the Monotheism and the Psycho-
logy of the Vedas.
The Vedanta is called also the Uttara-mimansa —
subsequent or supplementary investigation. I have
named also a Piirva-mhnansa, or prior school of in-
vestigation; the object of this is to teach the art of
reasoning, with the express purpose of aiding the
interpretation of the Vedas not only in the specula-
tive but the practical portion. As far as concerns the
former, it of course adopts the same monotheistic
principles. The Patanjala school teaches also the being
of a God ; the Nyayika and Vaiseshika teach the exis-
tence of one Supreme Soul — the seat of knowledge
and the maker of all things; and the Paurahik or
Eclectic school maintains the same doctrine. The
Sankhya denies the existence of a Supreme Being,
although it recognises a twofold distribution of the
universe, as matter and spirit.
The simple fact, then, of the existence of one su-
preme spiritual Cause of all things — supreme over
and quite distinct from the mythological divinities —
is, with one exception, the received doctrine of the
Hindus. When they come to particulars, and attempt
to define the Divine nature, their notions, as may be
lation: The Brihad Arai'iyaka, Chhtindogya, Taittiriya, Aita-
reya, Swetaswatara, Kena, Isa, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, and
Maridukya. The eight last -mentioned were also published by
the TattAvabodhini Sabha, four of these, the Katha, Mundaka,
Isa and Swetaswatara, accompanied with an English translation.]
OF JIIE HINDUS. 91
easily conceived, are exceedingly embarrassed and
unsatisfactory. Brahma — not Brahma in the mas-
cuhne, but Brahma in the neuter form, the term com-
monly applied to the supreme first Cause — is for the
most part deiiiiod by negatives. He is incor[)oreal,
immaterial, invlsiMe, unl)orn, uncreated, \vithout be-
ginning or end; he is illimitable, inscrutable, inappre-
ciable by the senses, inapprehensible by the under-
standing, at least until that is freed from the film of
mortal blindness; he is devoid of all attributes, or
has that only of perfect purity; he is unaffected by
emotions; he is perfect tranquillity, and is susceptible
therefore of no interest in the acts of man or the
administration of the affairs of the universe. Vyasa
declares that the knowledge of the Supreme Being is
not within the boundary of comprehension, that what
and who he is caimot be explained*.
These are the most generally adopted sentiments,
and conformably to them no temples are erected, no
prayers are even addressed to the Supreme. Texts
from the Vedas and other authorities, enjoining the
worship of God alone, were adduced, as I noticed
yesterday, by Rammohan Roy in support of the re-
form which he set on foot: but it is generally and
consistently enough maintained by his oppoiu'iits,
that they intend spiritual worship, mental adoration,
abstract meditation — not formal, practical, or exter-
nal worship — and that they are applicable only to
/
* [Colebr., Essays, p. 216-38.]
92 RELIGIOUS PRAC'JICES AND OPINIONS
those persons who devote themselves to contempla-
tive devotion , not to those who are engaged in the
daily duties of social life. It is, however, undeniable,
that in contradiction to these negative descriptions
we have affirmative attributes asserted: "God is a
Spirit," "the Supreme Spirit;" he is knowledge, he
is purity, he is happiness; he sees all, he hears all,
he moves whithersoever he will , he takes whatsoever
he will, although he has neither eyes, nor ears, nor
feet, nor hands; he is omniscient, omnipresent, al-
mighty; he is the maker of all things, and the director
and governor of the world; not, however, in his own
person, but through the instrumentality of agents,
whom he has created for the purpose.
That the Supreme Being exercises an immediate
personal providential control over the affairs of the
world, is, however, the doctrine of the Pauranik
school; but it is the progeny of another doctrine,
which is also theirs, and theirs alone, the identity of
some one personate and perceptible form — some one
present deity with the Supreme. There is no differ-
ence of opinion with regard to the character of the
Gods of Hindu mythology, of Brahma, Vishnu, Siva,
and the rest of the thirty- three millions of the host
of heaven, at least in their own individualities. The
most ignorant Hindu will tell you, that either of
these, as considered j9er se, is an imperfect and finite
creature; he is mighty, merely in contrast to the
weakness of man; he is immortal only in relation to
the shortness of human life. The Gods had a be-
OF THE HINDUS. 93
ginning, they will have an end; their duration ceases
at the period of universal dissolution. The Puranas,
however, as I have intimated, have it especially in
view to elevate to exclusive adoration some individual
of the greater mythological dixiiiities; and they can
claim this exaltation for their iavourite oiilv hy iden-
tifying him with that Being of whose supremacy and
eternity there is no dispute. Their God, their Vishnu
or Siva, is then no longer a limited and finite Being;
he is no longer a God — he is God. The incongruity
of attributes and no attrihutes, of perfect happiness
with feelings of affection or animosity, ot perfect pu-
rity with the human frailties and vices that reduce
the Pauranik deities to weak and profligate men, of
almighty power and wisdom with the feebleness and
fear and folly ascribed to them on various occasions,
is too palpable to be denied. The objection is there-
fore evaded. It is asserted that the Supreme assumes
these disguises for his spoi-t or for the manifestation
of his power, oi* that the whole is an ilhision and
mystery — which the grossness of hmnan conception
is unable to penetrate or comprehend. The philo-
sophical writings are, however, tree from these contra-
dictions, and they clearly owe their origin to that
spirit of sectarian i-ivalry of which the Pm-anas arc
the champions, and were, perhaps, the source. They
are foreign also to the tenor of the doctrine of the
Vedas; for although texts are frequent which aftirm
that Brahma is all that exists, and consequently is
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, as well as all other per-
\^
94 KELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
sons and things, yet none can be cited affirmative
of the converse of the proposition , or sanctioning
the doctrine that any one of the inferior divinities is
Brahma.
The /doctrine of Pantheism — the identification of
God and the universe — is another principle which the
Puninas most unequivocahy and resolutely maintain.
Vishnu, Siva, or Sakti, whatever individual they
undertake to glorify, is not only the remote and effi-
cient, but the proximate and substantial cause of the
world. Thus, in the Linga Puriii'ui, Brahma addresses
Siva, "Glory to thee, whose form is the universe."
In the Vishnu Purana, "This world was produced
from Vishnu; it exists in him; he is the cause of its
continuance and cessation; he is the world "■\" In the
Kalika Purana, the goddess Kali is said to be identical
with the universe, as well as distinct from it; and in
the Brahma Vaivartta, even Radha is eulogized as
"the mother of the world, and the world itself; as
one with primaeval nature — with universal nature,
and with all created forms; with all cause, and with
all effect." Expressions of this tenor occur in every
page of the Puranas; and although something may be
ascribed to the exaggerations of panegyric, and the
obscurities of mysticism, yet the declarations are
too positive and reiterated to admit- of reasonable
doubt. And it cannot be questioned that these wri-
ters confound the creature with the Creator, and
* [Wilson, Vishnu Pur., p. G.]
OF THE HINDUS. 95
expose themselves justly to the imputation of gross
materialism.
Little doubt can be entertained that the materialism
of the Purahas derives some countenance from the
Yedas. Universality is there predicated of th(^ Su-
preme Being directly, without the intervention of ;^l^•
one of his hypostases. Thus it is said, "This whole
is Brahma, from Brahma to a clod of earth. ]>raluna
is both tlie efticient and the material cause of the
world. He is the potter by whom the fictile vase is
formed; he is the clay of which it is fabricated.
Every thing proceeds from him, without waste or
diminution of the source, as light radiates from the
sun. Every thing merges into him again, as bubbles
burstino- minole with the air, as rivers fall into the
ocean, and lose their identity in its waters. Every
thing proceeds from and returns to him, as the web of
the spider is emitted from, and retracted into itself"."
These and similar illustrations speak the language of
materialism too plainly to l)e misunderstood, although
it may be possible that the full extent of their signi-
iication was not intended; that these comparisons are
not to be interpreted too literally; that they purpose
no more than to assert the oi-igin of all things irom
the same first Cause; that the authors ol" the texts
may have been in the same {predicament as tlie author
of the "Essay on Man", and iuculcated uialerialisiu
without being aware of it.
"* [Transact. R. As. Soc. , 111, -JUI.]
V
96 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
The distinction however did not escape the notice
of the philosophers; and the schools, which are pro-
bably the most ancient, carefully discriminate between
spirit and matter, as the two opposite elements by
whose temporary association the world is compounded.
This is particularly the case with the Sankhya, the
doctrines of which school may be seen in the trans-
lation of one of its text -books (the Sankhya Ktirika),
printed in Oxford ^ Matter is by the Sankhyas sub-
tilized, in its undeveloped state, into a principle, the
precise character of which is not very intelligible, but
to which the vague denomination of "Nature" may
be applied. They do not however question the reality
of substance: the various forms of substance, gross
material forms, they trace back through others more
subtile, which proceed from one imperceptible, in-
definable Prakriti or nature. They maintain that
causes and effects are essentially the same, and there
is no real difference between a product and that which
produces is. Consequently, as all substances are pro-
ducts of nature, nature itself is substantial; that is, it
is matter. Matter and spirit, then, are the two ele-
ments of the universe; both unproduced; the former
productive, the latter not; both eternal and indepen-
dent; subject to change of form and condition, but
incapable of destruction; combining, from the in-
fluence of a controlling necessity, for a given object
' Sankhya Kiirika, translated from the Sanskrit, &c. 1 Vol.
4to. 1837. Allen and Co.
OF THE HINDUS. 97
and a definite term, but perpetually reverting to a
primitive, inert, and reciprocal independence.
It might be supposed that the Vedanta philosophy,
professing to carry out the doctrine of the Vedas,
would hav^e been next in order of time to those works ;
but this is questionable: and it seems not improbable
that the system originated in the purpose of exone-
i-atino" the Vedas from the charo-e of materialism, bv
founding upon such texts as have already been quoted
the refinement of spiritual Pantheism, or idealism,
and at the same time controverting the doctrine of
the Sankhyas and the Nyayikas, which maintained
the distinct and independent existence of matter and
spirit. The doctrine of the Vedanta is denominated
y.ca^ f-'ioyi]i' Adwaita, non- duality; and the very title
indicates the priority of a dualistic hypothesis: the
main proposition contended for, in opposition to that
which affirms two elements of creation, matter and
spirit, being the existence of one only element in
the universe, which universal element or principle
is spirit.
But then comes the question, the solution of which
has puzzled the philosophers, not of India only, but
of the world; not only of ancient but iiiodorn times;
not only Vyasa and Sankara, but Parmenides and
Plato; Mallebranche and Berkeley: Fichte and Schel-
ling. If all is spirit, what is substance? The early
teachei's of the Vedanta school asserted it was the
Sakti, the perceptible power, the active energy, the
manifested instrumentality of the Supreme Spirit: and
98 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
therefore, though not substantially, yet essentially
one and the same. As this solution was possibly found
too subtle to satisfy the understanding, later teachers
went a step farther, and boldly cut the knot, by
maintaining there is no such thing as substance. In
the spirit of the Berkeleyan theory, they affirmed that
matter exists not independent of perception , and that
substances are indebted for their seeming reality to
the ideas of the mind. They went still farther, and
maintained that until our intellects are purified by
abstraction, until we have attained a just appreciation
of our own nature, and of that of universal spirit, our
ideas are all wrong. Until the day of true knowledge
dawn upon us, we are asleep — in a dream; we mis-
conceive of all we perceive; we take a rope for a
snake ; an oyster-shell for mother-of-pearl ; mirage for
real water. All that we see in our unilluminated con-
dition is Maya, deception, illusion. There are no
two things in existence; there is but one in all. There
is no second, no matter; there is spirit alone. The
world is not God, but there is nothing but God in
the world.
Should it be an object to acquire more precise
views of this part of our subject, they are easily at-
tainable. The doctrines of the Vedanta philosophy
have been recently the topic of controversy, as similar
doctrines of idealism or transcendentalism have ever
been and will probably ever be. The different schools
of Indian philosophy are described by Mr. Oolebrooke
in several essays, in the Transactions of the Royal
OF THE HINDUS. 99
Asiatic Society"'. In speaking of the Vedanta, he
indicates the tendency of the ilUistrations which its
teachers borrow fi-oni the Vedas towards materialism,
and asserts the explanation of Maya or illusion, to
have been an after-thought. Col. Vans Kennedy, also
a distinguished Oriental scholar, had maintained in a
work which merits to be consulted on a variety of
important points — Researches on the Nature and Af-
finities of ancient and Hindu Mythology' — that the
Hindu philosophers of every school and every period
had asserted a spiritual principle alone, and never
countenanced materialism. He therefore in defence
of his theory controverted Mr. Colebrooke's account
of the Vedanta in an essay on the subject, published
in the third volume of the Society's Transactions**^.
Sir Graves Haughton appended to this paper some
observations in vindication of Mr. Colebrooke's views,
which called forth further comments from Col. Vans
Kennedy, a reply from Sir Graves Haughton, and a
rejoinder from the colonel. These latter papers were
printed in tlie London Asiatic Journal ; whether they
have settled the point in dispute may be doubted, but
they have had the effect of bringing the principal
doctrines of the Vedanta philosophy within the ac-
quirement of European students ".
'' [Essays, London, 1S5S, p. 143 - 2G;).]
' Published by Longman and Co. 1 Vol. Ito. ISMI.
** [p. 412-36.]
' Asiatic Journal , Oct«)ber, 1835; November. 1835; January,
1839. London. Allen and Co.
7»
100 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
The observations thus made have anticipated in
some degree an explanation of the opinions enter-
tained by the Hindus in regard to the creation. The
theories that attempt to elucidate its course are more
definite and congruous than those which would ascer-
tain its cause. All the schools admit two sorts, or
rather stages of creation, one rudimental and pri-
mary, the other formal and secondary. They all ad-
mit the infinity and eternal succession of creations,
their periodical dissolution or disintegration, and
their periodical regeneration or reorganization. In
the season that precedes creation, all agree that there
is no perceptible form — all is without shape. Ac-
cording to the Vedanta philosophy there is no sub-
stratum even of form, there is no immaterial substance;
the illusion is dissipated, the energy has ceased to act
separately; all real, that is, all spiritual existence is
concentrated in its supreme source, wdiich is still all
that is. All the other schools, theistieal or atheistical,
are dualistic, and agree in recognising the eternity
and indestructibility of the principle or element of
the sensible world, the major part of the Indian
sages adopting as an axiom the prevailing doctrine of
classical antiquity, ex nihilo nihil. Whether creation
therefore took place from the will of a Creator, or
the spontaneous evolution of its principles, it is pre-
ceded by a something; by nature, say the Stinkhyas,
by simple uncompounded imperishable atoms, say the
Nyayikas. When the evolution of the first impercep-
tible material principle into perceptible form takes
OF THE HINDUS. 101
place without the intervention of the Divine will, it
proceeds from necessity. Nature is compelled to as-
sume corporeal form that the ends of Spirit may be
fulfilled, namely, that it may be embodied, until by a
series of liodily migrations it has no longer need of
such a state, it has attained knowledge which is the
cause of its liberation , and its connection with matter
ceases. "Soul desists," says the Sankhya Karika*,
"because he has seen (or fully understood) nature.
Nature ceases (or withdraws) because she has been
seen:" that is, fully understood. It is not very in-
telligible why the soul, which in its independent state
is described as already pure, should be allied with
body merely to be purified, and so freed from the
alHance. But this is a difficulty for the followers of
the Sankhya to explain.
The mode in which the Divine will operates as it
is alluded to in the Vedas , is not attempted to be ex-
plained. He wills creation to be, and it is. In the
systems in which primaeval crude matter is the sub-
ject of Divine agency, its development is ascribed to
an influence communicated to it by the Divine will,
by which it receives motion and life. This appears
to have been expressed in language originally meta-
phorical, but some of the Puranas have understood
it literally , and abusing the figure of personification,
have described the production of the world as if it
was analogous to that of animal birth. The abuse is
of very old date, and not confined to the Hindus.
* [66.]
102 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
The mundane egg, the form in which, according to
Manu*, the rudiments of the world are first mani-
fested, was not unknown, as you are well aware, to
the ancient cosmogonies of Grreece.
In whatever mode movement is imparted to the
first inert principle of things , the stages by which it
evolves into the actual variety of perceptible forms
are much the same in the different systems ; the first
product is intelligence; thence proceeds egotism, or
M the consciousness of individuality; thence come the
senses; thence the rudiments of the objects of sense
or the subtle elements, and from them the gross or
perceptible elements ether, air, fire, water, earth are
developed, and they are the compound ingredients of all
visible and tangible form. A more particular detail may
be found in the Sankhya Karika and Vishnu Purana*^'.
The elements of forms thus developed from pri-
mary matter remain unaltered for a day of Brahma :
a tolerably long interval, 2,160,000,000 years. At
the end of this period , Brahma sleeps. The material
forms which then occupy the world, and the lower
spheres of the universe, are then consumed by fire;
the fire is extinguished by mighty rains, and the globe
becomes a shoreless ocean. The sages, the gods, the
elements survive, and when Brahma wakes and finds
what mischief his slumbers have generated, he sets
to work to repair it. With the materials ready to his
* [1,9. Vishnu Pur. p. 18. A. H. A. Kellgren, Mythus de
ovo mundano. Helsingfors. : 1849, p. 9 ft". Weber, Ind. Stud., II, 382.]
** [S. K. 22 flf. V. P. p. 14 ff.]
OF THE HINDUS. 103
hands, he reman ufactures the earth and its inhabi-
tants, and this is what is intended by secondary
creation. Tliis kind of creation is repeated daily
during the 100 years of Brahma's existence; — a term
which cannot be expressed in mortal years by any of
our scales of numeration, but w^hich may be written
with fifteen figures, or 311,040,000,000,000 years*.
At the end of this term Brahma himself expires,
and with him die all the gods and holy sages, and
all forms whatever retrograde successively into their
constituent elements, until the whole is finally merged
into the single or double rudiment of being, universal
spirit, or primary matter and primary spirit, ac-
cording to the theories of the dualistic or non-dualistic
philosophers. After a considerable interval, similar
causes produce similar effects; nature and spirit are
again in movement, the creation is renewed, and the
universe thus eternally fluctuates between existence
and non-existence, without any motive, without any
end, that rational conjecture can guess at.
Upon the subject of the extravagant chronology
of the Hindus it may be remarked, that the enormous
periods of which it is com])osed are of a purely mytho-
logical character. The attempts that have been made
to account for them on astronomical computations
have led to no satisfactory results. How far they are
analogous to similar extravagancies in the chronology
of other nations of antiquity is also undetermined:
* [Dr. J. Muir's Original Sanskrit Texts, I, 18 ff,]
104 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
the subject is only of importance as furnishing an
additional argument against the authority of those
works in which it is seriously affirmed as truth.
The philosophical systems take no notice of the
creation of man except in the abstract : for the origin
of the human race we must have recourse to other
authorities, and particularly to the Puranas, in which
various accounts of the occurrence are narrated. It is
not difficult to detect, through all their embellish-
ments and corruptions, the tradition of the descent
of mankind from a single pair, however much they
have disguised it by the misemployment of the figures
of allegory and personification. The eniljodied crea-
tive attribute, the agent in formal creation, Brahma,
is fabled to have divided himself into two creatures —
one male, one female; from their union the first man
and first woman were born, ,who married and begot
children, and from them sprang not only mankind
but all living creatures. This is the general outline
of the mode in which it is related that the earth was
peopled, and it is probably traceable to the Vedas;
but the heroic poems and the Puranas have re-
modelled the tale in a variety of shapes, until it pre-
sents an incoherent and conflicting series of legends —
not always very intelligible, and sometimes not very
decent. I must refer for details to the Vishnu Purana*.
The description of the phenomena of secondary
creation includes an account of the disposition of the
[See Dr. J. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts I, 18-43.]
OF TIIK HINDUS. 105
universe, of the different spheres or worlds, of the
situation and size of the planets, and of the divisions
of the earth. As long as the geography of the Hindus
is restricted to India, it is sufticiently accurate; but
as soon as it extends beyond those limits it is wholly
fanciful and absurd. The Puranas distribute the earth
into seven concentric circles or rines, each forming;
an annular continent, and being separated from the
next in succession by a circumambient ocean. These
oceans vary also as to their constituent parts: and
besides seas of fresh and salt water, we have them of
treacle, honey, milk, and wine. The whole is encom-
passed by a stupendous mountain belt, beyond which
lies the religion of darkness; and in the centre of all,
which is also the centre of the continent we inhabit,
towers Mount Meru, to the height of 64,000 miles*.
The astronomy is more moderate , but the mythologic
or Pauranik astronomy is as incompatible with the
scientific astronomy of the Hindus as it is with the
Copernican system. Much of the astronomy of the
Hindus, properly so called, agrees with that of Eu-
rope, and advantage has judiciously been taken of the
difference between the inventions of their Purarius
and the facts of their astronomers to convict the
former even by native testimony of absurdity and
error. It is also through geography and astronomy
that the first and strongest impressions have been
made upon the minds of native youths who have re-
[Vishiiu Fur. p. 166 ff. Bhag. Pur. V, 16-20.]
106 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
ceived an English education: acquaintance with the
extent and divisions of the earth, and with the leading
phenomena of the heavens, however superficial, is
fatal to all faith in the extravagances of the Puranas,
and affixes discredit to whatever they inculcate.
Man being created and provided with a habitation,
the next question to be considered is the object of
his existence. For what is he designed? Final libera-
tion. What that is understood to be I shall presently
endeavour to explain ; but it is necessary first to offer
a few words respecting the mode in which it is ima-
gined that the purposes of human life may be best
effected. The social institutions of the Hindus appear
to have originated with the Vedas, and present, as is
well known , the characteristic peculiarity of the dis-
tinction of castes. The original scheme contemplates
but four — the Brahman, whose duties were to study
and teach the Vedas, and conduct the domestic wor-
ship of the next two classes. The Kshatriya was the
warrior and prince, whose duties were to fight and
govern. The Vaisya was the merchant and farmer.
Both he and the soldier were enjoined to study,
though not permitted to teach the Vedas. The fourth
caste, that of the Siidra, supplied artificers, labourers,
and servants to the other three. The Siidras were
subjected to much indignity and injustice, but their
condition was never so bad as that of the Helot, the
bondsman or the serf; they were free, masters of
their own property, and at liberty to settle where
they pleased. Intermarriages between all four castes
OF THE HINDUS. 107
took place, and the only check upon them was the
degradation of the children. They were not even
Siklras ; they thei'efore formed new castes , distin-
guished according to their mixed descent and the
occupation which came to be regarded as peculiarly
their own. In the present day the only one of the
original castes extant is the Brahman: the Kshatriya,
Vaisya, and Sudra are extinct; and the iniunnerable
castes which are now met with are in part the repi-e-
sentatives of the ancient mixed castes , but in a still
greater degree are the progeny of later times, and
distinctions unauthorizedly assumed by the people
themselves. For it is a great mistake to imagine that
caste in India is either a burden or a disgrace. The
notion is European, springing like many others out of
the belief, that our own customs and feelings furnish
an infallible standai'd by which to measure those of
other nations. The fact is, that even with the most
abject classes caste is a privilege, not a shame: and
in proportion as the scale of society descends, so are
the people more tenacious of their caste. Even the
Mohammedans, to whose religion such a distinction
is as unconn-enial as it is to Christianitv, imitate in
India their Hindu countrymen in this particular, and
pique themselves upon theii' caste. The principle of
the distinction is of course indefensible, and in some
parts of India, or under particular circumstances, it
is oppressively enforced. In practice, however, where
European influence predominates, little more incon-
venience results from it than from the distinctions
108 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
of rank in the countries of Europe. The diUgent dis-
charge of the duties assigned to each caste is one of
the means by which the members are prepared for
the attainment of higher grades of perfection.
The period of hfe, of the three master castes, was
divided into four portions or stages. The first, that
of the student, was to be devoted to sacred study;
the second, that of the householder, to the duties of
active life; the third, that of the hermit, to solitude
and contemplation; the fourth and last, that of the
mendicant, to self-denial and abstraction. This dis-
tribution leaves, therefore, but one -fourth of exist-
ence for the offices of a householder, the father of a
family, the citizen; and this is one respect in which
the tendency of the Hindu system to depreciate active,
social, and moral obligations is most mischievously
manifested. It is not to be imagined that the Hindus
are ignorant of the foundations of all morality, or
that they do not value truth, justice, integrity, bene-
volence, charity to all that lives, and even the re-
quital of evil with good. "The tree," says one of
their familiar illustrations, "withholds not its shade
from the woodman that is cutting it down." "The
sandal-tree," says another, "communicates its fra-
grance to the hatchet that levels it with the ground*."
Hitopad. I, 52. Bohlen ad Bhartrih. II, 62.]
OF THE HINDUS. 100
These duties are all repeatedly enjoined, and Hindu
authorities commend as earnestly as those of any
other language, and the people practise, in general,
as much as most other people, the duties of their
social condition, filial piety, paternal tenderness, kind-
ness to inferiors, and obedience to tlio king, 'riiese,
however, as well as the duties of caste, and even
devotional rites, are held to be only subordinate and
preliminary obligations, steps leading towards per-
fection, but stopping at the threshold, and to be
cast away as soon as the interior of the temple is
entered. All the obligations of social life do no more
than qualify a man to abandon them: they are of no
avail, they are impediments in his way when he
undertakes to consummate the end of his being, when
he would lose himself entirely in imperturbable medi-
tation upon his own nature, by which alone he can
know that he himself is one with the Divine nattn-e,
by which alone he can be identified with the uni-
versal soul, and emancipated for ever from the ne-
cessity of future existence.
Now it is true that in the present constitution of
Indian society this distribution of the periods of life,
beyond that of the student, is never regarded, ex-
cept by a few, who prefer a life of lazy mendicity, ov
by some half-crazed enthusiast, who thinks it possibk'
to realise the letter of the law. The great l)ody oi'
the people, Ih-ahmans included, pursue their worldly
avocations as long as their faculties permit, spend the
decline of life in the bosom of their families, and die
V
110 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
peaceably and decently at home. But although the
practice is discontinued the doctrine"" remains, and
hifluences opinion; and devotional ceremonies, pilgri-
maoe, penance, and abstract contemplation, have an
undue preponderance in the estimation of the people,
even the best informed amongst them, over active
duties and the precepts of morality. As to the com-
mon people, they have, as I indicated in my last, a
still lower scale, and they find a ready substitute for
the inconveniences of all moral restraint in the fer-
vour of that faith which they place in Vishnu, and
the unwearied perseverance with which they train a
parrot or a starling to repeat his names, to articulate
Krishna-Radha, or Sita-Ram.
What then are the consequences which the Hindus
propose to themselves from the fulfilment of any de-
scription of prescribed duties or acts of merit? Those
who profess devoted attachment to a popular deity
expect to be rewarded by elevation to the heaven in
which he is supposed to dwell, and to reside there for
ever in ecstatic communication or union with him.
These notions, however, are innovations; and even
the independent establishments, the several heavens
of these divinities, are modern contrivances. The
heaven of Krishna, Go-loka, the sphere or heaven
of cows, has grown out of the legends of his boy-
hood, whilst straying amongst the pastures of Vraj.
There is no such place in the celestial topography
* [Man. 6,1. 33.J
OF THE HINDUS. Ill
of the Vedas, or of tlie most genuine of the Pu-
ranas.
Accordhig to what appears to be the most uneieiit
and authentic theory of the future state of man,
punctual performance of rehgious rites, witli (hie at-
tention to moral conduct, and entire belief in the holi-
ness of the Vedas, secured for the soul after death
a period of enjoyment proportioned to the quantum
of moral and religious merit of the deceased, in the
heaven oflndra; a kind of Elysium. Neglect of pre-
scribed rites and duties, irreverence for the Brah- \/
mans, and disbelief in the Vedas , incurred punisli-
ment for a given term, proportionate to the crime,
in various hells, or regions of Tartarus. At the ex-
piration of a limited period, the soul, which in either
of its destinations had continued to be invested with
a subtile and ethereal, but material and sensible body,
returns to earth, and is born again, in union witli
some gross and elemental body, according to the
former merits or demerits of the individual, as a rep-
tile, a fish, a bird, a beast, a giant, a spirit, a divinity,
until, after sundry migrations, it ascends or descends
to man, to undergo a similar career.
Now this, I may remark, is what the Hindus
understand by Fate. They do not understand it to
depend upon the Divine foreknowledge of what a
man will be, or will do, conformably to which he
must act and nuist be; nor is it, in tkeir opinion, an
irresistible impulse given to his career, which he
cannot choose but obey. It is the result of conduct
112 rp:ligious practices and opinions
in a jorevious existence, the consequences of which
are necessarily suffered in a succeeding hfe. A man
is poor, miserable, diseased, unfortunate, not because
it was so predestined, not because it was so ordained
from the beginning of time, but because he was igno-
rant, negligent, profligate, irreligious in a former life,
and is now paying the penalty of his follies and his
sins. He cannot change his actual condition, but he
is so far master of his own fate, that by now leading
a life of innocence and piety, he will secure his being
boi'n again to a better and a happier lot.
The consequences of acts, whether moral or devo-
tional, being thus, in the estimation of all classes of
Hindus, temporary and transient, the philosophical
schools have made it their especial aim to determine
by what means a career so precarious and uneasy
may be cut short. For it is a remarkable circum-
stance in the history of Hindu opinion, that, amidst
the many varieties of practice and collisions of belief
that have from time to time prevailed in India, it
does not seem so have occurred to any individual,
learned or unlearned, heterodox or orthodox, to call
in question the truth of the Metempsychosis. It is
not only the one point on which all are agreed , it is
the one point which none have ever disputed. Even
the Buddhist, who denies every other essential dogma
of the Brahmanical religion, adopts, without demur-
ring, as an article of his creed, the transmigration of
the soul. It is, as you know, a doctrine of remote
antiquity, and it still reigns despotic, without any
OF THE HINDUS. 113
sign of decrepitude or decay, over the minds of the
nations of the extrenrie east, overBurman, Chinese,
Tartar, Tibetan, and Indian; over perhaps the most
numerous portion of the human race; over at least
six or seven hundred millions of mankind.
Adopting, then, this unquestioned dogma as the
basis of their argument, all the philosophical schools
propose for their object the ascertainment of those
means by which the wanderings of the soul may be
arrested, its transitions through all the painful vicis-
situdes of corporeal existence be terminated, and its
emancipation from bodily imprisonment and degrada-
tion be effected for ever. This is what is termed
Moksha, or Mukti — Liberation, emancipation. All
the systems agree that this devoutly desirable con-
summation is to be accomplished only through that
knowledge which they profess to teach ; not literature,
not science, not morality, not devotion, but true
knowledge; knowledge, obtained by profound con-
templation, of the true nature of the soul, and of the
universe; when the contemplatist can say, with per-
fect conviction, and with truth, I am Brahma, I am
all that is , I am one with God. The absolute state of
the soul thus liberated is nowhere clearly defined; it
ceases to transmigrate; it loses all bodily individuality;
it loses all spiritual individuality, as whether, with
the Vedanta, we consider it to be reunited with, or
absorbed into, the Supreme Spirit, or whether, with
the Sankhyas, we hold it to be commingled witli the
spiritual element of the universe, individual spirit
114 EELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
ceases to exist. Annihilation, then, as regards in-
dividuals, is as much the ultimate destiny of the soul
as it is of the body, and "Not to be" is the melan-
choly result of the religion and philosophy of the
Hindus.
I have thus attempted to place before you some of
the principal features of the religious practices and
opinions of the Hindus, to which it is fit that your
attention should be directed in engaging in any in-
vestigation of their nature. To have entered more
fully into detail would have occupied too much of
your time, and particulars will be easily multiplied
by inquiry. With the minor incidents of the popular
superstition it is not necessary to encumber the argu-
ment farther than they are countenanced by authori-
ties considerd sacred. That learned Brahmans will
readily admit the unauthorized introduction, and the
unprofitable and degrading tendency of much of the
popular practice, is not unhkely, as I have before
stated; and their indifference is likely to be the chief
obstacle to their acknowledging the inefficiency and
evil of much even of that which is authorized. They
are likely to adhere to their speculative tenets, and
particularly to those regarding the nature and con-
dition of the soul, with more tenacious obstinacy.
Dependence on authority, veneration for antiquity,
pride of learning, confidence in argument, and dis-
dain of defeat, will combine with the inherent diffi-
culties of the controversy to oppose the influence of
reason in generating conviction in the minds of the
OF THE HINDUS. 115
Pandits. Still there is no occasion to despair. Be-
sides that encouragement which a firm trust in the
onmipotence of truth inspires, we may derive anima-
tion and hope from the history of the past.
It will not have escaped your observation , that in
all the most important speculations upon the natm-c
of the Supreme Being and man, upon matter and
spirit, the Hindus traverse the very same ground that
was familiarly trodden by the philosophers of Greece
and Rome, and pursue the same ends by the same or
similar paths. The result was equally impotent; but
what it more concerns us to remark is, that all these
speculations — all the specious systems of philosophers,
at once acute and profound — all the plausible and
graceful illustrations of the most prolific ino'cnuitv —
all the seemingly substantial combinations of intel-
lectual powers still unsurpassed, were divested of
their speciousness, despoiled of their beauty, deprived
of all by which they held reason captive, and shewn
to be fallacious and false by the Ithuriel spear of
Christian truth. The weapons, which, wielded by the
first defenders of that truth, discomfited these de-
lusions, are in your hands. Have they lost their
efficacy, or have you not the skill, the courage to
employ them?
It is however to be recollected that, agreeably to
the invitation of the Bishop of Calcutta, an impres-
sion upon the minds of learned natives, that is, upon
Pandits, Brahmans learned only in Sanskrit learning,
is only a contingency. The argument is to be ad-
116 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
dressed in the first instance to English -reading na-
tives, to natives who have been educated in the
language of our country, and in the learning of
Europe. There are many such at the chief cities of
the British Indian empire. In Calcutta they are in
great numbers, perhaps thousands, and they are of
various descriptions. The greater number have only
such knowledge of English as qualifies them for
public employment, and they rarely coucern them-
selves with matters of controversy. Some very good
native English scholars continue orthodox, nay even
bigoted Hindus. They are generally however men of
mature years who studied English in early life, when
they were taught little else than words. Some who
are familiar with our lano-uaoe are amongst the lead-
ing members of the society instituted by Rammohan
Roy, to which I have already alluded; a much greater
number consist of young men whose English educa-
tion is more recent, and has been conducted on an
improved and more effective plan, which proposes to
give an English tone to their feelings and principles,
as well as to communicate parts of speech. Many of
these M^rite English, not only with facility but with
elegance : they are familiar with our standard authors,
are possessed of an extent of general information,
which few young men even in England at the same
age surpass, and have learned to think and feel on
many important subjects more like natives of the
west than of the east. These have almost all become
Seceders in difterent degrees from the religion of
OF THE HINDUS. 117
their fathers. They have not however yet adopted a
better. The last description of English scholars is a
branch from that just specified, and consists of a few
who have read, reflected, reasoned, and believed.
One of them, Kristo Mohan Banerji, a young man of
very excellent ability and attainments, by birth a
Brahman of the most respectable rank, is an ordained
minister of the English church in Calcutta.
It is the advantage of those English scholars who
halt yet between two opinions, who have no religion
at all, that the work to which competition has been
invited*, is calculated in the first instance to pro-
mote. The feeling with which most of them regard
Hinduism is favourable to conviction, and it might be
supposed , that as they have already disavowed alle-
giance to it , they require not to be enlightened as to
its errors and evils; but this would be a mistake.
Their English education has left them no opportunity
of native education, and they know almost as little
of what they abandon as what they decline to accept.
It is not possible to depend upon the durability of
impressions, taken up from a wish perhaps to get rid
of inconvenient restrictions , or from the vanity of
being thought wiser than others, rather than from a
rational estimate of the defects of a system grounded
* [In a Convocation, holden on Thursday the 13tli of Fe-
bruary 1840, the University of Oxford accepted the proposal of
a prize of £ 200, made through the Bi&hop of Calcutta, "for the
best refutation of Hinduism in its main systems, both exoteric
and esoteric".]
118 EELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPINIONS
upon a knowledge of that system. By placing those
defects clearly before them , they will become more
aware of their existence and character, and their
conviction will be rational and permanent. They will
also be able to defend their conviction, perhaps to
communicate it to others. At present truth derives
not that benefit even from its professed votaries,
which they might easily be in a position to render.
The mere native English scholar has no common de-
bateable ground on wdiich to contend with his learned
countrymen. The contemptuous answer of the Brah-
man to his objections is, "You know nothing about
the matter — you understand not the language of the
Sastras — you are unacquainted with their contents —
you are not qualified to impugn them." If his adver-
sary can shew that he is conversant with the system,
he will acquire the right of being listened to, and
he will possibly not be listened to wholly in vain.
When too at the same time that he is supplied with
valid reasons for his own departure from the national
superstitions, he is furnished with arguments and in-
ducements to seek shelter from his own uneasy un-
dulations of opinion in the harbour of Christian cer-
tainty, it may be hoped that he will not only contribute
to win his countrymen from their errors, by laying
bare their enormity, but that he will afford in his
own person an example and a guide to the adoption
of a pure and holy system of belief.
It is recommended that, with a view to the trans-
lation of the proposed Essay, it should be written in
OF THE HINDUS. 119
the form of a dialogue. The writei-8 are not to under-
stand by this a mere succession of ({uestion and
answer, or a keen encounter of wit, or even the more
equally maintained discussion of which the works of
Cicero and Plato furnish classical models. In the
style in which the Puranas, for instance, are written,
a disciple, or one seeking for information, puts a
leading question which furnishes a text on which his
teacher or instructor dilates, or he sui'i>;ests a difti-
culty or hints an objection, which is thereupon at-
tempted to be solved or answered at length.
To those who may undertake the task I have one
caution to otter. Let whatever they m-ge be urged
in charity.
It is natural to feel impatient of error — it is diffi-
cult not to feel indignant with wickedness; but, in
institutino; a discussion into the truth or falsehood of
a religious creed , with the hope of demonstrating the
latter to the assent of those by whom it is professed,
vv^e have not in view the expression of our own feel-
ings, but a kindly influence over theirs — we are not
contending for victory but for conviction — we seek
not to humble or incense our adversaries, but to con-
ciliate their confidence and direct their judgment —
we seek to work a salutary change in their principles,
and in this we shall most assuredly fail if we com-
mence the operation by disregarding their prejudices
and provoking their resentment. The Hindu is not
resentful — not unconfiding — not disinclined to dis-
cussion — not incapable of appreciating kindness — at
120 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND OPIMIONS OF THE HINDUS.
the same time he is sensitive and timid. Treat him
rudely , harshly , intemperately , it is like touching the
leaf of the mimosa; he shrinks from all contest — he
adopts the course recommended by his authorities to
the man in quest of true knowledge — he imitates the
tortoise who retracts his limbs beneath his shell, and
is then alike indifferent to the sunshine or the storm.
Let the argument, then, be enforced in a spirit of
benevolence — let it be a calm and conciliating appeal
to the understanding of intelligent men, and, although
it may fail of producing any immediate or ostensible
effect, it will not in all likelihood have been wholly
unprofitable. Important changes in the opinions of
nations are not the work of a day. Many and repeated
and long continued efforts are necessary for their
consummation, and many causes of little apparent
magnitude, and of no immediately observable agency,
cooperate for their accomplishment. It is not the
earthquake or the tempest only that rives asunder the
mountain barriers of the Himalaya, and opens its
steep recesses to man and to cultivation. The smallest
rill that trickles from the eternal snow contributes to
swell the torrents, which, bursting through the rocks,
transform declivities into valleys, and precipices into
paths, and finally descend a stately river to fertilize
the plains of Hindustan.
ON THE SIKHS. 121
III.
SUMMARY ACCOFNT
OF THE
CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS
OF THE SIKHS.
From the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. IX (1848), p. 43.
There have arisen from time to time amono; what
are considered the unlearned classes of the people of
India thoughtful and benevolent individuals, who have
felt dissatisfied with the religious practices of their
countrymen , and with the distinctions of caste and
creed by which they are disunited. They have at-
tempted, accordingly, to reform these defects, and to
reduce the existing systems of belief to a few simple
elements of faith and worship in which the Brahman
and the Si'idra, the Mohammedan and Hindu might
cordially combine, and from which they might learn
to lay aside their uncharitable feelings towards each
other.
Although not professing to be deeply versed with
the sacred literature of either sect, with the Vedas or
the Koran, the Indian reformers have been in general
men of respectable attainments, and have been well
122 ON THE SIKHS.
grounded in the speculative tenets of the two systems
which they have sought to amalgamate. Retaining
the doctrine of transmigration, they have grafted
upon it a philosophy compounded of the Vedanta
principle of emanation, or the origin of individual soul
fi'om one great pure universal spirit to which the de-
tached portions pine to return , and of the Siifyism of
the Mohammedans , in which the language of passion
is substituted for that of dogmatism, and the human
soul and the divine spirit are typified as the lover and
the beloved. These doctrines have been clothed by
the reformers alluded to in a popular dress; they
have been set forth in short metrical compositions —
odes, or hymns, or songs — always in the vernacular
dialects, and written in a style addressed to the ima-
gination and feelings of the common people. These
are usually chaunted to simple melodies, and even
where they have not effected any change of opinion,
they have become extensively diffused and have exer-
cised considerable influence over the national cha-
racter. These compositions gradually accumulated,
and , preserved in collections of various extent, con-
stitute the literature and the creed of a large portion
of the agricultural population of Upper India.
The teacher whose instructions have exercised,
although indirectly, the most durable influence upon
any considerable body and, aided by political events,
have tended to form a nation out of a sect, is Baba
Nanak, orNANAivSHAH, the nominal founder of the
rehgion and nation of the Sikhs. He was born in
ON THE SIKHS. 123
1469, at a village now known as Dehra', or the 'vil-
lage', on the Kavi, about thirty kos from Lahore, and
is said to have been at first engaged in trade as a
dealer in grain, but to have exchanged in mature age
worldlv pursuits for a life of meditation and reli";ious
instruction. The Panjab was at that time subject to
the Patthan Sovereign of Delhi, Behlol Lodi; but then,
as now, the lands were distributed chiefly among
Hindu chiefs, who united the character of landlord
m
and ruler, as rayas or rajas, over districts of different
dimensions, paying revenue and rendering military
service to the Mohammedan governors. One of these
rayas took Nanak under his patronage, and enabled
him to disseminate his doctrines without hindrance or
danger. According to the legendary biography of
Nanak, he was a great traveller, traversing not only
India but visiting Mecca and Medina, working miracles
on his journeys and making numerous proselytes.
There is probably little truth in his Arabian peregri-
nations, although it was consistent with his religious
character to have spent some time in wandering over
Hindustan, and visiting the places held sacred in the
estimation of the Hindus. It is most likely, however,
that he passed the greater part of his days in the
Panjab, endeavouring to inculcate his views among
' Major Leech, J. A. S. B., 1845, p. 3'J4; (but, query) if it is
not the same as Kirtipur Dehni, his burial place. Malcolm,
As. Res. XI, 207. Malcolm calls his birth place Tahvandi. or
Rayapur, on the Beyah.
124 ON THE SIKHS.
his neighbours and countrymen ; several of whom , no
doubt, adopted his notions; becoming, as the term
Sikh impUes, his disciples; the word being the pro-
vincial articulation of the Sanskrit word Sishya, a
scholar or disciple, the sibilant sh being invariably
pronounced kh in the western provinces. From those
disciples he organised a communion , the superintend-
ence of which he bequeathed to one of his principal
pupils, named Angada, establishing a sort of hie-
rarchy, to which perhaps it M^as owing that his fol-
lowers were kept together as a distinct body. The
successor of Angada, Amara Das, became possessed
of some temporal power, and built the fort of Kaja-
rawal. It would appear, however, that secular ag-
grandisement was not regarded as altogether orthodox,
and the Sikhs, who restricted their views to purely
religious objects, separated from Amara Das and at-
tached themselves to Dharmchand, the grandson of
Nanak, as their 'Guru' or spiritual head. They then
became known as Uddsis, or persons estranged from
worldly hopes or fears, or as 'Nirmalas', individuals
free from soil or sin. It is chiefly from these classes
of Sikhs, the Udasis, and Nirmalas, that teachers of
the theism of Nanak are to be found in almost every
considerable city of Hindustan, sometimes singly or
sometimes assembled in Sangats or convents. They
have nothing of a political or military character, but
devote their time to daily prayers and observances
addressed chiefly to the memory of Nanak and the
perusal and adoration of the sacred volume which
ON THE SIKHS. 125
contains illustrations of his doctrines by various hands,
in different dialects of Panjabi and Hindi.
This exposition of the Sikh faith , if anything so
vague deserves the appellation of a faith, is known as
the Adi Granth, the 'First Book' to distino-uish it
from another scriptural authority of the Sikhs of a
later date. It is a large volume but contains no syste-
matic exposition of doctrines — no condensed creed —
no rules for ritual observances. It is an unconnected
compilation of verses of a mystical or a moral pur-
port, ascribed mostly to Nanak, but comprehending
the writings of other persons, many of whom had
nothing in common with Nanak, except a general
accordance in a sort of spiritual quietism and the
acknowledgment of one divine cause and essence of
all things. The Adi Granth was put together by Ar-
JUNMAL — the fourth Sikh Guru or pontiff in descent
from Nanak — who flourished in the reign of Jehanglr,
towards the end of the sixteenth century. The bulk
of the materials are attributed to the predecessors of
Arjunmal, but it is admitted that thirteen other per-
sons contributed to its contents — or, as the Sikhs say,
twelve and a- half, intending, most ungallantly, by
the half, a female author. The copies of the Adi
Granth, however, found in different parts of India,
vary considerably as to the subordinate contributors * ;
the greater number of the poems bear the name of
Nanak, but the rest are by dift'erent hands, as Kabi'r,
* [Comp. also Garciii de Tassy, histoire de la litterature
Hindoui et Hindoustani, I, 385 ff.]
126 ON THE SIKHS.
Sheikh Ferid-ad-din, Ramanand, Mira Bai, and other
well known sectarian or Vaishnava teachers. The fol-
lowing are specimens of the poems ascribed to Nanak :
My holy teacher is he who teaches clemency;
The heart is awake within , who seeks may find.
Wonderful is that rosary, every bead of which is the breath;
Lying apart on its recess it knows what will come to pass :
The sage is he who is merciful, the merciless is a butcher.
Thou wieldest the knife, and recklessly exlaimest,—
"What is a goat? What is a cow? What are animals?"
But the Sahib declares that the blood of all is one:
Saints, prophets, seers, have passed away in death;
Nanak , destroy not life for the preservation of the body.
Again —
Love and fix thy whole heart upon him,
The world is bound to thee by prosperity:
While it endures many will come and sit with thee and surround thee ;
But in adversity they will fly, and no one will be nigh thee:
The woman of the house who loves thee, and is ever in thy bosom,
When the spirit quits the body, will fly with alarm from the dead.
Such is the way of the world;
The frailty of human affections.
Do thou, Nanak, at thy last hour, rely alone upon Hari.
Or again —
Thou art the Lord, to thee be praise;
All life is with thee :
Thou art my parents; I am thy child;
All happiness is from thy mercy:
No one knows thy end.
Highest Lord among the highest.
All that is from thee obeys thy will,
Thy movements, thy pleasure: thou alone knowest
Nanak , thy slave , is a free-will ottering unto thee.
Under the tolerant reigns of the first princes of the
ON THE SrivHS. 127
house of Timur the propagators of the doctrines of
Nanak were unmolested, and seem to have risen ra-
pidly in temporal as well as spiritual consideration.
Ramdas, the third Guru, enjoyed the favour of Akbar,
and settled himself in an ancient city in the Panjab,
which he so much enlai-ged and impro\-ed that it was
called after him Ramdaspur. Among his improve-
ments was the construction of a laroe tank which was
called by the people the lake of Ambrosia or Ann-it-
sar, and this has, in modern times, given its designa-
tion and sanctity to the town so denominated, Ann-it-
sar. The wealth and consequence attained by the
Sikh Gurus had, however, the effect of drawing u})on
them the jealousy and persecution of the Mohamme-
dans, and Arjunmal, the fourth Guru after Nanak,
was seized and thrown into prison, where he either
died or was put to death. The act was resented by
the Sikhs of the province, who took up arms under
Har Govind*, the son of Arjun, and exacted ven-
geance from all whom they regarded as hostile to
their religion. Then* rising, however, seems to have
been regarded as a mere local disturbance, involving
no political crisis, much less as indicating the future
development of an independent state.
This persecuting spirit continued through several
successions of Sikh Gurus, and in some cases, it
might be more correctly termed retribution: for the
Sikhs, dispossessed of their acquisitions or inheritance
* [According to the Dabistan, 11, p. 273, Arjunmal was fol-
lowed by his brother Bharata. See Trover's note.]
128 ON THE SIKHS.
in the plains, and compelled to secrete themselves in
the hills, collected into bands of plunderers and rob-
bers, and by their depredations provoked the fate
they suffered. Dissensions among themselves also
exposed them to the cruelty of their Mohammedan
governors, and their ninth Guru, Tegh Bahadur, was
publicly put to death in 1675, according to the Sikh
authorities, at the instigation of a competitor for the
Guruship; according to the Mohammedan writers,
however, he was executed for his offences against the
law by a life of predatory violence. At his death the
Sikhs had almost disappeared except as a few inoffen-
sive sectarians, or as scattered gangs of banditti.
The succession of the son of Tegh Bahadur — Guru
GoviND — constitutes the most important era in the
political progress of the Sikhs. He, in fact, changed
the whole character of the community, and converted
the Sikhs of Nanak , the disciples of a religion of spi-
rituality and benevolence, and professors of a faith of
peace and good will, into an armed confederacy, a
military republic. The worship of "steel" was com-
bined with that of the "book", and instead of at-
tempting to unite Mohammedans and Hindus into one
family fraternity, he made his disciples vow impla-
cable hatred to the followers of Mohammed. He
finally abrogated the distinction of caste, and opened
his ranks to every description of persons, even to the
very lowest Hindus, assigning to all his military ad-
herents the name of Sinh — or lion — a term peculiar
o the Rajput Hindus. His followers were enjoined
ON THE SIKHS. 129
always to have steel about their persons, to wear blue
dresses, to let their hair grow, and to use as phrases
of salutation, as a war-cry, or as responses in prayers,
the sentences "Wah! Guruji ka khalsa: Wah! Guru
ji ka fatteh." "Hurra! for the unity of the Guru:
Hurra! for the victory of the Guru;" expressions that
have been since in use even among the more genuine
descendants of Nanak, the Udasis, and Nirmalas.
Guru Govind was an author as well as a soldier,
and has left a record of his own exploits, in a work
called the Vichitra Natak, forming the first portion of
a larger compilation which shares with the AdiGranth
the reverence of the Sikhs. It is called the Dasama
Padshah ka Granth*, the Book of the 10th King, or
more correctly speaking. Pontiff; and like the Adi
Granth it is a compilation of contributions by various
writers, but they are more of a martial and narrative
than of a moral or speculative complexion. This as
well as its predecessor, the Adi Granth, is composed
chiefly in the Hindi dialect of the Panjab, written in
the Gurumukhi character, a singular perversion of
the Devanagari alphabet, retaining the forms but
altering the sounds of the letters.
To Guru Govind also is ascribed the first attempt
iit the political organization of the 8iklis by the in-
stitution of the Guru mat/i, or federal council of chiefs,
which assembled periodically at Amritsar , as long as
"•• [See Vol.1. -270 f. It is called in raiij:il»i />oswiii jxitsu/ii
da granth.]
9
130 ON THE SIKHS.
the city was in the possession of the Sikhs, to consult
on measures in which the community was interested,
and to concert mihtary operations whether offensive
or defensive. It does not clearly appear of whom
these councils were at first composed, but no doubt
they were of a popular character, and every one who,
through his hereditary landed property, or his in-
fluence in a village, or his reputation as a bold and
fortunate leader, could command the following of a
band of armed adherents, however few in number,
was admissible to the conclave, and had a voice in
its deliberations.
After making head for some years against the ge-
nerals of Aurangzeb and the hill Rajas, whose enmity
Guru Govind provoked by his indiscriminate ravages
as much as by his religious tenets, he was reduced to
great distress, and after the loss of his friends and
his children became a solitary fugitive almost bereft
of reason. Much obscurity hangs over the close of
his career; but it seems probable that he was expelled
from the Panjab by the Lieutenants of the Emperor
and led the life of a mendicant wanderer: he is said
to have been killed in the Dekhan in 1708.
Guru Govind was the last of the religious teachers,
or Gurus, of the Sikhs; but the temporal command of
his followers was assumed, after his death, by Banda,
a bairagi, or religious mendicant, who inflicted a
ferocious vengeance for the discomfiture and the death
of his friend and teacher. The Sikhs rallied under
Banda's guidance, defeated the Mohammedan governor
ON THE sriv'HS. 131
of the province, took and demolished Sirhind, and
crossing the Jamna spread desolation to Sahtiranpur,
giving no quarter to the Mohan\niedans except on
condition of their adopting the Sikh faith. Their pro-
gress was at last arrested by Abd-us-samad Khan, a
general in the service of Farokhseir. The Sikhs were
('om[)letely routed and hunted from one stronghold to
another until Banda and his most devoted followers
who had been shut up in Lohgarh, a fort about 100
miles N.E. of Lahore, were compelled to surrender.
According to some accounts they were sent to Delhi
and put to death, with circumstances of great igno-
miny and cruelty; but there is a sect of Sikhs, called
Banda-i, who believe that Banda escaped from the
fort and settled in Sindh, where he died peaceably
and left his sons to propagate his peculiar doctrines.
These do not seem to have been of any essential im-
portance, one of them being the abolition of the blue
vestiu'c — an innovation acceded to by the Sikhs in
general, but stoutly resisted by the Akalis, a class oi"
fanatics calling themselves Immortals, and who are
also known as Govind-sinhis, as being in a particular
manner the disciples of Govind Sinh. These are still
distinguished by the blue colour of their garments and
by carrying steel in the form of the chakar or discus
always about their persons.
So rigorous a persecution of the Sikhs followed the
defeat and death of Banda that they were almost ex-
terminated in the plains. Some, however, again i'ouiid
refuge in the hills, and after a period of thirty years
9*
132 ON THE SIKHS.
re- appeared amid the confusion which followed the
invasion of Hindustan by Nadir Shah. Their neces-
sities made them plunderers, and their policy sug-
gested their forming fixed settlements by constructing
forts, and compelling the cultivators to pay to them
the government revenues. They were occasionally
repressed by the energy of the viceroys of Lahore,
but the distracted state of public affairs during the
repeated incursions of Ahmed Shah of Kabul was pro-
pitious to their growth in numbers and independence,
and from this period they continued to gather strength
and audacity, until they gradually established them-
selves in Sirhind and the eastern portion of the Pan-
jab, between the Ravi and the Setlej. The death of
Ahmed Shah, the dissensions among the Afghans on
the one hand , and the total prostration of the sover-
eignty of Delhi on the other , enabled them to appro-
priate to themselves the resources of the country, to
confirm their authority over the inhabitants, and to
complete a kind of national organization.
The Sikh constitution grew naturally out of their
political situation. During the period of recovery from
the depression to which they had been reduced by
the vigour of the Mohammedan officers, they issued
from their retreats, for the sake of the plunder on
which they depended for subsistence, in bodies of
various strength under a leader who, from his per-
sonal character or his family influence, could gather
a party round him. He was assisted by his relations,
or by companions also enjoying consideration among
ON THE SfKHS. 133
the fugitives, and bringing contributions to the force
of the leader. When they were successful, the party
remained located in the country which they had ra-
vaged, and divided it among them; a larger portion
of the conquered territory was set apart for the leader,
but portions were distributed to every one who had
taken a prominent share in the expedition. It might
sometimes happen that the land itself, where left de-
solate and waste, constituted the allotments, but the
usual plan was to leave the Rayats, whether Hindus
or Mohammedans, unmolested, on consideration of
their acknowledging allegiance and paying the govern-
ment revenue to their new lords. In the fluctuating
fortunes of the Panjab these lordships were at first of
but ephemeral duration, but as some expired or were
extinguished they were replaced by others, and some
of them taking permanent root survived the depen-
dencies of the Mohammedan Governments, upon whose
ruin they had risen. This was the origin of the va-
rious petty Sikh chiefships which, in the beginning of
the present century , spread over the eastern portion
of the Panjab, from the Jamna to the Ravi, com-
prising in their subjects different races both Moham-
medan and Hindu, the hereditary occupants and
actual cultivators of the soil who constituted , as they
still constitute, the majority of the population \
' M. Jacquemont repeatedly observes that the Mohammedans
and Hindus much outnunibi'r tlic^Sikhs. According to Captain
Lawrence, the popuhition of the Panjab nuiy be U)osely esti-
mated at 1,500,000, of whom 750,000 are Hindus, 500,000 Musal-
134 ON THE SIKHS.
The partition of the lands among the relatives and
confederates of the leader led to another peculiarity
in the Sikh constitution. The portions varied in ex-
tent and value according to the power and influence
of each member of the confederacy, and the larger
allotment as well as a predominating influence was
assigned to the leader of the party ; but each member
of the confederacy, who considered that he had ac-
companied the leader as his friend and companion,
claimed to exercise independent authority over his
own share, and to be exempt from every kind of sub-
ordination or control. He was willino- to be regarded
as voluntarily connected with the chief, and with the
other members of the original confederacy, and, in
general, was prepared to make common cause with
them, but he disdained to be fettered by any kind of
allegiance either to an individual or the association.
In this manner sprang up the several Misals, or vo-
luntary associations of the Sikhs, acknowledging a
common designation and a common head, and com-
bining with each other on particular occasions , or in
times of emergency to form the Guru mata, the na-
tional council or diet, in which every member of each
Misal, however limited his resources, had an equal
vote. Twelve such Misals existed in the palmy days
of the Sikh confederacy; but those on the north and
west of the Setlej were annihilated by the all devouring
mans, and only 250,000 Sikhs. Captain Burnes made the popu-
lation larger, but the proportions much the same.
ON THE SIKHS. 135
ainhition of Ranjit Sing, and those between the Setlej
and the Janma spontaneously dissolved under the
protection of the British Government. The last general
diet of the Sikhs was held in 1805, when the fugitive
Holkar, and his pursuer Lord Lake, penetrated into
the Panjab.
This notion of a unity of interests, or national iden-
tity among the Sikhs, as forming part also of a com-
munity of religion, was designated as the Khalsa, the
Church Militant, if it might be so interpreted, for it
expressed a vague notion of the Sikhs being under
one spiritual guidance in temporal as well as spiritual
affairs — a sort of abstract theocracy. The term has
since come to be applied to the temporal government
alone, and the late Maharaja deposed Guru Govind,
Nanak, and the Supreme Being, whom the Sikhs pro-
fessed to look up to, from even their abstract or typi-
cal participation in the Khalsa. At no time, indeed,
was this imaginary unity so well maintained as by
Ranjit, whose elevation was in a great degree ascri-
bable to the disunion which prevailed among the se-
veral Misals, and the conllicting pretensions of their
members : a sketch of his rise will best illustrate the
characteristics of the Sikh confederacy.
The first of the family of the late Maharaja Ranjit
Sing, of whom any record has been preserved, was a
Jat farmer, whose patrimony, it is said, consisted of
three ploughs and a well. His son was a convei-t to
the Sikh faith, and abandoning agriculture enlisted as
a private horseman in the service of a Sikh chief.
136 ON THE SIKHS.
His son Charat Sing became a petty chief himself,
and levied a small troop of horse with which he plun-
dered the country. Being successful in his incursions
he built a fort near Gajrauli, at no great distance from
Lahore, and compelled the villages in the vicinity to
pay to him the government assessments. The Afghan
governor of Lahore attempted to dislodge him , but
the Sikhs flocked to his succour in such numbers that
the Afghan was glad to desist from the enterprise and
shelter himself in Lahore. These events enabled Cha-
rat Sing to extend his acquisitions, and while re-
serving to himself the Sirdari portion he distributed
among his principal associates the remainder of the
districts whose revenues he had appropriated. He
was thenceforward the head of a Misal, that of Sukar-
chak, the name of the village in which his ancestors
had resided. His Misal was one of the least consider-
able of the twelve, being able to send but 2500 horse
into the field, while several of the others furnished
10,000 or 12,000.
The son and successor oi Charat Sing, Maha Sing,
distinguished himself by his military and political
talents, and greatly extended the power of the con-
federacy of which he was the leader, although he died
in 1792 at the early age of twenty-seven.
He was succeeded bis his only son Ranjij', then in
his twelfth year, under the regency of his mother,
but at the age of seventeen he put her to death for
alleged misconduct, and assumed the direction of
aifairs. His resources were much improved bis his
ON THIO SIKHS. 137
marriage with the daughter of Sada Kuiiwar. wlio had
been left by her husband the regent oi the Ghani
Misal, whose possessions extended east of Lahore and
included Amritsar. He became possessed also of the
city of Lahore under a grant from Shah Zeman, the
king of Kabi'il, on his retreat from the Panjab. The
city, it is true, was not Shah Zeman's to give, being
in the actual occupation of three other Sikh Sirdars.
The grant, however, was held to confer a title and
had an influence with the Mohammedans, by whom
Lahore was chiefly inhabited. Their ready assistance
placed Ranj it in possession of Lahore, important from
its situation and extent, and still more from its an-
cient reputation as the capital of the vice-royalty of
the Panjab.
It would be incompatible with the object of this
sketch to follow Kahjit through the steps by which
he rose to the supremacy over the rest of the Sikh
chiefs, and transformed an ill -defined and precarious
combination of independent military leaders into a
compact and despotic monarchy. His first great ac-
cession was the annexation of the Bhangi Misal, one
of the most powerful of the whole, to his own, upon
the death of the Sirdar, by the unjustifiable expulsion
of the infant chief and his mother-regent. Taking
advantage of hostilities with the Raja of Kahlur, San-
sar Chand, he compelled- various Sikh chiefs in the
Jalandhar Doab to yield him allegiance and to pay
tribute, being assisted in his operations by the re-
sources of the (jhai'ii confederacy, under the direction
138 ON THE SIKHS.
of his mother-in-law , and by the Sikh Sirdar of Ahi-
wah'i, who became in early life and continued to be
for many years his personal friend. These proceedings
were confined to the east of the Ravi; but in 1804
Ranjit was emboldened by the distracted state of the
Afghan monarchy to invade the dependencies of Kabul,
lying between the Ravi and the Indus , and , although
he did not permanently establish his supremacy, he
succeeded in enforcing its acknowledgment in the
shape of gifts and tribute from the Mohammedan
chiefs who had hitherto held the Afghan kingdom.
In 1805 he first became known to the British Govern-
ment by the advance of Lord Lake's army into the
Panjab. No great opinion was then entertained of his
power or prospects. Sir J. Malcolm observes, his
force did not amount to 8000 horse, and part of that
was under chiefs who had been subdued from a state
of independence, and whose turbulent minds ill
brooked an usurpation which they deemed subversive
of the constitution of the commonwealth.
The principal efforts of Ranjit for the next few
years were directed to the extension of his authority
to the eastward , and several of the possessions of the
original Misals were either wholly or in part incor-
porated with his own territories. He repeatedly crossed
the Setlej, appropriated lands on its left bank, and
interfered in the quarrels of the Sikh chiefs so ob-
viously for his own advantage alone, that they became
alarmed and had recourse to the British Government
for protection as having succeeded to the power of
ON THE SIKHS. 139
Delhi, of vvliich they acknowledged themselves to be
the subjects, as hi truth they as well as all the 8ikhs
hi the Panjab orighially were, rising to independence
only when the descendants of Baber were too weak
to reclaim their allegiance. The appeal wos admitted,
but Rahjit, although he relinquished his menacing
attitude only upon the approach of a military force,
was leniently dealt with : he was allowed to keep the
places on the left bank of the Setlej , of which he was
in actual possession, however unwarrantable the means
by which they had been acquired; but the Sikh chiefs
who had so far escaped his grasp were thenceforth pro-
tected from his violence or his craft: he thence re-
turned to the westward and there sought more pro-
mising fields for the employment of his growing power
and the gratification of his ambitious designs. In the
prosecution of this policy he took Multaii, reduced
the districts between the Ravi and the Indus to his
absolute dominion, crossed the latter river and con-
quered a considerable portion of the country of the
Afghans, ascended the mountains on the north of the
Panjab, and compelled the hill Rajas to pay him
heavy tribute or to fly from their ancient seats to
avoid his tyranny, occupied and ruined Kashmir, and
subjected to his will the unoffending princes of Little
Tibet, encircling to the north the Himalayan depen-
dencies of British India, and approaching the confines
of the Celestial Empire, with which his lieutenants
finally came, not very successfully, into collision. To
the whole of these possessions he had no other title
140 ON THE SIKHS.
than the sword, and his conquests, unchecked by the
necessity of devising any pretext for them whatever,
were the rapid growth of httle more than twenty
years. A kingdom composed of such heterogeneous
materials could be held together only by the means
by which it was acquired, and an overpowering mili-
tary force was necessary to preserve the ascendancy
which it had been employed to attain. As long as he
preserved a good understanding with the only power
in India whom he had cause to dread, as long as the
British Government favoured his aggrandisement by
turning a deaf ear to the urgent appeals made to its
protection by the victims of Ranjit Sing's ambition,
he confidently prosecuted his system of aggression,
and trampled with impunity upon the rights of his
neighbours, whether Mohammedans or Hindus. The
transactions that have taken place since his decease
have sufficiently shewn the rottenness of his system ;
the instability of a dominion based upon military vio-
lence and individual ambition; the certain conse-
quences of relying upon an army as the main instru-
ment and stay of a government. The successors of
Ranjit have perished under the presumption of the
military chiefs, and the chiefs themselves have been
the victims or the puppets of a mutinous and insolent
. soldiery. That soldiery has now been pretty well
destroyed, but the Khalsa has been left in a state of
utter imbecility which will ensure its spontaneous ex-
tinction at no distant period, if it be not kept alive by
the undeserved protection of the British Government.
ON THE SIKHS. 141
Whatever may have been the poUtical organization
of the original Sikh confederacy, it is obvious that it
had ceased to exist: it had received its death-blow
from Rahjit Sing, and was latterly a monarchy of a
despotic character, tempered by the necessity of con-
ciliating powerful military leaders, or of holding them
in check chiefly through the agency of their mutual
jealousies and conflicting pretensions. The Misals
were destroyed, the Guru-mata was forgotten, nor
has the Sikh religion preserved much more of its pri-
mitive character. Its original elements were deism oi"
a mystical tendency, contemplative worship, peace
and good- will, and amalgamation of Mohammedan and
Hindu. There was not much of dogma or precept,
and its doctrines were inculcated through the channel
of mystical and moral verses in a popular style. Nanak
Shah appears to have sought the amelioration of the
principles and feelings rather than an alteration of
the creed or usages of the people: he does not seem
to have formally abolished caste although he received
j)roselytes from every order, and while he treated the
Koran with reverence he acknowledged the whole
scheme of the Hindu mythology; so do his followers
to the present day, that is, such of his followers as
profess the pure Sikh faith. They do not worship
images, they worship the visible type of the Khalsa
in the book: but they do not question the existence
of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva; and the legends re-
lating to them, to Vishnu especially, as popularized
from the Purahas in \ernacular compositions, con-
142 ON THE SIKHS.
stitute much of their favourite literature: except in
the mode of performing public worship, and in the
profession of benevolent sentiments for all mankind,
there is little difference between a Nirmala Sikh and
an orthodox Hindu of the Vaishhava sect.
Neither are the Govind Sinhis, the disciples of Guru
Govind, to be considered as unbelievers in the Hindu
mythology. They receive all the Pauranik legends as
true, but they appear to be most partial to those of
the Saiva sect, as harmonizing best with their fierce
and martial character. It is affirmed of their teacher
Guru Govind himself, that he was directed to loosen
his hair and draw his sword by the Goddess Bhavani,
of whom he was an assiduous worshipper. He says
of himself, "Durga Bhavani appeared to me when I
was asleep, arrayed in all her glory. The goddess
put into my hand the hilt of a bright scynietar which
she had before held in her own. 'The country of the
Mohammedans,' said the goddess, 'shall be conquered
by thee, and numbers of that race shall be slain.'
After I had heard this I exclaimed, 'This steel shall
be the guard to me and to my followers, because in
its lustre the splendour of thy countenance, oh God-
dess! is always reflected.'" In the account, also,
which he gives of his mission, he says that in a pre-
ceding life he performed severe penance , meditating
on Mahakala and Kalika (or Siva and Durga), in con-
sequence of which he was sent into the world by
Parameswara, the supreme god, to establish a perfect
system, to teach virtue, and exterminate the wicked.
ON THE SIKHS. 14o
The last — understanding by the term 'wicked' the
followers of Mohammed — is the part of his mission
which he most laboured to fulfil, and which was the
whole spirit of his reform. Hatred of the Mohannne-
dans is evidently the ruling principle of all Guru Go-
vind's institutions. His injunctions were, "It is right
to slay a Mohammedan wherever you meet him. If
you meet a Hindu, beat him, and plunder him, and
divide his property among you. Employ your con-
stant effort to destroy the countries ruled by Moham-
medans; if they oppose you, defeat and slay them."
The necessity, inseparable from this state of perpetual
hostility, of filling his coffers and recruiting his bands,
compelled him to have recourse to indiscriminate
plunder, and to admit of the proselytism of Moham-
medans; but deadly enmity to the latter is the ruling
element of his system. To this he has sacrificed the
benevolent spirit of the teaching of Nanak, and the
sacredness of the distinction of caste. As far, how-
ever, as is allowable by the institutions of Nanak or
Govind, the Sikhs observe the domestic usages of the
Hindn tribes or castes from which they separated;
and, in consequence, those tribes, particularly the
Jats or Giijars" in the Panjab or on the Jamna, do
not refuse to eat or intermarry with those of the same
races who have become converts to the Sikh religion.
The Mohannnedan converts are not permitted the
* [II. M. Elliot, Supplemeiil (d the ({Idssary ol' liiiiiaii li-nns.
Agra: 1645, pp. 3J5 ff. and ill ll'.J
144 ON THE SIKHS.
same indulgence, and are obliged to eat the flesh of
swine , and to abstain from the rite of circumcision.
The flesh of the cow is the only article of food pro-
hibited to the Sikhs: and on this head their prejudices
are almost stronger than those of the Hindus. Smoking
is also prohibited, but there is no restriction upon the
use of bhang, opium, or spirituous liquor, and drun-
kenness, from one source or other, is a common vice.
Nor is this the only one to which the Sikhs are ad-
dicted. The verses of Nanak and his fellow moralists
inculcate a pure code of ethics, but this is a portion
of his reform to which no reverence is paid; and no
]*ace in India is more flagrantly demoralized than the
Lions of the Panjab.
We do not derive from the travellers in the Panjab
any descrip)tion of the public or private worship of the
Sikhs, who are probably more jealous in their own
country of admitting strangers to be present at their
ceremonies than they are in other parts of India". Al-
though several persons have been admitted into the
city of Anu'itsar, it is only recently that it was allow-
able or safe to visit the sacred tank and temples in
its vicinity. The only description that has yet been
published is to be found in the Travels of Baron Hiigel.
According to him, the tank is about 150 paces square,
and apparently fed by a natural spring. It is sur-
rounded by a pavement 20 or 25 paces in breadth,
skirted by houses on one side, and having several
* [See, however, "Das Ausland"*, 18G1, p. 1165.]
'•V 'HE SIKHS. 145
flights of steps to the water on the other. In the
centre is the Hari Mandir, or Temple of Hari, in which
a copy of the Adi Granth, said to be written by Nanak
himself, is preserved — a tradition rather at variance
with the assertion that the Adi (Tranth was compiled
by Arjiinnird. The temple is connected with the em-
bankment on the west side by a bridge. The temple
is described bv Baron Hi'io'el as a handsome buildiny;
inlaid with marble, having a golden roof, and a door
of gold; and surrounded by small vestibules, the
ceilings of which ai-e supported by richly-ornamented
pillars. Before the entrance to the bridge are two
large banners of red silk, the "Wah! Guru ji ka
fatteir' on one, and "Kam Das" on the other, in
white letters. Opposite to the bridge are several small
structures, in which the Sikh Udasis and Nirmalas
are seated, to receive the gifts and reverences of the
people. Fronting this tank was the chief gathering-
place of the Akalis, whose insolence made it danger-
ous to approach the holy precincts; but they are not
noticed by Baron Hi'igel. The sacred tank and temple
of Ann'itsar were also visited by our noble President",
when Governor-General, in company with Kanjit Sing.
Whatever may have been the obstructions heretofore
in the way of a personal acquaintance with the ob-
servances of the Sikhs in their own country, they
seem to have had no objection, when out of the Pan-
jab, to the presence of European visitors; and one of
[Lord Auckland.]
10
146 ON THE SIKHS.
the earliest notices of them is the account given by
Mr. Wilkins, in the first volume of the Asiatic Re-
searches, of his visit to the Sikh college at Patna.
He was civilly treated, and allowed not only to see
the place, but to be present at the public reading of
the Granth, which constitutes the public ceremonial
of the Sikhs. They have for their private use prayers
composed by Nanak , of which those called Arthi are
recited on going to bed, and those entitled Jap are
repeated the first thing in the morning. Their public
worship, in imitation of the Hindu ritual, takes place
three times a day, at the three Sandhyas — morning,
mid-day, and sunset. I had an opportunity, when at
Benares, of assisting at the latter, at the house of a
Nirmala Sikh priest, Mdio readily allowed myself and
a friend to witness the ceremony. It was very simple.
He occupied a lower-roomed house, inclosed in a
small court or compound, and having a covered ve-
randah in front. One end of the verandah was shut
in, so as to form a small chamber or chapel, in which,
upon a table covered with a white cloth, and deco-
rated with lights and flowers, lay the Adi Granth. As
the people entered, they went singly into the room,
and made a reverential salute to the book, with the
exclamation, "Wah Guru ji;" and placed upon the
table any small offering they might have to make.
They then came forth, and seated themselves on the
ground fronting the verandah, where sat the Guru on
a chair, and his two guests on either hand of him.
When the whole party, amounting to some thirty or
ON THE SIKHS. 147
forty, had assembled, the Guru recited, in a sort of
chaunt, several hymns from the Granth, similar to
those already quoted , repeating at the end of each,
twice or thrice, "Meditate on the Saheb of the Book,
and exclaim Wah Guru!" being answered on each
occasion by all present, "Wah Guru — Wah Guru ji
ka fatteh. " The assistants then brought from the
chapel trays of sweetmeats, which were handed to
every one, and w^ere eaten on the spot. The visitors
were not forgotten. This concluded the service; but
the party assembled did not immediately disperse.
Individuals among them, accompanying themselves
with the small drum or native lute, sang Hindi rekhtas
and padas (moral and religious songs) in succession.
We departed, as did several of the natives, when two
or three had been sung; but the party did not finally
break up until it was time to retire to rest. The per-
sons present were of respectable appearance and de-
corous manners, being mostly shop-keepers, dealers
in cloth or in grain, and bankers; some were natives
of thePanjab, settled in Benares, others inhabitants of
the city from different quarters, who had adopted the
Sikh ritual, or had grafted it upon Vaishnava tenets.
Hari and Ram were as familiar in their invocations,
as the Saheb of the Book, or as the teacher or Guru.
Besides sacred shrines, connected with the history
of the Sikhs, as the places where their Gurus were
born or died , the Sikhs share the veneration of the
Hindus for several of the holy cities , as Benares, Ma-
thura, Haridwar. They also observe many of the same
10*
148 ON THE SIKHS.
holidays, as the Holi, the Dasahara, the Dewah'. The
latter is the favourite season of pilgrimage to Amritsar.
The initiation of a Sikh convert is termed the
Pahul, and is thus described by Captain Murray.
"The candidate and the initiator wash their feet in
the same water, which they then drink, having put
some sugar into it, and stirred it with a dagger; re-
peating several moral stanzas, and taking a sip be-
tween each, exclaiming, 'Wah, wah Govind Sikh.
Ap hi Guru chela!' Govind Sikh hail, himself teacher
and disciple! It should be performed in the presence
of at least five Sikhs. It is ascribed to Guru Govind,
who, when he had only five followers, went through
this form with them, drinking of the water which
had washed their feet, and they drinking that which
had washed his." Sir John Malcolm gives a some-
what different* and more dilated account of the cere-
mony, and says nothing of the previous use of the
water, which is administered to the convert by the
initiator with this injunction, "This sherbet is nectar:
it is the water of life; drink it." Having obeyed, the
disciple is told to abstain from all association with
live classes of men: the Mina Dhirmal, who, though
of the family of Nanak, attempted to poison Arjun;
the Musandia, a set of Sikh heretics; the Ram Rayis,
the descendants of Ram Raya, who caused the death
of Tegh Sinh; the Kudi-mar, or daughter-slayers, or
the Rajputs; and the Bhadani, who shave their heads
* [See also the Panjabi Diet. Lodiaua: lb54, s. v.]
ON THE SIKHS. 149
and beards. He is then enjoined to be kind and cha-
ritable, to reverence Aniritsar, to devote himself to
the Khalsa, and to study the sacred books. The
children of the Sikhs all pass through this fdrm of
initiation.
From this sketch, imperfect as it must necessarily
be, it will be seen that the Sikh rehgion scarcely de-
serves the name of a religious faith. A vague notion
of a Creator and source of all things, and of a divine
guardian and protector, pervades the poetry of Nanak
and his fellow bards, but it is little else than a poetical
acknowledgment of a deity who is defined by nega-
tives — who is without form — without time — without
attributes. The only worship of him, if it can be
called such, consists in the allusions that occur in the
odes and hynms which are chaunted at the daily ser-
vices, to a benevolent and powerful being, designated
sometimes as Parameswara — the supreme being; Sat
Nam — the true name; Tat-karta — the maker of that
which is; Adi-purusha — the first spirit; Bhagavan —
the lord; but still more frequently as Ram or Hari,
the popular names of Vishnu. Belief in the inter-
vention of a providence in mundane affairs exercises
verly little influence upon Sikh practice. There is no
public adoration of any of the Hindu divinities, nor,
as far as is known, are any temples erected to them;
but their existence is not disputed, and the characters
given them by the Hindus and the legends told of
them are devoutly credited; ;md thei-e are probably
some esoteric rites in which the worship of the Tan-
150 ON THE SIKHS.
tras is privately practised. The great distinction be-
tween the Sikhs and the other Hindus is the aboHtion
of the distinction of caste, and consequent extinction
of many of the restraints which, in the more orthodox
system, supply, however imperfectly, the want of a
purer code of faith and practice. The experiment has
not been very successful; and the worship of the
Book and of the Sw^ord, and the moral declamations
of the contributors to the sacred Granth , have led to
as great, if not a greater, laxity of conduct, and as
utter a disregard of both religious and moral obliga-
tions, as the superstitious belief and multiplied cere-
monial of the Brahmans \
' The above summary has been drawn up in compliance with
a wish expressed by some of the Members of the Society to be
possessed of a brief notice of the institutions of the Sikhs which
distinguish them from the Hindus in general. It is of course
little more than a compilation from the accounts of the Sikhs
already in print, especially those of Sir John Malcolm uiid Cap-
tain Murray, as prepared by Mr. H. T. Prinsep; recourse has
been also had to the observations of recent travellers in the
Panjab — particularly Messrs. Moorcroft, Burnes, Jacquemont,
and Baron von Hiigel , and to the amusing and characteristic
work of Major Lawrence — Adventures of an Officer in the Panjab.
EELIGIOUS FESTIVALS OF THE HINDUS. 151
IV.
THE RELIGIOUS FESTH^ALS OF lilE
IIINUUS.
From the JoiiiiihI of Iho H. Asiatic Society, 1840. Vol IX, p. 60-110.
Among all the nations of the ancient world a con-
siderable portion of the year was devoted to the so-
lemnization of public festivals, at which the people
found in the assemblage of multitudes, in the exhi})ition
of games, and in religious pageants and ceremonies,
a compensation for the want of those more refined
entertainments which are created by the necessities
and the luxury of a more advanced stage of civiliza-
tion. Some of these primitive celebrations have re-
tained their hold upon national tastes and feelings
long after their origin and meaning were forgotten,
and become interwoven with new conditions of society,
with altered manners and institutions, and with a
total chano-e of relioion. In all the countries of Europe
they have left at least traces of their former pre-
valence in the nomenclature of our calendars, and
many of the holidays which are appropriated to the
saints of the Christian Church have been borrowed
from the public festivals of ancient paganism. In
152 , RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
proportion also as nations, or as different classes of
the same nation, retain their primitive habits, the ob-
servances of olden times enjoy their veneration, and
interest their affections. They are, however, fast
fading in the Western world, even from the faith of
tradition , before the extension of knowledge and re-
finement, and before the augmented demands for toil
which the present artificial modes of life impose, when
holidays are denounced as an unprofitable interruption
of productive industry, and a festival or a fair is con-
demned as a wasteful expenditure of time and money.
It is only, therefore, in regions remote from the reach
of the task -master, where exemption from work is
occasionally the equal right of all classes of the com-
munity, that we may expect to find the red letters of
the Calendar significant signs — importing what they
designate — public holidays — days on which the arti-
ficer and the peasant rest from physical exertion, and
spend some passing hours in a kindly communion of
idleness with their fellows, in which, if the plough
stands still and the anvil is silent, the spirit of social
intercourse is kept alive, and man is allowed to feel
that he was born for some nobler end than to earn
the scanty bread of the pauper by the unrelaxing
labour of the slave.
It is in the remote East, and especially in India,
that we may expect to find the living representation
of ancient observances , and the still existing solemni-
zations which delighted the nations of antiquity, and
we shall not be altogether disappointed; although even
OF IHE HINDIS. 153
here they begin to laiiouisli imder the influence of a
foreign government, under the unsympatliizing .supe-
riority which looks upon the enjoyments of a dilferent
race with disdain, under the prevalence of the doc-
trine which regards [)ublie holidays as deductions
from public wealth, and under the principles of a
system of religious faith which, although it might be
indulgent to popular recreations, cannot withhold its
disapprobation of them when their objects and origin
are connected with falsehood and superstition. From
the operation of these causes, the Hindu festivals have
already diminished both in frequency and in attrac-
tion; and they may become, in the course of time, as
little familiar to the people of India as those of Euro-
pean institution are to the nations of the West. They
will then, perhaps, become also objects of curiosity
and interest; and in anticipation of that period, and
in order to secure an account of them whilst it is still
possible to learn what they are, 1 propose to offer to
the Society some notices of the religious Fasti of the
Hindus and Calendar of their public festivals.
The different celebrations of the Hindus are speci-
fied in their Almanacs, and are described at length in
different works, such as the Tithi Tattwa, Tithi Kritya,
Vratarka, Kala Nirnaya, the Kalpa Druma of Jaya
Sinha, and others, and also in passages of several of
the Puranas, particularly in the Bhavishyottara, which,
as it usually occurs, treats exclusively of the festivals.
The observances are, for the mo^^t part, the same in
the different provinces of India, but thei-e are some
154 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
peculiar to peculiar localities; and even those which
are universally held, enjoy various degrees of popu-
larity in different places, and are celebrated with
various local modifications. The periods also vary
within certain limits, according as the lunar month is
reckoned to begin from the new moon, or from the
full moon; the former mode of computation prevailing
in Bengal and in Telingana, whilst in Hindustan and
in the Tamil countries of the South the latter is fol-
lowed*. My opportunities of personal observation have
been in a great degree limited to Bengal , and for the
rest of India I can speak but imperfectly of any
existing practices which may not exactly conform to
those enjoined by original works, or of which no ac-
count has been published by actual observers. One
object of comnmnicating these notices to the Society
is, therefore, the supplying of this deficiency. Amongst
the Members of the Society are many who, in the
course of their public services , must have witnessed
the celebration of the Hindu festivals in different and
distant places : their better knowledge will enable them
to furnish correct information respecting those local
peculiarities with which I am unacquainted; and I
hope that they may be induced to favour the Society
with the results of their experience, and contribute to
render the description of the popular festivals of theHin-
dus as complete and authentic as those who may take
an interest in the topic have a right to expect from us.
* [Prinsep's Useful Tables, ed. E. Thomas, p. 154 f.j
OF THK HIIsDUS. 155
Upon examining tlie Fasti of the nations of anti-
quity, it is obvious that many of tlieir festivals origi-
nated either from the same or siiuilar motives. They
all bear a reHgious character, inasmuch as rehgious
worship formed part of the celebration: but that was
the spirit of the time. However erroneously directed,
the feelings of the multitude in the heathen world as-
sociated the powers of heaven, real or imaginary, with
all their transactions; but the sources to which I more
especially refer, however closely linked with tlli^
common sentiment, are in some degree varieties of it:
they constitute the species, and are obviously redu-
cible to two principal distinctions, which may be
regarded as universal or particular. The universal
festivals, which are probably traceable among all na-
tions elevated above barbarism, and which may have
been handed down I)y tradition from the earliest pe-
riods in the history of the hmnan race, are manifestly
astronomical, and are intended to commemorate the
revolutions of the planets, the alternations of the sea-
sons, and the recurrence of cyclical intervals of longer
or shorter duration. The particular festivals are those
arising out of national forms of religious worship, out
of the different mythological creations of priests or
poets, or out of imperfect narratives, transmitted
orally through succeeding generations, of occurrences
anterior to historical record. In as far as these tra-
ditions may have i-elated to the great mass of mankind,
before it was broken up into detached conununities,
or as the mythological fictions may typify real per-
156 EELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
sonages or events of the same era, or may embody
objects likely to be presented to the imaginations of
men under similar iispects , we need not be surprised
to meet with analogies of deep interest, even in the
festivals which are of particular institution. It is,
however, in those which relate to the course of time
and the phenomena of the planetary sphere that ana-
logies are most likely to occur, and do, in fact, pre-
sent themselves in the practices of distant and appa-
rently unconnected races.
The coincidences that may be discovered between
the universal or particular festivals of the various
nations of antiquity, form a subject that well deserves
careful and patient investigation. It would, in all
probability, tend to confirm the remarkable results
which comparative philology has of late so unanswer-
ably demonstrated, and furnish corroborative testi-
mony of that relationship of races, which, however
dissimilar now, in physical configuration, social con-
dition, and national character, are proved to be of
kindred origin by the unequivocal affinities of lan-
guage. In like manner as the Greek, Latin, Teutonic,
Celtic, Slavonic, and Sanskrit tongues have been shown
to be allied by principles common to them all , so in
all probability it would be found that the festivals and
holidays which once animated the cities of Athens
and Rome, the forests of Germany and the steppes of
Russia, are still continuing to afford seasons of public
recreation to the dark com[)lexioned tribes that people
the borders of the Indus and the Ganges. The full
OF THE HINDUS. 157
development of these identifications is, however, a
work of time and of research exceeding what I can
bestow upon it; and I must be content with contri-
buting only that portion of the materials requisite for
its investigation which relates to the Fasti of the
Hindus, briefly suggesting, as I proceed, one or two
of the most obvious points (^f apparent similaritv.
The subject of the Festivals of the Hindu year was
introdued to the Asiatic Society of Bengal by Sir
William Jones, who published a paper on it in the
third volume of the Researches. What he thought ol'
the in(juiry is evident from the manner in which he
speaks of the authority whence his information was
derived, and which he calls a wonderfully curious
tract of the learned and celebrated Rai>hunandana.
It was no doubt this Tithi Tattwa, a standard text-
book, as are all the works of the same author, in
Bengal. Sir William Jones, however, has taken from
this work only the heads of the descriptions, and
omits all the particulars into which it enters, with the
exception of a few brief notes; and his details are
neithei- sufficiently full nor interesting to inspire others
with the sentiments with which he contemplated the
subject. Some years ago I collected materials for its
fuller elucidation, and published in one of the Calcutta
papers brief notices of the festivals as they occurred:
but the notices were merely popular, and were neces-
sarily short and unconnected, and they have never
been presented in a collective form. The topic is
one, therefore, which, if destitute of other recom-
158 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
mendation, possesses, even in these latter days, that
of some degree of novelty , and may on this account
be further acceptable to the Society.
As remarked by Sir William Jones, although most
of the Indian fasts and festivals are regulated by the
days of the moon, yet the most solemn and remarkable
of them have a manifest reference to the supposed
motions of the sun. An attempt is usually made to
adjust the one to the other; but the principles on
which the adjustment of the solar to the lunar year is
based, are of a somewhat complicated character, and
are not essential to a knowledge of the periods at
which the festivals are held, and which, with a few
exceptions, are sufficiently determinate. They will
be specified as we proceed.
Uttarayana. — First of (solar month) Mdgha, first
lunation dark half or Moon's wane of Pausha or
Mdgha, 12th- 13th of January. — The Roman poet
Ovid, in the opening of his "Fasti"*, inquires of Janus
why the new year is considered to begin in January
instead of April, in winter instead of spnng: as the
latter is the true season of the renovation of nature,
when flowers bud, birds carol, and animals rejoice.
Die, age, frigoribus quare novus incipit annus,
Qui melius per ver incipiendus erat —
Omnia tunc florent: tunc est nova temporis aetas.
The same question seems to have suggested itself
* [v. 149.]
OF THE HINDUS. 159
to the reformers of the Hindu calendar, and accor-
dingly the new year of the luni-solar computation now
in use begins with the first of Chaitra, which falls
somewhere in the course of March, and in solar
reckoning is said to agree with the entrance of the
sun into the sign Mesha, or Aries. Thei-e was, how-
ever, a period at which a different principle was fol-
lowed^, and one that coincides with the peculiarity
that puzzled the poet: the new year then commenced
on the first of the solar month Magha, the date of the
Makara-Sankranti , or sun's entrance into the sign
Capricornus^, identical with the Uttarayana, or re-
turn of that luminary to the regions of the North, or,
in fact, to the winter solstice; a very important era
to the nations north of the equator, amongst whom
no doubt were the primitive Hindus, as bringing back
to them the genial warmth of the sun and the resus-
citation of vegetable life, and deservedly, therefore,
held to be the beginning of a new year.
The Uttarayana, or winter solstice, although no
longer considered as occurring on the first day of the
' According to Bentley, this was 1181 B.C. [Historical View
of Hindu Astronomy, p. 30.]
- The term Makara denotes an aquatic non-descript aniiiuil :
the more ancient name of the sign seems to have been Mi'iga, a
deer TT^ ch<j|^4^^- 1 nf^ ^ "The two Sankrantis, the deer and the
crab." — Tit lii Tattwa. The same work explains tlie application
of the term, the type of the constellation liaving tin- head, not
of a goat, but of a deer ^TTt ^1T^l#'T ^?RT- [^•■'' Wel.er.
"Indische Studien", U, 2yy. 41.').J
160 RELiniors festivals
year, and which, even in olden times, as we shall see,
was thrown back a fortnight, to the first of the light
half of Pausha, retains the veneration attached to it
originally as the renovator of animal and vegetable
existence, and is one of the great festivals of the
Hindus. It commences, as in our own calendars, with
the entrance of the sun into the sign Capricornus;
but, although the astronomical period is the same.
the actual dates present a considerable deviation. Ac-
cording to our Ephemerides, the sun enters Capricorn
on the 21st of December; according to those of the
Hindus, on the 1st of their solar month Magha: and
this, in actual practice, is identified with the I 2th of
January or thereabouts. I have already observed that
the adjustments of the Hindu calendar are very diffi-
cult matters to deal with, and an explanation of the
difference between the 21st of December and the 1 2th
of January is to be found only in astronomical calcu-
lations. Thus Colonel Warren observes, the dates of
the equinoctial and solstitial points, as far as they are
regulated by the solar and lunai' moveable zodiac,
are fixed, but their relation to the sidereal zodiac
depends upon the precessional variation '. For our
present purpose, however, it is sufficient to know that
the essential elements of the celebration are the Ma-
kara Sankranti, or sun's entrance into Capricorn: the
Uttarayana, or commencement of the sun's return to
' Kala Sankalita, p. 4, note. [Journal of the Aniericau
Oriental 8oc., VI, 249.]
OF THE HINDUS. 1 G 1
a northern declination; and the actual observance on
the 1st of the hini- solar month Magha falling on the
] 2th of January, or occasionally a day before or after it.
The observances enjoined on this occasion are
partly of a private, partly of a public character.
The first consist of offerings to the Pitris, or pro-
genitors, whether general, as of all mankind; or spe-
cial, as of the family of the worshipper; to the Vastu
devas, the Dii Lares, or domestic genii; the guardians
of the dwelling, or the site on which it is erected;
and to the Viswa devas, or universal gods. The cere-
monies addressed to all these are performed within
the abode of the householder, and are conducted by
the family priest. The principal article of the offering
is tila, or sesamum seeds, either separately, or, as is
more usual, mixed with molasses, or the saccharine
juice of the fruit of the date-tree, and made up into
a kind of sweetmeat, called Tiliia. Pishtakas or cakes
also are offered, composed of ground rice, mixed with
sugar and ohee: whence the festival has the denomi-
nation of TiliUi Sankranti and Pishtaka Sankranti,
the solar conjunction of the sweetmeat or the cake.
The good things prepared on this occasion are not
intended exclusively for those hnaginary beings who
are unable to eat them. They are presented merely
for the purpose of consecration, and that they may
be eaten with greater zest by the householder and his
family; nor is that all, for a portion of them is sent
to friends and relations, as memorials of regard, in-
closed in fine linen, silk, or velvet, accoi-ding lo the
11
162 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
means of the presenter, and the station of those to
whom they are presented.
In many places in Bengal a curious practice is ob-
served, called Bawanna bandhana, particularly by
the females of the family. In the evening, one of the
women takes a wisp of straw, and from the bundle
picks out separate straws, which she ties singly to
every article of furniture in the house, exclaiming
"Bawanna pauti", implying, may the measure of
corn be increased fifty -two fold, — pauti denoting a
measure of grain. In the villages similar straws are
attached to the Golas, or thatched granaries, in which
the grain of the preceding harvest has been stored *.
Besides these private ceremonies, which expres-
sively typify the feelings of satisfaction with which
the re-approch of the sun was hailed by a people to
whom the principal phenomena of the heavens were
familiar, there are also public celebrations of the same
event, expressing similar sentiments, but deriving a
more local and peculiar complexion from the physical
circumstances of the country, and the superstitions
of its inhabitants.
According to the Kalpa Druma of Jayasinha, upon
the authority of the Padma Puraha, the whole month
of Magha is especially consecrated to Vishnu, to whom
and to the Sun also prayers should be daily addressed,
* [A similar custom is met with in some parts of Germany;
see A. Kuhn unci W. Schwartz, "Norddeutsche Sagen", Leipzig:
1848, p. 407. A. Wuttke, "Der deutsche Volksaberglaube",
Hamburg: 1860, p. 13 f.]
OF THE HINDUS. IGo
and offei'ii)gs or arghyas presented. The introduction
of Vishnu is a modern interpolation'. The same work
prescribes daily bathing before sunrise. The Bha-
vishyottara'"' also directs daily bathing in Magha, with
mantras or prayers by the three first classes , silently
by Sudras and women , and affirms that the practice
is enjoined by the Vedas, a rather questionable asser-
tion. The same may be said of the Vaishnava for-
mulae, given by Raghunandana; according to whom
the |)erson performing his ablutions is to invoke va-
rious personifications of Vishnu. Thus the Sankalpa,
or previous prayer, is, "By this bathing, when the
sun is in Makara, be thou, oh Magha, oh Govinda,
oh Achyuta, oh Madhava, oh God, the giver of the
promised reward to me*"^''." He is then to bathe, calling
to mind Vasudeva, Hari, Krishna, Sridhara, and to
say, "Salutation be to thee, oh Sun, loi-tl of the world,
giver of light, do thou make perfect this great woi--
ship, this bathing in Magha**"."
Whatever may be the date of this mixtni'e oi' tenets,
the ablution is no doubt an ancient portion of the i-ite.
' The ablution is to be preceded by a fast and foHowod by
a feast and gifts to Rrahnians. xj^ Wcflf^^ ^^Tf^*^^*. ''^T^-
^TT^: Tithi T.
'^ [c. 107.]
**' [^ f^^T^T ^tIpTT^ IT^TT^T: ^^ 5"^ "^ I
Sabdakalpadrunia s. v. uiAgba, p. .ISlM. Tlie Niniayasiudbu (71, b,
8, Bi-nuivs odilion) n-ads ^Hlf^ instead uf ^TfTaTrfTC-J
164 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
Bathing in sacred streams constitutes an indispensable
part of most of the ceremonial observances of the
Hindus; and where such rivers are not within access,
their place is supplied by other pieces of water of
less lofty pretensions; a dirty puddle may take the
place of the holy Ganga. At the winter solstice, bathing
at the confluence of the Ganges with the ocean is
particularly meritorious, and accordingly a vast con-
course of people is annually assembled at Ganga Sagar,
or the mouth of the Hugh branch of the Ganges, at
the period of the Makara Sankranti, agreeably to the
limitations above assigned to it; that is, its identifi-
cation with the 1st of Magha or the 12th of January.
Wherever such assemblages take place, objects of a
secular nature are now, as they have ever been,
blended with those of devotion; and the Mela, which
originates in purposes of pilgrimage , becomes equally
or in a still greater degree a meeting of itinerant
merchants, or a fair*.
The number of persons who assemble at Ganga
Sagar is variously estimated. Some years ago they
were considered to average about one hundred thou-
sand; but I have been informed by high authority
that latterly the number has increased to double that
amount. They come from all parts of India, the
larger proportion, of course, from the contiguous
provinces of Bengal and Orissa; but there are many
from the Dekhan and from Hindustan, and even from
* [G. de Tassy, Memoire sur les particularites de la religion
Musulmane dans I'lnde. Paris : 1831 , p. 26 ff.]
OF THE HINDUS. 165
Nepal and the Panjab. They are of both sexes and
of all ages: many come with small pedlery for petty
traffic; many from idleness or a propensity to a va-
grant life, not uncommon in India; and there is a
very large proportion of religious mendicants of all
sects. The Saivas usually predominate.
The place at which the Mela is held is, or perhaps
it w^ere more safe to say, was, some years ago, a sand
bank, on the southern shore of the island of Sagar,
immediately to the west of the inlet called Pagoda
Creek, from a small pagoda or temple, also on the
west of the creek , nearer to the sea than the bank of
sand, and separated from the latter by a smaller creek
running inland. South from this to the sea- shore,
extended a thick jungle, with a pathway leading into
the interior, where was a large tank for the supply
of the people with fresh w^ater. Tigers lurked in the
jungle, and not unfrequently carried off the pilgrims.
Along the sea -side, for more than a mile, extended
rows of booths , shops , and small temporary temples,
with the travelling gods of the religious mendicants,
who received the adoration and contributions of the
pious. Besides the numerous shops for the supply of
provisions and sweetmeats, a brisk traffic was carried
on in small wares, especially in ])etel-nuts, black pe}j-
per, and the red powder that is scattered about at
the vernal festival of the Huli. A Pandit in my
employ, who had visited the Mela, assej-ted that an
impost w^as levied by the custom officers of Govern-
ment, of four anas per oar on each boat; but no such
166 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
charge appears to have been authorized, except in
the case of the Sagar Island Society, who were per-
mitted to make some such charge in consideration of
the clearings and tanks made by them. The mendi-
cants, however, petitioned against this privilege, and
it was withdrawn from the Society. The petition was
not disinterested, as the Sannyasis claimed a right to
levy the charge on their own account; a practice that
seems to have grown up from long use, and to have
been silently acquiesced in by the pilgrims. The total
amount was inconsiderable, having been farmed by a
native contractor from the Society, whilst in their pos-
session, for 1200 rupees in the first year, and 2000
in the second.
The Mela lasts several days, but three days are the
limit of the religious festival. The first ceremony is
the propitiation of the ocean, by casting into it va-
rious offerings, with short ejaculatory prayers: the
oblations are commonly cocoa-nuts, fruits, or flowers ;
the most appropriate gift is that of the five gems,
Pancha ratna, consisting of a pearl or diamond, an
emerald , a topaz , and a piece of coral , along with a
cocoa-nut, an areca-nut, and the thread worn by
Brahmans. These are wrapped up in a cloth, and
cast into the branch of the river which communicates
with the sea, at a place called Dhola Samudra, and
also at the confluence. The jewels are, in general, of
the smaller size, not worth more than a rupee or two.
There was a time when the offerings were of a less
innocent description, and children were cast into the
OF THE HINDUS. 167
sea. This horrible and unnatural practice was wholly
unsanctioned by anything in the Hindu ritual; and its
suppression, by the Government of Bengal, had the
cordial concurrence of the Brahmans. The act was
not, like the oblation of fruits or jewels, intended to
obtain the favour of the deified ocean, but in satis-
faction of a vow; as where a woman had been child-
less, she made a vow to offer her first-born at Ganga
Sagar, or some other holy place, in the confidence
that such an offering would secure for her additional
progeny. The belief is not without a parallel in the
history of antiquity, sacred or profane, but it was
the spontaneous growth of ignorance and superstition,
not only unprompted, but condemned by the Hindu
religion, and was confined to the lowest orders of the
people. It will easily be credited, that the occurrence
was rare, and that no attempt has ever been made to
infringe the prohibition.
On the first day , bathing in the sea is to be per-
formed; it takes place early in the morning, and is
repeated by some at noon ; some also have their heads
shaved after bathing; and many of those whose pa-
rents are recently deceased celebrate their Sraddha,
or obsequial ceremonies, on the sea-shore. After ablu-
tion, the pilgrims repair to the temple, which is dedi-
cated to a Muni, or divine sage, an incarnation of
Vishnu, named Kapila. Vishnu became incarnate in
his person for the destruction of the sixty thousand
wicked sons of King Sagara. He is said to have sta-
tioned himself at this place , which was then upon the
168 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
brink of a vast chasm leading to the infernal regions.
When the sons of the king, who were in search of a
horse intended for the solemn sacrifice of the Aswa-
medha, arrived here, they found the Muni absorbed
apparently in meditation , while the steed was grazing
near him. Accusing him of having stolen it, they ap-
proached to kill him, when fire flashed from his eyes,
and instantly reduced the whole troop to ashes. In
order to expiate their crime, purify their remains,
and secure paradise for their spirits, Bhagiratha, the
great-grandson of Sagara, brought down by the force
of his austerities the Ganges from heaven; and led
her from the Himalaya, where she had alighted, to
this spot. The sons of Sagara were sanctified, and
the waters of the river, flowing into the chasm,
formed the ocean. The Ganges is called Bhagirathi,
from King Bhagiratha; and the sea is termed Sagara,
after his great-grandsire. The legend is told, in its
most ancient and authentic shape, in the Ramayaha*.
The temple of Kapila is under the alternate charge
of aBairagi andSannyasi, mendicants of the Vaishnava
and Saiva sects ; the latter presides at the Mela held
at this place in the month Kartik , the former at the
Mela of Magha. They exact a fee of four anas from
each person who comes to the temple. The aggregate
collection of Magha was divided amongst five diff'erent
establishments of mendicants of the Ramanandi order,
in the vicinity of Calcutta. In front of the temple was
* P, 42-45.]
OF THE HINDUS. 169
a Bur tree, beneath which were images of Rama and
Hanuman, and an image of Kapila, of the size nearly
of Hfe, was within the temple. The pilgrims com-
monly write their names on the walls of the temple,
with a short prayer to Kapila; or suspend a piece of
earth or brick to a bough of the tree, with some soli-
citation, as for health, or affluence, or offspring; and
promise, if their prayers are granted, to make a gift
to some divinity.
Behind the temple was a small excavation termed
Sita kund, filled with fresh water, of which the pil-
grim was allowed to sip a small quantity, on paying
a fee to the mahant or head manager of the temple.
This reservoir was ^jrobably filled from the tank , and
kept full by the contrivances of the mendicants, who
persuaded the people that it was a perjDetual miracle,
being constantly full for the use of the temple.
On the second and third days of the assemblage,
bathing in the sea, adoration of Ganga, and the wor-
ship of Kapila, continue as on the first; after which
the meeting breaks up. During the whole time the
pilgrims, for the most part, sleep on the sand; for it
is considered unbecoming to sleep on board their boats.
This is the great public celebration of the recur-
rence of the winter solstice in Upper India. In the
south there is an equally popular commemoration of
the same event, but of which the ceremonies are
peculiar, consisting principally of marks of public
reverence for cattle, but comprehending also the pre-
paration and distribution of food; whence, indeed,
170 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
its appropriate appellation, in the Tamil language,
Pongal, which according to a native authority, Tiru-
vakadu Muthia, signifies literally boiled rice, and
metaphorically, prosperity or rejoicing ^ The word
is therefore another denomination of the festival of
the Makara Sankrdnti, or sun's entrance into Capri-
corn; or, in the words of the same writer, the first
day of the Indian January, corresponding, agreeably
to the mode of computation followed in the Dekhan,
with the ist of Tye or Taishya, the Paushya of Hin-
dustan, which (as in the latter) falls about the 12th
of January. The following particulars of the festival
are from a paper published in the Asiatic Annual
Register for 1807 by the intelligent native already
named , Tiruvakadu Muthia.
"On the day on which the sun enters Capricorn,
which is the beginning of the auspicious period of the
Uttarayana, the Hindus offer libations of water, mixed
with tila and kusa, or sesamum seeds and sacred
grass, to the manes of their ancestors. They then
boil rice with milk and sugar; and when they see it
bubble up, they cry aloud 'Pongal, pongal!' meaning.
Let the world be prosperous and rejoice. The boiled
rice, along with esculent fruits, is offered to the sun,
invoking him for the general good, and the production
of abundance. Early the next morning , the husband-
' Pongal, according to Rottler, Tarn. Diet., means "a bubbling
up''; in Telugu [and Canarese] Pongali denotes a dish of rice
mixed with boiled milk and sugar and other articles. — Campbell,
Tel. Diet.
OF THE HINDUS. 171
men sprinkle vvatei* npon corn sown or grown in fields,
crying alond, 'Pongal, pongal!' meaning, Let the
corn grow in plenty, by the grace of the glorious sun,
who has begun his northern course (the Uttarayana),
which is a day of the gods. At noon rice and milk are
again boiled , and are presented to Indra, pi-aying him
to bestow abundant rain , and by thus favouring
pasture, cause cattle to increase and multiply. In the
aftei'noon, cows and bulls are washed, and fed with
part of an oblation first offered to Indra; and being
also painted and adorned with leafy and flowery
chaplets, are brought in herds, attended by bands of
music, to the public place of the village; there the
cow-keepers dress victuals, and provide fresh per-
fumes and iiowers, wherewith to decorate their ani-
mals; and sprinkle saffron water with mango leaves
upon them, as a preservative from evil, crying aloud,
'Pongal, pongal!' meaning. Let cattle be cherished
and multiplied, by the grace of Indra, as well as of
Gopala (or Krishna the cow-herd). Then the Hindus,
with joined hands, are to walk round the cows and
bulls, and particularly round the Brahmans, and to
prostrate themselves before them. This done, the
cow-keepers, with their herds of kine and oxen, re-
turn home to their several houses \ Hence this day
is termed Mattu Pongal; that is, the feast of cattle."
' The Abbe Dubois adds the t'oHowing paiticuhirs of this
part of the ceremony. "On peint de diverses couleurs les cornes
des vaches et on leur met au con une guirlande de feuillages
verts entremeles de fleurs a laquelle on suspend des gateaux,
172 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
" So the day of the Makara Sankranti , or Perum
Pongal , is dedicated to the sun, and the day of Mattu
Pongal to Indra; they are both comprised in the term
Pongal, which is an anniversary festival of a week's
duration. During this term the Hindus visit and com-
pliment each other, wishing a happy pongal or many
returns of it. Sons and daughters prostrate them-
selves before their parents, servants before their ma-
sters, disciples before their teachers. Some people
give alms to the poor, some make presents to their
friends and relations, some sport and amuse themselves
with diversions of different kinds. This ceremony is
said to be a practice of very ancient standing, which
the former kings of Madura, of the Pandya dynasty,
introduced upon the authority of the Sastras and
and Puranas'."
des cocos, et autres fruits , qui se detachant bientot par le mouve-
ment de ces animaux sont ramasses et manges avec empresse-
ment par ceux qui les suivent. Apres avoir conduit les vaches
en troupe hors de la ville ou du village, on les force a s'enfuir
de cote et d'autre en les effarouchant par le bruit confus d'un
grand nombre de tambours et d'instrumens bruyans. Ce jour la
ces betes peuvent paitre par tout sans gardien , et quelques de-
gats qu'elles fassent dans les champs ou elles se jettent, il n'est
pas permis de les en chasser." — II, 337.
' This authority acknowledges, therefore, a principal festival
of but two days, but we have that of the Madras calendar for
three; the first being called the Bhoga Paiidikei, the second the
Peruni [or great] Pongal, and the third the Mattu (or cattle)
Pongal. So the Abbe Dubois, "La fete dure trois jours;" the
first of which is called Bhoga Pongal (pongal de la joie, from
Bhoga, enjoyment), the second Surya Pongal (pongal du soleil),
OF THE HINDUS. 17o
There can be no doubt that the remark of Muthia,
that the observance of the Uttarayana is a practice of
high antiquity, is perfectly true; and there can be
equally little doubt that it was of like universality
amongst, at least, the Indo-Teutonic races. The ana-
logies are so obvious, that they nuist instantly occur
to every one's mind; and the offerings and distribution
of food and sweetmeats and presents, the sports and
the rejoicing, and the interchange of mutual good
wishes, which characterize the Uttarayana amongst
the Hindus, are even yet, though to a less extent
than heretofore, retained by Christian nations at the
same season; beginning with the plum-puddings and
mince-pies of Christmas, passing through the new
year's gifts and happy new years, the strenae of the
Romans, quae omnia simul strenas appellarunt; and
terminating with Twelfth-night. Whatever modifica-
tions these types of rejoicing may have undergone,
and however changed in their present purport, by
their connexion with our religious faith, they are
evidently of the same general character as the obser-
vances of the Hindus; and designate the commence-
ment of a period , in which the northern hemisphere
and the third the Pongal des vaches. ^11, 335. In Rottler's
Tamil Diet. [Ill, 432] we have the three days: the first Pogi-
paridikei, dedicated, it is said, to Indra; the second Peruiu
pongal, saci-ed to the sun; and the third the Miittu pongal, sacred
to Krishna. [See Wilson's Glossary of Indian Terms, p. 421.
The name Bhogi is given, in Telugu and Marathi, to the eves
of some particular feasts, vide Brown's Tolugu Diet., and Moles-
worth's Marathi Diet. s. v.]
1 74 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
is again to be gladdened by the proximity of the
fountain of Hght and heat.
In looking for the more striking points of coinci-
dence between the observances of the East and West
at this particular season , it is not necessary to be re-
stricted to dates, beyond approximate limits. Our
own calendar has been subjected to different reforms,
which have, even within a recent term, advanced, by
twelve days, the enumeration of the days of the
month; and alterations of an astronomical nature have
also been alluded to, which may perhaps explain fur-
ther deviations in this respect. The main point of
agreement is unaffected. It is not the recurrence of
any precise day of the week or month that constitutes
the occasion of the celebration; it is the recurrence
of the commencement of the sun's northward course,
the Uttarayana, or winter solstice, from which all the
manifestations of gladness derive their origin; and
whether this be fixed accurately or inaccurately —
whether the period at which the phenomenon was
first noticed has in the course of ages undergone a
change — is immaterial. Little doubt can be enter-
tained that the same event gave rise to the same
feelings; and that they have been expressed by actions,
varying in form, but not in spirit, by very distant
nations, through a very long succession of the genera-
tions of mankind.
It has already been seen that the Romans connected
the beginning of the year with the sun's entrance
into Capricorn, and that they then celebrated the
OF THE HINDUS. 175
renovation of nature. Their mode of celebrating it
seems to have had many things in common with the
usages of the Hindus, particularly in the interchange
of sweetmeats ; only substituting for the rice, cakes,
and molasses of the Hindus, figs, dates, and honey.
These articles they sent, at this season, to their friends
and relations: they were intended, according to Janus,
to be ominous of an agreeable year to follow.
Omen ait, causa est ut res sapor ille sequatur.
Et peragat e(x^ptuin tlulcis ut annus iter".
They also interchanged Ifeta verba, good wishes
and congratulations; — et damus alternas accipimusque
preces**. The presents made at this season were
called strente; and the word, as well as the practice,
subsists in the Etrennes of new year's day in France.
Strenam vocamus qua3 datur die religioso ominis
boni gratia. According to Festus, the practice is re-
ferred by Symmachus to an early period of Roman
history, the reign of Tacitus; but it was no doubt
much older. How^ far it prevailed among the Greeks
does not fully appear. The Greeks had a festival in
the month Poseideon, or January, in which they wor-
shipped Neptune, or the Sea, in like manner as the
Hindus worship the ocean; but no other particulars
are recorded; and it is remarkable how little of the
Greek calendar is of an astronomical origin. It is
almost entirely legendary and mythological, arguing
' [Ovid. Fast. 1. 187.] "* [1. 1. 17G.]
176 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
a people shut up by themselves in very ancient times,
and comparatively late in their observations of pla-
netary phenomena. However, it would seem that the
sending of good things to one another was not limited
to the Romans, as it is said that the Fathers of the
Church rigorously condemned the observances of this
season , not because of the exchange of civil missives
and mutual pledges of regard, but because of the ido-
latrous worship. "In calendas Januarii antiqui patres
vehementius invehebantur , non propter istas missita-
tiones adinvicem et mutui amoris pignora, sed propter
diem idolis dicatum." — Montacut. Orig. Eccles. pars
prior, p. 128. As the "Fathers" are named so gener-
ally, it may be inferred that the observances which
they condemned were known wherever the primitive
church was established.
The Christmas and new year's festivities, which
have left traces amongst the Teutonic nations, were
transferred to them from their German forefathers, in
the time of Paganism. Thus Bede observes of the
Anglo-Saxons, "they began their year on the eighth
of the calends of January, which is now our Christ-
mas-day." So the yule clog, log or block, which was
burnt on the eve of Christmas-day, is considered to
have been used as an emblem of the return of the
sun, and the lengthening of the days; for, according
to Bede, both December and January were denomi-
nated Giuli or Yule, upon accoimt of the sun's re-
turning and augmenting the duration of the days:
"December Giuli — eodem quo Januarius nomine vo-
OF THE HINDUS. 177
catur. Giuli a conversione soils in auctuiii diei nomen
accepit." — Beda de Ratione Temporum. Again, Bishop
Stillingfleet states, in his Origines Britannicae, "that
the ancient Saxons observed twelve days at this pe-
riod, and sacrificed to the sun." And Mallet states,
"that all the Celtic nations worshipped the sun , and
celebrated his festival at the winter solstice, to testify
their joy at his return to the northern sky. This was
the greatest solemnity in the year." — North. Ant. 2, 68.
Identifications too palpable to be denied, with the
Uttarayana of the Hindus, and the worship by them
also of the sun , at the same season , and on the same
account. A like analogy may be suspected in the Yule
dough, or cakes of flour and water, which, after the
introduction of Christianity , were kneaded into little
images; but were originally, in all probability, nothing
more than the rice cakes of the Hindus. The exten-
sion of the period of festivity, so as to include the
new year, brings us also to the interchange of pre-
sents and good wishes which, amongst the Saxons,
as well as the Romans and Hindus, was thought pecu-
liarly appropriate at this season.
Mention is made by Mr. Brand , to whose work on
Popular Antiquities^' I am indebted for most of the
preceding statements, that it was enjoined in the an-
cient Calendar of the Roman church , to present on
* [od. Sir II. Ellis, I, 17 ff., 467-78. Compare also: -Calendrier
Beige." liruxelles: 1801,1,3-11, "Fest-Kalender aus Bulinien."
Wieii: 1801. p. xi and 2-7. Pt'eift'er's Geriiiaiiia. 11, 228-38.]
12
178 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
Christmas eve, sweetmeats to the Fathers, "In Vati-
cano dulcia patribus exhibentar." Of course the
Fathers of the Christian church are intended; but it
is scarcely possible to avoid a suspicion that some-
thing was originally meant, that the practice was, in
fact, a relique of heathenism, and that the "Fathers"
were in their primitive character, the Dii Manes of
the Romans, the Pitris of the Hindus.
Whatever may be thought of this coincidence, there
can scarcely be a doubt that we have some community
of origin between the Pongal and the blessing of the
cattle at Rome, on the day dedicated to St. Anthony.
According to the legend*, the Saint once tended a
herd of swine, and hence possibly his connexion with
other animals. A much more intelligible relation sub-
sists between them and the Hindu Indra, or Jupiter
pTuvius, as provender is plentiful and nutritive in
proportion as rain is abundant. The following ac-
count of this ceremony is taken from "Rome in the
Nineteenth Century"", and it will be observed that the
time of the year, the decorating of the cattle, the
bringing them to a public place, the sprinkling of
them with holy water, and the very purport of the
blessing, that they may be exempt from evils, are so
decidedly Indian, that could a Dravira Brahman be
set down of a sudden in the Piazza, before St. Mary's
church at Rome, and were he asked what ceremony he
* [See J. F. Wolf, "Beitrage zur deutschen Mythologie",
1857, II, 86.]
OF THE HINDUS. 179
witnessed, there can be no doubt of his answer; he
would at once declare they were celebrating the
Pongal.
'■^January 18th, 1819. — We were present to-day at
one of the most ridiculous scenes I ever witnessed,
even in this country. It was St. Anthony's blessing
of the horses, Mdiich begins on that Saint's day and
lasts for a week. We drove to the church of the
Saint, near the Santa Maria Maggiore, and could
scarcely make our way through the streets, from the
multitudes of horses, mules, asses, oxen, cows, sheep,
goats, and dogs, which were journeying along to the
place of benediction; their heads, tails, and necks
decorated with bits of coloured ribbon, on this their
unconscious gala-day. The Saint's benediction, though
nominally contined to horses, is equally efficacious
and equally bestowed upon all quadrupeds. The priest
stood at the door of the church, holding a brush in
his hand, which he continually dipped into a large
bucket of holy water, and spirted at the animals as
they came in unremitting succession, taking off his
little skull cap and nuittering every time, 'Per inter-
cessionem Sancti Antonii abbatis ha3C animalia libe-
rantur a malis'."
There can be no doubt that this ceremony is unich
older than St. Anthony, and it probably is a relique
of the Latin village festival of the Paganalia or the
Feriai Sementinaa*, which took place al)out the middle
* [L. Frfllcr, -Ruuiischc .M\ ihologie '\ iSoS . p. -Kit
12*
180 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
of January, when , after the seed had been sown , the
ploughs were laid up in ordinary, and the cattle were
decorated with garlands.
. nunc ad prsesepia debent
Plena coronato stare boves capite. — Tib. lib. xi, El. i, 1. 8.
A palpable relique of which rite is also traceable in
the Plough Monday of our calendar (13th January),
and the games with which it was celebrated.
The long course of ages which has elapsed has ne-
cessarily impaired the evidence of a perfect concor-
dance between the ceremonies with which the nations
of antiquity commemorated the sun's northern jour-
ney; yet no reasonable doubt can be entertained that
they did agree in celebrating that event with practices,
if not precisely the same , yet of a very similar cha-
racter; and that traces of such conformity are still
to be discovered in the unaltered ritual of the Hindus,
and the popular, though ill - understood and fast-
expiring practices of the Christian world, — affording
a curious and interesting proof of the permanency of
those institutions which have their foundation in the
immutable laws of nature, and in the connnon feelings
of mankind.
The important character of the Uttarayaha festival,
and the remarkable analogies which, whether indis-
putable or not, it unavoidably suggests, have led to a
more copious detail, perhaps, than the subject de-
serves. It is only, however, in such cases that pro-
lixity will admit of apology. The greater number of
OF THE HINDUS. 181
the festivals will receive briefer notices in proportion
as they are more or less of a purely local description,
and of inferior interest.
Mansasht AKA. — Eighth lunar day of the dark half
of the lunar month Mdgha, about the 20th of Ja-
nuary^. — The denomination of this day defines its
occurrence , ash'taka meaning eighth : it also indicates
its purport, tndnsa signifying flesh. Accordingly, on
this day, the Srdddha, or obsequial offerings of flesh,
should be made to the pitfis or manes. According to
the Pauranik authorities'^, there are three days of this
nature, in the months severally of Agrahayaha, Magha,
and Phalguna; which is also the specification of Go-
bhila , as quoted by Raghunandana. But according to
the Mitakshara, there are four such ashtakas in the
course of the year; there being one on the eighth of
the moon's wane of each of the two months of the
two seasons of Hemanta and sisira, or the four winter
months, when sraddhas are positively enjoined (nitya^).
The former authorities direct that different offerings
shall be made on the three days, or severally, cakes,
' The specification of the date is to be understood as appli-
cable to Bengal, and even there it is subject to occasional variation.
^ The Vishnu Purana [III, 14] specifies three altogether —
Aghan, Magha, and Phalguna. Raghunandana quotes the
Brahma P. for the same. [In the Sniddhavivcka (12, r, 1. 2)
Pausha takes the place of Aghan.]
^WT'^^fT^^liT : Mitakshara, 33, r, 1. IG [ad Yajnav. 1, 217].
182 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
flesh, and vegetables, as will be noticed. The insti-
tution appears to have been part of the ancient ritual,
and to have fallen into comparative neglect. The
Brahmans of Upper India, v^ho maintain a perpetual
fire, and are thence called Agnihotras, are said to
observe the Mansashtaka; so do the orthodox Saivas
and Saktas, and the disciples of Raghunandana in
Bengal; but it is usual to substitute cakes of boiled
rice flour \ mixed w^ith milk and sugar for the meat
w^hicli vs^as anciently presented, not only at the
Ashtaka sraddhas, but, as Manu enjoins, at the pe-
riodical sraddhas in general. "Let the Brahman w^ho
maintains a household fire, who has performed the
funeral ceremonies of his own family, repeat the sub-
sequent general sraddha at the conjunction of the
moon every month. The wise have called the monthly
sraddhas the subsequent, or periodical sraddha, and
that is to be offered diligently with excellent flesh."
(B. Ill, 122. 123.) The time is specified in the Mitak-
shara, upon the authority of an ancient lawgiver,
Aswalayana*. The flesh should be that of a goat or
a deer, King Ikshwaku having commanded a large
deer to be brought to him for the sraddha at the
Athtaka ^
' Boiled in a pot, sthalipaka, as Gobhila says, '^fT| '^T
* [Grihya S. II, 4. cf. Paraskara's Gr. S. Ill, 2.]
^rram^ ^^T^ ^ f ^T »Tf T^^*!: II [Vishnu Pur. IV, 2.]
OF THE HINDUS. 183
Rat ANTi Chatirdasi. — Fourteenth lunar day of the
dark half of May ha (26th Jafiuary). — In Sir William
Jones's description of this festival, he merely explains
it by the sentence, "The waters speak", the word
"ratanti", meaning "they speak"; being the first part
of an ancient text importing, "The waters say. We
purify the sinner who bathes in the month of Magha,
when the sun is scarcely risen, although he be a
chandala, or the killer of a Brahman \" Accordingly
the essential rite on this day is bathing in some sacred
stream or piece of water ; w^hich should be performed
before dawn, whilst the stars are yet visible. As in
many parts of India the temperature of the atmo-
sphere is at this season almost cold, bathing at such
an hour in the open air may easily be conceived to
be no trifling penance. Offerings should also be pre-
sented on this occasion to Yama, the judge of the
lower regions; for he who worships Tama at this
period, it is said, shall not see death*. Besides the
usual libations of water to deceased progenitors, a
sraddha should be celebrated, and Brahmans and the
family should be fed with rice mixed with pulse, ac-
companied by a particular Mantra^.
' Harivansa, as cited by Raghunandana, The text, as quoted
by Raghunandana, is —
* [Sabdakalpadruma s. v. Msigha, p. 33'J5, a.]
' As in the Niriiayamf ita , from the Brahma Puraria. WT^-
184 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
These appear to be the ancient chrections for a
rehmous rite on the 14th of the dark half of the
o
Magha; but later days have changed both its time
and object. According to the present practice, in
Bengal at least, ablution is performed, not before sun-
rise, but after sunset; and instead of Yama one of the
terrific forms of Devi is worshipped, Mundamalini,
she with the chaplet of skulls, or Syama, the black
goddess; particularly when any cause has prevented
the adoration of the latter in the month of Kartik.
The authority for this modification of the ceremony is
that of the Tantras; and, except by the Saktas, is not
held in much estimation. The day is little observed
anywhere.
Varada Chaturthi. — Fourth lunar day of the light
half of Magha (30th January — 1st February). —
According to some of the authorities" followed in
Hindustan, Siva is to be worshipped on this day in
the evening, with offerings of jasmine flowers, whence
it is also called Kunda Chaturthi; but the more usual
designation Varada Chaturthi implies a goddess, the
giver of boons, who in some of the Puranas is iden-
tified with Gauri, or more especially with Uma, the
bride of Siva. She is on this day to be worshipped
with offerings of flowers, of incense, or of lights, with
^f^r^^j^ I The Kalpa Tattwa has WTW%^- ^^TTW ^-
' Hemadri, Nirriayamfita, Padma Puraria.
OF THE HINDIS. 185
platters of sugar and ginger, or milk or salt, with
scarlet or saffron-tinted strings and golden bracelets.
She is to be worshipped by both sexes, but especially
by women ; and women themselves, not being widows,
are also to be treated with peculiar homage. In the
Devi Purana it is enjoined, that various kinds of grain,
and condiments, and confections, and plates made of
baked clay, should be given on this day by maidens
to the goddess. The due observance of the rite is
said to secure a flourishing progeny. The worship of
Gauri, at this season, seems to be popular in the South
of India, as the Calendar specifies the 2nd, 3rd, and
4th of Magha to be equally consecrated to her. In
Bengal little regard is paid to this celebration, although
worship is sometimes offered to Uma, on behalf of
unmarried females, in reference to the means adopted
by Gauri or Uma, whilst yet a maiden, to propitiate
Siva, and obtain him for her husband*. This last
circumstance renders it not unlikely, that the epithet
Varada ought to be difterently interpreted, and that
it means the giver of a husband, a bridegroom being
one sense of Vara, and the part which is assigned in
it to unmarried girls , the presents to be made by and
^o them — the offerings to be made for them — and the
reward of the rite — a family of children , leave little
doubt of the correctness of the interpretation. Now
this festival , it is to be observed , occurs in the last
' See Sir Wm. Jones's Ode to Bhavani; also translation of
Kumara Sambhava, by Dr. Mill, Journal As. S. B., Vol. II, p. 329.
186 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
days of January or beginning of February, and is not
far from that time, when "quisque sibi sociam jam
legit ales avem". What St. Valentine had to do with
the choosing of mates has perplexed antiquaries ; the
interposition of Uma, in the selection of a bride or
bridegroom , is more intelligible , as she may well be
disposed to encourage that of which she set the
example. The Romish Church, however, furnishes
us with a somewhat nearer approximation in the festi-
val of St. Agnes*, which occurs on the 21st January,
for on the eve of her day, many kinds of divination
are practised by virgins to discover their future hus-
bands. Although the festival is accounted for by a
legend** of the martyrdom and canonization of the
virgin Agnes, it is not impossibly a relict of Paganism,
like St. Valentine's day***, which has been supposed
to derive its origin from the Roman Lupercalia. These
festivals may possibly, however, be merely an ill-
understood record of ancient usages with re^'ard to
seasons of the year when marriages were most sui-
tably solemnized f. This seems to be indicated by the
Hindu worship of Varada, although, even amongst
them, the precise import of the festival is forgotten.
* [Brand's Popul. Antiqu. I, 34-38. F. Nork's "Fest-
kalender", 1847, p. 116.]
** [Legenda Aurea, ed. Graesse, p. 113 ff. Fornsvensk Le-
gendarium , ed. G. Stephens , p. 570 f.]
*** [Brand, I, 53-62. J. W. Wolf, Beitrage zur deutschen
Mythologie, II, 102 f.]
t [Festkalender aus Bohmen, Wien: 1861, p. 32. Calendrier
Beige, I, 72.]
OF THE HINDIS. 187
That this season was considered propitious for
marriages amongst the Greeks, is evident, from the
name of the month corresponding with January-
February, /aiii^'/.ivU' , from marriages (yr/uoS) being
frequently celebrated in it; and what is very curious,
although very possibly no more than an accidental
coincidence, the fourth from the new moon — the Hindu
Chaturthi — is especially recommended by Hesiod: ^Ey
(Tf rfjc((jiij //y^/'o," ayf<j,9-f/.i ^g olxov axoiiii'' "Let him
(the bridegroom) take home his bride on the fourth
of the moon."
Ski Panchami. — Fifth lunar day of the light half
of the month Mdga (2nd February), — The designation
Sri indicates the bride of Vishnu, the goddess of pros-
perity and abundance; and the text quoted from the
Samvatsara Pradipa , in the Tithi Tattwa , confirms
the identification by stating, that upon this day,
Lakshnu', the Goddess of Fortune, (who is also the
bride of Vishnu,) is to be worshipped with flowers,
perfumes, food, and water: probably the day was
originally dedicated to her. The same text, however,
proceeds to direct, that pens, and ink, and books,
should be reverenced upon this day; and that a festi-
val should be observed in honour of Saraswati, the
goddess of learning — hence it is inferred, that by Sri,
in the lirst part of the rubric, Saraswati also is in-
tended, especially as Sri had various significations, one
of which may be Saraswati.
Saraswati, by the standard mythological authorities.
188 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
is the wife of Brahma, and the goddess presiding over
letters and arts. The Vaishnavas of Bengal have a
popular legend, that she was the wife of Vishnu, as
were also Lakshmi and Ganga. The ladies disagreed,
Saraswati, like the other prototype of learned ladies,
Minerva, being something of a termagant, and Vishnu,
finding that one wife was as much as even a god
could manage, transferred Saraswati to Brahma, and
Ganga to Siva, and contented himself with Lakshmi
alone. It is worthy of remark, that Saraswati is re-
presented as of a white colour, without any superfluity
of limbs, and not unfrequently of a graceful figure
wearing a slender crescent on her brow% and sitting
on a lotus.
On the morning of the fifth lunar day of Magha,
the whole of the pens and inkstands, and the books,
if not too numerous and bulky, are collected — the
pens, or reeds, cleaned, the inkstands scoured, and
the books , wrapped up in new cloth , are arranged
upon a platform or a sheet, and are strewn over with
flowers and blades of young barley; no flowers except
white are to be offered. Sometimes these are the sole
objects of adoration; but an image of Saraswati stands,
in general, immediately behind them; or, in place of
the image, a water-jar; a not uncommon, although a
curious substitute for a god or a goddess, amongst
the Hindus.
After performing the necessary rites of ablution,
Saraswati is to be meditated upon , and invited to the
place of worship, with some such mental prayer as
OF THE HINDUS. 189
the following: "May the glorious goddess of speech,
she who is of a white complexion and gracefid figure,
wearing a digit of the moon upon her brow , and car-
rying an inkstand and a pen in her lotus-like hands,
— may she, sitting on her lotus throne, be present for
our protection \ and for the attainment of honours
and wealth." Water is then to be offered for the
washing of her feet; food for her refreshment; flowers,
or more costly articles, as pearls and jewels, for her
decoration; and three salutations are to be made to
her with the mantra, "Reverence to Saraswati, re-
verence to Bhadrakali, reverence to the V^edas, to
the Vedangas, to the Vedanta, and to all seats of
learning""." Of other mantras addressed to her, the
following are given in the Matsya Purana*: "As
' Sarada Tilaka [6, quoted in the Sabdakalpadruina s. v. Sa-
rasvati, p. 5975, h, as follows (see also p. 1824, b and 3395, b):
^^^rf^^^f%# tug ^TT^^fTT ^: II]-
Sir W. Jones translates this prayer somewhat differently.
'^ Brahma Parana:
[^^rr^ ^^ f^ ^T^^ 'T^ 'fir: i
%^^T^%^Tlf^^Twf%«T ^^ ^ II ^T^T II 1
* [c. G5. Sabdakalpadruma, 1. 1. (couip. p. 339G, a):
%^: irrwrlTir ^f^ ^^ftrnf^^ ^ ^?i i
^ f^fN c^^ "^f^ ff^TT ^ ^'g f^"?^: II
190 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
Brahma, the great father of all, never, oh Saraswati!
lives without thee, so do thou ever be my benefac-
tress." Or, "As the Vedas and all inspired writings,
as all the sciences and the arts, are never, oh god-
dess! independent of thee; so, by thy favour, may
my wishes be fulfilled." "In the forms of thy eight
impersonations, Lakshmi, Medha, Dhara, Pushti,
Gauri, Tushti, Prabha, and Dhriti, do thou, oh Sa-
raswati! be ever my protectress."
At the end of the ceremony, all the members of the
family assemble and make their prostrations — the
books, the pens, and ink, having an entire holiday;
and should any emergency require a written com-
munication on the day dedicated to the divinity of
scholarship, it is done with chalk or charcoal upon a
black or white board.
After the morning ceremony, the boys and young
men repair to the country for amusement and sport,
and some of these games are of a very European cha-
racter, as bat and ball, and a kind of prisoner's base.
School -boys also used to consider themselves privi-
leged, on this day, to rob te fields and gardens of the
villages, but this privilege was stoutly opposed, and
was all but extinct some years ago. In the evening
there are entertainment according to the means of
the parties.
See also the Brahmavaivarttapuniua, Fraki'tikhaiida, c. 4.]
OF THE HINDUS. 191
The regular celebration of this festival here termi-
nates, but of late years a supplementary observance
forms a plea for a second day's holiday in Bengal.
The Bengalis have a great passion for throwing the
temporary images of their female divinities into the
Ganges. It is a rite especially appropriate to Durga,
at the end of the Durga Piija; but it has been ex-
tended to other goddesses, and amongst them to
Saraswati, at this season. Accordingly, on the sixth
hmar day, the image, which is commonly of plastic
clay painted, is conveyed in procession to the river
side, stripped of its ornaments, and tossed rather
imceremoniously into the stream.
There are some remarkable varieties regarding the
seasons of this festival, in different parts of India,
whether it be considered as dedicated to Saraswati or
to Lakshmi. The Sri panchami, when applied to
the former, is observed in Hindustan in As win (Au-
gust-September), and when to the latter, in Marga-
sirsha (October -November), as we shall have future
occasion to notice, or the present, the fifth of Miigha,
is held to be the proper Sri panchami, and dedicated,
not to Saraswati, but to Lakshmi. There is, however,
both in Upper India and in the Dekhan, a festival on
the fifth of the light half of Magha, which is no doubt
the original and ancient celebration, — the Vasanta
Panchami, or the vernal feast of the fifth lunar day
of Magha, marking the connnencement of the season
of Spring, and corresponding, curiously enough, with
the specific date fixed for the beginning of Spring
192 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
in the Roman calendar, the fifth of the ides of
February.
Quintus ab jequoreis nitidum jubar extulit annis,
Lucifer, et primi tempora veris eunt. — Ovid, II, 149. 150.
After the Vasanta Panchami, Kama the god of love,
and his bride Rati, pleasure, are to be worshipped
with offerino's of fruits and flowers \ In general ob-
servance, how^ever, Vishnu and Lakshmi now take
their places, as there are no temples to K/unadeva;
nor indeed are the celebrations, which probably once
occurred at this season, very particularly observed.
The day is retained in the calendars , and constitutes
a nominal fixed point, from which festivals, which
become conspicuous enough a few weeks afterwards,
are still said to commence.
SiTAi;A Shashthi. — Sixth hinai^ day of tlie light
half of Mdgha (3rd of February). — This ceremony
is of a strictly private character, and is limited to
married women who have children. The object is,
in the present day, especially to protect them from
the small-pox. The observance, however, seems to
' Rati is personified as a young and beautiful female, richly
attired and decorated, dancing and playing on the Viiia ; and Kama
is represented as a youth with eight arms, attended by four
nymphs, — Pleasure, Affection, Passion, and Power,— bearing the
shell, the lotus, a bow and five arrows, and a banner with the
Makara, — a figure composed of a goat and a fish, or, as before
mentioned, the sign Capricorn.
OF THE HINDUS. 193
have had origmally no such specific appUcation, but
to have been intended to secure, generally, the healthi-
ness of infants'"', by the propitiation of a goddess
termed , apparently at the original institution of this
rite, Shashthi, but now more commonly Sitala. Ac-
cording to the legend, the ceremony was instituted
by King Priyavrata, in gratitude to Shashthi for
restoring his dead son, Suvrata, to life \ It should be
celebrated on the sixth day of the light fortnight in
every month, but this frequent repetition of it has
fallen into disuse. Shashthi is said to be so named
because she is a sixth part of the goddess Prakriti,
but she evidently derives her name from the day of
the fortnight of which she is a personification. She is
the daughter of Brahma, and wife ofKartikeya, the
general of the hosts of heaven, and is to be meditated
upon as a female dressed in red garments, riding on
a peacock and holding a cock. Sitala, in its ordinary
sense, means cold, and is here used as an epithet, in
reference, perhaps, to the occasional coolness of the
day at this time of the year, as distinguished from the
sixth lunar days in other months. The word seems
also to have suggested the princi[)al observance on
this occasion. Cooking on this day is interdicted,
victuals must be dressed on the day preceding, and
on this eaten cold. Images of Shashthi are rarely
made, but sometimes a small doll represents the god-
* [See A. K. iM-obcs, Ras MulA. London: IsOC, I|, ,'!•_'(; IV.J
' From tlio Hrahnia VaivarKa Purai'ia. — l^rakriti KhaiHla. s. 4U.
13
194 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
dess , or she is typified by the stone on which condi-
ments are ground. This is covered with a yellow
cloth and placed upon a platform; or in villages, at
the foot of the Indian fig-tree. Fruits and flowers are
offered to it, with this prayer, "Oh, Shashthi! as thou
art cold, do thou preserve my children in health."
The worship of Sitala, as identical with Shashthi,
seems to be retained only in Bengal. In Hindustan,
upon this day, the sun is worshipped with fasting and
prayers, and with offerings of Akand or Mandara
leaves, whence it is called the Mandara Shashthi.
There is, however, a Sitala PiVja on the eighth of the
dark half of Chaitra (or Phalguna), in which case the
two minor goddesses are of course distinct.
Bhaskara Saptami. — Tiventy - second of Mdgha,
seventh day of the light fortnight (4th of February). —
This day is in an especial degree sacred to the sun.
Abstinence is to be practised on the day preceding;
and in the morning before sunrise, or at the first ap-
pearance of dawn, bathing is to be performed until
sunrise; a rigid fast is to be observed throughout the
day, worship is to be offered to the sun, presents are
to be made to the Brahmans, and in the evening the
worshipper is to hold a family feast; one of the ob-
servances of the day is abstinence from study, neither
teacher nor scholar being allowed to open a book.
At the time of bathing, certain prayers are to be
mentally recited, during which the bather places upon
his head a platter holding seven leaves of the arka
OF THE HINDUS. 195
plant (calotropis gigantoa), or satavari (asparagus
racemosus), or the jujube, or a little oil and a lighted
wick, and stirs the water around him, according to
some, with a piece of sugar-cane; after his prayers,
he removes the articles from his head, and sets the
lamp afloat on the water. He then makes the usual
libations to the Manes, and having gone home, pre-
sents food, and money, and clothes, according to his
means, to the Brahmans. One of the formulae of
meditation given is, "Glory to thee, who art a form
of Rudra, to the lord of Rasas, to Varuna, oh Hari-
vasa, be salutation to thee."
The Kasi Khanda, as quoted in the Kalpa Druma,
gives a different prayer: "Of whatever sin committed
by me during seven lives, may this Makari Sa|)tami
remove both the sorrow and the shame"", and what-
ever sin has been committed by me in this life, through
the influence of time, whether in mind, spirit, or
body, wittingly or unwittingly, may every such sin,
involvinfv the fruit of seven diseases , be effaced bv
this bathing, oh thou who art identical with the sun,
do thou efface it, oh Makari Saptami!" The repetition
of this prayer purifies a person from all sin, and \\\r
whole rite is considered as securing him from sick-
ness and premature decay.
As appears from these latter mantras, the day is
[S:iljtl;ik.il.. p. ;!'!;M , a. ;iii(l Nin'i:iy;isiiulliii, c. II. p. 7o, />:
^^^^?f rT m^ wm ^F^ ^'^'^ I
13*
196 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
also termed Makari Saptami, the seventh lunar clay
of the sun in Capricornus. It may be doubted if the
term Makari is rightly understood, even by the ori-
ginal authorities. Raghunandana considers it to de-
signate the whole month ofMagha, which, regarded
as a solar month, should commence with the sun's
entrance into the sign. There may, how^ever, be
something more in it, and it may originally have been
identical with the Uttarayana, when the sun is equally
an especial object of adoration, and either a change
of computation depending on astronomical periods, or
the purpose of multiplying festivals, has detached it
from its primitive position.
In Upper India, the day is also called Achala
Saptami, the fixed or immovable seventh, because it
is said it is always to be held sacred. In the South it
is better known as the Ratha Saptami, or Seventh of
the Chariot; for it is also the first day of a Manwan-
tara, or period of the reign of a Manu, being that of
Vivaswat, when the sun comes abroad in a new car-
riage. Agreeably to the directions given in the Kalpa
Taru, for the proper observance of this rite, the sun
should be worshipped in his own temple — a temple it
would now be difficult to discover in any part of
India — with prayers and offerings upon the sixth ;
during which abstinence is to be practised, and at
night the worshipper is to sleep on the ground. He
is to bathe and fast on the seventh, as before de-
scribed, but he is also to construct a car of gold, or
silver, or wood, with horses and driver; and after the
OF THE HINDUS. 197
mid-day ablutions, to decorate it, and with prayers
from the Vedas invite the sun to take his place in it.
Worship is then to l)e addressed to the sun, and the
worshipper is to prefer whatever desire he may have
formed , which the sun will assuredly grant him. The
night is to be spent with music, singing, and rejoicing,
and in the morning ablution is to be repeated; pre-
sents are to be made to the Brahmans, and the car
with all its appurtenances is to be presented to the
Guru or spiritual preceptor. This is probably an an-
cient rite, coeval with the development of the insti-
tutions of the Vedas.
Various other appellations are specified as belonging
to this same lunar day, as the Jayanti Saptami, the
victorious seventh; the Maha Saptami, the great
seventh, and others; but the characteristic observance
is the same, and whatever the designation, the wor-
ship of the sun is the prominent ceremony of the
seventh of the light half of Magha.
The same may be said, however, of the seventh
lunar day throughout the year, chiefly of one seventh
in each fortnight, that of the moon's increase; but
also of the seventh day of the wane. Besides wdiich,
there are particular sevenths to which the concur-
rence of other circumstances, such as its falling on a
Sunday*, or when the moon enters certain mansions,
From the IJiuivishyapuruiia, (quoted in llic Sabdakalpadrunia
p. 5891, a.]
198 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
as Rohirii*, gives extraordinary sanctity, and renders
the worship of the sun more than usually efficacious.
The specification of the days of the week by the
names of the seven planets is, as it is well known,
familiar to the Hindus. The orio'in of this arran^e-
ment is not very precisely ascertained ^■*'', as it was
unknown to the Greeks and not adopted by the Ro-
mans until a late period. It is commonly ascribed to
the Egyptians and Babylonians, but upon no very
sufficient authority, and the Hindus appear to have,
at least, as good a title as any other people to the
nvention \
* [See Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, I, 227.]
** [See, however, A. Weber, "Indische Studien", II, 167, and
Burgess' translation of the Surya Siddhjinta, p. 176-8.]
' It has been thought that Herodotus alludes to the custom,
when he observes, lib. II, c. 82, that the Egyptians assign their
months and days to different deities. Pliny also has an obscure
intimation that the sovereignty over each day was attributed to
the planets in the order of their revolution. In the time of Dion
Cassius, or in the beginning of the third century, the nomen-
clature had come into general use, and he is the authority for
its Egyptian origin. As in the Latin version, quod autem dies
ad septeni sidera ilia, quos planetas appellarunt, referuntur id ab
iEgyptiis institutum. — Lib. 38, c. 18, Christmannus, a modern
Latin writer (de Kalendario Romano), attributes the nomenclature
to the Babylonians: Sane apud Romanos nulla tunc erat distinctio
temporis in hebdomades dierum; ea tamen apud Babylonios et
^gyptios statim a regno Nabonasari in usu fuit cum septem pla-
netarum nominibus dies septinianje appellarentiir. He does not
give his authorities. It was not impossibly of Chaldsean invention,
but was very generally diffused throughout the East at a remote
date.
OF THE HINDUS. 199
Aditya-vara, Kavi-varii, or Kabi-bar in the bar-
barized vernacular, Dies Solis, or Sunday, is one of
every seven. This is somewhat difl'erent from the
seventh Tithi or hmar day, but a sort of sanctity is,
or at least was , attached even to Sunday, and fasting
on it was considered obligatory or meritorious \ But
the religious Fasti of the Hindus confine their in-
structions to the Tithi, and declare, that whoever
worships the sun, on the seventh day of the moon's
increase, with fasting, and offerings of white oblations,
as white flowers and the hke, and Mdioever fasts on
the seventh of the moon's wane, and offers to the sun
red flowers and articles of a red colour, is purified
from all ini(piity and goes after death to the solar
sphere""'. The worship of the sun, on the seventh of
the dark fortnight, seems to have gone out of use,
but that on the seventh of the fight fortnight is strongly
recommended in various authorities, beginning with
this seventh of Magha and continuing throughout the
year. In connexion with this observance, ditferent
modes of abstinence are enjoined for each succeeding
liuiar day, such as taking, during the day, small quan-
tities only of milk , or ghee, or water, or acrid leaves ;
or fasting wholly from sunset on the sixth till after
morning ablutions on the eighth; thence this day is
' The jackall declines touching the sinewy meshes of the noose,
because it is Sunday. — Hitopadesa [I, p. 21, 1. 21, ed. Lassen et
Schlegel],
^ Commentary on Tithi Tattwa.
200 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
also termed Vidliaiia Saptami — the seventh of obser-
vance — as being the first of the series. On all these
occasions Arghyas, or offerings, are presented to the
Sun; but the arghya, more peculiarly appropriated to
him, consists of eight articles. These slightly vary in
different specifications, but they are usually water,
milk, curds, ghee, sesamum and mustard seeds, grains
of rice, and the blossom of the kusa grass. Per-
fumes and flowers, especially of a white or a red
colour, are also most fit to be presented to the sun,
according to some authorities. Gifts of fuel, and the
lighting of a large fire on the morning of the seventh
lunar day of Magha , are also meritorious acts. The
following are two other prayers^ usual on these oc-
casions, in which it will be noticed that the number
"Seven" makes a conspicuous figure.
Upon presenting the Argha, the day itself personi-
fied as a goddess is thus addressed; "Mother of all
creatures, Saptami! who art one with the lord of the
seven coursers and the seven mystic words, glory to
thee in the sphere of the sun;" and on prostration
before the sun or his image, the worshipper utters,
"Glory to thee, who delightest in the chariot drawn
by seven worlds; glory to thee on the seventh lunar
day — the infinite, the creator'"'!" It is impossible to
' From the Narasinha Puraria.
OF THE HINDUS. 201
avoid inferring, from the general character of the
prayers and observances, and the sanctity evidently
attached to a recurring seventh day, some connexion
witli the sabbath, or seventh, of the Hebrew Hepta-
meron.
Bhishmashtami. — Twenty-third of Mag ha, eighth
lunar day of the light half (7th February). — This is
a festival which , at first sight , appears to be of spe-
cial and traditional origin, but which has, probably,
its source in the primitive institutes of the Hindus , of
which the worship of the Pitris, the patriarchs or
progenitors, the Dii Manes, constituted an important
element. According to the Tithi Tattwa, this day is
dedicated to Bhishma, the son of Ganga, and great
uncle of the Pahdava and Kaurava princes ; who was
killed in the course of the great war, and dying child-
less left no descendant in the direct line, on whom it
was incumbent to offer him obsequial honours. In
order to supply this defect, persons in general are en-
joined to make libations of water on this day to his
spirit, and to offer him sesamum seeds and boiled rice.
The act expiates the sins of a wdiole year: one of its
peculiarities is, that it is to be observed by persons
of all the four original castes, according to a text of
Dhavala, an ancient lawgiver, quoted by Kaghunan-
Sabdukalpadruma s. v. vSapiaiui p. jS'J*i, l> (coinp. p. 00%, b) and,
with some various readings, Niriiayasiudhu , 1. 1.]
202 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
dana, "Oh twice -born! persons of all the Varnas
should on the eighth lunar day offer water, sesamum
seeds , and rice , to Bhishnia. If a Brahman , or man
of any other caste, omit to make such offerings, the
merit ot his good deeds during the preceding year is
annulled." According to a different reading of the
text, however, it should be rendered: "Let all the
twice-born castes make the oblations ""." This ex-
cludes Sudras, but extends the duty to the Kshatriyas
and Vaisyas as well as Brahmans. The intention of
the rite, as now understood, is expressed in the for-
mula3 uttered at the time of presenting the offerings:
"I present this water to the childless hero Bhishma,
of the race of Vyaghrapada, the chief of the house of
Sankriti. May Bhishma the son of Santanu, the
speaker of truth and subjugatoi' of his passions, ob-
tain by this water the oblations due by sons and
grandsons**." The sim23le nature of the offerings
which are sufficient on such occasions, water and se-
Sabdak.d. , p. 2980 f. Hemcidri ap. Nirriayasindhu , c. II, 74, a.]
'^J^l'^ ^^T^fTc^ffe ^^^^% II
Sabdak.d., p. 2981, a. Niriiayasindhu , c. II, p. 74, a. Prariato-
shaiii, f. 172, b, 2.]
OF THE HINDUS. 203
samum seeds, justifies the remark made by Ovid on
the Feraha, that the Manes are easily satisfied, —
Parva petunt manes.
The observance of this ceremony is ahnost obsolete
in Bengal, and in the principal authorities of Hindustan
it is not noticed. The Bhavishyottara Puraha* has a
Bhishma panchakam, — a solemn rite which begins on
the llth of Kartik (light half), and continues to the
13th, which has something of the character of the
Feralia, being a period of mortification and fasting,
and expiatory of sin, which is worshipped in an effigy
made for the occasion, placed upon a measure of se-
samum, and invoked by the appellations of Dharma-
raja or Yama, the judge of the dead. The ceremony
is said to have been ordained by Bhishma, when mor-
tally wounded, and is to be practised by all castes,
and even by women. The rite is not found, however,
in any of the calendars, and it is probably an expiring
relique of the once general and public w"orshi}> of
the Manes.
Bhaimyekadasi. — Eleventh lunar day of the lujht
half of Mag ha (10th February). — This is also a festi-
val of traditional origin, said to have been first ob-
served by Bhima, one of the Pandu princes, in honour
of Vishnu, according to the instructions of Vasudeva.
* [c. Go. See also Padinapunirm, Uttarakhai'ida, o. lo'i, ami
Ganuiapurana, c. 123, as (juoted in the iSabdak.d. s. v. Bhishnia-
panchakam.j
204 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
Every eleventh lunar day, it may be observed, is held
in extravagant veneration by the Hindus, but more
particularly by the Vaishnavas. Fasting on the ele-
venth is declared to be equally efficacious with a
thousand aswamedhas, and eating during its conti-
nuance as heinous a sin as parricide, or the murder of
a spiritual teacher. This extravagance demonstrates
its sectarian character, and consequently its more
modern origin. The notion may have grown, how-
ever, out of particular appropriations of the lunar
day, when the eleventh was set apart, as in the pre-
sent case , to the adoration of Vishnu.
According to the ritual, the worshipper on this oc-
casion is to fast on the tenth, and bathe at sunset.
He is to ba4:he at dawn on the eleventh, and having
previously constructed a temporary temple in the
court-yard of his house, he is to cause burnt-offerings
to be made to Purushottama and other forms of
Vishnu, by Brahmans acquainted with the Vedas; he
himself going through a rather complicated series of
prayers and gesticulations. There is no image of
Vishnu, and he is invoked by formula? derived from
the Vedas. The worshipper observes a strict fast
throughout the day, and keeps a vigil at night with
music and singing. On the morning of the twelfth
he dismisses the Brahmans with presents, bathes, and
then takes a meal , of which flesh forms no part. The
performance of this ceremony expiates the sin in-
curred by omission of any of the prescribed fasts
during the preceding twelvemonth.
OF THE HINDUS. 205
Some differences of date and nomenclature occur,
in various authorities, regarding this day. The Kalpa
Druma calls it Jaya, but enjoins fasting and watching,
and the worship of Vishnu: and attributes to it the
same expiatory efficacy, calling it the purifiei", the
destroyer of sin , the bestower of all desires , and the
granter of emancipation to mankind. — Pavitra , pjipa-
hantri cha, kamada, mokshada nrinam. The same
work, however, has a day named from Bhima, and
refers to the same legend for its origin; but it places
it on the following day, as Bhima dwadasi. The
Bhavishyottara Purai'ia" also removes the day to the
twelfth, and tells a different story to account for it,
describing it as taught by the sage Pulastya to King
Bhima, the father of Damayanti, in reply to his
anxious inquiry how sin was to be efficaciously ex-
piated. Like the preceding, its essence is the do-
mestic worship of Vishnu, with the Homa or oblations
to fire, and ceremonies and pi-ayers of V^aidika origin.
One part of the ceremony consists in the administra-
tion of a sort of shower-bath to the institutor of the
rite, as towards evening water is dropped upon his
he^l from a perforated vessel, whilst he sits medi-
tating upon Vishnu. The evening is to be spent in
music and singing, and the reading of the Harivansa,
or Santi parva of the Mahabharata. The ceremony
expiates all possible wickedness. The rite is held in
* [e. <ja. See also Garudiipurai'ia, c. 1:.*7. quntrd in the Sabda-
kalpaUruma s. v. Bliaiini.]
206 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
little esteem, and is evidently compounded of the ob-
servances of various eras, — all of which are equally
little understood, — although the compound is mani-
festly of a purificatory er expiatory character.
ShatTilaDanam. — Twenty-seventh Mag ha, twelfth
day of the light half (ilth February). — This may be
considered as in some sort a continuation of the
Bhaimyekadasi, and is intended for the same object
— the removal or expiation of sin. As the name im-
plies, six different acts are to be performed, in all
which Tila, or sesamum seeds, are an essential ingre-
dient. The person who observes the rite is to bathe
in water in which they have been steeped — to anoint
himself with a paste made of them — to offer them
with clarified butter upon fire — to present them with
water to the manes of his ancestors — to eat them — to
give them away*. The consequences of so doing are
purification from sin, exemption from sickness and
misfortune, and a sojourn in Indra's heaven for thou-
sands of years. According to the Brahma Purai'ia,
Yama, the deity of the infernal regions, created Se-
samum after long and arduous penance upon this day,
whence its sanctity. The same title and the same
virtues are sometimes attributed also to the twelfth
of the dark fortnight of the month , as was explained
* [f7Mt?[Tff fTT^r^-R^ fTl^jft fTT^lT^: I
Titbitattvani, quoted in the Sabdakalpadruma, p. 5655, a.]
OF THE HINDUS. 207
by Agastya to Dattutreya, when he asked by what
means the effects of sin would be obviated, and sin-
ners saved from hell without great effort or munificent
donations \ The ceremonies to be performed with
Tila seeds are the easy means of accomplishing the
object. The importance attached to the use of Sesa-
mum in most of the offerings, but especially in those
to the Manes, is very remarkable and not very ex-
plicable. The legend of their being generated by Yama
is rather the consequence than the cause of such ap-
propriation. Sesamum seeds did form an ingredient
in the offerings of the Greeks, but not with the same
frequency, nor apparently with the same object.
Cakes of sesamum were distributed by them at mar-
riages, as the grains were considered typical of ferti-
lity. Perhaps some such opinion may have prevailed
amongst the Hindus, and hence their use in obsequial
offerings, the great end of which is not merely the
satisfaction of the dead, but the perpetuation of pro-
geny, and the prosperity of the living.
Another festival is observed on this day, in some
parts of India, in honour of Vishnu, as the Varaha,
his descent as a boar to lift up the earth from beneath
the waters being supposed to have occurred on this
day; hence it is termed also the Varaha Dwadasi.
YuGADYA. — Thirtieth Magha, fifteenth <l(iy, fight
half, or full moon of Mdgha (J 4th FehriKWi/). —
' Kalpa Diuma.
208 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
Bathing and fasting, and the offering of sesamum seeds
to the Manes, are enjoined on the full moon of Magha,
and it is also held in additional honour as the anni-
versary of the commencement of the Kali Yug, or
present age of the world, the age of impurity. Ac-
cording to some authorities the anniversaries of the
Yngas occur not on the days of opposition, or full
moon, but on those of conjunction or new moon, and
this is more consonant to the character of the rites
principally practised, as bathing and libations of water
and sesammii to the Dii Manes. Thus the Vishnu
Purana observes, the fifteenth of Magha in the dark
fortnight is one of the days called by ancient teachers
the Anniversaries of the first day of a Yuga or Age,
and are esteemed most sacred; on these days water
mixed with sesamum seeds should be regularly pre-
sented to the progenitors of mankind ; and again , the
Pitris are described as saying, "After having received
satisfaction for a twelvemonth we shall further derive
it from libations offered by our descendants at some
holy place at the end of the dark fortnight of Magha."
Sakashtaaii. — Ninth of the solar month Phalg una ;
Eighth day of lunar month Phdlguna, dark half
(22nd February). — This is another of the eighth lunar
days dedicated to the Manes, when their worship is
to be performed with the usual accompaniments of
bathing and abstinence, and offerings to the Viswa-
devas or universal gods. On this occasion the offer-
ings presented to the Pitris are, as the name imports,
OF THE HINDUS. 209
restricted to vegetable substances, Saka signifying
any potherb.
ViJAVAiKADASi. — Eleventh Phdlguna, (hirk half
(24th Febritary). — A celebration little known or ob-
served. A water jar, decorated with the emblems of
Vishnu, and considered as a type of him, is worshipped
with the usual oblations; bathing in the morning and
a visil at nioht are to be observed. This is considered
as a purificatory ceremony, first performed by Rama
to secure his passage across the ocean to Lanka: ac-
cording to the authority, the Skanda Puraiia, quoted
by the Kalpa Druma, it is an old ceremony of a puri-
ficatory tendency, removing sin and conducing to
virtue.
Before taking leave of the period which has been
latterly described, and which corresponds with the
greater portion of the month of February, it is im-
possible not to be struck with the peculiar character
of the ceremonies. From the time of the Vasanta
panchami, which ushers in the spring with indications
of festivity , all the observances partake more or less
of a lustral or purificatory purport; some of them
have no other aim than the expiation of sin, whilst
this in others is mixed up with the worship of the
Manes. Purification from, or expiation of wickedness
is, however, the predominating design of the cere-
monies; and ablution and fasting, and abstinence of
all kinds are the practices considered essential to the
attainment of this object. Such are the chief intentions
14
210 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
of the Makara Saptami , Bhishmashtami , Bhaimyeka-
dasi, Shat-tila danam, Yugadya, and Sakashtami, all
occurring within this interval. Now the spirit of the
time is precisely that which marked a great part of
the month of February among the Romans, and the
name of the month itself is said to have been derived
from its dedication by Numa to Februus, the god of
lustrations, for in that month it was necessary to pu-
rify the city and pay to the Dii Manes the oblations
that were their due: "Nomen habet a Februo deo
lustrationum cui a Numa erat dicatus. Lustrari autem
eo mense civitatem necesse erat; quo statuit ut justa
Diis manibus solverentur\" According to some, the
name is derived from the verb "februor", to be
cleansed or purified. The connexion between lustra-
tions and obsequial rites is another analogy, and con-
sonantly with this opinion , the Feralia, or worship of
the manes were celebrated for several days in Fe-
bruary, ending with the 17th, or according to some
with the 23rd. The month was thence called also the
Feralis Mensis. This similarity of time and of pur-
poses can scarcely have been accidental, and there
can be no reasonable doubt that the Feralia of the
Romans and the Sraddha of the Hindus, the worship
of the Pitris and of the Manes, have a common cha-
racter and had a common origin.
SiVARATRi. — Fourteeiith of the lunar month Phdl-
* Macrobius, Saturn. I, 13.
OF THE HINDUS. 211
guna; dark half (27 ih February). — This, in the esti-
mation of the followers of Siva, is the most sacred of
all their observances, expiating all sins, and securing
the attainment of all desires during life, and union
with Siva or final emancipation after death. The
ceremony is said to have been enjoined by Siva him-
self, who declared to his wife Uma, that the fourteenth
of Phalguna, if observed in honour of him, should be
destructive of the consequences of all sin, and should
confer final liberation. According to the Isana San-
hita, it was on this day that Siva first manifested
himself as a marvellous and interminable Linga, to
confound the pretensions of both Brahma and Vishnu,
who were disputing which was the greater divinity.
To decide the quarrel , they agreed that he should be
acknowledged the greater, who should first ascertain
the limits of the extraordinary object which appeared
of a sudden before them. Setting off in opposite di-
rections, Vishnu undertook to reach the base, Brahma
the summit; but after some thousand years of the
gods spent in the attempt, the end seemed to be as
remote as ever, and both returned discomfited and
humiliated, and confessed the vast superiority of Siva.
The legend seems to typify the exaltation of the Saiva
worship over that of Vishnu and Brahma, an event
which no doubt at one time took place.
There is some difference of practice in respect to
the day on which this festival is observed; according
to some authorities, it is held on the fourteenth of the
dark half of Magha, according to others on the four-
14*
212 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
teenth of that of Phalguna; but this is a mere nominal
difference, arising from the modes of reckoning the
beginning of the month from the new or the full moon.
Another difference, which is less easily adjusted, is
that of date ; some considering the festival as properly
commencing on the thirteenth instead of the four-
teenth; which appears to be the case in the South,
according to the published calendars. This arises
from the circumstance of the chief part of the cere-
mony being observed by night, as the name of Siva-
ratri denotes, and of a variety in the apportionment
of the hours of the night to the series of observances.
According to some, the ceremony should begin on the
evening of the thirteenth Tithi , or lunar day, if it ex-
tends to four hours after sunset; according to others,
it should beo'in on whichever of the two tithis or
lunar days comprises the larger proportion of the
hours of the night; according to some, it should be
held on the Tithi, which comprises both evening twi-
light, and midnight; and according to others, that
which includes midnight without the evening. These
are knotty points, which are not very intelligible
without reference to an almanac, but they are not the
less important in the eyes of the worshippers of Siva.
When the Tithi coincides with the solar day, or lasts
from sunrise, it is called Suddha, or pure, and the
rite begins with the morning of the fourteenth and
closes on the morning of the fifteenth.
The three essential observances are fasting during
the whole Tithi, or lunar day, and holding a vigil and
OF THE HINDUS. 213
worshipping the Linga during the night; but the ritual
is loaded with a vast number of directions , not only
for the presentation of offerings of various kinds to
the Linga, but for gesticulations to be employed, and
prayers to be addressed to various subordinate divi-
nities connected with Siva, and to Siva himself in a
variety of forms. After bathing in the morning, the
worshipper recites his Sankalpa, or pledges himself
to celebrate the worship. He repeats the ablution in
the evening, and going afterwards to a temple of Siva,
renews his pledge, saying, "1 will perform the wor-
ship of Siva, in the hope of accomphshing all my
wishes, of obtaining long life, and progeny, and wealth,
and for the expiation of all sins of whatever dye 1
may have committed during the past year, open or
secret, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, or act,
or speech*." He then scatters mustard -seed with
special mantras, and off'ers an argha; after which he
goes through the matrika nyasa, — a set of gesticula-
tions accompanied by short mystical prayers, con-
sisting chiefly of unmeaning syllables, preceded by a
letter of the alphabet: as, A-kam, A-sran, salutation
to the thumb; I-chan, I-sfin, salutation to the fore-
linger; U-stan, U-stum, salutation to the middle-finger;
and so on, going through the whole of the alphabet
with a salutation, or namaskar, to as many parts of
the body, touching each in succession, and adding, as
the Mantras proceed, names of the Matris, female
* [See Praiiatoshani, f. ITS, b, 1. 2.]
214 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
Saktis, or energies of Siva, who, by virtue of these
incantations, are supposed to take up their abode for
the time in the different members of the worshipper.
Other objects are supposed to be effected by similar
means; impediments are obviated by stamping thrice,
and repeating as often the Mantra "Haun, to the
weapon, phat;" next, with the same mantra, and by
thrice snapping the finger, the ten quarters of the
sphere, or universal space, are aggregated in the
Linga; and the purification of all beings is to be ef-
fected by thrice clapping the hands together, and
uttering the same Mantra each time. The repetition
of nyasa, or touching parts of the body whilst re-
peating mystical ejaculations , accompanies every
offering made to the Linga, as fruits, flowers, incense,
lights, and the like, during the whole ceremony.
When the rite is performed, as it most usually is,
in the performer's own residence, a Linga, if not al-
ready set up, is consecrated for the purpose; and this
is to be propitiated with different articles in each
watch of the night on which the vigil is held. In the
first watch, it is to be bathed with milk, the wor-
shipper, or the Brahman employed by him, uttering
the Mantra "Haun — reverence to Isana." An offering
is then made with the prayer: "Devoutly engaging in
thy worship, oh Iswara, and in repeating thy names,
I celebrate the Sivaratri rite according to rule, do
thou accept this offering*!" License, fruits, flowers,
OF THE HINDUS. 215
and articles of food, as boiled rice, or sometimes even
dressed flesh are offered with the customary prostra-
tion, and with the repetition of other Mantras.
A similar course is followed in the other three pe-
riods, with a modification of the formulae, and the
articles used to bathe the Linga with. Then in the
second, it is bathed with curds, with the Mantra,
"Haun — reverence to Aghora;" and the mantra of the
Argha is "Reverence to the holy Siva, the destroyer
of all sins ; I offer this Argha at the Sivaratri, do thou
with Uma be propitious*." In the third, the bathing
is performed with ghee, with the Mantra "Haun, re-
verence to Vamadeva;" and the Argha -mantra is,
"I am consumed by pain, poverty, and sorrow: oh
Lord of Parvati, do thou, oh beloved of Uma, accept
the Argha I present thee on this Sivaratri*^!" In the
fourth watch the Linga is bathed with honey, with
the Mantra "Haun, reverence to Sadyojata;" and the
Argha-prayer is, "Oh Sankara! take away the many
sins committed by me, accept, beloved of Uma, the
oblation I present thee on this the night of Siva***."
At the end of the watch, or daylight, the ceremony is
to be concluded with the radical mantra, "Sivaya
t^T^TT^^ «!«<€ 3T^ ^'T^T ^f II]
fll^TTTt ^^^^^m^nT ^^W % II J
^^TT^T ^^T^^gTRITnl ^^W ^11]
216 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
namali", and some such prayers as these: "Through
thy favour, oh Iswara! this rite is completed without
impediment; oh look with favour, oh lord of the uni-
verse , Hara , sovereign of the three worlds , on what
I have this day done, which is holy and dedicated to
Eudra! Through thy grace has this rite been accom-
plished. Be propitious to me, oh thou most glorious!
Grant to me increase of affluence: merely by be-
holding thee I am assuredly sanctified''." Oblations
to fire are then to be made, and the ceremony con-
cludes with further off"erino;s to the Lin<>a, and with
the Mantra, "By this rite may Sankara be propitiated,
and coming hither, bestow the eye of knowledge on
him who is burnt up by the anguish of worldly exis-
tence**." Brahmans are to be entertained, and pre-
sents are to be made to them by the master of the
house and his family holding a feast.
Those modes of adoration which are at all times
addressed to the different forms of Siva, and those ar-
ticles which are peculiarly enjoined to be presented
to the Linga, form, of course, part of the observances
of the Sivaratri, Amongst the forms is the Japa, or
^53T^T^ Ifct gT!?r TT^^^ f^^f^fWC II
c^fR^rr^^^ ^ Wc{^^ ^TTf-qrW: I
17^^ ^^ ^ -^ft^^f^f -RfTR^mJ^ !l
W^T^^'WT^W ^f^ ^% ^ ^^^: I]
Wt^ l^t TRT ^T'TfftP^ ^^ II]
OF THE HINDUS. 217
muttered recitation of his ditierent names as the wor-
shipper turns between his fingers the beads of a
rosary, made of the seeds of the Rudraksha, or Eleo-
carpus. The fullest string contains one hundred and
eight beads , for each of which there is a separate ap-
pellation, as Siva, Rudra, Hara, Sankara, Iswara,
Maheswara, Sulapani, Pasupati, and others. Amongst
the latter are certain leaves and flowers, and fruits,
and especially those of the bel-tree, as in the text —
"The Vilwa is the granter of all desires, the remover
of povei-t}'; there is nothing with which Sankara is
more gratified than with the leaf of the Vilwa ^."
The flower of the Dhattiira is another of his favourites,
and a single presentation of it to a Linga is said to
secure equal recompense as the gift of a hundred
thousand cows. At the Sivaratri worship, the Linga
may be crowned with a chaplet of Ketaki flowers,
but only on this occasion. According to the legend,
a Ketaki blossom fell from the top of the miraculous
Siva-linga, already alluded to as having appeared to
Brahma and Vishnu, and being appealed to by the
former, falsely affirmed that Brahma had taken it from
the summit of the Linga. Vishnu, knowing this to
be untrue, pronounced an imprecation upon the
flower, that it should never more be offered to Siva.
f^^TTTTr^t ^f^ ^ n^ffT WIT- II
The preceding quotations are from the Tithitattwa, Sec Sabda-
kalpadruma p. 5359. 60 and 63, b.]
218 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
He was moved, however, by the penitence of the
flower, so far to remit the penalty, as to allow its de-
corating the Linga worshipped at the Sivaratri puja.
The worship of Siva at this season is permitted to
all castes, even to Chandalas, and to women, and the
use of the Mantras seems to be allowed to them ; the
only exception being the mystical syllable "Om".
This they are not to utter; but they may go through
the acts of worship with the prayer "Sivaya namah".
The same rewards attend their performance of it with
faith, elevation to the sphere of Siva, identification
with him and freedom from future birth, and these
benefits accrue even though the rite be observed un-
intentionally and unwittingly, as is evidenced by the
legend of a forester which is related in the second
part of the Siva Puraha, ch. xxxiv. Being benighted
in the woods on the Sivaratri, the forester took shelter
in a Vilwatree. Here he was kept in a state of per-
petual wakefulness by dread of a tiger prowling round
the foot of the tree. He therefore observed , though
compulsorily, the Jagarana or vigil. The forester had
nothing with him to eat, consequently he held the
fast. Casting down the leaves of the tree to frighten
the tiger, some of them fell upon a deserted Linga
near the spot, and thus he made the prescribed of-
fering. On the ensuing morning the forester fell a
prey to the tiger, but such was the fruit of his invo-
luntary observance of the rites of the Sivaratri, that
when the messengers of Yama came to take his spirit
to the infernal regions they were opposed by the mes-
OF THE HINDUS. 219
sengers of Siva, who enlisted him in their ranks, and
carried him off in triumph to the heaven of their master.
Notwithstandinii' the reputed sanctity of the Siva-
ratri, it is evidently of sectarial and comparatively
modern, as well as merely local institution, and con-
sequently offers no points of analogy to the practices
of antiquity. It is said in the Kalpa Druma, that two
of the mantras are from the Rig veda, but they are
not cited, and it may well be doubted if any of the
Vedas recognise any such worship of Siva. The great
authorities for it are the Puranas and the Tantras;
the former — the Siva, Linga, Padma, Matsya, and
Vayu, are quoted chietly for the general enunciations
of the efficacy of the rite and the great rewards at-
tending its performance: the latter for the mantras:
the use of mystical formulee, of mysterious letters and
syllables, and the practice of the Nyasa and other ab-
surd gesticulations being derived mostly, if not ex-
clusively, from them, as the Isana Sanhita, the Siva
Rahasya, the Rudra Yamala, Mantra-Mahodadhi, and
other Tantrika works. The age of these compositions
is unquestionably not very remote, and the cere-
monies for which they are the only authorities, can
have no claim to be considered as parts of the primi-
tive system. This does not impair the popularity of
the rite, and the importance attached to it is evidenced
by the copious details which are given by the compilers
of the Titlii Tattwa and Kalpa Druma regarding it,
and by the manner in which it is observed in all
parts of India.
220 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
The performance of the ceremonies of the Siva-
ratri is possessed of enhanced efficacy when con-
ducted at those places which are in an especial manner
dedicated to Siva, particularly at the shrines which
were known to have been celebrated seats of worship
of the Linga before the Mohammedan invasion. Such
is the temple of Vaidyanath in Bengal, about 110
miles w. by n. from Murshedabad. The Linga wor-
shipped there is one of the twelve great Lingas which
were worshipped in India at least ten centuries ago,
and still retains its reputation. In consequence of the
establishment of the Mohammedan rule , and its posi-
tion in a rugged and mountainous country overrun
with thickets, the shrine fell for a season into neglect
and decay, but it was repaired and restored to popu-
larity by a Maithila Brahman about two centuries
since. An annual Mela takes place at Vaidyanath*,
at the Sivaratri, when more than a hundred thousand
pilgrims assemble. The meeting lasts three days, and
the offerings made to the temple ordinarily exceed a
lakh and a-half of rupees. The shrine has some credit
as an oracle, and a course of worship and fasting on
the spot is productive of dreams, which are believed
to convey the answers of Siva to the prayers and
petitions that have been preferred to him.
A still more numerous concourse of pilgrims occurs
annually on the Sivaratri at the temple of Mallikar-
juna** in the Dekhan, also one of the twelve ancient
* [Sivapuraiia, c. 55.] ** [ib. c. 44.]
OF THE HIISDUS. 221
Lingas, the temple of which is situated in a country
quite as difficult of access as Vaidyanath. An account
of the Mela held here is given by the late Colonel
Mackenzie, in the fifth volume of the Asiatic Re-
searches. He calls the place Sri-parvatham — properly
Sri Parvata, or Sri Saila, the holy mountain — he spe-
cifies the name of the Linga, however, as Mallikarja,
that is to say Mallikarjuna.
According to the Bombay Calendar, there is a nu-
merous assemblage of Hindus at the Sivaratri on the
Island of Elephanta, the great cave temple of which
place contains the well known three-headed image
of Siva.
GoviNDA DwADAsi. — Tweiity - seveiitli solar Phdl-
guna; twelfth day , light half (13th March). This is
a festival, which, as observed in Bengal, is held in
honour of Krishna, who is worshipped in his juvenile
form as a cowherd. In Hindustan it is termed the
Ni-isinha dwadasi, and is dedicated to Vishnu in his
Avatara of the Nrisinha, or man -lion. In neither is
it an observance held in much repute'^'.
Ghanta-karna Puja. — Tiventy- ninth solar Phdl-
guna; fourteenth day, light half (14th March). This
is also a minor festival, and apparently confined to
Bengal. Ghanta-karna, one of Siva's gar'ias, or atten-
dants, is to be worshipped under the type of a water-
* [Bhavishyottarapuraiia, c. 07.]
222 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
jar: the object of the rite is expressed in this prayer,
which accompanies the presentation of fruits and
flowers to the jar: "Oh Ghanta-karna! healer of
diseases , do thou preserve me from the fear of cuta-
neous affections*/' Ghanta-kariia is described in the
Siva Purana as endowed with great personal beauty,
and is, therefore, reputed to sympathise with those
who suffer any disfigurement. In Hindustan there are
directions for worshipping Maheswara, or Siva him-
self, on the fourteenth of the light half of Phalguna,
DoLA Yatha, or Holi. — Thirtieth solar Phalguna,
or first of Chaitra; fifteenth day, light half, or full
ynoon of Phalguna (16th March). — Although named
together, and in various parts of India, especially in
Bengal, confounded with each other, yet in other
places these festivals are still, as they no doubt were
originally elsewhere, distinct^; the Dolotsava, or
Swinging Festival, taking place at a date something
later, and this period belonging, most appropriately,
to the Holi. It will be convenient to notice them here
together however, for the Holi, as a distinct celebra-
tion, is not known in Bengal, although many of the
observances which are there practised at the Dola
Yatra are in many respects the same, are influenced
f^^^ctiH^ Tn^ T^ T^ ^fR^ II Tithitattwa.]
' The Kalpa Druma does notice a Dolotsava,— the swinging
of Krishna on the Phalguni purnima.
OP THE HINDUS. 223
by the same spirit, and express in the Hke style of
language and deportment the feelings of exuberant
gladness which hail the return of spring.
When India was governed by native princes, and
the institutions of the Hindus were in full vigour,
there is reason to believe, that at this time of the year
a series of connected and consistent festivities spread
through a protracted period of several weeks, and
that the whole constituted the Vasantotsava, the feast
of Vasanta or Spring. The proper commencement of
this period was, perhaps, the Vasanta Panchami, the
fifth of the light half of Magha, which, as we have
had occasion to notice, was regarded as the beginning
of Spring. After this, however, ensued the gloomy
succession of lustral and purificatory rites which have
been described, and which suspend the season oi"
festivity until the period now under consideration,
when the Holi takes the place of the initiatory Vasanta
Panchami, and is followed by celebrations in honour
of Spring, and the friend of Spring, Love. Whether
there has been any dislocation of times and obser-
vances here — whether the lustral days did not at one
time precede the vernal rejoicings, we have no means
of determining; but it is somewhat remarkable, that
such was the case with the February of the Romans,
which , in the days of Numa , when their year con-
sisted of but ten months, was the last of the year, and
therefore, was fitly enough the season for expiating
the accumulated iniquities of the preceding months.
However this may be, such is now the case, and the
224 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
vernal festival is broken in upon and interrupted by
observances of a different complexion — the efifect of
which may, perhaps, have been to heighten by the
contrast the sense of exhilaration when the time for
it recurred.
It is also to be remarked , that although traces of
the original purport of the festival are palpable enough,
yet that Love and Spring have been almost univer-
sally deposed from the rites over which they once
presided, and that they have been superseded by new
and less agreeable mythological creations; new legends
have also been invented to account for the origin and
object of the celebration, having little or no obvious
relation to the practices which are pursued. Thus, in
Bengal, the divinity worshipped at the Dola Yatra is
the juvenile Krishna, whilst in Hindustan the perso-
nified Holi is a female hobgoblin , a devourer of little
children.
As publicly commemorated m Bengal, the Dola
Yatra, or swinging festival, begins on the fourteenth
day of the light half of Phalguna (about the middle of
March). The head of the family fasts during that day.
In the evening fire-worship is performed ; after which
the officiating Brahman sprinkles upon an image of
Krishna, consecrated for the occasion, a little red
powder, and distributes a quantity of the same among
the persons present. This powder, termed Phalgu,
or Abira, is made chiefly of the dried and pounded
root of the Curcuma Zerumbet, or of the wood of the
Caesalpinia Sappan, which are of a red colour, or in
OF THE HINDUS. 225
some places the yellow powder of Turmeric is sub-
stituted. After this ceremony is concluded a bonfire
is made on a spot previously prepared, and a sort of
Guy Fawkes-like effigy, termed Holika, made of bam-
boo laths and straw, is formally carried to it and
committed to the flames. In villages and small towns
the bonfire is public, and is made outside the houses.
The figure is conveyed to the spot by Brahmans or
Vaishnavas, in regular procession, attended by musi-
cians and singers. Upon their arrival at the spot,
the image is placed in the centre of the pile, and the
ministering Brahman, having circumambulated it seven
times , sets it on fire. The assistants should then im-
mediately return to their homes. The remainder of
the day is passed in merriment and feasting.
Before daylight on the morning of the fifteenth, the
image of Krishna is carried to the swing, which has
been previously set up, and placed in the seat or
cradle, which, as soon as the dawn appears, is set
gently in motion for a few turns. This is repeated at
noon, and again at sunset. During the day, the mem-
bers of the family and their visiters, who are numerous
on this occasion, amuse themselves by scattering hand-
fuls of red powder over one another, or by sprinkling
each other with rose-water, either plain or similarly
tinted. The place where the swing is erected is the
usual site of the sport, and continues so for several
days. Boys and persons of the lower orders sally
forth into the streets and throw the powder over the
passengers, or wet them with the red liquid thrown
15
226 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
through syringes, using, at the same time, abusive
and obscene language. In the villages, the men ge-
nerally take part in the mischief, and persons of
respectability and females are encountered with gross
expressions, or sometimes with rough usage, and
rarely, therefore, trust themselves out of their houses
wdiilst the license continues.
The people of Orissa have no bonfire at the Dola
Yatra, but they observe the swinging and the scat-
tering of the abira; they have also some peculiar
usages. Their Gosains , Brahmans , followers of Chai-
tanya, carry in procession the images of the youthful
Krishna to the houses of their disciples and their pa-
trons, to whom they present some of the red powder
and atr of roses, and receive presents of money and
cloth in return.
The caste of Gopas, or cowherds, is everywhere
prominently conspicuous in this ceremony, and
especially so amongst the Uriyas; and at the Dola
Yatra, or Holi, they not only renew their own gar-
ments, but all the harness and equipments of their
cattle; they also bathe them and paint their foreheads
with sandal and turmeric. They themselves collect
in parties, each under a leader or chorasgus, whom
they follow through the streets, singing, and dancing,
and leaping, as if wild with joy. A curious part of
their proceeding, suggesting analogies, possibly acci-
dental, with some almost obsolete usages amongst
ourselves, is their being armed with slender wands;
and as they go along, the leader every now and then
OF THE HINDUS. 227
halts and turns round to his followers, and the whole
clatter their wands together for an instant or two,
when they resume their route, repeating their voci-
ferations and songs , chiefly in praise of Krishna or in
commemoration of his juvenile pastimes.
Although the Holi is considered in some parts of
Hindustan to begin with the vernal fifth, or Vasanta
Panchami, yet the actual celebration of it, even in
Upper India, does not take place till about ten days
before the full moon of Phalguna. The two first days
of this term are of preparation merely ; new garments,
red or yellow, are put on, and families feast and make
merry together; on the eighth day, the work proceeds
more in earnest: images of Krishna are set up and
worshipped, and smeared with red powder, or
sprinkled with water, coloured with the same mate-
rial. In the villages and towns, where there is no
Anglo-Indian police to interfere, the people, having
selected an open spot in the vicinity, bring thither
gradually the materials of a bonfire, — wood, grass,
cowdung, and other fuel. The head men of the vil-
lasces, or the chiefs of the trades, first contribute their
quotas; the rest collect whatever they can lay hands
upon, — fences, door-posts, and even furniture, if not
vigilantly protected. If these things be once added
to the pile, the owner cannot reclaim them, and it is
a point of honour to acquiesce — any measui*es, how-
ever, are allowable to prevent their being carried off.
During the whole period, up to the fifteenth day, the
people go about scattering the powder and red liquid
lb*
228 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
over each other, singing and dancing, and annoying
passengers by mischievous tricks, practical jokes,
coarse witticisms, and vulgar abuse. In the larger
towns, which are subject to British authority, the
festival is restricted to three days, and the celebrants
are not permitted to attack indijQferent passers by of
any degree. In Calcutta little of the festival is wit-
nessed, except among the palankin bearers, who are
generally permitted by their masters to devote a few
hours of the forenoon, for two or three days, to amuse
themselves by staining each others' faces and clothes,
and singing and dancing, and sometimes getting tipsy.
They do not venture to throw the powder over their
masters, but they bring a small quantity with some
sweetmeats on a tray, and the courtesy is acknow-
ledged by those who do not despise national obser-
vances and the merry-making of their dependants by
placing two or three rupees upon the platter. In the
native regiments a little more licence is allowed, and
the officers are gently bepowdered with the abira;
and at the Courts of Hindu princes, when such things
were, the British Resident and the officers of his suite
were usually participators in the public diversions of
their Highnesses. An amusing account of the pro-
ceedings at the Court of Maharaj Dowlat Rao Sindhia
is given by Major Broughton, in his letter from a
Marhatta camp.
We have, however, in this digression rather anti-
cipated matters, and must return to the fourteenth
day, by which time the pile of the bonfire is completed.
OF THE HINDUS. 229
It is then consecrated and lighted up by a Brahman,
and when the flames break forth, the spectators crowd
round it to warm themselves, an act that is supposed
to avert ill-luck for the rest of the year; they engage
also in some rough gambols, trying to push each
other nearer to the fire than is ao-reeable or safe, and
as the blaze declines, jump over and toss about the
burning embers; when the fuel is expended and the
fire extinct, which is not until the fifteenth or full
moon, the ashes are collected and thrown into the
water. Such of the celebrants as are Saivas take up
part and smear their bodies over with them in imita-
tion of Siva. According to Colonel Tod , the practice
of the Rajputs conforms so far to the original institu-
tion, that for forty days after the Vasanta Panchami,
or up to the full moon of Phalguna, the utmost licence
prevails at Udaypur, both in word and action; the
lower classes regale on stimulating confections and
intoxicating liquors, and even respectable persons
roam about the streets like bacchanals, vociferating
songs in praise of the powers of nature. The chief
orgies, however, take place after the beginning of
Phalguna, when the people are continually patrolling
the streets, throwing the common powder at each
other, or ejecting a solution of it from syringes, until
their clothes and countenances are all of the same
dye. A characteristic mode of keeping the festival is
playing the Holi on horseback, when the riders pelt
each other with balls of the red powder, inclosed in
thin plates of talc which break when they strike.
230 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
On the full moon, or Purnima, the Rana goes in
state to an open pavilion in the centre of a spacious
plain, where he is attended by his chiefs, and passes
an hour listening to the Holi songs. The surrounding
crowd amuse themselves with throwing the red
powder on all within their reach. After this, the
Rana feasts his chiefs, and presents them with cocoa-
nuts and swords of lath, in burlesque of real swords;
"in unison," Tod observes, "with the character of
the day, when war is banished, and the multiplication
not the destruction of man is the behest of the god-
dess who rules the Spring." At nightfall the forty
days conclude with the burning of the Holi, M^hen
they light large fires into which various substances
as well as the abira are cast, and around which groups
of children are dancing and screaming in the streets.
The sports continue till three hours after sunrise,
when the people bathe, change their garments, wor-
ship and return to the state of sober citizens; and
princes and chiefs receive gifts from their domestics.
Amongst the Tamils , or people of Madras and the
farther south, the Dolotsava, or Swing Festival, does
not occur until about a month later; but on the fif-
teenth of Phalguna they have a celebration more ana-
logous to the Holi of Hindustan, and which is no
doubt a genuine fragment of the primitive institution,
the adoration of the personified Spring as the friend
and associate of the deity of Love. The festival of
the full moon of Phalguna is the Kama-dahanam , the
burning of Kamadeva, whose effigy is committed to
OF THE HINDUS. 231
the flames. This is supposed to commemorate the
legend of Kama's having been consumed by the flames
which flashed indignant from the eye of Siva, when
the archer god presumed to direct his shaft against
the stern deity, and inflame his breast with passion
for Parvati. the daughter of the monarch of the Hi-
malaya Mountains. Kamadeva was reduced to a heap
of ashes, although he was afterwards restored to
existence by the intercession of the bride of Maha-
deva. The bonfires in the Dekhan are usually made
in front of the temples of Siva, or sometimes of
Vishnu, at midnight, and when extinct the ashes are
distributed amongst the assistants, who rub them over
their persons. The scattering of the abira, the singing
and abuse, and the ordinary practices of the festival
in Upper India, are also in use in the South.
The prominence given to Kamadeva at this season
by the Tamil races, and their preserving some rem-
nant of the purport of the primitive festival, are the
more interesting, that little or no trace of the chief
object of worship is preserved in Upper India. Kama-
deva and Vasanta are quite out of date, and legends
of a totally difl*erent tendency have been devised to
explain the purpose of the bonfire and the effigy ex-
posed to it. The heroine of these legends is a malig-
nant witch , or a foul female goblin , or Rakshasi,
named liori, Holi, or Holika, a word which, although
it occurs in some of the Purahas, is not of a very ob-
vious Sanskrit etymology \
' It appears from the Bhavishyottara Puraiia, as given below,
232 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
According to one account Holi is the same as the
female demon Putana, of whom it is related in the
Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas*, and in the popular
biographies of Krishna taken from them, that she
attempted to destroy the baby Krishna, by giving him
her poisoned nipples to suck. The little god, knowing
with whom he had to deal, sucked so hard and per-
severingly, that he drained the Rakshasi of her life.
The popular legend adds , that the dead body disap-
peared, and the Gopas, or cowherds of Mathura,
burnt the Rakshasi therefore in effigy. The chief
authority for the institution of the Holi, however, is
the Bhavishyottara Purana**, and as an authentic
representation of the popular notion which now pre-
vails, and which is nevertheless no doubt erroneous,
I shall give a translation of the legend told in that
compilation.
"Yudhishthira said, 'Tell me, Janardana, where-
fore on the full moon of Phalguna, a festival is cele-
brated in the world, in every village, and in every
town; why are children playing and dancing in every
house, why is the Holika lighted, what words are
uttered, what is the meaning of the name Attataja,
what of Siloshha, what divinity is worshipped at this
to be derived from Homa, burnt offering, and Loka, mankind;
because the latter are made prosperous by the performance of
the former on this occasion: an evidently fanciful derivation.
* [V. P. V, 5. Bhag. P. X, 4. Harivansa, 3423 ff.]
** [c. 117.]
OF THE HINDUS. 233
season , by whom was the rite institutefl , what obser-
vances are to be practised? Give me, Krishna, a full
account of these things.' Krishna replied: 'In the
Krita age, Yudhishthira, there was a king named
Raghu, a brave warrioi', endowed with all good quali-
ties, a kind speaker, and deeply read in the Vedas;
he had subdued the whole earth, had brought all its
princes under his authority, and virtuously cherished
his subjects, as if they had been his own children.
In his reign there was neither famine, nor sickness,
nor untimely death, nor any iniquity, nor departure
from the precepts of religion. Whilst he was thus
governing his kingdom, agreeably to the duties of his
regal caste, all his people came to him and called
upon him to preserve them. They said, 'Lo, into our
houses a female Rakshas named Dundha enters, both
by day and by night, and forcibly afflicts our children,
and she cannot be driven out either by charmed bra-
celets, or by water, or by seeds of mustard, or by
holy teachers skilful in exorcismus. Such, oh king!
as we have related, is the story of Dundha.'
"When the king heard these things, he consulted
the Muni Narada. The Muni replied: 'I will tell you
by what means the fiend is to be destroyed. This day
is the fifteenth of the light fortnight of Phalguna; the
cold season has departed, the warm weather will
commence with dawn. Chief of men! let the assu-
rance of safety be this day given to your people , and
let them, freed from terror, laugh and sport; let the
children go forth rejoicing, like soldiers delighted to
234 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
go to battle, equipped with wooden swords. Let also
a pile of dry wood and stones be prepared , and let it
be lighted according to rule, while incantations are
recited destructive of wicked fiends. Then let the
people, fearless, thrice circumambulate the fire, ex-
claiming, 'Kila, kila!' and clapping their hands ; and
let them sing and laugh, and let every one utter,
without fear, whatever comes into his mind. In va-
rious ways, and in their own speech, let them freely
indulge their tongues, and sing and sing again a thou-
sand times, whatever songs they will. Appalled by
those vociferations, by the oblation to fire, and by
the loud laughter (attahasa) of the children, that
wicked Rakshasi shall be destroyed, and thenceforth
the festival of the Holika shall be renowned among
mankind. Inasmuch as the oblation to fire (homa),
offered by the Brahmans upon this day, effaces sin
and confers peace upon the world (loka), therefore
shall the day be called the Holika; and inasmuch as
the day of full moon comprises the essence of all luna-
tions, so from its intrinsic excellence is Phalguna the
bestower of universal happiness. On this day, upon
the approach of evening, children should be detained
at home; and into the court -yard of the house,
smeared with cowdung, let the master of the house
invite many men, mostly youths, having wooden
swords in their hands: with these they shall touch the
children, with songs and laughter, and thus preserving
them , shall be entertained with boiled rice and sugar.
Thus Dundha is to be got rid of at the hour of sunset,
OF THE HINDUS. 235
and by this means the safety of children is ensured
on the approach of night.'''
The same authority describes a domestic ceremony
to be held on the following morning, when offerings
are to be made to a water -jar, as a type of Vishnu;
and presents are to be given to bards, singers, and
Brahmans. The observance of this secures the enjoy-
ment of all desires, and the continuation of life,
wealth, and posterity.
Of the songs that are sung at this season , the cha-
racter is generally said to be higly exceptionable. All
that I have had an opportunity of seeing are charac-
terised by little else than insipidity; they are short,
seldom exceeding two or three stanzas, the first of
which is repeated as a sort of refrain or burden, and
the wdiole song is sung da capo, over and over again.
They are either praises of the month or allusions to
the juvenile Krishna, in connexion wath the festival,
and are supposed to be uttered by the female com-
panions of his boyish frolics in Vrindavana. The fol-
lowing are a few of them :
I.
"Oh friend! proud as you are of your youth, be
careful of your garments. The month of Phalguna
fills with grief those whose lovers are far away. Oh
friend! proud as you are of your youth,'' &c.
II.
"The month of Phalouna has arrived: 1 shall mini;le
with the crowd, and partake of the sports of the Hori.
236 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
Oh friend! an hour of pleasure is worth a night of
mortification. The month of Phalgunahas arrived," &c.
III.
"I met on my way the lord of Vfindavana: how can
I go to fetch water? If I ascend the roof, he pelts me
with pellets of clay: if I go to the river, he sprinkles
me over with red powder; if I repair to Gokul, he
showers upon me tinted dust. Thus he drives me dis-
tracted. I met in the way the lord of Vfindavana."
IV.
"My beloved has sent me a letter to summon his
bride home; I blush for my unworthiness. How can
I repair to one who knows my imperfections? I blush
for my unworthiness. The litter is prepared, but no
female friend accompanies me. I blush for my un-
worthiness, now that my lover summons me home."
V.
"My boddice is wet through; who has thrown the
tinted liquor upon me? It is Kanhaiya, the son of
Nanda. It is the month of Phalguna. My boddice is
wet through," &c.
VI.
"Oh lord of Vraj ! gaily you sport to the merry sound
of the tabor, and dance along with the nymphs of
Vfindavana. Oh lord of Vraj!" &c.*
* [M. Garcin de Tassy gives a description of this festival,
extracted from the works of Jawan, Mir Taqi and Zamir, in his
OF THE HINDUS. 237
The deviation from ancient times and practices
which marks the recurrence of the Vernal Festival
among the Hindus themselves, renders it far from
surprising that we should fail to find an exact accor-
dance, in all respects, between the Indian observance,
as now followed, and that which has prevailed in
other seasons and places, with respect to celebrations,
the general purport and character of which present
probable analogies. We have no right to look for a
minute agreement, but it can scarcely be doubted,
that there were festivals among the Romans, and that
there are even yet observances in Europe which ex-
press a similar intention, and originated in the same
feelings, and which are, possibly, as well as the Hindu
Holi, reliques of what was once the universal method
adopted by mankind to typify the genial influence of
Spring upon both the inanimate and animated crea-
tion, and to express the passionate feelings inspired
by the season, and the delight which the revival of
nature diffused.
The season of Spring began with the Romans , as
with the Hindus, as has been observed, early in the
year, on the fifth of the Ides of February; between
this and the middle of March different festivals occur,
"Notice sur les fetes popuhiires des Hindous". Paris: 1834,
p. 38-46, and his "Histoire de la Litterature Hindoui et Hin-
doustani", I, 549 f. See also Chrestomathie Hindoustani. Paris:
1847, p. 122. Price's Hindee and Hindoostanee Selections. Cal-
cutta : 1827, I, 250 and 27G, and the articles Dolafi and Iloldkd in
the Sabdakalpadruaui, p. 1442 G, anil p. 723U f.]
238 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
which exhibit some, though not very striking points
of coincidence with the Hoh'.
It is clear, however, that their origin and character
were not very well understood by tlie Romans them-
selves. Thus of the Lupercalia, when young men ran
naked through the city, and married women placed
themselves in their way to be struck by them as they
passed with leather thongs, under an idea that they
were to become prolific thereby, little seems to have
been known, except that the festival was of foreign
origin and high antiquity, and that it was referable to
the rustic sjjorts of the shepherds and cowherds, the
Gopas of Arcadia. Again, of the Festum Stultorum,
the accounts are meagre and by no means satisfactory.
The Matronalia Festa, on the Kalends of March, were
more intelligible, and had for their object the increase
of progeny, in harmony with the foliation of the trees,
the budding of the grass, the pairing of birds, which
were the effects of the season of Spring, and which
are equally held in view in the celebration of the Holi,
which is considered to be especially promotive of the
multiplication of offspring, and preservative of the
health and life of children. Another festival of the
period, held on the fifteenth of March, is very imper-
fectly described, and still more imperfectly explained,
the worship of the goddess Anna Perenna; a goddess
identified with Themis, with lo, with Atlantis, with
Luna, or with Anna, the sister of Dido*. This was
* [L. Preller, Rcimische Mythologie. Berlin: 1S58, p. 304 ff.]
OF THE HINDUS. 239
celebrated in the open air by country people with
rustic sports, as drinkinp;, singing, and dancing; and
a remarkable and unaccountable part of the celebra-
tion was the use of ancient or vulgar jokes and obscene
language, joci veteres obscsenaque dicta canuntur.
Finally, on the sixteenth of the Kalends of April, or
the seventeenth March, occurred the Liberalia, or
Festival of Bacchus, of whom, in this place, Ovid
makes a singular remark, possibly embodying an an-
cient tradition, that burnt -offerings and oblations
originated with Bacchus after his conquest of India
and the East.
Ante tuos ortus arfe sine honore fuere,
Liber, et in gelidis herba reperta focis.
Te meraorant Ganga, totoque oriente subacto,
Primitias magno seposuisse Jovi. — Fasti III, 727-30.
The character of these festival days in the Roman
Calendar, and the period during which they took
place , suggest probable analogies to the practices of
the Hindus at the same season. The analogies are, it
is true, very general and unprecise, but to use the
words of Brand, "in joining the scattered fragments
that survive the mutilation of ancient customs, we
must be forgiven if all the parts are not found closely
to aoree. Little of the means of information have been
transmitted to us, and that little can only be eked out
by conjecture." Nothing can be more meagre than
the Fasti of Ovid in respect to the celebrations above
adverted to, and it is obvious that some of them, at
least, had become obsolete, even in liis day, and that
240 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
he knew little concernino; their origin, or their mode
of observance^; yet little doubt can be entertained
that their influence is traceable in practices which
are to be found about this time of the year in several
of the nations of Europe, particularly in the Carnival
and in the day of All Fools.
The Carnival is derived, according to Moresin, from
the times of Gentilism, and he quotes Joannes Boemus
Aubanus for an account of the extravagancies and
indecencies with which it was formerly observed in
Germany , that identify its affinity to the Lupercal on
the one hand, and, as w^e should say, the Holi on the
other. On the three days preceding Lent he observes^,
' That this was by no means singular is plain , from the ad-
mission of Macrobius, which he puts into the mouths of two of
his interlocutors, Horus and Vettius. — 1 Saturn, cap. XV.
^ Quo item modo tres praecedentes quadragesimale jejunium
dies peragat, dicere opus non erit, si cognoscatur qua popular!
qua spontanea insania ca^tera Germania, a qua et Franconia mi-
nime desciscit, vivat, comedit enim et bibit, seque ludo jocoque
omnimodo adeo dedit, quasi usus nunquara veniant, quasi eras
moritura liodie prius omnium rerum satietatem capere velit; atque
ne pudor obstet qui se ludicro illi committunt, facies larvis ob-
ducunt, sexum et a^tatem mentientes, viri mulierum vestimenta,
mulieres virorum induunt. Quidam Satyros aut malos demones
potius repraesentare volentes, minio se aut atramento tingunt;
habituque nefando deturpant ; alii nudi discurrentes Lupercos
agunt, a quibus ego annuum istum delirandi morem ad nos de-
fluxisse existimo.
Naogeorgus, in his description, has a variety of passages as
applicable to the Holi as the Carnival: —
Then old and young are both as much as guests of Bacchus' feast;
And four days long they tipple, square, and feede, and never rest.
OF THE HINDUS. 241
"the whole of Germany eats and drinks and gives it-
self up to jokes and sports, as if there was not another
day to live, and people wear disguises and masks, or
stain their faces and vestures with red and black
paint, or run about naked like the Luperci, from
whom, I think, this annual exhibition of insanity has
descended to us."
The practices of the Carnival, as now observed in
Italy, have been trimmed of their excesses, but even
in them there remain vestiges which denote their
community of origin with the Holi of the Hindus. The
time properly embraces the whole period from the
beginning of the year\ but as in the festival of Phal-
guna, the last few days are those on which the prin-
cipal demonstrations take place, and in the licence
which is permitted both in speech and conduct, the
wearing of masks and disguises, the reciprocal pelting
feare and shame away;
The tongue is set at libex'tie, and hath no kind of stay.
All thinges are lawfuU then and done, no pleasure passed by,
That in their mindes they can devise, as if they then should die.
He also speaks of the nudity of some of the revellers, an in-
decency of which even the Holi players are never guilty: —
Some naked runne about the streetes, their faces hid alone
With visars close, that so disguised they may of none be knowne,
and of the insults to which decent people were subjected, —
No matrone olde, nor sober man can freely by them come.
[Brand's Pop. Ant., I, G4 ff.]
' According to Spalding, the Carnival is supposed to begin
from New Year's Day. Matthews says it lasts eight days, with
intervals, before Lent.
16
242 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
with real or with mock comfits, and in some places
sprinkling with water or throwing powder over each
other, obvious analogies exists
There is another practice which presents also a
parallel, the extingaishing of the Carnival. This, in
Italy, is refined into frolicsome attempts to blow out
each other's lighted candles; but the notion appears
to be the same as the burning of the Holi, the lighting
and extinction of the bonfire, and scattering of the
ashes.
There is another of the usages of the Holi which
finds a parallel in modern times , although at a some-
what later period. It is mentioned by Colonel Pearce,
that one subject of diversion during the Holi, is to
send people on errands and expeditions that are to
end in disappointment, and raise a laugh at the ex-
pense of the person sent. He adds that, Sura-ad-
daula, the Nawab of Bengal, of Black Hole celebrity,
was very fond of making Holi Fools ^ The identity
of this practice with making April Fools as noticed
by Colonel Pearce, is concurred in by Maurice, who
remarks, "that the boundless hilarity and jocund
sports, prevalent on the 1st day of April in England,
' Amongst the Portuguese the practices are these: "on the
Sunday and Monday preceding Lent, as on the first of April in
England, people are privileged here (Lisbon) to play the fool.
It is thought very jocose to pour water on any person who
passes, or throw powder in his face, but to do both is the per-
fection of wit."— Southey's Letters [p. 497].
* Asiatic Researches, Vol. II, p, 334.
OF THE HINDUS. 243
and during the Holi Festival in India, have their origin
in the ancient practice of celebrating, with festival
rites, the period of the vernal equinox, when the new
year of Persia anciently began."
There was a Festum Stultoruni about this period
amongst the Romans, the purport of which is not very
clearly expressed, but some antiquaries have sup-
posed that it constituted the original of the festivals
of the Romish Church, the Festa Stultorum, Innocen-
tium, and the like, the extravagances of the Abbot of
Unreason, and the sleeveless errands of All Fools, or
April Fool day. The periods at which these rude and
boisterous manifestations of merriment took place
were something different; but, as Bi-and observes, the
crowded state of the Romish Calendar often led to
the alteration of the days set apart for festivity, and
in the case of the feast of Old or All Fools he quotes
authority for its removal to the first of November
from some other date, it being expressly stated in
the calendar, Festum Stultorum vetermn hue trans-
latum est. The period, therefore, is little material —
the identity of designation, and similarity of practice
render it not unlikely that the day of All Fools had
originally something in common with the Festum
Stultorum and with the Holi''".
* [See Brand's Popular Antiquities (Bohn), I, G3-102. 131-41.
Still more striking coincidences between the IIoli and the other
above-mentioned festivals and customs will be found in the fol-
lowing books: Fest-Kalender aus Bohnien. Wien und Prag: ISGl,
16*
244 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
BuRAVA Mangal. — On the first Tuesday* after the
Hoh, a supplementary repetition of it is held at Be-
nares, with sundry modifications of a not uninteresting
description. An account of the festival has been given
by the late Mr. J. Prinsep, in his valuable views of
Benares, and I had also an opportunity of witnessing
its observance. During the day the people go in
crowds to a place called Durga kunda, a large tank
pp. 56-64. 162-8. Calendrier Beige. Bruxelles: 1861, pp. 116-32.
203-6. Nork, Fest-Kalender. Stuttgart: 1847, p. 261 - 6. 791-
828. J. Grimm, deutsche Mythologie (2nd ed.), p. 724-34.
Montanus, die deutschen Volksfeste. Iserlohn und Elberfeld : 1854,
I, 20-26. Wolf, Beitrage zur deutschen Mythologie. Gottingen:
1852, p. 78. Wolfs Zeitschrift fiir deutsche Mythologie. Gottin-
gen: 1853, I, 89. W.Miiller, Geschichte der altdeutschen Religion.
Gottingen: 1844, p. 135 f. Simrock, deutsche Mythologie. Bonn:
1856, p. 547-60. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie. Miinchen :
1855, II, 246-52. Liebrecht, Gervasius von Tilbury. Hannover:
1856, p. 173-204. Wuttke, der deutsche Volksaberglaube. Ham-
burg: 1860, p. 21 f. 182 ff. Rochholz, Schweizersagen aus dem
Aargau. Aarau: 1856, II, 190. 196. Rochholz, Allemannisches
Kinderlied. Leipzig: 1857, p. 505 f. Vernaleken, Alpensagen.
Wien: 1858, p. 350 ff. and Mythen und Brauche des Volks in
Oesterreich. Wien: 1859, p. 293 ff. Zingerle, Sitten und Brauche
des Tiroler Volkes. Innsbruck: 1857, p. 88-91. Kuhn und
Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen. Leipzig: 1848, p. 369 ff. Kuhn,
Markische Sagen. Berlin: 1843, p. 307-11, and Sagen aus West-
falen. Leipzig: 1859, II, 124-31. Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen des
Eifler Volkes. Trier: 1856, I, 13-22. Meier, deutsche Sagen
aus Schwaben. Stuttgart: 1852, p. 371-80. 395 f. Lynker, deutsche
Sagen und Sitten. Cassel: 1860, p. 236 f. von Hahn, Albanesische
Studien. Jena: 1854, pp. 156. 200.]
* [Hence its name mangal. See also Price's Hindee and
Hindoostanee Selections, I, 277, 1. 4-6.]
OF THE HINDUS. 245
and temple dedicated to Durga, who is worshipped on
this occasion. Although there are no regular pro-
cessions, yet horses and elephants, gaily caparisoned,
are plentifully scattered amongst the throng, and the
garden walls along the road are crowded with spec-
tators. Strolling actors, disguised as religious mendi-
cants, or as individuals of inferior caste, both male
and female, mingle with the crowd, and divert them
with singing and dancing and absurd buffoonery.
Sometimes different parties oppose each other in a
contest of poetical improvisation. In the evening, the
more opulent inhabitants of Benares embark on board
boats fitted up for the occasion with platforms and
awnings, and parade up and down the river throughout
the night, having with them bands of musicians, and
singers, and dancing girls. When the evening is ad-
vanced, the pinnace of the Raja of Benares moves
from his residence at Ramnagar, and slowly descends
the stream, followed by other boats, lighted up, and
displaying fireworks from time to time, until they
take their station off one of the principal ghats. The
boats on the river are also illuminated, and are rowed
up and down the stream, accompanied by numerous
lesser craft selling refreshments, or bearing less wealthy
amateurs to catch the strains of some popular song-
stress. The shore is thronged with people, and dis-
charges of fireworks, with the river pageantry, amuse
them until the end of the night. At day-break they
are again clustered along the magnificent ghats of
Benares, and by their numbers, their order, then*
246 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS OF THE HINDUS.
diversified and many- tinted costumes, in harmony
with the elegant architecture of the surrounding edi-
fices, the broad river, and the unclouded sky, present
a picture of singular richness, gracefulness, animation,
and beauty.
Upon the occasion on which I witnessed this festi-
Aal, the Raja, on the morning, received the visits of
the Grovernor-Grenerars agent, Mr. Brooke, and other
European gentlemen of the station. They were enter-
tained as usual with naching, but upon taking leave,
in addition to the ordinary aspersion of rose-water,
which was bestowed so copiously as to amount to a
ducking, the guests were pelted with rose-leaves, im-
mense trays of which were brought in for the purpose.
The attack was retaliated by a shower of the same
missiles , which have at least the character of greater
refinement than the confitti di gesso, the plaster of
Paris pellets of the Carnival.
According to Mr. Prinsep, the ceremony originated
with Zemindar Balwant Sing, the father of Raja Chait
Sing, who adopted the celebration of the Holi on the
river, for the gratification of Mir Rustam Ali, the
Mohammedan Governor of the province, who had a
house on the river-side. As he observes, however,
the name Burwa, old, indicates higher antiquity.
ON HUMAN SACRIFICES. 247
V.
ON
HUMAN SACRIFICES
IN THE
ANCIENT RELIGION OF INDIA.
From the Journal of the R. Asiatic Society, Vol. VIII (1852), p. 96-107.
I PROPOSE to offer to the Society some illustrations of
the sacrifice of human beings as an element of the
ancient religion of India.
In the first book of the Ramayana* a curious legend
is narrated of the son of the Rishi Richika, named
Sunahsepha, who was sold by his father for a hundred
thousand cows to Ambarisha, the king of Ayodhya,
to supply the place of a sacrificial animal or victim^
* [c. 61 f. Schlegel, c. 63 f. Gorresio. Comp. also Muir's
Sanskrit Texts, I, 104 ff.]
' Schlegel's reading is yajna-pasu , which he renders simply
by victhna. Gorresio's text is more explicit : in the first place
the victim is carried off from the post whilst the king is engaged,
nara-medhena , "intanto ch'egli offriva un sacrifizio umano;" and
in the next it is said, in a rather questionable hemistich, however,
that the theft was a man endowed witli all lucky (marks, ap-
pointed to be a victim , naram lakshana-sampurnam pasutwe niyo-
248 ON HUMAN SACRIFICES IN THE
intended for a sacrifice, but stolen by Indra. Sunali-
sepha is accordingly conveyed to the place of sacri-
fice, and being dressed in red garments and decorated
with garlands of red flowers, is bound to the stake.
By the advice of Viswamitra he prays to Indra and
Agni with two sacred verses (gathas, according to
Schlegel's edition; i-ichas, in Gorresio's) communicated
to him by the Rishi, and Indra bestows upon him long
life, whilst at the same time the king is not disap-
pointed of his reward. This version of the legend
leaves it doubtful whether an actual sacrifice of the
victim, or one only typical, is intended.
The reference made in the Ramayana to the sacred
verses by which Sunahsepha propitiated Indra, might
lead us to expect some account of the transaction
in the text of the Veda; and accordingly, in the first
Ashtaka of the Rig-veda the sixth section contains a
series of seven hymns, attributed to Sunahsepha, who
addresses different divinities in succession. The ob-
ject of his prayers is not, however, very decidedly
pronounced, and in many respects they resemble those
of any other worshipper soliciting food, wealth, cattle,
and long life; and although liberation from bonds is
asked for, yet the text itself intimates that these are
only figurative, being the fetters of sin. Neither does
it appear that any of the deities called upon to rescue
jitam. Schlegel's edition also has a passage to the same pur-
port, that the stolen victim is to be recovered, or a man sub-
stituted in its place, and virtually, therefore, the two editions
agree, although not exactly in words.
ANCIENT RELIGION OF INDIA. 249
him from any situation of personal peril, and the re-
compense of his praises is the gift of a golden chariot
by Indra, a present rather incompatible with his posi-
tion as an intended victim. Hence the late Dr. Rosen
was led to infer that the Vaidik hymn, except in one
or two doubtful passages, bore no relation to the
legend of the Ramayana, and offered no indication of
a human victim deprecating death. — "In nullo autem
horum carminum (si initium hymni quatuor-vigente-
simi excipias, quod sane ita intelligi potest) ne levissi-
mum quidem indicium hominis in vita3 discrimen vo-
cati et mortem deprecantis*."
Whatever may be the conclusions to be drawn from
the legend of Sunahsephas as it appears in the Rama-
yana or in the Rig-veda, there is no question of its
purport as it is found in the Aitareya Brahmana which
is considered to be the Brahmana portion of the Rig-
veda; and as the story as there told is characteristic
of the style of that and similar works, the precise na-
ture of which is yet but little known, none having
been translated or printed, and as several curious
circumstances are comprised in the tradition, it will
not perhaps be uninteresting to have the story as it is
there narrated**.
* [Rigveda, ed. Rosen. Adnotationes p. LV.]
** [Aitar. Br. VII, 13-18. Translated also by R. Roth, in
A. Weber's "Indisclie Studien", I, 458-64 (his further remarks ib.
II, 112-23), and M. Miiller, in his History of Ancient Sanskrit
Literature , 408 - 19 ; the original Sanskrit text ib. p. 573 - 88.]
250 ON HUMAN SACRIFICES IN THE
Harischandra, the son of Vedhas, was a prince of
the race of Ikshwaku ; he had a hundred wives , but
no son. On one occasion the two sages, Narada and
Parvata were residing in his palace; and he said one
day to Narada, "Tell me, why do all creatures,
whether possessed of intelligence or devoid of it, de-
sire male progeny? What benefit is derived from a
son?" Narada thus replied: "A father who beholds
the face of a living son discharges his debt [to his
forefathers] , and obtains immortality. Whatever bene-
fits accrue to living beings upon earth, in fire, or in
water, a father finds still more in his son. A father,
by the birth of a son, traverses the great darkness
[of both worlds]. He is born as it were of himself,
and the son is a well freighted boat to bear him across
[the ocean of misery]. What matter the impurity [of
childhood] , the skin [of the student] , the beard [of
the householder], the penance [of the hermit]. Wish,
Brahmans, for a son, for he is a world without re-
proach. Food, vital air, vesture, dwelling, gold,
beauty, cattle, wedlock, a friend, a wife, a daughter,
are all contemptible: a son is the light [that elevates
his father] to the highest heaven. The husband is
himself conceived by his wife, who becomes as it
were his mother, and by her in the tenth month he is
newly born; therefore is a wife termed genitrix (jay a),
for of her is a man born again (jay ate). Gods and
Rishis implant in her great lustre, and the Gods say
to men, this is your parent. There is no world for
one without a son. This even know the beasts of the
ANCIENT RELIGION OF INDIA. 251
field, and to beget offspring pair indiscriminately with
their kind. [A son] is the much -commended certain
path to happiness, by which all [rational] beings having
male progeny travel: and birds and beasts are con-
scious of the same."
Having repeated verses to this eftect, Narada ad-
vised Harischandra to pray to Varuna for a son , pro-
mising to present him as an offering to that divinity.
"So be it," said the prince; and repairing to Varuna
he said: "Let a son be born unto me, and with him,
I will sacrifice to you." — "So be it," said Varuna,
and a son was born to the king, who was named Ro-
liita. "A son has been born to you," said Varuna,
"sacrifice with him to me." — "An animal," replied
the king, "is fit for sacrifice only after ten days from
birth. When the term of purification shall have passed,
I will sacrifice to you." — "Very well," said Varuna.
The ten days expired, and Varuna said, "Now sacri-
fice with him to me." The king replied, "An animal
is fit for sacrifice only when the teeth are cut; let the
teeth come through, and then I will sacrifice to you."
Varuna consented : the teeth were cut: "and now,"
said Varuna, "sacrifice with him to me." — "No," re-
plied the king, "an animal is fit for sacrifice only
when the first teeth are shed: let the teeth be shed,
and then I will sacrifice to you." — "So be it," said
Varuna.
Well, the teeth were shed; "And now," said Va-
runa, "sacrifice with him to me." — "No," objected
the king; "an animal is fit for sacrifice only when his
252 ON HUMAN SACRIFICES IN THE
[second] set of teeth are through; wait till then, and
I will perforin the sacrifice." Varufia assented. The
second teeth were cut. "Now," said Varuna, "his
teeth are produced; sacrifice with him to me." —
"No," replied the king, "for a Kshatriya is not fit for
sacrifice until he has been invested with arms : let him
receive his martial investiture, then I will sacrifice to
you." — "So be it," said Varuna. The youth grew,
and was invested with arms; and Varuna said, "now
sacrifice to me with him." The king replied, "Be it
so." But he called his son, and said, "My child, Va-
runa gave you to me, and I have also promised to
sacrifice with you to him." — "By no means," said the
youth; and taking his bow, he set off to the forest,
where he wandered for a twelvemonth.
Upon Rohita's disappearance Varuna afflicted the
descendant of Ikshwaku with dropsy; which when
Rohita heard he set off to return home. On the way
he was met by Indra in the shape of a Brahman, who
said to him, "We have heard, Rohita, that prosperity
attends him who undergoes great labour, and that a
man, although excellent, is held in disesteem if he
tarries amongst his kin. Indra is the friend of the
wanderer, therefore do thou wander on — wander on."
Thus spake the Brahman ; and Rohita passed a second
year in the woods.
At the end of that period he turned towards home,
but Indra, as a mortal, again met him, and said,
"The feet of the traveller bear flowers, his body
grows and puts forth fruit. All his sins are effaced by
ANCIENT RELIGION OF INDIA. 253
the fatigue he incurs in travelling a good roacP, and
they fall asleep. Wander on, therefore — wander on."
So said the Brahman; and Rohita spent another year
in the woods.
At the end of the third year the prince resumed his
journey homewards. He was met as before by Indra
in a human form, who said to him, "The prosperity
of a man who sits down inactive sits also still. It
rises up when he rises, it slundjers when he sleeps,
and moves when he moves. Wander on, therefore —
persist — w^ander on;" and Rohita remained a fourth
year in the forests.
At the end of the fourth year, Rohita was again
stopped by Indra, who said, "The sleeper is the Kali
age; the awaker is the Dwapara; the riser is the
Treta, but the mover is the Kfita age*. Wander on,
therefore — wander on;" and Rohita tarried a fifth
year in the woods.
At the close of the fifth year he was returning
home, but as before Indra encountered him, and said,
"The wanderer finds honey — the wanderer finds the
sweet fig-tree. Behold the glory of the Sun, who,
ever -moving, never reposes. Wander on, therefore
— wander on." So Rohita returned for the sixth
year to the forests.
Whilst wandering thus in the woods he encountered
the Rishi Ajigartta, the son of Suyavasa, who was
' 'JT'R%. The commentary says, "in going to tirtlias," <SiC.
* [Weber's Ind. Stud. I, 286.]
254 ON HUMAN SACRIFICES IN THE
distressed through want of food. He had three sons,
Sunahpuchchha, Sunahsepha, and Sunolangiila. Ro-
hita said to him, "Rishi, I will give thee a hundred
cows for one of these thy sons, that by him I may
redeem myself." But the Rishi, taking hold of the
eldest, said, "Not this one;" "No, nor this one," said
the mother, securing the youngest; but they both
agreed to sell the middle son Sunahsepha, and Rohita
having paid the hundred cows, took the youth and
departed from the woods. He proceeded to his father
and said, "Rejoice, father, for with this youth shall I
redeem myself." So Harischandra had recourse to
the royal Varuha, and said, "With this youth will I
sacrifice to you." And Varuna replied, "Be it so — a
Brahman is better than a Kshatriya;" and thence di-
rected the king to perform the sacrificial ceremony
termed the Rajasuya; and he, on the day of initiation,
appointed Sunahsepha to be the human victim.
At that sacrifice of Harischandra, Viswamitra was
the Hotri or reciter of the Rich; Jamadagni the
Adhwaryu or repeater of the Yajush; Vasishtha the
Brahma or superintending priest, and Ayasya the
Udgatri or chaunter of the Sama; but they had no
one who was competent to perform the office of
binding the victim , when consecrated , to the stake,
whereupon Ajigartta said, "If you give me another
hundred cows I will perform the duty;" and they
gave him the cows, and he bound the victim. But for
the victim thus consecrated and bound, sanctified by
the divinities of sacrifice, and thrice circumambulated
ANCIENT KELTGION OF INDIA. 255
by the priests bearing burning brands of sacred grass,
no immolator could be found [amongst the ministrant
Brahmans], when Ajigartta again offered himself,
sayhig, "Give me another hundred cows, and I will
immolate him;" accordingly they gave him the cows,
and he went forth to sharpen his knife \ In this inter-
val Sunahsepha reflected, "These [peoj)]e] will put
me to death as if I were not a man'-, but an animal;
my only hope is the aid of some of the gods, to whom
I will have recourse." So thinking, he prayed to
Prajapati, the first of the gods, with the prayer 'Kasya
nunam,' &c.*; but Prajapati said, "Agni is the nearest
of the gods, appeal to him." He did so, saying,
'Agner vayam''"' :' on which Agni said to him, "Saviti-i
is the lord of all the protecting powers, pray to liim ;"
so Sunahsepha repeated 'Abhi twii deva*'"'''.' Savitri
said, "You are dedicated to the royal Varuha, appeal
to him," which Sunahsepha did in the thirty-one fol-
lowing stanzas, beginning 'Na hi te kshatramf.' Va-
ruha said "Agni is the mouth of the gods, and most
friendly [to man], praise him, and we will set you
free," which Sunahsepha did in twenty-two stanzas^.
' Or sword, "as/m nihsdndij eydija.''''
^ Or, "as if I were not a man;" for according to the Veda,
in the case of a man, after circuniambidating, they let him go,
and substitute a goat.
* [Rig-V. I, h. 24, 1.] ** [ib. 2.] *** [ib. ;;.]
t [h. 24, 6-15 and h. 2a.]
^ We have twenty-three in ihe text; the hist is to be omitted,
as not addressed to Agni.
256 ON HUMAN SACRIFICES IN THE
beginning 'Vasishtha hi*.' Agni said, "Praise the
Viswadevas, and then we will Uberate you;" so
Sunahsepha praised them, saying, 'Namo mahadbhyah,'
&c. **; but the Viswadevas said, "Indra is the
mightiest of the gods, the most excellent, and the
most able to lead men to happiness; worship him,
and we will loose you;" so Sunahsepha praised Indra
with the hymn beginning 'Yach-chid-dhi satya so-
mapa***;' and Indra, being pleased by this prayer,
(rave him a o;olden chariot \ He nevertheless recom-
mended him to propitiite the Aswins; he did so, and
they desired him to praise Ushas, or the personified
dawn, which he did in three concluding stanzas, on
repeating which his bonds fell off, and he was set
free; and the king, the father of Kohita, was cured
of his complaint.
Then the priests said to him, "Perform the com-
pletion of this our rite to-day;" on which he showed
to them the [mode of] offering the libation of the
Soma juice, accompanying it by four stanzas, beginning
'Yach-chid-dhif;' then having brought the pitcher
(drona kalasa), he directed the remainder to be poured
into it, with the stanza 'Uchchhishtam chamborff;'
* [h. 26 and 27, 1-12.]
*•* [h. 27 , 13. See also Muir's Sanskrit Texts II , 195 f.]
*** [h. 29.]
' It is said, "in his mind;" perhaps meaning that he pur-
posed to give it to him.
t [h. 29, 1-4.] ft [h- 28, 9.]
ANCIENT RELIGION OF INDIA. 257
and then with the swaha, preceded by four stanzas*,
made the oblation, concluding with an offering to fire \
When the rite was completed , Sunahsepha placed
himself by the side of Viswamitra, to whom Ajigartta
the son of Suyavasa said, "Give me my son;" but
Viswamitra answered, "No, the gods have given him
to me." Hence he was called Devarata- (the God-
given), the son of Viswamitra, from whom descended
theKapileyas and Babhravas. Ajigartta then appealed
to Sunahsepha, and said, "My son, your mother and
I entreat your return;" and finding him silent, con-
tinued, "you are by birth the son of Ajigartta of the
race of the Angirasas, learned and renowned; do not
separate from your great grandsire's descendants, but
come back to me." To which Sunahsepha answered,
"All present saw you with the implement of immola-
tion in your hand^: such a sight was never beheld
even amongst Siidras. Descendant of Angiras, you
luue preferred three hundred cows to me." Then
said Ajigartta, "My child, the wicked act that I have
connnitted afflicts me sorely. I repent me of it. Let
the three hundred cows be thine." Sunahsepha an-
* [h. 28, 1-4.]
' This is obscure, being little else than the text; but it re-
lates to a particular ceremony called the "Anjas Sava" (Sava
Abhishava rijju-niargeiia), "the rightway oblation."
* Theodotus, Deodatus.
^ Sdsa-hastam sarve api adrisuh. Sdsa is explained by visana-
hetuh, the cause or iniplmicnt of inuiiolatiug, or kliadga, a sword.
17
258 ON HUMAN SACRIFICES IN THE
swered, "He who lias once done a wicked deed will
be liable to repeat it. Thon canst never be free from
the disposition of the vile [Siidras]. Thou hast done
what is unpardonable." — "Unpardonable!" repeated
Viswamitra, and said, "Dreadful appeared the son of
Suyavasa, armed with a weapon, intending to slay.
Let not his son be his, but become a son of mine."
But then said Sunahsepha to Viswamitra, "Son of a
king, explain to me how this may be, that I, of the
race of Angiras , can be in the relation of a son to
thee?" Viswamitra answered, "Thou shalt be the
eldest of my own, and an excellent progeny shall be
thine. Thou comest to me as the gift of the gods,
and therefore I welcome thee." — "But," said Sunah-
sepha, "who will assure me, best of the Bharatas, of
the concurrence of these [thy sons] for my affiliation
and seniority if I become thy son ? " Thereupon Viswa-
mitra called his sons together and said, "Madhu-
chhandas, Rishabha, Rehu, Ashtaka, and aU the rest of
the brethren, listen to my commands, and dispute not
the seniority of Sunahsepha." Now Viswamitra had
a hundred and one sons, fifty of whom were senior
and fifty junior to Madhuchhandas. The seniors did
not approve of the adoption , and Viswamitra cursed
them and said, "Your progeny shall be degraded;"
and consequently their descendants were the Andhras,
Puhdras, Sabaras, Pulindas, and Miitivas. Thus there
are numerous degraded races sprung from Viswamitra,
forming the greater portion of the barbarous tribes
[Dasyus]. On the other hand, Madhuchhandas and
ANCIENT RELIGION OF INDIA. 259
the fifty who were his juniors said, "We accede to
whatever our father considers right. We all give
thee, Sunahsepha, precedence, and acknowledge our-
selves to be subordinate to thee." Viswamitra, there-
fore, much pleased with them, said, "Your sons shall
be affluent in cattle and possessed of offspring."
The latter circumstances told by the Aitareya Brcih-
mana of the descent of barbarous tribes from the sons
of Viswamitra, although suggestive of inquiry, are
foreign to our present purpose, and need not be
further noticed. The main piu'port of the quotation,
the actual sacrifice of a human victim, is fully estab-
lished , at least at the period of the compilation of the
Brahmana: how far that expresses the practice of the
Veda period may admit of question.
It is the received opinion of Hindu writers that the
Bruhmanas are an integral part of the Veda. Thus
Sayana, the great scholiast on the Vedas, in the intro-
ductory discussion on these writings prefixed to his
explanation of the text of the Rich, observes upon
the authority of Apastamba, "Veda is the denomina-
tion of the Mantras and the Brahmanas*." By the
Mantras are meant the hymns and prayers; and the
Brahmanas, say the Mimansakas, are intended to
elucidate and, as it were, individualize the objects
which are only generally adverted to in the hynms,
as where it is said in the Sukta, or hymn, "give abun-
dantly," the Brahmana explains it, "give or offer
* [Rig-V. ed. M. Muller, I, p. 4.]
260 ON HUMAN SACraFICES IN THE
clarified butter in abundance." The same authorities
declare that the Veda consists of two parts, Mantra
and Brahmana; and that the only unexceptionable
definition which can be given of the latter is, that all
that portion of the Veda which is not Mantra is Brah-
mana'^'. In exact conformity to these original au-
thorities is the following statement of Mr. Colebrooke.
"Each Veda consists of two parts, denominated the
Mantras and the Brahmanas, or prayers and precepts.
The complete collection of the hymns, prayers, and
invocations belonoino" to one Veda is entitled its San-
hita. Every other portion of Indian Scripture is in-
cluded under the general head of divinity — Brahmana.
This comprises precepts which inculcate religious
duties, maxims which explain those precepts, and
arguments which relate to theology**." To these
may be added narratives which illustrate precepts and
practices, or explain incidents connected with the
origin or objects of the Mantras, such as that of
Sunahsepha, which has been cited.
Notwithstanding the concurrence of these authorities
and the generally prevalent opinion of the Hindus, it
requires but a cursory inspection of such a work as
the Aitareya Brahmana to deny the accuracy of the
attribution. This Brahmana is not an integral part of
the Rig-veda, and never could have been so. It is a
work of a totally difiFerent era, and a totally different
* [ib. p. 22. History of Ancient Sanskrit Lit. 342 ff.]
** [Essays, p. 7. Weber, Ind. Stud., I, 3. 14. Manava-kalpa-
sutra, ed. Th. Goldstiicker, Introduction, p. 70 fl".]
ANCIKNT KKLICaoN OF INDIA. 261
system, and if, as is likely it may he, it is to be re-
ceived as a type of other similar compilations, con-
forming as it does accurately enough to the general
description, we shall be authorized to di'aw the same
inference with respect to all, and to separate the
Brahmanas from the Hindu religion as it appeal's in
the Sanhitas, or collections of the prayers and hymns.
The Aitareya Brahmana, as will have been observed
in the translation of the legend of Sunahsepha, refers
to the hynms or Suktas of the Sanhita, specifying the
number of verses in which he was fabled to have ad-
dressed the gods, agreeably to their order and place
in the Sanhita. Again, in stating that he taught to
the priests the manner of offering libations, it quotes
the leading phrases of different Suktas which are to
be found in different and distant portions of the San-
hita. This, it may be observed, is in strict agreement
with the general arrangement of the Brahmanas:
directions are given for the performance of va-
rious i-eligious rites, and the hynms, or portions of
the hymns which are to be repeated on such occa-
sions, are quoted in the same manner, merely by a
few initial phrases, and taken from separate and un-
connected parts of the Sanhita, very commonly having
little relation to the actual ceremony.
Now the fact, and still more, the manner of quoting
the texts of the Sanhita, necessarily lead to the con-
clusion , that the Sanhita must have existed in its
present form before the compilation of the Brahmana
was undertaken, and as it must have been widely
262 ON HUMAN SACRIFICES IN THE
current and familiarly known, or the citation of broken
and isolated texts could neither have been adopted
nor verifiable, it must have assumed its actual ar-
rangement long anterior to the compilation of the
Brahmanas. But the Sanhita itself is of a date long
subsequent to its component parts. There is no doubt
of the accuracy of the tradition that the hymns of the
Vedas had long been current as single and uncon-
nected compositions, preserved in families or schools
by oral communication , probably for centuries ; and
that they v\^ere finally collected and arranged as we
now have them, by a school or schools of learned
Brahmans, of which Vyasa (possibly an abstraction,
as it means merely an arranger) was the nominal head.
Allowing, therefore, a considerable period before the
Sanhitas were collected into form, and another inter-
val before they could be familiarly referred to, it fol-
lows that the Brahmanas cannot be an integral part
of the Veda, understanding thereby the expression of
the primitive notions of the Hindus, and that they are
not entitled to be classed as authorities for the oldest
and most genuine system of Hindu worship.
In fact, in the Brahmanas we find fully developed
the whole Brahmanical system, of much of which we
have but faint and questionable indications in the
Mantras. We have the whole body of both religious
and social institutions — a variety of practices alluded
to of a more complicated texture than the apparently
simple ritual of the Sanhita; and the complete re-
cognition both in name and practice of the diiferent
ANGIKNT KEI.KJKtN OF INDIA. 263
castes, tile Brahiium , the Kshatriya , the V^aisya, and
the Sudra: we liave also the Brahinans distino-uished
as differing among themselves in tribe and dignity,
and sometimes engaged in disputes for precedence and
the exchisive pertbrniance of particular rites, all
which it may be observed is incontrovertible proof
that a very long interval had elapsed between the
composition of the Siiktas and the Brahmanas — be-
tween the first dawn and the noon-day culmination of
the Brahmanical system.
Having come to the conclusion then that the J^rali-
manas are not an integral part of the primitive Veda
or Hindu system, but admitting that they may be
considered as an essential part of the Veda of the
Brahmans, or as a scriptural authority for the Brah-
manical forms of wortehip, and for their social institu-
tions when fully developed , we have next to consider
the period to which they may belong, and how far
they may be regarded as authentic representations of
an ancient (though not the most ancient) religious and
social system in India. This, as usual with all Hindu
chronology, is a difficult question : certainty is unat-
tainable, but we may come to probable conclusions
within reasonable limits from internal evidence. The
Brahmanas are posterior to the discontinuance of ex-
clusively oral teaching; they could not cite miscel-
laneous and unconnected texts to the extent to which
they cite them, unless those texts had been accessible
in a written shape. They are subsequent therefore to
the use of writing, to which the hymns or Mantras
264 ON HUMAN SACRLFICES IN THE
were in great part, if not wholly, anterior. They are
prior in all probability to the heroic poems, the Rania-
yana and Mahabharata, as we have no allusions to
the demigods and heroes whom they celebrate; no
allusion to Krishna and Rama, although the latter
name occurs as that of a Brahman, the son or a de-
scendant of Bhrigu, which has nothing to do with
Rama, the son of king Dasaratha, any more than the
name of Krishna, which occurs in the Sanhita as the
name of an A sura, implies any allusion to the Krishna
of the Mahabharata. There is no reference to any
controversial opposition to the doctrines, or rites of
Brahmanical Hinduism, although differences of opinion
as to the purport of the performance of some cere-
monies are adverted to, and so far therefore, we have
no reference to Buddhism. Again, the Aitareya Brah-
mana is prior to the Sutras, or rules for conducting
religious rites, ascribed to Aswal4yana, Baudhfiyana,
and others who are undoubtedly authors of a remote
period. It is , perhaps, not far from the period of the
oldest passages in the laws of Manu, in some of
which* we find allusions to the narratives of the Brah-
mana, as in the case of Sunahsepha, and also of a
prince named Paijavana, who is not named in later
works. In the etymology also of the term jay a, a
wife, as one in whom a man is born again in the
person of a son, we have the very same words '. The
* [VII, 41 f. X, 105 ff. Mahabh. XII, 2304, quoted by Weber,
Ind. Stud., II, 194.]
' Manu, b. IX, V. 8.
ANCIENT RELIC. ION OF INDIA. 2G5
Brahmana may be the earlier of the two, but not Ijy
any very great interval. Finally, the style, although
more modern than that of the Veda, is ancient and
obscure, and contains many words and phrases of
V^aidik antiquity. Upon the whole, as a mere matter
of conjecture, subject to reconsideration, 1 should be
disposed to place the Aitareya Brahmana about six or
seven centuries before the Christian era.
So far, therefore, it may be received as authority
to a qualified extent for the primitive practices of the
Hindus, and for including amongst them the sacrifice,
on particular occasions, of human victims. Not that
the practice ever prevailed to the extent to which it
spread through most of the ancient nations, oi* par-
took in general of the same character. These, it has
been asserted, were entirely of an expiatory nature,
performed under an impression of fear, and intended
to deprecate the anger of the Gods. Such were the
sacrifices of the Druids, the Scythians, and the Phoe-
nicians; and such were the Thargelia of the Athenians,
when a man and woman were annually put to death
in order to expiate the sins of the public, and redeem
them from any national calamity. They w^ere not,
however, restricted to this source, but were not un-
frequently vindictive, as when prisoners taken in war
were sacrificed, like the three hundred citizens of
Perusia whom Augustus offered in one day to his dei-
fied uncle (Divo Julio): oi- as the Grecian navigators
whom the barbarians of Tauris sacrificed to Artemis
whenever cast upon their shores. They had their
206 ON HUMAN SACRIFICKS IN THE
origin also in notions of divination, as was the case in
the worship of'Mithra, w^hen auguries were taken from
the entrails of human victims*; and they seem in
some instances to have been suggested by a purely
sanguinary spirit, as was the case with the perpetually
recurring sacrifices to Baal and Moloch in the Phoe-
nician Colonies, and especially in Carthage \ No inti-
mations of any such purposes are traceable in the in-
distinct allusions to human sacrifices in the Veda.
Their object seems to have been the propitiation of
some divinity, by devoting to him that which was
most precious to the sacrificer. This feeling seems also
to have been very widely diffused throughout the East
in the most ancient times, as was the practice of the
individual of pledging himself to the act by a solemn
promise or vow. We might infer that the practice
was not unknown to the patriarchal era, from the
conduct of Abraham when commanded to offer up his
son; for although he would not under any circum-
stances have hesitated to obey the divine command,
yet he might, consistently with his obedience, have
expressed some surprise at the injunction, had the
purport of it been wholly unfamiliar. At a later date
in the Jewish history we have a similar sort of sacri-
fice under a solemn previous engagement in the vow
of Jephtha; and it is worthy of remark that one of
* [Windischmann , Mithra, Leipzig: 1857, p. 68.]
' See Bryant's Chapter on Anthropothusia and Teknotluisia,
Vol. VI, p. 296.
ANCIENT KEI.UiloN OK INDIA. 267
the causes assigned by the Greek writers to the de-
tention of the fleet at AuUs, and consequent sacrifice
of Iphigenia, was Agamenmon's violation of the vow
which he had made to offer to Diana the most lovely
thing which the year in which his daughter was born
should produce: Iphigenia was that thing, and the
sacrifice was insisted on in satisfaction of the vow.
The offei'ing of children to Moloch, subsequently bor-
rowed by the Jews from their idolatrous neighbours,
originated probably in a similar feeling, which it is
evident exercised a very extentive influence over the
nations of Western Asia in remote antiquity, and, as
appears from the story of Sunahsepha, was not con-
fined to that quarter, but had reached the op[)osite
limits of Asia at a period at least prior by ten or
twelve centuries to the Christian era.
Further, we find a like community of ideas in the
institution of vicarious sacrifices. In the story ot
Sunahsepha, one human victim is substituted for an-
other, whilst in the parallel cases of antiquity the sub-
stitutes were animals. It is not unlikely that this was
also a primitive notion of the Hindus, and at any rate
it had become so by the time of the Brahmafias; for
Sunahsepha is made to say, "They will put me to
death as if I were not a man" — that is, according to
Sayaha's commentary, founded upon a text of the
Veda which he cites, but which is not easily verified,
when the assistants had circumambulated the person
bound to the stake, they set him free without any
detriment, and substituted an animal (a goat) in his
268 ON HUiMAN SACRIFICES IN THE
place. Hence Mr. Colebrooke concluded that the
Puriisha-medha, or sacrifice of a man, was never
anything but typical; and the ceremony as enjoined
in the Satapatha Brahmana of the Yajush, on which
his opinion was founded, is evidently of that character*
In this, one hundred and eighty -five men of various
specified tribes, characters, and professions, are bound
to eleven yupas, or posts, and after recitation of a
hymn celebrating the allegorical inniiolation of Nara-
yana, they are liberated unhurt, and oblations of.
butter are offered on the sacrificial fire*. Hence Mr.
Colebrooke*'"' concludes that human sacrifices were
not authorized by the Veda itself, but were either
then abrogated and an emblematical ceremony sub-
stituted in their place, or they were introduced in
later times by the authors of such works as the Kahka
Purana, for instance, in which minute directions are
given for the offering of a human victim to Kali, whom
it is said his blood satisfies for a thousand years.
That human offerings to the dark forms of Siva***
and Durga were sometimes perpetrated in later times,
we know from various original sources, particularly
from that very effective scene in the drama of Madhava
and Malati, in which Aghoraghahta is represented as
about to sacrifice Malati to Chamuhda, when she is
* [White Yajurveda c. 30 & 31.j
** [Essays, p. 35.]
*** [India three thousand years ago, by Dr. J. Wilson. Bom-
bay: 1858, p. 68, Note.]
ANCIENT RELIGION OF INDIA. 269
rescued by her lover"". No such divinities, however,
neither Siva nor Durga, much less any of their terrific
forms, are even named, so far as we know, in the
Vedas, and therefore these works could not be au-
thority for their sanguinary worship. That the prac-
tice is enjoined on particular occasions by the Tantras
and some of the Puranas connected with this branch
of the Hindu faith, is, no doubt, true; init these are
works of a much later date, within the limits mostly
of the Mohanmiedan government within the period of
which the works were compiled , and under which
their injunctions could not safely have been carried
into operation; and they never amounted perhaps to
more than the expression of the feeling inspired by
the character of the divinities worshipped, although
they may have been occasionally attempted to be
realized by some fierce and fanatical enthusiasts.
These practices, therefore, are of a very different
character from those which there is reason to believe
might have actually taken place, though rarely and
under special circumstances, under the authority of
the Veda, and which originated in a common feeling
and faith diffused throughout the most civilized na-
tions of the world — the nations of the East — in the
remotest periods of antiquity.
* [Act V, p. 82 ff.]
270 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
VI.
ON TflF. SUPPOSED VAIDIK AUTHORITY
FOR
THE BURNING OF HINDU WIDOWS,
AND ON
THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES OF THE
HINDUS.
From the Journal of the R. Asiatic Society, Vol. XVI (18.04), p. 201-14.
In the lecture on the Vedas which I read during our
last session I had occasion to notice some very re-
markable passages in one of the Suktas, or Hymns of
the Rich, relating to the disposal of the dead, and
especially to the burning of widows, for wdiich the
hymn in question was always cited as authority. I
stated then that the text quoted for that purpose had
a totally different tendency, and that there was some
reason to doubt if it was the ancient practice of the
Hindus to burn their dead at all, quoting texts which
seemed to enjoin burying, not burning. I added,
however, that 1 had not had time to consider the pas-
sages with that care which they required, and that I
communicated only the results of my first impressions.
I have since examined the passages more deliberately,
and propose now to offer to the Society the conclu-
OF THE Hixnrs. 271
sions which I have dehberately formed; namely, that
the text of the Rig Veda cited as authority for the
burning of widows enjoins the very contrary, and
directs them to remain in the world, and that, although
the expressions relating to the disposal of the dead
are somewhat equivocal, yet it seems most probable,
upon a comparison with other texts and authorities,
that the corpse was burned, although the ashes and
bones were afterwards buried.
The Sukta or hynm affording the ground of these
observations is a remarkable one: it is the second of
the second Anuvfika of the tenth Mandala, or the
twenty-sixth to the twenty- eighth Varga of the sixth
Adhyaya or section of the seventh Ashtaka. It is at-
tributed to Sankusuka, the son of Yama, of course a
fabulous attribution, and is addressed, at least in the
earlier verses, to Mrityu, or Death, and in the last to
the Pitris, the Manes or progenitors. To leave no
doubt of its purport, I propose to give the following
translation of the entire Siikta, as well as a transcript
of the original Sanskrit.
1. Depart, Mrityu, by a different path, by that
which is thine own, different from the path of the Gods.
I speak to thee who hast eyes, who hast ears. Injure
not our female progeny, harm not our male.
2. Ye who approach the path of death, but are pos-
sessed of prolonged existence, ye who are entitled to
reverence, prosperous with offspring and wealth, may
ye be pure and sanctilied.
272 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
3. May those m^Iio are living be kept distinct from
the dead; may the offering we present this day to the
gods be propitious. Let us go with our faces to the
east, to dance and be merry; for we are in the enjoy-
ment of prolonged life.
4. I place this circle [of stones] for the living, on
this account, that no other may go beyond it. May
they live a hundred years; keeping death at a distance
by this heap.
5. As days follow days in succession, and seasons
are succeeded by seasons, as one man follows another,
so, Dhatfi, do thou prolong the lives of these [my
kinsmen].
6. Reachinij; to old ao;e with still-ascendino- life, and
following active in succession as many as may be,
may Twashtri, being propitiated, grant you pro-
longed life.
7. May these women, who are not widows, who
have good husbands, who are mothers, enter with un-
guents and clarified butter: without tears, without
sorrow, let them first go up into the dwelling.
8. Rise up, woman, come to the world of living
beings, thou sleepest nigh unto the lifeless. Come;
thou hast been associated with maternity through the
husband by whom thy hand was formerly taken.
9. Taking his bow from the hand of the dead, that
it may be to us for help, for strength, for fame, [I
say] here verily art thou, and here are we: accom-
panied by our valiant descendants, may we overcome
all arrogant adversaries.
OF THE HINDUS. 273
10. Go to the mother earth, this wide -spread
blessed earth; to the hberal man she is a maiden soft
as wool ; may she protect thee from the proximity of
the evil being.
11. Lie up [lightly] earth, oppress him not, be
bounteous to him, treat him kindly, cover him, earth,
as a mother covers an infant with the skirts of her
garment.
12. May earth lying lightly up, stay well; may
thousands of particles [of soil] rest upon it; may these
abodes be ever sprinkled with clarified butter, and
may they, day by day, be to him an asylum.
13. I heap up the earth above thee, and placing
this clod of clay, may I not hurt thee; may the Manes
protect this thy monument, and Yama ever grant thee
here an abode.
14. New days sustain me, as the feather upholds
the shaft, but I restrain my voice now grown old, as
the reins hold in a horse*.
The language of this hymn is, as usual, sometimes
obscure; and may admit, if not in essentials, at least
in some of the details , of a different version from the
above. I have had the advantage, however, of com-
paring my translation of verses 7 to 13 inclusive with
a translation of the same, as I shall presently mention,
* [This hymn was transhited into Gprnian by R. Roth in the
"Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenliindischcn GesellschatV' Vol.YIII
(1854), 467 ff. and by M. Miiller ib. Vol. IX (1855), p. vi ft'., both
translations being accoaipanied by the Sanskrit text.]
18
274 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
by Dr. Max Miiller, and except in one or two parti-
culars of no very great importance, our versions
agree. In verse 8, which has the most important
bearing upon the question of Sati , there is no differ-
ence; and its meaning is confirmed by other circum-
stances which I shall presently notice.
In the first place, however, we must take the se-
venth verse, as it has been supposed to authorise the
practice of the burning of the widow. It has been,
no doubt correctly, thus translated by Mr. Colebrooke:
"Om. Let these women, not to be widowed, good
wives adorned with collyrium, holding clarified butter,
consign themselves to the fire. Immortal, not childless
nor husbandless, excellent; let them pass into fire,
whose original element is water." From the Rig
Veda.— As. Res. IV, p. 213*.
Now this is evidently intended to be the same verse
as the text before us, with the addition of the last
clause, "whose element is water," for which we have
no equivalent; the rest of the stanza may be readily
compared and the variations accounted for.
Our verse has, "may these women not widows,"
avidhavd, a reading that at once overthrows the au-
thority for cremation; as, if they are not widows,
there is no necessity for their burning. A somewhat
different version may be admitted, by interpreting the
"words not to be widowed," although even in this
case it implies the absence of the only condition upon
* [Essays, p. 71.]
OP THE HINDUS. 275
which a woman's ascending the funeral pile depended;
but avidhavd cannot be so rendered; it is present,
not future. "Good wives" might be the rendering of
supafni, although as an epithet it would be preferably
"those having good husbands." In either case the
reason for burning is wanting. The collyrium or un-
guents, and the ghee, are much the same in both,
but, in the next phrase, "consign themselves to the
fire," — the versions are widely at variance.
The text has, in the first place, merely samvisantu,
— "let them enter," or as the commentator explains
it, — "let them take their own place," sivastdnam
pravisantu ; in the second half we have, "let them go
up," droh.antu; but it is not said, where to they are
to go up; and here we have no doubt the origin of
the error, if not a wilful alteration of the text, — the
words are drohantu yoninn agre, literally, "let them
go up into the dwelling first;" the reading to which
it has been altered is, drohantu yonim agneli, "let
them go up to the place of the fire:" agneli, the
genitive of agni, having been substituted for agre,
locative oi agra used adverbially: there is no doubt,
however, that the latter is the correct reading, not
only by the concurrence of the manuscripts, and the
absence of the visarga, the sign of the genitive, but
by the explanation given by the conunentator Sayana,
himself a Brahman of distinguished rank and learning,
and who explains it sarveshdm jyrathamato griham
dgachchhantu, — "let them come home first of all;" the
phrase having reference, therefore, to some procession,
18'
276 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
one possibly accompanying the corpse, and having
nothing whatever to do with consigning themselves
to the fire.
The succeeding verse of the hymn is confirmatory
of the purport of the preceding one. It would be
rather inconsistent with any intention of burning the
woman to enjoin her to repair to the world of living
beings, jiva-lokmn, the sense of which is wholly un-
equivocal, as we have proof in the verse of the Hito-
padesa*: "acquirement of wealth, constant good
health, a beloved mistress, a gentle wife, a dutiful
son, and knowledge bringing emolument, are the six
sources of happiness (jiva-lokeshu) in the world of
living beings;" jiva-lokam. must, therefore, imply an
exhortation to the widow to return to her social du-
ties, cherishing the recollection, but not sharing the
death of her husband. Sayana explains the term pre-
cisely to this effect, when he interprets jiva-loka,
putra paut7'ddi, "sons and grandsons," evidently
understanding that the widow is to return to the bo-
som of her family.
The author of the Grihya siitra, Asvalayana, fur-
nishes further proof of what is meant , as he specifies
the person who is to address the stanza to the widow,
placed on the north of her deceased husband's head,
and who is to be her husband's brother, or a fellow-
student, or an old servant, and who, having thus
spoken to her, is to take her away. The authority of
* [Pr. 18. See the St. Petersburgh Dictionary s, v.]
OF THE HINDUS. 277
the Sutras is little inferior to that of the Veda; and
here, therefore, we have additional and incontestable
proof, that the Rig Veda does not authorise the prac-
tice of the burning of the widow.
In order that there may be no room for cavil, I
subjoin the whole of the hymn in the original, with
Say ana's comment on the seventh and eighth verses;
the passage from the Sutra also occurs subsequently\
' 1. -qt ^(?fr ^ T^rff ^^ w ^ ^"fi" ^^^TTfi:
^?rrtgT^^"RT: "ff^^ ^%^ "g^: ^i ^^rT ^rf^^TFr: ii
inwt ^1T^ ^rT^ f^TRT ^T^fhl W^: ITcTt J^T^' II
^fi wt^g ^T^: g^^trT^f^ ^m xrf^ II
^^ ^ ^^^T?"rr ^^T^^T ^TfTTT"^ =h'?M^Mt II
6. ^^STT "ftf rTT^^T^ ^WT^T ^^^f ^TfT^^ ^cT ^
f^rrrr^^ f^ftr^^^ TTr^f^^irf^^ ^^^ ii
12. ^^^^ir^T ^fw^ f ffT^g 5FTf ^ f^fT ^tr ff ^ffr
13. ^% W^f^ ^f^^* c^rqft'T ^'t ^ ^'^t '^t fX^
278 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
The other prominent topic of the Siikta, the dis-
posal of the dead body, is of less importance, but is
not without interest; it is treated of especially in the
three verses succeeding those relating to the widow,
and the phraseology is certainly more in favour of
burying than of burning. The consigning of the de-
ceased to the earth, and the anxiety expressed that
14. •jTffHI'% ^Hf'ftwr: TTT^frrTT ^:
TnfW w^*rr tt^^t"^ T^^r^n ^^ ii
The following is Sayaiia's commentary on the seventh and
eighth verses.
wt^^^T x^w. II f^?^: ifr^T'RfTf^: ^*n ^rrO
^\^(H: ^wl-^r: ^^^t "^'ra^twr ?rR^:^^f^frr
Xmc II fT?^: Tt^^^'T^ffciT: i ^f^rm w^f^m^mf^^
^^r^ *rr^T: ii in ^ ^f^ ir^^rr ^ ^?frt^ ^f*
frT^ I tT Tffr ^T^f^^: I ^cTTf^r^fTinTiT^rr ^fif
^M^'tr rr^ ^H^^ ^fx?fcr TT^m ^ft "^jti^ ^i^m
^^ ^W^ ^^TWt^^^*T5fiT^: fT^n^i^ II
From the expression anusarana nischayam akdrshih, "thou hast
made the determination of following," it would appear as if
Sayaria considered the burning as only delayed; but, besides that
subsequent burning is not consistent with the presence of the
corpse, we must recollect the commentator expresses only the
notion of his own time, or the 14th century, when of course the
practice existed.
OF THE HINDUS. 279
it may lie lightly upon, and may defend, his remains,
is clearly enjoined, but it is possible that it may refer
only to the ashes and remaining bones after burning,
the collection and formal burial of which is always
directed. We have here also the analogy of other
ancient people, by whom we know the dead were
burned and the ashes entombed, over which a mound
or monument was raised.
Moerentes altum cinerem et confusa ruebant,
Ossa focis tepidoque ornabant aggere terrse.
And again: —
At pius JEneas ingenti mole sepulcrum
Iinponit
And a common funeral inscription was:
Sit tibi terra levis;
although nothing but the reliquiss were to be pressed
upon.
So far, therefore, it is possible, that the verses refer
only to the burying of the ashes and the bones, and
that the bodies were burned. There are other pas-
sages in favour of this view of the subject, whilst the
Grihya Sutras are sufficiently explicit. The following
directions for the burial of the dead are derived from
the Sutras of Aswalayana; and as they differ in many
respects from the actual practice described by Mr. Cole-
brooke in the seventh volume of the Asiatic Re-
searches*, and are obviously of a much more ancient
* [Essays, p. 97.]
280 THE FUNEEAL CEREMONIES
and primitive character, they may be thought to de-
serve publication. I have been favoured with the
version by Professor M. Miiller, but I have verified it
by comparison with the original text: the commen-
tary which he has used I have not had the means of
consulting.
" The burial ceremonies , as observed by the Brah-
mans during the Vaidik period, are explained in
Asvalayana's Grihya - siitras , in the fourth or last
chapter*. The Gfihya-sutras describe what might be
called the domestic or family rites of the Hindus.
They lay down general rules which are to be observed
at marriages, at the birth of a child, on the day of
naming the child , at the tonsure and investiture of a
boy, &c. In fact, they describe all those essential and
purificatory ceremonies which are known under the
general name of " Sanskara " \ Although in the per-
formance of these festive rites , allowance is made for
local customs, still, according to the Brahmans, these
should be followed only as long as they are not op-
posed to the general and more sacred rules of the
Gfihya-sutras. These general rules of the Grihya
must be obeyed first , and the omission of any one of
the ceremonies prescribed by them as "nityani kar-
mani" or "obligatory rites", is sinful. Here lies the
distinction between the Grihya and Srauta - siitras.
* [Edited, with a German translation and notes, by M. Miiller
in the "Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenl. Gesellschaft", Vol. IX.]
* Cf. Wilson's Sanskrit Diet. s. v.
OF THE HINDUS. 281
The Srauta-siitras describe the great sacrifices (Havir-
yajnas^and Soma-yajnas) which can be performed by
I'ich people only, and which therefore are obligatory
only under certain restrictions. They require the
assistance of a number of priests, and great prepara-
tions of all kinds. They are called "vaitanika", from
"vitana", spreading, because the fire in which the
oblations are to be burnt has to be spread or divided
on three hearths (dakshina, garhapatya, ahavaniya).
This is done at the Agnyadhana, "the placing of the
fires", the first Srauta sacrifice which a Brahman has
to perform after his marriage. Although the Srauta
sacrifices are enjoined by the Sruti (the Brahmanas),
and the highest rewards on earth and in heaven are
held out for their performance, still their non-perfor-
mance is not sinful, as is that of the Grihya rites.
Another characteristic of the domestic ceremonies is
this, that the person for whose benefit they are per-
formed is himself passive. It is only after his mar-
riage that he becomes himself the Yajamana or sacri-
ficer, though even then he may still be assisted by
other priests in the performance of his sacrifices. A
third class of rites, besides the Grihya and Srauta
ceremonies, are those laid down in the Samayacharika
or Dharma siitras. They are rather observances based
on secular authority than sacred rites. They detail
the duties of a boy while living as Brahma -charin or
catechumen, in the house of his Guru. They deter-
mine the proper diet of a Brahman , what food may
be eaten or not, what days should be kept for fasting,
282 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
and what penance ought to be performed for neglect
of duty. The duties and rights of kings and magis-
trates, civil rights, and even rules of social politeness,
are determined by them in great detail. They are the
principal source of the latter lawbooks \ and are con-
sidered as sacred and indirectly revealed, because,
according to the notions of the Brahmans, no law can
derive its sanction except from a divine authority.
"All these Sutras have come down to us, not as
one single code, to be acknowledged as such by every
Brahman, but in the form of various collections which
are represented as the traditional property of some of
the most prominent families or communities of India.
The ceremonies described in these different collections
of Siitras, are almost identical in their general bear-
ing. With regard to the Srauta sacrifices, there are
different collections of SiUras for the different classes
of priests , who have peculiar parts to perform at each
sacrifice, and employ respectively the hymns as col-
lected in the Rig-veda, Sama-veda, or Yajur-veda-
sanhita. However, each class of priests has again not
one, but several collections of Sutras, coinciding in
many places almost literally, and kept distinct only
by the authority of the name of their first collectors.
The Grihya ceremonies , though they are less affected
by the differences of the three or four classes of priests
employed at the great sacrifices, are yet described in
' See Morley's Digest of Indian Cases, Introduction,
page cxcvi.
OF THE HINDUS. 283
different collections of Sutras belonging to the same
classes, and depending apparently on the authority of
one of the three or four collections of sacred hymns
(Rik, Sama, Yajus, Atharvana). Thus we have for
the Rigveda or Hotri priests, the Gfihya - sutras of
Asvalayana and Sankhayana; for the Samaveda or
Udgatfi priests, the Grihya-sutras of Gobhila; for the
Yajurveda or Adhvaryu priests, the Grihya-sutras of
Paraskara , and several collections (Baudhayana, &c.)
belonging to the Taittiriya branch; for the Atharvana
the Grihya-sutras of Kausika.
"The ceremonies to be observed at a burial have
been described in detail by Asvalayana only, and it is
possible that the burial was not considered as an es-
sential part ofthat class of rites which is comprehended
under the name of Sanskara. However, the burial
also is an obligatory rite to be performed by others
for the benefit of the dead, who of course performs
as passive a part in it as could be required in a Gfihya
rite. The following details are taken from the Gfihya
ascribed to Asvalayana.
''First comes some medical advice. If a person
who keeps the sacrificial fires in his house be ailing,
let him betake himself away from his home towards
the east, north, or north-east, and carry his fires with
him. People say that the fires love their home, and
therefore they will wish to return home, and will
therefore bless the sick and make him whole. After
he has recovered, he should perform a Soma -sacri-
fice, or an animal -sacrifice, or a burnt-ofifering. But
284 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
if he cannot afford to perform any of these sacrifices,
he must go home without.
"But if he should not recover but die, then a piece
of ground must be dug, south-east or south-west of
the place where he lived and died. The ground should
be slightly inclined toward the south or the south-
east; or, according to others, to the south-west. It
should he in length as lono; as a man with his arms
raised , a fathom in width , and a span in depth. The
burning and burying -ground (for both according to
the Commentator are called smasana) should be open
on all sides, rich in shrubs, particularly of thorny
and milky plants (as has been explained before, Asv.
Gfihya, II, 7), and be elevated in such a manner that
waters would run down on every side. The last re-
quisite, however, belongs more particularly to a
burning ground.
"How the body of the dead is first to be washed,
how his nails, his hair, and his beard are to be cut,
and similar matters, are not explained in this place,
because, as our author says, they have been explained
before, that is to say, in the Srauta-siitras (Asv. Srauta-
siitras, VI, 10). The case under consideration there
was, what should be done if a person who is per-
forming a great sacrifice, for which all preparations
have been made, and where numbers of priests are
engaged, should happen to die before the whole sacri-
fice, which, in some cases, may last for weeks, months,
and years, is finished. Different views are entertained
on this point, but the leading idea seems to be that a
OF THE HINDUS. 285
sacrifice once commenced is to be finished although
the person who offers it should happen to die before.
Asvalayana says, that as soon as he dies his body
should be carried to the place where the sacrificial
utensils are cleaned, that there his nails, his hair, his
beard, and the hairs on his body should be cut off,
that the body should be anointed with spikenard, and
a wreath of spikenard be placed on his head. He re-
marks, that in some places the ordure also is taken
out of the body, and the body filled with melted butter
and curds. The corpse is then covered with a new
cloth, but so that the feet remain uncovered. The
seam of the cloth is cut off, and must be kept by
his sons.
"So much is to be supplied here from the Srauta-
sutras. After this the Grihya-sutras continue. It is
enjoined that a large quantity of sacred grass and
melted butter, which is to be offered to the Manes,
must be of a peculiar kind, a mixture of milk and
butter, called Prishadajya. It need not be mentioned
that as the whole ceremony of burning and burying
belongs to the "ancestral rites", the persons engaged
in it have always to look toward the south-east, and
to wear their brahmanical cord passing over the right
and under the left shoulder.
"The relations of the deceased take his three sacred
fires and his sacrificial implements and carry them to
the place where the ground is prepared. Behind fol-
low the old men, without their wives, carrying the
corpse. Their number should not be even. In some
286 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
places the corpse is carried on a wheel-cart drawn by
an ox; an animal, either a cow, or a kid of one co-
lour, or a black kid, is led behind by a rope tied to
its left leg. This is called the Anustarani, because it
is afterwards to be strewed over the corpse and to be
burnt with it. This, however, is optional; nay, some
authors, for instance Katyayana, rather discounte-
nance the custom, because after burning, it might
become difficult to distinguish which were the bones
of the man or the animal. Then follow his friends,
the old ones first, the young ones last, their brahma-
nical cord hanging down, and their hair untied.
"After the procession has reached th§ ground, he
who has to perform the sacrifice steps forth, walks
three times round the place towards the left, sprinkles
it with water with a branch of the Samitree, and re-
peats this verse of a hymn of the Rig-veda (X , 14, 9,
or VII, 6, 13): "Depart, disperse, fly away [ye evil
spirits]! The fathers (our ancestors) made this place
for him (the dead). Yama grants him this resting-
place, which is day and night sprinkled with waters."
Thereupon the fires are placed on the borders of
the pit, so that the Ahavaniya fire stands south-east,
the Garhapatya north -w^est, and the Dakshina fire
south-west, and a person skilled in these matters piles
the wooden pile in the midst of these fires. All is
ready now for the corpse to be burnt. But before
this is done, fresh water, as the commentary says, is
to be brought in a chamasa or ladle, and a piece of
gold is to be placed in the pit; oily seeds also are to
OF THE HINDUS. 187
be sprinkled over it. Asvaltiyana mentions nothing
about this, but only enjoins that grass should be
streM^ed upon the pile; that the hide of the black
antelope, the fur outside, should be spread over it;
and that on this the corpse is to be placed, so that it
lies north of the Garhapatya fire, and with the head
toward the Ahavaniya lire. His wife^ is j^laced to the
north of her husband. If he be a Kshatriya, a bow
also is placed there. The wife is then to be led away
as already stated, and in respect of the bow, that also
is to be removed by the same persons, with the repe-
tition of the following Rik :
' As this is a critical passage , I subjoin the ijisissima verba
of Asvahiyaiia and his commentator.
^TTTfT: tj^* II Com. fI7T:^rT^TTT7f:Wt' ^%l^^f7I I IfT-
^^rft(2I^: I f^?Tf%^ ^^%^ Tt>T f^^TcT, II TlffR^W^^^Tf^
^^■R II
^^^ ^f^^TR II Com. '^: ^t^^%^^i:T5TrT:fT: ^^-
^f<T II
w['^f^ ^^tTt^f^fTT II Com. ^^ tTf^g?!nti^fi: w, I ^^t:
^ ^T I ^ ^F ^FRT ^^ irWT j€l S^ ^ ^T II
^m ^^% Wqci: II Com. ^^^^ ^^mf^cTfi: ^m ^
W^TcT: I ^sJT^t^T^f^H^ ^^ f^TTfi: II
"v^^^T^^^^ ^fT#ffI V^: II Com. 'ViI^fT(f^ V^-
T^^^ti^fi; I ^x?^f^^: II
The hist word, "apanayet" (he may lead away), as an ex-
phmation of "utthapayet" (he may lift up), which is applied to
the bow and the wife, leaves no doubt that, according to the
intention of the siitras, the wife is to be removed from the pile,
and not to be burned with the dead.
288 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
"I take the bow from the hand of the dead, to be
to us help, glory and strength. Thou art there: we
are still here with our brave sons; may we conquer
all enemies that attack us." — Rv. X, 18.
Hereupon he fixes the bow-string, walks round the
pile, and after having broken the bow he throws it on
the pile. If this act is performed by an old servant,
somebody else must recite the verses for him (because
as a Sudra he would not be allowed to recite sacred
verses).
After this, according to the Commentary on the
Sutras , pieces of gold are to be placed on the seven
apertures of the head, and oily seeds with butter are to
be sprinkled over the dead. Asvalayana himself pro-
ceeds to give rules as to how the different sacrificial
implements, which are to be burnt with the dead, are
to be attached to different parts of the corpse.
After this is done, the animal which was led behind
is brought, the fat is cut out, and put like a cover
over the face and head of the dead. The following
verse is used at this occasion:
"Put on this armour [taken] from the cows [to pro-
tect thee] against Agni, and cover thyself with fat!
that he, the wild one, who delights in flames, the
hero, may not embrace thee, wishing to consume
thee!"— Rv. VIII, 16, 17.
The kidneys also are taken out and put into the
hands of the dead with the following words :
"Escape on the right path the two dogs, the four-
eyed, tawny breed of Sarama; then approach the
OF THE HIIJDUS. 289
wise fathers who, happy with Yama, enjoy happi-
ness."— Rv.X, 14, 10.
The heart of the animal is put on his heart and,
according to some, two cakes of ground rice. Others
recommend these cakes only if the kidneys are wan-
ting; nay, according to some accounts, all these parts
of the animal may be shaped of ground rice and be
burnt instead of the real animal. However, where a
real animal is burnt with the dead, it is first to be cut
up, and the limbs so thrown on the dead that every
limb of the animal lies upon a corresponding part
of the corpse; the hide is to be thrown over the
whole, and a libation to be made with the following
words :
"Agni, do not destroy this vessel, which is dear to
the gods and our exalted fathers; this is the vessel
from which the gods drink; in it the immortals re-
joice."— Rv. X, 16, 8.
The chief performer of the sacrifice then kneels
down on his left knee, and throws the oblations of
Ajya into the Dakshina fire, saying "Svaha to Agni,
the lover of Svaha, Svaha to the world, Svaha to
Anumati, Svaha!
The fifth oblation is to be offered on the breast of
the dead, with the following (not- vaidik) words: Thou
(fire) hast been produced by him; may he be repro-
duced from thee, that he may obtain the region of
eternal bliss!
Thereupon the word is given, "Light the fire at
once!"
19
290 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES
As the fires are burning round him, and consuming
him, twenty-four verses of the Rig-veda, the same as
specified in the Srauta-sutras , are to be recited.
Then the dead body is left burning; all turn to the
left and go away without looking back. A verse is
recited from the Rv. X, 81 , 3: —
"These men are still alive and separated from the
dead. There was to-day amongst us a holy invocation
of the gods. Let us go forward now to dance and
mirth; for we are leading a longer life!"
When they arrive at a place where there is flowing
water', they stop, immerse themselves, and on rising
throw a handful of water into the air, while they
pronounce the name of the deceased and that of his
family. They then get out of the water, put on dry
clothes, and after once wringing those they had on
before, they spread them out toward the north and
sit down there themselves till the stars are seen. Ac-
cording to others, they do not go home before sun-
rise. Then the young ones walk first, the old ones
last. And when they arrive at their home, they touch
(by way of purifying themselves) the stone , the fire,
cow-dung, grain, oil, and water, before they step in.
They must not cook food that night, but according to
' This portion of the ceremonial is called the udakakarma,
and described in other Grihya-sutras also [e. g. in that of Paras-
kara, III, 10. See Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenland. Ges.,
VII, 540 f.]. Yajnavalkya explains it in the beginning of the
third book of his Dharma-sastra; Manu in the fifth book, verse
68 seq.
OF THE HINDUS. 291
some, food may be bought. Again, for those nights,
they have to abstain from salt and spices.
After the death of a parent or spii'itual father
(Guru), reading of the Veda and alms-giving must be
omitted for twelve days.
After the death of a near relative , the same absti-
nence must be observed for ten days. If they are fe-
males, the mourning lasts for ten days, if they had
not been given away in marriage. The same number
of days must be observed, if a spiritual teacher (Guru)
die, though he was not a near relative. For other
teachers (Acharyas), the mourning lasts three nights.
The same for more distant relations; but if females,
only if they had not been given away in marriage.
Children also who die before breathing, or those still-
born, are mourned for three nights only. If a school-
fellow dies, and if a Srotriya- brahman dies who lived
in the same village, mourning is to be observed for
one day.
It is to be remembered, however, that the corpse is
still left smothering on the pile. Therefore Asvalayana,
in the fifth Section, proceeds to direct that after the
tenth of the dark half (i. e., of the waning moon) on
odd days (i. e., on the Uth, 13th, or 15th), under
any Nakshatra except Ashadha, Phalguni and Proshtha-
pad4, the bones must be collected. The general rules
as to how people are to walk, &c., are the same as
before. Milk and water are sprinkled on the spot with
a sami-brancli, and he who is doing this, walks thrice
round the pile, always towards the left, saying: "Pale
19*
292 THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES OF THE HINDUS.
earth with pale leaves, propitious earth with blessed
fruits! go and be well embraced by a frog (a shower
of rain), and make this fire cheerful " — Rv. X, 16, 14.
The bones are to be taken up carefully with the
thumb and the little finger, without cracking them.
They are to be placed in a vessel, the feet first, the
head last. For a man the vessel is to be a simple
kumbha or water pot (without a spout); for a w^oman
a simple kumbhi (with a spout). After the bones
have been well put together , the place is to be swept
with a broom (pavana), and the vessel or coffin is
placed in a hole in a place over which the water can-
not flow, except perhaps in the rainy season. It is
now that the concluding verses of the hymn are re-
cited: ''Go to the mother earth," &c. (Rv. X, 31, 10),
as the earth is thrown upon the coffin and heaped up
over the spot in which it is deposited.
Thereupon all walk home without looking back,
and after they have performed an ablution, they offer
the first Sraddha to the deceased (ekoddishta), who
thenceforth is enrolled amongst the Pitris or Manes,
and receives oblations with them on their appointed
days.
ON THE BURNING OF HINDU WIDOWS. 293
VII.
REMARKS
BY
RAJA RADIIAKANTA DEVA,
ON ART. XI, JOURNAL ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,
VOL. XVI, PAG. 201;
WITH OBSERVATIONS.
From the Journal of the R. Asiatic Society, Vol. XVII (1 859), p. 209-20.
The sixteenth volume of the Journal of our Society*
has given insertion to a communication made by me
on the supposed authority of the Vedas for the
burning of Hindu widows, in which I have shown
that the passage quoted as enjoining the practice, and
as published by Mr. Golebrooke, in his Paper in the
Asiatic Researches**, upon the "Duties of a Sati or
Faithful Widow," had been either purposely or acci-
dentally wrongly read, and that so far from authorizing
the rite, its real purport was the reverse; and that it
expected the widow to repress her affliction and re-
turn to her worldly duties. This view was entirely
* [See the preceding Article.] ** [Essays, p. 70-75.]
294 VAIDIC AUTHORITY FOR THE
confirmed by the explanation of the passage given by
the celebrated commentator, Sayana Acharya, and
by the precepts of Aswalayana, cited by Professor
Maximihan Miiller, published in continuation of my
remarks on the same occasion. The revised reading
has not proved acceptable to the Pandits of Calcutta,
and the following letter is the expression of their
sentiments. The writer, a friend of many years. Raja
Radhakant Deb is w^ell known as a leading member
of the Native Society of Calcutta, who adds to the
distinction of rank and station that of a foremost place
amongst Sanskrit scholars, as evinced by his great
Lexicon or Literary Encyclopaedia of the Sanskrit
language, in seven quarto volumes, the Sabdakalpa-
druma, w^hich enjoys a European as well as Indian
celebrity. Any opinion coming from him on subjects
connected with the ancient literature of his country
is entitled to the greatest deference. The question of
the authority for the Sati cremation is now, as he
rightly observes , a matter merely for literary discus-
sion, but as it is not without interest for the historian
and antiquarian, his remarks will, I doubt not, be
highly accejDtable to those scholars who are engaged
in the investigation of the ancient religion and history
of the Hindus; and as he has no objection to their
being laid before the public, I have thought it advisable
to request a place for them in the Journal , although,
as I shall subsequently explain, they have not induced
me to modify in the least my opinions on the subject,
as my esteemed correspondent seems to anticipate.
burning of hindu widows. 295
My dear Dr. Wilson,
Although the aboHtion of the practice of
Sahamarana hi the British Indian territories has le-
gally set the tjuestion at rest, and deprived it of all
interest in the public eye, yet its discussion will al-
ways afford pleasure to the historian and antiquarian,
and has its peculiar vahie in a literary point of view.
The perusal of your very interesting article "On
the supposed Vaidic authority for the burning of
Hindu Widows, and on the Funeral Ceremonies of the
Hindus", which appeared in the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. XVI,
Part I, having induced me to inquire whether any
trace of this custom can be found in the Vedas , I
have made certain discoveries and come to a con-
clusion , which I believe would lead you to modify
considerably the opinion you have formed on the
subject.
The most explicit authority for the burning of a
widow with her deceased husband is to be found in
the two verses of the Aukliya Sakha of the Taittiriya
Sanhita, quoted in tlie eighty-fourth Anuvfika of the
Narayahiya Upanishad, of which I give the following
literal translation, and subjoin^ the original text with
the commentary of Sayahacharya: —
' Trxt. -^ wm^ WrnrffTTftr ^(JiT^T^wrt ^fTWif^ <t^-
%^ rT% ■?:T«Trfm: II q II Com. % -^ ^^^Tf^^ I "^Irr: ^
296 VAIDIC AUTHORITY FOR THE
1. "Oh Agni, of all Vratas^, thou art the Vrata-
pati^, I will observe the vow (Vrata) of following the
husband. Do thou enable me to accomplish it!"
2. "Here (in this rite), to thee, oh Agni, I offer
salutation ; to gain the heavenly mansion I enter into
thee; (wherefore) oh Jatavedah% this day, satisfied
with the clarified butter (offered by me), inspire me
with courage (for Sahagamana) and take me to my
lord."
Agreeably to this general Vaidic injunction, the
Siitrakaras direct that the widow, like the sacrificial
utensils of a Brahmana, should be made to lie upon
the funeral pile of her husband, and accordingly as
he was a Brahmana, Kshatriya, or Vaisya, a piece
of gold, a bow, or a jewel is to be respectively placed
thereupon.
Text. ^^ ^T ^^ ^^m 1^^ f ^^ ^^^ W^ \
t:^ II Com. 1 ^^ ^f ^f^p^^tw I wr cTwf^ i ^f^^
^mm Mi^^iW-^^ I ^T ^^t2I^: ^W^"^ f^^T W^^ I
fmnf^ iTf^inf^ ^^r i^ ^^ ^%f^;% i f ^tt^^^ f f^^r
^ Vowed or voluntary observances.
' Lord of Vratas.
^ Source of the Vedas.
BURNING OF HINDU WIDOWS. 297
To the widow so placed beside the hfeless body of
her husband, the Mantras beginning with "... Udir-
shwa, &c.," and "Suvarna goong hastat, &c., Dhanur-
hastat, &c.," or "Manigoong hastat, &c.," are to be
addressed ' to her by her husband's brother or fellow-
student, accordingly as he belonged to the priestly,
military, or mercantile class.
If the widow thus addressed has not made up her
mind for her immolation, she obeys the call; but
should she be firm in her resolve, she consoles her
friends and relatives, and enters the fire.
Extracts^ from Bharadwaja and Aswalayana, and
' The first part of the address beginning with "Udirshwa,"
&c. , is the same in respect of the funeral of the first three clas-
ses: by this Mantra the widow is requested to leave the corpse
and to return to her abode. The remaining three Mantras are
to be addressed to the widow of a Brahmaria, Kshatriya. and
Vaisya respectively , whereby she is required to lift up from the
funeral pile the respective symbols of the deceased, and there-
with to rub his hands. This call forms an important part of the
ceremony.
liliaradwaja's Sutra. Pra.sna I.
■^iwrf^ tnTrtw ''!fr5i^f^% ^ ^ ^r^ ^^^^^ ^1^%
xrra m^ ¥% ^fqfr^^wt^Tt% ^^t fi^tf^ ^^T^rR^fqrf^ii
Aswalayanas Grihya Sutra, Adhytiya IV, 3. [M. Miiller in
"Zeitschrift der d. morgenl. Ges.", IX, p. VI.]
^Ti<d: wt* II Com. cTrT: Hd*^TiTfT: '^^' ^%ip5rf^ I
"^WlM II Ibid. Adh. II, 3.
298 VAIDIC AUTHORITY FOE THE
from the Sahamaranavidhi , a work of much repute in
Dravida, are quoted below in ehicidation of these
practices. From these Vaidic and Sautric injunctions
have been derived the rules and directions for the
immolation of the Sati , in the Smritis and Puranas.
After having thus shown the Vaidic authority for
the Sahamaraha, I shall offer some observations upon
the conclusions you have drawn, on perusing the se-
venth and eighth Verses ^ of the second Siikta of the
second Anuvaka of the tenth Mahdala of the Rigveda.
In the first place, on referring to Raghunandana's
Suddhitattwa, whence Colebrooke derives his mate-
^■^ \f^i-mif^T^ I ^fWTT t^^ ^fW ^^^f^ II Bhara-
dwaja's Sutra.
m^7«fT^^1;^T: ^rf^^T^^ ^^^t^ ^t^t^ tT^^
TP^f^^^^^f'TfTT II Aswalaj. II, 2.
t>;Rrr^ ^-51%^ fl^: ^f^^: g^t^ ^ttt^t^t *i^Tt f^^-
"^ ^^T ^m^^ irf^^f^^W II " Salianiarai'iavedhi.
Tt 5^^^t: fT(?T ^Tftf^ ^^"^ ^f^^^ I mi
^^V^ ^T^f^ Wt^^^ TfTTf ^ff ^3T? ^ T^ f^RH^^
t^^ft^%^ XT^^f^T^^f^ ^ ^^^ IR II
* Her (the widow) lying on the north of the deceased, if
she want courage, her husband's brother, or fellow-student,
or old servant shall, by reciting the two Mantras Udirshwa,
&c. . raise, holding her by the hand and saluting her; but if
she have sufficient courage, she bidding adieu to her friends,
relatives, and children, and contemplating the Vishnu -like
form of her husband, enters the fire.
BUHMING OF HINDU WIDOWS. 2&9
rials for his "Essay on the Duties of a faithful Widow",
published in the fourth volume of the Asiatic Re-
searches, we find the author citing a verse' from the
Rigveda and a passage^ from the Brahma Purana, in
order to show that the Veda authorizes Sahamarana.
You suppose this verse to be an incorrect reading of
the seventh Rich above alluded to, and support your
reasoning by the Commentary of Sayana and the di-
rections of Aswalayana.
Now, the shortest way in which our pandits would
dispute this opinion, would be to assert that for aught
that w^e moderns know^, Raghunandana's citation may
be altogether a different verse from the seventh Rich,
and may be found somewhere, in any of the Sakhas^
of the Rigveda; inasmuch as the same verse, with
slight variations of reading, and hence with different
import and application, often occurs in the different
Vedas, in various Sakhas of the same Veda, and
sometimes in different places of the same Sakha of a
Veda. The objection to the use of the epithets "Avi-
dhava" and "Sapatni", whereby you suppose the
reason for burning to be wanting, can be easily an-
swered by supposing the Sati (whose soul is, as it
^■fr 5wt^T: ^Tjm ^^rrTT^ w^ ^f%^^ ii
' ^^^T^Tc^T^ Wt ^ ^%^T<?renfcT^ II •
* "The loyal wife (who burns herself) shall not be deemed
a suicide."
300 VAIDIC AUTHORITY FOR THE
were, wedded to that of her husband), not to be wi-
dowed; actual practice, when it prevailed in India,
may be considered as confirmatory of this opinion.
The Sati, in making preparations for ascending the
funeral pile, used to mark her forehead with Sindiira,
and to deck herself sumptuously with all the symbols
of a Sadhava.
But so long as the proper place of the verse quoted
by Raghunandana is not pointed out, the occidental
pandits, who are making wonderful progress in Vaidic
learning, may regard it an idle assertion. I shall
therefore, for argument's sake, grant Raghunandana's
citation to be a false reading of the seventh verse in
question.
On this supposition you may be justified in coming
to the conclusion, that the genuine reading of the
passage rather discountenances than enjoins Sahama-
raha; but by referring to the subjoined Sutras' of
ffrf^T ^ ff % -^^ fT^^ i:f7T ^^ ^ ^TT^T^TT'njfr ^-
^ffffr ^'TjpJTT^irr i^f%f?t ^^fTT ff wTfT^ ^^tr:h%
i^^f^uiffr iTTT^ trf^fv ^Tf?r ^*f wf%^: ^Txm ^yn-
1^^^^ ^•Tf^^^%fr^T''l, II Bharadwtlja's Sutra, Prasna 1,
Kharida II.
BURNING OF HINDU WIDOWS. 301
Bharadwaja and Aswalayana, wherein they specify
the rites in which many of the verses of the tenth
Mandala quoted by you are to be respectively cited
as Mantras, you will at once see what you rightly
guess — that the verse in question has nothing to do
with the concremation of a Sati; it is directed to be
chaunted on the tenth day after the burning of the
dead, when the relatives of the deceased assemble on
the Smasana to perform certain ceremonies, on the
conclusion of which, the Adhwaryu takes butter w4th
a new blade of kusa grass, or clarified butter between
the thumb and ring finger, and applying it, as colly-
rium, to the eyes of Sadhavas, recites the seventh
hymn in question, the moment they are directed to
depart towards the east.
Now, as the text, which has been supposed to au-
thorize Sahamarana, clearly appears to be approjjriated
to quite a different occasion, the argument based
upon its interpretation proving it to discountenance
concremation, necessarily falls to the ground.
The succeeding verses (to wit, the eighth and ninth),
frf^ ^^^ t^fT I ^T^RH^TtW^ ^TH^TffT II Aswala-
y ana's Grihya Sutra, Adhyiiya III.
302 VAIDIC AUTHORITY FOR THE
as I observed before, are enjoined to be addressed to
the widow, lying on the funeral pile of her husband,
and therefore have no relation with the seventh.
Had there been no explicit Vaidic injunction for
Sahamarana, these passages, taken by themselves,
would certainly have justified the conclusion that the
Rigveda prohibits or ignores, by these texts, the self-
iuiniolation of a Sati, but when we find in the Aukhya
Sakha of the Taittiriya Sanhita, the Sati's address to
Agni while throwing herself into it, and thus discover
the Vaidic sanction for concremation, we must pause
before we regard the eighth verse as an authority
against this tragic act.
TheMimansakara would argue thus, — "Where there
are two authorities of a contradictory character, but
of equal cogency, an alternative must be supposed to
have been ahowed^" The Siitrakaras, upon the Vaidic
authorities above set forth, direct that the widow as
well as the sacrificial utensils of the deceased Brah-
maha should be placed upon his funeral pile; but, as
the widow has a will of her own, she cannot be dis-
posed of like the inert utensils. The Rigveda therefore
gives her the option of sacrificing herself or not, ac-
cording as she may or may not have her courage
"screwed up to the sticking place."
When the Sati lies on the funeral pile, it is presumed^'
Gotama quoted by KuUukabhatta in his Com. on Manu, v. 14,
B. 2, which see.
* Sayana, when he says, in his Coninientaiy on the Sth Rich:
BURNING OF HINDU WIDOWS. 803
she is inclined to immolate herself, and the eighth
verse is addressed to her, as the author of the Saha-
maranavidhi explains, only to test her resolution, and
to induce her to retire, if she be not sufficiently firm
in her purpose. The necessity of giving her this option
and trying her fortitude beforehand, appears the more
strong, when we find it declared' that the Sati who
becomes Chitabhrashta, who retires fi-oin the ftuieral
pile after the conclusion of the rites, commits a highly
sinful act, although it admits of expiation by the per-
formance of the Prajapatya.
Our personal observation of the actual practice
when it prevailed in British India confirms this view;
from the moment a Sati expressed her desire to follow
her lord, up to the time she ascended the funeral pile,
every persuasive language was used to induce her to
continue in the family, and to discharge her proper
duties there, and it was not until she was found in-
flexible that she was allowed to sacrifice herself; this
was perfectly in keeping with the Udirshwa, &c.,
Mantra.
Thus the 8th verse of the Kigveda, above alluded
to, appears to be, in fact, a Sahamaraha Mantra,
"Yasinad anusarai'ia nischayani akarshis tasmad agachchha.'' he
takes the same view; he does not consider the burning as de-
layed, as may be supposed Iroui a technical interpretation of the
word "anusarai'ia", because, as you say, subsequent burning is
inconsistent with the presence of tlie corpse.
304 VAIDIC AUTHORITY FOR THE
though its interpretation, apart from other consi-
derations, may, on a first view, seem to discountenance
the practice.
A very strong presumption in support of the
opinion, that Sahamarana rests upon Vaidic authority,
arises from the circumstance of its having prevailed
in India in very remote times, when Vaidic rites only
were in vogue. On referring; to the Mahabharata, for
instance, we find the widows of the heroes slain in
the battle of Kurukshetra consuming themselves in
the funeral fires of their husbands, when there lived
great kings and sages imbued with Vaidic learning,
and devoted to the observance of Vaidic rituals.
Nearly two thousand years ago Propertius describes
the prevalence of this custom in India, in a passage
of which the following is a translation by Boyses (see
Brit. Poets, Chalmer's Ed., Vol. XIV, p. 563):—
"Happy the laws that in those climes obtain,
Where the bright morning reddens all the main,
There, whenso'er the happy husband dies,
And on the funeral couch extended lies,
His faithful wives around the scene appear,
With pompous dress and a triumphant air;
For partnership in death, ambitious strive,
And dread the shameful fortune to survive!
Adorned with flowers the lovely victims stand.
With smiles ascend the pile, and light the brand!
Grasp their dear partners with unaltered faith,
And yield exulting to the fragrant death."
Cicero, also, who lived about the same time, men-
tions this fact in his Tusculum Questions. Herodotus
BURNING OF HINDU WIDOWS. 805
Speaks of a race of Thracians, whose women sacrificed
themselves on the tombs of their husbands: these
people, as well as the Getae by whom this custom
was also observed , were perhaps some tribe of de-
graded Kshatriyas.
You may, if you think it worth while, read this
paper at the next meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society.
I remain.
My dear Dr. Wilson ,
Yours sincerely,
RADHAKANT DEB.
Calcutta, 30th June, 1858.
Observations.
In disproving the genuineness of the citation of the
passage which had been quoted as authority for the
Sati, I confined my objections to the particular pas-
sage in question, and in this respect the Raja is obliged
to admit, that I may be justified in coming to the
conclusion, that the genuine reading rather discoun-
tenances than enjoins Sati. This was all I maintained.
Of course I never intended to deny, that there were
numerous texts in the Sutras and law-books, by
which it was enjoined. I restricted my argument to
the individual text quoted from the Rigveda, and with
Raja Radhakant Deb's own concurrence, I have no
occasion to modify the view I have taken, as limited
to this object: the text of the Rigveda, that has been
20
306 VAIDIC AUTHORITY FOR THE
quoted as authority for the burning of the widow, is
no such thing, "it rather discountenances than en-
joined the practice." I have not expressed any opinion,
whether any such injunction is to be found in any
other part of the Sanhita of the Rigveda, or of the
Sanhitas of the White or Black Yajush, or the Sama-
veda. That is quite a different question, although, as
the topic is started by the Raja, I may venture to
intimate an opinion, that the burning of a widow will
not be found even alluded to in the genuine text, the
Sanhita, of either of the three principal Vedas. What-
ever may be the antiquity of the rite, and that it is of
long standing is not to be disputed, I suspect its origin
is later than the Sanhita, or primary Vedic period. I
have now translated, although not yet published,
nearly the whole of the Siiktas, or hymns, the primi-
tive portions of the Rigveda, and have yet found no
notice of any such ceremony: the prohibition which
would imply the existence of the rite, is matter of in-
ference only; the direction, that the widow is to be
led away from the proximity of her deceased hus-
band, does not necessarily imply that she was to de-
part from his funeral pile , and there is no term , in
the text, that indicates such a position.
In the course of my translation of the Rigveda, I
have had a great number of occasions to refer to the
printed texts of the Vajasaneyi Sanhita, of the Yajur-
veda, published by Professor Weber, of the Sama-
veda printed by the late Mr. Stevenson and Professor
Benfey, and I do not remember to have met with any
BURNING OF HINDU WIDOWS. 307
allusion whatever in either of those works to the Sati
ceremonial. There remains therefore only the Taitti-
riya Sanhita of the Black Yajush to be examined: a
part only of this has been printed by the Asiatic So-
ciety of Bengal, in their Bibliotheca Indica, and, as
far as it goes, the same absence of allusion to the Sati
occurs: so far, therefore, I have reason to believe,
that the burning of widows was unknown to the Vedic
period of Hindu ritual or belief.
That the Siitras of Aswalayana, Bharadwaja, and
other Sutrakaras contain Sutras, or rales, for the cre-
mation, is indisputable, but all Vedic scholars agree
in considering these works as of much more recent
date than the Sanhita, or text period; they, therefore,
prove nothing, and of still less weight are the Saha-
maraha-vidhi or the Tattwas of Raghunandana, or
other equally modern writings: the question is not
whether there ])e an) authorities at all for the prac-
tice, but whether such authority be discoverable in
the original Vedic texts; there is no lack whatever of
the former — I cannot yet positively deny, but I ques-
tion the existence of the latter. To this Radhakant
replies, "the most explicit (Vedic) authority is to be
found in the two verses of the Aukhya Sakha of the
Taittiriya Sanhita, quoted in the 84th anuvaka of the
Narayahiya Upanishad," of which he gives the literal
translation as well as of the connnent; unfavourably
for his argument, the authority is liable to obvious
exceptions.
In the first place, the two verses are not cited di-
20*
308 VAIDIC AUTHORITY FOR THE
rect from the text of the Taittiriya Sanhlta itself;
they are a quotation of a quotation, and, as in the
case of the passage of the Rigveda, which has given
rise to this discussion , we know that quotations can-
not always be trusted. The Pandits should have made
a reference to the Taittiriya Sanhita itself, and have
given us chapter and verse for the passages; we
should then be able to test their accuracy by collation
with the printed text when complete. In the next
place, the quotation occurs in an Upanishad, the
Yajniki, or Narayaniya: the Upanishad period is of
doubtful determination, because the Upanishads, which
are numerous, one list enumerating above a hundred,
are evidently of widely different dates, and not un-
frequently of equivocal character. The Narayaniya
Upanishad is not altogether unexceptionable, for it
constitutes the tenth Prapathaka, or section, of what is
usually considered a Brahmaha, the Taittiriya Ara-
nyaka; Sayana calls it even khilariipa, or of the nature
of an additional or supplementary section , so that it
is scarcely acknowledged to be a part of the original
Arahyaka*.
Upon referring to the manuscripts of the library of
the India House, another difficulty arises; neither text
nor comment consists of more than 64 anuvakas,
whilst the verses quoted by Radhakant are said to be
taken from the 84th anuvaka; consequently no such
verses could be expected to be found in our copy.
[See A. Weber, Iiid. Stud., I, 75 ff.]
BURNING OF HINDU WIDOWS. 309
and accordingly they do not occur. Sayana, however,
observes, that different recensions do exist, of which
the Dravira has 64 aniivakas, the Andhra 80, the
Karnata 74, others 89. There may be a copy be-
lonffino; to a different Sakha, Aukhva for instance, of
which we have no copy, with 84 anuvakas. Sayana,
however, avowedly follows the Dravira recension,
containing only 64 anuvakas, the actual number of
two copies consulted, and in which no such passages
are met with ; whence then do the Pandits derive
their scholia of the 84th? it is for them to give a
satisfactory explanation. Therefore, as the matter
stands, the verses cited, together with their commen-
tary, wear a somewhat suspicious appearance, not
less observable that the different recensions specified
are all named after the divisions of Southern India,
where the Vedas did not penetrate probably till long
after their compilation. Although, however, their
authenticity be admitted, their occurring in an Upa-
nishad, or even in a Brahmana, is no proof that the
Sanhita of the Taittiriya Yajush contains them, or
sanctions the burning of widows, or that the rite was
cotemporary with the ritual of the Vedic period.
310 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
VIII.
ON
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
From the Journal of the R. Asiatic Society, Vol. XVI (1856), p. 229-65.
[Read as a Lecture, April 8, 1854.]
Much has been written, much has been said in various
places, and amongst them in this Society, about
Buddha, and the rehgious system which bears his
name, yet it may be suspected that the notions which
have been entertained and propagated, in many par-
ticulars relating to both the history and the doctrines,
have been adopted upon insufficient information and
somewhat prematurely disseminated. Very copious
additions, and those of a highly authentic character,
have been, but very recently, made to the stock of
materials which we heretofore possessed, and there
has scarcely yet been sufficient time for their deli-
berate examination. Copious also and authentic as
they are, they are still incomplete, and much remains
for Oriental scholars to accomplish before it can be
said that the materials for such a history of Buddha
as shall command the assent of all who study the
subject, have been conclusively provided. I have,
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 311
therefore, no purpose of proposing to you in the views
I am about to take, that you should consider them as
final; my only intention is to bring the subject before
you as it stands at present, with some of that addi-
tional elucidation which is derivable from the many
valuable publications that have recently appeared,
and particularly from the learned and authentic in-
vestigations of the late Eugene Burnouf, the only
scholar as yet who has combined a knowledge of
Sanskrit with that of Pali and Tibetan, and has been
equally familiar with the Buddhist authorities of the
north and south of India: unfortunately he has been
lost to us before he had gone through the wide circuit
of research which he had contemplated, and which
he only was competent to have traversed; and al-
though he has accomplished more than any other
scholar, more than it would seem possible for any
human ability and industry to have achieved, it is to
be deeply and for ever i*egretted that his life was not
spared to have effected all he had intended, and for
which he was collecting, and had collected, many
valuable and abundant materials. Still he has left us,
in his "Introduction a I'Histoire du Bouddhisme", and
in his posthumous work "Le Lotus de la Bonne Loi",
an immense mass of authentic information which was
not formerly within our reach, and which must con-
tribute effectually to rationalize the speculations that
may be hazarded in future on Buddha and his faith.
Some of those which have been started by the erudi-
tion and ingenuity of the learned in past ages will
312 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
best iiitrocluce us to the opportunity we now have of
ascertaining what is probable , if we cannot positively
affirm that it is all true.
It is sometimes supposed that the classical authors
supply us with evidence of the Buddhist religion in
India three centuries before the era of Christianity,
drawing this inference especially from the fragments
which remain of the writings of Megasthenes, the am-
bassador of Seleucus to Chandragupta, about the year
B.C. 295, according to his latest editor, Schwanbeck*,
and to whose descriptions of various particulars re-
specting India the other ancient writers are almost
wholly indebted. It is well known that he divides the
Indian philosophers into two classes, the Brachmanai
and the Sarmanai; and the latter it has been con-
cluded intend the Sramanas, one of the titles of the
Buddhist ascetics. This is not impossible. If we trust
to the traditions of the Buddhists, their founder lived
at least two centuries before the mission of Megasthe-
nes, and in that case we might expect to meet with
his disciples in the descriptions of the ambassador. At
the same time Sramana is not exclusively the designa-
tion of a Buddhist, it is equally that of a Brahmanical
ascetic, and its use does not positively determine to
which class it is to be applied \ In truth, it is clear
* [Megasth. Indica, p. 20. Lassen, Ind. Alt., II, 209. 663.]
' When Arjuna goes to the forest he is attended amongst
others by Sramana Vanaukasdh , forest-dwelling Sramanas : these
could not have been Buddhists, — Mahdbhdrat, Adi Parva, v. 7742.
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 313
from what follows that the Brahman was intended,
for Megasthenes proceeds to say: "of the Sarmanai,
the most highly venerated among them are the Hy-
lobii,'' that is, as he goes on to explain the term,
"those who pass their lives in the woods (^i^uj'ic/.^ tr
Tal^ vkcux:), and who live upon wild fruits and seeds,
and are clothed in the barks of trees," in other words
the Vanaprastha of the Brahmanical system; literally,
the dweller in the woods, the man of the third order,
who, having fulfilled his course of householder, is en-
joined by Manu to repair to the lonely wood to sub-
sist upon green roots and fruit, and to wear a vesture
of bark. Major Cunningham*, indeed, who is a cou-
rageous etymologist, derives Hylobii from the Sanskrit
Alobhiya, "one who is without desire", that is, the
Bodhisattwa, who has suppressed all human passions ;
but Alobhiya is not a genuine Sanskrit word, nor is
there any authority for its application to a Bodhi-
sattwa, and Megasthenes may be presumed to have
understood his own language. His interpretation of
Hylobii, the dwellers in the woods, is in such perfect
conformity with the meaning of Vanaprastha, that we
cannot doubt the identity of the two designations.
Nothing of any value, upon this subject at least, is
derivable from classical writers in addition to the in-
formation furnished by Megasthenes; but when we
come later down , or to the early ages of Christianity,
various curious notices of Buddhism occur in the
[The Bhilsa Topes, 1854, p. 64. See Lassen, II, 700 flf.]
314 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
writings of the Fathers of the Church, which though
meagre are in the main correct. We need not be sur-
prised at this : there is no doubt that Buddhism was
in a highly flourishing state in India in the first cen-
turies of Christianity, and it is not extraordinary that
some indications of its diffusion should have found
their way to Syria and Egypt.
Clemens of Alexandria, who lived towards the close
of the second century, had evidently heard of the
monastic practices, and of the peculiar monuments or
Topes of the Buddhists. When he speaks of the
Brachmanai and the Sarmanai as two distinct classes
of Indian philosophers, he uses the very words of
Megasthenes, and merely, therefore, repeats his state-
ment; but that he does not understand Buddhists by
Sarmanes is clear enough, for he proceeds to add,
"■there are of the Indians some who worship Buddha,
or Boutta, whom they honour as a god"; and in
another passage he observes: "those of the Indians
who are called Semnoi cultivate truth, foretell events,
and reverence certain pyramids in which they imagine
the bones of some divinity are deposited, they observe
perpetual continence; there are also maidens termed
Semnai. " Semnoi and Semnai might be thought to
have some relation to Sramanas, but the words, per-
haps, bear only their original purport, "venerable or
sacred ".
About the middle of the following century, Por-
phyry repeats information gathered from Bardesanes,
who obtained it from the Indian envoys sent to Ante-
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 315
ninus; and although the account is somewhat con-
fused, there is an evident allusion to Buddhist prac-
tices. "There are," he says, "two divisions of the
Gyninosophists, Brachmans, and Samanai," — not Sar-
manai, but Samanai, — "the former are so by birth,
the latter by election, consisting of all those who give
themselves up to the cultivation of sacred learning:
they live in colleges, in dwellings, and temples con-
structed by the princes, abandoning their families and
property : they are summoned to prayer by the ringing
of a bell, and live upon rice and fruits." Cyril of
Alexandria also mentions that the Samanseans were
the philosophers of the Bactrians, showing the exten-
sion of Buddhism beyond the confines of India; and
St. Jerome, who, like Cyril, lived at the end of the
fourth and beginning of the fifth century, was evi-
dently acquainted with Buddhistical legends, for he
says that Buddha was believed to have been born of
a virgin, and to have come forth from his mother's
side. From Cyril of Jerusalem and Ephraim , writers
of the middle of the fourth century, we learn that
Buddhism tainted some of the heresies of the early
Christian Church, especially the Manicha3an, which
the latter terms the Indian heresy; the former states
that Terebinthus, the preceptor of Manes, the Persian
Mani, took the name of Baudas. Hyde and Beausobre
explain this to mean no more than that the word
Terebinthus in Greek was the same as Butam in Chal-
daic . a kind of tree ; but the word in Cyril is Baudas,
not Butem, and it is more likely that Terebinthus
316 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
styled liiiuself a Bauddha, or a Buddha, especially as
an Indian origin was assigned to the doctrines he
introduced. Epiphanius , indeed, explains how this
happened by going a step further. According to him
Scythianus, quasi Sakya, the master and instructor
of Terebinthus, was an Arabian or Egyptian merchant,
who had grown rich by trading with India, whence
he imported not only valuable merchandise, but here-
tical doctrines and books. Suidas calls Manes himself
a Brahman, a pupil of Bauddha, formerly called Tere-
binthus, M'ho, coming into Persia, falsely pretended
that he was born of a virgin. These accounts are no
doubt scanty and in some respects inaccurate, but
they demonstrate clearly that the Buddhism of India
was not wholly unknown to the Christian writers
between the second and fifth centuries of our era.
Without at present referring more particularly to
the information furnished us by Chinese travellers in
India between the third and sixth centuries, we may
next advert to the strange theories which were gravely
advanced, by men of the highest repute in Europe for
erudition and sagacity, from the middle to the end of
the last century, respecting the origin and character
of Buddha. Deeply interested by the accounts which
were transmitted to Europe by the missionaries of the
Romish Church, who penetrated to Tibet, Japan, and
China, as well as by other travellers to those coun-
tries, the members of the French Academy especially
set to work to establish coincidences the most im-
probable, and identified Buddha with a variety of
BIDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 317
personages, imaginary or real, with whom no possible
congruity existed ; thus it was attempted to show that
Buddha was the same as the Toth or Hermes of the
Egyptians, — the Turm of the Etruscans; that he was
Mercury, Zoroaster, Pythagoras; the Woden or Odin
of the Scandinavians: — Manes, the author of the
Manicha^an heresy; and even the divine author of
Christianity. These were the dreams of no ordinary
men; and, besides Giorgi and Paolino, we find amongst
the speculators the names of Huet, Vossius, Four-
mont, Leibnitz, and De Guignes.
The influence and example of great names pervaded
the inquiry, even after access to more authentic in-
formation had been obtained, and shews itself in some
of the early volumes of the researches of our venerable
parent the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Thus Chambers
is divided between Mercury and Woden. Buchanan
looks out for an Egyptian or Abyssinian prototype,
and even Sir William Jones fluctuates between Woden
and Sisac. In the first instance he observes: "nor
can we doubt that Wod or Odin was the same with
Budh;" but in a subsequent paper he remarks: "we
may safely conclude that Sacya or Sisak, about 200
years after Vyasa, either in person, or by a colony
from Egypt, imported into this country [India] the
mild heresy of the ancient Bauddhas." This spirit of
impossible analogies is, even yet, not wholly extinct;
and writers are found to identify Buddha with the
prophet Daniel, and to ascribe the appearance of
Buddhism in India, to the captivity and dispersion of
318 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
the Jews. When, however, a more profound acquain-
tance with the Hterature of the principal Buddhist
nations began to shed genuine Ught upon the subject,
it soon scattered the shadows which the darkness of
ignorance had begotten. The language of the Chinese
and of the Mongols were assiduously studied in the
early part of the present century , especially by Klap-
roth, Remusat, and Schmidt; and the application of
their acquirements to the illustration of Buddhism was
evinced in numerous interesting and authentic contri-
butions to the early volumes of the Journal Asiatique,
and the transactions of the Imperial Academy of St.
Petersburgh, and more particularly in the copious
annotations which accompany the French translation,
by Remusat, Klaproth, and Landresse, of the travels
of the Chinese priest, Fa Hian, in the end of the
fourth and beginning of the fifth centuries. Valuable
as this work undoubtedly is as a Buddhist picture of
the condition of India at that period, it would have
been in many respects almost unintelligible without
the amplification of its brief notices into the extensive
views of the sytem and its authors , which are to be
found in the notes attached to the text; the details
contained in which are mainly derived from the Bud-
dhist literature of China , with some accessions from
that of the Mongols.
In the mean time, however, the interest, which had
languished in India, subsequently to the first vain
conceits of the Bengal Asiatic Society, revived; and a
whole flood of contributions of a character equally
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 319
novel and important was poured upon the public, both
from the north and from the south. The former took
the lead, and Buddhism as still prevalent in Nepal and
the adjacent Himalayan regions was zealously investi-
gated by Mr. Hodgson, the results of whose inquiries
were communicated to the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
and subsequently to the Royal Asiatic Society. Be-
sides the information which he himself collected, he
contributed still more importantly to the progi'ess of
the investigation by first bringing to our knowledge
the existence of a number of Buddhist writings in
Sanskrit, as well as that of a most voluminous body
of works, chiefly if not exclusively Buddhist, in the
language of Tibet. He did more; he procured the
the books, and in the exercise of a sound judgment,
as well as generous liberality, sent them where they
were likely to be turned to good account, to the sev-
eral Asiatic Societies of Calcutta, London, and Paris.
To the former, between 1824 and 1830, he presented
nearly 50 volumes in Sanskrit, and 200 in Tibetan: to
this Society he presented above 100 volumes in Sans-
krit and Tibetan, and at various dates he forwarded
to the Societe Asiatique 88 volumes of Sanskrit, be-
sides the whole of the great Tibetan collections, the
Kah-gyur and Stan-gyur, in more than 300 volumes.
He finally presented to the East India Company a
copy of the two Tibetan collections, which are now
at the India House. Mr. Hodgson sent these books
to Europe, not, as M. Burnouf observes, that they
might slumber in undisturbed repose upon the shelves
320 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
of a library, but that they might be made to yield the
information they might contain. That these expecta-
tions have not been wholly disappointed is due, I am
sorry to say, to no zeal or acquirement native to the
soil; and the books in the Society's possession have
done little more than repose in dust and oblivion upon
the shelves where they were originally deposited.
The accumulations of Mr. Hodgson have, however,
not been made in vain. The Tibetan volumes especi-
ally were fortunate in finding an expounder in
Alexander Csoma Korosi, whose ardent aspirations
after knowledge led him, penniless and friendless, from
Transylvania to Ladakh, where, with the aid of our
equally adventurous countryman Moorcroft, he was
enabled to study and to master the language of Tibet.
Placed subsequently in communication with the Asiatic
Society of Calcutta, he devoted much of his time to
the examination of the volumes of the Kah-gyur, and
has given the results of his labour to the public in the
Journals of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and in the
20th Vol. of the Researches; he has also afforded, by
a grammar and dictionary of Tibetan , the means of
prosecuting the cultivation of the language in Europe;
and the Transactions of the Imperial Academy of St.
Petersburgh, as well as other publications, evince
the scholarship of Mr. Schmidt in Tibetan as well as
in the literature of the Mongols. We have also a very
valuable contribution to the History of Buddhism in
a life of Buddha, translated originally from Sanskrit
into Tibetan, and from that language into French, and
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 321
publislied two or three years since by M. Foucaux
M. Burnouf also qualified himself to make use of the
Tibetan books supplied by Mr. Hodgson, but found
abundant occupation for his time in translating from
the Sanskrit originals. His Introduction to the History
of Buddhism contains copious translations from many
of the principal Buddhist works, whilst the work
published after his death, the "Lotus de la bonne
Loi'\ is a translation of a Sanskrit Buddhist w^ork
which has been known to be highly estimated for cen-
turies wherever Buddhism is professed.
At the same time that Hodgson and Csoma were
illustrating the literature of Buddhism, as it existed
in the north of India, a like spirit of research animated
the regions of the south , and the Pali scholars of
Ceylon began to draw from the stores within their
reach new and valuable sources of information. Be-
sides various contributions to the Ceylon periodicals,
and to the Journal of the Bengal Society'""", the late
Mr. Turnour has in his edition and translation of the
Mahawanso furnished us with an authentic record of
the notions which are current not only amongst the
* [Soon after the appearance of Foucaux's translation and
edition of the "Rgya tch'er rol pa", A. Schiefner gave from the
Tibetan a full analysis, with copious notes, of a more modern
life of Buddha. See his article "Eine tibetische Lebensbeschrei-
bung Sakyaniuni's" in Vol. VI of the St. Petersb. "Menioires
des Savants Etrangers"".]
** [Ceylon Almanacs for 1833 and 1834. Jouni. As. Soc.
Beng., Vols. V-VIL]
21
322 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
people of Ceylon, but those of Ava and Siam, who
belong to the same school, and whose authorities are
identical. The course commenced by Mr. Turnour
has been followed up with great ability by the Rev.
Mr. Gogerly* in the Friend of Ceylon, and the pro-
ceedings of the branch Asiatic Society instituted on
the island, whilst Mr. Hardy in his Eastern Monachism,
and Manual of Buddhism, has brought tooether all
that is at present known of the Buddhism of the South,
We are not, therefore, in want now of genuine
means of forming correct opinions of the outline of
Buddhism, as to its doctrines and practices, but there
are still questions of vital importance to its history
for the solution of which our materials are defective.
Disregarding all the fancies of speculation wdiich are
based upon imperfect knowledge, and receiving with
caution the accounts given us by the Chinese mis-
sionaries, the most rational course to be adopted in
seeking for information on which dependence may be
placed, is, to consult the works which the Buddhists
themselves regard as their scriptures, and from which
their own history and doctrines are derived: but then,
who will answer for the authorities? what is the
history, what is the date, of the numerous works that
are available, and which consist of two great divisions,
the Sanskrit and the Pali? and what is the compara-
tive value of the respective classes? Are they to be
* [Ceylon Friend, Vols. I -IV. Journ. Ceylon Br. R. A.
Soc. I, No. 1-4. II, 1. 3. IV, 1.]
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 323
regarded as synchronous and independent? and if not,
which is the senior, which is the original? These are
questions which M. Burnouf himself declares cannot
yet be answered with confidence: an exact comparison
between the two series of works, he declares to be
impossible in the present state of our knowledge. We
are not yet in possession of all the works that may
exist in either class, but even if they were all collected
in any European library, they must be read and
studied, translated and commented upon, and the
translations and comments must be published. This
task, more tedious than difficult, would require the
cooperation of many laborious and patient scholars,
and u[)on its completion in a satisfactory manner could
critical investia'ation alone commence.
Although, however, it is perfectly true that con-
clusions on which implicit reliance is to be placed
must be preceded by such a series of operations as
M. Burnouf indicates, yet, as that preliminary process
is indefinitely deferred and may never be perfected,
we must be content in the meanwhile to make use of
such means as we possess, and from them to form a
conjectural approximation, if not a positive propin-
quity, to the solution of the question upon which the
whole depends — the antiquity and authenticity of the
writiniTs in which the Buddhists themselves record the
history of their founder and the doctrines which they
maintain, and from which alone we can derive infor-
mation that is of any real value. The great body of
the Buddhist writings consists avowedly of transla-
21*
324 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
tions; the Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, Cingalese,
Burman, and Siamese books, are all declaredly trans-
lations of works written in the language of India —
that which is commonly called Fan, or more correctly
Fmi-lan-mo, or "the language of the Brahmans"; and
then comes the question, to what language does that
term apply? does it mean Sanskrit or does it mean
Pali? involving also the question of the priority and
originality of the works written in those languages
respectively; the Sanskrit works as they have come
into our hands being found almost exclusively in
Nepal, those in Pali being obtained chiefly from Ceylon
and Ava.
Until very lately, the language designated by the
Chinese Fan was enveloped in some uncertainty. Fa
Hian in the fom-th century takes with him Fan books
not only from India but from Ceylon , and the latter
it has been concluded were Pali. No Sanskrit Bud-
dhist works, as far as we yet know, have been met
with in the south any more than Pali works in the
north, although Sanskrit works are not unfrequent in
Ceylon in the present day. The mystery, however,
is now cleared up. In the life and travels of Hiuan
Tsang, written by two of his scholars and translated
from the Chinese by M. Julien , the matter is placed
beyond all dispute by the description and by the
examples which the Chinese traveller gives of the
construction of the Fan language, in which he was
himself a proficient, having been engaged many years
in the study whilst in India, and in translating from
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 325
it after his return to China. We learn then from him,
that the words of the Fa)i language are distinguished
under two classes, Ting-anta and Sup-aiita, the
Sanskrit grammatical designations oi verbs and nouns;
that the former have eighteen modifications or per-
sons, in two divisions, nine in each, one called Fan-
to-sa-mi, or, in Sanskrit, Farasmai; the other 0-ta-
mo-ni, or, in Sanskrit, Atmane. All verbs and nouns
have three numbers, singular, dual, and plural, of
which he gives us examples both in conjugation and
declension. All this is Sanskrit; and what is more to
the point, it is not Magadhi, the proper designation
of the dialect termed in the south Pali. No form of
Prakrit, Pali included, has a clued number , and the
terminations of the cases of the noun are, in several
respects, entirely distinct \ Hiuan Tsang also cor-
' The following examples are given by Hiuan Tsang of the in-
flexions of a verb and noun [Hist, de laviedeHiouenTlisang, 168-71]:
VERB.
Chinese. Sanskrit. English.
'Third Person.
Sing. P'o-po-ti Bhavati He is
Du. P'o-po-pa Bhavapa (for Bhavatah') They two are
PL P'o-fan-ti Bhavanti They are
Second Person.
Sing. P'o-po-sse Bhavasi Thou art
Du. P'o-po-po Bhavapa (for Bhavathah') You two are
PI. P'o-po-ta Bhavatha You are
First Person.
Sing. P'o-po-mi Bhavilmi I am
Du, P'o-po-hoa Bhavavah' We two are
PL P'o-po-mo Bhavamah' We are
V. P'o-po-mo-sse
326
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
rectly adds that the gi-ammar in use in India, in his
time, was the work of a Brahman of the north, a na-
tive of Tula or Salatura, named Po-ni-ni, or Panini,
the well known Sanskrit grammarian; and he notices
NOUN.
Chinese.
Sanskrit.
English.
Nominative.
Sing. Pu-lu-sha
Purushal
Man
Du. Pu-lu-shao
Purushau
Two men
PI. Pu-lu-sha-so
Purushjis
Men
Accusative.
Sing. Pu-lu-shan
Purusham
Man
Du. Pu-lu-shao
Purushau
Two men
PI. Pu-lu-slioang
Purushan
Men
Instrumental.
Sing. Pu-lu-shai-na
Purushena
By a man
Dit. Pu-lu-sha-pien
Puiushabhyam
By two men
i Pu-lu-sha-pi
1 Pu-lu-sha-sse
Purushabhih |
By men
Purushais )
Dative.
Sing. Pu-lu-hia-ye
Purushaya
To man
Du. Pu-lu-sha-pien
Purushabhyam
To two men
PI. Pu-lu-shai-sho
Purusheshu (for
Puru-
To men
Ablative.
[she
bhy
all)
Sing. Pu-lu-sha-to
Purushat
From a man
Du. Pu-lu-sha-pien
Purushabhyam
From two men
PL Pu-lu-she-sho
Purusheshu (for
Puru-
From men
Genitive.
[shebhy;
di)
Sing. Pu-lu-sha-tsie
Purushasya
Of a man
Du. Pu-lu-sha-pien
Purushabhyjim(f()rPuru-
Of two men
PI. Pu-lu-sha-nan
Purushaiiam [shayoh)
Of men
Locative.
Sing. Pu-lu-ch'ai
Purushe
In a man
Du. Pu-lu-sha-yu
Purushayob
In two men
PI. Pu-lu-shai-tseu
Purusheshu
In men
BLDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 327
a form ui' the verb peculiar to the Gratnuuir of the
Vedas (Fei-to).
The evidence of Hiuaii Tsang, therefore, is con-
clusive as to the language of the books which were
sought for and studied by the Chinese Buddhists in
India, and carried with them to China, and there
translated into the form and under the appellation in
which they still exist. Whether the books they took
from Ceylon were Sanskrit or Pali, we have no further
indication than the name Fan^ which it seems most
})robable that Fa Hian employed in the same sense as
lliuan Tsang, or that of Sanskrit; and it is also to be
observed that the principal works of Ceylon are sub-
sequent to his time, which makes it further almost
certain that the Fan books of Ceylon were also in
Sanskrit.
The Buddhist authorities of India Proper, then,
were undeniably Sanskrit; those of Ceylon might have
been Pali or Magadhi: were they synchronous with
the Sanskrit books, or were they older, or were they
younger, more ancient or more modern? To answer
these questions we must endeavour to determine their
CniNEh-E. Sanskrit. English.
Vocative.
Sing. Hi (lie) Pii-lii-slia Punislia O man
J)u. Hi (He) Pu-lu-.sliao Punishau O two men
PI. Hi (He) Pu-lu-sha Punisliab O men
The verb does not dilVei- materially iVoni llie Pali verb; but
ihe intU'xional terminations of the cases of tlie noun differ very
widely: some of them arc misstated, but this is probably from
errors of transcription.
328 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
relative chronology , from the imperfect means which
are within our reach. Both sets of authorities un-
doubtedly, Sanskrit and Pali, were in existence in the
fifth and sixth centuries of our era. The Sanskrit
works, according to the testimony of Chinese trav-
ellers , were carried from India to China in very con-
siderable numbers from a much earlier date; in one
instance it is said two years before Christ, but it was
not till after a.d. 76, the date of the introduction of
Buddhism into China, that they were imported in any
number, and not till the third and fourth centuries
that they had become very numerous. In a Chinese
history of celebrated Buddhist teachers, published
between 502 and 556, and from which M. Julien has
given us extracts, a Buddhist priest named Dharma,
is said to have brought to China one hundred and
sixty- five works, amongst which were several that
may be readily identified with the Sanskrit works
procured by Mr. Hodgson : we cannot hesitate, for ex-
ample, to recognise in the Ching-fa-hua, meaning
"The Flower of the right Law", the Sad Dharma
Pundarika, "Le Lotus de la bonne Loi", which, as
has been mentioned, was the last labour of M. Bur-
nouf. Of this work repeated translations have been
made into Chinese*, the first of which dates a.d. 280,
whilst of the Lalita Vistara, or life of Sakya Muni,
the earliest Chinese version was made between a.d.
70-76. We may be satisfied, therefore, that the
* [W. Wassiljew, der Buddhismus. 1860, I, 163. Burnouf,
ntroduction , 1 , 8 f.]
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 329
principal Sanskrit authorities which we still possess
were composed by the beginning of the Christian era
at least; how much earlier is less easily determined.
According to the Buddhists thems^elves, the doctrines
of Sakya Muni were not committed to writing by him,
but were orally communicated to his disciples, and
transmitted in like manner by them to succeeding
generations. When they were first written is not
clearly made out from the traditions of the north; but
they agree with those of the south in describing the
occurrence of different public councils or convocations
at which the senior Buddhist priests corrected the
errors that had crept into the teaching of heterodox
disciples and agreed upon the chief points of discipline
and doctrine that were to be promulgated. The first
of these councils was held, it is said, immediately
after Sakya Muni's death; the second 110, and the
third 218 years afterwards, or about 216 B.C. The
northern Buddhists confound apparently the second
and third councils, or take no notice of the latter in
the time of Asoka, but place the third in Kashmir
under the patronage of Kanishka or Kanerka, one of
the Hindo-Scythic kings, 400 years after Buddha's
Nirvana, or B.C. 153. Both accounts agree that the
})ropagation of Buddhism, by missions dispatched for
that purpose, took place after the third council.
According to the traditions which are current in
the south as well as the north, the classification of
the Buddhist authorities as the Tripitaka (the three
collections) took place at the first council; the portion
330 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM.
termed Sutra, the doctrinal precepts, being compiled
by Ananda; the Vinaya, or discipline of the priest-
hood, by Upali: and the Abhidharma, or philosophical
portion, by Kasyapa — all three Buddha's disciples.
Their compilations were revised at the second council,
and were finally established as canonical at the last.
Their being compiled, however, does not necessarily
imply their being written; and, according to the nor-
thern Buddhists , they were not committed to writing
until after the convocation in Kashmir, or 153 B.C.;
whilst the southern authorities state, that they were
preserved by memory for 450 years, and were then
first reduced to writing in Ceylon.
It is to the former of these periods that M. Bur-
nouf would ascribe the composition of the principal
Sanskrit works which are still extant. That they
continued to be written for four or five centuries after-
wards is obvious from internal evidence, and even
from their number and extent. In the sixth century
Hiuan Tsang and his assistants translated 740 works,
forming 1,335 volumes. Of these he himself took to
China 657, and they had been brought thither in great
numbers before his time. There is also a considerable
body of works of a still more recent date, forming
the basis upon which many adulterations have crept
into Buddhism, evidently borrowed from the Tantras
of theBrahmans: 700 works, however, all undoubtedly
prior to the sixth century, must have been the work
of many years, and have furnished full occupation to
the Buddhist scholars of several centuries preceding.
BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. 331
We may conskler it then established upon the most
probable evidence, that the chief Sanskrit authorities
of the Buddhists still in our possession were written,
at the latest, from a century and a half before, to as
much after, the era of Christianity.
Now what is the case with the Pali authorities of
the South V We have it most explicitly stated in the
great Singhalese authority, the Mahawanso^', that the
doctrines of Buddha were handed down orally, for
more than four centuries after his death; and that
they were not reduced to writing till the reign of
Wattagfimini, between B.C. 
