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■&N^>S«>VW  , 


f        I  inn  A  n^j-    ^_        ^ 


LIBRARY  OF 


I  r.^To;.;;;,  { 1  c  light  inc. 


I  ELMIRA.  N.  Y.  | 


^^^^^^^^— -  IN  &  CO.,  Limited, 

Electric  Light  &  Power  Engineers, 

MANSION  HOUSE  BUILDINGS,  LONDON,  E.G. 


MANUFACTURERS     OF 

Dynamos,    Lamps,    Measuring    Instruments,    Switches, 

Patent  Underground  Mains,  and  all  accessories 

for  Electric  Lighting. 


ELECTRO  MOTORS  FOR  ELECTRIC  TRACTION. 


DYNAMOS  FOR  SMELTING  AND  PLATING. 


ELECTRIC  CEANES  FOR  ALL  PURPOSES. 


CONTRACTS  FOR  TOWN  LIGHTING  ON  ANY  SCALE. 


Estimates,  Catalogues,  and  all  information  free. 


CROMPTON  &  CO.,  Limited, 

MANSION   HOUSE    BUILDINGS,  LONDON,   E.G. 

Works:    CHELMSFORD. 


To  make  tan  leather  black,  it  is  reeomuiended 
that  it  be  rubbed  tirst  with  a  10  per  cent  solution 
of  tannic  acid  which  should  be  permitted  to  dry 
thoroughly.  Afterwards  a  10  per  cent  solution 
of  iron  sulphate  should  be  applied  and  in  turn  y 
be  permitted  to  dry.  Both  chemicals  are  pro- <^ 
curable  at  any  drug  store. 


O 

"A"     A 

Catalogue,  -^^ 

150  Pages,        X'/* 
250  Woodcuts. 
Contains  prices         /^\ 
and  particulars  of    ^ 
all  classes  of  Elec- 
trical Apparatus  for 
Domestic,  Experi- 
mental, and  Labo- 
ratory use,  such  as  / 
Pushes,  Bells,  \^ 


AND 


M  ANUrACTURERS 


OF 


ELECTRICAL 
APPARATUS. 


^ 


B" 

Catalogue 

(4th  Edition), 

250  Pages, 

350  Woodcuts. 

Contains  prices 

and  particularsof  all 

classes  of  Electrical 

Apparatus  for  House 

Lighting,  Telephone 

<  and  Telegraph  Coa- 
\  tractors,  &c.,  in- 
\  eluding  Engines, 
inaicators,iiat-  /  .^y  -^  \  ^^  \  Dynamos,  Ac- 
teries,  Hand  /^^  /  ^^^^  \  ^,p^\  cumulators, 
Dynamos,         ^^W       offices,      V  Switches, 

&c.         /  /^y  88'  ^^&    \      Fittings, 

Price        />V      ^^^^^  VICTORIA  ST.,       \^  \       &c. 

J^^ /  LONDON,  E.G.  \  "AN 

OT  /  Show  Rooms.  &c.,         \  ^^^^ 

/  30,  CANNON  ST.,  LONDON,  E.C.,  \ 

/  ^^J /     41,   PICCADILLY,  BRADFORD.      ' 
A       ^^  Works, 

/   *^^/         "WEST  KENSINGTON  HALL,  LONDON,  W., 

^^V^  Cornbrook  Telegraph  Works,  Manchester. 

2 


Branch  Offices  and  Agencies  throughout  the  ivorld. 


PHOSPHOR 


FOR  BEARINGS,  SLIDE  VALVES,  PUMPS  AND 
MACHINERY  PARTS. 

Supplied  in  Ingots  and  Castings  to  Pattern  or  Drawings. 


Beware  0/  all  Imil«tione,  and  specif n  the  COG-WHEEL  BE  AND  of 

THE  PHOSPHOR  BRONZE   CO., 

LIMITED, 

87,  SUMNER  ST.,  SOUTHWARK, 

LONDON,    S.E. 

13  &  22,  Litherland  Alley,  LIYEEPOOL ; 
Salem    Street,  ETRUEIA,  NORTH   STAFFORDSHIRE, 


ALL  INGOTS  BEAR  THE  COMPANY'S  NAME,  COG  WHEEL  TRADE  MARK, 
AND  THE  NUMBER  OF  ALLOY. 


MANUFACTURERS     OF 
ROLLED  BRASS  of  all  kinds;  BRASS  WIRE  and  RODS 
COPPER  WIRE  (BEST  HIGH  CONDUCTIVITY 
and  ORDINARY). 


BRITISH  &  FOREIGN 

PATENTS,  DESIGNS,  TRADE  MARKS. 


PROVISIONAL  PROTECTION  FROM  £2  2s. 


MESSES.   WEATHERDON   &   00.  (Patent  Agents,  established   in 

Ohancery  Lane,  1849)  will,  upon  application  of  Inventors,  give 

the  lowest  possible  charge  for  completing  British  Patents. 


FOREIGN  &  COLONIAL  PATENTS. 

MESSRS.  WEATHERDON  &  CO.  offer  special  reasonable  terms 

for  procuring  Foreign  Patents,  and   being    represented  in  all 

Countries  by  old-established  Agents,  Inventors  can  rely  upon 

the  work  being  done  in  a  competent  manner. 


DESIGNS,  TRADE  MARKS,  AND  COPYRIGHTS  REGISTERED. 


OPPOSITIONS  AND  APPEALS  CONDUCTED. 


DRAWINGS  OF  ALL   KINDS   PREPARED. 


CIKCTJLAR  AND  ADVICE  GEATIS  ON  APPLICATION- 

B.  F.  WEATHERDON  &  CO., 

REGISTERED  PATENT  AGENTS, 

11  &  12,  SOUTHAMPTON  BUILDINGS, 
CHANCERY  LANE,  LONDON,  W.C. 

ESTABLISHED  1849. 

llnterleaf  before  Title, 


ROWNSON,  DREW.  &  CO.. 

ENGINEERS  &  MANUFACTURERS  OF  CONSTRUCTIONAL  IRONWORK. 


BRIDGES,   ROOFS,   GIRDERS, 
ROLLED   JOISTS,  FLITCH  PLATES, 

COLUMNS    &   STANCHEONS, 
TANKS,   SASHES,   IRON  BUILDINGS. 


OFFICES   AND   WAREHOUSES: 
225,  Upper  Thames  Street,  and  113,  Queen  Victoria  Street,  E.O. 

WORKS   AND    IRON    STORES: 
Prince's  Wharf,  Oommercial  Koad,  Lambeth,  S.E. 

Telegrams,  "ROWNSON,  LONDON."  Telephone,  No.  1901. 


WOEKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


FOR  THE  USE  OF 


MANUFACTURERS,  MECHANICS,  AND  SCIENTIFIC 

AMATEURS. 


BT 


ERNEST     SPON. 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,   125,  STRAND,  LONDON 

NEW  YORK:   12,  CORTLANDT  bi'REET 
1890 


f -r  >^ 


n 


V.  \ 


"DURO  METAL. 

REGISTERED  TRADE  MARK. 


55 


ALLOY. 

A. — A   yery  dense   Bronze,   well  adapted  for  heavy   Fly-Wheel 

Bearings,  but  specially  for  Railway  Carriage  and  Truck 

Bearings. 

B. — This  mixture  is  most  suitable,  and  is  now  largely  used,  for  the 

Bearings  of  Hot  Neck  Rolls  in  Ironworks,  and  other  Mills. 


These  alloys  have  now  been  in  use  for  some  years,  and  have 
given  great  satisfaction  in  all  parts  of  the  World.  They  were 
originally  introduced  by  us  with  a  view  to  providing  a  good 
Bearing  Metal  cheaper  than  our  No.  XI.  "  Phosphor 
Bronze,"  and  at  the  same  time  much  superior  to  Gun  Metals 
and  Brass. 

Foreign  Buyers  and  others,  when  indenting,  are  requested, 
in  order  to  prevent  imposition  and  error,  to  specify  that  the 
Ingots  required  by  them  shall  bear  the  registered  trade  title, 
"  Duro  Metal,"  and  also  the  Company's  General  Trade 
Mark,  a  "  Cog  Wheel"  bearing  the  Company's  name. 


Supplied  in  Ingots  and  Castings  by  the  SOLE  PKOPEIETOES— 

THE  PHOSPHOR  BRONZE  CO., 

LIMITED, 
Chief  Office  and  Foundry — 

87,  SUMNER  ST.,  SOUTHWARK,  LONDON,  S.E. 

Branch  Foundries — 

13  and  22,  LITHEELAND  ALLEY,  LIVERPOOL. 

SALEM  STEEET,  ETEUEIA,  NOETH  STAPPOEDSHIEE. 

[Interleaf  before  Preface 


y^r%^ 


W.    F.    STANLEY, 

MANUFACTUiaNG  OPTICIAN. 

Mathematical,    Drawing,    and    Surveying    Instrument 

Maker, 

Contractor  to  H.M.  Government,  also  for  India  and  Colonies. 


Theodolites,  Sextants,  Levels,  Compasses,  and  every  Description  of  Instrument 
and  Material  for  Field  and  Office, 

OF  THE  FIRST   QUALITY,   HIGHEST   FINISH,   AND   MOST   MODKRATE  PBICB. 

Manufactured  for  the  most  part  by  Self-Acting  Machinery. 

MEDALS — International  Exhibitions,  1802  and  1873. 
GOLD     MEDAL,    Inventions    Exhibition,    1885. 

ENGINE  DIVIDEK  TO  THE  TRADE. 


GOODS  SHIPPED  WITH  GREATEST   CARE. 


Muthcmiitical,  Microecopic,  Pliotograpliic,  and  Electrical  Catalogues, 

Post  Free. 


STANLEY, 

GREAT  TUltNSTlLE,  llUIJiOUN,  W.C,  LONDON. 

BTEAM    Ol'TICAL    W0UK8    AT    SOITU    NORWOOD. 
litguUrtd  Telegraphic  Cipher  Addren  —  "  TURNSTILE,    LONDON." 


PREFACE 


WoiiKsHOP  Receipts  was  compiled  to  efiect  llirec  piu'poscs;  tc 
serve  as  a  note-book  for  the  small  manufactm-er ;  to  supply  the 
intelligent  workman  with  information  required  to  conduct  a 
process,  foreign  perhaj^s  to  his  habitual  labour,  but  which  it  is 
necessary  to  practise  at  the  time ;  and  imjiart  to  the  scientiiio 
amateiu*  a  knowledge  of  many  processes  in  the  arts,  trades,  and 
manufactures,  which  will,  it  is  hoped,  render  his  pui'suits  the 
more  instructive  and  remunerating. 

The  novice  would  do  well  to  remember  that  it  is  the  individual 
skill  of  the  workman  in  performing  many  apparently  simple 
operations  which  renders  those  operations  successful,  and  that 
this  skill  is  only  obtained  from  long  practice  or  natural  ability. 
A  pre-eminently  superior  manipulator  resembles  a  poet  in  that 
he  is  'born;  not  made;'  when  therefore  a  receipt  is  tried  for 
the  first  time  and  is  not  thoroughly  successful,  the  experi- 
mentalist should  consider  how  far  his  own  inexperience  has 
contributed  to  the  failure  ere  he  condenms  the  receipt, 

Eeceij^ts  peculiarly  useful  to  Mechanical  Draughtsmen  are 
given  at  pages  1  to  9.  Eeceipts  for  Alloys,  Casting,  and 
Founding,  pp.  9  to  13  ;  Bronzes  and  Bronzing,  pj).  16  to  21 ; 
Cements,  jjp.  22  to  25 ;  Dyeing,  pp.  30  to  40 ;  Glass-cutting, 
twisting,  drilling,  darkening,  bending,  staining,  and  painting, 
pp,  55  to  60 ;  Pottery  and  Porcelain,  pp,  42  to  52 ;  Glass, 
pp.  53  to  60  ;  Varnishes,  Japans,  and  Polishes,  pp,  60  to  88 ; 
Pigments,  and  Painting  in  Oils,  in  Water  Colours,  as  well  as 
Fresco,  House,  Transparency,  Sign,  and  Carriage  Painting, 
pp,  89  to  116 ;  Lathing  and  Plastering,  pp.  120  to  123 ;  Paper- 
hanging,  pp.  lis,  119;  Firework  Making,  pp.  125  to  146, 
Engraving  and  Etching,  pp.  146  to  170;  Electro-Metallurgy, 
including  Cleaning,  Dipping,  Scratchbj-usliing,  Batteries,  Eaths, 


'V  PREFACE. 

and  Deposits  of  every  tlesciiptiou,  pp.  170  to  246  ;  Photography, 
pp.  246  to  295  ;  Inks,  pp.  343  to  349  ;  Silvering,  pp.  206  and 
385  ;  Gilding,  pp.  188  to  199  ;  Solders,  p.  3G4  ;  Soap,  pp.  372 
to  386;  Candles,  p.  350;  Veneering,  pp.  411  to  414 ;  Marble 
Working,  pp.  386  to  393  ;  Dyeing,  Graining,  and  Staining 
Wood,  pp.  414  to  426  ;  interspersed  with  other  matters  far  too 
numerous  to  mention. 

As  far  as  possible  subjects  at  all  allied  in  character,  either  in 
constitution  or  mode  of  working,  have  been  groujied  together ; 
and  in  general,  the  main  subject  is  indicated  by  a  heading  in 
bold  clarendon  type,  branch-subjects  by  small  capitals,  and 
details  by  italics.  The  difficulty,  however,  of  obtaining  certain 
information  just  when  it  was  wanted,  has  prevented  the  adoption 
of  anything  like  an  alphabetical  or  other  concatenated  arrange- 
ment of  the  subject  matter ;  it  is  believed  that  no  inconvenience 
will  arise  from  this  cause,  as  the  index  is  very  comprehensive. 

Care  has  been  exercised  in  cases  where  the  practical  opera- 
tion connected  with  a  receipt  has  been  apart  from  the  writer's 
experience,  to  have  it  verified  by  authority,  and  the  aim  through- 
out has  been  to  render  '  Workshop  Reccii)ts '  a  reliable  hand- 
book for  all  interested  in  Technological  pursuits. 


ERNEST  SPON 
AoorOT  1    1873. 


TIETE 


PHOSPHOR  BRONZE  CO., 

LIMITED, 

LONDON,   BIRMINGHAM,   LIVERPOOL, 
and  ETRURIA. 

SOLE  MAKERS  OF  THE  FOLLOWING   SPECIALITIES. 

PHOSPHOR  BRONZE,   -CogWheel-  and  -Yulcan" 
Brands. 

'    DURO    MET AL'\Eegistered  Title).    For  Eoll  Bearings, 
Wagon  Brasses,  &c. 

PHOSPHOR   TIN,  "Cog  Wheel"  Brand.    Thebestmade. 

PLASTIC    METAL,   "  Cog  Wlieel"  Brand.     Tlie  best  in 
the  market. 

"PHOSPHOR"  WHITE  BRASS.     Qualities  l&il 

BABBITT'S    METAL.     "Vulcan"  Brand.     Qualities!., 
II.,  III.,  IV. 

WEILLER'S  PATENT  SILICIUM  BRONZE 

ELECTRICAL   WIRE.     For  overhead  Llne^. 


Please  apply  for  Circulars  containing  full  particulars  to  the 

COMPANY'S  HEAD  OFFICE, 

87,    SUMNER    ST.,    SOUTHWARK,    LONDON,    S.E. 

[J'o/oce  tnd  of  i're/ace. 


t:h:e 


PHOSPHOR  BRONZE  CO., 

LIMITED. 

87,  SUMNER  ST.,  SOUTHWARK,  LONDON,  S.E. 

ROLLING  AND  WIRE  MILLS- 

BAGOT  STREET,  BIRMINGHAM. 

Brancli  loundries  at  LIYEEPOOL   and  ETEUEIA,  Stoke-on-Trent. 


SOLE  MAKERS  OF  THE  "COG  WHEEL"  BRAND  PHOSPHOR 

BRONZE  INGOTS  AND  CASTINGS, 

Spring  and  Electric  Wire,  Rods,  Seamless  Tubes, 

Sheets,  Doctor  Blades^  Cycle  Spokes,  &c. 


This  Trade  Mark,  a  "  Cog  Wheel,"  bearing 

the  Company's  name,  has  been  registered 

in  every  civilized  country. 


SOLE  PROPRIETORS  OF  THE 

BRITISH,  INDIAN,  AND  COLONIAL  PATENTS, 

FOB 

SILICIUM  BRONZE  ELECTRICAL  WIRE, 

Qualities  A,  B,  and  C  (see  Circulars  and  Price  Lists). 

¥(/T  OceThtad  Tthgruph  and  Teliphoiie  Lines,  dc,  as  uttd  hij  the  chief  Jiailicay 
and  Ttltjjhune  Coiiqjunits  throuijhuut  Iht  World. 

HIGH  CONDUCTIVITY.    GREAT  TENSILE  STRENGTH.    RESISTANCE  TO 

CORROSION.    PRACTICAL  INDESTRUCTIBILITY. 

PAMPHLETS  AND  CIRCULARS  ON  APPLICATION 


NALDER  BROS.  &  CO., 

ENGINEERS,  ELECTRICIANS,  &  SCIENTIFIC 
INSTRUMENT    MAKERS, 

MANUFACTURERS   OF 

Every  description  of  Electrical  and  other  Scientific 
Measuring  Instruments,  such  as  Thomson  Reflecting 
and  other  Galvanometers^  Resistance  Coils,  Wheatstone 
Bridges,  Standard  Cells,  Condensers,  Standards  of  Self 
Induction,  Ammeters,  and  Voltmeters.  Also,  Measuring 
Machines,  Micrometers,  Spherometers,  Optical  Benches, 
and  Special  Instruments  for  all  purposes. 


NALDER  BROS.   &  CO., 

132,  HORSEFERRY  ROAD,  WESTMINSTER, 

LONDON,   S.^V. 

Registered  Telegraph  Address—  TELEPHONE-.No.'.3120 

"SECOHM,  LONDON." 


PATENTS, 

DESIGNS  &  TRADE  MARKS. 
BERNHARD  DUKES, 

226,    High    Holhorn, 
London,    W.  C, 


Tel.   Address  : 

APPLICANT, 

London. 


Attends  to  all  business  relating  to 

Patents,  Designs,  &  Trade  Marks. 

attendance  in  the  provinces. 

Pk-ase  tueiiliuii  tliis  Book  wlien  ajiiilying. 


WOEKSHOP  EEGEIPTS. 


Drawing  Paper, — The  following 
table  coutains  the  diinensions  of  every 
description  of  English  drawing-paper. 

inches.       inches. 

Demy 20  by    15 

Medium        ..       ,.  22  „  17 

Royal 24  „  19 

Imperial        ..      ..  31  „  21 

Elephant       ..      ..  27  „  23 

Columbier     ..       ..  3-1:  „  23 

Atlas 33  „  20 

Double  Elephant  ..  40  „  26 

Antiquarian  ..  52  „  29 

Emperor       ..       ..  68  ,,  48 

For  making  detail  drawings  an  in- 
ferior paper  is  used,  termed  Cartridge  ; 
this  answers  for  line  drawings,  but  it 
will  not  take  colours  or  tints  perfectly. 
Continuous  cartridge  paper  is  also  much 
used  for  full-sized  mechanical  details, 
and  some  other  purposes.  It  is  made 
uniformly  53  inches  wide,  and  may  be 
had  of  any  length  by  the  yard,  up  to 
300  yards. 

For  plans  of  considerable  size,  mounted 
paper  is  used,  or  the  drawings  are  after- 
wards occasionally  mounted  on  canvas 
or  linen. 

Mounting-  Drawings  or  Paper 
on  Linen. — Tlie  linen  or  calico  is 
first  stretched  by  tacking  it  tightly  on 
a  frame  or  board.  It  is  then  thoroughly 
coated  with  strong  size,  and  left  until 
nearly  dry.  The  sheet  of  paper  to  be 
mounted  requires  to  be  well  covered 
with  paste;  this  will  be  best  if  done 
twice,  leaving  the  first  coat  about  ten 
minutes  to  soak  into  the  paper.  After 
applying  the  second  coat,  place  the 
j)aper  on  the  linen  and  dab  it  all  over 
with  a  clean  cloth.  Cut  off  when 
thoroughly  dry. 

To  Fasten  Paper  on  a  Draw, 
ing  Board. — The  stretched  ii-regular 
edges  of  the  sheet  of  paper  are  cut  olf 
against  a  flat  ruler,  squaring  it  at  the 
same  time.  The  sheet  of  paper  is  laid 
upon  the  board  the  reverse  side  upwards 
1 


to  that  upon  which  the  drawing  is  to 
be  made.  It  is  then  damped  over,  first 
by  passing  a  moist  clean  sponge,  or 
wide  brush,  round  the  edges  of  the 
paper  about  an  inch  and  a  half  on,  and 
afterwards  thoroughly  damping  the 
whole  surface,  except  the  edges.  Other 
plans  of  damping  answer  equally  well ; 
it  is  only  necessary  to  observe  that  the 
edges  of  the  paper  should  not  be  quite 
so  damp  as  the  other  part  of  the  sur- 
face. After  the  paper  is  thoronghly 
damped,  it  is  left  until  the  wet  gloss 
entirely  disappears ;  it  is  then  turned 
over  and  put  in  its  position  on  the 
board.  About  half  an  inch  of  the  edge 
of  the  paper  is  then  turned  up  against 
a  flat  ruler,  and  a  glue-brush  with  hot 
glue  passed  between  the  turned-up  edge 
and  the  board  ;  the  ruler  is  then  drawn 
over  the  glued  edge  and  pressed  along. 
If  upon  removing  the  ruler  the  paper  is 
found  not  to  be  thoroughly  close,  a 
paper-knife  or  similar  article  passed 
over  it  will  secure  perfect  contact.  The 
nest  adjoining  edge  must  be  treated  in 
like  manner,  and  so  on  each  consecutive 
edge,  until  all  be  secured.  The  con- 
traction of  the  paper  in  drying  should 
leave  the  surface  quite  flat  and  solid. 

Cutting  Pencils. — If  the  point  is 
intended  for  sketching,  it  is  cut  equally 
from  all  sides,  to  produce  a  perfectly 
acute  cone.  If  this  be  used  for  line 
drawing,  the  tip  will  be  easily  broken, 
or  otherwise  it  soon  wears  thick  ;  thus, 
it  is  much  better  for  line  drawing  to 
have  a  thin  flat  point.  The  genera, 
manner  of  proceeding  is,  first,  to  cut 
the  pencil,  from  two  sides  only,  with  a 
Icng  slope,  so  as  to  produce  a  kind  of 
chisel-end,  and  afterwards  to  ,^ut  the 
other  sides  away  only  suflicien',  to  be 
able  to  round  the  first  edge  a  little.  A 
point  cut  in  the  manner  described  may 
be  kept  in  good  order  for  some  time  bv 
pointing  the  lead  upon  a  small  piece  of 
fine  sandstone  or  fine  glar.s-paper ;  this 
will  be  less  ti'ouble  than  the  continual 

B 


WOEKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


applicaticn  of  the  knife,  which  is  always 
liable  to  break  the  extreme  edge. 

Erasing  Errors. — To  erase  Cum- 
berland-lead pencil  marks,  native  oi 
bottle  india-rubber  answers  perfectly. 
This,  however,  will  not  entirely  erase 
any  sind  of  German  or  other  manufac- 
tured pencil  marks.  What  is  found 
best  for  this  purpose  is  fine  vulcanized 
india-rubber  ;  this,  besides  being  a  more 
powerful  eraser,  has  also  the  quality  of 
keeping  clean,  as  it  frets  away  with  the 
friction  of  rubbing,  and  presents  a  con- 
tinually renewed  surface  to  the  drawing ; 
the  worn-ofl'*particles  produce  a  kind  of 
dust,  easily  swept  away.  Vulcanized 
rubber  is  also  extremely  useful  for 
cleaning  otf  drawings,  as  it  will  remove 
any  ordinary  stain. 

For  erasing  ink  lines,  the  point  of  a 
penknife  or  erasing  knife  is  commonly 
used.  A  much  better  means  is  to  em- 
ploy a  piece  of  fine  glass-paper,  folded 
several  times,  until  it  presents  a  round 
edge ;  this  leaves  the  surface  of  the 
paper  in  much  better  ortler  to  draw 
upon  than  it  is  left  from  knife  erasures. 
Fine  size  applied  with  a  brush  will  be 
found  convenient  to  prevent  colour 
rnnning. 

To  produce  finished  drawings,  it  is 
necessary  that  no  j)orticn  should  be 
erased,  otherwise  the  colour  aj)plied 
will  be  unequal  in  tone;  thus,  when 
highly-finished  mechanic;il  drawmgs 
are  required,  it  is  usual  to  draw  an 
original  and  to  copy  it,  as  mistakes  are 
almost  certain  to  occur  in  delineating 
any  new  machine.  Where  sullicient 
time  cannot  be  given  to  draw  and  copy, 
a  very  good  way  is  to  take  the  surface 
off  the  paper  with  fine  glass-jiajter  be- 
fore commencing  the  drawing;  if  this 
be  done,  the  colour  will  flow  equally 
over  any  enisure  it  may  be  necessary 
to  make  afterwards. 

Where  ink  liui-s  are  a  little  over  the 
mtcuiled  mark,  and  it  is  <liiricult  to 
era.se  them  without  disfiguring  other 
portions  of  the  drawing,  a  little  Cliinese 
white  or  flake-white,  ni.xed  rather  dry, 
may  be  applied  witli  a  tine  sable-brush  ; 
thin  will  render  a  Hinall  ilefect  much 
I0B8  perceptible  than  by  criisure. 


Whenever  the  surface  of  the  paper 
is  roughened,  it  should  be  rubbed 
down  with  some  hard  and  perfectly 
clean  rounded  iustruniont. 

Buying'  Drawing  Instru- 
ments.— Persons  with  limited  means 
will  rind  it  better  to  procure  good 
instruments  separately  of  any  respect- 
able makers,  Stanley,  Dollond,  Harling 
for  instance,  as  they  may  be  able  to 
aSord  them,  than  to  purchase  a  com- 
plete set  ot'  inferior  instruments  in  a 
case.  With  an  idea  of  economy,  some 
will  purchase  second-hand  instruments, 
which  generally  leads  to  disappoint- 
ment, from  the  fact  that  inferior  in- 
struments are  manufactured  upon  a 
large  scale  purposely  to  be  sold  as 
second-hand  to  purchasers,  principally 
from  the  country,  who  are  frequently 
both  unacquainted  with  the  workman- 
ship of  the  instruments  and  of  the 
system  practised. 

Inferior  instruments  will  never  wear 
satisfactorily,  whereas  those  well  made 
improve  by  use,  and  attain  a  peculiar 
working  smoothness.  The^xtra  cost  01 
purchasing  the  case  and  the  nearly  use- 
less rules,  would,  in  many  instances,  be 
equal  to  the  ditference  between  a  good 
and  an  inferior  set  of  instruments 
without  the  case.  Instruments  may  be 
carefully  preserved  by  merely  rolling 
them  up  in  a  piece  of  wash  leather, 
leaving  space  between  them  that  they 
may  not  rub  each  other;  or,  what  is 
better,  having  some  loops  sewn  on  the 
leather  to  slip  each  instrument  sepa- 
rately under. 

Drawing  Board. — The  qualitiei 
a  good  <lrawing  board  should  possess 
are,  an  diual  surface,  which  should  be 
slightly  rounded  from  the  edges  to  the 
centre,  in  order  that  the  drawing  paper 
when  stretchfd  upon  it  may  i)rescDt  a 
solid  surface  ;  and  that  the  edges  should 
be  perfectly  straight,  and  at  right 
angles  to  each  other. 

In  Using  a  Drawing  Pen, 
it  should  be  held  very  nearly  upright, 
between  the  thumb  and  first  and  second 
fingers,  the  knuckles  being  bent,  so 
that  it  may  \<c  held  at  right  angles 
nilh    the    length   of  the   hand.     Tho 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


handle  should  incline  only  a  very  little 
^say  ten  degrees.  No  ink  should  be 
used  except  Indian  ink,  rubbed  up  fresh 
every  day  upon  a  clean  palette.  Liquid 
ink  and  other  similar  preparations  are 
generally  failures.  The  ink  should  be 
moderately  thick,  so  that  the  pen  when 
slightly  shaken  will  retain  it  a  fifth  of 
an  inch  up  the  nibs.  The  pen  is  sup- 
plied by  breathing  between  the  nibs 
before  immersion  in  the  ink,  or  by 
means  of  a  small  camel-hair  brush  ;  the 
nibs  will  afterwards  require  to  be 
wiped,  to  prevent  the  ink  going  upon 
tiie  edge  of  the  instrument  to  be  drawn 
against.  The  edge  used  to  direct  the 
pen  should  in  no  instance  be  of  less 
than  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness;  a  fourteenth  of  an  inch  is  perha[>s 
the  best.  If  the  edge  be  very  thin,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  prevent  the  ink 
escaping  upon  it,  with  the  great  risk  of 
its  getting  on  to  the  drawing.  Before 
putting  the  pen  away,  it  should  be  care- 
fully wiped  between  the  nibs  by  drawing 
a  piece  of  folded  paper  through  them 
until  they  are  dry  and  clean. 

To  Test  the  Accuracy  of  a 
Straight-edge.— Lay  the  straight- 
edge upon  a  stretched  sheet  of  paper, 
placing  weights  upon  it  to  hold  it 
firmly ;  then  draw  a  line  against  the 
edge  with  a  needle  in  a  holder,  or  a 
very  tine  hard  pencil,  held  constantly 
vertical,  or  at  one  angle  to  the  paper, 
being  careful  to  use  as  slight  pressure 
as  possible.  If  the  straight-edge  be 
then  turned  over  to  the  reverse  side  of 
the  line,  and  a  second  line  be  produced 
m  a  similar  manner  to  the  first  at 
about  the  twentieth  of  an  inch  distance 
from  it,  any  inequalities  in  the  edge 
will  appear  by  the  differences  of  the 
distances  in  various  parts  of  the  lines, 
which  may  be  measured  by  spring 
dividers. 

Another  method  will  be  found  to 
answer  well  if  three  straight-edges  are 
at  hand  ;  this  method  is  used  in  making 
the  straight-edge.  Two  straight-edges 
are  laid  together  upon  a  flat  surface, 
and  the  meeting  edges  examined  to  see 
if  they  touch  in  all  parts,  reversing 
them  io  every  possible  way.     If  these 


two  appear  perfect,  a  third  straight- 
edge is  applied  to  each  of  the  edges 
already  tested,  and  if  that  touch  it  in 
all  parts  the  edges  are  all  perfect.  It 
may  be  observed  that  the  first  twc 
examined,  although  they  touch  per- 
fectly, may  be  regular  curves ;  but  if 
so,  the  third  edge  apphed  will  detect 
the  curvature. 

In  Using  the  Plain  Parallel 
Rule,  one  of  the  rules  is  pressed 
down  firmly  with  the  fingers,  while  the 
other  is  moved  by  the  centre  stud  to 
the  distances  at  which  parallel  lines 
are  required.  Should  the  bars  not  ex- 
tend a  sulHcient  distance  for  a  required 
parallel  line,  one  rule  is  held  firmlj', 
aud  the  other  shifted,  alternately,  until 
the  distance  is  reached. 

Using  Dividers  or  Com- 
passes.— It  is  considered  best  to  place 
the  forefinger  upon  the  head,  and  to 
move  the  legs  with  the  second  finger 
and  thumb.  In  dividing  distances  into 
equal  parts,  it  is  best  to  hold  the  di- 
viders as  much  as  possible  by  the  head 
joint,  after  they  are  set  to  the  required 
dimensions ;  as  by  touching  the  legs 
they  are  liable  to  change,  if  the  joint 
moves  softly  as  it  should.  In  dividing 
a  line,  it  is  better  to  move  the  dividers 
alternately  above  and  below  the  line 
from  each  point  of  division,  than  to  roll 
them  over  continually  in  one  direction, 
as  it  saves  the  shifting  of  the  ringers 
on  the  head  of  the  dividers.  In  taking 
off  distances  with  dividers,  it  is  always 
better,  first  to  open  them  a  little  too 
wide,  and  afterwards  close  them  to  the 
point  required,  than  set  them  by 
opening. 

Pencilling. — If  a  drawing  could 
be  at  once  placed  to  the  best  advantage 
on  the  paper,  and  surely  made  without 
mistake  and  with  all  its  lines  correctly 
limited  when  first  drawn,  it  might  be 
made  in  ink  directly  on  the  blank 
paper.  To  avoid  the  errors  inevitable 
in  the  first  copy  of  any  production,  even 
when  made  by  those  most  practisetl, 
drawings  are  first  pencilled  and  then 
inked.  The  whole  theory  of  pencilling, 
then,  is,  to  lay  out  correct  tracks  on 
which  the  pen  is  to  move,  leaving  the 

y  2 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS; 


inind,  during  the  inking,  free  from  all 
♦thought  of  accuracy  of  the  consti-uction, 
that  it  may  be  given  to  excellence  in 
execution.  Therefore,  the  whole  of  the 
j'cncil-construction  should  humost  accu- 
tately  made  in  the  finest  faint  lines  with 
a  hard  f)encil. 

Finishing  a  Drawing.  — 
While  "Finish  a  drawing  without  any 
error  or  defect,"  should  be  the  draughts- 
man's best  motto,  he  should  never  be  in 
haste  to  reject  a  damaged  diMwing,  but 
should  exercise  his  ingenuity  to  see  how 
far  injuries  done  to  it  may  be  remedied. 
'•  Never  lose  a  drawing  once  begun," 
should  be  his  second  motto;  and  since 
prevention  is  easier  and  better  than 
cure,  let  liim  always  work  calmly,  in- 
spect  all  instruments,  hands,  and  sleeves, 
that  may  touch  a  drawing,  before  com- 
mencing an  operation ;  lot  the  paper, 
instruments,  and  person  he  /.ept  clean, 
and  when  considerable  time  is  to  be 
spent  u])on  a  portion  of  the  paper,  let 
the  remainder  be  covered  with  waste 
paper,  pasted  to  one  edge  of  the  board. 

For  the  final  cleaning  of  the  drawing, 
stale  bread,  or  the  old-fasliioned  black 
india-rubber,  if  not  sticky,  is  good ; 
but,  aside  from  the  carelessness  of  ever 
allowing  a  drawing  to  get  very  dirty, 
any  fine  drawing  will  be  injured,  more 
or  less,  by  ait>/  means  of  removing  a 
considerable  quantity  of  dirt  from  it. 

Another  excellent  means  of  prevent- 
ing injuries,  which  should  be  adopted 
when  the  drawing  is  worked  upon  only 
at  intervals,  is  to  enclose  the  board, 
when  not  in  use,  in  a  bag  of  enamelled 
cliith  or  other  line  material. 

liCttering. — Tlie  title  to  a  draw- 
ing should  answer  distinctly  the  four 
questions —  What,  Who,  Where,  and 
When — What,  including  the  use  and 
scale ;  Who,  Ijoth  as  to  designer  or  in- 
ventor, and  druightsman  ;  Where,  both 
as  In  the  jdace,  institution,  or  ollice 
where  the  ((rawing  was  made,  ;iud  the 
locality  of  the  object  drawn;  and  When. 

If  the  drawing  is  perfectly  symme- 
trical, its  title  shouM  have  the  same 
axis  of  Hymmetry  as  the  drt-wing.  If 
liie  drawing  is  unsymmetrica.,  the  title 
may  tx;  at  either  of  !he  lower  coraars. 


These  principles  do  not  apply  to  hori- 
zortal  views,  as  maps  of  surveys,  where 
the  title  may  be  wherever  the  shape  of 
the  plot  affords  the  best  place. 

One  quite  essential  element  of  beauty 
in  a  title  is  its  arrangement,  or  the  form 
of  its  outline  as  a  whole.  It  should 
embrace  such  variations  in  the  length 
of  its  lines  of  letters  that  the  curve 
formed  by  joining  the  extremities  of 
those  lines  would  be  a  simple  and 
graceful  one,  having  also  a  marked 
variety  of  form.  Also  the  greatest 
length  of  the  title  should  generally  be 
horizontal  ;  or  its  proportions,  as  a 
whole,  like  those  of  the  border  of  the 
drawing. 

When  the  occupation  of  the  paper 
alTords  only  narrow  blank  spaces  lying 
lengthwise  of  the  jiajier,  the  title  looks 
uell  mubtly  on  a  single  line  at  the 
bottom,  the  princijjal  words  being  in 
the  middle,  and  the  subordinate  ones  at 
the  two  sides. 

Moreover,  horizontal  lines  should 
prevail  in  the  direction  of  the  lines  of 
words  in  the  title.  Indeed,  the  title 
may  be  arranged  wholly  on  horizontal 
lines  with  good  effect,  though  an  arched 
or  bow-shaped  curve  for  the  principal 
words  may  be  adopted  when  the  draw- 
ing includes  some  consj)icuous  arching 
lines. 

The  size  of  the  title  should  be  ajipro- 
]iriate  to  that  of  the  drawing.  In  ]>ar- 
ticular,  the  rule  has  been  proposed  that 
the  height  of  the  lai'gest  letters  in  the 
title  should  not  exceed  three-hundredths 
of  the  shorter  side  of  the  border.  Also, 
the  relative  size  of  the  dill'erent  por- 
tions of  the  title  should  correspond  to 
their  relative  importance,  the  name  ot 
the  object  and  its  inventor  being  largest, 
and  that  of  the  draughtsman,  his  loca- 
tion, and  the  date  of  his  work  being 
considerably  smaller. 

Geometrical  drawings  are  most  ap- 
propriately lettered  with  geonietric;il 
letters,  whicli,  when  neatly  made,  always 
look  well.  Any  letters,  however,  hav- 
ing any  kind  of  sharply-defined  acd 
precise  form,  as  Genuau  text,  are  not 
iiiaii|iro|U'iate  to  a  gi'imu'trical  drawing-, 
but   vajjiely  formed  "  rustic''  cr  other 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


free-liand  letters  are  in  bad  taste  on 
such  drawings. 

Letters  should  correspond  in  con- 
spicuousness  or  body  of  colour  with  the 
rest  of  the  drawing,  not  being  obtrusive 
from  great  heaviness  of  solid  black 
outline,  or  unobservable  from  excessive 
fain^ness.  Also,  violent  contrasts  of 
heaviness  among  neighbouring  portions 
of  the  title  should  be  avoided  ;  though 
there  may  be  a  gradual  change,  both  of 
intensity  and  size,  from  the  most  to  the 
least  important  words  of  the  title. 

This  should,  first  of  all,  not  exceed  in 
elaborateness  the  draughtsman's  ability 
to  execute  it  with  perfect  neatness  and 
clearness.  Then  it  should  agree  with 
the  character  of  the  drawing.  Plain 
and  simple  letters  look  best  on  a  similar 
drawing,  while  a  complicated  and 
highly-finished  drawing  may  receive 
letters  of  more  ornamental  character. 

Borders. — For  line  drawings  the 
border  should  be  a  geometrical  design, 
in  lines,  with  curved  or  angular  corners, 
or  with  combinations  of  straight  or 
curved  lines,  forming  geometrical  cor- 
ner-pieces. These  borders  may  vary  in 
complexity  from  a  rectangular  border 
in  single  lines  to  borders  which,  though 
geometrical,  may  be  elaborate  and  ele- 
gant. Thus:  a  plate  of  varieties  of 
straight  horizontal  lines  may  have  a 
plain  rectangular  border  ;  one  including 
oblique  lines  may  include  oblique  lines 
m  the  border,  either  is  a  little  tuft  in 
each  corner,  a  truncated  corner,  or  a 
square  set  diagonally,  &c.  Plates  em- 
bracing curve  lines  may  have  quarter- 
circle  borders,  either  convex  or  concave 
inwards — of  which  the  former  have 
most  decision.  Such  plates  may  also 
have  little  circles  for  corner-pieces. 
Borders  may  sometimes  conform  in  a 
pleasing  manner  to  the  general  outline 
of  a  drawing.  Thus,  an  arched  bridge 
may  have  a  semi-oval  upper  border  and 
a  square-cornered  border  at  the  base 
of  the  drawing ;  and  an  ornamental 
device  may  crown  the  summit  of  the 
border. 

When  the  drawing  is  a  shaded  one, 
containing,  therefore,  somt;  free-hand 
work,  the  border  may  be  partly  free- 


hand also ;  but  should  still  be  largely 
geometrical  in  its  design,  and  should 
represent  a  real  border  of  substantial 
materials,  corresponding  to  the  subject 
of  the  drawing.  Thus,  the  mouldings 
and  ornaments  should  represent  orna- 
mental metallic  castings,  carvings  in 
wood,  mouldings  ^n  plaster,  or  scrolls 
and  leaves  of  rolled  metal;  but  gar- 
lands, tassels,  and  tendrils,  &c.,  should 
not  be  introduced. 

The  border  to  a  geometrical  drawing 
should  be  like  the  drawing  itself  in  be- 
ing executed  with  the  drawing  pen  and 
brush,  as  well  as  with  the  mapping  pen. 
Free-hand  pen  borders,  representing  the 
products  of  the  soil,  with  cornucopias, 
little  pen  sketches  of  scenery,  or  similar 
agricultural  or  landscape  devices,  worked 
in  as  corner-pieces,  are  more  appropriate 
on  topographical  drawings. 

As  to  colour,  2}>'i>nari/  colours  should 
not  be  largely  introduced  into  the 
border;  first,  since  they,  when  obtru- 
sive, are  adapted  to  rider  or  less  im- 
pressible tastes  than  the  secondary  hues, 
shades,  and  tints,  which  are  more  grati- 
fying to  delicate  tastes ;  and  secondlj, 
from  the  impertinent  conspicuousness 
which  they  may  give  to  the  border. 

Drawings  which  are  shaded  only  in 
sepia  or  ink,  or  any  dark  neutral  tint, 
may  hr.ve  the  border  done  in  the  same, 
or  in  a  dark  complementary  colour. 
Tinted  ink  drawings  are  best  finished 
with  a  plain  ink  border. 

Indian  Ink  is  used  for  producing 
the  finished  lines  of  all  kinds  of  geome- 
trical drawing.  Being  free  from  acid, 
it  does  not  injure  or  corrode  the  steel 
points  of  the  instruments.  The  genuine 
ink,  as  it  is  imported  from  China,  varies 
considerably  in  quality ;  that  which 
answers  best  for  line  drawing  will  wash 
up  the  least  when  other  colours  are 
passed  over  it.  This  quality  is  ascer- 
tained in  the  trade,  but  not  with  perfect 
certainty,  by  breaking  oil"  a  small  por- 
tion. If  it  be  of  the  right  quality  it 
will  show,  when  broken,  a  very  bright 
and  almost  prismatic-coloured  fracture. 
Indian  ink  should  be  used  immediately 
after  it  is  mixed  ;  if  re-dissolved  it  be- 
comes   cloudy   and  irregular    in    tone, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


but  with  everv  care,  it  will  still  wash 
up  more  or  less. 

Colours." — For  colouring  drawings, 
the  mott  soluble,  brilliant,  and  trans- 
parent water-colours  are  used ;  this 
particukrly  applies  to  plans  and  sec- 
tions. The  colour  is  not  so  much 
intended  to  represent  that  of  the  mate- 
ria', to  bo  used  in  the  construction,  as 
to  cloarly  distinguish  one  material  from 
anoVhei  employed  on  the  same  work. 

The  following  table  shows  the  colours 
most  employed  by  the  profession: — 

Carmine  or  CrimsoD  'i  For  brickwork  in  plan  or 
Lake 5     section  to  be  e.\ecuU'd. 

(  Flintwork,  lead,  or  parta 
Prussian  I! lue       ,.<      of  brickwork  to  be  re- 

[      moved  by  alterations. 

Venetian  Red        . .     Brickwork  in  elevation. 

Violet  Camiine     ..     Granite. 

Raw  Sienna   ..     ..     Engli^h  limber  (not  oak). 

Burnt  Sienna..      ..     Oak,  teak 

Indian  Yellow       . ,     Fir  limber. 

Indian  Red     ..     ,.     Mahogany. 

oepia       Concrete  works,  stone. 

Burnt  Uuiber        . .     Clay,  earth. 

„        ,   „  f  Cast  iron,  longh  wrought 

Payne's  Grey..     ..^     -^^^^  "  " 

Dark  Cadmium     . .     Gun  ii«etal. 

Gamboge        , .     . ,     Brass 

Indigo Wrought  iron  (bright). 

^°Ukr!!''  !."'"!}  steel  (bright). 
Hooker's  Green  ..  Jlf.idow  land 
Cobalt  Blue    . .     . .     Sky  effects. 

And  some  few  others  occasionally  for  special 
purposes. 

In  colouring  plans  of  estates,  the 
colours  that  appear  natural  are  mostly 
adopted,  which  may  be  [>roduced  by 
combining  the  above.  Elevations  and 
perspective  drawings  are  also  repre- 
st>nted  in  natural  colours,  the  |>rimitive 
colours  bemg  mi.\ed  and  varied  by  the 
juilgmcnt  of  the  draughtsman,  who,  to 
produce  the  best  efl'ects,  must  be  in 
Bome  degree  an  artist. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  making  an 
elaborate  drawing,  which  is  to  receive 
colour,  that  the  hand  at  no  time  rest 
u|)on  the  surface  of  the  j)aper,  as  it  is 
found  to  leave  a  grea.sine.ss  dliricult  to 
remove.  A  piece  of  paper  placed  under 
the  hand,  and  if  the  si|u.ir«  is  not  very 
clt'.in.  under  that  also,  will  prevent  iliis. 
Shoui'l  the  colours,  from  any  cause, 
WOfif   ^rc-isily,  a  little  i«r''j)nred  o.x-gall 


may  be  dissolved  in  the  water  with 
which  the  colours  are  mixed,  and  will 
cause  them  to  work  freely. 

Shading. — For  shading,  camel  or 
sable  hair  brushes,  called  Softener;;,  are 
generally  used :  these  have  a  brush  at 
each  end  of  the  handle,  one  being  much 
larger  than  the  other.  The  manner  of 
using  the  softener  for  shading  is,  to  (ill 
the  smaller  brush  with  colour,  and  to 
thoroughly  moisten  the  larger  one  with 
water;  the  colour  is  then  laid  upon  the 
drawing  with  the  smaller  brush,  to  re- 
present the  dark  portion  of  the  shade, 
and  immediately  after,  while  the  colour 
is  quite  moist,  the  brush  that  is  moist- 
ened with  water  is  drawni  down  the 
edge  intended  to  be  shaded  off;  this 
brush  is  then  wi]>ed  upon  a  cloth  and 
drawn  down  the  outer  moist  edge  t3 
remove  the  surplus  water,  which  will 
leave  the  shade  jierfectly  soft. 

If  very  dark  shades  are  required,  this 
has  to  be  repeated  when  the  first  is 
quite  dry. 

To  tint  large  surfaces,  a  large  camel- 
hair  brush  is  used,  termed  a  Wash  • 
brush.  The  manner  of  proceeding  is, 
first,  to  tilt  the  drawing,  if  practicable, 
and  commence  by  putting  the  colour  on 
from  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  the 
surface,  taking  short  strokes  the  width 
of  the  brush  along  the  top  edge  of  the 
space  to  be  coloured,  immediately  fol- 
lowing with  another  line  of  similar 
strokes  into  the  moist  edge  of  the  first 
line,  and  so  on  as  far  as  required,  re- 
moving the  last  sui-])lus  colour  with  a 
ne.irly  dry  brush.  The  theory  of  the 
above  is,  that  you  may  perfectly  unite 
wet  colour  to  a  moist  edge,  although 
you  cannot  to  a  dry  edge  without  show- 
ing the  juncture.  For  tinting  surfaces, 
it  is  well  always  to  m\\  more  than  suf- 
ficient colour  at  first. 

Colouring  Tracings.— It  is  al- 
ways best  to  i>f)ioiir  tracings  on  the 
back,  as  the  ink  liiifs  are  liable  to  be 
obliterated  when  the  colour  is  ajjplied. 
Mix  the  colours  very  dark,  so  that  thi'V 
may  ajipear  of  jirojier  depth  on  the 
other  side.  If  ink  or  c(dour  does  not 
run  fi'cely  on  tracing  cloth,  mix  both 
with  a  little  ox-guli. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


Cutting  Stencil  Plates.— The 
perforations  are  made  through  the  metal, 
either  by  engraving,  by  etching  with 
Bitric  acid  diluted  with  about  one-third 
water,  or,  what  is  better,  by  both  me- 
thods combined.  If  engraving  only  is 
employed,  the  force  necessarily  applied 
to  the  graver  will  sometimes  stretch  the 
plate  unequally,  whereas  by  etching 
alone,  the  edges  of  the  perforations  are 
left  rough,  and  the  corners  imperfect ; 
but  if  the  line  be  lightly  etched,  and 
afterwards  cleared  with  the  graver,  it 
may  be  rendered  perfect  without  any 
risk  of  cockling  the  plate.  If  the  back 
of  the  plate  is  smeared  with  a  little  oil, 
the  cuttings  will  come  out  clean.  A 
good  ground  for  the  etching  of  these 
plates  is  made  by  rubbing  on  them, 
slightly  heated  over  a  spirit  lamp,  a 
cake  of  heel-ball. 

Copper  is  much  better  than  brass  for 
stencil  plates:  the  metal  being  softer,  it 
lies  closer  to  the  paper  upon  receiving 
the  pressure  of  the  stencilling  brush. 
This  close  contact  is  a  very  important 
consideration,  as  it  prevents  the  hairs 
of  the  brush  from  getting  under  the 
plate,  and  producing  rough  edges. 

Plain  stencil  alphabets  will  not  be 
necessary  to  a  draughtsman,  if  he  is  a 
good  writer,  as  they  will  only  save  him 
a  little  time.  A  greater  saving  may  be 
effected  by  the  use  of  words  which  are 
constantly  recurring ;  as  Ground  plan, 
Front  elevation,  Section  ;  or  of  interiors, 
as  Drawing-room,  Kitchen. 

For  railway  or  public  works,  head- 
ings of  plans  may  be  cut  in  suitable  cha- 
racter and  style ;  also  words  v/hich  are 
frequently  repeated  on  any  particular 
works,  as  the  name  and  address  of  the 
architect  or  engineer. 

Besides  letters  and  words,  there  are 
many  devices  by  the  use  of  which  a 
superior  efiFect  may  be  produced,  and 
much  time  saved  ;  of  these  may  be  men- 
tioned, north  points,  plates  for  the  re- 
presentation of  surface  of  country,  as 
plantation,  wood,  or  marsh,  corners  and 
borders  for  finished  plans,  and  many 
other  devices. 

Using'  Stencil  Plates. — The 
brush    requires    to    be    squarely    and 


equally  cut,  and  to  be  kept  moderately 
clean.  If  Indian  ink  is  used,  the  largest 
surface  of  the  cake  should  be  taken  to 
rub  the  moist  brush  upon,  to  get  it 
equally  diflused  and  softened  with  co- 
lour. A  cheap  kind  of  ink  is  sold  with 
stencil  plates,  which  answers  better 
than  indian  ink,  as  it  runs  less  upon 
the  drawing  and  presents  a  larger  sur- 
face to  the  brush. 

After  the  plate  has  been  in  use  some 
time,  the  fine  lines  and  corners  become 
clogged  with  ink,  which  may  easily  be 
removed  by  soaking  the  plate  a  short 
time  in  warm  water,  and  afterward-: 
lightly  brushing  it  upon  a  flat  surface 
until  quite  clean.  It  must  be  parti- 
cularly observed  that  a  cloth  should  at 
no  time  be  applied  to  the  plate  either 
to  clean  or  to  wipe  it,  as  this  would 
be  almost  certain  to  catch  in  some  of 
the  perforations,  and  probably  spoil  the 
plate. 

If  the  plate  by  improper  use  becomes 
cockled,  it  may  be  flattened,  if  laid  upon 
a  hard  flat  surface,  by  drawing  a  cylin- 
drical piece  of  metal,  as,  for  instance, 
the  plain  part  of  the  stem  of  a  poker, 
firmly  across  it  several  times  on  each 
side  of  the  plate. 

In  using  the  stencil  plate,  hold  it 
fii-mly  to  the  drawing  by  one  edge  only, 
in  no  instance  allowing  the  fingers  to 
cross  to  the  opposite  edge.  The  general 
method  is,  to  place  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  along  the  bottom  edge.  When 
the  brush  is  ditfused  with  ink,  so  that  it 
is  just  moist,  lightly  brush  it  upon  a 
book-cover  or  pad,  so  as  to  free  the 
points  from  any  excess  of  colour.  In 
applying  the  brush  to  the  plate,  it  should 
be  held  quite  upright,  and  moved,  not 
too  quickly,  in  small  circles,  using  a 
constant,  equal  pressure,  as  light  .la  ap- 
pears necessary.  The  stencilling  sfiould 
be  commenced  at  one  end  of  the  plate 
and  proceeded  with  gradually  to  the 
other,  moving  onwards  as  the  perfora- 
tions appear  filled  with  colour,  being 
particularly  careful  not  to  shift  th« 
fingers  placed  upon  the  plate  during  the 
operation.  If  the  plate  is  very  long, 
after  each  word  the  fingers  may  be 
shifted  if  the  plate  be  held  down  dnring 


8 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


the  time  firmly  hj  the  ether  hand. 
Should  there  not  be  quite  sufficient  ink 
in  the  brush  to  complete  the  device,  the 
plate  may  be  breathed  upon,  which  will 
moisten  the  ink  attached  to  the  plate. 
If^  after  the  plate  is  removed,  the  device 
appears  Ijght  la  parts,  the  plate  may 
be  replaced  and  the  defects  remedied,  if 
%ery  gi-eat  care  be  taken  to  observe  that 
the  previous  stencilling  perfectly  covers 
the  perforations. 

In  stencilling  words  or  numberi  .vith 
the  separate  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
draw  a  line  where  the  bottoms  of  the 
letters  are  intended  to  come,  take  the 
separate  letters  as  required  and  place 
them  upon  the  line,  so  that  the  line  just 
appears  in  the  perfoi-ations.  Tiiat  the 
letters  may  be  upright,  it  is  best  that 
the  next  letter  on  the  slip  used  should 
also  allow  the  line  to  apjiear  in  it.  The 
required  distance  of  the  letters  apart 
must  be  judged  of  by  the  eye,  a  pencil 
mark  being  made,  after  each  letter  is 
completed,  to  appear  in  the  peribration 
on  the  near  side  of  the  next  letter  to  be 
stencilled. 

With  care,  a  stencil  plate  will  last  in 
constant  use  for  many  years ;  without 
care,  it  is  practically  spoilt  by  taking 
the  first  impression. 

Kemoving  Drawings  from 
the  Board. — Make  a  pencil  line  round 
the  paper  with  tlie  tee-square  at  a  suf- 
ficient distance  to  clear  the  glued  edge, 
and  to  cut  the  paper  with  a  ])onknife, 
guided  by  a  stout  ruler.  In  no  instance 
should  the  edge  of  the  tee-square  be 
used  to  cut  by.  A  piece  of  hard  wood, 
half  an  inch  thick  by  two  inches  wide, 
and  about  the  length  of  the  jiapor,  forms 
a  useful  rule  for  the  purjiose,  and  may 
be  had  at  small  cost.  The  instrument 
used  for  cutting  olF,  in  any  in;]iortant 
draughtsman's  office,  is  what  is  termed 
a  stationer's  rule,  which  is  a  piece  of 
hard  wood  of  similar  dimensions  to  that 
just  described,  but  with  the  edges  covered 
with  brass.  It  is  neccs,sary  to  have  the 
edge  thick  to  prevent  the  point  of  the 
knife  sli[ij)ing  over.  Kither  of  the  above 
rules  will  also  answer  to  turn  the  edge 
of  the  paper  up  against  when  glueing  it 
to  the  board. 


The  Frame  for  a  Drawing 
is  to  afford  a  suitable  protection  to 
the  finished  drawing,  and  hence  should 
be  so  subordinate  in  design  and  colour 
as  not  to  distract  attention  from  the 
drawmg. 

For  geometrical  drawmgs,  a  gilt  frame 
is,  in  general,  preferable  to  a  dark- 
coloured  wooden  one.  Occasionally  the 
latter  style  of  frame  may  be  appropriate, 
as  in  case  of  a  very  darkly-shaded 
drawing  on  tinted  paper,  or  of  a 
drawing  which  very  completely  fills  the 
paper. 

It  hardly  need  be  said  that  a  frame  of 
plain  mouldings  is  more  ajipropiiate  for 
a  geometriciil  drawing  than  is  a  carved 
or  stucco-moulded  frame.  For  ordinary 
geometrical  drawings,  nothing  is  pret- 
tier than  an  Oxford  frame  of  light  oak, 
or  a  plain  goM  frame. 

Vegetable  Parchment  is  made 
by  dipping  ordinary  paper,  for  a  few 
seconds,  into  a  solution,  containing  one 
part  water  to  six  sulphuric  acid  ;  then 
washing  it  carefully,  to  remove  every 
trace  of  acid. 

Indelible  Pencil  Writing.— 
Lay  the  writing  in  a  shallow  dish,  and 
pour  skimmed  milk  upon  it.  Any  spots 
not  wet  at  first  may  have  the  milk 
])laced  upon  them  lightly  with  a  feather. 
When  the  pajier  is  wet  all  over,  with 
the  milk,  take  it  up  and  let  the  milk 
drain  olf,  and  remove  with  the  feather 
the  droj)s  wliich  collect  on  the  lower 
edge.     Dry  carefully. 

Pencil  Drawings,  To  fix. — Pre- 
pare watcr-starcli,  in  the  manner  of  the 
laundress,  of  such  a  strength  as  to  fi)rm 
a  jelly  when  cold,  and  then  apply  with  a 
broad  c:imcl-hair  brush,  as  in  varnish- 
ing. The  same  may  be  done  with  thin, 
cold  isinglass  water  or  size,  <>r  rice 
water. 

Mounting  Engravings.  — 
Strain  thin  calico  on  a  frame,  then  care- 
fully ])aste  on  the  engraving  so  as  to  be 
free  from  creases  ;  afterwards,  when  dry, 
give  two  coats  of  thin  size  (a  piece  tlie 
size  of  a  small  nut  iu  a  small  cupful 
of  hot  water  will  l>e  strung  onougli); 
finally,  when  dry,  varnish  with  white 
hard  varnish. 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


d 


To  Renew  Manuscripts.  — 
Take  a  hair  peucil  and  wash  the  part 
that  has  been  effaced  with  a  solution  of 
prussiate  of  potash  in  water,  and  the 
■writing  will  again  appear  if  the  paper 
has  not  been  destroyed. 

Uniting  Parchment  to  Paper, 
or  Wood. — The  surface  of  the  parch- 
ment must  first  be  moistened  with  alcohol 
or  brandy  and  pressed  while  still  moist 
upon  glue  or  paste.  When  two  pieces 
of  parchment  are  to  be  joined,  both 
must  be  moistened  in  this  way.  It  is 
said  that  the  paper  will  sooner  tear  than 
separate  where  it  has  been  thus  fastened 
together.  Another  way  is  to  put  a  thin 
piece  of  paper  between  the  surfaces  of 
parchment  and  apply  the  paste.  This 
forms  a  firm  joint,  and  can  with  diffi- 
culty be  separated.  Glue  and  flour 
paste  are  best  adapted  for  uniting  sur- 
faces of  parchment. 

Tracing^  Paper.  —  1.  Wash  very 
thin  paper  with  a  mixture  of:  Spirits 
of  turpentine,  6  ;  Resin,  1 ;  Boiled  nut 
oil,  1,  parts  by  weight,  applied  with  a 
soft  sponge. 

2.  Brushing  over  one  side  of  a  good, 
thin,  unsized  paper  with  a  varnish  made 
of  equal  parts  of  Canada  balsam  and 
turpentine.  If  required  to  take  water 
colour,  it  must  be  washed  over  with 
ox-gall  and  dried  before  being  used. 

3.  Open  a  quire  of  double-crown  tissue 
paper,  and  brush  the  first  sheet  with  a 
mixture  of  mastic  varnish  and  oil  of 
turpentine,  equal  jiarts ;  proceed  with 
each  sheet  similarly,  and  dry  them  on 
lines  by  hanging  them  up  singly.  As 
the  process  goes  on,  the  under  sheets 
absorb  a  portion  of  the  varnish,  and  re- 
quire less  than  if  single  sheets  were 
brushed  separately. 

Transfer  Paper  is  made  by  rub- 
bmg  white  paper  with  a  composition 
consisting  of  2  oz.  of  tallow,  J  oz.  pow- 
dered black-lead,  |  p'nt  of  linseed  oil, 
and  sufficient  lamjiblack  to  make  it  of 
the  consistency  of  cream.  These  should 
be  melted  together  and  rubbed  on  the 
paper  whilst  hot.  When  dry  it  will  be 
fit  for  use. 

Babbitt's  Attrition  Metal.— 
Preparing  and  fitting,  melt  separately 


4  lbs.  of  copper,  12  lbs.  best  quality 
Banca  tin,  8  lbs.  regulus  of  antimony, 
and  12  lbs.  more  of  tin  while  the  com- 
position is  in  a  melted  state.  Pour  the 
antimony  into  the  tin,  then  mix  with 
the  copper  away  from  the  fire  in  a 
separate  pot. 

In  melting  the  composition,  it  is 
better  to  keep  a  small  quantity  of 
powdered  charcoal  on  the  surface  of  the 
metal.  The  above  composition  is  called 
"  hardening."  For  lining  the  boxes, 
take  1  lb.  of  hardening  and  melt  it  with 
2  lbs.  of  Banca  tin,  which  produces  the 
lining  metal  for  use.  Thus  the  pro- 
portions for  lining  metal  are,  4  lbs.  of 
co])per,  8  lbs.  of  regulus  of  antimony, 
and  96  lbs.  of  Banca  tin. 

The  article  to  be  lined,  having  been 
cast  with  a  recess  for  the  lining,  is  to 
be  nicely  fitted  to  a  former,  which  is 
made  of  the  same  shape  as  the  bearing. 
Drill  a  hole  in  the  article  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  metal,  say  a  half  or 
three-quarters  of  an  inch,  according  to 
the  size  of  it.  Coat  over  the  part  not 
to  be  tinned  with  a  clay  wash,  wet  the 
part  to  be  tinned  with  alcohol,  and 
sprinkle  on  it  powdered  sal-ammoniac  ; 
heat  it  till  a  fume  arises  from  the  sal- 
ammoniac,  and  then  immerse  in  melted 
Banca  tin,  taking  care  not  to  heat  it  so 
that  it  will  oxidize.  After  the  article 
is  tinned,  should  it  have  a  dark  colour, 
sprinkle  a  little  sal-ammoniac  on  it, 
which  will  make  it  a  bright  silver 
colour.  Cool  it  gradually  in  water, 
then  take  the  former,  to  which  the 
article  has  been  fitted,  and  coat  it  over 
with  a  thin  clay  wash,  and  warm  it  so 
that  it  will  be  perfectly  dry ;  heat  the 
article  until  the  tin  begins  to  melt,  lay 
it  on  the  former  and  pour  in  the  metal, 
which  should  not  be  so  hot  as  to 
oxidize,  through  the  drilled  hole,  giving 
it  a  head,  so  that  as  it  shrinks  it  will 
fill  up.  After  it  has  sufficiently  cooled 
remove  the  former. 

A  shorter  method  may  be  adopted 
when  the  work  is  light  enough  tc 
handle  quickly ;  namely  when  the  ar- 
ticle IS  prepaied  for  tiunmg,  it  may  be 
immersed  in  the  linmg  metal  instead  of 
the   tin,    brushed    lightly  in    order    to 


10 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


remove  the  sal-ammoniac  from  the  sur- 
face, placed  immediately  on  the  former 
aud  lined  at  the  same  heating. 

Blanched  Copper. — Fuse  8  oz. 
of  copper  and  ^  oz.  of  neutral  arseni- 
cal salt,  with  a  flux  made  of  calcined 
borax,  charcoal  dust,  and  powdered 
glass. 

Yellow  Brass. — 30  parts  of  zinc 
snd  70  of  copper  in  small  pieces. 

Yellow  Brass,  for  2'unmu]. — 
(^Common  article.)  —  Copper,  20  lbs.; 
zinc,  10  lbs. ;  lead  from  1  to  5  oz. 
Put  in  the  lead  last  before  pouring  off. 

Red  Brass, /or  Tumini/. — Co|)per, 
24  lbs. ;  zinc,  5  lbs. ;  lead,  8  oz.  Put 
in  the  lead  last  before  pouring  off. 

Red  Brass,  free,  for  Turning. — 
Copper,  IGO  lbs.;  zinc,  50  lbs.;  lead, 
10  lbs. ;  antimony,  44  oz. 

Another  Brass,  for  Turning. — 
Copper,  32  lbs.  ;  zinc,  10  lbs.  ;  lead,  1  lb. 

Best  Red  Brass,  for  fine  Cast- 
%ngs. — Copper,  24  lbs.;  zinc,  5  lbs.; 
bismuth,  1  oz.  Put  in  the  bismuth 
last  befnie  pouring  off. 

Rolled  Brass.  —  32  copper,  10 
zinc,  1'5  tin. 

Common  Brass,  for  Castings. — 
20  copper,  1-25  zinc,  2-5  tin. 

Hard  Brass,  for  Casting. — 25 
parts  coj)per,  2  zinc,  4'5  tin. 

Brass  Melting. — The  best  plan 
of  smelting  brass  is  to  melt  the  copper 
in  a  black-lead  crucible  first,  clri/  and 
cool  the  zinc  as  much  as  jiossible  and 
immerse  the  whole  of  the  zinc  into  the 
copper  when  the  latter  is  not  hotter 
tlian  barely  to  continue  fluid.  Drop  a 
piece  of  borax  the  size  of  a  walnut  into 
the  pot.  When  the  surface  of  tlie  hot 
metal  is  covered  by  fine  charcoal,  or 
borax,  winch  is  prevented  by  renewal 
from  burning,  the  smallest  loss  of  zinc 
is  sustained. 

The  melting  together  of  tin  and  cop- 
per IS  less  difficult  than  that  cf  zinc 
aud  copper,  because  tin  is  not  so  liaiile 
to  eva[)()rate  as  zinc,  and  little  metal  is 
lost.  The  ap|)earance  of  fhe  alloy  may 
l>e  im[)roved  by  covering  the  melted 
metal  with  about  one  jier  cent,  of  drie<i 
jKjtash;  or,  better  still,  a.  mixture  of 
potash  and  soda.     This  flux   h.is  a  re- 


markable influence  on  the  colour,  and 
particularly  on  the  tenacity  of  the  alloy. 
The  former  becomes  more  red,  and  the 
latter  stronger.  The  scum  forming  on 
the  surface  by  this  addition  ought  to 
be  removed  before  the  metal  is  cast. 
Tin  and  copper  are  liable  to  separation 
in  cooling ;  this  can  be  prevented,  at 
least  partly,  by  turning  the  mould  con- 
taining the  fluid  metal,  and  keeping  it 
in  motion  until  it  is  chilled. 

Copper  and  lead  unite  only  to  a 
certain  extent :  3  lead  and  8  copper  is 
ordinary  pot  metal.  All  the  had  may 
be  retained  in  this  alloy,  provided  the 
object  to  be  cast  is  not  too  thick. 
When  the  cast  is  heavy,  or  much  lead 
IS  used,  it  is  pressed  out  by  the  copper 
in  cooling.  1  lead,  2  Copper,  sepai-ates 
lead  in  cooling — it  oozes  out  from  the 
pores  of  the  metal :  8  copper  and  1  lead 
is  ductile,  more  lead  renders  copper 
brittle.  Between  8  to  1  and  2  to  1 
is  the  limit  of  copper  and  lead  alloys. 
All  of  these  alloys  are  brittle  when  hot 
or  merely  warm. 

Equal  parts  of  copper  and  silver  and 
2  per  cent,  of  arsenic  form  an  alloy 
similar  to  silver,  a  little  harder,  how- 
ever, but  of  almost  equal  tenacity  and 
malleability.  Antimony  imparts  a  pe- 
culiar beautiful  red  colour  to  copper, 
varying  from  rose-red  in  a  little  coi)])er 
and  much  antimony,  to  crimson  or 
violet  when  equal  parts  of  both  metaU 
are  melted  together. 

Hardening  for  Britannia. — 
(jf'o  be  mixed  scparatelg  from  the  other 
ingredients.) — Coi>per,  2  lbs. ;  tin,  1  lb. 

Good  Britannia  Metal. — Tin, 
150  lbs.;  copper,  3  lbs.;  antimony, 
10  His. 

Britannia  Metal,  2nd  quality. — 
Tin,  140  lbs. ;  copper.  3  lbs. ;  antimony, 
9  lbs. 

Britannia  Metal,  for  Casting.— 
Tin,  210  lbs.  ;  copper,  4  lbs.  ;  anti- 
mony, 12  lbs. 

Britannia  Mktal,  for  Sjyinning.— 
Tin,  100  lbs.  ;  Britannia  hardening, 
4  lbs.  ;  antimony,  4  lbs. 

Britannia  Metal, /or  Begisters. — 
Tin,  100  lbs.;  hardening,  8  lbs.;  anti- 
mony,  8  lbs. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


11 


Best  Britannia,  fur  Spouts. — Tin, 
140   lbs.  ;    copper,    3   lbs. ;    antimony, 

6  lbs. 

Best  Britannia,  for  Spoons. — Tin, 
100  lbs. ;  hardening,  5  lbs. ;  antimony, 
10  lbs. 

Best  Britannia,  for  Handles. — 
Tin,  140  lbs. ;  copper,  2  lbs. ;  anti- 
mony, 5  lbs. 

BisT  Britannia,  for  Lamps,  Pil- 
lars, and  Spouts. — Tin,  300  lbs. ;  cop- 
per, 4  lbs. ;  antimony,  15  lbs. 

Britannia,  for  Casting.  —  Tin, 
100  lbs. ;  hardening,  5  lbs.  ;  antimony, 
5  lbs. 

Lining  Metal,  for  Boxes  of  Rail- 
tvad  Cars. — Mix  tin,  24  lbs. ;  copper, 
4  lbs. ;  antimony,  8  lbs.  (tor  a  harden- 
ing); then  add  tin,  72  lbs. 

Bronze    Metal. — (1.)    Copper, 

7  lbs. ;  zinc,   3   lbs. ;   tin,  2  lbs.     (2.) 
Copper,  ]  lb. ;  zinc,  12  lbs. ;  tin,  8  lbs. 

Artificial  Gold.  —  Pure  cojiper, 
100  parts ;  zinc,  or  preferably  tin,  17 
parts  ;  magnesia,  6  parts  ;  sal-ammoniac, 
3'6  parts;  quicklime,  1'8  part;  tartar 
of  commerce,  9  parts.  The  copper  is 
first  melted,  then  the  magnesia,  sal- 
ammoniac,  lime,  and  tartar,  are  then 
added,  separately  and  by  degrees,  in 
the  form  of  powder ;  the  whole  is  now 
briskly  stirred  for  about  half  an  hour, 
so  as  to  mix  thoroughly ;  and  then  the 
zinc  is  added  in  small  grains  by  throw- 
ing it  on  the  surface  and  stirring  till  it 
IS  entirely  fused ;  the  crucible  is  then 
covered,  and  the  fusion  maintained  for 
about  35  minutes.  The  surface  is  then 
skimmed  and  the  alloy  is  ready  for 
casting.  It  has  a  fine  grain,  is  malle- 
able, and  takes  a  splendid  polish.  Does 
not  corrode  readily,  and  for  many  pur- 
poses is  an  excellent  substitute  for  gold. 
When  tarnished,  its  brilliancy  can  be 
restored  by  a  little  acidulated  water. 

German  Silver,  First  QuaUty  for 
Casting. — Copper,  50  lbs. ;  zinc,  25  lbs. ; 
nickel,  25  lbs. 

German  Silver,  Second  Qualitg  for 
Casting. — Copper,  50  lbs. ;  zinc,  20  lbs. ; 
nickel  (best  pulverized),  10  lbs. 

German  Silver,  for  Boiling. — Cop- 
per, 60  lbs. ;  zinc,  20  lbs.  ;  nickel,  25  lbs. 
Used  for  spoons,  forks,  and  table  ware. 


German    Silver,   for    Bells    and 

other  Castings. — Copper,  60  lbs. ;  zinc, 
20  lbs.  ;  nickel,  20  lbs ;  lead,  3  lbs. ; 
iron  (that  of  tin  plate  being  best),  2  lbs. 

In  melting  the  alloy  for  German  sil- 
ver it  is  difficult  to  combine  a  definite 
proportion  of  zinc  with  the  compound 
of  nickel  and  copper  previously  pre- 
pared. In  fusing  the  three  metals 
together  there  is  always  a  loss  of  zinc 
by  volatilization,  which  may  be  lessened 
by  placing  it  beneath  the  copper  in  the 
crucible.  The  best  method  is  to  mix 
the  copper  and  nickel,  both  in  grains 
first,  place  them,  thus  mixed,  in  the 
crucible,  when  melted  add  the  zicr  and 
a  piece  of  borax  the  size  of  a  walnut. 
The  zinc  will  gradually  dissolve  in  the 
fluid  coppf.r,  and  the  heat  may  be  raised 
as  their  fluidity  increases.  In  this  in- 
stance, as  in  all  others  of  forming 
alloys,  it  is  profitable  to  mix  the  oxides 
of  the  various  metals  together,  and 
reduce  them  under  the  protection  of  a 
suitable  flux.  The  metal  nickel  can  be 
produced  only  from  pui-e  oxide  of 
nickel ;  and,  as  purity  of  the  alloy  is; 
essential  to  good  quality,  the  common 
commercial  zinc  is  not  sufficiently  pure 
for  forming  argentan.  Copper  cannot 
well  be  used  in  the  form  of  oside,  but 
grain  copper  or  wire-scraps  will  serve 
equally  as  well. 

Imitation  of  Silver. — Tin, 
3  oz. ;  copper,  4  lbs. 

Pinchbeck. — Copper,  5  lbs. ;  zinc, 
1  lb. 

Tombac. — Copper,  16  lbs.  ;  tin, 
1  lb. ;  zinc,  1  lb. 

Red  Tombac. — Copper,  10  lbs. ; 
zinc,  1  lb. 

Stereotype  Metal. — 1  tin  ;  1 
antimony  ;  4  lead.  In  using  stereotype 
metal,  brush  the  ty])e  with  plumbago 
or  a  small  quantity  of  oil ,  then  place 
in  a  frame,  and  take  a  cast  with  plaster 
of  Paris.  I'he  cast  is  dried  in  a  very 
hot  oven,  placed  face  downwards  upon 
a  flat  plate  of  iron ;  this  plate  is  laid 
in  a  tray  or  pan  of  iron,  having  a  lid 
securely  fastened,  and  furnished  with  a 
hole  at  each  corner.  Dip  the  tray  in 
the  fluid  metal,  which  will  flow  in  at 
the  four  corners.    When  the  tray  is  »e- 


12 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


moved,  dip  the  bottom  only  in  water; 
and  as  the  metal  contracts  in  cooling, 
jiour  in  melted  metal  at  the  corners  so 
as  to  keep  up  the  fluid  pressure,  and  ob- 
taia  a  good  solid  cast.  When  cool  open 
the  tray ;  remove  the  cake  of  plaster 
ami  inet^il,  and  beat  the  edges  with  a 
mallet  to  remove  superfluous  metal. 
Plane  the  edges  square,  turn  the  back 
Hat,  in  a  lathe,  to  the  required  thick- 
ness, and  remove  any  defects.  If  any 
letters  are  damaged  cut  them  out,  and 
solder  in  separate  tyjies  instead.  Finally, 
fix  vpon  hard  wood  to  the  required 
height. 

Casting  Stereo-Plates  by  the 
Paper  Process. — Lay  a  sheet  of 
tissue  paper  upon  a  perfectly  flat  sur- 
face, and  paste  a  soft  piece  of  printing 
paper,  which  must  be  pressed  evenly 
on,  to  the  tissue.  Lay  the  paper  on  tlie 
form,  previously  oiled,  and  cover  with  a 
damp  rag;  beat  with  a  stiff  brush  the 
paper  in  evenly,  then  paste  a  piece  of 
blotting  paper,  and  repeat  the  beating 
in  ;  after  which  about  three  more  ])ieces 
of  soft  tenacious  paper  must  be  pasted 
and  used  in  a  similar  way ;  back  up 
with  a  piece  of  cartridge  jmper.  The 
whole  must  then  be  dried  with  moderate 
heat,  under  a  slight  pressure.  When 
thoroughly  dry,  brush  well  over  with 
plumbago  or  French  chalk.  Wlien  tin's 
is  done  it  is  ready  for  the  matrix.  Tliis 
is  a  box  of  a  certain  size  for  the  work 
required,  the  interior  of  which  is  type 
high.  In  it  is  what  is  termed  a  gauge, 
which  lifts  out  to  insert  your  paper 
cast,  and  is  regulated  by  hand  to  the 
size  of  the  plate  rc(|uired.  This  being 
placed  inside,  the  lid  is  shut  down  and 
screwed  tight,  with  the  eml  or  mouth- 
])iece  left  open.  By  this  orifice  the 
nii'tal  is  poured  in,  and,  as  it  is  mounted 
to  .swing,  the  box  is  moved  about  so  as 
to  well  throw  down  the  metal  and  make 
a  solid  ciist.  Then  water  is  dasjied  on 
ihe  box,  the  screw-bar  unshackled,  the 
liii  lifted,  the  plate  taken  oil,  and  the 
paper  cast  is  again  ready  for  work. 

Fusible  Metal.— 1.  liismuth,  8 
jiarts ;  lead,  !>  jiarts  ;  tin,  3  parts :  melt 
totfet^.er.  Melts  below  'JT-'"  Fahr. 
2.    I'l^niuth,   2   parts;    lead,   5   parts; 


tin,  3  parts.  Melts  in  boiling  water, 
3.  Lead,  3  parts  ;  tin,  2  parts  ;  bismuth, 
5  parts:  mix.  Melts  at  197°  Fahr. 
Used  for  stereotyping ;  used  to  make 
toy-spoons,  to  surprise  children  by  their 
melting  in  hot  liquors;  and  to  form 
pencils  for  writing  on  asses'  skin,  or 
paper  prepared  by  rubbing  burnt  harts- 
horn into  it. 

Fusible  Alloy,  for  Silvering 
Glass. — Tin,  6  oz.  ;  lead,  10  oz.  ; 
bismuth,  21  oz.  ;  mercury,  a  small 
quantity. 

Muntz  Metal. — 6  parts  copper; 
4  zinc.  Can  be  rolled  and  worked  at  a 
red  heat. 

Alloy  for  Cymbals  and 
Gongs. — 100  jiarts  of  copper  with 
about  25  of  tin.  To  give  this  compound 
the  sonorous  ])roperty  in  the  highest 
degree,  the  jiiece  should  be  ignited  after 
it  is  cast,  and  then  plunged  immediately 
into  cold  water. 

Alloy  for  Tam-Tams,  or 
Gongs. — 80  i)arts  of  copper  and  20 
of  tin,  hammered  out  with  frequent  an- 
nealing. An  alloy  of  78  of  copper  and 
22  of  tin  answers  better,  and  can  be 
rolled  out. 

Alloy  for  Bells  of  Clocks. — 
The  bells  of  the  pcndulcs,  or  ornamental 
clocks,  made  in  Paris,  are  composed  of 
copper  72-00,  tin  26-5G,  iron  1-44  in 
100  jiarts. 

Bell  Metal,  fine.— 11  copper,  26 
tin,  2  zinc,  1  iron. 

Bki.l  ^\v.TK\.,  for  large  Bells. — Cop- 
per, 100  lbs.;  tin,  from  20  to  25  lbs. 

Bici.L  M  iCTAL,  for  small  Bells. — 'Cop- 
per, 3  lbs. ;  tin,  1  lb. 

Cock  Metal.— Copj.er,  20  lbs.  ; 
lead,  8  Ihs. ;  litharge,  1  oz. ;  antimonr, 
3oz. 

Alloy  for  Journal  Boxes. — 
Coi)]icr,  24  lbs, ;  ti.i,  24  lbs. ;  and  anti- 
mony, 8  lbs.  Melt*  the  copper  first, 
then  add  the  tin,  and  lastly  the  anti- 
mony. It  should  be  first  run  into  in- 
gots, then  melted  and  cast  in  tiie  form 
required  for  flie  l)oxcs. 

ducen's  Metal. — A  very  fine  sil- 
ver-looking metal  is  composed  of  100  lbs. 
of  tin,  8  of  rcgulus  of  antimony,  1  of 
bismuth,  and  4  of  copper. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


13 


Chinese  Silver. — 55-2  parts  cop- 
per, 19-5  zhic,  13  nickel,  2-5  silver,  and 
12  cobalt  of  iron. 

Hard  "White  Metal.  — Sheet 
brass,  32  oz. ;  lead,  2  oz. ;  tin,  2  oz. ; 
zinc,  1  oz. 

Metal  for  Taking  Imijres- 
sions. — Lead,  3  lbs. ;  tin,  2  lbs. ;  bis- 
muth, 5  lbs. 

White  Metal.— Tin,  82 ;  lead,  18  ; 
antimony,  5 ;  zinc,  1 ;  and  copper  4 
parts. 

Metal  for  Tinning. — Malleable 
iron  1  lb.,  heat  to  whitjhess;  add  5  oz. 
regulus  of  antimony,  and  Molucca  tin, 
24-  lbs. 

Frick's  German  Silver. — 53-39 
parts  copper,  17-4  nickel,  13  zinc. 

Best  Pewter. — 5  lbs.  tin  to  1  lb. 
of  lead. 

Coxnn3.on  Pewter. — 82  parts  pure 
tin,  18  parts  lead. 

Speculum  Metal.— Equal  parts 
of  tin  an  J  copper  form  a  white  metal  as 
hard  as  steel.  Less  tin  and  a  small 
quantity  of  arsenic  added  to  the  alloy 
forms  a  white  hard  metal  of  high  lustre. 
2  lbs.  copper,  1  lb.  tin,  1  oz.  arsenic, 
form  a  good  speculum  metal.  An  alloy  of 
32  copper,  16'5tin,  4  brass,  1"25  arsenic 
IS  hard,  white,  and  of  brilliant  lustre. 

Type  Metal. — 9  parts  lead  to  1 
antimony  forms  common  type  metal ; 
7  lead  to  1  antimony  is  used  for  large 
and  soft  type;  6  lead  and  1  antimony 
for  large  type ;  5  lead  and  1  antimony 
for  middle  type ;  4  lead  and  1  anti- 
mony for  small  type ;  and  3  lead  to  1 
antimony  for  the  smallest  kinds  of  type. 

Statuary  Metal. — 91-4  parts 
copper,  5-u3  zinc,  1'7  tin,  1-37  lead; 
or  copper  80,  tin  20. 

Metal  for  Medals.— 50  parts 
copper,  4  zinc. 

Or-Molu. — Th«  or-molu  of  the 
brass-founder,  popularly  known  as  an 
imitation  of  red  gold,  is  extensively 
used  by  the  French  workmen  m  metals. 
it  IS  generally  found  in  combination 
with  grate  and  stove  work.  It  is  com- 
puted of  a  greater  portion  of  copper 
and  less  zinc  than  ordinary  brass,  is 
cleaned  r-idily  by  means  of  acid,  and  is 
buu-nished  with  facility      To  give  this 


material  the  rich  appearance,  it  is  not 
unfrequently  brightened  up  after  "dip- 
pmg  "  by  means  of  a  scratch  brush,  the 
action  of  which  helps  to  produce  a  very 
brilliant  gold-like  surface.  It  is  pro- 
tected from  tarnish  by  the  application 
of  lacquer. 

Spanish  Tutania. — Iron  or  steel, 
8  oz. ;  antimony,  16  oz. ;  nitre,  3  oz. 
Melt  and  harden  8  oz.  tin  with  1  oz.  of 
this  compound. 

Another  Tutania. — Antimony, 
4  oz. ;  arsenic,  1  oz. ;  tin,  2  lbs. 

Gun  Metal.  —  Bristol  brass, 
112  lbs. ;  zinc,  14  lbs. ;  tin,  7  lbs. 

Rivet  Metal. — Copper,  32  oz. ; 
tin,  2  oz. ;  zinc,  1  oz. 

Rivet  Metal,  for  Hose. — Copper, 
64  lbs.  ;  tin,  1  lb. 

Bullet  Metal.— 98  lead  to  2  ar- 
senic.  For  round  shot  the  fused  metal 
is  dropped  from  a  high  elevation  in  a 
shot  tower  into  a  basin  of  water  ;  or 
thrown  down  a  stack  of  limited  height, 
in  which  a  strong  draught  of  air  is  pro- 
duced by  a  blast  machine. 

Pipe  Metal  for  Organs. — Melt 
equal  })arts  of  tin  and  lead.  This  alloy 
is  cast  instead  of  rolled  in  the  desired 
form  of  sheets,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
crystallized  metal,  which  produce  a  finer 
tone.  The  sheets  are  formed  by  casting 
the  metal  on  a  horizontal  table,  the 
thickness  beiug  regulated  by  the  hoight 
of  a  rib  or  bridge  at  one  end,  over  which 
the  superfluous  metal  flows  off.  The 
sheets  thus  obtained  are  planed  with  a 
carpenter's  plane,  bent  up,  and  soldered. 

Aluminium  Bronze. — 100  parts 
copper  and  10  aluminium,  measured  by 
weighing,  when  combined  is  a  durable 
alloy,  which  may  be  forged  and  worked 
in  the  same  manner  as  copper,  and  is  the 
same  colour  as  pale  gold.  80  parts  ctp- 
per,  19  zinc,  and  1  aluminium,  form  a 
good  durable  alloy. 

Aquafortis. — Simple  or  Single. — 
Distil  2  lbs.  of  saltpetre  and  1  lb.  of 
copperas. 

Ihub-le. — Saltpetre,  6  lbs.,  copperas, 
6  lbs.  in  its  usual  crystallized  state,  to- 
gether with  3  lbs.  calcined  to  redness. 

Strong. — Copperas  calcined  to  white- 
ness, and  white  saltpetre,  of  each  30  Ibe, 


14 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


mix,  and  distil  in  an  iron  pot  with  an 
earthenware  head. 

Spirit  of  Nitre.  —  White  saltpetre^ 
6  lbs.;  oil  of  vitriol,  1^  lb.:  distil  into 
1^  pint  of  water. 

Dilute. — Strong  aquafortis,  1  oz.  by 
oicasure,  and  water  9  oz.  by  measure. 

Proof. — The  same  as  Assayer's  A^ii. 

Compound. — Double  aquafortis,  1(3  oz. ; 
common  salt,  1  dram :  distil  to  dryness. 

Aqua  Regia.  —  Distil  together 
16  oz.  of  spirit  of  nitre,  with  4  oz.  of 
common  salt ;  equal  parts  of  nitric  acid 
and  muriatic  acid  mixed,  or  nitric  acid 
2  jiarts,  and  muriatic  1  part. 

Amber,  To  Work. — Amber  in 
the  rough  is  first  split  and  cut  rudely 
into  the  shape  required  by  a  leaden 
wheel  worked  with  emery  powder,  or 
by  a  bow  saw  having  a  wire  for  the 
blade,  Tripoli  or  emery  powder  being 
used  with  it.  The  roughly -formed 
pieces  are  then  smoothed  with  a  piece 
of  whetstone  and  water.  The  polish- 
ing is  effected  by  friction  with  whiting 
and  water,  and  finally  with  a  little 
olive  oil  laid  on  and  well  rubbed  with  a 
piece  of  flannel,  until  the  polish  is  com- 
plete. In  this  process  the  amber  becomes 
hot  and  highly  electrical ;  as  soon  as 
this  ha[)peas  it  must  be  laid  aside  to  re- 
cover itself  before  the  polishing  is  con- 
tinued, otherwise  the  article  will  be  apt 
to  fly  into  pieces. 

Amber,  To  Mend. — Smear  the 
parts  which  are  to  be  united  with  lin- 
seed oil,  hold  the  oiled  part  carefully 
over  a  small  charcoal  fire,  a  hot  cinder, 
or  a  gas-light,  being  careful  to  cover  up 
all  the  rest  of  the  object  loosi-^ly  with 
paper;  when  the  oiled  parts  have  begun 
to  feel  the  heat,  so  as  to  be  sticky,  jiinch 
or  press  them  together,  and  hold  them 
to  till  nearly  colil.  Only  that  part 
where  the  edges  ai-e  to  be  uniteii  must 
be  warmed,  and  even  that  with  care, 
lest  the  form  or  polish  of  the  other  p;irts 
should  be  disturbed  ;  the  part  joined 
generally  requires  a  little  re-polishing. 

Bleaching  Silk. — A  ley  of  white 
soap  18  made  by  bulling  in  water  IJUlbs. 
««■  Hoai)  for  every  lOM  lbs.  of  silk  in- 
teoded  to  be  bleached,  and  in  thiM  the 
lilk  is  Kteeped  till  the  gum  in  the  silk  is 


dissolved  anl  .se[):uateJ.  The  silk  is 
then  put  into  bags  of  coarse  cloth  and 
boiled  in  a  similar  ley  for  an  hour.  By 
these  processes  it  loses  25  per  cent,  of 
its  original  weight.  The  silk  is  then 
thoroughly  washed  and  steeped  in  a  hot 
ley  composed  of  IJ  lb.  of  soap,  90  gal- 
lons of  water,  with  a  small  qu;\ntity  of 
litirus  and  iudigo  dill'used.  After  this, 
it  is  carried  to  the  sulphuring  room : 
2  lbs.  of  sulphur  are  sullicient  for 
100  lbs.  of  silk.  When  these  processes 
are  not  sulliciently  successful,  it  is 
washed  with  clear  hard  water  and  sul- 
phured again. 

Bleacliing  Wool. — The  wool  is 
first  prepared  according  to  the  purposes 
for  which  it  is  intended,  by  treating  it 
with  solutions  of  soap.  15y  this  process 
it  is  cleared  of  a  great  quantity  of  loose 
impurity  and  grease  which  is  always 
found  in  wool,  often  losing  no  less  than 
70  jier  cout.  of  its  weight.  The  heat  of 
the  ley  must  be  carefully  attended  to, 
as  a  high  temperature  is  found  to  fix 
the  unctuous  matter  or  yolk  of  the 
wool.  After  w;ishing,  it  is  taken  to  a 
sulphur  chamber,  where  it  is  e.xposed  to 
the  fumes  arising  from  the  slow  com- 
bustion of  sulphur,  for  from  five  to 
twenty  hours,  according  to  circum- 
stances. It  is  again  washed,  and  then 
immersed  in  a  bath  composed  of  jiure 
whiting  and  blue.  It  is  then  exposed  a 
second  time  to  the  fumes  of  the  sulphur, 
and  washed  with  a  solution  of  soap, 
which  renders  it  of  the  proper  white- 
ness. 

Paper  Bleaching.— P'or  bleach- 
ing rags,  and  other  materials  from  which 
paper  is  at  first  fabric;ited,  rags,  wheu 
grey  or  coloured,  are  to  be  separitci 
and  ground  in  the  pa])er-inill  iu  the 
usual  way,  till  brouglit  to  a  sort  of  uni- 
form consistence,  having  beep  previously 
macerated  according  to  thi'ir  quantity 
and  tenacity.  The  mass  is  then  treated 
with  an  alkaline  Icy.  It  is  nezttreaica 
with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime.  If 
this  immersion  do  not  produce  the  de- 
sired elfect,  which  tines  not  often  hap]  :a 
if  the  colours  are  tenacious,  such  as  red 
and  blue,  let  the  treatment  with  the 
ulkulia:  ley  be  repeated,  and  follow  it 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


16 


with  another  bath  of  the  chlorine  pre- 
paration. Then  sour  the  whole  in  a  bath 
of  sulphuric  acid,  much  diluted  and 
cold,  for  when  hot  its  action  will  be  less 
eft'ectual.  Water  is  then  to  be  run  upon 
it  till  it  comes  off  without  colour  or  in- 
dication of  acidity.  Black  is  the  most 
easily  discharged  colour,  and  will  seldom 
require  being  treated  with  ley  or  steep 
of  sulphuric  acid,  one  bath  of  alkali  and 
another  of  chloride  of  lime  being  suffi- 
cient to  produce  a  good  white.  Old 
printed  or  written  paper  is  first  to  be 
sorted  according  to  its  quality,  and  all 
the  yellow  edges  cut  off  with  a  book- 
binder's plane.  One  hundredweight  of 
this  paper  is  to  be  put  sheet  by  sheet 
into  vats  sufficiently  capacious,  with  500 
quarts  of  hot  water.  The  whole  is  to 
be  stirred  for  about  an  hour,  and  as 
much  water  gradually  added  as  will 
rise  about  three  inches  above  the  paper, 
and  to  be  left  to  macerate  for  four  or 
five  hours.  It  is  then  ground  coarsely 
in  the  mill,  and  boiled  in  water  for  about 
an  hour,  taking  care  to  add  before  it 
begins  to  boil,  thirteen  quarts  of  caustic 
alkaline  ley.  After  boilmg,  it  is  mace- 
rated in  the  ley  for  twelve  hours,  when 
it  is  pressed,  and,  if  sufficiently  white, 
made  into  paper. 

To  Bleach  Prints  and  Printed 
Books.  —  Simple  immersion  in  oxy- 
genated muriatic  acid,  letting  the  article 
remain  in  it,  a  longer  or  shorter  space 
of  time,  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
liquor,  will  be  sufficient  to  whiten  an 
engraving  ;  if  it  be  required  to  whiten 
the  paper  of  a  bound  book,  as  it  is 
necessary  that  all  the  leaves  should  be 
moistened  by  the  acid,  care  must  be 
taken  to  open  the  book  well,  and  to  make 
the  boards  rest  on  the  edge  of  the  vessel, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  paper  alone 
shall  be  dipped  in  the  liquid  ;  the  leaves 
must  be  separated  from  each  other,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  equally  moist- 
ened on  both  sides.  The  liquor  assumes 
a  yellow  tint,  and  the  paper  becomes 
white  in  the  same  proportion  ;  at  the 
end  of  two  or  three  hours  the  book  may 
be  taken  from  the  acid  liquor,  and 
plunged  into  pure  water  with  the  same 
care  and  precaution  as  recommended  in 


regard  to  the  acid  liquor,  that  the  water 
may  touch  both  sides  of  each  leaf.  The 
water  must  be  renewed  every  hour,  to 
extract  the  acid  remaining  in  the  paper, 
and  to  dissipate  the  disagreeable  smell. 
Printed  paper  may  also  be  bleached  by 
sulphuric  acid,  or  by  alkaline  or  soap 
leys. 

Bleaching  Ivory.  —  Antiqus 
works  in  ivory  that  have  become  dis- 
coloured may  be  brought  to  a  pure 
whiteness  by  exposing  them  to  the  sun 
under  glasses.  It  is  the  particular  pro- 
perty of  ivory  to  resist  the  action  of  the 
sun's  rays,  when  it  is  under  glass ;  but 
when  deprived  of  this  protection,  to  be- 
come covered  with  a  multitude  of  minute 
cracks.  Many  antique  pieces  of  sculp- 
ture in  ivory  may  be  seen,  which,  al- 
though tolerably  white,  are,  at  the  same 
time,  defaced  by  numerous  cracks ;  this 
defect  cannot  be  remedied  ;  but,  in  order 
to  conceal  it,  the  dust  may  be  removed 
by  brusliing  the  work  with  warm  water 
and  soap,  and  afterwards  placing  it 
under  glass.  Antique  works  in  ivory 
that  have  become  discoloured,  may  be 
brushed  with  pumice-stoue,  calcined  and 
diluted,  and  while  yet  wet  placed  under 
glasses.  They  should  be  daily  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  sun,  and  be  turned 
from  time  to  time,  that  they  may  be- 
come equally  bleached  ;  if  the  brown 
colour  be  deeper  on  one  side  than  the 
other,  that  side  will,  of  course,  be  for 
the  longest  time  exposed  to  the  sun. 

Bleaching-  Powder,  or  Chlo- 
ride of  Lime,  is  prepared  by  passing 
chlorine  gas  into  boxes  of  lead  in  which 
a  quantity  of  slaked  lime  is  laid  on 
shelves.  The  stuff  to  be  bleached  is 
first  boiled  in  lime  water,  wash,  and 
without  drying  boil  again,  in  a  solution 
of  soda  or  potash  ;  wash,  and  without 
drying  steep  in  a  weak  mixture  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime  and  water  for  six  hours ; 
wash,  and  without  drying  steep  for  four 
hours  in  a  weak  solution  or  mixture  of. 
sulphuric  acid  and  water ;  wash  well 
and  dry ;  upon  an  emergency  chlorate 
of  potash  mixed  with  three  times  its 
weight  of  common  salt,  and  diluted  in 
water,  may  be  used  as  a  bieaching 
liquid 


16 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS 


To  Bleach  Sponge. — Soak  it 
well  iu  dilute  muiiatic  acid  for  twelve 
hours.  Wash  well  with  water,  to  re- 
move the  lime,  then  immerse  it  in  a 
lolution  of  hyposulphate  of  soda,  to 
which  dilute  muriatic  acid  has  been 
added  a  ninment  before.  After  it  is 
bleached  suliiciently,  remove  it,  wash 
again,  and  dry  it.  It  may  thus  be 
bleached  almost  snow  white. 

To  "Whiten  Lace. — Lace  may  be 
restored  to  its  original  whiteness  by 
first  ironing  it  slightly,  then  folding  it 
and  sewmg  it  into  a  clean  linen  bag, 
which  is  placed  for  twenty-four  hours 
in  pure  olive  oil.  Afterwards  the  bag 
is  to  be  boiled  in  a  solution  of  soap  and 
water  for  fifteen  minutes,  then  well 
nnsed  in  lukewarm  water,  and  finally 
dipped  into  water  containing  a  slicjht 
proportion  of  starch.  The  lace  is  then 
10  be  taken  from  the  bag  and  stretched 
on  pins  to  dry. 

Alcohol  Barrels  —  Barrels  or 
casks  designed  to  be  filled  with  alcohol, 
may  be  made  tight  by  the  appliaition 
of  the  following  solution: — Dissolve  in 
a  water  bath  1  lb.  of  leather  scrajis  and 
1  oz.  of  o.\alic  acid,  in  2  lbs.  of  water, 
and  dilute  gradually  with  3  lbs.  of  warm 
water.  Apply  this  solution  to  the  in- 
side of  the  barrel,  where,  by  oxidation, 
it  will  assume  a  brown  colour,  and 
become  insoluble  in  alcohol.  This  coat 
closes  all  the  pores  of  the  wood,  and 
does  not  crack  or  scale  off. 

Paste  Blacking. — Mix  1  part  of 
ivory  black,  J  treacle,  \  sweet  oil, 
then  add  J  oil  of  vitriol  and  ^  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Dilute  each  ingredient 
with  three  times  its  weight  of  water 
bcfoiL'  mixiuc;. 

Liquid  Blacking. — 2  lbs.  of  ivory 
black  in  fine  powder,  treacle  1 J  lb.,  J  pint 
of  sperm  oil.  Hub  the  black  and  oil 
well  together,  add  the  treacle  and  mix. 
Another  Method.  —  4  oz.  of  ivory 
black,  3  oz.  coarse  sugar,  a  table-spoonful 
of  sweet  oil,  and  1  jiint  of  weak  beer; 
mix  them  gradually  together  until  cold. 
Black  B,eviver. — Take  2  pints  o( 
vinegar,  and  infuse  1  oz.  of  iron  tilings, 
I  <iz.  copjieras,  1  oz.  ground  logwood, 
«nd  i  oz.  bruised  pal!^. 


Blue  Black  is  a  paste  made  of 
ivory  black  and  indigo,  ground  to- 
gether with  water. 

Blue,  Soluble.— 7  parts  oil  of  vitriol, 
place  iu  a  gbss  vessel,  and  set  this  in 
cold  water,  add  gradually  1  part  indigo 
in  powder,  stirring  the  mixture  at  each 
addition  with  a  glass  rod.  Cover  the 
vessel  for  twenty-four  hours,  then  dilute 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  water. 

Boiler  Incrustation.— The  fol- 
lowing remedies  have  been  used  with 
varying  success  to  prevent  incrusta- 
tion : — 

1.  Potatoes,  ^Lth  of  weignt  of  water 
prevents  adherence  of  sciile. 

2.  12  parts  salt,  2^  caustic  soda,  \ 
extract  of  oak  bark,  ^  potash. 

3.  Pieces  of  oak-wood  suspended  in 
boiler  and  renewed  monthly. 

4.  2  oz.  muriate  of  ammonia  iu  boiler 
twice  a  week. 

5.  A  coating  3  parts  of  black-lead, 
18  tallow,  applied  hot  to  the  inside  of 
the  boiler  every  few  weeks. 

6.  12 J  lbs.  of  molasses  fed  into  an 
8-horse  boiler  at  intervals,  prevented 
incrustation  for  six  months. 

7.  Alahogany  or  oak  sawdust  in  small 
quantities.  Use  this  with  caution,  as 
the  tannic  acid  attracts  iron. 

8.  Carbonate  of  soda. 

9.  Slippery  elm  bark. 

10.  Chloride  of  tin. 

11.  Spent  tanners'  bark. 

12.  Frequent  blowing  off. 
Brightening  and    Colouring 

Brass.— The  work  to  be  briglitened 
and  coloured  is  first  annealed  in  a  red- 
hot  mudle,  or  over  an  o|)en  fire,  allow- 
ing the  cooling  to  extend  over  one  hour; 
th--  object  of  the  he.iting  being  to  re- 
move the  grease  or  dirt  that  may  have 
accumulated  during  I  lie  process  of  fit- 
ting. Soft  soldereil  work,  however,  must 
be  annealed  before  fitted  together,  and 
afterwards  boiled  iu  a  lye  of  potash  ; 
this  is  also  done  with  work  having oina- 
mental  surfaces.  Next,  it  is  immer.sed 
in  a  bath  of  diluted  oil  of  vitriol  or 
aquaforti.s,  which  may  be  made  with 
two  or  three  jKirts  of  water,  and  one  of 
acid  ;  but  the  old  acid  that  contains  u 
small  quantify  of  copper,  in  solution,  is 


VrOUKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


1? 


frequently  preferred.  The  work  is 
allowed  to  remain  in  this  liquid  for  one 
or  two  hours,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  acid  ;  it  is  then  well  rinsed  in 
water,  and  scoured  with  sand,  which  is 
applied  with  an  ordinary  scrubbing 
brush,  and  washed.  The  pickling  bath 
IS  made  by  dissolving  one  part  of  zinc 
in  three  parts  of  nitric  acid  of  ?){j° 
iiaume,  in  a  porcelain  vessel,  and  adding 
a  mixture  of  eight  j>arts  of  nitric  acid, 
and  eight  parts  of  oil  of  vitriol.  Heat 
is  then  applied,  and  when  the  liquid  is 
boiling  the  work  is  plunged  into  it  for 
half  a  minute,  or  until  the  violent  de- 
velojiment  of  nitrous  vapour  ceases,  and 
the  surface  is  getting  uniform.  Then 
it  is  plunged  into  clean  water,  and  well 
rinsed,  to  remove  the  acid.  The  ordi- 
nary, dark  greyish,  yellow  tint,  which 
/  is  thus  very  often  produced,  is  removed 
on  immersing  the  work  again  in  aqua- 
fortis for  a  very  short  time.  Then  it  is 
plunged  into  clean  or  slightly  alkaline 
water,  well  rinsed  to  remove  the  acid, 
tnd  plunged  into  warm  dr}'  beech  or 
li-jxwood  saw-dust,  and  rubbed  until 
quite  dry.  To  prevent  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere  it  is  lacquered ;  if  a 
green  tint  is  to  be  produceii,  the  lacquer 
is  coloured  with  turmeric.  A  dark, 
greyish,  but  agreeable  tint,  is  obtained 
by  immersing  the  work  previously  in  a 
solution  of  white  arsenic  in  hydrochloric 
acid,  or  in  a  solution  of  bichloride  of 
platinum,  under  addition  of  some  vine- 
gar, or  rubbing  with  plumbago. 

Eronze  for  Statuary.— 1.  Cop- 
per, 88  parts ;  tin,  9  parts ;  zinc,  2 
parts ;  lead,  1  part.  2.  Co]>per,  8Si 
parts  ;  tin,  5  parts  ;  zinc,  10|  parts ; 
lead,  2  parts.  3.  Copper,  90  parts ; 
tin,  9  parts ;  lead,  1  part.  4.  Copper, 
91  parts  ;  tin,  9  parts. 

Fur  Medals. — 1.  Copper,  89  parts ; 
tin,  8  parts  ;  zinc,  3  parts.  2.  Copper, 
95  parts  ;  tin,  5  parts. 

For  Cutting  Indruments.  —  Copper, 
100  parts  ;  tin,  14  parts. 

For  Ornaments. — 1.  Copper,  82  parts; 
tin,  3  parts;  zinc,  18  parts;  and  lead, 
2  parts.  2.  Copper,  83  parts ;  zinc, 
17  parts  ;  tin,  1  part ;  lead,  J  part. 

Bronze  Liquid. — Take  1  pint  of 


strong  vinegar,  1  oz.  of  sal  ammoniac, 
^  oz.  of  alum,  J  oz.  of  arsenic ;  dissolve 
them  in  the  vinegar,  and  the  compound 
is  fit  for  use.  We  know  brass-founders 
who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  using  this 
for  several  years,  and,  where  the  metal 
is  good,  it  is  seldom  found  to  fail. 

Bronze  Poisrders,  Aurum  Musv- 
viim. — llelt  together,  in  a  crucible  over 
a  clear  fire,  equal  parts  of  sulphur  and 
the  white  oxide  of  tin.  Keep  them 
continually  stirred  with  the  stem  of  an 
earthenware  pipe  or  glass  rod,  till  they 
assume  the  appearance  of  a  yellow  flaky 
powder. 

An  iron  rod  must  not  be  used  in  stir- 
ring up  any  mixture  of  sulphur  when 
melted,  or  the  sulphur  and  iron  will 
unite.  Aurum  Mitsivum,  or  2Iosaic  Gold, 
is  used  as  a  cheap  bronze  powder.  It  is 
rubbed  on  with  the  finger.  Another 
way  to  prepare  it  is  to  take  quicksilver, 
tin,  sulphur,  and  sal  ammoniac,  equal 
parts.  First  melt  the  tin,  then  pour 
the  quicksilver  into  it,  afterwards  grind 
up  with  the  amalgam  thus  made  the 
sulphur  and  sal  ammoniac.  Place  the 
mi.xture  in  a  crucible,  and  heat  until  the 
powder  in  the  crucible  becomes  gold- 
coloured,  and  also  until  no  fumes  of 
quicksilver  arise. 

Coijper-coloured  Eronze  may 
bs  obtained  by  dissolving  copper  in 
aquafortis  until  it  is  saturated,  and  tliru 
putting  into  the  solution  some  sm;  11 
pieces  of  irjn,  when  the  copper  will  be 
precipitated  in  the  metallic  state;  the 
fluid  must  then  be  poured  olf,  and  the 
powder  carefully  washed,  dried,  and 
levigated,  when  it  may  be  put  by  for 
use. 

Bronze  powder  is  sometimes  made 
from  Dutch  gold,  which  is  sold  in  books 
at  a  very  low  price.  All  these  mferior 
bronzes  require  to  be  covered  with  a 
coat  of  clear  varnish,  or  they  will  very 
soon  lose  their  metallic  appearance,  nor 
will  the  varnish  entirely  prevent,  al- 
though it  will  greatly  retard,  this 
change. 

Cheap  Bronze. — Verdigris,  8  oz. ; 
flowers  of  zinc  or  tutti  powder,  4  oz. ; 
borax  and  nitre,  of  each  2  oz. ;  corrosive 
sublimate,  2  drachms  ,  made  into  a  past* 


/"     ^ 


18 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


jFith  oil,  and  rueltal  together.  Used  in 
>he  commoner  kinds  of  tea-boards,  &c. 

Silver  Bronze. — Bismuth  :ind  tin, 
of  each  2  lbs.;  melt  together  and  add 
1  lb.  of  quicks  Jver.  Pound  all  together 
into  a  powder. 

This  soft  fusible  amalgam  is  used  as 
nn  imitation  of  silver  bronze  for  plaster 
llg~u-es  and  other  common  purposes,  in 
the  same  way  as  the  a -rum  musivum  is 
for  gold-coloured  articles.  It  may  be 
used  as  spangles  in  sealing-wax ;  it 
must  then  be  mixed  when  the  resinous 
jiart  of  the  wax  is  getting  cold. 

Gold  Powder  for  Bronzing-. — 
Leaf  gold  is  ground  with  Virgin  honey 
)n  a  stone,  until  the  leaves  are  broken 
jp  and  minutely  divided.  The  mix- 
vUre  is  removed  from  the  stone  by  a 
ripatula,  and  stirred  up  in  a  basin  of 
water,  whereby  the  honey  is  melted 
and  the  gold  set  free ;  the  basin  is  then 
left  undisturbed  until  the  gold  subsides; 
the  water  is  poured  off,  and  fresh  quan- 
tities added  until  the  honey  is  entirely 
washed  away  ;  after  which  the  gold  is 
collected  on  filtering  paper,  and  dried 
for  use. 

Gold  Size  is  prepared  from  |  lb. 
of  linseed  oil  with  2  oz.  of  gum  animi ; 
the  latter  is  reduced  to  powder  and 
gradually  added  to  the  oil  while  being 
heated  in  a  fl.isk,  stirring  it  after  every 
addition  until  the  whole  is  dissolved  ; 
the  mixture  is  boiled  until  a  small 
quantity,  when  taken  out,  is  somewhat 
thicker  than  tar,  and  the  whole  is 
strained  through  a  coarse  cloth.  When 
Used,  it  must  be  ground  with  as  much 
vermilion  as  will  render  it  ojiaque,  and 
at  the  same  time  be  diluted  with  oil  of 
tui-pentine,  so  as  to  make  it  work  freely 
with  the  jienril. 

Bronzing  Plaster.  —  Lay  the 
figure  over  with  isinglass  size,  until  it 
holds  out,  or  without  any  part  of  its 
surface  becoming  dry ;  then,  with  a 
brush,  such  as  is  termed  by  painters  a 
«a.sh  tool,  go  over  tlic  whole,  taking  care 
to  remove,  while  it  is  yet  soil,  any  of 
the  »ize  that  may  loiige  on  the  delicate 
p:irt(i  of  the  figure.  When  it  is  dry 
take  a  little  very  thin  oil  </otd  size,  an  I 
with  as  much  as  just  damps  the  brush, 


go  over  the  figure  with  it,  allowing  no 
more  to  remain  than  causes  it  to  shine. 
Set  it  aside  in  a  dry  place  free  from 
smoke,  and  in  forty-eight  hours  the  figure 
is  jirepared  to  receive  the  bronze. 

After  having  touched  over  the  whole 
figure  with  the  bronze  powder,  let  it 
stand  another  day,  and  then  with  a  soft 
dry  brush  rub  olT  all  the  loose  powder, 
particularly  from  the  jjoiiits,  or  more 
prominent  parts  of  the  figure. 

Bronzing  Wood. — The  wood  is 
first  covered  with  a  uniform  coating  of 
glue,  or  of  drying  oil,  and  when  nearly 
dry  the  bronze  powder,  contained  in  a 
small  bag,  is  dusted  over  it.  The  sur- 
face of  the  objects  is  afterwards  rubbed 
with  a  piece  of  moist  rag.  Or  the 
bronze  powder  may  be  previously  mixed 
with  the  drying  oil,  and  applied  with  a 
brush. 

Bronzing  Paper. — Gum  is  sub- 
stituted for  diving  oil  in  brou/.ing  ]i:iper 
When  dry,  the  |iuper  is  submitted  to  th« 
action  of  the  burnisher,  which  imparts 
great  brilliancy  to  it. 

Bronzing  small  Brass  Arti- 
cles.— 1  part  oxide  of  iron,  1  part 
white  arsenic,  12  parts  hydrochloric 
acid.  Clean  the  brass  well  to  get  rid 
of  lacquer  or  grease,  and  apply  with  a 
brush  until  the  desired  colour  is  ob- 
tained. Stop  the  process  by  oiling  well, 
when  it  may  be  vnrnished  or  clear  lac- 
quered. 

Bronzing  Gas  Fittings. — Boil 
the  work  in  strong  ley,  and  scour  it 
free  from  all  grease  or  old  lacquer; 
pickle  it  in  diluted  nitric  acid  till  it  is 
quite  clean  (not  bright),  then  dip  in 
strong  acid,  and  rinse  through  four  or 
five  waters;  repeat  the  dij),  if  necessary, 
till  it  is  bright;  next  bind  it  very  loose 
with  some  thin  iron  wire,  and  lav  it  in 
the  strongest  of  the  waters  you  have 
used  for  rinsing.  This  will  deposit  a 
coat  of  cop])er  all  over  it  if  the  water 
or  pickle  be  not  too  strong;  if  such  is 
the  case  the  copper  will  only  be  depo- 
sited just  round  where  the  wire  touches. 
When  the  topper  is  of  sutlicient  fhirk- 
ness  wash  it  again  through  the  wat-Ts, 
and  dry  it  with  a  brush  in  some  hot 
saw-dust;  box-dust  is  best,  but  if  this  is 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


19 


not  at  hand,  oak,  ash,  or  beech  will  do. 
It  is  now  ready  for  bronzing.  The 
bronze  is  a  mixture  of  black-lead  and 
red  bronze,  varied  according  to  shade 
required,  mixed  with  boiling  water. 
The  work  is  to  be  painted  over  with 
this  and  dried,  then  brushed  until  it 
polishes.  If  there  are  any  black  spots 
or  rings  on  the  work,  another  coat  of 
the  bronze  will  remove  them.  Lacquer 
the  work  with  pale  lacquer,  or  but  very 
slightly  coloured,  for  if  it  is  too  deep  it 
will  soon  chip  off. 

Another  method  is  to  mix  vinegar  or 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  (1  acid  12  ^.vater) 
with  powdered  black-lead  in  a  saucer  or 
open  vessel ;  apply  this  to  the  brass  with 
a  soft  plate  brush  by  gentle  brushing. 
This  will  soon  assume  a  polish,  and  is  lit 
for  lacquering.  The  brass  must  be  made 
slightly  warmer  than  for  lacquering 
only.  A  little  practice  will  enable  the 
operator  to  bronze  and  lacquer  with 
once  heating.  The  colour,  black  or 
green,  varies  with  the  thickness  of 
black-lead. 

Green  Bronze.— Dissolve  2  02.  of 
nitrate  of  iron,  and  2  oz.  of  hyposulphite 
of  soda  in  1  pint  of  water.  Immerse 
the  articles  in  the  bronze  till  of  the 
required  tint,  as  almost  any  shade  from 
brown  to  red  can  be  obtained  ;  then  well 
wash  with  water,  dry,  and  brush.  One 
part  of  perchloride  of  iron  and  two  parts 
of  water  mixed  together,  and  the  brass 
immersed  in  the  liquid,  gives  a  pale  or 
deep  olive  green,  according  to  the  time 
of  immersion.  H  nitric  acid  is  saturated 
with  copper,  and  the  brass  dipped  in  the 
liquid,  and  then  heated,  it  assumes  a 
dark  green.  If  well  brushed,  it  may  be 
lacquered  with  pale  gold  lacquer,  or  else 
polished  with  oil. 

Black  Brasswork  for  Instru- 
ments.—  Take  lampblack,  about  a 
thimbleful,  and  put  it  on  a  flat  stone 
or  smooth  slate  ;  add  four  or  five  spots 
of  gold  size,  and  well  mix  with  a  palette 
kni'ae,  make  the  whole  about  as  thick  as 
putty;  well  mis.  The  less  gold  size 
there  is  the  better,  so  that  the  lamp- 
black just  sticks  together ;  if  too  much 
gild  size  be  added,  the  eftect  will  be  a 
bright  black  aad  not  a  dead  black.     Now 


add  turpentine,  about  twice  its  own 
volume,  to  the  whole,  mix  with  a 
camel-hair  brush,  and  apply  to  the 
brasswork. 

Black  Bronze  for  Brass. — Dip 
the  article  bright  in  aquafortjs ;  rinse 
the  acid  off  with  clean  water,  and  place 
it  in  the  following  mixture  until  it 
turns  black  : — Hydrochloric  acid,  12  lbs.; 
sulphate  of  iron,  1  lb. ;  and  pure  white 
arsenic,  1  lb.  It  is  then  taken  out, 
rinsed  in  clean  water,  dried  in  saw-dust, 
polished  with  black-lead,  and  then  lac- 
quered with  green  lacquer. 

Bronzing  Iron. — To  one  pint  of 
methylated  finish  add  4  oz.  of  gum  shel- 
lac and  ^  oz.  gum  benzoin ;  put  the 
bottle  in  a  warm  place,  shaking  it  occa- 
sionally. When  the  gum  is  dissolved  let 
it  stand  in  a  cool  place  two  or  three  days 
to  settle,  then  gently  pour  ofi"  the  clear 
into  another  bottle,  cork  it  well,  and  keep 
it  for  finest  work.  The  sediment  left  in 
the  first  bottle,  by  adding  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  spirit  to  make  it  workable, 
will  do  for  the  first  coat  or  coarser  work 
when  strained  through  a  fine  cloth. 
Next  get  §  lb.  of  finely-ground  bronze 
green,  the  shade  may  be  varied  by  using 
a  little  lampblack,  red  ochre,  or  yellow 
ochre  ;  let  the  iron  be  clean  and  smooth, 
then  take  as  much  varnish  as  may  be 
required,  and  add  to  the  green  colour  iu 
sufficient  quantity ;  slightly  warm  the 
article  to  be  bronzed,  and  with  a  soft 
brush  lay  a  thin  coa*  on  it.  When 
that  is  dry,  if  necessary  lay  another  coa'., 
on,  and  repeat  until  well  covered.  Take 
a  small  quantity  of  the  varnish  and 
touch  the  prominent  parts  with  it ;  be- 
fore it  is  dry,  with  a  dry  pencil  lay  on  a 
small  quantity  of  gold  powder.  Varnish 
over  all. 

Bronzing-  Copper  Utensils. — 
If  the  article  is  not  new  take  it  to 
pieces,  wiping  off  all  the  solder  with  a 
wisp  of  tow,  and  taking  care  not  to  let 
any  of  the  metal  in  the  fire ;  then  twif  I 
a  little  tow  on  the  end  of  a  stick,  and 
pickle  with  spirits  of  salts  all  those 
parts  that  are  tinned,  pickling  the  out- 
side as  well  as  the  in,  rinse  in  water, 
anil  scour  outside  with  wisji  of  tow  and 
sand,   fine    coke-dust    is    best    for  the 

o2 


20 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


tjaned  parts,  which  must  be  brought 
quite  clean,  rinse  clean,  srasar  the  out- 
side with  wet  whitinT,  and  then  tin 
with  bar  tin,  sal  ammoniac  being  the 
best  agent ;  then  pickle  only  the  outside 
with  diluted  spirits  of  salts,  rinse,  and 
scour  with  clean  sand  till  the  surfoce  is 
perfectly  clean  and  bright,  taking  care 
to  rub  as  much  as  possible  in  one 
direction.  The  cast  parts  and  those  not 
tinned  are  pickled  in  dilute  oil  of  vitriol, 
and  scoured  with  sand,  same  as  the 
body  ;  beat  with  a  brush,  then  dried  in 
saw-dust,  and  the  article  is  now  ready 
for  bronzing.  Procure  some  crocus,  some 
knowledge  is  wanted  to  select  a  good  one, 
as  it  may  be  too  light,  or  too  dark,  or 
too  fine,  or  too  coarse ;  then  make  into  a 
thick  cream  with  water.  Havmg  used 
a  forge  fire  to  tin  with,  to  be  on  the 
safe  side  it  is  best  to  rake  out  all  the 
old  coke  and  light  afresh,  and  the  coke 
should  be  a  nice,  clear,  firm,  grey  ore, 
in  pieces  the  size  of  a  walnut ;  also  have 
some  clear  bright  coal,  then  blow  up  a 
clear  bright  tire,  and  heap  up  plenty  of 
coke  that  the  sulphur  may  burn  off; 
now  take  a  little  of  the  mixed  crocus 
and  brush  up  the  body,  using  a  hard 
brush  ;  get  all  the  crocus  off  clean,  and 
■wipe  with  a  clean  piece  of  rag,  and  it  is 
best  to  hold  with  this,  as  the  perspiration 
of  the  hand  will  prevent  the  colour  tak- 
ing ;  now  blow  up  fire,  making  a  hole 
in  centre,  so  that  a  good  blast  comes  up, 
and  having  painted  the  bocly  evenly  witli 
the  red  cream  so  that  the  colour  does 
•not  run  (a  flat  camel-hair  brush,  2  J  inches 
wide,  is  the  best  thing  to  do  it  with), 
hold  it  with  the  tongs  and  turn  it 
steadily  so  that  all  parts  are  exposed 
fairly  to  the  blast.  As  soon  as  it  is  dry, 
tlirow  into  tlie  fire  a  bit  of  coal  about 
the  size  of  a  Spanish  nut,  more  or  less 
to  size  of  work,  and  let  the  work  liave 
an  even  coat  of  smoke  till  it  is  quite 
black,  but  no  more  (if  tlio  coal  is  not 
burnt  out  hold  tlie  work  on  one  sidi'), 
then  turning  it  steadily,  keep  up  a  sliaip 
blaiit  till  the  smoke  is  burnt  off,  and 
stand  it  to  cool.  Treat  cast  parts  the 
aame,  out  as  soon  as  the  smoke  is  burnt 
off,  dip  them  into  clean  cold  water,  else, 
oa  accouu'  oi  their  thickness  the  colour 


will  burn ;  when  cold,  wipe  the  crocxis 
off  the  body  with  wisp  cf  clean  tow, 
then  brush  hard  till  quite  clean,  wipe 
with  rag  and  repeat  the  above  once  or 
twice,  according  to  the  shade  required. 
To  finish  properly  the  body  is  liam- 
mered  all  over  with  bright  hammers 
shaped  to  parts,  and  on  suitable  tools 
which  are  covered  with  two  or  three 
folds  of  lasting ;  the  inside  is  scoured 
bright,  and  the  parts  soldered  together, 
using  resin.  Jledals  only  want  blushing 
up  with  wet  crocus,  taking  care  not  to 
touch  with  hand,  and  then  colouring  as 
above.  Only  copper  coins  can  be  so 
bronzed. 

Copper  Articles  may  also  be  bronzed 
by  the  following  process : — Dissolve  in 
vinegar  two  parts  verdigris  and  one  part 
sal  ammoniac.  Boil,  skim,  and  dilute 
with  water,  until  white  precipitate 
ceases  to  fall.  Set  in  a  pan  meanwhile 
the  articles  to  be  bronzed,  made  per- 
fectly clean  and  free  from  grease.  Boil 
solution  briskly  and  pour  over  the  ar- 
ticles in  the  pan  and  boil  them  briskly. 
A  bright  reddish-brown  colour  is  thus 
acquired ;  but  the  articles  should  be 
frequently  inspected,  and  removed  as 
quickly  as  the  desired  shade  is  obtained. 
Then  they  are  to  be  repeatedly  washed 
and  dried.  The  solution  must  not  be 
too  strong,  for  then  the  bronze  will  come 
off  by  friction,  or  turn  green  on  expo- 
sure to  the  air. 

To  Bronze  Electrotypes, 
Green.  —  Steep  the  medal  or  figure  in 
a  strong  solution  of  common  salt  or 
sugar,  or  sal  ammoniac,  for  a  few  days, 
wash  in  water  and  allow  to  dry  slowly, 
or  suspend  over  a  vessel  containing  a 
small  quantity  of  bleaching  powder,  and 
cover  over — the  length  of  time  it  is 
allowed  to  remain  will  determine  the 
depth  of  the  colour. 

Brown. — Four  or  five  drops  of  nitric 
acid  to  a  wine-glassful  of  water,  and 
allowed  to  dry,  ami  wiien  dry  inijiart  to 
the  olijccta  gradual  and  equal  lieat ;  thf 
surface  will  be  darkened  in  propojiiou 
to  the  heat  np|ilicd. 

Black. —  Wash  th»  surface  of  t.h« 
object  over  with  a  little  6uli>hurato  of 
ammonia  (dilute),  and  dry  at  a  gentle 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


21 


heat,  polish  with  a   hard  brush  aftsr- 
varJs. 

Browning  Gun  Barrels. — Chlo- 
ride of  antimony  has  been  much  used  for 
bronzing  gun  barrels,  is  excellent  in  its 
operation,  and  has  been  called,  in  conse- 
quence, bronzing  salt.  It  is  used  for 
bronzing,  mixed  to  a  thin  creamy  con- 
sistence with  olive  oil ;  the  iron  is  slightly 
heated,  dressed  evenly  upon  its  surface 
with  this  mixture,  and  left  until  the  re- 
quisite degree  of  browning  is  produced. 
The  sharpening  of  the  chloride  of  anti- 
mony can  be  etfected  by  adding  a  little 
nitric  acid  tc  the  paste  of  olive  oil  and 
chloride  of  antimony,  so  as  to  hasten  the 
operation.  Another  formula  is — Aqua- 
fortis, I  oz. ;  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  J  oz. ; 
spirit  of  wine,  1  oz. ;  blue  vitriol,  2  oz. ; 
tincture  of  chloride  of  iron,  1  oz. ; 
water,  40  oz.  Dissolve  the  blue  vitriol 
in  the  water,  then  add  the  other  ma- 
terials, and  the  water  is  warmed  to  dis- 
solve the  blue  vitriol  ;  let  it  get  cold 
before  adding  the  other  materials.  The 
burnishing  and  marking  can  be  effected 
with  the  burnisher  and  scratch  brush. 
The  polishing  is  best  effected  by  rub- 
bing with  a  piece  of  smooth,  hard  wood, 
called  polishing  wood.  It  is  lastly  var- 
nished with  shellac  varnish,  and  again 
polished  with  the  hard  wood  polisher. 
Some  prefer  the  tone  of  brown  produced 
by  blue  vitriol,  1  oz. ;  sweet  spirit  of 
nitre,  1  oz. ;  water,  20  oz.  In  any  case, 
the  surface  of  the  iron  must  be  well 
cleaned,  and  rendered  quite  bright ;  it  is 
then  freed  from  grease  by  rubbing  with 
whiting  and  water,  or  better,  with 
powdered  quicklime  and  water.  The 
browning  composition  is  then  placed  on, 
and  allowed  to  remain  twenty-four 
hours.  It  is  then  rubbed  off  with  a  stiff 
brush.  If  not  sufficiently  browned,  re- 
peat the  last  process  after  browning. 
Clean  the  surface  well  with  hot  water 
containing  a  little  soda  or  potash,  and, 
lastly,  with  boiling  water,  and  dry  it. 
The  surface  can  be  burnished  and  po- 
lished. Varnish  with  tinsmith's  lacquer, 
or  with  gum  shellac,  2  oz. ;  dragon's 
blood,  3  drs. ;  methylated  spirits  of  wine, 
4-  pints.  The  metal  should  be  made  hot 
before  applying  this  varnish,  and  will 


present  an  excellent  appearance.  If  the 
varnish  is  not  required  to  colour,  but 
only  to  preserve  the  actual  tint  pro» 
duced  on  the  metal  surface  by  the  brown- 
ing fluid,  leave  out  the  dragon's  blood. 

Catgut,  To  Make.  — Take  the 
entrails  of  sheep,  or  any  other  animal, 
procured  from  the  newly-killed  carcass. 
Thoroughly  clean  them  from  all  im- 
purities and  from  attached  fat,  and  wash 
them  well  in  clean  water ;  soak  in  soft 
water  for  two  days,  or  in  winter  three 
days,  then  lay  them  on  a  table  and  scrape 
them  with  a  small  plate  of  copper,  hav- 
ing a  semicircular  hole  cut  in  it,  the 
edges  of  which  must  be  quite  smooth 
and  not  capable  of  cutting.  Now,  after 
washing,  put  them  into  fresh  water,  and 
there  let  them  remain  till  the  next  day, 
when  they  are  again  to  be  scraped.  Let 
them  soak  again  in  water  for  a  night, 
and  two  or  three  hours  before  they  are 
taken  out  add  to  each  gallon  of  water 
2  oz.  of  pearlash.  They  ought  now  to 
scrape  quite  clean  from  their  inner 
mucous  coat,  and  will  consequently  be 
much  smaller  in  dimensions  than  at  first. 
They  may  now  be  wiped  dry,  slightly 
twisted,  and  passed  through  a  hole  in  a 
piece  of  brass,  to  equalize  their  size  ;  as 
they  dry,  they  are  passed  every  two  or 
three  hours  through  other  holes,  each 
smaller  than  the  last.  When  dry  they 
will  be  round  and  well  polished,  and 
being  oiled  are  fit  for  use. 

Cameosy  To  Carve. — Take  the 
common  helmet,  or  the  red  helmet  shell 
(those  shells  whose  inner  surface  is  pink 
or  dark  coloured  are  most  suitable),  cut 
them  into  squares  with  a  lapidary's  mill, 
round  off  the  corners,  and  shape  them 
into  an  oval  on  a  wet  grindstone.  Fix  the 
enamel  side  on  a  short  stick  with  jewel- 
ler's cement,  grind  off  the  brittle  surface, 
sketch  the  subject  with  a  black-lead 
pencil,  cut  the  subject  with  engraver's 
tools,  namely,  a  chisel  tool  to  clear  the 
bare  places  ;  a  lozenge-shape  for  forming 
the  subject,  and  a  scraper,  made  of  a 
three-angled  file,  ground  off  taper  to  the 
point,  for  cleaning  the  enamel  surface 
round  the  subject,  and  also  for  forming 
the  lineaments  and  other  delicate  parts 
The  colour  on  the  cheeks  and  hair  is 


22 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


produced  by  leaying  the  layer  of  coloured 
shell  on  those  places.  The  stick  must 
be  grispeJ  in  the  left  hand,  and  held 
firmly  against  a  steady  bench,  and  with 
the  tool  resting  in  the  hollow  of  the 
right  hand,  dig  away  the  shell.  A  con- 
venient length  for  the  tools  is  three 
inches  and  a  half;  they  must  be  kept  in 
good  condition  to  work  with  accuracy. 
The  cameos  are  polished  with  a  cedar 
stick,  or  a  piece  of  cork  dipped  in  oil  of 
vitriol  and  putty  powder,  and  cleaned 
with  soap  and  water.  Mother-of-pearl 
is  carved  in  the  same  way. 

Cements,  How  to  Use. — Take 
as  small  a  quantity  of  the  cement  as 
possible,  and  bring  the  cement  itself  into 
intimate  contact  with  the  surfaces  to  be 
united.  If  glue  is  employed,  the  surface 
should  be  made  so  warm  that  the  melted 
glue  is  not  chilled  before  it  has  time  to 
effect  a  thorough  adhesion.  Cements 
that  are  used  in  a  fused  state,  as  resin  or 
shellac,  will  not  adhere  unless  the  parts 
to  be  jomed  are  heated  to  the  fusing 
point  of  the  cement.  Sealing-wax,  or 
ordinary  electrical  cement,  is  a  good 
agent  for  uniting  metal  to  glass  or  stone, 
provided  the  masses  to  be  united  are 
made  so  hot  as  to  fuse  the  cement,  but 
if  the  cement  is  applied  to  them  while 
they  are  cold  it  will  not  stick  at  all. 
This  fact  is  well  known  to  the  itinerant 
vendors  of  cement  for  uniting  earthen- 
ware. By  he;iting  two  pieces  of  china 
or  earthenware  so  that  they  will  fuse 
shellac,  they  are  able  to  smear  them  with 
a  little  of  this  gum,  and  join  the  pieces 
^o  that  they  will  rather  break  at  any 
other  part  than  along  the  line  of  union. 
But  although  people  constantly  see  the 
operation  performed,  and  buy  liberally 
of  the  cement,  it  will  be  found  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  that  the  cement  proves 
worthless  in  the  hands  of  the  purchasers, 
simjily  because  they  do  not  know  how  to 
use  it.  They  are  afraid  to  heat  a  delicate 
glass  or  porcelain  vessel  to  a  suflicient 
degree,  or  they  are  apt  to  use  too  much  of 
the  material,  and  the  result  is  a  failure. 

Cement  for  Aquariums.  - 1. 
Take  1  gill  of  plaster  of  Paris,  1  gill  of 
litharge,  1  gill  of  fine  white  sand,  -J  of  a 
gill  of  finely-powdered  resin.     Mix  well, 


and  bottle  and  cork  it  until  wanted  for 
use,  then  mix  it  with  boiled  oil  and 
dryers  until  as  thick  as  putty.  Mix  the 
cement  only  in  small  quantities,  as  it 
dries  quickly.  2.  Mix  boiled  linseed  oil, 
litharge,  red  and  white  lead  together, 
using  white-lead  in  the  largest  propor- 
tion, spread  on  flannel,  and  place  on  the 
joints.  3.  A  solution  of  glue,  8  oz.  to 
1  oz.  of  Venice  turpentine ;  boil  together, 
agitating  all  the  time,  until  the  mixture 
becomes  as  complete  as  possible,  the 
joints  to  be  cemented  to  be  kept  together 
for  forty-eight  hours  if  required.  4.  Take 
h  a  gill  of  gold  size,  2  gills  of  red-lead, 
1^  gill  of  litharge,  and  suliicient  silver- 
sand  to  make  it  into  a  thick  paste  for 
use.  This  mixture  sets  in  about  two  days. 

Armenian,  or  Jeweller's  Ce- 
ment.— Dissolve  5  or  6  bits  of  gum 
mastic  the  size  of  a  large  pea,  in  as  much 
spirits  ofwineaswill  suffice  to  render 
it  liquid ;  in  a  separate  vessel  dissolve  as 
much  isinglass  (previously  softened  in 
water,  though  none  of  the  water  must 
be  used)  in  rum,  or  other  spirit,  as  will 
make  a  2-oz.  phial  of  very  strong  glue, 
adding  two  small  pieces  of  gum  ammo- 
niacum,  which  mast  be  rubbed  or  ground 
till  they  are  dissolved ;  then  mix  the 
whole  with  a  sufficient  heat.  Keep  it  in 
a  phial  closely  stojiped,  and  when  it  is 
to  be  used,  set  the  phial  in  boiling 
water.  The  preceding  is  also  eflectual 
in  uniting  almost  all  substances,  even 
glass,  to  polished  steel. 

Acid  Proof  Cement. — Make  a 
concentrated  solutiun  of  silicate  of  soda, 
and  form  a  paste  with  powdered  glass. 
This  simple  mixture  will  sometimes  be 
found  invaluable  in  the  operations  of  the 
laboratory  where  a  luting  is  required  to 
resist  the  action  of  acid  fumes. 

Cutler's  Cement.  —  1.  Resin,  4 
]>arts,  to  1  part  beeswax  and  1  part  of 
brick-dust,  or  jdaster  of  Paris.  2.  Six- 
teen parts  resin,  1(5  hot  whiting,  and  1 
wax.  .3.  Pitch,  4  parts  ;  resin,  4  ;  tal- 
low, 2  ;  an<l  brick-dust,  2.  The  opening 
for  the  blade  is  filled  with  one  of  these 
rompositious.  The  lower  end  of  the  irca 
heated  anil  pressed  in. 

Cement  for  Bottle-Corks.  — 
The    bituminous   or   black    cement    for 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


23 


btttle-corks  consists  of  pitch  hardeued 
by  the  addition  of  resin  and  brick-dust. 

Cement  for  Ivory,  or  Mother- 
of-Pearl. — Dissolve  1  part  of  isinglass 
and  2  of  white  glue  in  30  of  water,  strain 
and  evaporate  to  6  parts.  Add  -^th  part 
of  gum  mastic,  dissolved  in  ^  a  part  of 
alcohol,  add  1  part  of  ziuc  white.  When 
required  for  use,  warm  and  shake  up. 

Cement  for  Jet. — Shellac  is  the 
only  cement  used  by  jewellers  for  jet 
articles.  The  broken  edges  should  be 
made  warm  before  applying  the  cement. 
Should  the  join  be  in  sight,  by  smoking 
the  shellac  before  applying  it,  it  will  be 
rendered  the  same  colour  as  the  je'' 
itself. 

Cement  for  Meerschaum,  — 
Take  some  garlic  and  crush  it,  in  order 
to  form  a  kind  of  dough,  rub  over  the 
broken  pieces  of  Meerschaum  with  it  and 
reunite  them  by  drawing  very  closeh', 
bind  them  with  iron  wire  according  to 
the  strength  of  the  pieces,  and  finally 
make  them  boil  during  half  an  hour  in  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  milk.  Or  use 
quicklime  mixed  to  a  thick  cream  with 
the  white  of  an  egg.  These  cements  will 
also  unite  glass  or  china. 

Plumber's  Cement. — Black  resin, 
1  part ;  brick-dust,  2  parts  ;  well  incor- 
porated by  a  melting  heat. 

Turner's  Cement.— 1.  Take  of 
Burgundy  pitch,  2  lbs. ;  of  resin,  2  lbs. ; 
of  yellow  wax,  2  oz.  ;  and  of  dried 
whiting,  2  lbs. :  melt  and  mix.  2. 
Black  resin,  J  lb.  ;  yellow  wax,  1  oz. ; 
melt  together,  and  pour  into  a  tin 
caaister.  When  wanted  for  use,  chip 
out  as  much  as  will  cover  the  chuck 
to  the  ^igth  of  an  inch,  spraad  it  over 
the  surface  iu  small  pieces,  mixing  it 
with  an  eighth  of  its  bulk  of  gutta- 
percha in  thin  slices ;  then  heat  an  iron 
to  a  dull  red  heat,  and  hold  it  over  the 
chuck  till  the  mixture  and  gutta 
are  melted  and  liquid  ;  coil  the  iron  a 
little,  and  with  it  stir  the  cement  until 
it  is  homogeneous ;  chuck  the  work, 
lay  on  a  weight  to  enforce  contact,  leave 
It  at  rest  for  half  an  hour,  when  it  will 
be  ready  for  the  lathe.  3.  Four  parts  resin 
Kelted  with  1  part  pitch ;  while  these 
Hre  boiling  add  brick-dust  until  by  drop- 


ping a  little  upon  a  cold  stone  you  think 
it  hard  enough. 

Indianite  Cement. — 1.  100 
parts  finely-chopped  rubber,  15  resin, 
10  shellac,  dissolved  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  bisulphide  of  carbon.  Usea 
for  uniting  pieces  of  india-rubber.  2. 
India-rubber,  15  grs. ;  chloroform,  2  oz. ; 
mastic,  |  oz.  The  two  first-named  to 
be  mixed,  and  after  the  rubber  is  dis- 
solved add  the  mastic  in  powder  ;  allow 
to  macerate  for  a  week. 

Cheap  India-rubber  Cement. 
— Cut  virgin  or  native  india-rubber  with 
a  wet  knife  into  the  thinnest  possible 
slices,  and  with  shears  divide  these  into 
threads  as  fine  as  fine  yarn.  Put  a 
small  quantity  of  the  shreds  (say  i\,th 
or  less  of  the  capacity  of  the  bottle) 
into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and  fill  it 
three-quarters  full  with  benzine  of  good 
quality,  perfectly  free  from  oil.  The 
rubber  will  swell  up  almost  immediately, 
and  in  a  few  days,  especially  if  often 
shaken,  assume  the  consistence  of  honey. 
If  it  incline  to  remain  in  undissolved 
masses,  more  benzine  must  be  added  ; 
but  if  too  thin  and  watery  it  needs  more 
rubber.  A  piece  of  solid  rubber  the  size 
of  a  walnut  will  make  a  pint  of  the 
cement. 

This  cement  dries  in  a  few  minutes, 
and  by  using  three  coats  in  the  usual 
manner,  will  unite  leather  straps, 
patches,  rubber  soles,  backs  of  books,  &c., 
with  exceeding  firmness. 

Cement,  Elastic. — Bisulphide  of 
carbon,  4  oz. ;  fine  india-rubber  in 
shreds,  1  oz. ;  isinglass,  2  drachms ; 
gutta-percha,  |  oz. ;  dissolve.  Used  for 
cementing  leather  or  india-rubber.  The 
parts  to  be  joined  must  be  coated  thinly 
with  the  solution,  and  allowed  a  few 
mini:tes  to  dry,  then  heat  to  melting ; 
place  the  parts  together  and  well  ham- 
mer the  air  bubbles  out. 

Cement  for  Mounting  Pho- 
tographic Prints.  —  Fine  wheat 
starch,  4  drachms;  beat  into  a  paste 
with  cold  water  1  oz.  of  best  Russian 
glue  ;  dissolve  in  a  pint  of  bctJiag  water  ; 
while  boiling  pour  on  the  starch  ;  put 
the  whole  into  a  saucepan,  and  boil  till 
as  thick  as  treacle.     When  required  for 


24 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


use  a  small  quantity  is  to  be  melted  in 
a  little  warm  water. 

Cement  for  Wood  Vessels 
required  to  be  Water-tight. — 
A  mixture  of  lime-clay  and  oxide  of  iron 
separately  calcined  and  reduced  to  fine 
powder,  then  intimately  mixed,  kept  in 
a  close  vessel,  and  mixed  witli  the  re- 
quisite quantity  of  water  when  used. 

Cement  for  Leather. — A  good 
cement  for  splicing  leatlier  for  straps  is 
gutta-perclia  dissolved  in  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  until  it  is  of  the  thickness  of 
treacle ;  the  parts  to  be  cemented  must 
rirst  be  well  tliinned  down,  then  pour  a 
small  quantity  of  the  cement  on  both 
ends,  spreading  it  well  so  as  to  fill  the 
jioresofthe  leather,  warm  the  parts  over 
a  fire  for  about  half  a  minute,  apply  them 
quickly  together,  and  hammer  well.  The 
bottle  containing  the  cement  should  be 
tightly  corked  and  kept  in  a  cool  place. 

Marble  Cement. — Take  plaster 
of  Paris,  and  soak  it  in  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  alum,  then  bake  in  an  oven,  the 
same  as  gypsum  is  baked  to  make  it 
plaster  of  Paris;  after  which  grind  the 
mixture  to  powder.  It  is  then  used  as 
wanted,  being  mixed  up  with  water  like 
plaster  and  applied.  It  sets  into  a  very 
hard  composition  capable  of  taking  a 
very  high  polish,  and  may  be  mixed 
with  various  colouring  minerals  to  ])ro- 
diice  a  cement  of  any  colour  capable  of 
imitating  marble.  This  cement  is  also 
used  for  attaching  glass  to  metal. 

Impervious  Cement  for  Ap- 
paratus, Corks,  &c. — Zinc  white, 
rubbed  up  with  cojjal  varnish  to  fill  up 
the  indentures  ;  when  dry,  to  be  covered 
with  the  same  mass,  somewliat  thinner  ; 
and  lastly,  with  co]ial  vaiiiisli  alone. 

Chinese  Cement. — Finest  i)ale 
orange  shellac,  broken  small,  4  oz. ; 
rectified  spirit  (the  strongest  5S  o.p.) 
3  oz. ;  digest  together  in  a  corked  bottle 
in  a  warm  jdace  until  dissolved ;  it 
should  have  the  consist fiice  of  trciclo. 
For  wood,  glass,  ivory,  jewellery,  an i  all 
fancy  worKs,  used. 

Cements  for  Cracks  in  Wood. 
—  ,Mak<i  a  paste  of  sl.ukcd  lime,  1  jiart ; 
rye  meal,  '2  part.s ;  with  a  siillicient 
quantity  of  linsocd  o'l.     Or,  dissolve   1 


part  of  glue  in  16  parts  of  water,  an! 
when  almost  cool  stir  in  saw-dust  and 
prepared  chalk  a  sufficient  quantity. 
Or,  oil-varnish  thickened  with  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  white-lead,  red- 
lead,  litharge,  and  chalk. 

Cements  for  Joining  Metals, 
or  Glass  and  Wood. — Melt  resin 
and  stir  in  calcined  plaster  until  reduced 
to  a  paste,  to  which  add  boiled  oil  a 
sufficient  quantity  to  bring  it  to  the 
consistence  of  honey  ;  apjilywarm.  Or, 
melt  resin  180  ]iarts,  and  stir  in  burnt 
umber,  30  ;  calcined  jdaster,  15 ;  and 
boiled  oil,  8  parts.  Or,  dissolve  glue  iu 
boiling  water  to  the  consistence  of 
cabinet-maker's  glue,  then  stir  in  suffi- 
cient wood  ashes  to  produce  a  varnish- 
like mixture.  Wliile  hot,  the  surfaces 
to  be  united  must  be  covered  with  this 
com])Quud  anl  ]>ressed  together. 

Stonemason's  Cement. — Clean 
river  sand,  20  lbs.;  litharge,  2  lbs.; 
quicklime,  1  lb. ;  linsceil  oil,  sufficient 
to  form  a  thin  paste.  This  cement  is 
applied  to  mend  broken  pieces  of  stone, 
and  after  a  time  it  becomes  exceedingly 
hard  and  strong.  A  similar  composition 
has  been  used  to  coat  brick  walls,  under 
the  name  of  mastic. 

Fireproof  and  Waterproof 
Cement. — To  4  or  5  \xnts  of  clay, 
thoroughly  dried  and  pulverized,  add 
2  [>arts  of  fine  iron  filings  t'ice  from 
oxitle,  1  part  of  peroxide  cf  manganese, 
i  part  of  sea  salt,  and  J  part  of  borax. 
iMingie  these  thoroughly  and  render 
them  as  fine  as  jjossible,  then  reduce 
them  to  a  thick  paste  with  the  necessary 
quantity  of  water,  mixing  thoroughly 
well.  It  must  be  used  immediately 
Al'ter  application  it  should  be  exposed  to 
heat  gradually  iucrea>iiig  almost  to  a 
white  heat.  This  cemeut  is  very  hard, 
and  |>resents  com|>lete  resistance  alike  to 
a  red  heat  and  boiling  water.  Another 
method  : — To  eijual  j)arts  of  sifted  per- 
0X1  le  of  manganese  and  well-pulveiizeii 
zinc  white,  add  a  sullicient  quantity  of 
commercial  soluble  glass  to  foi'in  a  tliiu 
paste.  This  mixture,  when  used  imme- 
diately, forms  a  cement  quite  equal  io 
hardness  and  resistance  to  that  obt4iia(<l 
by  the  first  method. 


WOllKSHOP   llECEll'TS. 


25 


Electrical  or  Chemical  Ce- 
ment.— A  good  cement  for  chemical 
and  electrical  apparatus  may  be  pre- 
pared by  mixing  5  lbs.  of  resin,  1  lb.  of 
wax,  1  lb.  of  red  ochre,  and  2  oz.  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  and  melting  the  whole 
with  moderate  heat. 

Engineers'  Cements  for  Mak- 
ing Joints. — 1.  Mix  ground  white- 
lead  with  as  much  finely-powdered  red- 
lead  as  will  make  it  the  consistence  of 
soft  putty.  2.  Jlix  equal  parts  of  white- 
lead  and  red-lead,  and  add  as  much  boiled 
linseed  oil  as  is  required  to  givi  it  the 
proper  consistence  ;  or  boiled  linseed  oil 
find  red-lead  mixed  into  a  putty.  These 
cements  are  used  for  making  metallic 
joints  sound 


Iron      Cements, 


or 


Rust 


Joints. — 1.  1  lb.  clean  ircn  borings, 
pounded  fine  in  a  mortar,  2  oz.  sal  am- 
moniac in  powder,  1  oz.  flour  of  sul- 
phur. The  whole  mixed  by  pounding, 
and  to  be  kept  dry.  For  use,  mix  1 
part  of  the  above  with  20  of  iron  borings 
pounded,  adding  water  to  the  consistence 
of  mortar.  2.  2  lbs.  clean  iron  borings, 
1  oz.  flour  of  sulphur,  1  oz.  sal  am- 
moniac. 3.  98  parts  of  fine  iron  borings 
through  a  sieve,  1  flour  of  sulphur, 
1  sal  ammoniac.  Mix  and  dissolve  in 
boiling  water  when  required  for  use.  4. 
Mix  1  lb.  fine  borings,  5  oz.  sal  ammo- 
niac, pounded  small,  j  oz.  spirits  of  salts, 
and  a  little  water.  Prepare  the  joint  by 
bringing  the  inner  joint  rings  of  the 
flanges  together — screwing  up  the  bolts 
firmly  ;  in  tliis  condition  there  should  be 
an  annular  space  between  the  flanges  of 
from  J  in.  to  f  in.  in  width  ;  a  strand  of 
rope-yarn  or  any  soft  fibre  should  now  be 
stuffed  to  the  bottom  of  the  joint,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  jointing  material  from 
he'.ag  driven  through  in  the  process  of 
calking.  A  good  hammer,  a  calking  iron 
i-ather  thinner  than  the  joint,  and  a  flat 
piece  of  wood  or  sheet  iron  should  be  in 
readiness.  Take  a  suitable  quantity  of 
fine  cast-iron  bormgs,  free  from  dust,  and 
which  may  be  passed  through  a  sieve  to 
remove  large  pieces  ;  next  dissolve  a  very 
small  piece  of  sal  ammoniac  in  water,  say 
a  drachm  to  a  quart.  In  the  absence  of 
tal   an^moniac   to   mix    up   the   borings 


with,  the  urine  of  any  animal  does  quite 
as  well.  Now  mix  the  borings  with 
sufficient  of  the  fluid  to  cause  them  to 
adhere  together  in  lumps  when  com- 
pressed in  the  hand.  It  is  now  ready  for 
use.  By  means  of  the  calking  iron,  and 
tlie  piece  of  board  or  plate,  stuff  th'-- 
moist  material  into  the  joint  to  a  dejith  of 
1  in.  or  so  from  the  bottom,  all  round ; 
now  calk  it  down  with  the  iron  and 
hammer  until  it  sounds  perfectly  soliu, 
as  though  it  struck  against  solid  iron. 
Repeat  the  process  of  filling,  then  the 
calking,  and  so  on,  until  the  joint  is 
filled  to  the  surface.  The  joint  shoul  1 
rest  for  at  least  ten  hours  before  being 
put  under  pressure. 

Cement  to  Mend  Iron  Pots 
and  Pans. — Take  2  parts  of  sulphur, 
and  1  part,  by  weight,  of  fine  black-lead  ; 
put  the  sulphur  in  an  old  iron  pan, 
holding  it  over  the  fire  until  it  begins  to 
melt,  then  add  the  lead  ;  stir  well  until 
all  is  mixed  and  melted ;  then  pour  out 
on  an  iron  plate,  or  smooth  stone.  When 
cool,  break  into  small  pieces.  A  sufficient 
quantity  of  this  compound  being  placed 
upon  the  crack  of  the  iron  pot  to  be 
mended,  can  be  soldered  by  a  hot  iron  in 
the  same  way  a  tinsmith  solders  his 
sheets.  If  there  is  a  small  hole  in  the 
pot,  drive  a  copper  rivet  in  it  and  then 
solder  over  it  with  this  cement. 

London  Cement. ^Boil  a  piece  ot 
Gloucester  clieese  three  times  in  water, 
each  time  allowing  the  water  to  eva- 
porate. Take  the  paste  thus  left  and 
tlioroughly  incorporate  with  dry  quick- 
lime. It  will  mend  glass,  wood,  china, 
&c.,  very  efi'ectually. 

Architectural  Cement.  — 
Strong  rice-water  size  and  paper  pulped 
in  boiling  water  are  mixed  together; 
enough  whiting  is  then  added  to  make  it 
of  a  proper  consistence. 

Renovating  Files. — The  file  to 
be  first  cleansed  from  all  foreign  matter, 
and  then  dipped  in  a  solution  of  1  part 
nitric  acid,  3  parts  sulphuric  acid,  and  7 
parts  water;  the  time  of  immersion  will 
be  according  to  the  extent  the  file  has 
been  worn  and  the  fineness  of  the  teeth, 
varying  from  5  seconds  to  5  minutes. 
On  taking  it  out  of  the  mixture,  wash  in 


26 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


water,  then  dip  ia  miik  of  lime,  wash  off 
the  lime,  dry  by  a  gentle  heat,  rub  over 
«qual  parts  of  olive  oil  and  turpentine, 
and  finally  brush  over  with  powdered 
I'oke. 

Galvanic  Method.  —  Well-wora 
Dies  are  Urst  carefully  cleaned  by  means 
ot  hot  water  and  soda ;  then  placed  in 
conn*.tio::  with  the  positive  pole  of  a 
buttery,  in  a  bath  composed  of  40  parts 
of  suljihuric  acid,  80  parts  of  nitric 
acid,  and  1000  parts  of  water.  The 
negative  pole  is  formed  of  a  copper  spiral 
surrounding  the  files,  but  not  touching 
them ;  the  coil  terminates  in  a  wire 
which  rises  towards  the  surface.  When 
the  files  have  been  ten  minutes  in  the 
bath  they  are  tal^en  out,  washed,  and 
dried. 

Softening  Files. — Cover  them 
with  oil  and  hold  them  over  the  fire 
until  the  oil  blazes,  as  soon  as  the  flame 
runs  all  over  the  file,  plunge  it  in  the 
water ;  or  put  them  in  a  moderate  hot 
oven  for  half  an  hour  if  large  files,  but 
if  small  the  first  plan  is  the  best. 

Softening  Cast  Iron. — Heat  the 
metal  to  a  bright  red,  cool  quickly  in 
water,  reheat,  and  then  anneal  by  cooling 
slowly  in  ashes.  Or,  heat  the  metal  to 
a  red  heat,  let  it  lie  a  few  minutes  until 
nearly  black,  and  then  throw  it  into 
I'uapsuds. 

Softening  Castings. — Place  the 
castings,  surrounded  by  saw-dust,  in  an 
iron  box,  close  it  up  with  clay  to  exclude 
»he  air,  aul  suljject  it  to  a  red  heat  for 
se\vral  hours.  The  castings  must  be 
cold  before  they  are  withdrawn. 

Hardening  and  Tempering 
Tools  and  Metals. — The  following 
18  the  colour  and  tern  jierature  required : — 
Pa^e  straw,  4'A(p  Fah.,  for  lancets,  &c. ; 
d-t  k  yellow,  470°  Fah.,  for  razors,  &c.  ; 
nark  straw,  470'^  Fah.,  for  j)enknives ; 
(lay  yellow,  4'JO''  Fah  ,  for  chisels  and 
shears ;  brown  yellow,  500°  Fah.,  for 
adzes  and  plane  irons  ;  very  pale  purple, 
.'J20-'  Fah.,  for  t-ible-knivcs  ;  light  pur- 
ple, 5;i0°  Fall.,  for  swords  an<l  watch- 
iprings ;  dark  purple,  hUP  Fah.,  for 
softer  swords  and  watch-springs  ;  dark 
blue,  .')70°  Fah.,  for  small  fine  saws ; 
blue,   590°  Fah.,   for   large  saws ;   pale 


blue,  610  Fah.,  for  saws,  the  teeth  of 
which  are  set  with  pliers ;  greenish 
blue,  630  Fah.,  for  very  soft  temper. 
To  obtain  the  proper  temper  lay  the 
metal  on  a  lump  of  iron  heated  to  a 
sufficiently  strong  heat  in  the  forge  or 
other  fire.  The  desired  temper  may  be 
thus  secured  with  the  greatest  facility 
and  e.xactitude,  as  the  clean  bright 
metal  shows  the  degrees  of  oxidation 
from  the  blue  upwards  most  distinctly, 
which  oxidation  can  be  arrested  at  will. 
Cleanliness,  or  rather  brightness  of  sur- 
face, is  essential. 

Tempering  Mill  Picks  and 
Chisels. — Heat  the  bill  to  a  blood-red 
heat,  and  then  hammer  it  till  nearly 
cold ;  again  heat  it  to  a  blood  red,  and 
quench  as  quick  <as  possible  in  three 
gallons  of  water,  in  which  is  dissolved 
2  oz.  of  oil  of  vitriol,  2  oz.  of  soda,  and 
^  oz.  of  saltpetre ;  or,  2  oz.  of  sal 
ammoniac,  2  oz.  spirit  of  nitre,  1  oz.  oil 
of  vitriol.  The  bill  to  remain  in  the 
liquor  until  it  is  cold.  2.  1  oz.  white 
arsenic,  1  oz.  spirits  of  salts,  1  oz.  sal 
ammoniac,  dissolved  in  four  gallons  of 
spring  water,  and  kept  in  a  tube  or  iron 
phial  for  use.  Heat  the  tool  to  a  blood- 
red  heat,  then  quench  it  in  this  mixture, 
draw  it  gently  over  the  clean  fire  till  the 
spittle  hashes  off  it,  then  let  it  cool. 
3.  To  3  gallons  of  water  add  3  oz.  of 
spirit  of  nitre,  3  oz.  of  spirits  of  harts- 
horn, 3  oz.  of  white  vitriol,  3  oz.  of  sal 
ammoniac,  3  oz.  of  alum,  G  oz.  of  salt, 
with  a  double  handful  of  hoof  parings  ; 
the  steel  to  be  heated  a  dark  cherry  red. 
Used  to  temper  chisels  lor  cutting  French 
burr  stones. 

Tempering  Cast  Steel. — Dis- 
solve a  small  quantity  of  sal  ammoniac 
in  water,  make  the  metal  red,  drop  it 
into  the  mixture  for  a  second  or  two, 
and  t.ake  it  oift,  leaving  enough  heat  in 
the  metal  to  draw  it  back  a  bit.  If  left 
till  cold,  the  steel  will  be  a  great  deal 
too  hard. 

Tempering  Springs.  —  Get  a 
piece  of  spring  steel  almut  the  size  ot 
s[>ring  wanted  ;  when  foi'ged  :in<i  filed  to 
tilt,  make  it  w.irm-red,  immerse  in 
spring  water  (a  little  cow-dung  im- 
proves  it,  mixed   widl   with  the  water 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


27 


before  using  it).  Dry  the  spring,  then 
tie  a  piece  of  wire  fast  to  the  spring  in 
any  form,  so  as  to  hold  it.  Dip  in  clean 
tallow  or  oil,  put  it  on  the  fire  till  all 
the  grease  is  burnt  off,  and  swing  round 
and  round  as  swift  as  you  can  till  cold. 

Malleable  Iron. — 2  oz.  fluoric 
acid,  1  oz.  nitric  acid,  1  oz.  saltpetre, 
to  10  lbs.  of  metal.  When  the  metal  is 
melted,  add  the  solution.  It  can  be 
made  in  a  crucible  in  a  brass  furnace. 
When  you  have  cast  off  patterns,  the 
castings  want  keeping  at  red  heat  for 
three  or  four  days  in  iron  boxes  in  a 
furnace. 

Casehardening  Iron. — Procure 
a  quantity  of  old  boots,  burn  these  until 
they  become  charred,  beat  off  the  black 
and  charred  portion  with  a  hammer, 
until  sufficient  powdered  carbon  is  ob- 
tained ;  then  place  this  powder  with  the 
articles  to  be  operated  upon  into  a  sheet- 
iron  box  or  a  piece  of  wrought-iron  gas- 
pipe  sufficiently  large,  taking  care  that 
the  articles  are  well  covered  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  mass  ;  lute  the  ends  or  top 
of  the  bos  with  claj',  and  place  the 
whole  into  a  fire  made  of  coke,  keeping 
them  there  for  an  hour  or  more,  taking 
care  that  the  heat  shall  be  equal  (be- 
tween dark  red  and  red) ;  now  plunge 
the  contents  into  water.  Should  the 
articles  require  to  be  blue,  such  as  the 
barrels  or  chambers  of  pistols,  repolish 
them  on  an  emeiy  wheel,  and  put  them 
into  a  sand  bath  or  powdered  charcoal, 
until  the  blue  colour  is  attained,  taking 
them  out  immediately  this  change  takes 
place.  The  following  are  mixtures  that 
will  do  instead  of  the  burnt  leather : — 
3  parts  of  prussiate  of  potash  to  1  sal 
ammoniac ;  or  2  parts  sal  ammoniac,  2 
bone-dust,  1  prussiate  of  potash.  Bones, 
urine,  and  night-soil,  are  also  used  for 
this  purpose.  A  simple  method  of  case- 
hardening  iron  is  to  sprinkle  powdered 
prussiate  of  potash  over  it  at  a  red  heat 
and  plunge  into  water ;  bicromate  of 
potash,  with  the  pith  of  rams'  horns, 
may  be  used  with  good  results,  instead 
of  the  prussiate. 

To  Clean  Pearls. — Soak  them  in 
hot  water  in  which  bran  has  been  boiled, 
with  a  little  salts  of  tartar  and  alum, 


rubbing  gently  between  the  hands  -when 
the  heat  will  admit  of  it.  When  the 
water  is  cold  renew  the  application  till 
any  discoloration  is  removed,  rinse  in 
lukewarm  water ;  lay  them  on  white 
paper  in  a  dark  place  to  cool. 

To  Clean  Marble,  Jasper, 
Porphyry,  &c. — Mix  up  a  quantity 
of  the  strongest  soap-lees  with  quick- 
lime, to  the  consistence  of  milk,  and  lay 
it  on  the  stone  for  twenty-four  hours ; 
clean  it  afterwards,  and  it  will  appear 
as  new. 

This  rpay  be  improved  by  rubbing 
afterwards  with  fine  putty  powder  and 
olive  oil. 

Cleaning  Alabaster.  —  Strong 
soap  and  water  is  good  for  cleaning  ala- 
baster ;  if  too  much  discoloured  make  a 
paste  with  quicklime  and  water,  cover 
the  article  well  with  it,  and  let  it  re- 
main all  day ;  wash  off  with  soap  and 
water,  rubbing  hard  the  stains.  Or  sup- 
ply dilute  muriatic  acid,  having  pre- 
viously washed  off  dirt  and  grease. 

To  Clean  Pictures. — Wash  with 
a  sponge  or  a  soft  leather  and  water,  and 
dry  by  rubbing  with  a  silk  handkerchief. 
When  the  picture  is  very  dirty,  take  it 
out  of  its  frame,  procure  a  clean  towel, 
and  making  it  quite  wet,  lay  it  on  the  face 
of  the  picture,  sprinkling  it  from  time  to 
time  with  clear  soft  water  ;  let  it  remain 
wet  for  two  or  three  days ;  take  the 
cloth  off  and  renew  it  with  a  fresh  one  ; 
after  wiping  the  picture  with  a  clean 
wet  sponge,  repeat  the  process  till  all  the 
dirt  is  soaked  out  ;  then  wash  it  well 
with  a  soft  sponge,  and  let  it  quite  dry  : 
rub  it  with  some  clear  nut  or  linseed  oil. 
Spirits  of  wine  and  turpentine  may  be 
used  to  dissolve  the  hard  old  varnish,  but 
they  will  attack  the  paint  as  well  as  the 
varnish  if  the  further  action  of  the  spirits 
is  not  stopped  at  the  proper  time  by  using 
water  freely. 

Cleaning  the  Hands. — For  clean- 
ing the  hands  when  staineu  with  chemi- 
cals :  —  Put  J  lb.  glauber  salts,  i  lb. 
chloride  of  lime,  and  4  oz.  of  water  into 
a  small  wide-mouth  bottle,  and  when 
required  for  use  pour  some  of  the  thick 
sediment  into  a  saucer,  and  rub  it  well 
over  the  hands  with  pumice-stone  or  a 


28 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


nail  brush.  Staiiis  of  nitrate  of  silver 
may  be  removed  from  the  hands  by  means 
of  a  solution  of  chloride  of  iron. 

To  Clean  Plate. — ^Take  an  ounce 
each  of  cream  of  tartar,  muriate  of  soda, 
and  alum,  and  boil  in  a  gallon  or  more 
of  water.  After  the  plate  is  taken  out 
and  rubbed  dry,  it  puts  on  a  beautiful 
silvery  whiteness.  Powdered  magnesia 
may  be  used  dry  for  articles  slightly  tar- 
nished, but  if  very  dirty  it  must  be  used 
first  wet  and  then  dry. 

To  CTean  Brass  or  Copper. — 
Take  1  oz.  of  oxalic  acid,  6  oz.  rotten- 
stone,  4  oz.  gum  arabic,  all  in  powder, 
1  oz.  sweet  oil,  and  sufBcient  of  water 
to  make  a  paste.  Apply  a  small  por- 
tion, and  rub  dry  with  a  flannel  or 
leather. 

Cleaning-  Brass  Inlaid  Work. 
— Mis  tripoli  and  linseed  oil,  and  dip  felt 
into  the  preparation.  With  tliis  polish. 
If  the  wood  be  rosewood  or  ebony,  polish 
it  with  finely-powdered  elder  ashes,  or 
make  a  polishing  paste  of  rotten-stone,  a 
pinch  of  starch,  sweet  oil,  and  o.xalic  acid, 
mixed  with  water. 

Silver  Cleaning-  Liquid. — Pre- 
jiared  chalk,  8  oz. ;  turpentine,  2  oz. ;  aico- 
nol,  1  oz. ;  spirits  of  camphor,  4  drachms  ; 
liquor  of  ammonia,  2  drachms.  Apply 
with  a  sponge  and  allow  to  dry  before 
polishing.  Or  use  a  solution  of  cyanide 
of  potassium,  12  oz.  cyanide  to  1  quart 
water;  immer.se  the  silver,  brush  it  witli 
a  stifl' brush  until  clean,  wash  and  dry. 

Cleaning-  Steel  Articles. — Un- 
slacked  lime  is  a  capital  thing  to  clean 
steel  articles  with.  If  steel  ear-rings, 
brooches,  &c.,  are  kept  in  powdered  quick- 
lime they  suffer  very  little  from  rust. 
They  should  be  carefully  cleaned  when 
put  away,  to  remove  any  moisture  that 
may  have  collected  on  them  by  handling. 

To  clean  swords,  &c.,  nib  them  with 
powdered  brick-dust  and  oil,  rub  ilry  with 
brick-dust,  poli.sh  with  crocusand  leather. 

Cleaning  Hats. — The  stains  of 
grease  and  ])aint  may  be  rcmoveil  from 
hats  by  means  of  turpentine,  an  i  if  tla- 
turpentine  leaves  a  mark  finish  with  a 
little  spirit.s  of  wine. 

Cleaning  Metals. — Mix  half  a 
pint  of  neal'b-foot  oil,  and  half  a  gallon 


of  spirit  of  turpentine  ;  wet  a  woolle'i 
rag  with  some  of  this  and  put  on  it 
a  little  powder,  made  thus : — ^Take 
2  oz.  green  copperas  and  §  oz.  sub- 
carbonate  of  potash,  burn  these  toge- 
ther in  a  clay  vessel  for  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  in  the  fire,  when  it  should 
be  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder 
for  use.  Having  put  the  powder  in 
the  oiled  part  of  the  rag,  well  rub  the 
metal ;  wipe  off  with  a  soft  cloth,  and 
polish  with  a  dry  leather  and  some  more 
powder. 

Cleaning  Jewellery. — Common 
jewellery  may  be  ellectually  cleaned  by 
washing  with  soap  and  warm  water, 
rinsing  in  cold  water,  dipping  in  spirits 
of  any  kind,  and  drying  in  warm  box- 
vcood  saw-dust.  Good  jewellery  only 
needs  washing  with  soap  and  water,  and 
polishing  with  rouge  and  a  chamois 
leather. 

Cleaning  Engravings.  —  Put 
the  engraving  on  a  smooth  board,  cover 
it  thinly  with  common  salt  finely 
pounded ;  squeeze  lemon-juice  upon  the 
salt  so  as  to  dissolve  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  it ;  elevate  one  end  of  the  board, 
so  that  it  may  form  an  angle  of  about 
45  or  50  degrees  with  the  horizon. 
Pour  on  the  engraving  boiling  water 
from  a  tea-kettle,  until  the  salt  and 
lemon-juice  be  all  washed  off;  the  en- 
graving will  then  be  perfectly  clean, 
and  free  from  stains.  It  must  be  dried 
on  the  board,  or  on  some  smooth  surface, 
gradually.  If  dried  by  the  fire  or  the  sun, 
it  will  be  tinged  with  a  yellow  colour. 

Crayons,  Method  of  Making. 
— White  paste,  used  for  white  crayons 
or  for  a  body  for  other  colours: — 1. 
Washed  pijic-clay  and  w.-ished  chalk 
equal  parts,  mix  them  into  a  paste  with 
sweet  nle  maile  hot,  and  with  a  chip  or 
two  of  isinglass  dissolved  in  it. 

2.  Take  the  finest  powder  of  calcined 
oyster-shells,  sifted  through  muslin,  mix 
it  up  with  water  in  which  a  little  rice 
and  a  little  white  sugar-candy  h;is  been 
boiled ;  according  to  the  quantity  of 
rice,  so  will  be  the  hardness  of  the 
crayon.  The  quantity  of  sugar-candy 
should  not  be  more  than  the  size  of  a 
iilbcrt-nut  to  a  pint  of  watei. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


29 


3.  Take  common  pipe-clay  in  powder, 
mix  it  up  into  a  paste  with  very  strong 
soapsuds,  made  thus  : — Cut  up  an  ounce 
of  white  soap  into  small  shavings,  dis- 
solve it  over  the  fire  in  ^  pint  of  water, 
stir  into  the  mixture  while  hot  the 
powdered  pipe-clay  as  long  as  you  can 
stir  it.  Spirits  of  wine  added  before 
the  powders  to  render  the  soap-water 
transparent,  is  an  improvement. 

4.  Take  3  oz.  of  spermaceti,  dissolve 
it  in  1  pint  of  water,  stir  into  it  a 
quantity  of  fine-sifted  or  washed  white 
colour  till  of  a  proper  consistence.  If  to 
be  mixed  with  dark  powders,  a  very 
little  ox-gall  is  an  improvement. 

5.  Welt  3  oz.  of  shellac  in  2  oz.  of 
spirits  of  wine,  this  will  form  a  thick 
liquid ;  to  this  add  6  parts  of  pipe-clay 
and  1  part  of  oil  of  turpentine ;  grind 
all  well  together.  The  lighter  the 
colour  of  the  shellac  the  better ;  also  if 
colours  are  to  be  added  they  should  be 
ground  up  with  the  turpentine,  before 
this  is  added  to  the  rest. 

The  great  object  of  attention  is  to 
procure  the  white  chalk  or  pipe-clay 
without  grit.  To  accomplish  this,  take 
a  large  vessel  of  water,  put  the  whiting 
into  it  and  mix  well,  pour  oif  the  top 
into  another  vessel,  and  throw  the  gritty 
sediment  away ;  repeat  several  times. 
When  this  is  done,  let  the  whiting  settle, 
and  then  pour  the  water  from  it  and  dry 
it  for  use. 

The  compositions  for  white  crayons 
and  the  requisite  colours  being  prepared, 
and  that  chosen  made  up  into  a  stiff 
paste,  it  is  to  be  placed  upon  a  smooth 
■ilab  »f  marble  slightly  oiled.  The  paste 
is  rolled  out  with  a  rolling  pin,  then  cut 
into  slips  and  these  rolled  into  cylinders 
by  the  aid  of  a  little  flat  piece  of  wood, 
then  cut  to  the  length  of  3  inches  each, 
and  placed  in  a  slow  oven  or  drying 
stove  to  become  hard. 

Instead  of  rolling  the  composition,  it 
may  be  forced  through  ths  nozzle  of  a 
tin  funnel,  this  is  better  for  the  delicate 
colours  than  rolling  them  ;  when  dry 
they  may  be  pointed. 

It  will  always  happen  that  except  in 
black  or  white  crayons,  the  colour  alters 
very  rauLh  in  drying,  so  that  in  mixing 


an   allowance   must   be   made   for   this 
eflect. 

Crayons,  Colours  for. —  White. — 
The  best  whites  to  employ  are  whit'ing 
or  prepared  chalk,  pipe-clay,  alum  white 
or  alumina,  oyster-shell  white,  calcined 
bones,  &c. 

Cannine  and  Lake. — Crayons  of  these 
colours  are  generally  hard  ;  when  made 
with  powdered  colours,^  the  proper  way 
of  mixing  is  to  dissolve  the  colour  first 
in  water  or  spirits  of  wine,  and  add  it  to 
nearly-dry  white  colour,  grinding  the 
whole  well  together.  There  should  be 
four  or  five  shades — madder  is  not  used. 

Vermilion  and  Bed  Lead,  Bed  Ochre, 
Lndian  lied. — Each  of  these  may  be  well 
ground  in  water,  and  when  wet,  mixed 
well  with  the  white  in  ditlerent  shades 
These  will  make  various  reds,  as  well  as 
salmon  colour,  flesh  colour,  orange 
Ha-matite  or  crocus,  of  itself,  ground 
and  mixed  with  a  little  size,  forms  an 
excellent  crayon. 

The  square  chalks,  or  crayons,  are 
made  of  the  mineral  red  chalk,  or  ochre 
cut  into  slips  with  a  saw.  The  same 
material  is  used  in  pencils  for  carpenters 
and  others. 

Yellows.—  Dissolve  the  colours,  which 
are  Naples  yellow.  King's  yellow,  and 
yellow  lake,  in  spirits  of  wine,  and  mis 
as  for  carmine.  The  chrome  yellows 
are  not  so  useful,  because  less  durable. 
Gamboge,  Indian  yellow,  and  gall  stone 
are  not  enijdoyed,  but  the  various  yellow 
ochres  make  good  crayons. 

Blue. — A  good  soluble  colour  is  Prus- 
sian blue,  but  it  is  hard  to  grind.  Dis- 
solve it  in  water,  then  put  the  solution 
in  a  hole  cut  in  a  piece  of  chalk,  this 
will  absorb  the  water,  and  leave  a  great 
portion  of  the  colour  ready  ftn-  mixing. 
Blue  verditer  is  a  good  bright  colour, 
but  is  so  gritty  as  to  require  washing, 
as  recommended  for  whiting.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  smalts  or  cobalt. 

Browns. — These  are  Cologne  earth, 
umber,  raw  and  burnt ;  sienna,  raw  and 
burnt ;  treated  as  the  blue. 

Greens. — These  may  be  either  simple 
colours,  as  emerald  green,  Prussian  green, 
green  carbonate  of  copper;  or  better 
formed  by  adding   the  compositions  ol 


30 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


the  yellow  and  blue  crayons  together. 
Raw  and  burnt  sienna  may  also  be  used 
in  combination  with  Prussian  blue  or 
Indigo.  Good  green  crayons  are  more 
difficult  to  make  than  those  of  any  other 
colour. 

Black. — Chalk  or  charcoal  is  first  to 
be  sawed  in  3-inch  lengths,  free  from 
knots;  then  saw  them  longitudinally  in 
narrow  strips.  Procure  a  tin  trough 
about  4  inches  by  3,  and  partly  fill  it 
with  white  was ;  and  after  properly 
melted,  the  pieces  of  charcoal  are  to  be 
saturated  for  forty-eight  hours,  and  after 
draining  they  are  fit  for  use.  When  white 
paste  IS  employed  the  only  powdered 
colour  to  be  used  is  lampblack,  all  the 
others  are  apt  to  get  mouldy. 

Mixed  Colours. — Mixed  or  half  colours 
are  produced  by  an  admixture  of  the 
clours  required  in  the  paste.  Thus  a 
combination  of  blue  and  carmine  pro- 
duces a  puri)le ;  the  yellows  and  red 
united  form  orange ;  black  and  carmme 
is  a  beautiful  tint  for  shading ;  ver- 
milion and  black  form  a  fine  rich 
brown  ;  green  and  brown  form  an  olive 
colour  ;  and  red  and  brown  a  chocolate. 

Crayons  for  Dijawing  on  Glass. — 
Melt  together  equal  quantities  of  asphal- 
tum  and  yellow  wax  ;  add  lampblack, 
and  pour  the  mixture  into  moulds  for 
crayons.  The  glass  should  be  well  wijied 
with  leather,  and  in  drawing  be  caj-eful 
not  to  soil  the  glass  with  the  fingei-s. 
In  trimming  these  crayons,  if  the  edge 
be  bevelled,  like  scissors,  the  point  may 
easily  be  rendered  very  fine. 

Dyeing  Silk. —  For  dyeing  pur- 
poses we  may  consider  that  a  pound  of 
silk  woven  into  common  sarsenet,  mea- 
sures about  13  yards  :  this  multi- 
plied by  16,  gives  208  ;  or  for  a  more 
convenient  standard,  we  may  calculate 
200  yards  at  16  lbs.,  100  at  8  lbs.,  and 
80  on. 

Jet  Black  from  Nitro-Sulphate  of 
Iron. — For  200  yards  or  16  lbs.  I'rejiare 
in  a  hot  solution  of  nitro-suI])hrite  of 
iron,  5°  Twaddle,  l.'iO''  Fahrenheit; 
work  30  minut's  in  this;  lift,  and  wash 
well  in  3  warm  waters  ;  then  boil  18  lbs. 
of  fustic;  |(Ut  oil'  the  boil;  enter,  and 
winch  for  30  minutes;   lift-  boil  16  lbs. 


.'ogwood,  put  off  the  boil,  and  d«cant  the 
clear  liquor  into  a  large  tub ;  add  1  lb. 
of  white  soap ;  enter,  and  winch  for  30 
or  40  minutes  in  this ;  lift ;  wash  in  2 
waters,  and  you  will  have  a  brilliant  jet 
black. 

Jet  Black  from  Nitrate  of  Iron. — 
For  200  yards.  After  being  cleaned, 
prepare  in  a  cold  solution  of  nitrate  of 
iron,  5°  Twaddle  (this  is  strong  enough 
for  light  silks,  4°  or  4J°  will  do  for  dark 
and  dipping  silks)  ;  30  minutes  in  this  ; 
lift;  boil  14  lbs.  fustic;  put  off  the  boil ; 
enter,  and  winch  30  minutes ;  lift ;  wash 
in  3  waters,  blood-warm  ;  then  boil  16  lbs. 
logwood  ;  decant  as  before  ;  give  the  same 
quantity  of  soap,  and  finish  in  the  same 
way. 

Black  from  Sulphate  of  Iron. — For 
200  yards.  After  being  cleaned  or  scalded, 
discharge  in  a  hot  vitriol  sour ;  a  cold 
and  then  a  warm  water  out  of  the  sour  ; 
run  through  another  scald,  and  2  warm 
waters  ;  then  boil  14  lbs.  fustic  ;  put  off 
the  boil  ;  winch  30  minutes,  and  lift  for 
saddening  ;  make  up  a  solution  with  some 
of  the  fustic  left  in  the  last  process,  and 
1  lb.  copperas  ;  winch  in  this  tor  half  an 
hour ;  wash  in  3  waters ;  dye  with  16  lbs. 
logwood  and  1  lb.  of  soap. 

Hat  Black. — Work  5  lbs.  silk  in  a 
mixture  of  2  lbs.  fustic  chips ;  1  lb. 
quercitron  bark  ;  lift ;  then  add  6  oz. 
verdigris,  6  oz.  copperas ;  work  for 
quarter  of  an  hour,  and  hang  up  all 
night ;  wash  and  dye  with  a  decoction  of 
5  lbs.  logwood  with  as  much  white  us 
will  make  a  lather. 

Dyeinq  Shots. — When  satins,  sati- 
nets, sarsenets,  or  silks  of  any  kind  are 
found  to  contain  shots,  that  is,  tcarp  and 
W(ft  of  different  (jwditics,  they  must  b« 
prei)areil  as  follows: — For  100  yards. 
Dissolve  IJ  111.  salt  of  tartar  in  a  cop- 
per containing  150  gallons  boiling  water; 
winch  in  this  one  hour;  lifY,  and  wash 
in  2  waters ;  »nd  then  ])repare  for  any 
colour.  If,  afUr  dyeing  black,  brown,  or 
any  colour,  the  silk  is  found  to  contain  a 
shot  of  diUfrent  silk,  it  must  be  dis- 
charged to  the  bottom,  and  jiut  through 
the  sturt" as  directed  above;  then  prepare 
a  new,  for  whatever  colour  required. 

CiNNASiuN   Brown.— loi    loo  yards. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


31 


Boil  12  lbs.  fustic  ;  3  lbs.  ground  madder, 
2  lbs.  barwood.  Cool  to  200°  Fahren- 
heit, then  enter,  and  winch  20  minutes  ; 
air  out,  and  repeat ;  with  a  little  of 
the  liquor  in  another  di.sh,  saiMcu  to  pat- 
tern with  4  or  5  oz.  copperas,  1  or  2  shots  ; 
wash  in  2  waters,  and  dry. 

Olive  Brown. — For  10  yards.  Boil 
fustic,  1  lb. ;  logwood,  3J  oz. ;  cudbear, 
2J  oz.  Cool  to  200°  Fahrenheit ;  enter, 
and  winch  for  20  minutes ;  air  out ; 
repeat ;  sadden  to  pattern  with  4  oz. 
copperas ;  wash  and  dry. 

French  Brown. — Prepare  in  a  hot 
solution  of  alum,  for  10  or  12  hours  ; 
lift,  and  wash  in  2  waters  ;  boil  or  scald. 
For  10  yards.  Limawood,  1  lb. ;  ground 
fustic,  4|  oz.  Decant  the  clear  of  both 
liquors  into  another  dish  ;  enter,  and 
winch  for  30  minutes ;  air  out,  and  re- 
peat ;  if  dark  enough,  wash  in  2  waters, 
and  dry.  Common  brown  is  done  in  this 
way  by  adding  a  little  logwood. 

In  preparing  this  and  the  fullowiug 
colour,  a  little  copperas  is  sometimes 
used  along  with  the  alum  ;  when  done 
in  this  manner,  raise  slightly  with  mu- 
riate of  tin. 

Claret. — Prepare  with  alum  like  the 
last ;  boil  or  scald.  For  10  yards.  Lima- 
wood,  IJ  lb.  ;  logwood,  3f  oz.  Decant 
the  clear  of  both  liquors  into  a  tub  of 
sufficient  size ;  enter,  and  winch  for  30 
minutes ;  air  out,  and  repeat ;  when 
dark  enough,  wash  and  dry. 

In  dyeing  the  two  last,  they  ought  to 
get  two  liquors,  or  the  liquor  at  twice, 
as  one  will  hardly  make  the  colour  as 
full  as  it  ought  to  be. 

Pale  Blue. — For  100  yards.  3  oz. 
paste  or  extract  of  indigo  ;  6  oz.  tartaric 
acid.  Sour  first  in  a  hot  solution  of  sul- 
phuric acid  (about  1 J  gill),  lift,  and  wash 
m  1  water.  Prepare  the  paste  and  dis- 
solve the  acid  in  a  little  hot  water ;  then 
take  a  copper  or  stoneware  vessel  of  suf- 
ficient size,  fill  it  nearly  full  of  water, 
110°  Fahrenheit ;  put  in  the  paste,  and 
5  parts  of  the  tartaric  acid  ;  winch  in 
this  15  minutes  ;  lift  ;  wash  in  cold 
water ;  harden  with  the  part  of  tartaric 
not  used  ;  lift,  and  dry. 

In  dyeing  printed  silks,  containing 
black  or  any  colour  you  wish  to  retain, 


tliey  must  not  be  soured  in  dyeing,  and 
use  as  little  raising  as  possible. 

To  Prepare  Extract  of  Indigo.— 
Every  particle  must  be  well  broken  with 
a  palette  knife,  or  the  back  of  a  table- 
spoon, after  which  pour  on  a  little  boil- 
ing water  ;  stir  it  up,  and  let  it  settle 
for  a  little  before  using. 

IloYAL  Blue. — Prepare  in  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  iron,  3°  Twaddle,  100°  Fah- 
renheit; and  for  every  pound  of  prussiate 
used  in  dyeing,  add  as  much  of  the  crys- 
tals of  tin  (dissolved  in  hot  water)  to 
the  preparation  ;  work  in  this  till  the 
silk  turns  a  light  buif  colour  ;  lift,  and 
wash  in  1  water;  after  which,  for  100 
yards,  dissolve  4  lbs.  prussiate  of  potash 
in  a  little  boiling  water ;  put  this  into  a 
copper  containing  80  gallons  water,  120° 
Fahrenheit ;  add  1|  gill  sulphuric  or 
muriatic  acid  ;  enter  in  this  ;  winch  15 
minutes  ;  lift  ;  1  water  ;  run  again 
through  tlie  preparation  ;  add  2  gills 
sulphuric  acid  to  the  prussiate  ;  repeat 
in  it,  and  if  not  dark  enough,  lift,  and 
add  a  little  nitrate  of  iron;  after  gettint^ 
it  to  the  required  shade,  give  2  waters ; 
then  harden  in  a  solution  of  alum  ;  ana 
dry  in  a  hot  stove. 

Pea  Green. — For  100  yards.  10  oz. 
extract  of  indigo,  2J  lbs.  ebony,  1  lb. 
alum.  Sour  first ;  wash  in  1  water;  boU 
or  scald  the  ebony  ;  decant  the  clear  into 
another  dish,  and  add  the  extract  of 
indigo  and  alum ;  euter  in  this,  and 
winch  for  10  or  15  minutes ;  wash  in 
1  water. 

Common  Pale  Green. — For  11  yards. 
Extract  of  indigo,  2  oz. ;  ebony,  l|  oz.  ; 
alum,  If  oz. ;  sulphuric  acid,  IJ  oz. 
Work  as  for  Pea  Green. 

Grass  Green. — For  10  yards.  Fustic, 
12  oz. ;  extract  of  indigo,  3  oz.  3  drachms  ; 
alum,  3  oz.  3  drachms  ;  sulphuric  acid, 
IJ  oz.  Boil  the  fustic  first;  men  add 
the  extract  of  indigo,  alum,  and  acid  ; 
put  off  the  boil ;  enter  and  winch  till 
you  get  the  shade  required  ;  if  not  blue 
enough,  give  more  extract  of  indigo  ;  ii 
not  yellow  enough,  more  fustic. 

Myrtle  Green.  —  For  10  yards. 
Fustic,  1  lb. ;  logwood,  3  oz.  3  drachms  ; 
extract  of  indigo,  3  oz.  3  drachms  ;  blue- 
stone,  J  oz.     Boil  the  logwood  and  fustic 


82 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


together ;  put  o3'  the  boil ;  enter  ;  winch 
20  minutes  ;  air  out  and  rejieat ;  raise 
with  3  oz.  bluestone  dissolved  in  the 
boiler;  then  give  the  extract  of  indigo; 
1  water ;  rince  in  the  remaining  2  oz. 
bluestone ;  harden  in  a  solution  of  alum, 
and  dry. 

Olive  Grekn. — For  100  yards.  10  lbs. 
fustic,  2  lbs.  logwood,  10  oz.  camwood. 
Boil  altogether  for  30  minutes  ;  put  ofi' 
the  boil ;  enter  and  wmch  for  20  minutes  ; 
air  out  and  repeat ;  sadden  with  3  or 
4  oz.  copperas  in  the  same  liquor,  or  with 
a  little  of  the  liquor  in  another  dish  ; 
when  the  required  shade  is  got,  wash 
and  dry. 

IJUAB. — For  100  yards.  Boil  4  lbs. 
fustic  and  G  oz.  logwood  ;  2^  oz.  cud- 
bear ;  IJ  oz.  copperas.  Cool  to  200° 
Fahrenheit ;  enter  ;  winch  20  minutes  ; 
air  out ;  repeat ;  then  take  a  little  of  the 
liquor  out  of  the  boiler,  dissolve  the  cop- 
peras, reduce  it  to  handling  heat  with 
water,  and  give  1  or  2  shots  tlirough  it 
as  the  pattern  requires ;  1  water  out  of 
the  saddening ;  then  give  a  warm,  but 
weak  sour,  to  clear  tiie  colour  ;  wash 
in  2  waters,  and  diy. 

Before  using  cudbear,  it  must  always 
be  drenched  with  a  little  hot  water,  to 
the  consistency  of  paste  ;  then  scald  or 
boil  it  as  occasion  may  require. 

Fawn. — For  10  yards.  Fustic,  6J  oz. ; 
cudbear,  J  oz. ;  copperas,  1 J  drachm.  Use 
as  for  Drab. 

Stone.— For  100  yards.  3  lbs.  fustic, 
7^  oz,  logwood,  2J  oz.  cudbear,  2  oz. 
copperas.     Use  as  I'or  Drab. 

Slatk. — For  100  yards.  8  oz.  cud- 
bear, 2  lbs.  logwood,  1  lb.  tartar.  Bottom 
with  the  cudbear  ;  lift  ;  boil  the  log- 
wood ;  decant  into  a  tub  of  sullicieut 
size;  enter  and  winch  in  thi^  for  lo 
minutes;  lift  and  raise  with  the  tartar 
at  twice,  tlu-n  wasli  and  dry. 

Straw. — For  10  yards.  Annatto,  fij 
drachms  ;  barks,  IJ  oz. ;  muriate  of  tin, 
IJ  oz.  Give  the  nunatto  on  the  bottom 
212°  Fahrenheit ;  1  water  out,  and  then 
give  the  barks  and  muriate  of  tin,  same 
heat. 

Before  using  annatto,  it  must  be  boiled 
with  half  its  weight  of  American  a.shes, 
in   the   least   possible  qtiantity  of  soft 


water.  This  applies  to  every  process 
where  annatto  is  used. 

Buff. — For  10  yards.  Annatto,  1 J  oz. ; 
vitriol,  U  oz.  Give  the  annatto  at  212° 
Fahrenheit ;  when  full  enough,  lift ;  wash 
in  2  waters  ;  then  raise  with  the  vitriol. 

Cream  Colour. — For  10  yards.  Boil 
annatto,  9^  drachms  ;  vitriol,  1  oz.  Work 
in  the  same  manner  as  Buff. 

Chamois. — For  10  yards.  Annatto, 
9j  drachms  ;  fustic,  Gh  oz. ;  madder,  Gh 
drachms  ;  cudbear,  oj  drachms.  Bottom 
with  the  annatto,  212°  Fahrenheit ;  wash 
in  1  water  ;  boil  the  fustic,  madder,  and 
cudbear  together  ;  put  off  the  boil,  and 
enter;  winch  15  minutes;  if  not  full 
enough,  air  out  and  repeat ;  then  wash 
and  dry. 

Saljion  Colour. — For  10  jards.  An- 
natto, II  oz. ;  cudbear,  4  drachms.  Boil 
the  annatto  ;  then  add  the  cutbear  ;  put 
off  the  boil ;  enter  and  winch  30  minutes ; 
wash  in  2  waters  ;  then  dry. 

Orange. — For  10  yards.  Annatto, 
If  oz. ;  bark,  1^  oz. ;  muriate  of  tin, 
ij  oz.  Give  a  good  body  of  annatto, 
212°  Fahrenheit ;  wash  in  1  water  ;  tlieE 
top  with  the  bark  and  muriate  of  tin. 

Amuer.  —  For  10  yards.  Annatto, 
IJ  oz. ;  bark,  IJ  oz.  ;  muriate  of  tin, 
2i  oz.  Bottom  with  the  annatto,  and 
top  with  the  bark  and  muriate  of  tin. 
Vae  as  for  Oiauge. 

Pink. — For  10  yaids.  Bottoming, 
blue  archil,  J  oz. ;  dyeing,  salilower, 
2  oz. ;  raising,  tartaric  acid,  J  oz.  Put 
thearcliil  into  100  gallons  boiling  water; 
winch  in  this  lo  miiuitcs  ;  lift;  bleed; 
then  refine  the  salilower  with  cotton; 
make  up  a  salilower  liquor  of  100  gallons  ; 
enter  and  winch  15  minutes  ;  lift ;  put 
in  half  the  raising;  return  and  winch 
10  minutes;  lift  again  and  add  the  other 
halfof  the  raising  ;  return  for  10  minutes 
moi'e  ;  then  wash  in  1  water;  harden 
with  a  little  tartaric  in  another,  and  dry. 

Bose  colour  may  be  made  in  this  way, 
by  giving  more  stuff. 

To     PUKPARE     SAFFUJWER.  —  StCPp 

2J  lbs.  salilower  all  night  in  water;  in 
the  moining  rub  the  cakes  between  the 
hands,  so  that  it  may  be  nil  broken  ; 
then  ])Ut  it  into  a  bag  rr  close  sieve ; 
stand  vith  it  under  a  good  run  ol  walcf 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


33 


ontil  the  particles  are  all  disengaged 
from  each  other,  and  purged  of  impu- 
rities ;  then  put  20  or  30  gallons  of 
water  into  a  large  tub,  add  J  lb.  soda 
dissolved,  and  put  in  the  safflower ;  stir 
it  up,  and  let  it  bleed  30  or  40  minutes  ; 
then  strain  it  through  the  bag  into  a 
second  tub;  if  not  well  enough  bled,  re- 
peat in  the  first  tub  with  a  little  more 
soda.  To  refine  safflower  after  being  bled, 
— immerse  3  or  4  lbs.  cotton  yarn  or  cloth 
in  it ;  in  10  minutes  lift,  and  add  a  little 
tartaric ;  return  for  10  minutes ;  add 
a  little  tartaric  again  ;  return  for  10 
minutes  more;  lift,  and  add  tlie  tartaric 
a  third  time,  at  which  time  it  must  do 
no  more  than  taste  slightly  sour;  then 
wash  in  2  or  3  waters,  after  which  it 
must  be  bled  in  a  tub  ol  clean  water  with 
a  little  soda;  then  make  op  this  liquor 
with  walei  for  dyeing. 

Rose  Colour  with  Cochixeal.— 
For  10  yards.  Bottoming,  blue  archil, 
5  oz. ;  preparation,  tartar,  |  oz. ;  scarlet 
spirits,  2J  oz. ;  dyeing,  cochineal,  fully 
1 J  oz.  Bottom  with  archil ;  lift ;  dis- 
solve the  tartar,  and  put  it  and  the  spirits 
into  100  gallons  water;  winch  in  this 
foi  some  time ;  then  let  it  lie  12  hours 
(if  this  preparation  is  made  hot,  3  or  4 
hours  will  do) ;  pound,  and  then  boil 
the  cochineal  ;  put  ofl'  the  boil  ;  lift  out 
of  the  preparatiou,  and  enter ;  winch 
till  the  liquor  cools,  and  the  colour  will 
be  full  enough. 

Scarlet  with  Cochineal. — For  10 
yards.  Bottoming,  annatto,  fully  H  oz. ; 
preparation,  tartar,  1|  oz. ;  scarlet  spirits, 
3J  oz. ;  dyeing,  cochineal,  2J  oz.  Bot- 
tom with  the  anuatto,  212°  Fahren- 
heit ;  winch  15  or  20  minutes,  and  it 
should  be  a  full  orange ;  then  give  the 
preparation  and  cochineal  as  for  rose 
colour. 

Fast  Cruison'. — For  10  yards.  Bot- 
toming, cudbear,  1^  oz. ;  preparation, 
tartar,  l^  oz. ;  scarlet  spirits,  3 J  oz. ; 
dyeing,  cochineal,  2  oz.  Boil  or  scald 
the  cudbear;  winch  in  this  30  minutes  ; 
then  prepare  and  dye  as  before. 

Purple. — The  best  purples  are  made 
upon  the  purple  vat.  For  a  red  shade, 
wash  in  2  cold  waters  ;  for  a  blue  shade, 
Wa*h  in  2  hot  waters.      Another  but  in- 


ferior method  is,  to  prepare  with  alum, 
dye  lyith  logwood,  and  raise  with  doubla 
muriate  of  tin. 

Royal  Blue  Purple. — For  whatever 
depth  of  colour  required,  winch  upon  the 
purple  vat,  wash  in  2  warm  waters  ;  then 
put  a  little  extract  of  indigo  into  a  tub 
of  cold  water  ;  add  a  little  sulphuiia 
acid  ;  enter  and  work  in  this  till  you  get 
the  required  shade,  then  wash  in  cold 
water,  and  dry 

Lilac. — The  best  lilac  is  dyed  upon 
nitro- sulphate  of  iron  spirits;  when 
without  these,  the  following  is  the 
simplest  method  : — 10  gallons  water,  1 
pint  purple  vat.  Add  raw  muriatic  acid 
till  the  glass  stands  at  6°  Twaddle ; 
enter  in  this,  and  work  till  you  get  the 
required  shade ;  if  too  light,  add  more 
purple  liquor,  wash  in  2  warm  waters, 
and  dry. 

Lavexder. — Same  as  lilac,  by  add- 
ing a  little  neutralized  extract  of  indigo. 
Break  4  oz.  of  extract  of  indigo  ;  dilute 
it  with  2  quarts  of  hot  water,  and  add 
half  an  ounce  of  soda,  to  destroy  or  neu- 
tralize whatever  acid  the  extract  con- 
tains ;  after  stirring  it  well  up,  let  it 
stand  for  two  days,  then  strain  it  for 
use.  Silver  grey  gets  less  stuff  than 
lavender. 

Aniline  Colours. — No  mordant 
is  necessary  for  these  colours  when  used 
on  silk  or  woollen  ;  the  proper  quantity 
of  clear  liquid  is  mixed  with  slightly 
warm  water,  the  scum  formed  skimmed 
off,  and  the  goods  entered  and  worked 
until  the  required  shade  is  obtained, 
Paste  mauve  is  dissolved  in  spirit  before 
being  used,  and  care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  irregularities  from  the  tarry 
scum.  For  dyeing  on  cotton,  the  cloth 
is  steeped  in  sumac  or  tannic  acid  dyed  in 
the  colour,  and  can  then  be  fixed  by  tin ; 
or  the  cloth  may  be  sumaced  and  mor- 
danted as  usual  with  tin,  and  then  dyed. 

Woollen  Dyeing, — A  pound  ot 
wool  woven  into  common  merino  mea- 
sures about  3  yards,  common  moreen 
about  2  yards. 

Jet  Black. — For  50  lbs.  Prepare 
with  21  lbs.  chrome  ;  boil  half  an  hour, 
and  wash  in  2  watars.  Dye  with  20  lbs. 
logwood  and  2  lbs.  fustic.     Boil  half  as 

D 


u 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS 


hour  ;  1  water,  then  a  slight  sour,  mode- 
rately warm  ;  1  cold  water,  and  tinish  out 
of  a  warm  one,  softened  with  a  little  urine. 

Geneva  Black. — 3  lbs.  green  cop- 
peras, 3  lbs.  tartar,  J  lb.  sulphate  of 
copper,  1  lb.  fustic,  1  lb.  logwood.  Boil 
for  half  an  hour ;  ente^  and  boil  the 
cloth  3  hours  ;  w.ash  ;  llien  enter  into  a 
vat  with  11  lbs.  logwood;  boil  1  hour; 
raise ;  enter  into  logwood  vat  for  half 
an  hour,  and  finish. 

Fast  Blaok. — For  50  lbs.  Prepare 
with   2  lbs.  chrome,    1  lb.   tartar,  and 

1  quart  muriate  of  tin;  boil  1  hour,  and 
wash  in  2  waters.  Dye  with  25  lbs.  log- 
wood and  3  lbs.  fustic.  Boil  30  mmutes, 
lift,  add  1  pint  vitriol.  Return  for  10 
minutes,  then  wash  and  dry.  To  render 
this  blue-black,  omit  the  fustic. 

Cinnamon  Brown. — For  oO  lbs.  8  lbs. 
fustic,  2  lbs.  madder,  10  oz.  cudbear,  1  lb. 
tartar,  2  lbs.  alum.  Give  2  runs,  and 
sadden  with  3  or  4  oz.  of  copperas. 

French  Brown. — For  50  lbs.  Pre- 
paration, 1|  lb.  chrome.  Dyeing,  6  lbs. 
fustic,  1  lb.  ground  madder,  ^  lb.  cud- 
bear, 1  lb.  tartar  ;  and  if  not  dark 
enough,  add  8  oz.  logwood.  Boil  half 
an  hour. 

Claret. — For  50  lbs.  Preparation, 
1 J  lb.  chrome.    Dyeing,  9  lbs.  limawood, 

2  lbs.  logwood,  J  lb.  tartar.  Boil  half  an 
hour. 

Olive  Brown. — For  50  lbs.  Prepa- 
ration, li  lb.  chrome.  Dyeing,  7  lbs. 
I'ustic,  3  lbs.  madilcr,  1  lb.  logwood,  2  lbs. 
tartar,  8  oz.  cudbear.  1  run  ;  raise  in 
the  second  with  5  or  6  oz.  bluestone; 
wash  well  and  dry. 

Common  Dark  Brown. — For  40  lbs. 
6  lbs.  logwood,  12  lbs.  redwood,  4  lbs. 
madder.  Boil  half  an  hour,  air  out  and 
repeat,  then  sadden  with  1  lb.  coiiperas ; 
if  too  dark,  raise  to  pattern  with  muriate 
of  tin. 

KuuY. — For.'JO  lbs.  Preparation,  3  lbs. 
tartar  and  2  lbs.  alum.  Boil  half  an 
hour,  anil  wash  in  3  warm  waters.  Dye- 
ing, 8  lbs.  limawood,  ^  lb.  cudbear,  and 
J  lb.  tartar.  Boil  half  an  hour,  and 
blue  to  pattern  with  hot  water. 

PuRi'LE. — For  50  lbs.  Preparation, 
1^  lb.  tartar  ami  I  lb.  alum  ;  wa.sh  in  3 
W«^*3TH.      Dye    with    10  lbs.   logwood ; 


boil  half  an  hour ;  raise  with  1  quart 
muriate  of  tin. 

Royal  Purple. — For  50  lbs.  Blue 
on  the  woad  vat,  either  warm  or  cold, 
for  whatever  depth  of  colour  required  ; 
wash  in  2  waters;  then  give  2J  lbs.  cud- 
bear ;  boil  half  an  hour,  or  until  you  get 
the  shade  wanted  ;  if  not  blue  enough, 
give  another  run  upon  the  vat. 

Pale  Blue. — For  50  lbs.  1  gill  sul- 
phuric acid,  3  oz.  exti-act  of  indigo,  1  lb. 
alum.  Enter  cold  with  one  half  of  the 
extract ;  give  the  other  half  when  the 
boiler  warms  ;  bring  to  the  spring. 

Royal  Blue. — For  56  lbs.  3J  lbs. 
super-sulplwte  of  tartar,  3J  lbs.  prussiate 
of  potash,  2  lbs.  10  oz.  logwood,  3  J  quarts 
royal  blue  spirits,  3J  pints  muriate  of 
tin.  Into  a  boiler  containing  100  gallons 
of  water,  put  the  prussiate  and  super- 
sulphate  of  tartar,  after  being  dissolved 
in  a  little  boiling  water;  have  the  log- 
wood boiled  beforehand,  put  it  in,  and 
one-half  of  the  blue  spirits;  enter  cool, 
heat  up  to  180°  Fahrenheit,  and  lift ; 
give  tne  rest  of  the  blue  spirits  ;  return 
and  boil  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  lil't 
again,  cool  well  and  give  the  muriate  of 
tin  ;  return  and  boil  15  minutes ;  lift, 
wash,  and  dry. 

Royal  Blue  Purple. — For  56  lbs. 
lOJ  lbs.  logwood,  IJ  lb.  prussiate  of  pot- 
ash, 3J  lbs.  super-sulphate  of  tartar,  3J 
quarts  royal  blue  spirits,  3  J  pints  muriate 
of  tin.  Give  the  logwood  at  twice  lest 
the  colour  get  unlevel. 

Pea  Green.— -For  54  lbs.  2  lbs.  ex- 
tract of  indigo,  7  lbs.  fustic,  I  lb.  alum. 
Bring  on  t'rom  the  cold  ;  when  the  boiler 
heats  to  180°  Fahrenheit,  put  in  the  fus- 
tic ;  boil  15  minutes. 

COM.M0N  Palk  Green. — For  50  lbs. 
Hi  lbs.  extract  of  imligo,  2^  lbs.  fustic, 
10  oz.  tartar,  1  gill  sulphuric  acid. 
Give  the  extract  and  acid  (irst ;  when  at 
180°  Fahrenheit,  put  in  the  fustic  and 
tartai  ;  boil  15  minutes. 

Grass  Grken.  —  For  .50  lbs.  lioil 
20  lbs.  fustic,  7  lbs.  extract  of  indigo, 
ifl  lb.  tartar,  3  gills  sulphuric  acid. 

Olive  Green. — For  50  lbs.  Prepare 
with  IJ  lb.  chrome;  boil  half  nn  hour, 
and  wash  in  2  waters  ;  then  boil 
12  lbs.  fustic  and  2J  lbs.  logwood   for  1 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


85 


hour ;  add  2  lbs.  madder  and  2  lbs. 
redwood.  Enter  ;  boil  lialf  an  hour. 
Raise  in  the  same  liquor  witn  4  oz. 
bluestone  ;  wash  well  and  dry. 

Peach.— For  50  lbs.  Drench  8J  lbs. 
cudbear  wi:h  a  little  hot  water  ;  boil  or 
Ecald  it  in  3  or  4  gallons  ;  decant  the 
clear  liquor  into  a  boiler  containing 
100  gallons  water  ;  enter  cold  ;  bring  to 
the  boil ;  lift  and  put  in  1  lb.  soda,  or 
2  gallons  urine  ;  return  and  boil  10 
minutes. 

Drab.— For  50  lbs.  7  lbs.  fustic, 
8  oz.  madder,  4  oz.  cudbear,  2  lbs.  alum, 
8  oz.  tartar.  Enter  between  the  cold 
and  160°  Fahrenheit ;  after  heating  up, 
boil  from  10  to  30  minutes  ;  wash  in 
2  waters.  All  dark  shades  of  this  and 
the  four  following  colours  may  be  slightly 
prepared  with  chrome  ;  wash  in  2  waters. 

Light  Drab. — For  56  lbs.  4  lbs. 
fustic.  If  lb.  alum,  4  oz.  madder,  4  oz. 
tartar,  3|  oz.  cudbear.   Work  as  for  drab. 

Fawn. — For  50   lbs.      5   lbs.    fustic, 

1  lb.  madder,  ^  lb.  camwood,  ^  lb.  cud- 
bear, 2  lbs.  alum.     Work  as  for  drab. 

Stoxe. —  For  50  lbs.  1  lb.  logwood, 
4  oz.  fustic,  8  oz.  extract  of  indigo,  3  lbs. 
alum,  1|  lb.  tartar.     Work  as  for  drab. 

Slate. — For  50  lbs.  1  lb.  logwood, 
8  oz.    extract    of  indigo,    4   oz.    fustic, 

2  lbs.  tartar,  2  lbs.  alum.  Work  as  for 
drab. 

Straw. — For  50  lbs.  Boil  3i  lbs. 
quercitron  bark  and  3  oz.  cochineal. 
Add  2J  lbs.  tartar,  3  quarts  muriate  of 
tin.  Enter  at  150°  Fahrenheit  ;  boil 
30  minutes. 

Primrose.— For  50  lbs.  Boil  2^  lbs. 
bark.  Add  2  lbs.  tartar,  2  quarts 
muriate  of  tin.  Enter  at  150°  Faliren- 
heit ;  boil  30  minutes. 

Yellow. — For  40  lbs.  2|  lbs.  bark, 
2  lbs.  tartar,  2  quarts  muriate  of  tin. 
Enter  at  150°  Fahrenheit  ;  boil  30 
minutes. 

Buff. — For  45  lbs.  Boil  4^  lbs.  fus- 
tic and  IJ  lb.  madder.  Add  7  lbs.  alum. 
Enter  at  200°  Fahrenheit  ;  boil  30 
minutes. 

Amber. — For  40  lbs.  Boil  4  lbs. 
bark  and  8  oz.  madder.  Add  2  quarts 
muriate  of  tin,  1  lb.  tartar.  Enter  at 
300°  Fahrenheit ;  boil  30  minutes. 


Orange.— For  50  lbs.  Boil  10  lbs. 
bark  and  1^  lb.  cochineal.  Add  2  lbs. 
tartar,  2^  quarts  yellow  spirits.  Eutei 
at  200°  Fahrenheit ;   boil  30  minutes. 

Lilac. — For  50  lbs.  Boil  5J  lbs.  log- 
wood and  2  lbs.  alum.  Add  2  quarts 
muriate  of  tin,  8  oz.  extract  of  indigo. 
Brought  on  from  100°  Fahrenheit. 

Lavender. — For  45  lbs.  Boil  2  lbs. 
logwood  and  2  lbs.  alum.  Add  10  oz. 
extract  of  indigo.  Entei  cold,  and  bring 
up  to  the  boil. 

French  Grey. — For  50  lbs.  Boil 
7  lbs.  fustic  and  12  oz.  cudbear.  Add 
6  oz.  extract  of  indigo,  1  pmt  sulphuric 
acid.  Cool  to  180°  Fahrenheit;  enter, 
and  boil  20  minutes. 

Silver  Grev.  —  P'or  50  lbs.  Boil 
1  lb.  logwood  aud  2^  lbs.  alum.  Add 
5  oz.  extract  of  indigo.  Brought  on 
from  100°  Fahrenheit;  boil  10  minutes. 

French  Pink. — For  50  lbs.  3  gills 
ammonia  paste  ;  IJ  lb.  tartaric  acid,  to 
redden ;  10  oz.  oxalic  acid,  to  blue. 
Enter  at  140°  Fahrenheit  ;  heat  no 
higher  than  200°. 

Rose  Colour. — For  40  lbs.  I  lb. 
cochineal,  3  gills  double  muriate  of  tin, 
1  lb.  tartaric  acid.  Enter  at  100°  Fah- 
renheit;  heat  up;  boil  15  minutes;  lift, 
and  cool  to  120°,  by  throwing  out  part 
of  the  liquor,  and  filling  up  with  water, 
— add  1  gill  ammonia  paste,  12  oz.  tar- 
taric acid,  6  oz.  oxalic  acid.  Bring  up 
to  the  boil ;  when  the  desired  shade  is 
got,  wash  well,  and  dry. 

Scarlet  with  Cochineal.  —  For 
50  lbs.  Boil  4  lbs.  cochineal  and  If  lb. 
bark.  Add  3  lbs.  tartar,  2  quarts  scar- 
let spirits.  Enter  at  200°  Fahrenheit ; 
boil  one  hour  ;  wash  well.  Sour  before 
dyeing,  either  cold  or  warm  ;  1  water, 
out. 

Scarlet  with  Lac.  —  For  50  lbs. 
Boil  5i  lbs.  lac  and  1^  lb.  bark.  Add 
3  lbs.  tartar,  2  quarts  lac  scarlet  spirits. 
Enter  at  200°  Fahreulieit ;  boil  1  uo;r; 
wash  well.     Sour  as  before. 

Scarlet  with  Lac  and  Cochineai.. 
—For  50  lbs.  Boil  4*  lbs.  lac  aud  If  lb. 
bark.  Add  2  lbs.  tartar,  2  quarts  lac 
scarlet  spirits.  Enter  at  200°  Fahren- 
heit; boil  in  this  30  minutes ;  lift,  <iuJ 
wash   well ;  then,   in  a  boiler  of  clean 

V  2 


36 


Workshop  RECEiPtg. 


water,  boil  14  oz.  cochineal  and  14  oz. 
tartar.  Add  IJ  pint  scarlet  spirits. 
Enter  at  200°  Fahrenheit ;  boil  20  mi- 
nutes, and  wash  well  out.  Sour  before 
dveing. 

"  LiiiAwooD  Crimson.  —  For  50  lbs. 
Prepare  with  2  IL-s.  alum  and  i  lb.  tar- 
tar. Boil  half  an  hour;  wash  in  3 
warm  waters.  Boil  in  11  lbs.  limawood, 
and  add  ^  lb.  cudbear.  Boil  in  this  for 
half  an  hour,  and  blue  with  warm  water. 

Fast  CRnisox. — For  50  lbs.  6^  lbs. 
cochineal,  J  lb.  cudbear.  Boil  in  this 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  ;  raise  with  2 
quarts  crimson  spirits  ;  boil  a  quarter 
of  an  hour ;  lift,  wash  well,  and  diy. 

CociiixEAL  Crimson.  —  For  50  lbs. 
3J  lbs.  cochineal,  2J  lbs.  tartar,  2 
quarts  crimson  spirits.  Boil  half  an 
hour  ;  wash  well ;  blue  with  urine  or  a 
little  ammonia,  in  a  clean  tub  of  warm 
water,  150^  F. 

Cotton  Dyeing,  Black. — For  40 
lbs.  Boil  or  sciuld  10  lbs.  sumac  ;  lay  the 
cloth  or  yarn  in  this  for  18  hours  ;  wring 
out ;  run  through  acetate  of  iron,  40° 
Twaddle  ;  4  turns,  or  for  half  an  hour ; 
wring  out ;  repeat  and  wash  well  in  3 
waters  ;  then  boil  8  lbs.  logwood  and  1  lb. 
fustic  ;  put  off  the  boil  and  enter  ;  or  the 
iiear  of  the  liquor  may  be  decanted  into 
another  dish ;  1  run,  continue  half  an 
hour;  wring  out;  repeat;  .sadden  with 
1  lb.  copperas  ;  2  runs ;  wash  and  dr)'. 
Id  Job  Dyeing,  for  a  piece  of  cloth  20 
yards,  prepare  in  strong  hot  sumach  like 
the  above  ;  then  put  3  quarts  slacked 
lime  into  20  gallons  water;  when  the 
lime  precipitates,  decant  the  clear  into 
another  tub,  lifll  the  cloth  out  of  the 
sumach,  give  1  run  through  acetate  of 
iron,  1  thrnngli  lime,  repeat  in  the  iron, 
and  again  through  tiie  lime.  Should  the 
clotli  have  got  unlcvel,  give  an  extra 
run  through  the  lime  to  make  it  level ; 
then  wash  in  2  water.s,  and  give  logwood 
and  a  little  fustic,  like  the  above. 

Fast  I'.i.ack.  —  For  TiO  lbs.  Dark 
bine  on  blue  vat  cotton;  lay  then  in  18 
lbs.  hot  sumach  for  24  hours;  lift,  and 
Kvlden  with  black  iron  liquor;  w.'uh  and 
dry. 

Baow.^i, — For  HO  lbs.,  or  JOO  yards. 
Prei«ire  with  ^J  lbs.  sumaih    aertate  of 


iron,  2°  Twaddle,  and  lime,  1°  Twad. 
Dye  with  18  lbs.  redwood  and  4  lbs. 
fustic.  Twenty-four  hours  in  the  su- 
mach ;  lift,  and  run  through  the  iron 
tub,  then  through  the  lime;  repeat  in 
each  tub,  and  wash  in  3  waters  ;  then 
scald  or  boil  the  wood  ;  decant  into 
another  tub  ;  enter  and  winch  for  20 
minutes ;  air  out,  and  repeat ;  if  not 
dark  enough,  add  a  little  logwood;  then 
sadden  with  6  or  8  oz.  copperas. 

Madder  Brown. — For  40  lbs.  Boil 
or  scald  10  lbs.  sumach  ;  lay  the  gooiis 
in  it  for  24  hours  ;  lift,  and  decant  into 
a  tub,  containing  60  gallons  water,  1 
quart  acetate  of  iron,  and  1  quart  mor- 
dant. Enter;  turn  for  half  nn  hour; 
lift,  and  wash  in  2  waters  ;  then  dye 
with  10  lbs.  best  crop  madder;  enter 
cold,  and  bring  to  the  spring. 

Dark  Brown  with  Catechu. — For. 
200  yards.  Boil  30  lbs.  catechu  ;  enter 
the  cloth  as  it  leaves  the  singeing-work 
winch  it  in  the  catechu  for  some  time, 
and  let  it  down  into  the  boiler  all  night; 
in  the  morning  light  a  fire  under  the 
boiler ;  lilt  tlie  cloth,  and  give  2  runs 
tlirough  acetate  of  iron  ;  wash  well  out 
of  the  iron  ;  have  the  boiler  up,  and 
give  another  run  through  it  at  the  boil, 
1  hour ;  lift,  and  give  other  2  runs  of 
iron,  when  it  will  be  quite  black  ;  stripe 
with  lime  to  the  shade  required. 

Light  Catechu  Brown. — For  50  lbs. 
Boil  20  lbs.  catechu  in  one  boiler,  5  lbs. 
chrome  in  another.  Enter  in  the  c;itechu 
first ;  work  20  minutes,  and  wring  out ; 
then  through  the  chrome,  10  minutes, 
and  wring  out ;  through  catechu  again  ; 
giving  shot  about  till  dark  enough  ; 
linishing  with  catechu. 

Claret. — For  50  lbs.  Preparation, 
12J  lbs.  sumach  ;  spirit  tub,  3°  Twad. 
Dyeing,  l.'ij  lbs.  limawood  ;  2  lbs.  log- 
wood, to  blue.  l{;iising,  1  quart  red 
spirits  for  cotton.  8  to  10  houra  in 
the  sumach  ;  work  1  or  2  hours  in 
the  s])irit  tub ;  wash  out  of  it  in  3 
waters  ;  boil  the  limawood  and  logwood  ; 
decant  info  a  large  tub;  winch  30  mi- 
nutes ;  lift,  and  give  the  raising  ;  enter 
again  for  15  minutes;  lift,  wash,  and 
dry. 

Ilfisv.  —  For  50   lbs.     Preparation, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


37 


12J  lbs.  sumach  ;  spirit  tub,  3°  Twad. 
Dyeing,  12J  lbs.  limawood ;  1  lb.  log- 
wood to  blue.  Raising,  1  quart  red 
spirits,  for  cotton  ;  wrought  like  claret. 

Purple. — For  50  lbs.  Preparation, 
12j  lbs.  sumach  ;  spirit  tub,  2^°  Twad. 
Dyeing,  15  lbs.  logwood.  Raiding,  I 
quart  purple  spirits,  cotton  ;  wrought 
like  claret. 

SCAELET. — For  40  lbs.  Preparation, 
16  lbs.  sumach  ;  spirit  tub,  3°  Twad. 
Dyeing,  24  lbs.  limawood,  3J  lbs.  tur- 
meric. Piaising,  6  lbs.  alum.  After 
lying  in  sumach  24  hours,  lift,  and 
winch  it  in  the  spirit  tub ;  wash  well 
out ;  boil  the  wood ;  decant  the  clear 
liquor  into  a  lai'ge  tub  ;  enter,  and 
winch  for  30  minutes ;  then  raise  with 
alum. 

Ckijison  with  Cochineal. — For  50 
lbs.  Prepare  with  15  lbs.  sumach  and 
10  lbs.  alum.  Dye  with  6^  lbs.  cochineal. 
Twenty-four  hours  in  the  sumach  ;  lift ; 
make  up  a  hot  solution  of  alum  ;  winch 
in  that  2  or  3  hours  ;  lift ;  wash  in  2 
waters  ;  thsn  boil  the  cochineal ;  put 
otf  the  boil ;  enter,  and  winch  till  full 
enough  ;  then  wash  and  dry. 

Limawood  Red. — For  40  lbs.  10  lbs. 
sumach;  spirit  vat,  2i°  Twaddle;  12 
lbs.  limawood  ;  1  quart  red  spirits. 
After  being  prepared  with  sumach, 
winch  it  in  the  spirit  vat  for  2  hours ; 
lift,  and  wash  well  in  3  waters ;  boil  or 
scald  the  limawood  ;  decant  the  clear 
liquor  into  another  vessel ;  enter,  and 
winch  in  this  for  30  minutes ;  lift,  and 
raise  in  the  same  liquor,  with  1  quart  of 
red  spirits. 

iiARWOOD  Red. — For  40  lbs.  10  lbs. 
sumach  ;  spirit  vat,  2J°  Twaddle  ;  40  lbs. 
barwood ;  1  quart  red  spirits  ;  done  in 
the  same  manner  as  limawood  red. 

Drab. — For  40  lbs.  Boil  6  lbs.  fustic ; 
scald  2J  lbs.  limawood ;  2  lbs.  sumach. 
Decant  into  a  wooden  vessel,  capable  of 
containing  100  gallons ;  reduce  with  cold 
water  to  handling  heat  •  ^nter ;  6  turns  ; 
wring  out ;  sadden  witn  8  oz.  copperas ; 
4  turns ;  wring  out  again,  and  give  4  oz. 
bluestone. 

Fawx. — For  50  lbs.  Boil  5  lbs.  fustic 
and  3  lbs.  limawood.  Add  2  lbs.  alum. 
Decant  the  fustic  and  limawood  into  a 


Scald    IJ   lb 


large  tub ;  reduce  to  handling  heat ; 
enter  and  work  15  minutes  ;  if  not  dark 
enough,  add  8  oz.  logwood  ;  then  wash 
and  dry. 

Stoxe.— For  50  lbs.  Boil  4  lbs.  fus- 
tic, 2  lbs.  limawood,  2  lbs.  madder. 
Decant  and  work  in  this  15  minutes  ;  air 
out  and  repeat ;  lift,  and  add  4  or  6  oz. 
copperas  ;  enter  again,  and  work  till  you 
get  the  required  shade ;  then  wash  and 
dry. 

Lavender. — 100  yards.  Scald  1  lb. 
logwood  and  2  lbs.  sumach.  Decant 
both  into  a  tub  of  sufficient  size  ;  cool  tj 
150°  Fahrenheit;  add  2  gills  vitriol; 
winch  in  this  20  minutes  ;  lift  and  run 
slightly  through  acetate  of  iron  ;  wash 
in  2  waters,  then  give  1  lb.  logwood  as 
before  ;  raise  with  a  pint  of  muriate  of 
tin  ;  wash  in  2  waters  ;  then,  in  a  tub  of 
cold  water,  put  4  oz.  extract  of  indigo  ; 
enter,  and  winch  in  this  15  minutes  ; 
lift,  give  1  water,  and  dry. 

Lilac.  — 100   yards, 
logwood,   2   lbs.   sumach.     Decant,  and 
work  like  the  last ;  sadden,  and  top  with 
logwood  ;  raise  with  muriate  of  tin. 

PiXK. — For  30  lbs.  yarn,  or  250  yards 
cloth.  Bleed  7  lbs.  salilower  in  50 
gallons  soft  water ;  dissolve  2  lbs. 
tartar  in  3  gallons  hot  water  ;  enter  the 
yarn  in  the  safllower,  and  give  4  turns  ; 
lift,  and  put  in  one-half  of  the  tartar  ; 
enter ;  4  turns  more ;  lift  again,  and 
put  in  all  the  tartar,  and  work  in  it  till 
yoti  get  the  required  shade. 

Deep  Blue. — Put  10  lbs.  cotton 
through  the  blue  vat ;  soak  in  a  decoc- 
tion of  2  lbs.  sumach  for  3  hours  ;  work 
for  15  minutes  through  water  contain- 
ing 1  pint  red  mordant  and  1  pint  black 
liquor ;  wash  twice  in  hnt  water,  then 
work  20  minutes  in  a  decoction  of  2  lbs. 
logwood;  lift,  and  raise  with  J  pint  o/ 
red  mordant,  work  10' minutes;  wash 
and  dry. 

Pale  Blue.— For  50  lb?.  2J  lb?, 
prussiate  of  potash ;  nitrate  of  iron,  3° 
Twaddle  ;  add  2i  lbs.  crystals  of  tin,  1 
pint  vitriol.  Turn  in  the  iron  tub  20 
minutes  ;  lift ;  run  through  cold  water 
(not  rinced),  wring  up  ;  shake  well  out ; 
dissolve  the  prussiate  into  100  gallons 
water;  enter,  and  winch   15  tninute,^ ; 


B8 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


lift,  aad  give  2  gills  vitriol  ;  return  for 
lu  minutes ;  lift,  and  run  through 
water ;  again  through  the  iron  tub ; 
repeat  in  the  prussiate ;  raise  again 
with  vitriol,  and  when  the  required 
Bhale  is  got,  lift;  1  water,  and  finish 
out  of  a  weak  solution  of  alum. 

lIovAL  Blue. — Run  u]ion  the  cold 
blue  vat,  cotton;  air  out;  wash  in  2 
waters,  and  sour ;  then  give  a  run 
♦.hrough  the  iron  (nitrate)  tub  ;  1  water, 
and  top  with  prussiate  of  potash,  J  an 
ounce  to  the  pound  of  yarn.  If  the  vat 
is  not  in  good  order,  or  without  that 
convenience,  better  do  this  colour  with 
prussiate  altogether. 

Orange. — For  40  lbs.  2J  lbs.  an- 
natto,  24-  lbs.  bark,  3  quarts  muriate  of 
tin.  Boil  the  nnnatto  ;  put  off  the  boil ; 
enter,  and  winch  till  it  has  a  good  body  ; 
wring  out,  wash  well,  wring  again,  and 
shake  out ;  then,  in  a  clean  boiler,  boil 
the  bark  in  a  bag  for  15  minutes  ;  add 
the  muriate  of  tin,  and  enter;  winch  at 
the  spring  till  the  required  shade  is  got. 

Orange  Yellow.  —  For  50  lbs. 
Bottoming,  IJ  lb.  annatto.  Dyeing, 
5  lbs.  bark,  3  quarts  muriate  of  tin. 
Give  the  annatto  boiling  hot ;  wash  in  2 
waters ;  boil  the  bark,  and  add  the 
muriate  of  tin ;  enter ;  winch  20 
minutes,  then  wash  and  dry. 

CiiitCME  Yellow.  —  For  50  lbs. 
10  lbs.  acetate  of  lead,  5  lbs.  chrome. 
Dissolve  separately,  and  put  each  intoa 
tub  containing  100  gallons  water  ;  enter 
in.the  lead  first,  4  or  5  turns  ;  wring  out ; 
then  through  chrome  ;  continue  from  the 
one  to  the  other  till  dark  enough. 

Olive.— For  50  lbs.  10  lbs.  bark, 
2  lbs.  logwood,  8  oz.  bluestone.  Boil 
the  bark  in  a  bag  ;  put  o(f  the  boil,  and 
enter;  winch  20  minutes  ;  lift,  and  put 
ID  the  bluestone  ;  return  for  10  minutes; 
lilt  and  wash  in  2  waters,  and  top; 
(;ive  the  logwood  in  another  dish  ;  when 
dark  enough,  wash  and  dry. 

BuKF.— Give  nitrate  of  iron,  6° 
Twaddle,  150°  Fahrenheit;  winch  in 
this  till  full  enough,  then  lift  ;  give  2 
waters;  raise  in  a  solution  of  lime, 
1°  Twaddle  ;  if  not  dark  enough,  repeat 
in  the  iron  tub,  then  in  the  lime. 

QrkkN. — VoT  40    lbs.      Preparation, 


nitrate  of  iron,  4°  Twaddle.  Dyeing, 
1|  lb.  prussiate  of  potash,  45  lbs.  fustic, 
a  oz.  extract  of  indigo.  liaising,  1  pint 
vitriol,  5  lbs.  alum.  Turn  in  an  iron 
tub  for  20  minutes  ;  wring  out ;  run 
through  cold  water  lightly,  wrmg  and 
shake  well  out  ;  dissolve  the  prussiate  ; 
put  it  into  a  tub  of  cold  water,  4  or  5 
turns;  lift,  and  give  2  gills  sulphuric 
acid  ;  4  or  5  turns  more  ;  run  through 
cold  water,  and  wring  out ;  repeat  in 
the  iron  and  prussiate  tubs  as  befoie 
dyeing ;  give  the  fustic  moderately 
warm  in  a  clean  liquor;  turn  30 
minutes ;  lift,  and  raise  in  the  same 
liquor  with  5  lbs.  alum  and  6  oz.  ex- 
tract of  indigo  ;  winch  in  this  till  you 
get  the  required  shade. 

Fast  Chrome  Green. — For  56  lbs. 
lOJ  lbs.  chrome,  5  lbs.  acetate  of  lead. 
Blue  on  the  blue  vat,  cotton ;  wash  in  2 
waters,  and  give  a  warm  sour  then 
dissolve,  and  put  the  lead  and  chrome 
into  separate  tubs  ;  enter  in  the  lead 
tub  first ;  wring  out ;  then  through  the 
chrome ;  continue  from  the  one  to  the 
other  till  dark  enough. 

Vats  for  Various  Colours. — 
WoAD  Vat. — 250  gallons  water,  170° 
Fahrenheit,  put  in  150  lbs.  best  English 
woad,  well  chopped  ;  9  lbs.  best  indigo, 
well  ground;  Ih  lbs.  madder;  2 J  lbs. 
bran.  Rake  altogether  well  up,  and  the 
vat  ought  to  assume  a  green  appearance  ; 
in  12  or  14  hours,  dip  a  piece  of  cloth, 
or  a  little  wool,  into  the  vat ;  if  it  dye 
green,  it  will  turn  blue  by  exposure  to 
the  air;  rake  u]i,  and  if  it  holds  the 
head  well  up,  put  in  1  quart  of  quick- 
lime, and  rake  again  ;  in  3  hours  after, 
rake  again,  and  if  it  looks  of  a  greenish 
yellow,  ]iut  in  li  ([uart  more  of  lime; 
in  3  or  4  hours  after,  rake  again  ;  if  the 
vat  looks  yellower,  use  another  quart  ol 
lime  ;  in  an  liour  after  this,  if  it  smells 
.slightly  of  lime,  it  lias  enough  ;  if  it 
smells  strongly  of  lime,  it  has  too  much, 
which  may  be  counteracted  by  using  1} 
or  2  lbs.  of  madder,  or  by  heating  the 
vat  ;  when  the  liijuor  is  hard,  it  is  of  an 
orange  colour,  which  may  be  seen  by 
blowing;  when  it  is  soft,  it  np|>car.3 
faint  yellow,  and  throws  up  a  scum. 
In  serving  or  heating  the  vat,  it  should 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


89 


be  raked  occasionally,  taking  care  not  to 
ilisturb  the  sediment,  but  merely  to 
bring  the  liquor  to  an  equal  degree  of 
heat ;  then  put  in  3  lbs.  indigo,  and 
IJ  lb.  madder ;  allow  it  to  settle  for 
12  hours;  then,  if  it  looks  of  a  greenish 
colour,  and  does  not  smell  of  lime,  use 
1  quart  of  lime.  In  all  cases,  if  the  vat 
smells  slightly  of  lime,  it  is  a  proof  that 
it  has  enough  ;  if  it  smells  very  strongly 
of  lime,  give  1|-  lb.  of  potash,  and  2  lbs. 
madder  ;  then,  if  it  smells  of  lime  in- 
stead of  woad,  cool  by  taking  off  the 
covering,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of 
the  lime  will  evapoiate;  heat  up  again, 
and  put  in  30  or  35  lbs.  of  woad ;  when 
hot,  rake  well  up  ;  look  at  the  vat  in  6 
or  8  hours,  if  the  upper  part  of  the 
liquor  looks  yellow,  rake  up,  and  if  it 
does  not  darken,  use  2  quarts  of  lime  : 
when  you  rake  up,  stir  the  bottom  at 
all  times,  except  when  heating  up  ;  3 
hours  is  long  enough  for  a  woad  vat  to 
settle.  In  dyeing  silk  or  cotton  on  this 
vat,  it  is  safest  to  work  it  cold,  or  at 
most  lukewarm. 

Ash  Vat,  Woollen.  —  400  gallons 
\sater,  heat  to  170°  Fahrenheit,  5  lbs. 
ground  indigo,  10  lbs.  American  potash, 
3  lbs.  madder,  4  lbs.  bran.  Apply  a 
slow  fire,  and  it  will  come  to  fermenta- 
tion in  14  or  16  hours ;  then  add  1  or  2 
lbs.  madder.  In  renovating  this  vat, 
use  more  potash  in  proportion  to  your 
indigo,  than  in  setting  a  new  vat. 

Blue  Vat,  Cotton.  —  140  gallons 
water,  16  lbs.  copperas,  8  lbs.  gi-ound 
indigo,  16  lbs.  quicklime.  Rake  up 
occasionally  for  5  or  6  hours,  till  all  the 
copperas  be  dissolved  ;  if  the  vat  be  of  a 
greenish  yellow  colour,  consider  it  in 
good  order  ;  if  it  assumes  a  dark  green 
colour,  it  shows  a  deficiency  of  lime  ;  if 
yellowish,  it  is  short  of  copperas  ;  after 
raking,  allow  12  hours  to  settle  be- 
fore working ;  renovate  with  copperas 
!ind  lime,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
rat. 

Purple  Vat. — Boil  1  cwt.  of  'he 
best  logwood  in  30  gallons  of  water  for 
3  or  4  hours,  when  it  will  be  reduced  to 
26  gallons  ;  decant  the  clear  liquor  into 
a  wood  or  stone  vessel ;  let  it  stand  till 
quit€  cold,  and  add  56  lbs.  purple  vat 


spirits,  7°  Twaddle.  In  renovating  this 
vat,  it  is  made  up  with  raw  muriatic 
acid  till  the  glass  stands  as  hifh  as 
when  set. 

Crimson  Vat. — Boil  1  cwt.  lima- 
wood  ;  decant  it  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  last,  and  add  56  lbs.  crimson  vat 
spirits  ;  renovate  with  killed  spirits,  7° 
Twaddle. 

Lavender  Vat. — 50  lbs.  Boil  14  lbs. 
logwood  in  10  or  12  gallons  water ; 
decant  the  clear  into  a  60-gallon  tub 
containing  40  gallons  of  water  ;  when  it 
is  quite  cold,  add  45  lbs.  lavender  spirits; 
rake  up  occasionally  for  3  or  4  hours ; 
next  day  it  will  be  fit  for  working,  and 
the  glass  will  stand  at  6°  Twaddle. 
This  wiW  dye  lilac ;  add  neutralized 
paste  for  lavender.  Renovate  with  raw 
muriatic  acid  till  the  glass  stands  at  6°. 

Rose  Pink  Vat.— Boil  IJ  lb.  of 
limawood  in  3  gallons  water;  decant 
the  clear  into  a  tub  containing  20 
gallons  water,  and  add  5  quarts  double 
muriate  of  tin ;  the  hydrometer  will 
stand  at  7°;  renovate  with  double 
muriate  of  tin. 

Silk  Spirits.  Nitro-sulphate  of 
Iron. — 2  galls,  of  30  lbs.  double  aqua- 
fortis, 24  lbs.  copperas.  Put  the  aqua- 
fortis into  a  leaden  or  stoneware  pot ; 
place  it  near  a  fire,  and  add  the  cop- 
peras at  3  or  4  times ;  if  without  the 
convenience  of  a  fire,  put  in  a  quart  of 
hot  water  with  the  first  of  the  copperas. 

Nitrate  of  Iron. — 2  galls,  aqua- 
fortis, 5J  lbs.  old  iron.  Put  this  into  a 
6-gallon  pot ;  add  the  iron  by  degrees  ; 
and  keep  it  warm,  like  the  last. 

Scarlet. — 3  lbs.  muriatic  acid,  3  lbs. 
pure  double  nitric  acid  ;  add  2  oz.  sal 
ammoniac,  and  feed  with  1§  lb.  granu- 
lated tin. 

Purple  Vat  Spirits.  —  4  galls 
(54  lbs.)  marine  acid,  \\  gall.  (20  lbs.) 
nitric  acid.  Kill  with  3J  lbs.  granu- 
lated tin  ;  I  oz.  to  the  pound. 

Crimson  Vat  Spirits.  —  3  galls, 
muriatic  acid,  2  galls,  nitric  acid,  2  oz. 
sal  ammoniac,  fed  with  3J  lbs.  tin. 

Lavender. — 30  lbs.  muriatic  acid, 
15  lbs.  double  nitric  acid.  Kill  with 
3  lbs.  granulated  tin ;  nearly  1  oa.  to 
the  pound. 


ftO 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


MuKiATK  OP  Tin. — Give  any  quantity 
of  muriatic  acid  as  much  tin  as  it  can 
consume ;  you  will  know  when  it  has 
enough,  by  seeing  tin  lying  undissolved 
at  the  bottom  of  the  pot. 

Double  Muriate  of  Tin. — It  requires 
twice  as  much  tin  as  the  last ;  it  may 
be  made  by  heating  common  muriate 
of  tm  m  a  stoneware  pot,  placed  in  a 
hot  sand-bath,  and  giving  as  much  tin 
as  it  can  consume. 

IxDiGO,  Extract  of.  —  1  lb.  best 
Ejround  indigo,  6  lbs.  double  vitriol. 
Mix  together  ;  let  stand  48  hours  in 
a  stone  pot ;  then  put  the  vessel  into 
a  warm  bath  till  properly  dissolved ; 
take  6  gallons  water,  170°  Fah- 
renheit ;  add  the  indigo  slowly,  filter 
through  woollen  cloth,  covered  with 
brown  paper,  into  a  wooden  vessel ; 
what  remains  on  the  paper  put  away, 
as  it  is  only  earth  ;  then  add  your 
liquor,  4  lbs.  common  salts,  1  lb.  pearl- 
ash.  Let  it  stand  till  it  ceases  fer- 
menting, then  filter  again  through  brown 
paper,  and  wliat  remains  on  the  paper  is 
pure  extract  of  indigo ;  there  should  be 
12  lbs.  of  it. 

Ajuionia  Paste.  —  1  quart  strong 
ammonia,  1  ditto  water,  2  lbs.  ground 
cochineal.  Stir  them  all  well  together 
in  a  stone  pot ;  tie  up  the  mouth  of  it 
tightly,  and  set  it  in  some  warm  place, 
such  as  the  flue  of  a  stove,  for  two 
days,  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use. 

Woollen  Spirits.  Roval  Blue. 
— 2  quarts  of  muriatic  acid,  1  ditto 
nitric  acid,  no  tin.  Before  using,  let  it 
stand  until  the  gas  goes  olT. 

Scakli:t  .Si'iiUT. — I'ut  any  quantity 
of  nitre,  and  the  same  of  clear  water, 
into  a  stoneware  pot;  the  water  first; 
then  add  1  lb.  muriatic  acid  to  every 
5  lbs.  of  the  above,  and  give  2  oz.  of  tin 
to  the  pound  of  spirits,  adding  it  very 
slowly  for  one  or  two  days,  because  in 
giving  the  tin  too  fast  the  K|)irit8  get 
fired,  which  precipitates  the  nitre,  and 
they  are  lost. 

(;iusist).\  SriiUTS  are  the  same  as 
•cartel  Kj)irifs,  but  Lave  more  tin  dls- 
wilved  in  them  ;  give  as  much  as  tliey 
will  take,  till  they  turn  of  a  bluish 
r<i)our 


Lac  Scarlet  Spirit. — 3  gaHs.  muria- 
tic acid,  2  galls,  water,  feed  with  6  lbs. 
tin,  1  gall,  nitric  acid. 

PuRi'Lii  Spirits. — 1  gall,  muriatit 
acid,  feed  with  2  lbs.  granulated  tin,  or 
an  ounce  to  every  gill. 

Cotton  Spirits,  Red. — For  50  lbs. 
40  lbs.  muriatic  acid,  10  lbs.  nitric  acid, 
carefully  and  slowly  killed  with  9^  lbs 
of  tin,  or  3  oz.  of  tin  to  the  pound. 

Purple.  —  2  quarts  muriatic  acid 
feed  with  IJ  lb.  tin,  or  1 J  oz.  to  tlio  gill, 

Black  Liquor. — 3u0  lbs.  copperaj 
dissolved  with  175  galls,  hot  water,  the- 
add  57  galls,  acetate  of  lime  liquor  at 
at  16°  Tw.,  or  32  lbs.  copperas,  5  quarts 
pyroligneous  at  7°  Tw.,  10  galls,  acetate 
of  lime  liquor  at  24°  Tw.  Used  as  a 
mordant ;  gives  black  with  madder  at 
6°  Tw.  ;  very  diluted  gives  various 
shades  of  violet,  and  with  red  liquor 
gives  chocolates. 

Red  Mordant. — 20  lbs.  powdered 
alum  is  dissolved  in  9  galls,  water 
heated  to  140° ;  mix  with  this  20  lbs. 
sugar  of  lead,  and  add  2  lbs.  soda  crys- 
tals ;  should  be  frequently  stirred  for 
days.  Used  in  the  above  proportions  lor 
calico. 

Red  Mordant,  for  Madder  Pink. 
— 8  lbs.  alum,  9  quarts  water,  6  lbs. 
sugar  of  lead.  For  lighter  pink,  use 
10  galls.  wat/»r,  37  lbs.  alum,  15  lbs. 
sugar  of  lead,  2J  lbs.  i)ulverized  clialk, 
5  lbs.  chloride  of  sodium  or  cuninion 
chalk. 

Ageing  Liquor. — 20  lbs.  caustic- 
soda  at  60°  Tw.,  20  lbs.  white  arsenic  in 
j)owder.  Boil  until  all  the  arsenic  is 
dissolved.  Make  a  solution  of  3  lbs.  of 
chlorate  of  potash  in  4  galls,  of  water; 
add  the  first  liquor  until  it  stands  at 
28°  Tw. 

Pink  Mordant,  Alkaline. —  10 
galls,  caustic  potash  add  slowly  35  lbs. 
suljihate  of  alumina  ;  thicken  with 
British  gum,  and  fix  with  chloride  of 
zinc  or  sal  ammouiac. 

Verdigris. — 2  quarts  water  at  160° 
Falir.,  2  lbs.  white  sugar  of  lead,  2  llis. 
suljihate  ofc(ip|ier.  U.se<l  in  calico  jji-jut- 
iug,  and  in  tin*  black  dye  for  silk. 

Cheap  Filter.— Take  a  common 
flower-iiot  as  large  a."  possible,  ulug  the 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


41 


hole  with  a.  piece  of  sponge,  then  put  a 
layer  of  powdered  charcoal  about  an 
inch  thick,  the  same  of  silver  sand,  and 
a  layer  of  small  stones  and  coarse  gravel 
about  2  in.  thick.  A  good  filter  may 
be  made  by  placing  in  a  tank  of  impure 
water  a  vessel  so  arranged  that  a  sponge 
which  it  contains  shall  lap  over  its  edge 
and  dip  into  the  water  of  the  tank. 
The  sponge  gradually  sucks  up  and  puri- 
fies the  water  in  the  reservoir,  and  allows 
it  to  drop  into  the  smaller  vessel  or 
receiver,  from  which  it  may  be  drawn 
off  by  a  tube.  By  placing  a  few  lumps 
of  charcoal  in  the  bottom  of  the  receiver, 
filtration  of  the  most  perfect  kind  is 
effected. 

Glue  Melting. — Break  the  glue 
mto  small  pieces  and  soak  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  hours  in  cold  water,  put 
the  glue  in  tlie  glue-pot,  fill  the  outer 
vessel  with  water,  and  apply  heat.  For 
ordinary  purposes  it  should  run  freely, 
and  be  of  the  consistency  of  thin  treacle. 
The  hotter  glue  is,  the  more  force  it  will 
exert  in  keeping  the  two  parts  glued 
together;  in  all  large  and  long  joints, 
the  glue  should  be  applied  immediately 
after  boiling.  Glue  loses  much  of  its 
strength  by  being  often  melted ;  that 
glue,  therefore,  which  is  newly  made,  in 
much  preferable  to  that  which  has  been 
used.  When  done  with  add  some  of  the 
boiling  water  from  the  outer  vessel  to 
the  glue,  so  as  to  make  it  too  thin  for 
use.  Put  it  away  till  wanted  again,  and 
by  the  time  the  water  in  the  outer 
vessel  is  boiled,  the  glue  in  the  inner  is 
ready  melted  and  the  proper  thickness 
for  use.  Powdered  chalk,  brick-dust,  or 
saw-dust  added  to  glue,  will  make  it 
hold  with  more  than  ordinary  firmness. 

Liquid  Glue.  —  1.  Soft  water,  1 
quart ;  best  pale  glue,  2  lbs.  ;  dissolve 
in  a  covered  vessel  by  the  heat  of  a 
water  bath  ;  after  cooling,  add  with 
caution  7  oz.  of  nitric  acid  ;  when  cold, 
bottle  off.  2.  White  glue,  16  oz. ;  dry 
white-lead,  4  oz. ;  soft  water,  2  pints ; 
alcohol,  4  oz.  ;  stir  together,  and  bottle 
while  hot.  3.  3  parts  glue  broken  into 
Email  pieces  should  be  covered  with  8 
parts  of  water,  and  left  to  stand  for 
i"ine  hours ;  one-half  of  hydrochloric  acid 


and  three-fourths  of  sulphate  of  zinc  must 
then  be  added,  and  the  whole  exposed  to 
a  temperature  of  from  81°  to  89°  C, 
during  ten  or  twelve  hours.  Allow  the 
compound  to  settle. 

Elastic  Glue. — Dissolve  glue  by  the 
aid  of  a  water  bath,  evaporate  till  a 
thick  fluid  is  obtained,  add  an  equal 
w  eight  of  glycerine,  continue  the  evapo- 
ration with  stirring  until  the  remaining 
water  is  driven  off;  run  it  out  on  a 
marble  slab  to  cool.  This  composition 
might  be  advantageously  applied  to  the 
manufacture  of  printers'  rollers,  and 
similar  articles. 

Glue  fok  Gutta-perciia. — 2  parts 
common  black  pitch,  and  1  part  gutta- 
percha, melted  in  a  ladle  and  well 
stirred  together,  then  run  into  moulds. 

Portable,  or  Mouth  Glue. — Fine 
pale  glue,  1  lb. ;  dissolve  over  a  water 
bath  in  sufficient  water,  add  brown 
sugar,  ^  lb. ;  continue  the  heat  till 
amalgamation  is  effected  ;  pour  on  a  slab 
of  slate  or  marble,  and  when  cold  cut 
into  squares.  Used  by  moistening  with 
the  tongue. 

Glue  to  resist  Heat  or  JIoisture. 
— Jlix  a  handful  of  quicklime  in  4  oz. 
of  linseed  oil ;  boil  them  to  a  good  thick- 
ness, then  spread  it  on  tin  plates  in  the 
shade,  and  it  will  become  very  hard,  but 
may  be  easily  dissolved  over  the  fire  as 
glue.  A  glue  which  will  resist  the 
action  of  water  is  made  by  boiling  1  lb. 
of  common  glue  in  2  quarts  of  skimmed 
milk. 

Marine  Glue. — 1.  Dissolve  by  heat 
1  part  of  pure  india-rubber  in  naphtha  ; 
when  melted  add  2  parts  shellac  ;  melt 
until  mixed.  Pour  while  hot  on  metal 
plates  to  cool ;  when  required  to  use, 
melt  and  apply  with  a  brush.  2.  Ca- 
outchouc, 20  grains  ;  chloroform,  2  fluid 
oz. ;  dissolve  and  add  4  drachms  of  pow- 
dered mastic  ;  let  it  macerate  for  a  week  ; 
must  be  kept  cool  and  well  corked. 

Rice  Glue. — Mis  rice  flour  inti- 
mately with  cold  water,  and  gently 
simmer  it  over  the  fire,  when  it  readily 
forms  a  delicate  and  durable  gluo. 

Bookbinders'  Paste. — Place  half 
a  quartern  of  flour  in  a  saucepan,  put  a« 
much  cold  water  on  it  as  will  cover  it, 


«2 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


and  stir  it  well  up,  so  as  to  break  all  the 
lumps  while  in  a  state  of  dough.  Then 
pour  on  about  2  quarts  of  cold  water 
and  1  oz.  of  powdered  alum.  Stir  well 
and  boil  till  it  becomes  thick. 

Putty. — Mix  a  quantity  of  whiting 
into  a  very  stitf  paste  with  linseed  oil, 
rubbing  and  beating  it  well  before  using. 
For  particular  purposes,  as  for  fanlights, 
iron-framed  greenhouses,  and  other 
places  where  the  lap  or  hold  is  very 
narrow,  a  little  white-lead  may  be 
added  to  advantage.  Coloured  putty  has 
a  mixture  of  red  ochre,  lampblack,  or 
other  colour  with  the  whiting. 

Soft  Putty. — 10  lbs.  of  whiting  and 
1  lb.  of  white-lead,  mix  with  the  neces- 
sary quantity  of  boih^d  linseed  oil,  adding 
to  it  j  a  gill  of  the  best  salad  oil.  The 
last  prevents  the  white-lead  from  har- 
dening and  preserves  the  putty  in  a 
state  sufficiently  soft  to  adhere  at  all 
times,  and  not  by  getting  hard  and 
cracking  off,  suffering  the  wet  to  enter, 
as  is  often  the  case  with  ordinary  hard 
putty. 

To  Soften  Putty. — 1  lb.  of  American 
pearlash,  3  lbs.  of  quick  stone  lime  ; 
slack  the  lime  in  water,  then  add  the 
peai  lash,  and  make  the  whole  about 
the  consistence  of  paint.  Apply  it  to 
both  sides  of  the  glass  and  let  it  remain 
for  twelve  hours,  whc^i  the  putty  will 
be  .so  softened  that  the  glass  may  be 
taken  out  of  the  frame  with  the  greatest 
facility. 

Sealing-wax,  Red. — Take  1  lb.  of 
yellow  resin,  5J  ox.  of  gum  lac,  .5J  oz.  of 
Venice  turpentine,  and  1  oz.  of  ver- 
milion. Melt  the  lac  in  a  coi)])er  pan 
suspended  over  a  clear  fire,  add  the 
resin,  pour  the  turpentine  slowly  in,  and 
soon  afterwards  add  the  vermilion, 
stirring  the  mixture  all  the  time.  P'oi-m 
either  into  round  sticks  liy  rolling  it 
out  on  a  smooth  stone  slab  by  means  of 
a  wooden  boai'ii,  or  into  oval  sti('ks  by 
ca.stiug  it  into  stone  moulds  made  in  two 
pieces. 

Black  sealing-wax  is  made  by  sub- 
stituting either  lam]>black  or  ivory- 
black  in  the  abor*  receipt. 

Gold  Sealinii-vjix.  —  To  common 
colourleM  sealing-wax,  made  of  shellac 


5  parts,  add  turpentine  1  part,  and 
when  melted  and  beginning  to  cool, 
gold-coloured  spangles  of  mica,  Dutch 
leaf,  or  gold. 

Potting-,  Bodies. — English  porce- 
lain and  earthenware  are  made  from  the 
following  bodies,  which  are  prepared  by 
soaking  the  clays  in  a  large  vessel  of 
water,  and  when  of  the  consistence  of 
slip  passing  them  through  the  finest 
silk  lawn  into  another  vessel  in  which 
proper  gauges  are  fixed,  so  that  the 
other  materials  may  be  afterwards  added 
in  a  slop  state.  Clay  slip  should  weigh 
13J  lbs.  ;  Cornish  clay,  13^  lbs. ;  Cornish 
stone,  16|  lbs. ;  and  flint,  16|  lbs.  a 
gallon.  The  passing  through  the  lawn 
is  repeated  as  often  as  is  needful,  so  that 
the  mixture  may  be  deprived  of  im- 
jiurities.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
bones  used  for  china  bodies  are  not 
decayed,  and  for  the  other  materials 
used  in  making  porcelain,  great  care  is 
necessary  to  see  that  they  are  of  the 
purest  kinds.  These  bodies  fire  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  that  usually 
observed,  and  are  placed  and  fixed  in 
the  furnace  with  ground  flint.  For  the 
coloured  bodies  the  marls  used  should 
be  selected  of  the  finest  quality,  argil- 
laceous marl  being  the  best ;  and  very 
(ine  lawn  will  be  recjuired  if  it  is 
intended  that  the  boily  should  be  clean 
and  free  from  metallic  sjiots.  Clay  in 
which  the  silicious  ingredients  are  in 
])roii(ntion  of  three  to  one  are  the  best 
for  the  use  of  porcelain  ;  those  in  which 
argil  is  in  excess  arc  the  best  for  coarser 
earthenware,  because  less  acted  u])on  by 
alkalies.  The  colours  in  clays  produced 
by  vegetables  or  bituminous  juuticles  are 
destroyed  by  heat  in  an  o])en  fire,  and 
are  by  no  means  prejudicial  ;  but  those 
wliicdi  arise  from  metallic  jiarticles  are 
obstinate,  and  should  be  avoided  as  mu<'h 
as  possii)le.  Clays  which  contain  argil 
and  silex  only  are  very  rofractoi-y,  but  cal- 
careous earths  in  the  pro])ortion  of  10  to 
12  per  cent,  will  render  any  clay  fusible. 
The  clays  for  porcelain  should  be  those 
which  contain  the  most  sand,  :iud  are  of 
the  greatest  fineness;  also  such  as  do 
not  retain  watei  with  too  much  tenacity, 
which  is  the  case  when  argil  is  not  com- 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


43 


b'.ned  with  fixed  air,  therefore  all  clays 
ought  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
atmo.sjihere  for  a  long  time  previous  to 
using.  Calcareous  earth  in  its  common 
form  is  limestone  or  spar,  magnesia,  &c., 
which  in  their  pure  state  are  not  so 
easily  dissolved  as  when  combined  with 
fixed  air.  Argillaceous  clay  or  alumina 
clay  forms  the  basis  of  common  alum  ; 
is  called  argil,  and  is  never  found  pure ; 
the  finest  part  is  extracted  from  alum, 
and  is  not  fusible  in  the  strongest  heat 
required  for  china  or  earthenware. 
Argil  in  its  usual  state  of  dryness  is 
capable  of  absorbing  two  and  a  half 
times  its  weight  of  water.  Silicious 
earths  found  in  a  stony  state  abound  in 
Hint ;  the  purest  are  found  in  crystals 
and  quartz  of  a  pure  white ;  fixed  alka- 
lies, vegetables,  or  minerals  are  their 
true  solvents.  It  should  be  understood 
that  flint  and  bones,  in  all  instances,  are 
to  undergo  the  process  of  calcination 
previous  to  using. 

Firing. — Articles  formed  of  one  of  the 
bodies  are  first  moderately  burnt  in 
earthen  pots,  to  receive  a  certain  degree 
of  compactness,  and  to  be  ready  for 
glazing.  The  glaze  consists  of  an  easily 
melted  mixture  of  some  species  of  earths, 
which,  when  fused  together,  produce  a 
crystalline  or  vitreous  mass,  and  which 
after  cooling  is  very  finely  ground  and 
suspended  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water.  Into  this  fluid  the  rough  ware 
is  dipped,  by  which  the  glazing  matter 
is  deposited  uniformly  on  every  part  of 
its  surface.  After  drying,  each  article 
is  thoroughly  baked  or  fired  in  the  vio- 
lent heat  of  the  porcelain  furnace.  It  is 
usual  to  decorate  porcelain  by  paintings, 
for  which  purpose  enamels  or  pastes, 
coloured  by  metallic  oxides,  are  used,  so 
easy  of  fusion  as  to  run  in  a  heat  less 
intense  than  that  in  which  the  glazing 
of  the  ware  melts. 

Porcelain  Body. — 1.  360  parts  of 
bones ;  230,  Cornish  clay ;  50,  Cornish 
stone ;  20,  flint ;  20,  blue  or  brown 
clay;  10,  body  frit  (p.  45);  ^,  blue 
calx.  2.  400  parts,  bones ;  360,  Cornish 
clay;  250,  Cornish  stone;  20,  flint;  |, 
blue  calx. 

Ibokbtoke  Boot. — 1.  300  parts  Corn- 


ish stone;  250,  Cornish  clay;  200,  blue 
or  brown  clay  ;  100,  flint;  1,  blue  calx 
2.  175parts,  Cornish  stone  ;  150,  Cornish 
clay  ;  90,  blue  or  brown  clay  ;  35,  flint 
5,  body  ft-it ;  ^,  blue  calx.  These  bodies 
are  very  ductile,  and  fire  at  the  tem- 
perature of  the  common  biscuit  oven ; 
each  piece  of  ware  should  be  perfectly 
dry  when  placed  in  the  seggars,  because 
they  are  made  a  great  deal  thicker  than 
any  other  kind.  Setters  also  should  be 
used  at  the  bottom  of  each  piece,  and 
ground  flint  applied,  but  not  sand,  for 
the  placing  or  seating  ;  the  body,  when 
burnt,  is  quite  vitrified,  and  the  pieces 
of  ware  strong  and  heavy,  ringing  re- 
markably shrill. 

Printed  Earthenware  Body, 
Superior. — 3  parts,  blue  clay  ;  1,  black 
or  brown  clay;  2,  Corpish  clay;  IJ, 
flint ;  J,  Cornish  stone. 

Common. — 2  parts,  blue  clay  ;  2, 

brown  or  black  clay ;   1,  Cornish  clay ; 
li,  flint. 

Cream-coloured  Body,  Superior. — 
1|  part,  blue  clay;  IJ,  brown  clay;  1, 
black  clay ;  1,  Cornish  clay ;  1,  flint ; 
I,  Cornish  stone. 

Common. — 1^   part,   blue  clay; 

IJ,    brown    clay  ;    1|,    black    clay  ;    1, 
flint. 

Lilac  Porcelain  Body. — 200  parts, 
bones  ;  115,  Cornish  clay  ;  25,  blue 
clay;  20,  flint ;  15,  chalk;  10,  Cornish 
stone;  1  J,  blue  calx. 

Drab  Body. — 24  parts,  argillaceous 
marl ;  48,  Cornish  stone  ;  24,  blue  clay ; 
10,  bones  ;  1,  calcined  nickel. 

Common  Brown,  or  Cottage  Body. — 
20  parts,  red  or  brown  clay  ;  8,  Cornish 
clay  ;  4,  blue  clay  ;  2,  flint. 

Fawn,  or  Drab  Body.  —  40  parts, 
marl ;  4,  Cornish  clay  ;   1,  flint. 

Calcedony  Body. — 32  parts,  yellow 
clay;  10,  Cornish  clay;  4,  flint. 

Brown  Body. — 50  parts,  red  clay; 
7J,  common  clay  ;  1,  manganese  ;  1, 
flint, 

Jasper  Body. — 10  parts,  chalk  ;  10, 
blue  clay;  5,  bones;  2,  flint;  l\  blue 
calx.  All  the  materials  should  be  ground 
together,  as  much  depends  on  the 
different  articles  being  well  united, 
which   adds   greatly  to   its  fineness  ia 


H 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


colour  and  lustre.     It  fires  at  the  tein- 
peratwe  of  earthenware  oveas. 

Superior  White  Body. — 50  parts, 
chalk  ;  50,  blue  clay  ;  25,  bones  ;  10 
flint.  This  body  is  of  the  same  con- 
sistency, and  requires  the  same  tem- 
perature as  the  jasper  body.  It  is 
perfectly  adapted  also  for  the  purpose  of 
figures  in  bas-relief,  and  other  orna- 
mental work. 

S TONE  Body.  —  480  parts,  Cornish 
stone ;  250,  blue  and  brown  clay ;  240 
Coruish  clay;  10,  glass;  1,  blue  calx. 
This  body  will  be  sufRciently  vitrified 
at  the  temperature  of  the  earthenware 
biscuit  oven,  and  is  adapted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  manufacturing  jugs,  mugs,  and 
soon;  it  is  requisite  to  place  rings  on 
each  piece  of  ware,  in  order  to  keep  them 
from  being  crooked  when  buint  in  the 
oven ;  in  all  other  respects  to  be  treated 
as  earthenware  bodies. 

SroxE  Mortar  Body.  —  480  parts, 
Cornish  stone  ;  250,  blue  and  brown 
clay  ;  240,  Cornish  clay  ;  10,  glass  ; 
principally  used  for  making  stone  mor- 
tars, and  when  burnt  is  of  a  yellowish 
white,  absolutely  vitrified,  exceedingly 
strong,  very  durable,  and  produces  a 
clear  bell  sound. 

Black  Egyptian  Body. — 235  parts, 
blue  clay  ;  225,  calcined  ochre  ;  45, 
manganese  ;  15,  Cornish  clay  ;  the 
materials  must  be  accurately  exammed 
on  account  of  the  manganese,  which 
ought  to  be  free  from  lime  or  other 
calcareous  earth  ;  the  pieces  of  ware 
whan  manufactured  are  very  apt  to 
crack,  because  of  the  sudden  transition 
from  heat  to  cold,  j)rovided  above  a 
certain  proportion  of  lime  is  contained  in 
the  manganese.  This  kind  of  eartheuware 
requires  only  once  burning,  after  which 
it  is  scoured  with  fine  sand,  and  then  a 
tmall  quantity  of  oil  rublW  over  it. 

Ring  Body. — 150  i)art.s,  blue  clay  ; 
100,  Cornish  stone  ;  100,  bones  ;  52, 
plaster.  Used  for  making  rings  and 
setters,  for  placing  |)orfelaiu  and  iron- 
stone ;  the  porcelain  clay  which  gets 
dirty  or  injured  by  working  may  be 
used  for  the  same  purfwso,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  two  of  the  former  to  one  of 
the  latter. 


Saucer   Mould   Body.  — 10  i^irta, 

fiiut ;  4,  blue  clay ;  2,  Cornish  clay ; 
1,  black  clay.  Prepared  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  making  moulds,  principally 
those  of  saucers ;  moulds  made  in  this 
way  are  preferable,  and  considerably 
more  durable  than  those  which  are  made 
of  plaster:  the  contraction  of  this  clay 
in  burning  is  inconsiderable. 

Fawn  Porous  Body. — 10  parts,  argil- 
laceous clays  ;  4,  blue  clay  ;  2,  fiint. 
This  bod,v  makes  porous  wine  and  butter 
coolers,  and  water  bottles,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  absorption  and  evaporation. 
The  articles  are  generally  ornamented 
with  various  coloured  clays,  according 
to  the  five  following  recipes ;  they  should 
be  kejit  in  the  wet  clay  state,  at  the 
time  of  being  painted,  otherwise  the 
ditlerent  colours  laid  ui)on  them  will 
not  sulficiently  adhere,  but  are  liable  to 
chip  and  peel  olf  when  burnt.  A 
moderate  degree  of  heat  must  be  applied, 
as  too  great  a  temperature  will  cause 
the  body  to  be  too  dense,  and  preveut 
absorption ;  it  will  therelbre  be  neces- 
sary to  fire  such  articles  in  the  easy 
parts  of  an  earthenware  biscuit  oven. 

Silicious  and  Argillaceous 
Clays. — These  clays  are  for  the  purpose 
of  painting  porous  coolers  and  bottles  in 
the  Jlosaic  style,  and  are  equally  appli- 
cable to  the  ornamenting  of  china  and 
earthenware;  the  mixtures  must  be  well 
ground,  for  their  fineness  has  a  great 
tendency  to  equalize  tlie  contraction  and 
ex))ansion  of  bodies  in  firing. 

WiiiTi;  Clay. — i  parts,  blue  clay  ;  2, 
Cornish  clay  ;  2,  Hint ;  1,  Cornish  stone. 

Blue  Clay. — oO   parts,  white  clay  ; 

1,  blue  calx. 

Black  Clay. — 1  parts,  black  Egyptian 
clay  ;   1,  u/iite  clay;  1,  blue  cixy. 

Orange  Clay.— -4  parts,  yellow  clay ; 

2,  Cornish   clay;    1,    (lint;    \,   Cornish 
stone. 

Green  Clay. — 12  parts,  white  clay; 
1,  nickel ;   J,  blue  clay. 

Glazes.  —  Porcelain  Glaze. — JO 
()artg,  Cornish  stone  ;  45,  red-lead  ;  38, 
borax;  32J,  Hint;  22J,  Hint  glass;  13, 
crystal  of  soda;  5,  oxide  of  tin;  1,  en- 
amel blue.  The  particles  are  made  small 
and  well  mixed  together,  then  calcioeJ 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


4g 


5h  the  coolest  part  of  the  glazing  oven, 
in  seggars  thickly  lined  with  flint ;  care 
must  be  observed  that  the  frit  is  not 
too  highly  calcined,  or  brought  iato  a 
nigh  state  of  vitrification  ;  if  so,  it  will 
render  it  difficult  to  grind,  and  injure 
its  good  qualities  in  dipping.  The  frit 
likewise  if  too  finely  ground  will  cause 
the  glaze  to  be  uneven  on  the  surface  of 
the  ware ;  if  any  inconvenience  of  this 
nature  arises,  by  adding  a  solution  of 
potash  in  hot  water,  that  defect  will  be 
instantly  obviated. 

Ironstone  Glaze. — 36  parts,  Cor- 
nish stone  ;  30,  bora.x  ;  20,  flint ;  15,  red- 
lead  ;  6,  crystallized  soda;  5,  oxide  of 
tin ;  1,  blue  cal.x.  With  the  above  frit 
is  to  be  added  15  parts,  white-lead;  10, 
Cornish  stone  ;  10,  flint ;  when  ground 
together,  the  composition  is  ready  for 
ase  ;  should  the  glaze  prove  too  thin  for 
dipping,  add  a  small  quantity  of  muriatic 
acid. 

Body  Frit. — 60  parts,  Cornish  stone ; 
40,  flint ;  30,  crystallized  soda  ;  8,  oxide 
of  tin  ;  10,  borax.  This  frit  is  used  in 
?mall  quantities,  in  china  and  iron- 
stone bodies. 

Frit  for  Glazes. — 1.  40  parts,  Cor- 
nish stone  ;  36,  flint  glass;  20,  red-lead  ; 
20,  flint ;  15,  potash  ;  10,  white-lead  ;  3, 
oxide  of  tin.  This  frit  is  intended  to  be 
used  in  glazes,  in  lieu  of  those  which 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  borax ; 
therefore,  by  substituting  it  when  the 
price  of  that  article  is  high,  will,  of 
course,'be  advantageous,  and  the  texture 
of  the  glaze  will  still  be  good  and  ad- 
missible. 

2.  36  parts,  Cornish  stone ;  80,  red- 
lead  ;  20,  flint ;  20,  borax  ;  15,  crystal  of 
soda  ;  5,  oxide  of  tin.  These  two  frits 
may  be  calcined  jn  the  easy  part  of  the 
glazing  oven,  in  seggars  lined  with  flint ; 
particular  care  should  be  observed  that 
they  are  clean  chipped,  and  free  from 
pieces  of  seggars,  or  any  dirty  substance. 

Earthenware  Printed  Glaze,  Su- 
perior.— 90  parts,  white-lead  ;  35,  Cor- 
nish stone  ;  20,  flint  glass  ;  20,  flint ;  60, 
frit  (for  glazes,  2);  I,  blue  calx. 

Cfjrnmon. — 85  parts,  white-lead  ;  35, 
Cornish  stone  ;  22,  flint ;  15,  flint  glass; 
24  frit  (for   g'.azes,    2);  i,    blue   calx. 


These  glazes,  when  ground,  to  be  sifted 
through  a  fine  lawn  ;  the  former  glaze  is 
of  the  finest  texture,  and  will  require 
rather  a  thinner  coating  when  dipped 
than  those  of  common  glazes.  Fire  in 
seggars,  either  washed  with  common 
glaze,  or  a  mixture  of  lime  and  slip 
without  flint. 

Common  Printed  Glaze. — 90  parts, 
white-lead ;  45,  Cornish  stone  ;  22,  flint ; 
20,  flint  glass;  \,  blue  calx.  To  this, 
after  being  properly  ground  and  sifted, 
add  1  lb.  of  common  salt  and  ^  lb.  of 
borax,  which  forms  a  smear  or  flow,  as 
it  is  generally  termed,  but  must  not  be 
put  into  the  glaze  until  the  blue  stain  is 
perfectly  incorporated  with  it ;  the  ware 
dipped  therein  must  be  placed  in  seggars 
washed  with  glaze. 

White  E^vrthentvare  Glase. — 35 
parts,  Cornish  stone ;  20,  borax ;  10, 
crystal  of  soda  ;  20,  red-lead ;  \,  blue 
calx.  Calcine  and  then  pulverize 
coarsely,  and  grind  with  20  lbs.  white- 
lead,  10  lbs.  Cornish  stone,  and  5  lbs. 
flint. 

Blue  and  Green  Edge  Glaze. — 72 
parts,  litharge ;  36,  Cornish  stone  ;  20, 
flint  glass  ;  17,  flint ;  12,  frit  (for  glazes, 
2) ;  i,  blue  calx.  The  blue  and  g]-een 
edged  ware  when  dipped  in  this  glaze 
should  be  perfectly  dry  previous  to  being 
placed  in  the  seggars,  and  the  green 
edge  should  be  seated  in  the  coolest  part 
of  the  glazing  oven. 

Cream-colour  Glaze,  Superior. — 85 
parts,  white-lead  ;  40,  Cornish  stone ;  22, 
flint ;   16,  flint  glass;  8,  frit  (for  glazes, 

2). 

Common.  —  75  parts,  litharge;  40, 
Cornish  stone;  23,  flint;  10,  flint  glass. 

Crystal  Glaze. — 105  parts,  Cornish 
stone;  90,  borax  ;  60,  flint ;  50,  red-lead 
12,  crystal  of  soda ;  10,  oxide  of  tin ;  \, 
blue  calx.  This  glaze  produces  very  su- 
perior white  earthenware,  and,  for  the 
purpose  of  enamelling,  the  colours,  lus- 
tres, and  burnished  gold  appear  to  con- 
siderable advantage  ;  it  is  also  adapted 
for  ironstone,  and  makes  superior  blue 
printed  carthonwars  ;  it  has  a  singula.dy 
striking  etTect  on  printed  brown  and  mul- 
berry. When  used  for  dipping  it  must  be 
considerably  diluted,  and   requires   cul 


46 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS 


little  shaking  from  the  hand  of  the 
operator.  It  requires  the  heat  of  a  china 
glazing  oven,  but  to  answer  the  earthen- 
ware oven  a  small  addition  of  white-lead 
must  be  made,  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  firing.  The  materials  must  be 
mixed  and  calcined,  and  the  ware  fired 
in  lime  and  slip  seggars,  well  washed. 

Brown  Cottage  Glaze. — 60  parts, 
litharge  ;  32,  flint ;  8,  brown  slip. 
This  and  the  two  following  glazes  re- 
quire using  about  the  same  consistency 
as  the  cream-colour  glaze,  and  will  stand 
the  highest  temperature  of  heat  in  a 
common  glazing  oven. 

Calcedoxy  Glaze.  —  05  parts,  li- 
tharge; 40,  Cornish  stone  ;  20,  flint ;  6, 
frit  (for  glazes,  2). 

Drah  Glaze.  —  70  parts,  litharge; 
30,  fliut ;  25,  Cornish  stone ;  10,  drab 
slip. 

Blue  Glaze.  —  50  parts,  flint;  30, 
borax  ;  22,  red-lead  ;  10,  Cornish  stone  ; 
6,  crystallized  soda  ;  6,  oxide  of  tin  ;  3, 
blue  calx.  In  ])reiiariug  this  glaze  follow 
the  same  directions  as  for  porcelain  glaze. 

Green  Glaze. — 3  parts,  blue  vitriol, 
calcined;  1,  flint  glass;  1,  flint.  When 
ground,  take  4  quarts  of  this  mixture 
to  30  quarts  of  the  following  mixture, 
ground: — 35  parts,  litharge,  20,  Hint; 
10,  Cornish  stone;  10,  frit,  for  glazes. 
This  glaze  is  sulficiently  fired  in  the 
coolest  part  of  the  glazing  oven.  Parti- 
cular attention  should  be  observed  as  to 
the  proper  wash  used  for  the  seggars,  for 
much  de])euds  on  that  simple  process. 
Tte  brightness  and  lustre  of  the  glaze 
will  be  secured  by  ado]iting  the  fullmving 
wash: — 5  ])artsof  the  solution  of  quick- 
lime ;  1,  of  clay  sli]),  free  from  the  least 
liarticle  of  flint,  and  apjdied  about  the 
thicknesji  of  common  glaze. 

Yellow  Glaze. — 95  parts,  white- 
lead  ;  35,  fliut  glass;  20,  flint ;  14,  oxi<le 
of  yellow;  10,  Cornish  stone;  I'i,  frit, 
for  glazes.  The  oxide  of  yellow  must  be 
very  finely  ground,  and  the  other  ma- 
terials grouml  and  sifted  before  the  oxide 
of  yellow  is  added.  It  would  be  as  well 
first  to  mix  the  yellow  and  the  fi-it 
toi^ether,  then  let  them  be  passed  through 
&  l;iwii  into  a  vessel  ciiiitAining  the  other 
ingredicutb;  by  this  uieans  the  uiatcruilii 


will  be  better  incorporatinl ;  use  it  about 
the  same  thickness  as  cream-coloured 
glaze,  and  treat  it  the  same.  It  will  fire 
almost  in  any  part  of  the  oven,  in  seggars 
either  washed  with  glaze  or  mixture  of 
lime  and  slip. 

Alkaline  Glaze. — 30  parts,  borax  ; 
30,  flint;  18,  Cornish  stone;  2,  oxide  of 
tin.  The  materials  must  be  calcined, 
and  particular  caution  observed  in  the 
course  of  chipping  from  the  seggars,  that 
not  the  least  particle  of  any  colouring 
matter  be  mixed  with  it,  for  it  is  very 
susceptible  of  being  materially  mjured 
in  its  colour  ;  when  ground,  a  small 
quantity  of  muriatic  or  nitrous  acid 
should  be  added,  and  at  the  same  time 
quickly  stirred  about,  and  the  motion 
continued  for  some  time,  in  order  to 
prevent  it  setting  at  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel ;  in  all  other  respects  treated  the 
same  as  common  glazes,  except  with 
regard  to  dipping,  in  which  case  it  must 
be  used  very  thin. 

Colours  under  Glaze,  with  the 
excei)t!on  of  the  green,  should  be  mixed 
together  and  calcined  in  a  reverberatorj 
furnace  or  glazing  oven,  in  seggaj  hillers, 
or  dishes  lined  with  flint ;  then  spread 
on  the  mixture  about  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, observing  that  the  hiller  or  dish 
have  a  sulFicient  access  of  air  allowed,  to 
prevent  the  metals  from  reviving  again 
in  their  metallic  state  :  the  green  ingre- 
dients only  require  grinding. 

Naples  Yellow  under  Glaze. — 12 
parts,  white-lead  ;  2,  diaphoretic  anti- 
mony ;  1,  crude  sal  ammoniac  ;  i,  alum. 
Mix  iutimately,  calcine  in  a  crucible,  over 
a  slow  file,  for  the  space  of  three  hours, 
Ktiiriug  it  nearly  the  whole  of  the  time, 
when  the  mass  will  be  found  of  a  beau- 
tiful yellow  or  gold  colour. 

Lining  Brown  under  Glaze.  — 
7  parts,  glass  of  antimony  ;  3,  raw 
litharge.' ;  2J,  manganese  ;  1,  nitre  ; 
1,  blue  calx. 

Fainting  Brown  under  Glaze. — 5 
jiarts,  glass  of  antimony ;  5,  raw 
litharge;  2,  manganese;  J,  blue  calx. 

Orange  under  Glaze. — 6  parts,  raw 
litharge;  4,  crude  antimony;  2,  cinriis- 
maitis  ;    1,  oxide  ol'  tin. 

Yklww  under  Glaze, — 4  jmm*,  raw 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


47 


Jitharge  ;  3,  crude  antimony  ;  IJ,  oxide 
cf  tin. 

Green  under  Glaze.  —  12  parts, 
oxide  of  yellow  ;  4,  white  enamel ;  2, 
frit  (for  glazes  prepared  without  the 
oxide  of  tin);  IJ,  blue  calx. 

Printed  Brown  under  Glaze. — 5 
parts,  raw  litharge  ;  5,  crude  antimony  ; 
2J,  manganese  ;  1,  blue  calx. 

Printed  Black  under  Glaze. — 3 
parts,  red-lead  ;  IJ,  antimony;  f,  man- 
ganese. After  these  ingredients  have 
been  calcined,  add  the  following,  and 
calcine  again :  2  parts,  blue  calx ;  i, 
oxide  of  tin.  This  black  under  glaze, 
in  the  last  stage  of  preparation,  must 
be  calcined  in  the  highest  heat  of  a 
biscuit  oven,  and  crystal  glaze  is  the 
most  suitable  to  it.  The  ware  must 
be  fired  in  an  easy  part  of  the  glazing 
oven  ;  the  brown  calcined  in  the  usual 
way,  and  dipped  in  the  common  printed 
rlaze. 

Printed  Mulberry  under  Glaze. 
— i  parts,  manganese  ;    2,  blue    calx  ; 

1,  nitre;  |,  borax.  Calcine  this  colour 
in  the  usual  way,  either  in  a  dish  or 
seggar  hiller,  and  after  the  mixture  is 
spread  on  the  dish  or  hiller,  a  small 
quantity  of  pounded  nitre  should  be 
scattered  thinly  over,  and  when  calcined, 
add  2  parts  of  flint  glass  ;  1,  flint;  then 
grind  all  the  ingredients  up  together 
for  use. 

Green  for  Edging  under  Glaze. — 
3  parts,  oxide  of  copper  ;   3,  flint  glass ; 

2,  flint ;  2,  oxide  of  tin  ;  1,  enamel  blue. 
Grind  these  ingredients  together,  after 
which  add  8  quarts  of  earthenware 
printed  glaze,  and  4  quarts  of  cream- 
colour  glaze,  mix  well  together,  and  sift 
them  through  a  fine  lawn.  Lay  this 
green  on  the  ware  after  it  is  dipped,  and 
fire  it  in  the  coolest  part  of  the  glazing 
oven. 

Blue  Printed  Flux.  —  1.  2  parts, 
flint;    1  frit,  for  glazes;    ^,  flint  glass. 

2.  5   parts,  flint;   IJ,   borax;   ^,    nitre. 

3.  3  parts,  flint  glass ;  2^,  flint ;  1,  nitre  ; 
1,  borax. 

Painting  and  Edging  Blue.  —  2 
parts,  blue  calx  ;  3,  frit,  for  glazes ; 
J  I,  flint  glass  ;  1,  flint ;  §.  white-lead. 
Ihe  frit  should  be  prepared  without  the 


oxide  of  tm,  when  mixed  with  the  bine 
calx,  for  that  metal  and  arsenic  are  both 
prejudicial  to  its  colour. 

Strong  Printing  Blue.  —  2  parts, 
blue  calx;  3,  blue  printed  flux. 

Weak  Printing  Blue. — 1  part,  blue 
calx  ;  4,  blue  printed  flux  (2). 

Printing'  Oil  for  Pottery.— 1. 
1  quart  linseed  oil,  1  pint  rape  oil,  2  oz. 
balsam  capivi,  1  oz.  pitch,  |  oz.  amber 
oil,  J  oz.  white-lead.  2.  1  quart  linseed 
oil,  J  pint  rape  oil,  ^  pint  common  tar, 
1  oz.  balsam  sulphur,  1  oz.  balsam  capivi. 
The  linseed  oil  should  be  boiled  for  some 
time  alone,  then  add  the  rape  oil  and  the 
balsam  capi'^'i,  allow  the  boiling  to  be 
continued  until  it  begins  to  approach  the 
proper  consistency,  and  add  the  remain- 
ing ingredients.  The  mixture  should  be 
allowed  to  cool  a  short  time,  after  which 
the  whole  mass  may  be  boiled  slowly  until 
it  has  assumed  the  proper  thickness  ;  the 
vessel  must  be  generally  covered  during 
the  process,  and  the  sulphur  previously 
to  being  mixed  with  the  oil  should  be 
perfectly  jmlverized,  as  by  that  means  it 
is  less  liable  to  curdle  the  oil. 

Stains  for  Pottery.  —  In  pre* 
paring  these  stains  the  ingredients  must 
be  ground  remarkably  fine,  and  then  so 
perfectly  dried  as  not  to  leave  the  least 
humidity,  after  which  they  must  be 
ground  again  with  oil  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  composed  of  2  parts  of  balsam  of 
sulphur,  1  part  of  amber  oil,  and  as 
much  turpentine  as  will  render  them  of 
a  proper  consistency  ;  they  may  then  be 
used  with  ease  for  painting  various  de- 
vices on  biscuit  ware. 

Blue  Stain. — 5  parts,  blue  calx  ;  2, 
frit,  for  glazes,  without  oxide  of  tin  ; 
1,  flint  glass;  1,  enamel  blue. 

Yellow  Stain. — 3  parts,  yellow  under 
glaze;  1,  frit,  for  glazes;  |,  chromate 
of  iron. 

Green  Stain. — 3  parts,  blue  stain ; 
1,  yellow  stain ;  j,  enamel  blue  green. 

Gold  Flux. — 11  parts,  borax;  5i, 
litharge ;  1,  oxide  of  silver.  In  these 
enamel  fluxes  the  materials  are  to  be 
made  very  fine,  particularly  the  flint, 
and  mixed  well  together,  so  that  the 
particles  may  more  easily  concrete  when 
in  a  state  of  fusion;  then  calcia«4  'li  am 


ih 


WORKSHOP   RfiCEIPTg. 


sir  furnace  or  an  earthenware  glazing 
oven,  when  the  whole  mass,  by  means  of 
the  proper  temperature  of  fire,  will  be 
changed  into  a  brittle  resplendent  and 
transparent  glass. 

Enamel  Fltix. — 1.  8  parts,  red- 
lead  ;  6,   flint  glass ;  3,  boras ;  3,  flint. 

2.  7  parts,  red-lefld  ;  4,  borax ;  2^,  flint. 

3.  4  parts,  boras  ;  3,  i"ed-lead ;  3,  flint 
glass ;  2,  flint.  4.  3  parts,  red-lead ; 
1,  fliut  glass ;  1,  flint. 

Smaits. — 32  parts, sand;  32,  potash ; 
10,  borax  ;  1,  blue  calx.  These  smalts, 
the  materials  of  which  are  calcined  in 
the  usual  manner,  when  finely  pul- 
verized will  produce  a  fine  rich-looking 
blue  powder. 

Enamels  for  Porcelain  Paint- 
ing.— The  enamels,  after  being  finely 
ground,  should  be  thoroughly  dried  ;  then 
mixed  up  with  turpentine,  and  used  like 
other  colours  with  a  pencil ;  after  which 
fused  again,  ami  vitrified  by  fire.  Spirits 
of  tar  may  be  substituted  instead  of 
turpentine  in  all  enamels,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  blue  and  colours  prepared 
from  chrome.  With  regard  to  the  burn- 
ing, the  lustres  will  bear  the  highest 
temperature  of  an  enamelling  heat ;  the 
rose  colour,  cornelian  red,  ami  pomoua 
green  require  a  less  degree  of  heat,  and 
are  generally  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
kiln  or  nnitile,  as  well  as  burnish  gold  ; 
other  colours  are  not  so  susceptible  of 
being  destroyed  by  heat,  and  will  fire 
in  any  part  of  the  kiln  or  muflle.  The 
even  surface  of  the  various  coloured 
grounds  on  china  is  produced  by  first 
laving  the  space  wanted  with  linseed  oil, 
previously  boiled  with  a  little  red-lead 
and  a  small  portion  of  ttir|>eDtine ;  the 
enamel  colour  is  then  ground  fine,  and 
dusted  on  the  oiled  part  with  cotton 
wool,  or  laid  on  with  a  largo  cimcl-hair 
pencil.  The  comjionent  parts  of  the 
dilfercnt  colours  are  as  accurately  stated 
as  possible,  but  the  jireparation  princi- 
pally depends  on  observation,  therefore 
experiments  will  be  necessary  that  a 
proper  judgment  may  be  formed. 

Wiini-:  KsAMKUS. — These  require  the 
materials  to  be  made  very  fine  and  cal- 
tmed  in  air  lurc.ire,  the  heat  at  (irst 
(o    be    generated   very    gradually;    and 


when  the  whole  mass  is  in  a  state  ol 
fusion  increase  the  fire  quickly,  and 
there  will  soon  be  produced  a  fine  white 
enamel ;  in  the  time  of  fusion  it  will  be 
requisite  to  keep  stirring  the  whole 
together  with  an  iron  spatula  or  rod. 

V^EXETiAN  White  Enamel.  —  3§ 
parts,  flint ;  3,  borax  calcined  ;  1,  Cornish 
stone  ;  J,  oxide  of  tin. 

Common  White  Enamel. — 8  parts, 
flint  glass ;  2,  red-lead ;  ^,  nitre ;  h, 
arsenic. 

Blue  Enamels. — For  these  the  ma- 
terials must  be  calcined  in  an  air  furnace 
or  glazing  oven,  and  caution  should  be 
observed  that  they  are  not  too  finely 
ground  at  the  mill,  in  order  to  prevent 
them  from  crazing  or  chipping  after 
being  burnt  on  the  pieces  of  ware.  1. 
16  parts,  flint  glass  ;  5,  red-lead  ;  2, 
white  enamel ;  2,  blue  calx;  1,  common 
salt ;  1,  potash.  2.  16  parts,  flint  glass  ; 
5,  red-lead  ;  2,  nitre ;  2,  potash  ;  2J, 
blue  calx. 

Black  Enami:i-s. — Copper  black  is  a 
very  fine  colour,  the  obtaining  of  which 
altogether  depends  upon  a  |)roper  tem- 
perature of  heat  being  applied,  for 
nothing  is  more  fickle  and  uncertain  ;  if 
in  the  least  degree  overfired  the  colour 
is  destroyed,  and  becomes  of  a  dirty 
green.  The  other  blacks  are  called 
umber  blacks,  and  will  stand  any  degree 
of  heat  which  is  required  in  an  enamel- 
ling kiln  or  muffle.  The  umber  to  be 
highly  calcined  in  a  biscuit  oven,  but 
jiarticular  caution  should  be  observed 
that  it  is  the  real  Turkey  umber,  and 
not  the  English,  which  is  of  an  inferior 
quality.  The  two  first  enamel  blacks  to 
be  calcined  in  the  usual  way  ;  the 
materials  of  the  two  latter  only  want 
grinding. 

Enamel  Paintino  Black. — 4  parts, 
borax;  2,  umber  calcined  ;  2^,  red-lead  ; 
2,  enamel  blue;  I,  flint;  1,  blue  calz. 
A  superior  lilack  enamel  is  composed  by 
uniting  with  H  jiarts  of  this  compo- 
sition, 1  enamel ;   1  enamel  jiurjile. 

Enamel  I'iiinted  Black.  —  1  part 
umber  calcined  ;  1^,  borax  calcmed  ; 
J,  blue  calx. 

(Nn'i'EK  Black  Enamel. — 1  i>art, cop- 
per calcined  ;  M,  avincl  Jlux  (I). 


VrORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


49 


Ked  EsAiiEL. — 1  part,  preen  copperas 
calcined  3,  enamel Jlux0).  The  greatest 
(l.tficulty  in  preparing  red  is  the  calci-  j 
cation  of  the  copperas ;  ciUcine  the  cop- 
peras in  a  vessel  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
an  open  fire,  by  which  means  it  will 
ijissipate  all  its  volatile  contents,  and 
leave  a  residue  of  oxide  of  iron  in  powder ; 
when  it  attains  an  orange  or  light  red, 
the  calcination  is  suliicientlj  accom- 
plished ;  the  residue  is  then  washed 
repeatedly  with  boiling  water,  until  the 
water  becomes  insipid  and  free  from 
vitriolic  acid. 

Browx  Examel,  Dark. — 1  part,  cop- 
peras calcined  brown ;  2,  enamel  flux  (4) ; 
I,  enamel  flux  (1).  Brown  enamel  only  re- 
quires grinding  before  it  is  fit  for  use ; 
the  copperas  for  the  purpose  of  making 
dark  brown  will  require  calcining  in 
the  most  intense  heat  of  a  biscuit  oven  ; 
the  colour  of  it  varies  according  to  the 
temperature  it  undergoes,  first  white, 
then  orange,  red,  and  lastly  brown. 

Light. — 1  part,  umber  calcined ;  1, 
yellow  under  glaze ;  5,  copperas  calcined 
red  ;  \,  white  enamel ;  5^,  enamel  flux 
•(2)  ;  3,  enamel  flux  (3). 

Blue  Green  Exaaiel. — 42  parts,  red- 
lead  ;  15,  flint;  12,  boras;  2J,  blue 
vitriol  calcined.  To  these  materials,  after 
being  calcined  in  an  air  furnace  or 
glazing  oven,  mu^t  be  added  12  parts  of 
white  enamel,  then  grind  them  all 
together. 

Grass  Green  Enamel.  —  3|  parts, 
blue  green  frit ;  1,  ename'i  yellow. 

Yellow  Gree:?  Enamel. — 2|  parts, 
blue  green  ;  1,  enamel  yellow. 

Yellow  Enamel.  —  1  part,  Naples 
yellow ;  2,  enamel  flux  (1)  ;  1,  enamel 
flux  (3). 

Orange  Enamel.  —  1  part,  orange 
under  glaze  ;  2,  enamel  flux  (1)  ;  1, 
enamel  flux  (4). 

Purple  Distance  Enamel. — 2  parts, 
enamel  purple  ;  3,  oxide  of  manganese  j 
13,  enamel  flux  (3). 

Cornelian  IIed  Enamel.  —  1  part, 
chromate  of  iron ;  3J,  enamel  flux  (4). 
Thiii  fine  colour  is  produced  from  the 
chromate  of  iron,  or  the  yellow  oxide  of 
chroma,  whicn  has  a  greater  affinity  for 
le.id    than    an  alkali,  consequently   the 


flux  presci'ibed  is  the  only  one  v/hich  is 
susceptible  of  yielding  its  propei  colour, 
as  those  fluxes  which  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  borax  are  very  prejudicial, 
destroying  the  colour,  and  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  forming  any  affinity 
at  all,  therefore  should  be  avoided.  The 
flux  used  should  be  highly  calcined  until 
it  assumes  a  dark  orange-coloured  glass. 
Mix  up  with  spirits  of  turpentine  whep 
dry. 

Pomona  Green  Enamel. —  1  part, 
oxide  of  green  chrome ;  2^,  enamel  flux 
(1);  1^,  enamel  fltix  (^4).  This  green  is 
prepared  by  simply  grinding  the  in- 
gredients, and  produces  tliat  dark  colour 
equal  to  the  French  green,  provided  the 
oxide  is  genuine ;  and  by  adding  a  pro- 
portion more  of  flux  and  white  enamel, 
there  still  will  be  a  rich  tint,  though 
weaker  and  lighter  in  colour. 

Burnish  Gold  from  Brown 
Gold. — 12  parts,  brown  oxide  of  gold  ; 
8,  quicksilver;  2,  oxide  of  silver;  1, 
wliite-Iead.  Put  the  whole  of  these  in- 
gredients into  an  earthenware  mortar, 
and  triturate  them  until  the  whole  is 
amalgamated  ;  the  mercury  being  the  sol- 
vent fluid,  very  readily  combines  with  the 
rest,  to  which  it  communicates  more  or 
less  of  its  fusibility,  after  which  grind 
them  very  fine  with  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine. 

Burnish  Gold  from  Green  Gold. — • 
12  parts,  green  gold;  7J,  quicksilver; 
1|,  oxide  of  silver  ;  1^,  gold  flux.  Place 
the  gold  in  an  earthenware  vessel  on  an 
open  fire,  and  when  heated  led  hot,  take 
four  times  its  weight  of  mercury,  and 
pour  it  in;  the  mixture  to  be  stirred 
with  a  little  iron  rod  ;  the  gold  will  be 
dissolved ;  it  is  then  thrown  into  a  vessel 
full  of  water  until  it  coagulates  and  be- 
comes manageable  ;  much  of  the  mercury 
is  then  pressed  through  a  piece  ol 
leather,  and  the  rest  dissolved  by  .1 
quantity  of  nitrous  acid  ;  the  acid  is 
afterwards  pouj-ed  ofl',  the  gold  remain 
ing  is  repeatedly  washed  with  boiling 
water  as  often  as  needful  ;  it  is  then 
dried  and  mixed  up  with  the  othrr 
ingredients,  and  ground  with  spirits  of 
turpentine  for  use. 

Purple  ENiiSKU — 4  parts,  gold    in 


50 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS 


solution  ;  1,  tin  in  solution.  Procure  a 
vessel  t(i  contain  50  parts  of  water  about 
tlie  temperature  of"  blood-heat,  to  be 
well  mixeil  with  the  solution  of  gold, 
and  then  add  the  solution  of  tin  by 
dropping  it  into  the  menstruum,  at  the 
same  time  constantly  stirring  it  with  a 
strong  feather,  which  will  produce  a  tine 
purple-colour  liquor ;  but  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  <add  a  few  drops  of  the  solution 
of  silver,  which  will  much  assist  to  raise 
tho  colour  and  beauty  of  the  purple ; 
to  help  the  precipitation  of  the  gold 
from  Its  solvent  (provided  the  precipi- 
tation does  not  immediately  take  place) 
add  a  large  jiroportion  of  boiling  water 
or  a  small  quantity  of  sal  ammoniac,  and 
a  precipitate  will  instantly  be  procured; 
the  clear  liquor  must  then  be  decanted 
oil",  and  the  boiling  water  repeated  until 
it  is  completely  insipid.  The  residue 
consists  of  the  oxides  of  gold,  tin,  and 
silver  in  combination,  and  is  the  only 
substance  which  has  the  property  of  com- 
municating the  purple  colour  to  enamel 
glass ;  after  the  precipitate  is  prepared 
the  flus  must  be  added ;  the  proper 
quantity  will  solely  depend  on  the  fusi- 
Dility  or  softness  of  the  liux,  and  as  tlie 
operation  in  a  great  measure  dei)ends  on 
observation,  a  few  exjieriments  by  the 
ojjerator  will  be  found  useful,  inde- 
pendent of  the  accuracy  of  the  receipt. 
To  the  purple  precipitate  may  be  added 
from  30  to  45,  flux,  enamel  flux  (3), 
according  to  the  strength  of  colour  in- 
tended to  be  made. 

KosK-coLOUu  Enamel. — 3  dwts.,  gold 
in  solution;  60  leaves,  book  silver; 
'JJ  lbs.,  enamel  flux  (1).  Procure  a  vessel 
to  contain  10  parts  the  quantity  of  hot 
water,  then  mix  the  water  and  gold 
together  while  the  water  is  at  the  tem- 
|>erature  of  lOO"^  F. ;  add  pulverized  sal 
uinmoniac  rather  copiously,  at  the  same 
time  briskly  stirring  the  mixture  with  a 
strong  feather,  until  the  appearance  of  a 
decom|iosition  takes  place,  which  will 
soon  be  observable  by  the  gold  being 
precipitated  from  the  m(!nstruum  in  the 
iorm  of  a  (ine  yellow  powder  ;  when  that 
is  accomplished,  let  the  vciwel  stand 
un-iiitturbed  a  bhort  time  to  allow  the 
precipitate   to   -.u'lKi'le.  ♦hen  dec*''*  th« 


liquor  off,  and  still  cdd  b-iling  water 
repeatedly  to  the  piecipitate  until  the 
water  is  perfectly  insijiid ;  in  the  next 
place  put  it  on  a  plaster  bat  to  dry, 
after  which  it  must  be  mixed  up  with 
book  silver  and  tiux,  according  to  the 
proportions  given  above,  and  well  tritu- 
rated in  a  mortar ;  then  send  it  to  the 
mill  to  be  ground,  when  it  will  be  in  a 
proper  state  for  use.  This  colour  is 
supjiosed  to  be  best  when  of  a  purple 
tinge,  which  may  be  produced  by  merely 
calcining  the  preparation  to  the  heat  of 
ignition  previous  to  being  ground ;  if 
the  colour  be  too  dark,  the  mixture  does 
not  possess  a  sutlicient  quantity  of  silver ; 
if  it  is  too  light,  the  silver  must  have 
been  very  plentifully  added,  therefore 
the  operator  must  add  or  diminish 
accordingly.  Great  caution  must  be 
observed  with  this  receipt,  as  the  gold 
precipitated  oy  the  sal  ammoniac  will 
unite  with  it,  and  then  has  the  property 
of  t'ulmiuatiug  ;  and  when  gently  heated 
or  smartly  struck  with  any  hard  instru- 
ment will  immediately  detonate ;  this 
can  only  be  obviated  by  a  plentiful  use 
of  boiling  water;  a  caution  which  ought 
to  be  strictly  attended  to,  as  it  removes 
the  dangerous  quality  by  depriving  the 
gold  of  its  salt. 

Gold  Lustre. — Take  grain  gold  and 
dissolve  it  in  aqua  regia,  as  in  the 
recei|)t  (ov  solution  of  gold ;  add  5  grains 
of  tin  ;  an  effervescence  takes  place  when 
the  solution  is  comjjleted  and  in  a  proper 
condition  to  be  mixed  ;  take  balsam  of 
sulphur  3  parts,  sjiirits  of  turpentine 
2  jiarts,  mix  them  well  together  over  a 
slow  lire,  then  gradually  drop  the 
solution  of  gold  iutcv  the  menstruum 
and  keep  stirring  until  the  whole  solu- 
tion be  added ;  provided  the  mixture 
should  a]ipear  too  thick,  add  more 
turpentine  till  of  a  proper  consistency. 
1  oz.  of  gold  dissolved  in  the  maun-r 
described  will  make  upwards  of  '2,  lbs. 
weight  of  prej)ared  lusti'e,  and  must  be 
used  with  turpentine,  for  all  other 
spirits  are  injurious. 

Persian  Gold  Lustre.-TiI-"  any 
(luautity  of  the  precipitate  of  gold,  first 
mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  tat  oil 
on   a   Hat   piece   ot    eiirthenwHru,    thai 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


51 


place  it  on  a  stone  previously  heated, 
»nd  when  the  mixture  begins  to  be  in  an 
ellquateJ  state,  stir  it  well  with  a 
palette  knife,  and  keep  adding  more  oil 
by  a  little  at  a  time,  until  with  the 
continuance  of  a  gentle  heat  it  assumes 
the  colour  of  balsam  of  sulphur,  then 
add,  with  a  less  degree  of  heat,  tur- 
pentine m  small  quantities.  1  oz.  of 
the  precipitate  of  gold  will  make  about 
1  lb.,  more  or  less,  of  lustre,  having 
more  solidity  and  opacity  than  the  gold 
lustre.  The  proportions  of  the  fat  oil  of 
tui-pentine  to  the  spirits  of  turpentine, 
are  1  part  of  the  former  to  3  of  the 
latter. 

Silver  or  Steel  Lustre. — This  is 
prepared  by  taking  platina  and  dissolving 
it  in  aqua  regia  composed  of  equal  parts 
of  spirits  of  nitre  and  marine  acid.  The 
solution  must  be  placed  in  a  sand  bath, 
at  a  moderate  temperature ;  then  take 
3  parts  of  the  spirits  of  tar,  and  1  part  of 
the  solution  of  platina,  mixing  the  solu- 
tion with  the  tar  very  gradually,  for  as 
soon  as  the  combination  takes  place,  an 
effervescence  will  arise,  the  nitrous  acid 
will  evaporate  and  leave  the  platina  in 
combination  with  the  tar.  After  the 
above  process  has  been  performed,  should 
the  menstruum  be  found  too  thin  and 
incapable  of  using,  set  it  on  a  sand  bath 
as  before  for  a  few  hours ;  the  spirit  of 
the  tar  will  evaporate,  and  by  that 
means  a  proper  consistence  will  be 
obtained.  It  must  be  used  with  spirits 
of  tar. 

Oxide  of  Platina.  —  Dissolve 
platina  as  for  silver  lustre.  Let  the 
solution  fall  into  a  large  vessel  of  water 
at  the  temperature  of  blood-heat ;  the 
sal  ammoniac  must  then  be  added,  and 
the  precipitate  will  immediately  descend 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  an  orange- 
colour  powder ;  decant  off  the  water,  and 
repeatedly  apply  to  the  precipitate 
boiling  water  urtil  the  water  becomes 
quite  insipid  ;  after  being  gradually 
dried  it  is  then  used  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  a  silver  lustre  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  : — First,  procure  brown 
earthenware  of  a  full  soft  glaze,  and 
with  a  broad  camel-hair  pencil  lay  on 
H  over  the  piece  of  ware  the  platina  in 


solution,  and  fire  it  at  a  strong  enamel- 
ling teat,  by  which  it  will  acquire  a 
shming  steel-colour  lustre ;  then  take 
the  oxide  of  platina  mixed  up  with  water 
to  a  thickish  consistence,  and  lay  it  on 
the  steel  lustre,  and  fire  it  again  in  a 
kiln  or  muffle,  but  not  to  exceed  a  blood- 
red  heat ;  it  is  then  called  silver  lustre, 
being  less  resplendent,  having  more 
solidity  and  Whiteness,  and  a  very  similar 
appearance  to  silver.  On  all  white 
earthenware  the  platina  in  solution  is 
perfectly  sufficient  to  produce  a  silver 
lustre. 

Bronze  Gold. — 2§  parts,  burnish 
gold  ;  2,  oxide  of  copper ;  1,  quicksilver ; 
J,  gold  flux.  Having  dissolved  the  cop- 
per in  aqua  fortis,  it  is  again  separated 
from  its  solvent  and  falls  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel  by  the  addition  of  iron ; 
the  precipitate  of  copper  may  be  in- 
creased or  diminished  at  discretion,  which 
makes  the  bronze  richer  or  poorer  in 
solour  according  to  the  proportion  ot 
burnish  gold  contained  in  the  mixture. 
It  is  chiefly  used  for  ornamenting  the 
handles  and  heads  of  jars,  vases,  and  so 
on,  and  occasionally  intermixed  with 
burnish  gold. 

Solution  of  Gold.— Put  40  dwts. 
of  aqua  regia  in  a  small  bottle,  to  which 
add  5  dwts.  of  grain  gold,  the  solution 
will  immediately  commence,  and  may 
be  observed  by  the  effervescence  which 
arises  at  the  time ;  when  the  solution  is 
complete,  the  whole  of  the  gold  will  be 
dissolved,  which  will  be  accomplished  in 
about  two  hours  if  the  acids  be  genuine, 
but  when  they  are  not,  it  will  be  re- 
quisite to  apply  heat  to  assist  in  facili- 
tating the  solution. 

Solution  and  Oxide  of  Silver. 
— 1  part  of  nitric  acid,  and  3  parts  of 
boiling  water  ;  add  one-third  of  its 
weight  of  silver,  dilute  with  five  times 
its  quantity  of  water,  then  add  a  portion 
of  common  salt,  stirring  it  all  the  time 
and  immediately  a  white  precipitate  will 
fall   to   the  bottom  of  the  vessel ;    the 

I  liquor  must  then  be  decanted  off  and 
boiling  water  repeatedly  added,  until 
the  water  is  quite  insipid.  This  pre- 
cipitate is  the  pure  oxide  of  silver,  and 

I  i»  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  prepara- 

B  2 


52 


WORKSHOP   KECEIPrS. 


tion  of  burnished  gold  and  in  staining 
of  glass. 

Solution  of  Tin.  —  2  parts  of 
nitrous  acid,  and  1  part  of  muriatic 
acid,  with  an  equal  part  of  water  ;  add 
granulated  tin  by  small  pieces  at  a  time, 
so  that  one  piece  be  dissolved  before  the 
next  is  added.  This  aqua  regia  will  dis- 
solve half  Its  weight  of  tin  ;  the  solution 
when  properly  obtained  is  of  a  reddish 
brown  or  amber  colour,  but  when  gela- 
tinous the  solution  is  defective. 

Oxide  of  Tin. — Take  any  given 
quantity  of  grain  tin,  and  granulate  it  by 
melting  the  tin  in  an  iron  ladle  ;  when  in 
fusion  pour  it  into  a  vessel  full  of  cold 
water,  by  which  means  the  tin  will  be 
reduced  into  small  grains  or  particles  ad- 
hering to  each  other ;  then  take  a  biscuit 
dish  jireviously  lined  with  flint,  spread  it 
slightly  over  with  pounded  nitre,  take  the 
granulated  tin,  and  lay  it  on  the  dish 
2  inches  in  thickness,  adding  a  little  more 
nitre  on  the  top ;  1  lb.  of  nitre  will  be 
sufficient  to  oxidate  5  lbs.  of  granulated 
tin ;  the  dish  containing  the  tin  and  nitre 
is  to  be  calcined  in  a  rcverberatory  fur- 
nace or  glazing  oven ;  particular  atteu- 
tion  is  required  in  seating  it,  so  that 
plenty  of  room  remains  to  admit  a  free 
access  of  air  to  pass  over  the  metal,  other- 
wise it  is  impossible  to  obtain  the  whole 
of  it  in  an  oxidated  state. 

Balsam  of  Sulphur.  —  Take 
2  parts  of  flour  of  suli>hur,  and  4  parts 
of  turpentine ;  put  them  in  a  vessel  over 
a  slow  fire  until  the  suljjhur  is  com- 
pletely dissolved  ;  after  which  add  8  parts 
of  linseed  oil,  and  continue  the  same 
degree  of  heat  for  about  one  hour  ;  pre- 
vious to  becoming  cold  strain  it  through 
a  pit!ce  of  clutli. 

Regulus  of  Zaffre. — 112  parts, 
zafl're  ;  57,  potash  ;  18 J,  charcoal.  The 
charcoal  being  pulverized,  and  all  the 
materials  mixed  up  together,  they  are 
put  into  large-sized  crucibles  ca])able  of 
\iol  ling  from  3  to  4  quarts,  and  filled 
^uite  full,  then  placed  in  a  strong  brick- 
Iniilt  rcverberatory  furnace,  cnniinencing 
with  a  slow  fire,  and  continued  for  some 
time,  but  as  soon  as  it  is  heated  to  a  red- 
heat,  it  will  require  a  conniderably 
stronger  fire  before  the  cohesion  between 


the  different  particles  is  sniricicntly  de- 
stroyed. This  operation  will  be  complete 
in  about  ten  hours,  the  weight  of  tlie  re- 
gulus being  from  31  to  33  lbs. ;  on  examin- 
ing the  scoria,  if  there  remains  mixed 
with  it  small  pieces  of  metal  like  small 
shot,  or  when  pounded,  if  the  scoria  has 
a  bluish  cast,  the  fire  lias  not  been  strong 
enough  ;  there  is  but  little  danger  to  be 
apprehended  from  the  most  intense  heat, 
provided  the  particles  in  fusion  do  not 
perforate  the  crucibles.  At  the  bottom 
of  each  cake  of  regulus  there  will  be 
bismuth  slightly  adhering,  wliich  is 
easily  separated  without  the  apjjlic-ation 
of  any  great  degree  of  heat,  by  placing 
the  cakes  upon  an  iron  plate  or  pan, 
which  will  soon  bring  the  bismuth  into 
a  state  of  liquefaction,  and  it  can  then 
be  separated  from  the  regulus. 

To  Refine  Reguh-s  of  Zaffre.— 
50  parts,  regulus  of  zaffre ;  6,  potash ; 
3,  sand ;  pulverize  and  well  mix,  then 
put  in  crucibles  holding  about  IJ  lb. 
each,  and  fire  in  a  rcverberatory  fur- 
nace, commencing  with  a  slow  fire  and 
gradually  increase  the  heat  for  about 
eight  hours ;  by  that  time  the  regulus 
will  have  fallen  to  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible,  and  the  scoria  found  at  the  top 
will  be  of  a  blackish  green;  it  will  then 
be  necessary  that  another  course  oi 
refining  should  take  jdaco,  in  order  that 
the  regulus  may  be  obtained  in  a  more 
perfect  state  ol'  purify. 

Blue  Calx.  —  1,  30  parts,  refined 
regulus  of  zallie;  1,  plaster;  j,  borax. 
2.  30  parts,  refined  regulus  of  cobalt ; 
1,  plaster ;  j,  borax.  Tliese  materials  to 
be  made  very  line,  and  well  mixed ;  put 
the  mixture  in  eartlienware  biscuit  cups 
IJ  in.  liigh,  3  in.  in  diameter,  and  IJ  in, 
thick,  filled  nearly  to  llie  top  ;  set  them 
in  a  furnace,  the  fire  to  be  increased 
until  the  mixture  is  in  a  state  of  fusion, 
the  same  degree  of  heat  must  be  con- 
tinued for  about  six  hours  ai'lerwards, 
and  then  the  fire  hastily  slackened  ;  this 
operation  will  occu])y  from  twelve  to 
thirteen  hours;  at  the  toj)  of  the  cups 
will  be  found  a  blue  ailx  se[>arated  from 
the  nickel ;  but  as  a  large  i)roporlii)n 
of  blue  will  still  remain  in  the  nickel 
when  sunk  to  the  bottom   of  the  cups, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


53 


it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  pro- 
cure the  whole  of  the  blue  contained,  to 
pursue  precisely  the  same  method  ov^er 
again. 

Cobalt  Blue,  or  Regulus  of 
Cobalt.  —  60  parts,  cobalt  ore;  50, 
potash  ;  25,  sand  ;  10,  charcoal.  Work 
the  same  way  as  for  regu'us  of  zaffre. 

To  Refink  Regulus  of  Cobalt. — 
50  parts,  regulus  of  cobalt ;  6,  potash. 
Refine  as  for  regulus  of  zaffre ;  the 
o]ieration  of  refining  must  be  repeated 
until  the  scoria  is  of  a  bright  colour  and 
of  a  slight  bluish  hue ;  then  spread  the 
purified  metal,  finely  pulverized,  half  an 
inch  thick,  on  flat  pieces  of  earthenware 
covered  with  flint;  place  in  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace,  and  apply  a  moderate 
degree  of  heat  for  a  few  hours. 

Glass  Making. — The  furnace  in 
which  glass  is  made  Is  a  large  circular 
building  capable  of  holding  about  six 
pots  or  vessels,  in  which  the  glass  is 
melted.     Fig.  1  is  an  ordinary  arrange- 

FlG.  1. 


Eoeut  of  this  furnace.  It  is  built  upon 
an  arch,  and  the  space  underneath,  in- 
cluded within  the  arch,  is  called  the 
cave,  as  at  A.  This  apartment  can  be 
dosed  by  the  doors  C  C,  to  regulate  the 
draught,  as  all  the  air  necessary  for  the 


support  of  the  fire  must  enter  at  these 
doors.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  cave 
is  placed  a  gi-ate  D,  to  support  the  fire. 
The  ashes  pass  through  this  grate  and 
fall  into  a  tank  of  water  B.  Around 
this  grate  pillars  are  constructed,  which, 
being  hollow,  serve  as  flues  F  F.  Resting 
upon  these  pillars  is  an  iron  dome  G,  and 
on  this  is  built  the  principal  chimney  H. 
Between  these  pillars  are  placed  the 
pots  E  E,  which,  from  the  peci^liar  con- 
struction of  the  furnace,  receive  the  heat 
equally  on  all  sides;  for,  as  the  flame 
ascends  it  strikes  the  dome,  and  is  rever- 
berated, taking  the  direction  pointed  out 
by  the  arrows.  The  pots  are  constructed 
in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  with  a  hemi- 
spherical top,  having  a  small  aperture 
on  one  side  for  the  admission  of  the 
materials,  and  their  removal  when 
formed  into  glass.  When  the  pots  are 
placed  in  the  furnace,  they  are  so 
arranged  that  their  openings  are  on  the 
outside  of  the  fire ;  they  are  then  built 
in  by  a  temporary  wall,  except  the 
orifices,  so  that  no  dust  or  smoke  caa 
enter  so  as  to  injure  the  glass.  The 
materials  for  these  various  kinds  of  glass 
are  placed  in  the  pots,  and  exposed  to 
the  heat  of  the  furnace  for  upwards  of 
forty-eight  hours,  during  one-half  of 
which  time  the  heat  is  gradually  in- 
creased, and  during  the  other  half 
gradually  decreased,  until  the  metal,  as 
the  workmen  term  the  glass,  is  in  a  fit 
state  for  working.  During  the  time  tne 
materials  are  in  the  pot,  the  workman 
takes  cut  a  portion,  from  time  to  time, 
on  an  iron  rod,  and  examines  it  when 
cold,  to  see  whether  it  is  free  from  air 
bubbles  and  of  good  colour.  If  the  ma- 
terials employed  be  very  impure,  there 
rises  to  the  surface  a  scum,  which  is 
called  sandiver  or  glass  gall,  and  which 
resembles  large  flakes  of  snow. 

Flint  Glass  is  employed  for  making 
lenses,  decanters,  drinkiug  glasses,  and 
owes  its  capability  of  being  thus  easily 
fashioned  to  the  lead  contained  in  it. 
The  following  quantities  form  a  very 
excellent  glass: — Fine  white  sand,  300 
parts ;  rod-lead,  or  litharge,  200 ;  re- 
fined pearlashes,  80 ;  nitre,  20  ;  arsenic 
and  manganese,  a  smaller  quantity. 


54 


WORKSHOP   RECKIPT8. 


Crown  Glass  is  a  compound  of  silica, 
potash  or  soda,  and  lime.  It  is  employed 
as  a  window  glass,  and  contains  no  lead. 
The  proportions  for  its  formation  are — 
Fme  white  sand,  100  parts ;  carbonate 
of  lime,  12  ;  carbonate  of  soda,  50  ; 
clippings  of  crown  glass,  100. 

Bottle  or  Green  Glass  is  made  of 
the  commonest  materials,  in  about  the 
following  proportions : — Sand,  100  parts  ; 
kelp,  or  impure  soda,  30 ,  wood  ashes, 
40 ;  potter's  clay,  100  ;  cullet,  or  broken 
glass,  100. 

Plate  Glass. — Great  care  is  required 
in  the  choice  of  materials,  and  the 
management  of  the  process  for  this  glass. 
The  Ibllowing  proportions  are  used : — 
Finest  white  sand,  720  parts ;  best  soda, 
450 ;  lime,  80 ;  nitre,  25 ;  cullet,  or 
broken  plate  glass,  425. 

Common  Window  Glass. — 100  parts, 
sand  ;  35,  chalk ;  35,  soda-ash,  and  a 
considerable  quantity  of  broken  glass  cr 
cullet. 

Colours  for  Glass. — Oxide  of  gold  is 
employed  to  impart  to  glass  a  beautiful 
ruby  colour.  Sub-oxide  of  copper  gives 
a  red  colour.  Silver,  in  all  states  of 
oxidation,  gives  a  variety  of  beautiful 
yellow  and  orange  colours  to  glass. 
Antimony,  lead,  and  silver,  in  combi- 
nation, are  employed  to  produce  the 
inferior  yellow  colour.  The  oxides  of 
iron  give  to  glass  various  shades  of  green, 
yellow,  red,  and  black.  Oxide  of  chro- 
mium gives  a  fine  green,  and  oxide  of 
■cob«lt  a  splendid  blue.  The  colour  most 
valued,  next  to  that  produced  by  gold, 
is  the  yellow  communicated  by  oxide  of 
uranium,  and  which  has  an  ajjpearauce 
resembling  shot  silk.  White  glass  or 
enamel  is  made  by  adding  either  arsenic 
or  the  oxide  of  tin  to  the  melted  metal. 
The  various  metals  emj)loyed  in  colour- 
mg  glass  are  also  used  in  the  manu- 
*'actni'e  of  artificial  gems,  and  by  their 
means  the  colour  and  general  ai)pearance 
are  well  imitated. 

Strass.  —  I'ure  aiustic  potash,  16 
parts  ;  white-lead,  85  ;  boracic  acid,  4J  ; 
arsenious  acid,  ^',  finest  while  sand,  50. 
Tlii'.'^f  mriforialH  are  CJiref'uUy  selected, 
placecl  ill  ;i  llcssiau  crn<'.iblt!  and  f'u.scil 
in  a  por<:»:i;un  furnace  for  a  day  and  a 


night,  then  cooled  very  gradually.  Used 
to  imitate  the  diamond.  Other  precious 
stones  are  imitated  by  adding  to  the 
strass  the  metallic  oxidet,  as  in  colours 
for  (jlass. 

Soluble  or  Water  Glass. — Mix  well 
200  grains  of  fine  sand,  and  600  of  fine 
carbonate  of  potassa;  fuse  in  a  crucible 
capable  of  holding  four  times  as  much. 
Carbonic  acid  escapes ;  the  silica  and 
potassa  combine  and  form  glass.  Pour 
out  the  glass,  which  i.-  commonly  termed 
silicated  potassa,  on  an  iron  plate.  The 
compound  formed  in  this  manner  is  pure 
silica  soap. 

Hard  Glass  for  Receiving  Colour 
— Best  sand,  cleansed  by  washing,  12  lbs. 
pearlashes,  or  fixed  alkaline  salt  purified 
with  nitre,  7  lbs. ;  saltpetre,  1  lb. ;  and 
borax,  J  lb  The  sand  being  first  reducetl 
to  powder  in  a  mortar,  the  other  in 
gredients  should  be  put  to  it,  and  the 
whole  well  mixed  by  pounding  them 
together. 

Glazing-  Windows. — Crown  c/lass 
is  made  in  circular  disks  blown  by  hand  ; 
these  disks  are  about  4  ft.  diameter,  and 
the  glass  averages  about  JL-  in.  thick. 
Owing  to  the  mode  of  manufacture  there 
is  a  thick  boss  in  the  centre,  and  the 
glass  is  throughout  more  or  less  striated 
or  channeled  in  concentric  rings,  fre- 
quently curved  in  surface,  and  thicker 
at  the  circumference  of  the  disk.  Con- 
sequently in  cutting  rectangular  panes 
out  of  a  disk  there  is  a  considerable  loss, 
or  at  least  variety  in  quality :  one  disk 
will  yield  about  10  sq.  ft.  of  good  window 
glass,  and  the  largest  pane  that  can  be 
cut  from  an  ordinary  disk  is  itbout 
34  X  22  in.  The  qualities  are  classified 
into  seconds,  thirds,  and  fourths. 

Sheet  iildss  is  also  blown  by  hand,  but 
into  hollow  cylindt'i's  about  4  ft.  long 
and  10  in.  diameter,  which  are  cut  off 
and  cut  ojjcn  longitudinally  while  hot, 
and  therefore  fall  into  flat  sheets  A 
more  perfect  window  glass  can  be  made 
by  this  j)rocess,  and  tliicker,  and  capable 
of  yielding  larger  |)anes  with  less  waste. 
Ordinary  sheet  glass  will  cut  to  a  pane 
of  40  X  30  in.,  and  some  to  'i|  x  'iG  in. 
It  can  be  madeiu  thicknesbcii  from  ^  iu. 
to  }  iu. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


56 


Plate  glass  is  cast  on  a  flat  table  and 
rolled  into  a  sheet  of  given  size  and 
thickness  by  a  massive  metal  roller.  In 
this  form,  when  cool,  it  is  rough  plate. 

Ribbed  plate  is  made  by  using  a  roller 
with  grooves  on  its  surface.  Rough  and 
ribbed  plate  are  frequently  made  of 
commoner  and  coarser  materials  than 
polished  plate,  being  intended  for  use  in 
factories  and  warehouses. 

Polished  plate  is  rough  plate  composed 
of  good  material  and  afterwards  polished 
on  both  sides,  which  is  done  by  rubbing 
two  plates  together  with  emery  and 
other  powders  between  them.  Plate 
glass  can  he  obtained  of  almost  any 
thickness  from  \  in.  up  to  1  in.  thick, 
and  of  any  size  up  to  about  12  x  6  ft. 

In  the  glazing  of  a  window  the  sizes  of 
the  panes,  that  is  to  say,  the  intervals 
uf  the  sash-bars,  should  he  arranged,  if 
practicable,  to  suit  the  sizes  of  panes 
of  glass  which  can  conveniently  be 
obtained,  so  as  to  avoid  waste  in  cutting  ; 
this  consideration  is  of  more  consequence 
in  using  crown  and  sheet  glass  than  with 
plate  glass.  The  woodwork  of  the  sash 
should  receive  its  priming  coat  before 
glazing,  the  other  coats  should  be  put 
on  afterwards.  With  crown  glass,  which 
IS  sometimes  curved,  it  is  usual  to  place 
the  panes  with  the  convexity  outwards. 
When  the  glazier  has  fitted  the  pane  to 
the  opening  with  his  diamond,  the  i-e- 
bate  of  the  sash-bar  facing  the  outside  of 
the  window,  he  spreads  a  thin  layer  of 
putty  on  the  face  of  the  rebate  and  then 
presses  the  glass  against  it  into  its  place, 
and  holding  it  there,  spreads  a  layer  of 
putty  all  round  the  side  of  the  rebate, 
covering  the  edge  of  the  glass  nearly  as 
far  as  the  face  of  the  rebate  extends  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  glass,  and  bevelling 
olf  the  putty  to  the  outer  edge  of  the 
rebate.  The  putty  is  then  sulEcient  to 
hold  the  pane  in  its  place,  and  hardens 
in  a  few  days.  The  glass  should  not 
touch  the  sash-bar  in  any  part,  on  account 
of  the  danger  of  its  being  cracked  from 
any  unusual  pressure  ;  there  should  be  a 
layer  of  putty  all  round  the  edges.  This 
priH.iiition  is  especially  necessary  in 
glazing  windows  with  iion  or  stc^e 
mull  ions  or  bar.«. 


Glass  Painting  and  Staining. 
— The  ditierent  compounds  for  paintincf 
glass  are  glasses  of  easy  fusion,  chiefly 
coloured  with  metallic  oxides  giound, 
and  laid  on  the  glass  with  spirits  of 
turpentine.  In  the  production  and  modi- 
fication of  glass  colours  much  depends 
on  the  difl'erent  preparations  of  the 
metals,  on  the  small  proportion  of  the 
metallic  oxides  employed  in  proportion 
to  the  vitreous  mass,  on  the  degree  of 
fire  and  time  of  its  continuance,  and  on 
the  purity  of  each  ingredient  intended 
for  vitreous  mixtures  ;  from  hence  diffi- 
culties arise  which  even  a  skilful  operator 
cannot  always  remove,  and  which  often 
frustrate  his  intention.  Having  made 
choice  of  the  subject  to  be  painted,  cor- 
rectly draw  the  same  on  a  paper  exactly 
the  size  intended  to  be  on  the  glass, 
then  place  the  ditierent  pieces  in  regular 
order  on  the  drawing  and  trace  the  out- 
lines therefrom  on  the  glass ;  when  the 
tracing  is  quite  dry  the  ground  colours 
may  be  washed  in  together  with  the 
dark  and  prominent  shades,  and  also  the 
stains  required.  Th  stains  are  laid  on 
in  various  thicknesses,  according  to  the 
depth  of  colour  required,  and  when  they 
are  dry  tlie  glass  is  ready  to  be  burned 
in  a  muffle  or  kiln  constructed  for  the 
purpose.  The  panes  of  glass  are  laid  on 
sheets  of  iron,  or  earthenware  bats,  the 
size  of  the  glass,  previously  spread  over 
with  dried  ground  flin%  to  prevent  the 
surface  of  the  glass  from  being  defaced. 
After  the  first  burning  the  stain  is 
washed  olf  with  warm  water,  which  will 
bring  to  view  every  part  of  the  subject, 
in  fact,  every  shade  according  to  the 
thickness  of  colour  applied  ;  to  heighten 
the  colour  paint  on  each  side  of  the  glass, 
and  burn  it  a  second  time.  The  glass 
will  require  from  four  to  six  fii-ings,  the 
exact  number  of  firings  depending  on 
the  subject,  the  degree  of  perfection 
required,  and  the  manner  of  execution  ; 
but  after  each  burning,  the  pieces  of 
glass  will  want  less  labour,  some  of  tlie 
colours  and  stains  being  perfect  at  the 
first  and  second  burning,  and  few  require 
the  utmost  quantity.  The  proper  d('<;it'e 
of  heat  to  which  tlie  glass  must  be 
exposed  in  the  m utile  is  ascertained  bj 


56 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


t.'iking  out  at  different  intervals  small 
pieces  of  glass,  arranged  for  the  pur- 
pose, on  whicli  are  laid  similar  colours 
to  those  being  fired.  After  the  glass 
is  burned  it  requires  great  precaution 
in  cooling,  for  if  suddenly  cooled  it 
IS  apt  to  flj',  consequently  all  sudden 
changes  of  temperature  should  be 
avoided. 

Red  Orange  and  Yellow  Stains. — 
12  parts,  green  vitriol  calcined  ;  1, 
o.Tide  of  silver.  The  vitriol  must  be  cal- 
cined to  a  reddisli  colour,  and  repeatedly 
washed  with  boiling  water  until  it  is 
completely  freed  fi-om  its  acid,  which 
will  be  known  by  the  water  being  insipid 
to  the  taste,  then  triturate  the  silver  and 
vitriol  together  in  a  mortar,  after  which 
grind  them  u])  willi  spirits  of  tar  for  use. 
Various  temj)eratures  in  burning  pro- 
duce various  coloured  stains,  the  highest 
a  red,  a  less  an  orange,  and  so  on  to  a 
yellow;  but  to  procure  a  very  deep  red, 
the  colour  must  be  laid  upon  both  sides 
of  the  glass. 

Wjiite  Enamel  for  Painting 
Glass.  —  3  parts,  borax  calcined;  2, 
flint;  1,  oxide  of  tin;  1,  Cornish  stone. 
The  basis  of  this  enamel,  which  is  in 
general  opaque,  may  also  be  employed  in 
assimilating  tlie  oi)aque  natural  stones. 
Tiiese  ingredients  must  be  well  mi.xed 
ui>  together,  and  fused  in  an  air  fur- 
nace in  a  crucible,  the  fire  at  first 
ajiplied  very  gradually,  and  the  whole 
repeatedly  stirred  with  an  iron  rod. 
The  mixture  by  tliis  calcination,  and 
by  being  kept  for  some  time  in  fusion 
in  an  intense  heat,  acquires  its  fusibility 
and  opacity. 

PrKi'Li;.  —  1.  20  p;>rts,  prepared 
puri)]e ;  2J,  enamel  flux  (2) ;  1,  v:hUe 
enamel.  2.  20  parts,  prepared  pui-ple ; 
10,  blue  process;  5J,  enamel  flux  (2); 
1,  v;hite  enamel. 

Rose  Colour.  —  20  parts,  prepared 
rose  colour  ;  1,  ti'/iite  enamel.  The 
jiurpies  and  rose  coh>ur.s  for  glass  paint- 
ing are  nearly  the  same  mixtures  as 
those  used  for  porcelain  jainting,  with 
the  addition  of  a  small  irojiortion  of 
flux  and  white  enamel,  the  latter  gives 
(irimiids  to  the  colour;  in  the  course  of 
working  the  rose  colour,  if  a  very  small 


quantity  of  purple  be  added,  the  colour 
will  be  perceivably  benefited. 

Red. — 1  part,  teira  de  sienna;  3, 
enamel  flux  (2).  The  terra  de  sienna 
must  be  calcined  over  a  slow  fire  until 
its  colour  becomes  of  a  dark  red,  aitei 
whicli  v;ashed  several  times  in  boiling 
water  and  ground  with  the  flux  for 
use. 

Transparent  Orange. — 1  part,  ox- 
ide of  silver;  10,  enamel  flux  (2);  10, 
enamel  flux  Qi)  ;   1,  ivhiic  enamel. 

Yi:llow. — 1  part,  yellow,  under  glaze, 
p.  46  ;  3,  enamel  flux  (2) ;  J,  white 
enamel. 

Dark  Brown. — 1  part,  highly  cal- 
cined copperas  ;  3J,  enamel  flux  (3). 

Red  IJkown. — 1  part,  black;  1,  red; 
1,  enamel  flux  (4). 

Light  Brown. — 1  part,  easy  calcined 
umber  ;  3^,  enamel  flux  (2). 

Green.  —  1.  5  parts,  cornelian  red; 
1,  prepared  purple.  2.  2  parts,  blue; 
1,  yellow. 

Blue. — 1.  8  parts,  flint  glass;  3,  red- 
lead  ;  1,  potash  ;  1,  blue  calx  ;  ^,  com- 
mon salt.  2.  4  parts,  borax  ;  4h,  flint 
glass  ;  1,  flint ;  j,  jiotash  ;  ^,  prepared 
purple  ;  1,  blue  calx.  In  preparing 
these  blues,  let  the  materials  be  calcined 
in  an  air  furnace,  and  the  whole  mass 
kejit  in  a  state  of  fusion  for  some  time, 
a  Hue  blue  glass  enamel  will  be  produced  ; 
the  cobalt  blue  calx  sliould  be  of  tlie 
finest  quality  that  ]>ossibly  can  be  pro- 
cured, and  free  from  all  imi)urities. 

Black. —  1.  I  part,  highly  calcined 
umber;  2,  calcined  borax;  1,  red-lead; 
1,  blue  calx.  2.  1  i>art,  manganese;  1, 
bla<l<  (lux.  Tlie  best  Turkey  umber 
should  be  procured  for  the  first  process, 
and  calcined  at  the  most  intense  heat  that 
can  be  jjroduced  in  an  air  furnace,  after 
which  pound  and  mix  up  with  the  other 
materials ;  then  calcine  the  whole  to- 
getlier  in  an  air  furnace,  the  degree  of 
heat  will  be  suillcieut  when  the  whole 
mass  is  in  fusion. 

Black  Flux,  for  glass  staining. — l.i 
parts,  red-lead;  5,  barax ;  5,  flint;  IJ 
oxide  of  blue  vitriol. 

Indigo  Blue. — 1  part,  precijdtate  of 
gold  ;  4i,  enamel  flux  (4) ;  ;\,  white-  enamel. 
These    iugredieits    are    simply    grounti 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


67 


together  for  use.  They  produce  a  beau- 
tiful colour  on  glass,  of  a  fine  purple  hue. 
This  very  expensive  colour  is  adapted 
principally  forpaiutiug  the  draperies  of 
figures,  and  is  rery  susceptible  of  being 
injured  by  a  high  degree  of  heat. 
Etchikg  and  Deadening  Colour. — 

1.  7  parts,  red-lead;  2,  calcined  boras; 

2,  flint;  1,  oxide  of  tin.  2.  8  parts, 
red-lead  ;  6,  flint  glass  ;  3,  flint  ;  |, 
green  copperas.  The  materials  of  the 
last  two  processes  must  be  finely  mixed 
acd  calcined  in  an  air  furnace,  each  pro- 
cess separately,  after  which  take  2  parts 
of  No.  1  and  3  parts  of  No.  2,  mix  them 
together,  and  repeat  the  calcination 
again  in  an  air  furnace  ;  then  pound  and 
grind  this  frit  for  use,  but  be  particular 
that  it  is  ground  very  fine,  for  much 
depends  on  the  particles  being  minutely 
mixed  previous  to  using.  The  composi- 
tion is  afterwards  laid  on  the  glass  with 
water,  and  a  small  quantity  of  refined 
sugar  dissolved  in  spring  water  applied 
occasionally;  the  solution  of  sugar  must 
be  of  the  consistence  of  thick  oil ;  should 
too  large  a  quantity  of  the  solution  be 
added,  and  by  that  means  condensate  it 
too  much,  add  a  few  drops  of  acetous 
acid  to  the  menstruum,  it  will  imme- 
diately regain  a  proper  consistence,  and 
not  at  all  injure  the  colour.  When  the 
deadening  is  laid  on  the  glass,  the  figures 
must  be  engraved  or  etched  with  a  pointed 
instrument  made  of  wood,  bone,  or  ivory, 
suitable  to  the  subject,  and  afterwards 
ourned  in  a  kiln  or  muffle  appropriated 
for  the  purpose.  It  fires  at  a  less  tem- 
perature than  stained  glass,  although 
in  some  instances  it  will  do  in  the  same 
kiln. 

To  Transfer  Engravings  on 
Glass. — Jletallic  colours  prepared  and 
mixed  with  fat  oil,  are  applied  to  the 
stamp  on  the  engraved  brass  or  copper. 
Wipe  with  the  hand  in  the  manner  of  the 
printers  of  coloured  plates  ;  take  a  proof 
on  a  sheet  cf  silver  paper,  which  is  im- 
mediately transferred  on  the  tablet  of 
the  glass  destined  to  be  painted,  being 
careful  to  turn  the  coloareu  side  agains', 
the  glass ;  it  adheres  to  it,  and  so  soot 
as  the  copy  is  quite  dry,  take  off  the  su- 
perfluouB  paper,  by  washmg  it  with  a 


sponge  ;  there  will  remain  only  the 
colour  transferred  to  the  glass,  which 
will  be  fixed  by  passing  the  glass  through 
the  ovens. 

Annealing  Glass. — This  consists 
in  putting  the  glass  vessels,  as  soon  as 
they  are  farmed,  and  while  they  are  yet 
hot,  into  a  furnace  or  an  oven,  not  so 
hot  as  to  re-melt  them,  and  in  which 
they  are  suffered  to  cool  gradually.  It 
is  found  to  prevent  their  breaking  easily, 
particularly  on  exposure  to  heat.  In 
large  works,  annealing  is  performed  by 
passing  the  glass  through  the  oven,  by 
means  of  revolving  trays  constructed  for 
the  purpose. 

Cutting  Glass. — To  cut  glass  ves- 
sels neatl]',  heat  a  rod  of  iron  to  redness, 
and  having  filled  the  vessel  the  exact 
height  you  wish  it  to  be  cut  with  oil  of 
any  kind,  proceed  very  gradually  to  dip 
the  red-hot  iron  into  the  oil,  which, 
heating  all  along  the  surface,  the  glass 
suddenly  chips  and  cracks  right  round, 
when  you  can  lift  off  the  upper  por- 
tion clean  by  the  surface  of  the  oil. 
If  a  tube  is  required  to  be  cut,  notch 
the  tube  at  the  point  where  it  is  to  be 
divided  with  the  edge  of  the  file,  or  of  a 
thin  plate  of  hard  steel,  or  with  a  dia- 
mond ;  after  which  j^ress  upon  the  two 
ends  of  the  tube,  as  if  to  enlarge  the 
notch,  or  what  is  better,  give  the  tube  a 
slight  smart  blow.  This  method  is  suJ- 
ficient  for  the  breaking  of  small  tubes. 
Many  persons  habitually  employ  au 
agate,  or  a  common  flint,  which  they 
hold  in  one  hand,  while  with  the  other 
they  rub  the  tube  over  the  sharp  edge 
of  the  stone,  taking  the  precaution  of 
securing  the'  tube  by  the  help  of  the 
thumb.  For  tubes  of  great  diameter, 
employ  a  fine  iron  wire  stretched  in  a 
bow,  or,  still  better,  the  glass-cutter's 
wheel ;  with  either  of  these,  assisted  by 
a  mixture  of  emery  and  water,  you  can 
cut  a  circular  trace  round  a  large  tube, 
and  then  divide  it  with  ease.  When  the 
portion  which  is  to  be  removed  from  a 
tube  is  so  small  that  you  cannot  easily 
lay  hold  of  it,  cut  a  notch  with  a  file,  and 
expose  the  notch  to  the  point  of  a  candle 
flime  ;  the  cut  then  flies  round  the  tub*. 
A  good  plan  of  cutting  glass  is  to  mak;; 


68 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


use  of  a  piece  of  iron  heated  to  redness, 
au  angle  or  corner  of  which  is  to  be 
applied  to  the  tube  at  the  point  where  it 
is  to  be  cut,  and  then,  if  the  fracture  is 
not  at  once  etiiected  by  the  action  of  the 
hot  iron,  plunge  suddenly  into  cold  water. 
After  having  made  a  notch  with  a  file, 
or  the  edge  of  a  Hint,  you  introduce  into 
it  a  little  water,  and  bring  close  upon  it 
the  point  of  a  wire,  previously  heated  to 
the  melting  i)oint.  This  double  appli- 
cation of  heat  and  moisture  obliges  the 
notch  to  Hy  round  the  glass.  Glaziers 
use  for  cutting  glass  a  diamond  splinter 
mounted  in  a  holder. 

To  Di*aw  on  Glass. — Grind  lamp- 
black with  gum-water  and  some  com- 
mon salt ;  draw  the  design  with  a  pen 
or  hair  pencil  ;  or  use  a  crayon  made  for 
the  purpose. 

Stencilling  on  Glass  —  Writ- 
ing- on  Glass. — Stencil  plates  may 
be  cut  out  of  tlun  sheets  of  metal  or 
cardboard,  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
wall  decoration,  &c.  If  varnish  colours 
are  employed,  lay  them  on  as  evenly  as 
possible,  through  the  perforations  in  the 
)ilate,  and  harden  afterwards  in  a  stove 
or  oven.  The  metallic  ]ireparations  used 
m  glass  staining  and  painting  are  also 
available,  but  rcijuire  firing  in  a  mullle, 
or  a  china  ])aintor's  stove.  Should  the 
process  commonly  called  embossing  be 
wanted,  paint  the  portions  of  glass  left 
uncovered  by  the  spaces  in  the  stencil 
]ilate  with  lirunswick  black,  dip  or  cover 
with  hydrofluoric  aci<l,  wash  in  clear 
water  and  remove  the  black  ground. 
Kvery  part  that  was  covered  will  then 
present  a  polished  even  surface,  the  re- 
mainder will  have  been  eaten  into  by  the 
acid.  If  the  raised  parts  are  to  have  a 
frosted  apjiea ranee,  rul)  them  with  a  flat 
pieceof  marble  moistened  with  fine  emery 
and  water.  For  |)utting  jiatterns  or  lines 
cu  glass  with  a  wheel,  there  are  two 
nethoils,  one  followed  by  glas.s  cutters, 
the  other  by  the  engravers  on  glass. 
The  first-mentioued,  rough  in  the  ])at- 
tern,  with  an  iron  mill  supplied  with  a 
trii'kling  stri-am  of  sand  and  water, 
rniMoth  mil  the  rough  marks  on  a  wheel 
of  Vork  or  Wai'iiugton  stdiie,  jiolisn  on 
a    v/ooden    wheel    of    willow   or    alder 


moistened  with  pumice  powder,  and  finish 
on  a  cork  wheel  with  putty  and  rotten- 
stone.  The  engraver  cuts  in  and  roughs 
the  ppttern  with  copper  wheels,  aided  by 
emery  of  various  degrees  of  fineness,  ana 
olive  or  sperm  oil,  and  polishes  the  por- 
tions intended  with  leaden  disks  and  very 
fine  pumice  powder  and  water. 

Painting  Glass  for  tho  Magic 
Lantern. — Draw  on  paper  the  size  of 
the  glass  the  subject  you  mean  to  paini. 
Fasten  this  at  each  end  of  the  glass  with 
paste,  or  cement,  to  prevent  it  from  slip- 
ping. Then  reverse  the  glass  so  as  to 
have  the  paper  underneath,  and  with 
some  very  black  paint,  mixed  with  var- 
nish, draw  with  a  fine  camel-hair  pencil 
very  lightly  the  outlines  sketched  on  the 
paper  which  are  reflected  on  the  glass. 
It  would  add  to  the  natural  resemblanco 
if  the  outlines  were  drawn  with  a  strong 
tint  of  each  of  the  natural  colours  of  the 
object ;  but  in  this  respect  the  artist 
must  please  hia  fancy.  When  the  wit- 
lines  are  dry,  colour  and  shade  the 
figures  ;  but  observe  to  temper  the 
colours  with  strong  white  varni.-h. 

Pigments  for  Magic  Lantern 
Slides. — The  only  pigments  available 
are  the  transparent  and  a  few  of  the 
semi-transparent.  The  transjiarent  in- 
clude (begiuuiiig  with  the  best  for  the 
purpose)  Prussian  blue,  gamboge,  car- 
mine, verdigris,  madder  brown,  indigo, 
crimson  lake,  aad  ivory  black.  The 
semi-transparent  include  raw  sienna, 
burnt  sienna,  cappah  brown,  and  Van- 
dyke brown.  No  particular  method  of 
mixing  the  colours  is  reciuisito.  Ordinary 
oil  or  water  ('(doui-s  will  do,  but  they 
must  be  ground  extremely  fine.  The 
pencils  must  be  small  and  tiieir  points 
unexceptionable.  Camel's-hair  is  prefer- 
able to  sable  for  painting  ujion  glass,  its 
elasticity  being  less,  ami  the  trouble  of 
working  out  the  brush  marks,  which 
must  always  be  cai-et'ully  attended  to, 
not  80  great.  The  best  vehicle  to  use  for 
thinning  the  colours  is  ordinary  megil]), 
and  not  a  drop  more  than  is  necessary 
for  properly  working  should  be  added, 
for  if  the  colours  be  made  too  thin  tliey 
will  run  into  et'.ch  other  and  ullerl) 
ruin  the  ])aiutiug.     It'  water  colours  aro 


•WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


59 


preferred,  tne  best  medium  for  laying  ol 
the  (irst  wash  of  colour  is  a  hot  solution 
of  transparent  gelatine.  When  this  is 
dry  and  cold  it  admits  of  shading  and 
finishing  without  being  disturbed,  pro- 
vided the  pencil  be  handled  gently  and 
the  medium  be  cold  water.  The  oil 
paintings  require  no  varnishing,  but  the 
transparency  of  the  water  colours  is 
much  heightened  by  a  thin  coat  of  the 
purest  mastic  varnish.  In  colouiung  the 
pictures  the  quality  of  the  light  which 
is  to  show  them  must  be  borne  in  mind. 
If  it  be  the  lime  light,  approximate  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  nature ;  but  if  it  be 
the  light  of  an  oil  lamp,  remember  that 
its  i-ays  are  gi-eatly  deficient  in  blue,  the 
yellow  proportionately  preponderating, 
and  arrange  the  tints  accordingly :  for 
instance,  the  greens  must  be  much  bluer 
than  natural,  the  yellows  must  incline 
to  orange,  and  all  shades  of  violet  (the 
complementary  of  yellow)  wholly  es- 
chewed. 

Glass  Cleaning. — Grease  may  be 
dissolved  from  glass  by  means  of  car- 
bonate soda,  carbonate  potass,  or  better 
still,  by  caustic  soda,  made  thus : — 10 
parts  of  carbonate  soda  are  dissolved  in 
100  parts  of  water  (10  oz.  to  100  oz.), 
and  heated  to  ebullition  in  a  clean  un- 
tinned  iron  vessel ;  8  parts  of  good  quick- 
lime are  meanwhile  slaked  in  a  covered 
basin,  and  the  resulting  hydrate  of  liine 
added,  little  by  little,  to  the  boiling  solu- 
tion of  carbonate,  with  frequent  stirring. 
This  will  give  a  very  strong  caustic  so- 
lution, and  should  be  used  with  care. 
Keep  your  hands  out  of  the  solution,  and 
dip  the  glass  in  by  means  of  the  pliers, 
keeping  them  moving  while  in  the  solu- 
tion. When  the  grease  is  dissolved  or 
loosened,  scrub  with  a  brush,  well  rinse 
in  water,  and  dry. 

Frosting  Glass. — Roll  up  tolera- 
bly tightly  a  slip  of  tin,  about  6  in.  or 
8  in.  long  and  about  2  in.  broad,  or  use  a 
small  flat  piece  of  marble.  Dip  either 
of  these  in  Croydon  or  glass-cutter's  sand, 
moistened  with  water ;  rub  over  the  glass, 
whether  flat  or  round,  dipping  it  fre- 
quently in  a  pail  or  pan  of  clear  water. 
This  is  the  method  employed  for  frosting 
jugs,  &o.     For  lam-  glasses  a  wire  brush 


is  used,  and  they  are  chucked  in  a  lathe. 
Panes  of  glass  should  be  laid  on  a  soft  bed 
of  baize,  or  coarse  linen.  If  the  frosting 
is  to  be  very  fine,  finish  with  washed 
emery  and  water.  As  a  temporary  frost- 
ing for  windows,  mix  together  a  strong 
hot  solution  of  sulphite  of  magnesia  ana 
a  clear  solution  of  gum  arable,  apply 
warm.  Or  use  a  strong  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  sodium  warm,  and  when  cool 
wash  with  gum-water  to  protect  the  sur 
face  from  being  scratched. 

Drilling  Glass. — Glass  can  be 
drilled  with  a  common  drill,  but  the 
safest  method  is  to  use  a  brooch  drill. 
No  spear-pointed  di-ill  can  be  tempered 
hard  enough  not  to  break.  The  brooch 
can  either  be  used  as  a  drill  with  a  bow, 
or  by  the  hand.  It  should  be  selected  of 
such  a  bore  that  it  will  make  a  hole  of 
the  required  size,  at  about  one  inch  from 
the  end.  It  should  be  broken  otf  sharp 
with  a  pair  of  pliers,  at  about  an  inch 
and  a  half,  and  when  the  sharp  edges  are 
blunted  by  drilling,  a  fresh  end  should 
be  made  by  breaking  off  an  eighth  of 
an  inch,  and  so  on,  until  tlie  hole  is 
bored.  It  is  always  desirable  to  drill 
from  both  sides,  as  it  prevents  the  glass 
from  breaking  ;  drill  lightly,  and  lubri- 
cate with  spirits  of  turpentine  and  oil  of 
lavender,  or  a  little  camphor  instead  of 
oil  of  lavender.  Holes  may  be  drilled 
through  plate  glass  with  a  flat-ended 
copper  drill  and  coarse  emery  and  water. 
The  end  of  the  drill  will  gradually  wear 
round,  when  it  must  be  re-flattened,  or  it 
will  not  hold  the  emery.  Practically, 
however,  the  best  means  of  drilling  holes 
in  glass  is  by  using  a  splinter  of  a  dia 
mond.  A  brass  drill  is  made  to  fit  the 
drill-stock,  sawn  down  a  little  way  with 
a  notched  knife  to  allow  the  splinter  to 
fit  tight,  and  the  splinter  fixed  in  the 
split  wire  with  hot  shellac  or  sealing- 
wax.  The  drill  is  to  be  used  quite 
dry  and  with  care.  If  the  hole  to  be 
drilled  is  wanted  larger  than  the  tool, 
drill  a  number  of  small  holes  close  to- 
gether to  form  a  circle  as  large  as  the 
hole  required,  then  join  the  holes  witn  a 
small  file.  A  splinter  of  diamond  ro.iy 
be  bought  for  2s.  (or  '60)  bi,  enough  to 
drill  a  ^  in.  hole. 


60 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


Darkening'  Glass. — ^The  follow- 
ing, if  neatly  done,  renders  the  glass 
obscure  yet  diaphanous : — Rub  up,  as  for 
oil  colours,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  sugar 
cf  lead  with  a  little  boiled  linseed  oil, 
and  distribute  Ihis  uniformly  over  the 
pane,  from  the  end  of  a  hog-hair  tool  by 
a  dabbing,  jerking  motion,  until  the  ap- 
pearance of  ground  glass  is  obtained.  It 
may  be  ornamented,  when  perfectly  hard, 
by  delineating  the  pattern  with  a  strong 
solution  of  caustic  potash,  giving  it  such 
time  to  act  as  experience  dictates,  and 
then  expeditiously  wiping  out  the  por- 
tion it  is  necessary  to  remove. 

Bending  Glass  Tubes. — If  a 
sudden  bend  is  wanted,  heat  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  tube  to  a  dull  red-heat, 
and  bend  it  with  the  hand  held  at  the  op- 
posite ends.  If  the  bend  is  to  be  gradual, 
heat  an  inch  or  two  of  it  in  length, 
previous  to  bending  it.  If  a  gradual 
bend  on  the  one  s4de,  and  a  sharp  one  on 
the  other,  as  in  retorts,  a  little  ni.mage- 
ment  of  the  tube  in  the  flame,  moving  it 
to  the  right  and  left  alternately  at  the 
same  time  that  it  is  turned  round,  will 
easily  form  it  of  that  shape.  In  bending 
glass,  the  part  which  is  to  be  concave  is 
to  be  the  pai-t  most  heated.  An  ordinary 
gas  flame  is  quite  sullicient  to  bend  glass 
by,  but  that  of  a  spirit  lampMs  better. 

Glass,  to  Powder. — Make  a  piece 
of  glass  red  hot  in  the  fire,  and  wliile  in 
this  state  plunge  it  into  cold  water ;  it 
will  immediately  break  into  powdtr; 
tills  must  be  sifted  and  dried  ;  it  is  then 
fit  for  making  glass  paper,  for  filtering 
varnishes,  and  lor  other  ])urj)oses. 

Manufacture  of  Varnishes. — 
The  building  in  which  varnish  in  made 
ought  to  be  quite  detached  from  any 
other  building  whatever,  and  have  a 
door-way  in  the  centre  with  folding 
doors  made  to  lift  olf  the  hinges.  Let 
the  roof  of  the  building  s!oj)e  to  the 
front ;  fix  also  in  each  end  wall  a  frame 
and  door  made  to  lift  olf  the  hinges,  so 
that,  when  necessary,  there  may  be  a 
free  draught  throuf^li  the  premises.  I.ct 
three  skylights  be  made  and  fixe<l  in  the 
roof,  not  directly  ovci  the  furnaces,  liut 
on  one  side,  bo  a»  to  tlirow  light  on  the 
furnaces.     The  skylights  and  flaps  mnst 


be  well  secured  by  lead  flushings,  to 
prevent  wet  getting  in,  which  might  h^. 
attended  with  serious  consequences.  la 
the  left-hand  corner,  against  the  back 
wall,  dig  out  a  foundation  and  fix  over  a 
furnace    the  set  pot,   used   for   boiling 

Fhs.2. 


\     ^:.::f'-';   ^ 


oil,  gold  size,  japan,  and  Bnmswick 
black.  Dig  out  a  foundation  facing  the 
front  door  against  the  back  wall  for 
the  boiling  furnace.  Fig.  2;  against  the 
back  wall,  in  the  right-hand  corner,  dig 
out  a  foundation  for  the  gum  furnace. 
Figs.  3  and  4  ;  this  and  all  the  other  fur- 

Fio.  3. 


nace.s  require  to  have  slow  fires  kept  in 
them  for  a  day,  in  order  to  dry  them 
slowly,  and  prevent  their  cracking. 
Fig.  3,  the  top  plate,  is  of  cast  iron. 

Gum  pot. — Procure  a  coii])cr  gum  pot 
to  fit  into  the  last  furnace,  Fig.  4.  Tho 
bottom  a.  Fig,  4,  is  hammered  out  of  a 
solid  block  of  co])]ier,  and  fishioneil,  all 
of  one  jiiece,  cx;ictlv  like  a  hat  witnout 
the  brim.  The  upp(!r  jiart  of  the  pot  b, 
is  made  of  sheet  copper,  of  a  cyliudric.il 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


61 


form,  10  in.  diameter  at  the  top,  and 
2  ft.  2  in.  high,  about  f  in.  thick ;  the 


Fig.  4. 


lower  part  of  the  cylinder  is  then  riveted 
to  the  bottom  with  copper  rivets,  the 
heads  of  which  are  inside,  and  project 
tlirough  the  lappings  of  the  copper,  flat- 
tpned  on  both  sides.  Previous  to  riveting 
on  the  bottom,  a  flange  of  copper,  of  about 
I  in.  in  thicliness,  is  fixed  on  to  the 
bottom  part,  under  the  large  rivets :  it 
is  fixed  horizontally  round  the  pot.  Also 
previous  to  riveting  on  the  bottom,  put 
on  the  iron  hoop  d,  IJ  in.  in  breadth,  to 
which  is  welded  an  iron  handle,  made 
1  in.  broad  by  1  in.  thick,  gradually  in- 
creasing to  2  in,  in  oreadth,  but  decreas- 
ing in  thickness.  The  length  from  pot 
to  handle  end  2  ft.  8  in. 

Boiling  pot. — Procure  a  copper  pot  e 
to  fit  furnace.  Fig.  8,  the  bottom  to  be 
beat  out  of  the  solid,  as  the  gum  pot,  and 
of  the  following  dimensions :  Diameter 
across  the  bottom  outside,  20  in. ;  height 
of  bottom,  7  in. ;  the  cylindrical  or  body 
part  of  the  pot  to  be  2  ft.  10  in.  in  depth, 
and  joined  to  the  bottom  part  with  stronj^ 
copper  rivets,  made  to  project  through 
at  least  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and  to 
be  well  hammered  inside  and  out ;  for, 
as  there  is  no  flange,  the  rivets  must  be 
larg?  and  strong  to  support  the  weight 


Fig.  6. 


0 


of  the  pot  and  its  contents  while  boiling 
on  the  furnace  plate.  It  ought  to  fit 
the  plate  neatly,  yet  so  easy  as  to  lift  off 
freely.  Seven  inches  below  the  mouth 
of  the  pot  fix  on  two  strong  iron  handles, 
one  on  each  side,  riveted  through  each 
end  with  two  strong  rivets;  the  space 
for  the  hands  to  be  7  in.,  and  1§  in.  in 
diameter,  and  to  project  4  in.  from  ths 
pot  sides. 

Small  Tools. — In  addition  to  the  fur- 
naces the  varnish  manufacturer  requires 
two  copper  ladles,  made  to  hold  two 
quarts  each,  with  turned  hardwood 
handles.  Two  good  ladles  for  the  iron 
set  pot,  made  of  sheet  copper  or 
sheet  iron,  with  ash  handles.  For 
a  pot  of  40  gallons,  or  upwards, 
the  ladle  to  hold  3  quarts.  Two 
copper  stirrers,  Fig.  5,  made  from 
three-quarter  diameter  copper 
rods 

one  end  to  j.2 

up  the  rod  ;  to  be  finished  with 
ferruled  handles  7  in.  in  length. 
One  large,  strong,  copper  funnel, 
with  lapped  seams,  for  straining 
boiling  varnish  or  oil ;  tin  or 
soldered  funnels  would  melt. 
One  copper  oil-jack,  Fig.  6,  which 
will  contain  2  gallons,  for  pour- 
ing in  hot  or  boiling  oil,  with  a  large 
strong  pitcher  handle,  and  spout  in  front. 
One  brass  or  copper  sieve  containing 
60  meshes  to  the  inch,  9  in.  diameter, 
for  straining  the  first  varnish.  A  brass 
sieve,  40  meshes  to  the  inch,  9  in. 
diameter,  for  straining  gold  size,  tur- 
pentine, varnish,  boiled  oil,  &c.  A  brass 
sieve,  40  meshes  to  the  inch,  and  9  in. 


ft.  Ions:,  beat  flat  at  the 
li  in.  breadth,  8  in. 


la] 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


diameter,  for  straining  JTpan  ana  Bruns- 
wick black.  A  saddle.  Fig.  7,  which  is 
a  sheet  of  plate-iron  or  tin,  12  in. 
broad,  and  turned  up  1 J  in.  at  each  side, 
it  is  to  lie  from  the  edge  of  No.  1  pot  on 


62 


■WORKSHOP  RECEIPrS. 


tiiC  edge  of  the  funnel,  to  prevent  the 
spilling  of  the  v.irnish  during  the  time 
of  taliing  it  out.  A  tin  pouring  pot,  to 
hold  3  gallons,  made  exactly  like  a 
garden  watering  pot,  only  smaller  at 
the  spout,  and  without  any  rose ;  this  is 
never  to  be  used  for  any  purpose  except 
pouring    oil     of    turpentine     into     the 

Fig.  8. 


varnish.  A  3-gallon  tin  jack,  made 
with  a  strong  handle  at  back,  and  a 
large  broad  spout  in  front ;  used  for 
receiving  the  washings  when  poured  out 
from  the  gum  pot.  A  small  broom, 
termed  a  swish,  made  from  the  waste 
cuttings  of  cane  tied  on  a  small  handle, 
like  a  hearth  broom,  ibr  washing  out 
the  gum  pot  each  time  it  is  used  ;  to  be 
always  kej)t  clean,  and  left  in  oil  of 
turpentine.  An  iron  trevet,  made  with 
a  circular  top  14-  in.  diameter,  with 
four  small  cross-bars  ;  the  three  feet  of 
the  trevet  12  in.  high  ;  it  is  used  for 
setting  the  gum  pot  upon,  with  its  bot- 
tom ui)wards,  for  a  minute  between  each 
rimning. 

lioir.i.vQ  LiNSKKD  Oil. — Procure  a 
cojjper  pan,  Fig.  9,  made  like  a  common 
washing  copjier,  set  it  upon  the  boiling 
furnace,  Fig.  8,  and  fill  up  with  lin- 
seed oil  within  5  inciies  of  the  brim. 
Kindle  a  (ire  in  the  furnace  underneath, 
and  manage  the  fire  so  that  ihe  oil 
shall  grailually  but  slowly  increa.se 
lU  heat  for  the  first  two  hours ;  then 
increase  the  heat  to  a  gentle  simmer, 
and  if  there  is  any  scum  on  the  sur- 
I'.ii  •■,  skim  it  off  with  a  co|iper  ladle, 
and  put  the  skimmings  away.  Let  the 
oil  l)iiil  gt-iitly  for  three  hours  longer, 
then  introduce,  by  a  little  at  a  time,  a 


quarter  of  an  ounce  of  the  best  calianed 
magnesia  for  every  gallon  of  oil,  iirra- 
sionally  stirring  the  oil  from  the  bottom. 

Fig.  9. 


,^==i. 


Wlien  the  magnesia  is  all  in,  let  the  oil 
boil  rather  smartly  for  one  hour  ;  it  will 
then  be  sutlicient.  Lay  a  cover  over  the 
oil  to  keep  out  the  dust  while  the  fire  is 
drawn  and  extinguished  by  water  ;  then 
uncover  the  oil,  and  leave  it  till  next 
morning ;  and  then,  while  it  is  yet  hot, 
ladle  it  into  the  c;u-rying  jack,  or  let  it 
out  through  the  pipe  and  cock  ;  carry  it 
away,  and  deposit  it  in  either  a  tin  or 
leaden  cistern,  for  wood  vessels  will  not 
hold  it ;  let  it  remain  to  settle  for  at 
least  three  months.  The  magnesia  will 
absorb  all  the  acid  and  mucilage  from 
the  oil,  and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the 
cistern,  leaving  the  oil  clear,  transparent, 
and  fit  for  use.  Recollect,  when  the  oil 
is  taken  out,  not  to  disturb  the  bottoms, 
which  are  only  fit  for  black  paint. 

Making  Varnish  on  a  Small  Scale. 
— First  procure  a  gum  pot,  Fig.  4,  or 
smaller,  if  required;  then  a  tluec-footcd 
iron  trevet  with  a  circular  toj),  the  feet 
1(3  in.  in  length,  and  made  to  stand  wider 
at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  which  is 
to  be  made  so  that  the  jiot  will  fit  easily 
into  it.  Place  the  trevet  in  a  hollow 
in  a  yard,  garden,  or  outhouse,  where 
there  can  be  no  danger  from  lire  ;  raise 
a  tem]iorary  fire-jjlace  round  the  trevet 
with  loo.se  bricks,  after  the  same  manner 
that  plumbers  m.ike  their  furnaces; 
then  make  up  a  good  fire  with  either 
coke,  coal,  or  wood-charcoal,  which  is 
far  preferable  ;  let  the  fire  burn  to  a 
good  strong  heat,  set  on  the  gum  pot 
with  .'J  lbs.  gum  co]ial  ;  ol;«erve,  that  if 
the  fire  surround  the  gum  pot  any 
higher  inside  than  the  gum,  it  is  io 
great  danger  of  taking  fire.     As  soon  iu> 


WORKSHOP  KKCEIPTS. 


68 


the  gum  begins  to  fuse  and  steam,  stir 
it  with  the  cui'i«er  stirrer,  and  keep 
cutting  and  stirring  the  gum  to  assist 
its  fusion ;  if  it  feels  lumpy  and  not 
fluid,  and  rises  to  the  middle  of  the  pot, 
lift  it  from  the  fire  and  set  it  on  the  ash- 
bed,  and  keep  stirring  until  it  goes  down 
(meantime  let  the  fire  be  kei)t  briskly 
up);  then  set  on  the  gum  pot  again,  and 
keep  stirring  until  the  gum  appears 
Haid  likp  oil,  which  is  to  be  known  by 
lifting  up  the  stirrer  so  far  as  to  see  the 
blade.  Observe,  that  if  the  gum  does 
not  appear  quite  fluid  as  oil,  carry  it  out 
whenever  it  rises  to  the  middle  of  the 
pot,  and  stir  it  down  again,  keeping  up 
a  brisk  fire ;  put  on  tlie  pot,  and  keep 
stirring  until  the  gum  rises  above  the 
blade  of  the  stirrer.  Then  the  copper 
pouring  jack  is  charged  with  boiled  oil, 
and  held  over  the  edge  of  the  gum  pot ; 
when  the  gum  rises  within  5  inches  of 
the  pot-mouth,  the  assistant  is  to  pour 
in  the  oil  very  slowly  until  towards  the 
last,  the  maker  stirring  during  the  pour- 
ing. If  the  fire  at  this  time  is  strong  and 
regular,  in  about  eight  or  ten  minutes 
the  gum  and  oil  will  concentrate  and 
become  quite  clear ;  this  is  to  be  tested 
by  taking  a  piece  of  glass  and  dropping 
a  portion  of  the  varnish  on  it;  if  it 
appears  clear  and  tn.nsparent,  the  oil 
aiid  gum  are  become  concentrated  or 
joined  together.  It  is  now  to  be  further 
boiled  until  it  will  string  between  the 
finger  and  thumb;  this  is  known  by 
once  every  minute  dropping  a  portion 
on  the  glass,  and  taking  a  little  between 
the  forefinger  and  thumb;  pinch  it  first, 
then  extend  wide  the  finger  and  thumb ; 
if  it  is  boiled  enough,  it  will  stick  strong 
and  string  out  into  fine  filaments,  like 
birdlime  ;  but  when  not  boiled  enough, 
it  IS  soft,  thick,  and  greasy,  without 
being  stringy.  It  is  a  safe  plan  to  have 
ready  a  thick  piece  of  carpet  large 
enough  to  cover  the  mouth  of  the  boiling 
pot  should  it  catch  fire  durmg  the  pour- 
ing. The  moment  it  is  boiled  enough, 
cjirry  it  from  the  fire  to  the  ash-bed, 
where  let  it  remain  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes,  or  until  it  is  cold 
enough  to  be  mixed  ;  have  at  hand  a 
gutRcient  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine 


to  fill  the  pouring  pot,  begin  and  pour 
out  with  a  small  stream,  gradually  in- 
creasing, and  if  the  varnish  rises  rapidlv 
in  the  pot,  keep  stirring  it  constantly  at 
the  surface  with  the  stirrer  to  break  the 
bubbles,  taking  care  not  to  let  the  stirrer 
touch  the  bottom  of  the  pot,  for  if  it 
should,  the  oil  of  turpentine  would  be  in 
part  converted  into  vapour,  and  the 
varnish  would  run  over  the  pot  in  a 
moment ;  therefore,  during  the  mixing, 
keep  constantly  stirring  as  well  as  pour- 
ing in  at  the  same  time.  Have  also  a 
copper  ladle  at  hand,  and  if  it  should  so 
far  rise  as  to  be  unmanageable,  let  the 
assistant  take  the  ladle  and  cool  it  down 
with  it,  lifting  up  one  ladleful  after 
another,  and  letting  it  fall  into  the  pot. 
As  soon  as  the  varnish  is  mixed  put  the 
varnish  sieve  in  the  copper  funnel  placed 
in  the  carrying  tin,  and  strain  the 
varnish  immediately  ;  empty  it  into 
open-mouthed  jars,  tins,  or  cisterns ; 
there  let  it  remain  to  settle,  and  the 
longer  it  remains  the  better  it  will 
become.  Recollect,  when  it  is  taken 
out,  not  to  disturb  or  raise  up  the 
bottoms. 

Linseed  Oil. — The  choice  of  linseed 
oil  is  of  peculiar  consequence  to  the 
varnish  maker,  as  upon  its  quality,  to  a 
great  extent,  depends  the  beauty  and 
durability  of  the  varnish.  Oil  expressed 
from  green  unripe  seed  always  abounds 
with  watery,  acidulous  particles.  The 
quality  of  oil  may  be  determined  in  the 
following  manner: — Fill  a  phial  with 
oil,  and  hold  it  up  to  the  light ;  if  bad, 
it  will  appear  opaque,  turbid,  and  thick  ; 
its  taste  is  acid  and  bitter  upon  the 
tongue,  and  it  smells  rancid  and  strong : 
this  ought  to  be  rejected.  Oil  from  fine 
full-grown  ripe  seed,  when  viewed  in  a 
phial,  will  appear  limpid,  pale,  and 
brilliant ;  it  is  mellow  and  sweet  to  the 
taste,  has  very  little  smell,  is  spaclfically 
lighter  than  impure  oil,  and  when 
boiled  or  clarified  dries  quickly  and 
firmly,  and  does  not  materially  change 
the  colour  of  the  varnish  when  made, 
but  appears  limpid  and  brilliant. 

Spirits  of  Turpentine. — That  which 
is  used  for  mixing  varnish  ought  to  bo 
procured  and  chosen  as  pure,  strong  and 


64 


WORKSHOP   RECEIl'TS. 


free  irem  acid  as  possible.  Some  tur- 
^Mjatine  being  drawn  from  green  trees 
abounds  with  a  pyroligneous  acid,  which 
rises  and  comes  over  with  the  spirit  in 
distillation  ;  it  is  strong  and  bitter  to  the 
taste,  and  appears  milky,  particularly 
towards  the  bottom,  after  standmg  to 
settle.  Therefore,  the  longer  turpentine 
IS  kept  before  it  is  used,  the  purer  it 
will  be. 

Copal  Varnishes  for  Fixe  Paint- 
ings.— Fuse  8  lbs.  of  very  clean  palt 
African  gum  copal,  and  when  com- 
pletely fluid,  pour  in  2  gallons  of  hot 
oil;  let  it  boil  until  it  will  string  very 
strong;  and  in  about  fifteen  minutes,  or 
while  it  is  yet  very  hot,  pour  in  3  gallons 
of  turpentine.  Perhaps,  during  the 
mixing,  a  considerable  quantity  of  the 
turpentine  will  escape,  but  the  varnish 
will  be  so  much  the  brighter,  trans- 
parent, and  fluid ;  and  will  work  freer, 
Jry  quickl}',  and  be  very  solid  and 
.'.urable  when  dry.  After  the  varnish 
has  been  strained,  if  it  is  found  too  thick, 
before  it  is  quite  cold  heat  as  much 
turpentine  and  mix  with  it  as  will  bring 
it  to  a  proper  consistence. 

Artists'  Virgin  Copal. — From  a 
select  parcel  of  scraped  African  gum 
c-opal,  pick  out  the  fine  transparent 
pieces  wliich  appear  round  and  pale  like 
drops  of  crystal ;  break  these  small ; 
dry  them  in  the  sun,  or  by  a  very  gentle 
fire.  Afterwards,  when  cool,  bruise 
or  pound  them  into  a  coirse  powder  ; 
then  procure  some  broken  bottles  or  flint 
glass,  and  boil  the  same  in  soft  water 
and  soda,  then  bruise  it  into  coarse 
po\'der  like  the  gum  ;  boil  it  a  second 
time,  and  strain  the  water  from  it, 
wa.shit|  it  with  three  or  four  waters, 
that  it  may  bo  perfectly  clean  and  free 
from  grease  or  any  impurity;  dry  it 
Lffore  the  fire,  or  ujion  a  jjlate  ;  set  it  in 
an  oven.  When  it  is  thoroughly  dry, 
mix  2  lbs.  of  it  with  '.i  lbs.  of  the  pow- 
i'.Mcd  copal  ;  after  mixing  them  well, 
|)Ut  them  ,nto  the  gum  pot  and  fuse  the 
gum;  keep  stirring  all  the  time;  the 
glass  will  prevent  the  gum  from  adhering 
toi^ether,  so  that  a  very  moderate  fire 
will  cause  the  gum  to  fuse.  WIh-d  il 
»l  p«<ir8    bulTlcieuily    run,    have    ready 


3  quarts  of  clarified  oil,  \ery  hot,  to 
pour  in.  Afterwards  let  it  boil  until 
it  strings  freely  between  the  fingers ; 
begin  and  mix  it  rather  hotter  than  if  it 
were  body-varnish  ;  pour  in  5  quarts  of 
old  turpentine,  strain  it  immediately, 
and  poui'  it  into  an  open  jar  or  large 
glass  bottle;  expose  it  to  the  air  and 
light,  but  keep  it  both  from  the  sun  and 
wet,  and  from  moisture,  until  it  is  of  a 
suliicieut  age  for  use.  This  is  the  finest 
copal  varnish  for  fine  paintings  or 
pictures. 

Cabinet  Varnish. — Fuse  7  lbs.  of 
fine  African  gum  copal,  and  pour  in  half 
a  gallon  of  clarified  oil ;  in  three  or  four 
minutes  after,  if  it  feels  stringy,  take  it 
out  of  doors,  and  mix  with  it  3  gallons 
of  turpeutiue  ;  afterwards  strain  it,  and 
put  it  aside  for  use.  This,  if  properly 
boiled,  will  dry  in  ten  minutes,  but  if  too 
stiongly  boiled  will  not  mix  at  all  with 
the  turpentine  ;  and  sometimes,  when 
boiled  with  the  turpentine,  will  mix,  and 
yet  refuse  to  amalgamate  with  any  other 
varnish  less  boiled  than  itself;  therefore 
it  requires  a  nicety  which  is  only  to  be 
learned  from  practice.  Tliis  varnish  is 
chiefly  intended  for  the  use  of  japanners, 
cabinet  painters,  and  coach  painters. 

Best  Booy  Copal  Varnish  for 
Coach  Makers.  —  Fuse  8  lbs.  of  line 
African  gum  cojial ;  add  2  gallons  of 
clarified  oil;  boil  very  slowly  for  four 
or  five  hours,  until  quite  stringy;  mix 
ofl"  with  3J  gallons  of  turpentine  ;  strain 
oil',  and  pour  it  into  a  cistern. 

Quick  Drvino  Carriage  Varnish, 
— 8  lbs.  of  fine  pale  gum  anime,  2  gal- 
lons of  clarified  oil,  3J  gallons  of  tur- 
jientine;  to  be  boiled  tour  hours.  Thii, 
after  being  strained,  is  put  into  the  two 
former  jiots,  and  well  mixed  together; 
its  elfect  is  to  cause  the  whole  to  drj' 
quicker  and  firmer,  and  enable  it  to  take 
the  polish  much  sooner. 

Common  Body  Varnish  for  Cae^ 
RIAOKS. — 8  lbs.  of  the  best  African  copal, 
3  gallcius  of  clarified  oil,  3J  gallons  of 
turpentine;  boiled  four  hours,  or  until 
stringy  ;  mixed  and  strained,  will  pro- 
duce about  TiJ  gallons.  8  lbs.  of  the 
best  gum  rtuime,  2  gallons  of  clnrifiej 
oil,  3^  gallons  of  tui-]>entin«;  boiled  a; 


WORKSHOP   KECElfrS. 


65 


usual ;  dixed  and  strained  hot,  and  put 
into  the  former  pot  of  African  gum 
varnish.  Put  two  pots  of  this  anime 
varnish  to  one  of  copal ;  it  will  dry 
quicker  and  harder  than  the  best  body 
copal,  and  will  polish  very  soon,  but 
not  wear  either  so  well  or  so  long. 

Quick  Drying  Body  Copal  Varnish. 
— 8  lbs.  of  the  best  African  copal,  2 
gallons  of  clarified  oil,  J  lb.  of  dried 
iUgar  of  lead,  3J  gallons  of  turpentine  ; 
boiled  till  stringy,  and  mixed  and 
strained ;  8  lbs.  of  tine  gum  anime,  2 
gallons  of  clarified  oil,  ^  lb.  of  white 
copperas,  3^  gallons  of  turpentine  ; 
boiled  as  before  ;  to  be  mixed,  and 
strained  while  hot,  into  the  other  pot. 
These  two  pots  mixed  together  will  dry 
in  six  hours  in  winter,  and  m  four  in 
summer  ;  it  is  very  useful  for  varnishing 
ol  I  work  on  dark  colours. 

Bust  1'ale  Carriage  Varnish. — 
8  lbs.  of  2nd  sorted  African  copal,  2^ 
gallons  of  clarified  oil ;  boil  till  very 
stringy.  J  lb.  of  dried  copperas,  ^  lb. 
of  litharge,  5 J  gallons  of  turpentine ; 
strained.  8  lbs.  of  2nd  sorted  gum 
anime,  2J  gallons  of  clarified  oil,  |  lb. 
01  dried  sugar  of  lead,  J  lb.  of  litharge, 
5J  gallons  of  tur]ientiue ;  mix  with  tlie 
first  while  hot.  This  varnish  will  dry 
hard,  if  well  boiled,  in  four  hours  in 
summer,  and  six  in  winter.  As  its  name 
denotes,  this  is  intended  for  the  var- 
nishing of  the  wheels,  springs,  and 
carriage  parts  of  coaches,  chaises,  and 
so  on ;  also  it  is  that  description  of 
varnish  which  is  generally  sold  to  and 
ased  by  house  painters  and  decorators, 
as  fi'om  its  drying  quality  and  strong 
gl')ss  it  suits  their  general  purposes 
well. 

Second  Carriage  Varnish. — 8  lbs. 
of  2nd  sorted  gum  anime,  2|  gallons  of 
fine  clarified  oil,  5J  gallons  of  turpentine. 
J  lb.  of  litharge,  J  lb.  of  dried  sugar  of 
lead,  J  lb.  of  dried  copperas  ;  boiled  and 
mixed  as  before.  When  three  runs  are 
poured  into  the  boiling  pot,  the  re- 
gular proportion  of  driers  put  in,  and 
Well  boiled,  this  varnish  will  dry  hard 
and  firm  in  four  hours  in  winter,  and  in 
two  ia  summer ;  it  is  principally  in- 
tended  for    varnishing    dark    carriage- 


tvork  or  black  japan,  and  is  also  iiseJ  by 
houie  painters  for  dark  woik. 

Wainscot  Varnish. — 8  lbs.  of  2nd 
sorted  gum  anime,  3  gallons  of  clarified 
oil,  I  lb.  of  litharge,  |  lb.  of  dned  cop- 
peras, I  lb.  of  dried  sugar  of  lead,  5J 
gallons  of  turpentine;  to  be  all  well 
boiled  until  it  strings  very  strong,  and 
then  mixed  and  strained.  Where  large 
quantities  are  required,  it  will  always 
be  found  best  to  boil  off  the  three  runs 
in  the  boiling  pot.  This  varnish  is  jirin- 
cipally  intended  for  house  painters, 
grainers,  builders,  and  japanners:  it 
will  dry  in  two  hours  in  summer,  and 
in  four  in  winter. 

Maliojany  Varnish  is  either  made  in 
the  same  proportions,  with  a  little  darker 
gum ;  otherwise  it  is  wainscot  varnish, 
with  a  small  portion  of  gold  size. 

Japanners'  Gold  Size.  —  To 
make  40  gallons  of  gold  size,  put  10 
gallons  of  oil  into  the  iron  set  pot.  Fig. 
2,  make  a  good  fire  und^-:  it,  and  boil 
for  two  hours ;  then  introduce  7  lbs.  ot 
dry  red-lead,  7  lbs.  of  litharge,  and  3  lis. 
of  copperas,  by  sprinkling  in  a  little  at 
a  time ;  let  the  oil  keep  boiling  all  the 
time,  not  in  too  great  a  heat.  During 
the  time  of  putting  in  the  driers,  keep 
stirring  them  from  the  bottom  of  the 
pot,  and  have  the  large  iron  ladle  ready 
to  cool  it  down,  if  it  should  appear  to 
rise  too  high ;  have  also  at  hand  an 
empty  pot — the  copper  boiling  pot  will 
do — into  which  immediately  ladle  part 
of  the  boiling  oil,  if  it  cannot  otherwise 
be  kept  in  the  pot,  while  the  assistant  is 
damping  the  fire  with  wet  sifted  ashes, 
of  which  there  always  ought  to  be  a 
wheelbarrow  ful  at  hand,  in  case  of  an 
accident.  When  the  oil  has  boiled  about 
three  hours,  and  the  driers  are  all  in, 
fuse  in  the  gum  pot  10  lbs.  of  srum 
anime;  and  during  the  time  of  fusing, 
heat  2  gallons  of  raw  linr.eed  oil  in  the 
copper  pouring  jack,  by  placing  it  on 
the  plate  of  the  gum  furnace.  After 
the  oil  has  been  poured  to  the  guin,  and 
as  soon  as  it  appears  boiled  clear,  lake 
the  gum  pot  from  the  fire  ;  let  it  cool 
for  a  few  minutes,  then  pour  it  into  the 
oil  in  the  set  pot.  Wash  out  the  gum 
pot,  and   proceed  with    anoth-jr  ni:i  in 


66 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


the  same  way.  When  both  runs  of  gum 
are  in  the  set  pot,  there  are  altogether 
14  gallons  of  oil,  20  lbs.  of  gum,  and 
17  lb&  of  driers  ;  increase  and  keep  up 
a  regular  fire  in  tlie  front  of  the  furnace, 
that  it  may  be  drawn  out  in  a  moment, 
if  it  should  be  necessary.  The  gold 
size  will  soon  throw  up  a  frothy  head 
on  the  surface,  which  must  be  kept 
down  by  constantly  plying  with  the 
ladle  when  it  is  likely  to  rise  within 
four  inches  of  the  pot-edge.  In  about 
rive  hours  from  tlie  begmning  of  the  oil 
boiling,  it  will  bocfime  stringy;  but  the 
boiling  must  cmitiuue  until  it  hangs 
to  the  ladle,  appears  quite  strmgy,  yet 
drops  in  lumps.  When  tried  upon  the 
glass,  if  it  feels  sticky  and  strings 
strongly,  then  it  is  boiled  enough.  Draw 
out  the  fire,  s])rinkle  it  with  jilenty  of 
water;  leave  not  a  spark  of  fire  in  the 
varnish  house — not  even  a  lighted  pipe 
of  tobacco.  While  the  maker  is  cooling 
down  the  pot,  let  the  assistant  have 
ready  at  the  door  30  gallons  of  turpen- 
tine, fill  the  pouring  pot  ready,  and  have 
all  the  doors  open.  Endeavour  to  cool 
it  as  fast  as  possible,  as  it  will  require 
at  the  least  one  hour  and  a  quarter  after 
the  fire  has  been  put  out  before  it  will 
be  ready  to  mix.  When  the  mixing 
commences,  continue  the  pouring  with- 
out intermission,  until  all  the  froth  at 
the  surface  disappears,  never  stirring  it 
until  the  turfientine  is  all  in.  If  pouring 
in  the  turpentine  has  commenced  while 
It  was  too  hot,  there  will  be  a  great  loss 
of  turpentine  by  evaporation;  but  that 
will  not  injure  the  quality  of  the  gold 
size.  IMace  the  carrying  tin  close  to 
the  side  of  the  fiot,  lay  on  the  tin  saddle, 
and  strain  off  as  quickly  as  possible. 
When  all  I  he  goM  size  is  out,  pour  into 
the  .set  pot  about  3  gallons  of  turpentine 
washings,  and  with  the  swish,  wash 
down  the  j'ot  as  quickly  a.s  possilde ; 
rnd  if  the  pot  is  still  so  hot  as  to  evapo- 
rate the  tur|)onfice,  ladle  it  out  into  the 
w.ishinijs  again,  and  pour  in  aliout  3 
gallons  of  raw  linsred  oil  ;  and  with  a 
palette  knife  scrape  it  all  roun<i,  washing 
ao<i  cleaning  it  down  with  a  rag  until 
it  is  quite  cleans<xl  all  round,  then  ladle 
out  the  oil,  and  wip<>  it  com]iletfly  clean 


and  dry.  The  gold  size  ought  to  dry  in 
from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  minutes,  and 
in  fourteen  days  it  is  ready  for  u.se. 
Experienced  makers  caL  make  gold  size 
that  will  dry  in  five  minutes,  but  that 
requires  great  practice. 

Varxish,  Coach  Makers'  Black. — 
Gum  amber  16  oz. ;  melt  in  ^  pint  of 
boiling  hot  linseed  oil ;  add  3  oz.  of 
asphaltum,  and  3  resin  ;  mix  thoroughly 
over  a  fire,  and  add  when  cooling  1  pint 
of  oil  of  turpentine  slightly  warm. 

AspiiALTK  Varnish. — Boil  coal  tar 
until  it  shows  a  disposition  to  harden 
on  cooling ;  this  can  be  ascertained  by 
rubbing  a  little  on  a  piece  of  metal. 
Then  add  about  20  per  cent,  of  lump 
.asphalte,  stirring  it  with  the  boiling 
coal  tar  until  all  the  lumi)s  are  melted, 
when  it  can  be  allowed  to  cool  and  kept 
for  use.  This  makes  a  very  bright 
varnish  for  sheet  metals,  and  is  cheap 
and  durable. 

Varnish  for  Ironwork. — Dissolve, 
in  about  2  lbs.  of  tar  oil,  J  lb.  oi 
asphaltum,  and  a  like  quantity  ot 
l)ounded  resin,  mix  hot  in  an  iron 
kettle,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  any 
contact  with  the  fiame.  When  cold  the 
varnish  is  ready  for  use.  This  varnish 
is  for  out-door  wood  and  iron  work. 

Varnish  for  Co.mmon  Work. — Thig 
varnish  is  intended  t\A-  protecting  sur- 
faces against  atmospheric  exposure.  It 
has  been  used  for  coating  wood  and  iron 
work  with  great  advantage.  Take  3  lbs. 
of  resin  and  powder  it,  jdace  it  in  a  tin 
can,  and  add  2J  pints  of  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, well  shake,  and  let  it  stand, 
occasionally  shaking  it  i'or  a  day  or  two. 
Then  add  of  boiled  oil  .5  quarts,  well 
shake  altogether,  and  allow  it  to  st;ind 
in  a  warm  room  till  clear.  The  clear 
portion  is  decanted  and  used,  or  reduced 
with  spirits  of  turjientine  until  of  the 
j)ro[>cr  consistency. 

Varnish  for  Iron  Pattkrns. — A 
good  varnish  for  iron  is  made  as  fol- 
lows:— Take  oil  of  turpentine  and  drop 
into  it,  drop  by  drop,  strong  coinincrcial 
oil  of  vitriol  ;  the  aci<l  will  cause  a 
dark  syrupy  precipitate  in  the  oil  of 
turpentine  ;  keep  adding  drops  of  vitriol 
until  the  precipitate  ceases  taking  placa, 


WORKSHOP   RECEirrS. 


67 


f^iPD  pour  out  the  liquid  and  wash  the 
syrupy  mass  with  7/acer,  and  it  is  ready 
foT  use.  Heat  the  iron  to  be  varnished 
to  u  gentle  heat,  apjily  the  syrupy  pro- 
du:t,  and  allow  it  'o  dry. 

Black  Japan  is  made  after  the 
manner  of  the  gold  size.  Put  6  gallons 
of  raw  linseed  oil  into  the  set  pot ;  boil  it 
with  a  very  slow  fire.  Have  a  10-gallon 
cast-iron  pot,  with  two  handles  or  ears; 
this  pot  will  fit  into  the  plate  of  the 
boiling  furnace,  into  which  put  10  lbs. 
of  Egyptian  asphaltum,  and  keep  under 
it  a  good  regular  fire  all  the  time  of 
fusion.  During  the  time  the  as]ihaltum  is 
fusing,  have  2  gallons  of  oil  getting  hot 
to  mix  it  with  as  soon  as  it  is  sutficieutly 
melted.  After  it  is  oiled,  leave  it  on  the 
fire  about  ten  minutes ;  then  pour  it 
into  the  set  pot.  Carry  it  out  of  doors, 
and  with  a  handful  of  hay  or  straw 
clear  it  out,  and  afterwards  wash  it  out 
With  turpentine  washings,  and  dry  it 
with  a  rag.  Proceed  and  finish  three 
more  separate  runs  lilie  the  first,  until 
tliere  are  four  runs  in  the  set  pot,  that 
is,  40  lbs.  of  asphaltum  and  14  gallons  of 
raw  linseed  oil;  then  introduce  exactly 
the  same  driers  as  for  the  gold  size,  and 
in  the  same  manner.  Keep  a  regular, 
but  moderate  fire,  so  that  the  boiling 
continues  at  a  moderate  heat  for  four 
hours  from  the  last  run  being  poured  in 
the  set  pot ;  then  draw,  and  put  out  the 
fire  for  that  day.  Next  morning,  as 
soon  as  it  can  be  brought  to  a  boil,  try 
it  upon  a  bit  of  glass ;  if  it  but  strings 
strongly,  it  will  not  do ;  it  must  be 
boiled  so  strong,  that  when  a  j)iece  is 
[linched  from  off  the  glass,  after  it  has 
been  left  to  cool,  it  will  roll  into  a  hard 
pill  between  the  finger  and  thumb. 
When  it  Vrms  hard,  and  scarcely  sticlfs 
to  the  fingers,  it  is  then  boiled  enough. 
Put  out  the  fire,  as  directed  before. 
Leave  it  one  hour  and  a  half  before 
mixing.  When  cold  enough,  mix  it  with 
3ii  gallons,  at  least,  of  turpentine,  and 
strain  it.  If  it  is  too  thick  when  cold,  heat 
and  introduce  as  much  turpentine  as  will 
bring  it  to  a  proper  consistency.  The 
javan  will  dry  in  6  hours  in  summer,  and 
8  ia  winter.  It  is  principally  intended  for 
aod  used  by  coach  makers,  japauners,  or 


painters,  and  should  be  kept  at  least  six 
months  before  it  is  used. 

Another  Black  Japan  is  made  by 
putting  into  the  seo  pot  48  lbs.  of 
Naples  asphaltum  ;  as  soon  as  it  is 
melted,  pour  in  10  gallons  of  raw  linseed 
oil.  Keep  a  moderate  fire,  and  fuse 
8  lbs.  of  dark  gum  anime  in  the  gum 
pot ;  mix  it  with  2  gallons  of  oil,  and 
pour  it  into  the  set  pot.  Afterwards 
fuse  10  lbs.  of  dark  or  sea  amber  in  the 
iron  pot.  When  it  appears  comj)letely 
fused,  pour  in  2  gallons  of  hot  oil,  and 
pour  it  into  the  set  pot ;  continue  tlie 
boiling  for  tliree  hours  longer,  and  during 
that  time  introduce  the  same  quantity 
of  driers  as  bel'ure  directed  :  draw  out 
the  fire,  and  let  it  remain  until  morning  ; 
then  boil  it  until  it  rolls  hard  ;  leave  it 
to  cool,  and  afterwards  mix  with  tur- 
pentine. This  japan  will  appear  in 
colour  like  the  otlier  ;  but  when  applied 
on  work,  it  will  dry  more  hard,  compact 
and  glossy,  and  will  not  rub  down  or 
polish  so  soon  as  the  other,  which  is 
occasioned  by  the  toughness  and  dura- 
bility of  the  amber. 

Pale  Ajibkr  Varxisii. — Fusf;  6  lbs. 
of  fine-picked,  very  pale,  transparent 
amber  in  the  gum  pot,  and  pcur  in  2 
gallons  of  hot  clarified  oil.  Boil  it  until 
it  st'inngs  very  strong.  Jlis  with  4 
gallons  of  turpentine.  This  will  be  as 
fine  as  body  cojial,  will  work  free,  and 
flow  well  upon  any  work  it  is  applied  to  ; 
it  becomes  very  hard,  is  durable,  and  is 
excellent  to  mix  in  copal  varnishes,  to 
give  them  a  h;u'd  and  durable  quality. 
Amber  varnish  will  always  require  a 
long  time  before  it  is  ready  for  polishing. 

Brunswick  Black.  Best. — In  an  iron 
pot,  over  a  slow  fire,  boil  45  lbs.  of 
foreign  asphaltum  for  at  least  6  hours, 
and  during  the  same  time  boil  in  another 
iron  pot  6  gallons  of  oil  which  has  been 
previously  boiled  ;  during  the  boiling  of 
the  6  gallons  introduce  6  lbs.  of  litharge 
gradually,  and  boil  until  it  feels  stringy 
between  the  fingers  ;  then  ladle  it  into 
the  pot  containing  the  boiling  asiihaltum. 
Let  both  boil  until,  upon  trial,  it  will 
roll  into  hard  pills  ;  then  cool,  and  lu  j 
with  25  gallons  of  turpentine,  or  until  it 
is  of  a  proper  consistence. 

F  2 


68 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


Common. — Put  IS  lbs.  of  common  bhick 
pitch,  and  'J8  lbs.  of  common  asphaltum 
made  from  gas  tar,  into  an  iron  pot,  boil 
both  for  8  or  10  hours,  which  will 
evaporate  the  gas  and  moisture  ;  let  it 
stand  all  night,  and  early  next  morning, 
as  soon  as  it  boil?,  put  in  8  gallons  of 
boiled  oil ;  then  introduce  gradually 
10  lbs.  of  red-lead  and  10  lbs.  of  litharge, 
and  boil  for  3  hours,  or  until  it  will  roll 
very  har<i.  When  ready  for  mixmg,  in- 
troduce 20  gallons  of  turpentine,  until 
of  a  proper  consistence.  This  is  intended 
for  engineers,  founders,  or  ironmongers  ; 
it  will  dry  in  half  an  hour,  or  less,  if 
pro])erly  boiled. 

1  HON  WORK  Black. — Put  48  lbs.  of 
foreign  asphaltum  into  an  iron  pot,  and 
boil  for  4  hours ;  during  the  first  2  hours 
introduce  7  lbs.  of  red-lead,  7  lbs.  of 
litharge,  3  lbs.  of  dried  coj)peras,  and 
10  gallons  of  boiled  oil ;  add  one  8-lb.  run 
of  dark  gum,  with  2  gallons  of  hot  oil. 
After  pouring  tlie  oil  and  gum  continue 
the  boiling  2  hours,  or  until  it  will  roll 
into  hard  pills,  like  japan.  When  cool, 
thin  it  off  with  30  gallons  of  turpentine, 
or  until  it  is  of  a  proper  consistence. 

VaIINISII    for    PlUNTS,    P^XGRAVIXGS, 

OR  MAI'S. — 1.  A  piece  of  plate  gl:iss  is 
heated,  and,  while  yet  warm,  a  little 
wax  rubbed  over  it ;  water  is  then  poured 
over  the  plate,  and  the  moistened  picture 
laid  thereon  and  pressed  closely  down  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  liltering  pa])cr.  When 
dry,  the  picture  is  removed,  and  will  be 
found  to  possess  a  surface  of  great  bril- 
liancy, whicii  is  not  injured  by  the  pro- 
cess of  mounting.  2.  lioil  Chio  tui-pen- 
tine  till  brittle,  powder,  and  dissolve  in 
oil  of  turpentine.  3.  Canada  bals;im  and 
clear  white  resin,  of  each  6  oz.,  oil  of 
turpentine  1  qu;trt ;  dissolve.  4.  Digest 
gum  sand.ir.ich,  20  [)arts ;  gum  mastic, 
8;  camphor,  1  ;  with  alcohol,  48.  The 
m.-xp  or  engraving  must  previously  re- 
ceive one  or  two  coats  of  gelatine. 

To  Var.msii  Pai'KR  oh  Cauowork. 
— 1.  Boil  clear  j)archment  cuttings  in 
wat^r  in  a  cle;t3  glazed  pijikin  till  they 
j:ro.luce  a  very  clear  size,  strain  it  and 
keep  it  for  use.  Give  any  work  two  coats 
of  the  abovj  size,  passing  ijuickly  over 
iiie  work  tut  to   disturb   the  colours; 


varnish  with  a  paper  varnish.  2.  Dis- 
solve 1  oz.  of  the  best  isinglass  in  about 
a  pint  of  water,  by  simmering  it  over  the 
fire  ;  strain  it  through  tine  muslin,  and 
keep  it  lor  use.  Try  the  size  on  a  piece 
of  paper  modei'ately  warm  ;  if  it  glistens, 
it  is  too  thick,  add  more  water;  if  it 
soaks  into  the  paper,  it  is  too  thin,  add 
or  diminish  the  isinglass  till  it  merely 
dulls  the  surface  ;  then  give  the  paper 
two  or  three  coats,  letting  it  dry  between 
each,  being  careful  (particularly  in  the 
first  coat)  to  bear  very  lightly  on  the 
brush,  which  should  be  a  tlat  tin  camel- 
hair.  Tlie  size  should  flow  freely  from 
the  brush,  otherwise  the  pnper,  if  a 
drawins,  mav  be  damaged.  Then  take 
the  best  mastic  varnish,  and  with  it  give 
at  least  three  coats. 

Varxish  for  Coloured  Drawings. 
— Canada  balsam,  1  oz. ;  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, 2  oz.  Mix  them  together.  Bo- 
fore  this  composition  is  applied,  the 
drawing  or  print  should  be  sized  with  a 
solution  of  isinglass  in  water,  and  wiien 
dry  apply  the  varnish  with  a  camel- 
hair  brush. 

Varnish  for  Paintings  and  Pic- 
Tuni.s. — 1.  Honey,  1  pint;  the  whites 
of  24  fresh  eggs;  1  oz.  of  isinglass, 
20  grs.  of  hydrate  of  potassium,  i  oz. 
common  salt ;  mix  together  over  a  gentle 
heat  of  80°  or  00°  Fahr. ;  be  careful  not 
to  let  the  mixture  remain  long  enough  to 
coagulate  the  albumen  of  the  eggs;  stir 
the  mixture  thoroughly,  then  bottle. 
Take  one  tablospoont'ul  of  the  vai'nish 
and  add  to  it  half  a  tablespoonful  of  good 
oil  of  turpentine,  then  spread  on  the  pic- 
ture as  soon  as  mixed.  2.  Digest  at  a 
slow  heat  gum  .sandarach,  2  parts ;  gum 
mastic,  4;  balsam  capivi,  2;  white 
turpentine,  3  ;  with  spirits  of  turpentine, 
4  ;  and  alcohol  r)9-.")(j  parts.  3.  Boil  5 
parts  bitter  a]i])le,  freed  from  the  seeds 
and  cut,  with  rain-water  .'jO  ]iarts,  down 
to  one-half  Strain  and  dissolve  in  the 
li(ju(>r  gum  arable,  8  parts ;  rock  candy, 
4 ;  and  add  1  of  alcohol.  Let  it  stand 
fur  some  days,  an(l  filter.  4.  Pure  linseed 
oil,  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  sugar 
of  lead,  ground  fine,  has  been  added.  5. 
Take  eiju.il  (luantitics  of  linseed  oil  and 
oil  of  ttirpcntinc,  thickeu  by  exposure  to 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


69 


ti>e  sun  and  air  until  it  becomes  resinous 
acd  half  evaporated,  then  add  a  portion 
f)(  melted  beeswax.  Varnishing  pictures 
snould  always  be  performed  in  fair 
weather,  and  out  of  any  current  of  cold 
or  damp  air. 

Pkotog  rapiiers'  Negative  Varnish. 
^-Guni  juniper,  2  drachms  8  grains ; 
gum  trankincense,  1  drachm  10  grains; 
alcohol,  4  oz.  Filter  through  paper 
and  use  the  clear  solution. 

Transfer  Varnish,  for  Diaphanie, 
Engravings,  ^x. — 1.  Pale  Canada  balsam 
and  rectified  oil  of  turpentine  equal  parts. 
2.  Mastic  in  tears  and  saudarach,  each 
4o:!. :  rectified  spirit,  IJ  pint;  dissolve, 
and  add  pale  Canada  balsam  h  pint. 
Jlelt  the  balsam  with  a  gentle  heat,  mix 
with  the  other  ingredients  and  agitate 
violently.  No.  1  is  also  termed  Crystal 
Varnish. 

Gold  Varnish. — Digest  shellac,  16 
parts ;  gum  sandarach  and  mastic,  of 
each  3  ;  crocus,  1  ;  gum  gamboge,  2  ; 
all  bruised,  with  alcohol,  144.  Or,  digest 
seed-lac,  sandarach,  mastic,  of  each  8 
parts  ;  gamboge,  2  ;  dragon's  blood,  1  ; 
white  turpentine,  6 ;  turmeric,  4 ; 
bruised,  with  alcohol,  120. 

Varnish  for  Gilt  Articles. — Gum- 
la-c,  125  parts;  gamboge,  125;  dragon's 
blood,  125;  annatto,  125;  saffron,  32. 
Dissolve  each  resin  in  1000  parts  by 
me;isure,  of  absolute  alcohol;  two  sepa- 
rate mixtures  must  be  made  wit!,  the 
dragon's  blood  and  annatto,  in  1000 
parts  of  such  alcohol ;  and  a  proper 
pi'oportion  of  each  should  be  added  with 
the  gamboge  to  the  varnish,  according 
to  the  shade  of  colour  required. 

Black  Leathf.r  Varnish. — 1.  Dur- 
able leather  varnish  is  composed  of  boiled 
linseed  oil,  in  which  a  drier,  such  as 
litharge,  has  been  boiled.  It  is  coloured 
with  lampblack.  This  varnish  is  used 
for  making  enamelled  leather.  2.  Digest 
shellac,  12  parts;  white  turpentine,  5; 
gum  sandarach,  2  ;  lampblack,  1  ;  with 
spirits  of  turpentine,  4;  alcohol,  96. 

White  Varnish. — 1.  Tender  copal, 
7  J  oz. ;  camphor,  1  oz. ;  alcohol  of  95 
per  cent.;  1  quart.  Dissolve,  then  add 
mastic,  2  oz.  ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz. 
Dissolve  and  strain.    Very  white,  dryin?. 


oz.  ;    gum   anime,  J  oz. 
clean    can,   with    gentle 


and  capable  of  being  polished  when  hard. 
Used  for  toys.  2.  Sandarach,  8  oz. ; 
mastic,  2  oz. ;  Canada  balsam,  4  oz. ; 
alcohol,  1  quart.  Kectified  spirits  oi 
wine,  1  quart ;  gum  sandarach,  10  oz. , 
gum  mastic,  2 
Dissolve    in   a 

heat.  Agitate  well  wdien  the  gums 
are  dissolved ;  strain  through  a  lawn 
sieve. 

Table  Varnish. — 1.  Oil  of  turpentine, 
1  lb. ;  beeswax,  2  oz. ;  colophony,  i 
drachm.  2.  Dammar  resin,  1  lb.;  spirits 
of  turpentine,  2  lbs. ;  camphor,  200 
grains.  Digest  the  mixture  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  decanted  portion  is  lit 
for  immediate  use. 

To  Varnish  Furniture. — First  make 
the  work  quite  clean ;  then  fill  up  all 
knots  or  blemishes  with  cement  of  the 
same  colour  ;  see  that  the  brush  is  clean, 
and  free  from  loose  hairs  ;  then  dip  the 
brush  in  the  varnish,  stroke  it  along  the 
wire  raised  across  the  top  of  the  varnish 
pot,  and  give  the  work  a  thin  and  regular 
coat ;  soon  after  that  another,  and  an- 
other, always  taking  care  not  to  pass  the 
brush  twice  in  the  same  place ;  let  it 
stand  to  dry  in  a  moderately  warm  place, 
that  the  varnish  may  not  chill.  When 
the  work  has  had  about  six  or  seven 
coats,  let  it  get  quite  hard  (which  prove 
by  pressing  the  knuckles  on  it;  if  it 
leaves  a  mark,  it  is  not  hard  enough); 
then  with  the  first  three  fingers  of  the 
hand  rub  the  varnish  till  it  chafes,  and 
proceed  over  that  part  of  the  work  in- 
tended to  be  polished,  in  order  to  take 
out  all  the  streaks  or  partial  lumps 
made  by  the  brush  ;  then  give  it  another 
coat,  and  let  it  stand  a  day  or  two  to 
harden. 

Varnishes  for  Furniture.  —  1. 
Shellac,  1^  lb.;  naphtha,  1  gallon;  dis- 
solve, and  it  is  ready  v/ithout  filtering. 
2.  Shellac,  12  oz.  ;  copal,  3  oz.  (or  an 
equivalent  of  varnish) ;  dissolve  in  1 
gallon  of  naphtha.  3.  Shellac,  IJ  lb. ; 
ssed-lac  and  sandarach,  each  4  oz.  ;  mas- 
tic, 2  oz. ;  rectified  spirit,  1  gallon  ;  di.s- 
solve.  4.  Shellac,  2  lbs. ;  benzoin,  4  oz. ; 
spirit,  1  gallon.  5.  Shellac,  10  oz.  ; 
seed-lac,  sandarach,  and  copal  varnish, 
of  each  >  oz. ;  benzoin,  3  oz. ;  naphtha, 


70 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


1  gallon.  To  darken,  benzoin  and  dra- 
gon's blood  are  used,  turmeric  and  other 
colouring  matters  are  also  added  ;  and 
to  make  it  lighter  it  is  necessary  to  use 
ble;iched  lac^  though  some  endeavour  to 
give  this  effect  by  adding  oxalic  acid  to 
the  ingredients ;  it,  like  gum  arabic,  is 
insoluble  in  good  spirit  or  najihtha.  For 
all  ordinary  purposes  the  first  form  is 
best  and  least  troublescme,  while  its  ap- 
pearance is  equal  to  any  other. 

Chkap  Oak  Varnish. — Clear  pale 
resin,  3J  lbs. ;  oil  of  turpentine,  1  gallon  ; 
dissolve.  It  may  be  coloured  darker  by 
adding  a  little  line  lami)bla(::k. 

Maiiop.a.ny  Varnish. — I'ut  in  a  bottle 

2  oz.  gum  sandarach,  1  oz.  shellac,  J  nz. 
gum  bengamin,  1  oz.  Venice  turjicntine, 
and  a  pint  of  spirits  of  wine.  Colour 
red,  with  di-agon's  blood,  or  yellow  with 
saffron.  Stand  in  a  warm  spot  till  gum 
dissolves,  when  strain  for  use. 

WiiiTH  FuR.N'iruRi-:  Var.msii. — White 
wax,  tj  oz.  ;  oil  of  turpentine,  1  jiiut ; 
dissolve  by  a  gentle  heat.  Or  white  wax, 
6  parts ;  petroleum,  48 ;  apjilied  to 
the  work  while  warm,  allowed  to  cool, 
then  polished  by  rubbing  with  a  coarse 
cloth. 

Dark  Varnish  for  Light  Wood- 
work.— Pound  up  and  digest  shellac, 
10  parts;  gum  sandarach,  32;  gum 
mastic,  8 ;  gum  elemi,  8  ;  dragon's 
blood,  4  ;  annatto,  1,  with  white  tur])en- 
line,  16  ;  and  alcohol,  2."j6.  Dilute  with 
■  alcohol  if  required. 

Varnish  for  Violins.  —  Coar.sely- 
powdered  copal  and  glass,  each  4  oz.  ; 
alcohol,  G4  o.  p.  1  pint ;  camphor,  J  oz. ; 
heat  tlie  mixture  with  frequent  stirring 
in  a  w.'iter  bath,  so  that  the  bubbles  may 
be  counted  as  they  rise,  until  solution  is 
complete,  and  when  cold  decant  the  clear 
portion.  VV'hen  oil  varnish  is  used  it  is 
made  as  for  Artists'  Vin/in  Copul. 

Varnish  i-or  Wood  which  Rksists 
hmiASO  Watkr. — l.inseed  oil,  IJ  lb.; 
nmber,  1  lb.  ;  litharge  j)ulverizcd,  5  oz. ; 
white-lead  j)ulverizeil,  !i  oz. ;  minium, 
!')  oz.  lioil  the  linseed  oil  in  an  uiitiniird 
copper  vessel,  and  suspend  in  it  the 
litharge  anil  the  miniuin  in  a  smnil  bag, 
whiih  must  not  touch  llic  l.ottnm  (jf  the 
TCBeel.    Continue  the  elniliilioii  until  th*' 


oil  has  acquired  a  deep  brown  colour ; 
then  take  out  the  bag  and  put  m  a  clove 
of  garlick  ;  this  is  to  be  repeated  7  or  8 
times,  the  ebullition  being  always  con- 
tinued. Before  the  amber  is  added  to 
the  oil,  it  is  to  be  mixed  with  2  oz.  of 
linseed  oil,  and  melted  over  a  fire  that  is 
well  kejit  up.  When  the  mass  is  Huid, 
it  is  to  be  jioured  into  the  linseed  oil  ; 
this  mixture  is  to  be  boiled  and  stirred 
continually  for  2  or  3  minutes ;  after- 
wards filter  the  mixture,  and  preserve  it 
in  bottles  tightly  corked.  When  this 
varnish  is  used,  the  wood  must  be  pre- 
viously well  [lolished,  and  covered  with 
a  thin  coat  of  soot  and  sjjirits  of  turpen- 
tine. When  this  coat  is  dry,  some  of  the 
varnish  may  be  applied,  which  sliould  be 
distributed  equally  on  every  part  with  a 
small  fine  sponge.  This  operation  is  to 
be  rejieated  4  times,  being  always  careful 
tliat  each  coat  be  well  dried  first.  After 
the  last  coat  of  varnish,  the  wood  must 
be  dried  in  an  oven,  and  afterwards 
polished. 

Wainscot  Varnish. — Gum  anirae,  8 
lbs. ;  clarified  linseed  oil,  3  gallons ; 
litharge,  J  lb. ;  acetate  of  lead,  J  lb. ; 
suipiiate  of  copper,  \  lb.  These  materials 
must  be  carefully  but  th(U'oughly  boiled 
together  until  the  mixture  becomes  quite 
stringy,  and  then  5J  gallons  of  heated 
turjientine  stirred  in.  It  can  be  easily 
deejiened  in  colour  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  gold  size. 

15i:owN  Hard  Si'irit  Varnish. — 1. 
Sandarach,  4  oz. ;  pale  seed-lac,  2  oz. ; 
elemi,  1  oz.  ;  alcohol,  1  quart  ;  digest 
with  agitation  till  dissolved,  then  add 
\'enice  turpentine,  2  oz.  2.  Gum  san- 
darach, 3  lbs. ;  shellac,  2  lbs. ;  rectified 
sjjirit  ((55  over  proof),  2  gallons;  dis- 
solve, add  turpentine  varnish,  1  quart; 
agitato  well  and  strain.  Vcri/ Jiiie.  3. 
Seed-lac  and  yellow  resin,  of  each  1 J  lb. ; 
rectified  sjiirit,  2  gallons.  4.  Gum  juni- 
per, (i  oz.  ;  shellac,  U  oz.  ;  salt  of  tar- 
tar, )j  oz. ;  Venice  turjieutine,  IJ  oz., 
nnd  4  pints  of  spirits  of  wine  mixed 
together. 

TuRPKNTiNic  Varnish. — To  1  pint  of 
.spirits  of  fur|ieutine  add  10  oz.  clear 
refill  ]>oundec| ;  put  it  in  a  tin  (mii  ou  a 
stove-  and  Jot   it  boil  for  half  an  hour. 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


71 


When  the  resin  is  all  dissolved,  let  it 
cool,  aud  it  is  ready  for  use. 

White  Haro  Spirit  Varnish. — 1. 
Gum  sandai-ach,  1  lb. ;  clear  turpentine, 
6  oz. ;    rectified  spirit  (65  over  proof), 

3  pints  ;  dissolve.  2.  Mastic,  in  tears,  2 
oz. ;  sandarach,  8  oz. ;  gum  elemi,  1  oz. ; 
Chic  turpentine,  4  oz. ;  rectified  spirit 
(65  over  proof),  1  quart.  Used  on 
metals  ;  polishes  well.     3.  Gum  mastic, 

4  oz. ;  gum  juniper,  ^  lb. ;  turpentine, 

1  oz. ;  spirits  of  wine,  4  pints ;  mix  to- 
gether. 

Mastic  Varnish. — 1  pmt  spirits  of 
turpentine,  and  10  oz.  of  the  clearest 
gum  mastic.  Set  it  in  a  sand  bath  till 
it  is  all  dissolved,  then  strain  it  through 
a  fine  sieve,  and  it  is  ready  for  use  ;  if 
too  thick,  thin  with  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine. 

Soft  Brilliant  Varnish. — Sanda- 
rach, 6  oz. ;  elemi  (genuine),  4  oz. ; 
anime,  1  oz. ;  camphor,  ^  oz. ;  rectified 
spirit,  1  quart ;  as  before. 

Sealing  -  wax  Varnish.  —  Dissolve 
sealing  wax  in  spirits  of  wine,  and  apply 
the  solution  (well  shaken  up)  with  a 
soft  brush ;  the  spirits  of  wine  will 
evaporate,  leaving  an  even  coating  of 
sealing  wax. 

Etching   Varnishes.  —  White   wax, 

2  oz. ;  black  and  Burgundy  pitch,  of 
each  §  oz. ;  melt  together ;  add  by  degrees 
powdered  asphaltum  2  oz.,  and  boil  till 
a  drop  taken  out  on  a  plate  will  break 
when  cold  by  being  bent  double  two  or 
three  times  between  the  fingers ;  it  must 
then  be  poured  into  warm  water  and 
made  into  small  bails  for  use. 

Hard. — Linseed  oil  and  mastic,  of  each 
4  oz. ;  melt  together. 

Soft. — Soft  linseed  oil,  4  oz. ;  gum 
benzoin  and  white  wax,  of  each  §  oz. ; 
boil  to  two-thirds. 

Linseed-oil  Varnish. — Boil  linseed 
oil,  60  parts,  with  litharge,  2  parts,  and 
white  vitriol,  1  part,  each  finely  pow- 
dered, until  all  water  is  evaporated. 
Then  set  by.  Or,  rub  up  borate  of  man- 
ganese, 4  parts,  with  some  of  the  oil, 
then  add  linseed  oil,  3000  parts,  and  heat 
to  boiling. 

Bookbinders'  Varnish. — 1.  6  oz. 
mastic,  in  dropa ;  3  oz.  coarsely-pounded 


glass,  separated  from  the  iust  by  a  sieve ; 
32  oz.  spirits  of  wine  of  40°.  Place  the 
ingredients  in  a  sand  bath  over  a  fire, 
and  let  them  boil,  stirring  them  well. 
When  thoroughly  mixed  introduce  3  oz. 
spirits  of  turpentine,  boil  for  half  an  hour, 
remove  from  the  fire,  cool,  and  strain 
through  cotton  cloth.  2.  3  pints  of 
spirits  of  wine  of  40° ;  8  oz.  sandarach  ; 
2  oz.  mastic,  in  drops ;  8  oz.  shellac ; 
and  2  oz.  Venice  turpentine.  Prepare 
as  for  No.  1.  Apply  lightly  on  the  book 
with  a  piece  of  cotton  wool,  a  small 
sponge,  or  a  brush. 

Varnish  for  Waterproof  Goods. — 
Let  a  J  lb.  of  india-rubber,  in  small 
pieces,  soften  in  J  lb.  of  oil  of  turpentine, 
then  add  2  lbs.  of  boiled  oil,  and  boil  for 
2  hours  over  a  slow  fire.  When  dis- 
solved, add  6  lbs.  of  boiled  linseed  oil, 
and  1  lb.  of  litharge,  and  boil  until 
an  even  liquid  is  obtained.  Applied 
warm. 

Common  Varnish. —  Digest  shellac, 
1  part ;  with  alcohol  7  or  8  parts. 

Colourless  Varnish,  with  Shellac. — 
Dissolve  2J  oz.  of  shellac  in  a  pint  of 
rectified  spirits  of  wine ;  boil  for  a  few 
minutes  with  5  oz.  of  well-bui-nt  and 
recently  -  heated  animal  charcoal.  A 
small  portion  of  the  solution  should  then 
be  filtered,  and  if  not  colourless,  more 
charcoal  added ;  when  fill  the  colour  is 
removed  press  the  liquor  through  a  piece 
of  silk,  and  afterwards  filter  through  fine 
blotting  paper.  This  kind  of  varnish 
should  be  used  in  a  room  at  60°  Fahr., 
perfectly  free  from  the  least  dust.  It 
dries  in  a  few  minutes,  and  is  not  liable 
afterwards  to  chill  or  bloom.  It  is  par- 
ticularly applicable  to  drawings  and 
prints  that  have  been  sized,  and  may  be 
advantageously  used  upon  oil  paintings 
which  are  thoroughly  hard  and  dry,  as 
it  brings  out  the  colours  with  the  pui  est 
effect. 

Copal  Varnish  (^Spirit). — 1.  Melt 
in  an  iron  pan  at  a  slow  heat,  copal 
gum,  powdered,  8  parts,  and  add  balsam 
capivi,  previously  warmed,  2  parts. 
Then  remove  from  the  fire,  and  add 
spirits  of  turpentine,  also  warmed  before- 
hand, 10  parts,  to  give  the  necessary 
consistence.     Gum  copal  is  made  moro 


72 


WOURSHOP   RECEIPTS 


soluble  ii  spirits  of  turpentine  by  mcU- 
ing  the  powdered  crude  gum,  and  allow- 
ing it  to  stand  for  some  time  loosely 
covered.  2.  Pounded  copal,  24-  parts ; 
spirits  of  turpentine,  40;  camphor,  1. 
3.  Copal  in  powder,  16  parts;  camphor, 
2 ;  oil  of  lavender,  90.  Dissolve  the 
camphor  in  the  oil,  heat  the  latter,  and 
stir  in  the  copal  m  successive  portions 
until  complete  solution  takes  place. 
Thin  with  sullicient  turjtentine  to  make 
it  of  proj)er  consistence.  4.  Coarsely- 
powdered  copal  and  glass,  of  each  4  oz. ; 
alcohol  of  90  per  cent.,  I  pint ;  cam- 
phor, ^  oz. ;  heat  it  in  a  water  bath 
so  that  the  bubbles  may  be  counted  as 
they  rise,  observing  frequently  to  stir 
the  mixture;  when  cold  decant  the 
clear.  Used  for  pictures.  5.  Copal 
melted  and  dropjied  into  water,  3  oz. ; 
gum  sandarach,  6  oz. ;  mastic  and  Chio 
turpentine,  of  each  2J  oz. ;  powdered 
gliiss,  4  oz. ;    alcohol  of  85   per  cent., 

1  quart ;  dissolve  by  a  gentle  heat.  Used 
for  metal,  chairs,  &c. 

WiiiTic  Copal  VARNisir. — 4  oz.  copal, 
J  cz.  camjihor,  3  oz.  white  drying  oil, 

2  oz.  essential  oil  of  turpentine.  Reduce 
the  copal  to  powder,  mix  the  camphor 
ind  drying  oil,  then  heat  it  on  a  slow 
fire,  and  add  the  oil  of  turpentine,  and 
strain. 

Black  Varnish  for  Straw  Hats. — 
Best  black  sealing  wax  J  oz. ;  rectified 
spirits  of  win«,  2  oz. ;  powder  the  sealing 
wax,  and  [)ut  it  with  the  spirits  of  wine 
into  a  phial ;  diiiest  them  in  a  sand  bath, 
or  near  a  fire  till  tlie  wax  is  dissolved; 
lay  oa  warm  with  a  fine  soft  hair-brush 
before  a  lire  or  in  the  sun. 

D.\MMAii  Vaknisii. — Gum  dammar, 
10  parts  ;  gum  sandarach,  5  ;  gum  mas- 
tic, 1.  Digest  at  a  low  heat,  occasionally 
shaking,  with  sjiirits  of  turpentine,  20 
parts.  Add  sjdrits  of  tui'jientiue  until 
of  the  consistence  of  syrup. 

Varnish  for  Glass. — Pulverize  a 
quantity  of  gum  adragant,  and  lot  it 
dissolve  for  24  hours  in  the  white  of 
eggs,  well  beat  up;  then  rub  it  gently 
on  the  glass  with  a  soft  brush. 

VAUMSit  FOR  Polisiii;d  Mf.tal. — 
1.  Take  bleached  slndlac,  jioundoii  in  a 
CGortar ;    place    the    brui.-cd    I'ragments 


into  a  bottle  of  alcohol  until  some  shel- 
lac remains  undissolved ;  agitate  tne 
bottle  and  contents  frequently,  and  let 
the  whole  stanil  till  clear;  pour  oil' the 
clear  lluid.  This  forms  the  varnish. 
Warm  the  metal  surface,  and  coat  with 
a  camel-hair  brush.  If  not  perfectly 
transparent,  warm  the  varnished  surface 
before  a  fire  or  in  an  oven  until  it  be- 
comes clear.  Common  orange  shellac 
answers  equally  well,  and  for  large  sur- 
faces even  better,  as  it  is  more  soluble 
than  the  bleached  variety,  and  coats  more 
perfectly,  but  care  must  be  taken  cot  to 
use  the  varnish  insufFicicntly  diluted. 
2.  Digest  1  part  of  bruised  conal  in  2 
parts  of  absolute  alcol-.ol ;  but  as  this 
varnish  dries  too  quickly  it  is  preferable 
to  take  1  i)art  of  copal,  1  part  of  oil  of 
rosemary,  and  2  or  3  parts  of  absolute 
alcohol.  This  gives  a  clear  varnish  as 
limpid  as  water.  It  should  be  applied 
hot,  and  when  dry  it  will  be  found  hard 
and  durable.  3.  Jlix  equal  quantities 
of  Canada  balsam  with  very  clear  spirits 
of  turpentine,  until  the  whole  is  of  the 
consistency  of  ordinary  varnish,  which 
can  be  determined  by  constantly  shaking 
and  allowing  to  settle.  This  may  be 
applied  without  warming  the  varnish  or 
the  metal. 

Varnish  for  Silver. — Gum  elerni, 
30  parts ;  white  amber,  4.') ;  charcoal, 
30;  spirits  of  turpentine,  375.  Used  in 
a  heated  state;  the  metal  to  which  it  is 
to  be  a]iplied  being  also  heated. 

Varnish  for  Iron  and  Stkkl. — 
Dissolve  10  parts  of  clear  grains  of 
mastic,  5  camphor,  15  sandarach,  and 
5  of  elenii,  in  a  sufTicient  quantity  of 
alcohol,  ami  a]>ply  without  heat. 

Varnish  fou  Backi.vq  Positivf.s. — 
Spirits  of  turpentine,  6  oz. ;  asphaltuni, 
2  oz. ;  white  wax,  2  scruples;  lamp- 
black, IJ  scruple.  Dissolve  in  a  warm 
place,  and  filter  through  flannel. 

Kkmovino  Varnish  from  Puin-ts. — 
1.  I'egin  at  the  corner  of  the  print  by 
rubbing  up  the  varnish  with  the  liugiTt : 
a  fine  white  dust  will  be  produced,  whicn 
is  the  dry  old  varnish  ;  jirocced  all  ovor 
the  print  and  wi|)e  oiT  this  whitrdiitt 
with  a  rag.  Kcficat  until  the  pr:ui  uai 
lost  meat  or  r.ll  of  the  old  r;irniHh.   Noti 


WORKSHOP   PvKCEIPTS. 


73 


strsin  the  print  on  a  drawing  board,  size 
with  weak  parchment  size  ;  when  dry 
size  again  with  the  same  size;  use  the 
size  half  chilled ;  when  perfectly  dry 
app!y  mastic  or  other  varnish.  2.  Lay 
blotting  paper  on  the  print,  and  saturate 
with  pure  sjiirit,  which  will  dissolve  and 
the  blotting  p:iper  absorb  the  varnish. 
Change  the  blotting  paper,  and  repeat  as 
often  as  may  be  needful. 

IXDIA-RUBIiF.R    VaRXISII. 1.     2     OZ. 

india-i'ubber  finely  divided,  placed  in  a 
phial  and  digested  in  a  sand  bath,  with 

1  lb.  of  camphene,  and  J  oz.  of  naphtha. 
When  dissolved  add  1  oz.  of  copal  var- 
nish, which  renders  it  more  durable.  2. 
Digest  in  a   wide-mouthed   glass  bottle 

2  oz.  of  india-rubber  in  shavings,  with 
1  lb.  of  oil  of  turpentine,  during  two 
days,  without  shaking,  then  stir  up  with 
a  wooden  spatula.  Add  another  lb.  of 
oil  of  turpentine,  and  digest,  with  fre- 
quent agitation,  until  all  is  dissolved. 
Mix  1|  ib.  of  this  solution  with  2  lbs.  of 
white  copal-oil  varnish,  and  1|  lb.  of 
boiled  linseed  oil ;  shake  and  digest  in  a 
sand  bath  until  they  have  united  into  a 
good  vai'nish.  3.  4  oz.  india-rubber  in 
fine  shavings  dissolved  in  a  covered  jar 
by  means  of  a  sand  bath,  in  2  lbs.  of 
crude  benzole,  and  then  mixed  with  4  lbs. 
of  hot  linseed-oil  varnish  and  §  lb.  of  oil 
jf  turpentine.     Dries  well. 

Varnish  for  Gas  Balloons. — Take 
india-rubber  and  dissolve  it  in  5  times 
its  weight  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  keep- 
ing them  some  time  together,  then  boil 
gently  1  part  of  this  solution  with  8 
parts  of  boiled  linseed  oil  for  a  few  mi- 
nutes, strain  and  set  aside  to  cool.  It 
must  be  applied  waiTn. 

Varnish  Brushes.  —  All  varnish 
brushes  ought  to  be  made  of  long  white 
hairs  of  the  best  quality,  and,  for  the 
general  purposes  of  varnishing,  have  a 
good  regular  spring,  with  about  one- 
fouiih  or  fifth  part  worn  off,  flat,  sharp, 
and  thin  at  the  point,  so  as  to  lay  on  the 
varnish  smoothly  and  regularly.  As 
the  beauty  of  varnishing  depends  in  a 
great  measure  on  the  brush  as  well  as 
the  manner  of  laying  it  on,  great  care  is 
also  necessary  that  no  oil  brush  be  put 
into  varnish  ;  therefore,  all  brushes  worn 


down  in  oil  colour,  and  intended  to  be 
put  into  varnish,  ought  previously  to  be 
well  washed  in  turpentine,  squeezed  and 
dried  with  a  clean  linen  rag,  or  well 
washed  with  soap  and  hot  water,  rinsed 
in  clean  warm  water,  and  made  perfectly 
dry.  The  best  method  of  keeping  oil- 
varnish  brushes,  when  not  in  use,  is  to 
bore  a  hole  through  the  handle  and  put 
a  wire  skewer  through  it,  and  so  sus* 
pend  the  brush,  in  a  narrow  tin  pot  con- 
taining varnish  of  the  same  sort  as  it  was 
last  in,  taking  care  that  the  varnish  in  the 
pot  covers  the  hairs  of  the  brush  up  to 
the  binding,  and  no  higher.  Brushes  so 
kept  are  always  straight,  clean,  pliable, 
and  in  good  order  ;  whereas  varnisn 
brushes  kept  in  turpentine  become  hard 
and  harsh,  and  however  well  stroked  or 
rubbed  out,  there  will  still  remain  tur- 
pentine enough  to  work  out  by  degrees, 
and  spoil  the  varnishing,  by  causing  it  to 
run  streaky  or  cloudy. 

Green  Transparent  Varnish. — 
Grind  a  small  quantity  of  Chinese  blue 
and  chromate  of  potash  together,  and 
mix  them  thoroughly  in  common  copal 
varnish  thinned  with  turpentine.  The 
blue  and  the  chromate  must  be  ground 
to  an  impalpable  powder,  and  the  tone 
of  colour  varied  with  the  amount  of 
each  ingredient  used.  A  yellow-green 
requires  about  twice  the  quantity  of  the 
chromate  of  potash  to  that  of  the  Chinese 
blue. 

Golden  Varnish.  —  Pulverize  1 
drachm  of  satlron  and  J  drachm  of 
dragon's  blood,  and  put  them  into  1 
pint  spirits  of  wine.  Add  2  oz.  of  gum 
.shellac  and  2  drachms  of  socotrine 
aloes.  Dissolve  the  whole  by  gentle  heat. 
Yellow  painted  work  varnished  with  this 
mixture  will  appear  almost  equal  to 
gold. 

Gutta-percha  Varnish.  —  Clean  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  ot  gutta-percha  in 
warm  water  from  adhering  impurities, 
dry  well,  dissolve  in  1  lb.  of  rectified 
resin  oil,  and  add  2  lbs.  of  linseed-oil  var- 
nish, boiling  hot. 

Choosing  G-ums  and  Spirits. — 
In  purchasing  gum,  examine  it,  and  see 
that  it  consists,  for  the  mo.st  part,  of 
clear  trvisparent  lumps,  without,  a  mu- 


74 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


turc  of  dirt  ;  select  the  clearest  and 
lightest  jjieces  tor  the  most  particular 
kinds  of  varnish,  reserving  the  others, 
when  separated  from  extraneous  matter, 
for  the  coar'^er  varnishes.  In  choosing 
s])irit.s  of  wine,  the  most  simple  test  is  to 
pour  a  small  quantity  into  a  cup,  set  it 
on  tire,  auil  di])  a  tiuger  :uto  the  blazing 
liquid  ;  if  it  burns  quickly  out,  without 
burning  the  finger,  it  is  good ;  but  if  it 
is  long  in  burning,  and  leaves  any  damp- 
ness remaining  on  the  finger,  it  is  mixed 
with  inferior  spirit;  it  may  be  also  com- 
pared with  other  spirit,  by  comparing 
the  weight  of  eciual  quantities,  the  light- 
est is  the  best.  The  goodness  of  spirits  of 
turpentme  may  be  likewise  ascertained 
by  weighing  it,  and  by  noticing  the  de- 
gree of  inflammability  it  possesses;  the 
most  intlammable  is  the  best ;  and  a 
]iersou  much  in  the  habit  of  using  it  will 
tell  by  the  smell  its  good  or  bad  quali- 
ties ;  for  good  tui'pcntine  has  a  pungent 
smell,  the  bad  a  very  disagreeable  one, 
and  not  so  powerful. 

Lac-water  Varnish.  —  Pale  shel- 
lac, 5  oz. ;  borax,  1  oz. ;  water,  1  pint. 
I)igest  at  nearly  the  boiling  point  till 
dissolved,  then  strain.  Au  excullent  ve- 
hicle for  water  colours,  inks,  &c.,  and  a 
varnish  for  prints  is  made  thus  of  bleached 
lac.  When  dry,  it  is  transparent  and 
waterproof. 

To  Bleach  Lac. — Dissolve  shel- 
lac in  a  lye  of  pearlash  by  boiling;  filter, 
pass  chlorine  through  it  in  excess,  wash 
and  jjrecijiitate ;  afterwards  melt  it  into 
sticKS.  This  makes  an  excellent  varnish 
with  spirits  of  wine ;  its  colour  also  ren- 
ders it  good  for  white  and  delicate- 
coloured  sealing  wax. 

Lacquering-. — This  is  done  in  two 
ways,  called  cold  laci|uering  and  hot  lac- 
quering. By  the  former,  a  little  lacquer 
being  taken  on  a  common  cjiniel-liair 
varnish  brush,  is  laid  caret'ully  and  evenly 
over  the  work,  which  is  then  j)laced  in 
an  oven  or  on  a  hot  stove;  the  heat  from 
this  continued  only  a  minute  or  two  is 
sulFicient  to  set  the  lacqu  >r,  and  the  work 
is  finished.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
have  the  work  too  hot  so  aa  to  burn  the 
lacquer,  nor  yet  too  cold,  for  in  this  case 
ibi  l»cquer  will  not  be  thoroughly  wjt. 


By  the  second  method,  the  work  is  heated 
first  to  about  the  heat  of  a  flat  iron  as 
-ised  by  the  laundress,  and  the  lacquer 
quickly  brushed  over  it  in  this  state,  the 
work  being  subjected  to  the  oven  for  a 
minute  afterwards  or  not,  according  to 
the  pleasure  and  judgment  of  the  lac- 
querer.  The  article,  if  very  small,  will 
require  this,  because  it  will  have  parted 
with  most  of  its  heat  in  laying  on  of  the 
lacquer ;  if  heavy,  it  will  retain  sulHcient 
to  perfect  the  process.  The  greatest  dif- 
ficulty is  to  know  the  exact  degree  of 
heat,  and  this  knowledge  cannot  be  at« 
tained  except  by  experience,  so  ditl'erent 
is  the  nature  of  the  materials,  the  quality 
of  different  lacquers,  and  the  eS'ect  to  be 
produced. 

To  Prepare  Brass  for  Lacquer- 
ing.— As  the  object  of  lacquering  is  not 
to  give  a  brilliancy,  but  to  preserve  one 
already  obtained,  it  will  be  evident  that 
in  the  preparation  of  anything  the 
brighter  surface  obtained  the  better. 
Some  goods  are  turned  in  the  lathe,  and 
then  polished ;  sometimes,  as  in  philo- 
sophical instruments,  burnished  also ; 
this  makes  them  suillciently  bright. 
Other  goods,  as,  for  example,  such  as 
have  chased  surfaces,  and  cannot  there- 
fore be  turned  with  a  cutting  tool,  are 
held  against  a  scratch  brush  or  brush  of 
wire,  which  is  fixed  to  the  lathe  like  a 
chuck,  and  is  made  to  revolve  rapiiliy. 
This  removes  all  asperities  and  renders 
the  surface  fit  to  receive  the  lacquer.  A 
third  and  more  common  process  is,  af'ter 
the  surface  is  got  by  other  means  as  clear 
as  possible,  to  put  the  goods  into  pickle, 
that  is,  into  aquafortis  and  water,  and 
leave  them  there  for  some  hours,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  The  acid  eats 
away  the  outer  coat,  leaving  a  bright 
.surface  beneath.  The  goods  are  now  put 
into  hot  saw-dust,  and  shaken  about  to 
dry  and  clean  them,  when  they  will  be 
ready  for  lacquering.  A  very  convenient 
jilan  for  keeping  the  saw-dust  warm  and 
dry  is  to  jdace  it  in  au  iron  box,  under 
which  a  number  of  gas-jets  are  kept 
lighted.  See  Brightening  and  Colouring 
Brass,  y.  16. 

Hi:-i.AixjUEiuNO  I'.RASSWORK. — After 
taking  llio  work  to  pieces,  and  carefuUj 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


75 


removing  all  iron  screws  and  pins,  boil 
oS'  the  old  lacquer  in  a  lye  made  by  mix- 
ing i  lb.  of  potash  with  1  gallon  of 
water.  Allow  the  work  to  rem:\in  in 
this  lye  about  twenty  minutes ;  then 
plunge  into  clean  cold  water,  when  the 
whole  of  the  old  lacquer  will  be  found  to 
have  been  removed.  The  next  process  is 
to  dip  the  work  in  aquafortis,  or  dipping 
acid  ;  and  the  greater  the  specific  gravity 
of  this  the  better,  particularly  for  old 
work.  The  larger  pieces  are  dipped  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  brass  tongs,  and  the 
smaller  ones  by  twisting  them  on  copper 
wire.  When  they  have  remained  in  the 
acid  long  enough  to  become  quite  bright 
and  clean,  plunge  them  quickly  into 
clean  cold  water ;  it  is  best  to  have  two 
or  three  vessels  of  water,  rinsing  the 
work  in  all  of  them.  Waen  the  work 
comes  out  of  the  last  suppiy  of  water,  it 
is  transferred  to  the  saw-dust  box,  and 
when  dry  is  ready  for  lacquering. 

Lacquer  for  Brass. — 1.  Seed-lac, 
dragon's  blood,  annatto,  and  gamboge, 
of  each  4  oz. ;  saffron,  1  oz. ;  spirits 
of  wine,  10  pints.  2.  Turmeric,  1  lb.  ; 
annatto,  2  oz. ;  shellac  and  gum  juniper, 
of  each  12  oz. ;  spirits  of  wine,  12  oz. 
3.  Seed-lac,  6  oz. ;  dragon's  blood,  40  grs. ; 
amber  or  copal  (ground  on  porphyry), 
2  oz. ;  extract  of  red  sandalwood,  30  grs. ; 
oriental  saffron,  oU  grs. ;  pulverized  glass, 
4  oz.  ;  purest  alcohol,  40  oz.  4.  Seed- 
lac,  3  oz. ;  amber  and  gamboge,  of  each 
2  oz.  ;  extract  of  red  sanders,  J  dr.  ; 
di-agon's  blood,  1  dr.  ;  saffron,  ^  dr. ; 
spirits  of  wine,  2  pints  4  oz.  5.  Tur- 
meric, 6  drs. ;  saffron,  15  grs. ;  spirits  of 
wine,  1  pint  4  oz. ;  draw  the  tincture, 
add  gamboge  6  drs. ;  gum  sandarach  and 
gum  elemi,  each  2  oz. ;  dragon's  blood 
and  seed-lac,  of  each  1  oz.  6.  Put  into 
a  pint  of  alcohol,  1  oz.  of  turmeric  pow- 
der, 2  drs.  of  annatto,  and  2  drs.  of  saf- 
fron ;  agitate  d  jring  7  days,  and  filter 
into  a  clean  bottle.  Now  add  3  oz.  of 
clean  seed-lac,  and  agitate  the  bottle 
every  day  for  14  days.  7.  |  oz.  gamboge, 
li  oz.  aloes,  8  oz.  fine  shellac,  1  gallon 
bpirits  of  wine. 

Pale  Lacquer. — 1  gallon  of  methy- 
lated spirits  of  wine,  5  oz.  of  shellac, 
4  oz.  of  gum  sandarach,  and  1  oz.  of  gum 


elemi ;  mix  in  a  tin  flask  and  expose  to  a 
gentle  heat  for  a  day  or  two,  then  strain 
off,  and  add  2  gallon  of  spirit  to  the  sedi- 
ment, and  treat  as  before. 

Green  Lacquer. — Add  to  the  pale 
lacquer  when  mixing,  6  (z  of  turmeric, 
and  1  oz.  of  gum  gamboge. 

Pale  Gold  Lacquer. — 1  gallon  of 
methylated  spirits  of  wine,  10  oz.  of  seed- 
lac  bruised,  and  I  oz.  of  red  sanders;  dit/- 
solve  and  strain. 

Lacquer  for  Tin. — Put  3  oz.  of  seed- 
lac,  2  drs.  of  dragon's  blood,  and  1  oz.  of 
turmeric  powder,  into  a  pint  of  well  rec- 
tified spirits.  Let  the  whole  remain  for 
14  days,  but  during  that  time  ag'tate 
the  bottle  once  a  day  at  least.  When 
properly  combined,  strain  the  liquid 
through  muslin.  It  is  brushed  over  tin- 
ware which  is  intended  to  imitate  brass. 

Lacquer  for  Philosophical  I>stru- 
MKN'TS. — Take  |  oz.  of  gum  gutia  (or 
gamboge),  2  oz.  of  gum  sandarach,  2  oz. 
of  gum  elemi,  1  oz.  of  dragon's  blood,  1  oz. 
of  seed-lac,  2  grs.  of  oriental  saffron,  and 
20  oz.  of  pure  alcohol.  The  tincture  of 
saffron  is  obtained  by  infusing  in  alcohol 
for  twenty-four  hours,  or  exposing  to 
the  heat  of  the  sun  in  summer.  The 
tincture  must  be  strained  through  a 
piece  of  clean  linen  cloth,  and  ought  to 
be  strongly  squeezed.  This  tincture  is 
poured  over  the  dragon's  blood,  the  gum 
elemi,  the  seed-lac,  and  the  gum  gutta;, 
all  pounded. 

HiGll-COLOURED  Lacquer. — 2  quarts 
spirits  of  wine,  2J  oz.  shellac,  2  oz.  gum 
sandarach,  §  oz.  gum  elemi ;  mix  and  keep 
gentlj'  warmed  for  two  or  three  days  ; 
strain,  colour  with  dragon's  blood  to  taste, 
and  thin  with  1  quart  spirits  of  wine. 

Chinese  Lacquer-work.  —  Chinese 
lacquer-work  is  done  over  tin-foil,  and 
consists  of  a  mixture  of  2  parts  of 
copal,  and  1  of  shellac,  melted  together. 
When  tluid,  there  are  added  2  parts  of 
boiled  linseed  oil  ;  and,  after  the  vessel 
containing  this  mixture  has  been  taken 
from  the  fire,  there  are  gradually  added 
10  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine.  If  coloui 
is  required,  gum  gutta;  (or  gambog"^), 
dissolved  in  oil  of  turpentine,  yield.' 
yellow;  and  dragon's  bloo.f,  dissolved  is 
the  same  liquid,  yields  red. 


76 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


Japanning-. — To  prepare  goods  for 
japanning,  they  are  occasionally  coated 
with  a  priming,  for  the  purpose  of  filling 
np  inequalities,  and  making  smooth  the 
Burface  to  be  japanned ,  but  commonly 
the  priming  is  omitted,  the  coloured  var- 
nish or  jajian  ground  being  applied  im- 
roedir/.ely  to  the  substance  to  bo  japanned. 
The  ibrmer  is  the  method  practised  when 
the  surface  is  very  uneven  and  rough  ; 
but  when  the  surface  is  smooth,  ns  in 
the  case  of  metals  or  smooth-grained 
wood,  it  is  now  always  rejected.  The 
priming  or  undercoat  makes  a  saving  in 
the  quantity  of  varnish  used,  but  tlie 
japan  coats  of  varnish  and  colour  are 
liable  to  be  cracked  and  peeled  oil"  by  any 
violence,  and  will  not  endure  so  long  as 
bodies  japanned  in  the  same  manner  with- 
out priming. 

To  Phki'.vre  Work  for  Japan  icith 
Priminj. — Take  size  of  a  consistency  be- 
tween   common    double   size   and    glue, 
and  mix  with  as  much  whiting  as  will 
give  it  a  good  body,  so  as  to  hide  the 
surface  of  whatever  it  is  laid  upon ;  for 
]iarticularly  fine   work   use   glovers'   or 
parchnient  size,  to  which  add  one  quarter 
<'f  isinglass.     The  work  is  prepared   for 
this  priming  by  being  well  cleaned,  and 
brushed  over  with  hot  size,  diluted  with 
two-thirds  water;  the  priming  is  then 
laid   on  with  a  brush  as  evenly  as  jios- 
sible,  and  left  to  dry.     If  the  surface  on 
which   the  priming  is  used  is  tolerably 
even,  two  coats  will  be  sullicient ;   but  if 
on  trial  with  a  wet  rag  it  will  not  re- 
ceive a  proper  water  polish,  one  or  more 
coats  must  be  given  it.     Previous  to  the 
last  coat  being  laid  on,  smooth  with  fine 
glass  fiaper.     When  the  last  coat  is  dry, 
give  the  water  ]iolish   by  passing  over 
every  part  of  it  with  a  fine  rag  or  s])onge 
moistened,  till   the  whole  ajipears  plain 
nod  even  ;  the  priming  will  then  be  com- 
jdefcii,  and   the  work   reaily  to   receive 
t  lie  ja|>an  ground.     Wilhont  priming,  lay 
on  two  or  three  coats  fif  varnish  com- 
jiosed     of    rectifioil    sjiirits   of    wine    1 
pint,    coarse    beed-lac    and    resin,    each 
'2    oz.      This    varnish,     like    all    other 
formed  of  spirit.s  of  wine,  must  be  laid 
on  in  a  warm  place,  and  all  dampness 
avoided  ;    for   cither   cold    or   moist uru 


chills  it,  and  prevents  its  taking  proper 
hold  of  the  substance  on  which  it  is  laid. 
When  the  work  is  thus  prepared,  the 
proper  japan  ground  must  be  laid  on. 

Jai'an  Grounds. — The  jji-ojier  japan 
grounds  are  either  such  as  are  formed  by 
the  varnish  and  colour,  where  the  whole 
is  to  remain  of  one  simple  colour,  or  by 
the  varnish  with  or  without  colour,  on 
which  some  painting  or  other  decoration 
is  afterwards  to  be  laid.  This  ground  is 
best  formed  of  shellac  varnish,  and  the 
colour  desired.  Any  pigments  whatever 
may  be  used  witli  the  shellac  varnish, 
which  will  give  the  tint  of  the  ground, 
and  they  may  be  mixed  together  to  form 
iny  compound  colours;  but,  with  respect 
to  such  as  require  peculiar  methods  for 
producing  them  of  the  first  degree  of 
brightness,  we  shall  particularize  them 
below.  They  should  all  be  ground  very 
smooth  in  spirits  of  turjientine,  and  then 
mixed  with  the  varnish.  It  should  be 
spread  over  the  work  very  carefully  and 
even  with  a  camel-hair  brush.  As 
metals  never  require  the  jiriming  of  size 
ami  whiting,  the  jajian  ground  may  be 
aiiplietl  immeiliately  to  them,  without 
any  other  ]u-cparation  than  cleaning. 
Metals  receive  from  three  to  five  coats, 
and  between  each  must  be  dried  in  an 
oven  heated  from  2.'>0°  to  300°. 

Black  Japan  Grounds. — 1.  Mix  shel- 
lac vainish  with  cither  ivory-black  or 
lampblack  ;  but  tlic  former  is  preferable. 
These  may  be  always  laid  on  with  the 
shellac  varnish,  and  have  their  u|)por  or 
polishing  coats  of  common  seed-lac  var- 
nish. 2.  A  common  black  japan  may  be 
made  by  jiainting  a  piece  of  work  with 
drying  oil,  and  jHitting  the  work  into  a 
stove,  not  too  hot,  liut  of  such  a  degree 
as  will  change  the  oil  black  without 
I'uiiKiig  it,  gradually  raising  the  heat 
and  keepin:;  it  up  for  n  long  time.  This 
requires  no  polishing.  3.  Asphaltum, 
}  lb.  ;  melt,  then  add  hot  balsam  of 
capivi,  1  11).,  and  when  mixdl,  thin  with 
hot  oil  of  turpentine.  4.  Grind  lamp- 
bl.-ick  very  smooth  on  a  marbh;  slab  witl 
a  muller  with  turiientiiic,  and  then  ad  i 
co])al  varnish  to  the  pro])cr  consistency. 
.").  As])haltuni,  3  oz. ;  boiled  oil,  4  quarts  ; 
burnt    umber,  8   oz.     Mix  by  heat,  and 


WORKSHOP   UECEIPTS. 


77 


wh'jn  cooling  thin  with  turpentine.  6. 
Amber,  12  oz. ;  asphaltum,  2  oz.  ;  fuse 
by  heat,  add  boiled  oil  |  pint,  resin  2  oz. ; 
when  cooling  add  16  oz.  oil  of  turpentine. 

White  Japan  Grounds.  —  Flake- 
white,  or  white-lead,  washed  and  ground 
up  with  the  sixth  of  its  weight  of  starch, 
and  dried ;  temper  properly  for  spread- 
ing with  mastic  varnish.  Lay  on  tho 
body  to  be  japanned,  then  varnish  over 
it  with  5  or  6  coats  of  the  following 
varnish  : — Seed-lac,  2  oz. ;  gum  anime, 
3  oz. ;  reduce  the  gums  to  a  coarse  pow- 
der, dissolve  in  about  a  quart  of  spirits 
of  wine,  and  strain  off  the  clear  varnish. 
The  seed-lac  will  give  a  slight  tinge  to 
this  composition;  but  it  cannot  be  omitted 
where  the  varnish  is  wanted  to  be  hard, 
though  where  a  softer  will  answer  the 
end  the  proportion  may  be  diminished, 
and  a  little  crude  turpentine  added  to  the 
gum  anime  to  take  oif  the  brittlcness. 

Blcte  Japan  Grounds  may  be  formed 
of  bright  Prussian  blue,  or  of  smalt.  The 
colour  may  be  mixed  with  shellac  var- 
nish ;  but  as  shellac  will  somewhat  in- 
jure the  colour  by  giving  it  a  yellow 
tinge,  where  a  bright  blue  is  required 
the  method  directed  in  the  case  of  white 
grounds  must  be  pursued. 

Red  Japan  Ground. — The  base  of 
this  japan  ground  must  be  made  up  with 
madder  lake,  ground  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine ;  this  forms  the  first  ground ; 
when  perfectly  dry,  a  second  coat  must 
be  applied,  composed  of  lake  and  white 
copal  varnish ;  and  the  last  with  a  coat 
composed  of  a  mi.xture  of  copal  and 
turpentine  varnish  mixed  up  with  lake. 
Vermilion  or  carmine  can  also  be  used 
for  red  japan  instead  of  lake. 

Yellow  Japan  Grounds. — 1.  King's 
yellow  may  be  used,  and  the  effect  will  be 
heightened  by  dissolving  powdered  tur- 
m'^nc  root  in  the  spii  .ts  of  wine,  of  which 
the  upper  or  polishing  coat  is  made, 
which  si)irits  of  wine  must  be  strained 
from  ofl"  the  dregs  before  the  seed-lac  is 
added  to  it  to  form  the  varnish.  2.  oaf- 
fron,  ciome  yellow,  or  turmeric,  dissolved 
in  spirits  of  wine,  strained,  and  mixed 
with  pure  seed-lac  varnish. 

Green  Japan  Grounds  may  be  pro- 
dured  by  mixing  Prussian  blue,  or  dis- 


tilled verdigris,  vrith  king's  yellow  and 
a  varnish,  and  the  etiiect  will  be  rendered 
extremely  brilliant  by  laying  on  a  ground 
of  gold  leaf. 

Orange  Japan  Grounds  may  be 
formed  by  mixing  vermilion  or  red-lead 
with  king's  yellow  or  orange  lake ;  or 
red  orpiment  will  make  a  brighter  orange 
ground  than  can  be  produced  by  any 
mixture. 

Purple  Japan  Grounds  may  be 
produced  by  the  mixture  of  lake  or 
vermilion  with  Prussian  blue.  They 
may  be  treated  as  the  rest  with  respect 
to  the  varnish. 

ToRTOiSESHELL  Japan. — Linseed  oil, 
2  i)ints ;  umber,  J  lb. ;  boil  together 
imtil  the  oil  becomes  very  brown  and 
thick ;  strain  through  a  cloth  and  boil 
again  until  the  composition  is  about  the 
consistence  of  pitch,  when  it  is  fit  for 
use.  Having  prepared  this  varnish,  clean 
well  the  article  that  is  to  be  japanned, 
and  then  lay  vermilion,  mixed  with 
shellac  varnish,  or  with  drying  oil,  di- 
luted with  turpentine,  very  thinly  on 
the  places  intended  to  imitate  the  clear 
parts  of  the  tortoiseshell.  When  the 
vermilion  is  dry,  brush  over  the  whole 
with  the  above  umber  varnish  diluted 
to  a  due  consistence  with  turpentine, 
and  when  it  is  set  and  firm  it  must  be 
put  into  a  stove  and  undergo  a  strong 
heat  for  a  long  time,  even  two  weeks 
will  not  hurt  it. 

Painting  Japan-work.  —  The  pre- 
paration of  colours  for  japan-work  con- 
sists in  bringing  them  to  a  due  state  of 
fineness,  by  grinding  on  a  stone  in  oil  of 
turpentine.  The  best  varnish  for  bind- 
ing and  preserving  the  colours  is  shellac  ; 
this,  when  judiciously  managed,  gives 
such  a  firmness  and  hardness  to  the 
work,  that,  if  it  be  aftei'wari.s  further 
secured  with  a  moderately  thick  coat  of 
seed-lac  varnish,  it  will  be  almost  as 
hard  and  durable  as  glass.  Painting  in 
varnish  is,  however,  more  tedious  than 
in  oil  or  water ;  it  is  therefore  now  usual 
in  japan-work,  for  the  sake  of  disjiatch, 
and  in  some  cases  fuJ"  the  freer  use  o( 
the  jicncil,  to  lay  on  the  colours  with 
japanncrs'  gold  siz6.  The  coloui-s  are  also 
sometimes  laid  on   in  gum   water,  but 


78 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


the  work  done  in  this  manner  is  not  so 
durable  as  that  done  in  varnish  or  oil. 
Water  colours  are  sometimes  laid  on 
grounds  of  gold,  in  the  manner  of"  other 
paintings,  and  look  best  without  any 
varnish  over  them  ;  and  they  are  some- 
times so  managed  as  to  have  the  ellect 
of  embossed  work.  The  colours  in  this 
way  of  painting  are  prepared  by  means 
of  isinglass  size  corrected  with  honey  or 
nugar-candy.  The  body  with  which  the 
embossed  work  is  raised  is  best  formed 
of  strong  gum  water,  thickened  to  a 
proper  consistence  with  bole  armeniau 
and  whiting,  in  equal  parts ;  which, 
being  laid  on  in  the  proper  figures  and 
repaired  when  dry,  may  be  then  painted 
with  the  intended  colours  t'smpered  in 
the  isinglass  size,  or  in  the  general  man- 
ner with  shellac  varnish. 

Vaunisiiing  Japan  -  work.  —  The 
finishing  process  in  japanning  consists  in 
laying  on  and  polishing  the  outer  coats 
of  varnish,  which  are  equally  necessary, 
whether  the  japan  ground  is  ])aintcd  or 
not.  The  pieces  of  worK  to  be  varnished 
should  be  ])laced  ne;ir  the  fire,  or  in  a 
waKm  room  made  jierlectly  dry,  and  the 
varnish  laid  on  with  a  flat  camel-hair 
brush  made  for  the  purpose :  the  var- 
nishing must  be  done  rapidly,  but  with 
great  care ;  the  same  place  should  not 
be  jiassed  twice  over  in  laying  on  one 
coat  if  it  can  possibly  be  avoided:  the 
best  way  of  ]u-occeding  is  to  begin  in 
the  middle,  ))ass  it  to  the  other  end, 
taking  care  that,  before  each  stroke,  the 
brush  is  well  sui>i)lied  with  varnish. 
When  one  coat  is  dry,  another  must  be 
laid  over  it  in  like  manner,  and  this 
must  be  continue<l  at  least  five  or  six 
times.  It  greatly  improves  all  kinds  of 
japan-work  to  harden  the  varnish  by 
means  of  heat,  which,  in  every  degree 
that  it  can  be  applied  short  of  what 
'would  burn  or  calcine  the  matter,  tends 
to  give  it  a  firm  trxture.  Where  metals 
form  the  liody  tlicri'f'ore,  a  very  hot  oven 
may  be  used,  and  the  work  may  be  con- 
lin'jed  in  it  a  coiisidi'iMldo  time,  espe- 
cially if  till-  lii-al  be  gra<liially  increased  ; 
but  where  wood  or  pajiier  machd  is  in 
qucMtioo,  heat  must  be  sparingly  uiwjd 
iftcr  each  coat  of  varnish.     If,  on  trial, 


there  be  not  a  sufficient  thickness  of 
varnish  to  bear  the  polish  without  lay- 
ing bare  the  painting  or  ground  colour 
underneath,  mnve  must  be  laid  on.  When 
a  sufficient  number  of  coats  is  laid  on, 
the  work  is  fit  to  be  polished,  which 
must  be  done,  in  common  cases,  by  rub- 
bing it  with  a  piece  of  cloth  or  t'elt 
dijjped  in  Tripoli  or  pumice-stone  finely 
powdered.  But  towards  the  end  of  thi; 
rubbing  a  little  oil  of  any  kind  should 
be  used  with  the  jx)wder,  and  when  the 
work  ajipears  sulliciently  bright  and 
glossy,  it  should  be  well  rubbed  with 
the  oil  alone  to  clean  it  from  the  pow- 
der and  give  it  a  still  greater  lustre.  In 
the  case  of  white  grounds,  instead  of  the 
Tripoli  fine  ])utty  or  whiting  should  be 
used,  but  they  should  be  washed  over 
to  prevent  the  danger  of  damaging  the 
work  from  any  sand  or  other  gritty 
matter  that  may  happen  to  be  mi.xed 
with  them. 

Tunbridge  "Ware.  Bod;/.— The 
articles  are  usually  made  of  either  horse- 
chestnut  or  sycamore  wood,  the  whiter 
the  better,  and  should  be  well  finished 
otf  with  glass  paper;  wipe  them  and 
give  them  one  coat  of  s])irit  varnish  ; 
this  raises  the  grain;  rub  down  with 
fine  glass  paper  when  dry ;  wipe  from 
the  dust,  and  varnish  again  with  tehite 
hard  spirit  tarnish,  ami  they  are  pro- 
jierly  jireiiared  for  painting;  but  prints 
or  drawings  must  be  jjut  on  previous  to 
this  i)rej)aration.  In  prejiariiig  articles 
for  ladies  to  paint  on,  as  they  use  water 
colours  instead  of  co])al  colours,  omit 
the  two  coats  of  spirit  varnish,  using 
instead  a  white  varnish  made  of  finely- 
powdered  flake-white  and  isinglass  size, 
used  hot,  rubbed  <lown  in  the  same  way 
and  repeated. 

I'aintiivj. — The  colours  used  are  the 
same  as  for  oil  painting,  but  in  a  dry 
state;  they  are  to  be  ground  fine  in 
turjientine,  let  dry,  and  are  then  fit  for 
use  ;  some  of  the  smooth  colours,  as  ver- 
milion, lam))l)lack,  &c.,  do  not  retiiiiro 
U'rindiiig  in  tiirpciit  iue  first.  The  co- 
lours are  mixed  on  a  palrtte  or  marble 
slab  rather  stilf  with  copal  varnish  and 
thinned  for  use  with  turpentine;  they 
require  copal   varnish  enough  to  m.iij* 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


79 


them  bind  and  dry  firm  and  work  free, 
but  not  enough  to  make  them  shining 
or  sticky.  When  gilding  is  wished,  use 
japan  gold  size,  bearing  in  mind  that 
any  ground  vuiour,  imitation  wood,  &c., 
upon  which  gold  ornaments  are  to  ap- 
pear, must  have  one  coat  of  spirit  var- 
nish over  it  before  sizing,  which  is  ne- 
cessary also  when  objects  are  painted  on 
a  black  or  other  coloured  ground — the 
spirit  varnish  preventing  the  ground  co- 
lour from  working  up.  Coloured  prints 
or  drawings  on  paper,  pasted  close  and 
tight  on  the  wood,  form  a  pretty  centre  ; 
they  must  always  be  sized  with  isinglass 
size  twice  over  before  they  are  varnished 
over  with  the  spirit  varnish.  Have  a 
little  cup  of  turpentine  by  you  when 
painting  to  moisten  the  camel-hair  pen- 
cils, and  make  them  work  free  ;  wash 
them  in  turpentine,  and  keep  the  colours 
from  the  air  as  much  as  possible. 

Varnishing. — After  the  article  is  or- 
namented or  painted,  it  must  have  a 
square  block  of  wood,  according  to  its 
size,  and  from  4  to  6  in.  long,  glued 
slightly  on  the  bottom,  to  serve  as  a 
handle  in  the  future  process.  It  must 
then  receive  from  6  to  8  coats  of  white 
hard  spirit  varnish;  this  should  occupy 
two  days ;  let  it  remain  the  following 
night  in  the  varnish  room,  that  it  may 
set  gradually,  and  then  remove  it  to  an 
airy  place  ;  the  more  current  of  air, 
providing  neither  damp  nor  sun  can  get 
at  it,  the  better ;  let  it  remain  here 
about  a  fortnight  if  you  wish  your  work 
to  stand  well.  When  quite  hard,  the 
varnish  will  crack  all  over  in  very  mi- 
nute cracks. 

Rubbing  Down. — To  do  this,  provide 
yourself  with  some  very  finely  grated 
chalk,  perfectly  free  from  grit,  and  a 
rubber  made  of  stuff  doubled  flat  five  or 
six  times  round  a  piece  of  very  stiff 
pasteboard,  also  a  pan  of  clean  water ; 
fix  the  article  by  the  block  in  a  vice,  or 
any  way  convenient,  soak  the  rubber  in 
water,  then,  while  wet,  cover  it  with 
the  grated  chalk  dry,  and  with  it  rub 
the  article  to  and  fro,  and  afterwards 
crossways,  till  the  cracks  are  all  re- 
moved and  the  surface  is  perfectly  flat 
»pd  even,  continually  dipping  the  rubber 


in  water,  and  taking  fresh  dry  chalk, 
but  keeping  the  rubber  wet  and  the 
hands  also,  to  prevent  the  varnish  print- 
ing; wipe  of^' occasionally  with  the  palm 
of  the  hand  to  observe  the  progress  and 
prevent  rubbing  through.  Be  careful 
not  to  touch  it  with  the  hands  dry,  as 
the  rubbing  softens  the  varnish  ;  when 
smooth  and  even  all  over,  stand  by  for 
about  a  week. 

Polishing  and  Finishing. — This  is  done 
in  the  same  way  as  the  rubbing  down  with 
dry  chalk  and  water,  only  using  a  wool- 
leu  cloth  rubber  instead  of  the  stuff  one, 
and  less  chalk  ;  and  the  finishing  or 
smoothing  is  done  with  the  palm  of  the 
hand  wet,  without  any  rubber  at  all. 
When  the  required  polish  or  brightness 
is  obtained,  which  takes  but  very  little 
time,  as  it  is  supposed  to  be  perfectly 
flat,  smooth,  and  even,  from  the  rubbing 
down,  and  the  polishing  is  only  to  give 
a  brightness  to  the  surface  by  a  delicate 
and  very  slight  friction  on  the  varnish, 
now  thoroughly  hard  and  even.  Stand 
it  by  till  the  next  day,  then  knock  off 
the  block,  scrape  any  of  the  unvarnished 
parts  where  the  chalk  and  water  may 
have  soaked  in.  Line  the  inside  with  silk, 
satin,  velvet,  tm-foil,  or  paper,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  article;  then  oil  all 
over  the  polished  parts  'rtb  a  piece  of 
flannel  soaked  in  Florence  oil ;  clean  and 
finish  off  with  a  very  soft  cotton  or  silk 
duster  and  common  flour  ;  dry,  and  if  well 
done,  it  will  look  almost  like  plate  glass. 

Carriage  Japan, — iO  gallons  raw 
linseed  oil,  40  lbs.  litharge,  20  lbs. 
red-lead,  10  lbs.  black  oxide  of  manga- 
nese, 2  lbs.  white  gum  shellac.  Set  the 
oil  over  the  fire  and  bring  to  the  boiling 
point;  add  by  degrees  litharge  and  red- 
lead  alternately  and  slowly  ;  add  the 
gum,  and  when  this  is  melted  put  in  the 
manganese,  and  keep  the  whole  in  rapid 
motion  from  the  time  the  oil  is  200° 
Fahr.  until  the  making  is  finished.  When 
the  mixture  is  cool  enough  to  bear  the 
finger  in  a  moment,  add  from  20  to  30 
gallons  spirits  of  turpentine. 

Carriage  Painting,  —  Carriage 
painting  should  be  conducted  in  a  room 
where  dust  can  be  entirely  excluded,  and 
where   ready   means  of  ventilation    are 


80 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


always  at  hand.  The  following  receipts 
will  give  the  mode  of  working  both  with 
boiled  oil  and  with  raw  oil  as  a  vehicle, 
'He  exclusive  use  of  either  oil  being  a 
very  disputed  question.  When  the  wood- 
work of  a  carriage  comes  into  the  shop 
examine  it  closely,  and  if  the  grain  has 
raised  in  any  phice,  or  it  wants  smooth- 
ing with  sand  paper,  be  sure  and  do  it 
before  priming  the  work. 

Priming. — For  the  priming  coat  use 
white-lead  mixed  in  jirepared  raw  oil 
and  one-eighth  part  turpentine,  with  a 
shade  of  lampblack  if  the  carriage  is  to 
be  a  dark  colour.  Tlie  less  paint  used 
in  priming  the  better,  taking  care  not  to 
leave  it  thick  upon  the  edge,  or  to  collect 
upon  the  mouldings,  but  going  well  over 
cracKs,  cheeks,  and  screw-heads,  so  that 
they  have  at  least  one  coat  of  paint  over 
the  surface  which  is  to  be  puttied  uji. 

Second  Coat. — After  tlie  priming  has 
been  four  days  drying,  and  has  then  been 
sand-papered  off,  give  another  coat  of 
the  same  paint  used  for  priming  with  a 
little  drier,  and  about  one-fourth  as 
much  turpentine  as  oil.  Sometimes  a 
third  coat  is  applied.  When  thoroughly 
hard,  fill  in  all  screw-heads  and  places  to 
be  stopped  with  putty  made  of  whiting 
and  good  drying  varnish. 

Jiougli  Stuffing. — 7  j>arts,  yellow  ochre ; 
1,  white-lead  ;  4,  good  drying  var- 
nish ;  1,  jajjan,  and  about  -j^jth  as  much 
raw  oil  as  of  copal  varnish  and  jajian 
together;  mix,  and  grind  with  a  miilicr, 
or  run  through  a  colour  mill.  After 
grinding  reduce  with  turpentine,  so  that 
it  works  easily  under  the  brusii ;  a[)ply 
several  coats,  each  of  which  will  take 
five  or  six  days  to  dry.  A  carriage  body 
will  reijuire  at  least  three  coats,  but 
smaller  vehicles  neeil  have  but  one. 

liubbing  Ihvcn, — The  oljject  of  rubbing 
down  is  to  have  a  smooth  surface  free 
from  dents,  grains  of  the  wood,  tool 
marks,  or  anything  in  the  way  of  making 
a  lu.e  even  siufice  to  put  the  finishing 
coat  of  paint  on.  Saw  pumice-stone  into 
blocks  of  a  suitable  size,  shaping  pieces 
of  htpiie  with  a  small  round  tile  to  fit 
the  bc.iis.  Wet  the  work  with  a  sponge, 
und  with  a  wet  blc<;k  of  pumice-stone 
r-j(i  urtil  the  parts  ars  smooth  and  level, 


using  the  wet  sponge  frequently  to  clean 
the  paint  and  ascertain  whether  it  is 
rubbed  enough.  When  the  brush  marks 
are  all  rubbed  out  of  the  rough  stulllng, 
the  rubbing  may  be  considered  finished. 

Colouring. — After  rubbing  down  apply 
a  coat  of  lead-colour  ground  very  fine  in 
a  paint  mill.  When  this  is  dry,  rub 
down  again  very  closely  with  fine  sand 
paper;  examine,  putty  up  places  neg- 
lected in  former  puttyings,  <S;c. ;  stand 
by  to  harden,  and  again  rub  with  pumice- 
stone.  Sujiposing  the  colour  wished  for 
is  ultramarine  blue,  mix  up  white-lead 
and  Chinese  blue  to  the  required  tint 
with  3  parts  japan  and  1  part  oil,  put 
on,  dry,  and  rub  down  with  moss  or  a 
linen  rag.  Colour,  if  black,  mix  it  with 
1  part  oil  and  3  parts  japan;  if  a  trans- 
parent colour,  thin  it  with  sugar  of  lead 
and  raw  linseed  oil,  and  let  it  dry. 
Colour,  dry,  then  give  from  three  to  four 
coats  of  varnish.  Observe  that  between 
every  coat  of  colour  the  paint  should  be 
well  rubbed  with  woollen  cloth  and 
ground  pumice-stone.  The  striping  should 
be  laid  on  before  the  varnish  is  apj)liod. 

Ironwork. — The  ironwork  of  a  car- 
riage should  have  two  coats  of  oil  lead 
colour,  sand  paper  well,  give  one  coat 
more,  after  which  give  one  coat  best  oil 
black,  two  coats  black  japan,  a  slight 
rubbing,  and  a  flowing  coat  of  varnish. 

Varnishing  and  Polishing. — Good  coach 
bodies  are  seldom  polished  with  less  tlian 
five  or  six  coats  of  varuish.  The  work 
should  be  so  ordered  that  decorations, 
heraldic  devices,  and  so  on,  have  at  least 
two  coats  of  varnish  over  them.  Cheap 
work  intended  to  be  finished  with  one 
coat  of  varuish  ought  to  be  laid  on  rather 
full  and  (lowing;  but  if  two  coats  are 
intended,  the  first  coat  should  be  laid 
more  s])arin;;ly,  and  the  second  applied 
the  third  day  after;  and  in  cases  where 
a  third  coat  is  applied,  the  second  coal 
ought  j)reviously  to  be  rubbed  down  ta 
nearly  a  dead  flat  wilii  ground  |iuii-.ice 
•liist  and  water.  If  it  is  to  be  afterwards 
jiolished,  let  it  stand  at  least  fotirtccn 
days;  then  take  a  very  fine  pumice  dust, 
well  sifted  through  a  very  fine  silk  or 
muslin  sieve,  wet  the  work  with  a  lirush 
and  clean  water,  have  rea<ly  some  piece* 


WORKSHOP   RFCEIPTS. 


81 


of  white  woolleu  cloth,  folded  up  in  a 
propel'  manner,  dip  a  piece  in  water  and 
ttiea  in  the  jnimice  dust,  begin  and  rub 
down  the  work  from  top  to  bottom  with 
a  regular  pressure,  bearing  steadily  but 
rather  lightly,  rubbing  the  work  as 
nearly  all  alike  as  possible,  because  on 
that  particular  depends  the  beauty  of  the 
jiolishing;  wash  off  from  time  to  time 
with  a  jpongn  and  water  during  the 
polishing,  till  with  the  palm  of  tlie  hand 
rubbed  two  or  three  times  in  the  same 
jdace,  the  work  discover  its  polish  ;  then 
with  a  bit  of  serge  or  flannel,  dipped  in 
refined  linseed  oil,  rub  the  work  over,  and 
afterwards  clean  it  off  with  the  hand,  or 
a  piece  of  fine  leather,  dipped  in  fine  dried 
powder  or  Hour.  When  cleared  of  the 
oil,  a  piece  of  fine  flannel,  dipped  in  dry 
tlour  and  rubbed  over  it,  will  give  it 
beauty  and  lustre.  Varnishing  must  be 
conducted  in  a  warm,  dry  atmosphere, 
kept  very  equable  in  temperature  ;  it  is 
therefore  a  good  plan  always  to  have  a 
warm  stove  in  the  varnishing  room. 
Coach  painters  are  aware  that  some 
copal  varnishes  will  answer  very  well 
upon  one  coach  body,  but  when  applied 
upon  another  will  sink  in  dead,  fall  into 
pin-holes,  or  be  otherwise  faulty,  and 
are  at  a  loss  how  to  account  for  such 
failures  ;  they  are  not  merely  the  effect 
of  chance,  but  more  frequently  occur 
from  the  want  of  the  necessary  know- 
ledge of  oils,  colours,  and  varnishes  ;  for 
instance,  when  any  piece  of  work  is 
painted  with  a  hai-d,  solid,  heavy,  com- 
pact metallic  or  mineral  colour,  such  as 
white -lead,  patent  yellow,  Sec.  The 
grounds  are  then  firm,  close,  and  solid  ; 
and  almost  any  copal  varnish  will  look 
well,  appear  brilliant,  stand  polishing 
well,  and  sooner,  than  on  any  other 
tjrouuds ;  it  will  last,  however,  but  a  short 
time,  for  if  the  varnish  is  deficient  in 
gumminess,  the  metallic  colour  will  im- 
bibe the  virtue  of  the  varnish  and  cause 
Its  decay.  The  same  varnish  applied 
upon  green  grounds,  which  are  much 
ruore  absorbent,  will  sink  in  sleepy  or 
dead,  not  having  a  suliicient  oily  and 
g'ummy  body.  Therefore  it  is  necessary 
lb.it  every  painter  should  be  acquainted 
with  tha  nature  of  his  grounds,  and  pro- 


cure his  varnish  accordingly,  namely 
for  hard,  compact,  solid  grounds,  a 
strong,  gummy,  tough,  but  flowing  var- 
nish ;  and  for  all  soft  absorbent  grounds, 
such  as  compound  greens,  lakes,  browns, 
drabs,  a  soft,  strong,  oily,  free-flowing 
varnish.  Copal  varnishes,  which  abound 
with  oil  and  gum,  are  those  fittest  for 
all  sorts  of  coach-work,  as  they  possess 
firmness,  toughness,  and  durability  ;  yet 
they  are  slower  in  drying,  and  must 
stand  some  time  before  they  will  bear 
polishing ;  whereas  all  hard  brittle  var- 
nishes will  dry  firm  and  hard,  bear 
polishing  very  soon,  but  afterwards  crack 
and  fade  all  over.  Coach  painters  ought 
to  use  the  best  polishing  body  copal  for 
bodies,  and  even  for  carriage-work,  where 
the  colours  are  very  pale  and  delicate,  or 
at  least  lay  the  last  coat  with  boily  var 
nish.  Where  the  work  is  dark,  there  is 
no  occasion  to  fear  using'a  middling  dark 
carriage  varnish,  as  it  is  often  better 
than  the  pale.  Amber  varnish  is  often 
used  for  varnishing  black  grounds  or 
black  japan,  as  possessing  peculiar  pro- 
perties ;  besides,  it  is  easy  to  lay  on. 

To  Prkpark  Raw  Oil.  — Add  ith 
part  good  brown  japan  to  4  parts  raw 
linseed  oil.  If  paint  requires  any  further 
drier,  §  oz.  sugar  of  lead  and  i  oz.  white 
vitriol  ground  together  can  be  added  to 
each  pound  of  paint. 

Yki.low  Cot^ouiis. — Wlien  a  cnnch  is 
to  be  painted  pale  yellow,  take  3  lbs.  of 
dry  white-lead,  1  lb.  of  whiting,  i  lb.  of 
litharge,  J  lb.  of  pale  spruce  ochre,  all 
well  dried;  grind  with  3  parts  raw  oil, 
1  part  turpentine ;  add  sufficient  gold 
size  to  make  it  dry,  firm,  and  hard  ;  as 
soon  as  dry,  sand-]iaper  and  puttv  up 
the  work  with  hard  puttv,  then  jjix-pare 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  above  colours  ; 
apply  3  coats,  rubbing  down  with  care; 
after  these  apply  a  fourth,  and  if  neces- 
sary a  fifth  coat,  made  of  3  lbs.  of  dry 
white-lead,  J  lb.  of  dry  spruce  ochre, 
J  lb.  of  pumice-stoue,  all  well  ground 
with  3  parts  raw  oil,  2  parts  turpentine, 
adding  a  little  pale  gold  size  to  diy  it 
firm  and  hard.  When  dry  and  ••ubbcd 
down,  apply  the  finishing  coat,  pale 
patent  yellow,  ground  in  4  i)arts  pre- 
pared oil,  1  part  turpentine;  and  1  cjat. 

G 


82 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


if  well  laid,  looks  always  more  clear  and 
briglit  than  when  2  are  applied.  The 
above  beiug  a  mineral  metallic  colour, 
it  is  com]>act,  tirm,  and  durable,  and 
will  dry  sooner,  firmer,  and  harder,  as 
well  as  bear  out  and  support  varnishJng 
and  polishing  better,  than  most  other 
colours. 

Lake  Colours. — If  a  coach  is  to  be 
finished  of  a  lake  colour,  proceed  with 
the  first  four  or  five  applications  exactly 
as  for  yellow;  then  take  di-y  white-lead, 
ground  with  half  oil  and  half  turpentine, 
stain  it  with  Indian  red,  and  add  a  little 
gold  size.  When  dry  and  hard,  rub  it 
very  smooth  ;  then  apply  another  coat 
of  good  Indian  red,  ground  in  prepared 
oil  and  turpentine,  with  vei-y  little  gold 
size ;  next  rub  that  very  smooth,  let  it 
haiden  well,  taking  great  care  not  to  cut 
through  the  former  coat ;  wash  it  clean 
off,  wii)e  it  jjerfectly  dry,  lot  it  be  as  free 
from  any  moisture  as  possii^le,  and  then 
apply  the  finishing  coat  of  pure  lake, 
ground  and  worked  in  4  |iarts  )ire))ared 
oil,  2  parts  turpentine,  with  a  little  pale 
gold  size,  or  else  very  pale  boiled  oil,  to 
cause  it  to  dry. 

GRi:r;x  Colours. — In  laving  the  finish- 
ing  coat  of  any  comjiounil  green  on  coach 
bodies,  it  is  indispensably  necessary  that 
the  colour  be  worked  full,  and  laid  off 
very  smoothly  and  lightly,  by  working 
the  brush  perpendicularly  from  top  to 
bottom  ;  otherwise  comjiound  green  co- 
lours will  always  apjiear  shaded,  and  if 
highly  v.'irnished,  the  shades  will  be  ren- 
dered more  conspicuous.  Several  greens, 
from  the  nature  of  their  compcacnt  jiarts, 
will  cause  the  varnish,  however  gooil  an<l 
old,  to  ferment  and  fall  into  pin-holes. 
Prtissian  blue,  when  ground  in  oil  with- 
out previous  ])i'e|)aration,  alwavs  becomes 
livcri/,  as  it  is  termed,  in  a  short  time, 
and  is  thi'n  unfit  for  use;  this  arises 
from  the  blue  lieing  comjioscd  of  ])russic 
acid  and  vitriol,  which  act  on  the  oil. 
The  strongest  nitrous  acid  and  acetate  of 
le.'id  are  component  |>arts  of  the  chrome 
yellows;  and  all  sorts  of  verdigris  are 
maik'  either  by  pyroligiuious  or  vitriolic 
acids.  Ail  coloiir.s  therefore  which  coii- 
lain  strong  acids,  whether  mineral  or 
Tcgefab'.e,  destroy  the  oils  in  which  they 


are  ground  and  applied,  <ause  the  whole 
body  and  brilliancy  of  the  colour  to  fade, 
and  even  corrode  and  deitroy  the  most 
durable  varnishes.  To  guard  against 
these  effects,  it  is  necessary  in  preparing 
Prussian  blue  to  grind  it  very  fine  in 
pure  soft  water,  and  afterwards  to  pour 
on  it  identy  of  boiling  soft  water,  wash- 
ing it  well  about,  and  allowing  it  to 
stand  8  or  10  hours  to  settle:  the  clear 
water  must  then  be  poured  otT  the  sur- 
face, and  more  boiling  water  poured  on 
the  blue,  which  must  be  washed  as  be- 
fore, and  when  the  colour  has  again 
settled,  must  be  poured  off,  and  the  blue 
laid  upon  a  linen  filter  to  drain  out  the 
water.  When  the  blue  has  become  rather 
stiff,  remove  it  on  to  chalk  stones,  or 
sheets  of  white  paper,  keeping  it  free 
from  dust ;  dry  it  in  the  sun,  if  possible ; 
but  if  not  convenient,  dry  it  very  gradu- 
ally by  a  stove.  The  more  the  blue  is 
washed,  the  finer,  softer,  and  more  bril- 
liant it  becomes,  and  tiie  froiu-  it  will  be 
from  acid. 

Repainting  Carriages.  —  Pre- 
vious to  repainting  or  revaruishiug  any 
old  coach-work,  it  is  necessary  first  to 
wash  the  work  quite  clean,  and  also  to 
rub  down  the  surface  with  a  wet  clc<t,h 
and  ground  ]iumice  powder,  until  it 
appears  quite  dead,  or  without  gloss. 
'I'he  work  should  then  be  washed,  and 
dried  with  a  wash  leather;  after  which 
it  is  fit  to  receive  cither  paint  or  var- 
nish. Old  work  is  frequently  dirty, 
greasy,  and  strongly  impregnated  with 
various  exhalations,  very  injurious  to 
]iaint-work  and  varnish  from  its  being 
ke]it  shut  uj>  in  cold  dam|)  coach-houses, 
which  have  often  doors  or  passages  com- 
municating with  stables,  l.-itrincs,  and 
so  on.  If  therefore  it  be  rejiainted  or 
revarnished,  without  having  been  well 
washed  and  rublied  down,  it  seldom  or 
never  dries  pro]>erly,  owing  to  the  exha- 
lations witii  which  the  surface  is  in 
general  incrusted :  and  should  the  .sur- 
face be  even  clear  from  grea.se,  no  paint 
or  varnish  will  adhere,  or  can  be  well 
applied,  on  the  old  glossy  surface,  with« 
nut  its  having  been  first  riiblicd  down 
with  the  ]iumice  jiowder  ami  water,  a« 
that  entirely  removes  all  Btaius,  grea»e« 


AVOnKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


83 


and  gloss  from  the  surface.  Paint  or 
varnish  will  then  adhere  to  the  old 
ground,  and  can  be  easily  worked  and 
extended  with  the  brush,  without  the 
colour  cissing,  as  it  is  termed.  Varnish 
is  vary  apt  to  ciss  on  old  work,  if  the 
second  coat  is  not  applied  as  soon  as  ever 
the  first  coat  is  hard  enough  to  bear 
varnishing. 

Carriage  Japanning. — In  order 
to  lay  a  durable  ground  for  finishing 
carriage-work  with  japan,  examine  all 
the  work,  particularly  leather;  see  that 
it  is  free  from  oil,  grease,  or  wrinkles ; 
then  prepare  a  priming  colour,  of  equal 
parts  of  white-lead,  red-lead,  and  spruce 
ochre,  all  well  dried,  and  ground  sepa- 
rately rather  stitf  in  linseed  oil ;  then 
mix  the  whole  together,  and  add  half  a 
jjint  of  gold  size  to  each  pound  of  colour, 
with  as  much  turpentine  as  will  cause 
the  colour  to  work  freely  and  easily. 
Brush  the  colour  well  out,  rubbing  it 
into  every  crack,  joint,  and  crevice.  As 
soon  as  this  coat  is  dry,  putty  up  all  the 
cracks,  and  apply  a  second  coat  of  the 
same  colour.  For  the  succeeding  coats, 
grind  equal  parts  of  white-lead  and 
spruce  ochre  rather  stiff  in  half  raw  oil 
and  turpentine ;  add  as  much  vegetable 
lampblack  as  will  change  it  to  a  dark 
lead  colour  ;  add  to  each  pound  |  pint 
of  good  boiled  oil,  \  pint  of  gold  size, 
and  afterwards  thin  up  the  colour  with 
turpentine  for  use,  observing  that  tlie 
greater  the  quantity  of  turpentine  which 
enters  into  the  composition  of  the 
grounds,  the  less  durable  they  become, 
and  that  if  the  quantity  of  raw  oil  was 
increased,  the  grounds  would  become 
more  firm,  solid,  and  durable,  but  would 
neither  drv  nor  rub  down  so  soon.  All 
colours  intended  for  old  grounds  ought 
to  be  prepared  and  used  with  as  much 
oil  as  will  give  a  firm,  tough  solidity. 
After  the  dark  grounds  are  properly 
filled  up,  rubbed  down  smooth,  and  well 
cleaned,  apply  a  coat  of  calcined  lamp- 
black, sifted  very  fine  and  mixed  up  with 
black  japan,  adding  as  much  turpentine 
as  will  caur.e  it  to  work  freel}'.  When 
this  coat  is  dry  and  rubbed  down,  a))ply 
a  finishing  coat  entirely  of  japan,  with- 
Oi\t  mixing  it  with  varnish,  which  always 


causes  japan  to  assume  a  green  tint. 
Varnish  with  two  or  three  coats  ot 
genuine  amber  varnish,  which  will  no!: 
appear  green,  and  is  much  more  solid 
and  durable  tiian  carriage  copal  var- 
nishes generally  are.  Some  painters  put 
Prussian  blue,  verdigris,  &c.,  into  their 
last  or  finishing  coat  of  japan,  in  order 
to  keep  down  the  rustincss  of  the  japan ; 
all  such  grounds  are  never  black,  but  of 
a  slatey  grey  hue,  and,  when  viewed  in 
wet  or  moist  weather,  a])pear  all  over  of 
a  bloom  or  greenish  grey  tint.  Nothing 
more  efl'ectual  can  be  done  by  the  painter 
to  improve  the  jetty  blackness  of  japan 
than  proper  application,  judicious  rub- 
bing down,  varnishing,  and  afterwards 
polishing. 

Carriage  Graining.  Pollard 
Oak. — The  ground  should  be  formed 
with  patches  of  Vandyke  brown.  A 
softener  should  be  drawn  between  the 
patches  and  the  curls  or  knots  formed 
by  turning  a  short-cut  hair  pencil,  or 
sponge,  tied  on  the  end  of  a  stick  between 
the  thumb  and  finger.  To  render  the 
work  more  showy,  patches  of  lake  and 
burnt  terra  de  sienna  may  be  put  in. 
The  graining  colours  are  made  of  equal 
portions  of  bu-nt  Turkey  umber  or  Van- 
dyke, raw  terra  de  sienna  and  burnt 
copperas,  ground  separately  in  boiled  oil 
or  turps  very  stiff",  and  then  mixed  to- 
gether, the  whole  thinned  with  spirits 
of  turpentine.  A  very  light  coat  should 
be  rubbed  on  the  panel  with  a  large 
sash  brush,  and  while  wet  a  flat  grain- 
ing brush  containing  a  very  thin  I'ow  of 
hairs  should  be  dipped  in  the  colour  and 
dappled  in  a  spirited  manner  in  various 
directions.  The  brush  should  then  be 
dipped  in  burnt  umber  msde  thin  with 
turpentine,  and  some  fine  spirits  thrown 
on.  When  the  colours  are  set,  take  the 
same  flat  brush,  dip  it  into  a  tliin  glaze 
of  burnt  umber,  and  put  the  grain  on  in 
a  curly  direction.  A  small  part  ciily  of 
the  surface  should  be  finished  at  CLce,  as 
the  work  will  blend  better  if  kept  moist. 
It  is  necessary  that  a  sutficient  quantity 
of  oil  should  be  put  into  the  colours  to 
bind  them. 

Bird's-eye  Maple.  —  The  ground 
should  be  light  bulf,  prepared  with  white- 

o  2 


84 


WORKSHOP   REC^II'TS. 


'ead,  chrome  yello's^  ami  a  little  ver- 
milion or  Veneti;iD  red  to  tone  the 
brightness  of  the  yelbw.  'Ihc  graining 
is  made  of  equal  parts  of-  raw  umber  and 
terra  de  sienna  ground  to  a  proper  con- 
sistence m  ale.  Spread  the  surface  of 
the  work  with  this  colour,  have  some  a 
little  thicker  prepared,  and  immediately 
take  a  sash  tool  or  sponge  and  put  on 
the  dark  shades,  which  may  be  softened 
with  a  badgeu-hair  pencil.  Before  the 
colour  's  dry  put  on  the  eyes  by  dabbing 
with  the  dotter.  When  dry,  put  the 
grain  on  the  prominent  parts  with  a 
camel-hair  pencil  to  imitate  the  small 
hearts  of  the  wood.  When  the  whole  is 
quite  dry  aiiji!)-  the  varnish. 

CuiiLiCD  JIaI'Li:. — For  the  ground  mix 
chrome  yellow,  white-lead, and  burnt  terra 
de  sienna.  Vov  the  graining,  equal  parts 
of  raw  terra  de  sienna  and  umber,  with  a 
little  bui-nt  copperas,  may  be  ground  in 
turjientine  and  be  mixed  with  a  small 
quantity  of  grainers'  cream.  Thin  the 
colour  with  boiled  oil;  then  fill  the  tool, 
and  sjiread  the  surface  evenly.  Rub  out 
tlie  lights  with  a  piece  of  buff  leather, 
which  must  be  reasonably  wijjed  to  keep 
it  clean.  Soften  the  edges  of  the  work 
very  lightly,  and  when  dry,  put  on  the 
top  grain  with  burnt  umber  and  raw 
terra  de  sienna  ground  in  ale,  with  the 
white  of  an  egg  beaten  into  it.  When 
quite  di'V,  varnish. 

Varnishing'  and  Polishing 
Fret-work. — The  wood  is  first  well 
smoothed  with  fine  glass  paper,  then 
toverc<i  with  a  thin  coating  of  size,  made 
from  transparent  glue,  to  prevent  the 
varnish  from  sinking  into  the  wood. 
Wlien  dry,  pour  some  vai-nish  into  a 
saucer  ;  take  a  due  camel-hair  brush,  and 
comm'-nce  to  varnish  at  one  corner,  gra- 
dually spreading  over  the  whole  surface. 
Take  care  that  there  is  not  .00  much  var- 
nish on  the  brush,  if  it  is  applieii  otner- 
wisc  an  even  surface  cannot  be  obtained. 
The  first  coating  must  be  allowed  to  dry, 
which  will  t.ike  two  or  throe  hours. 
Take  a  Kheet  of  the  finest  glass  pajier, 
and  when  the  first  coating  of  varnish  is 
}>erfectly  dry,  glnss-paper  'lii-  whole  sur- 
iace,  aoi  make  it  smooth  as  before.  This 
aoDc,  with  great  care  spread  ueit  co;;t  of 


varnish  on,  always  using  the  glass  pap*"! 
when  the  snil'ace  does  not  turn  out  very 
smooth.  The  whole,  when  dry,  may  bf 
rubbed  well  with  a  piece  of  worn  woollen 
till  it  if  bright  and  smooth.  To  French 
polish  the  work,  make  the  wood  smooth 
as  before.  Then  pour  some  prepared 
polish  into  a  saucer,  and  some  linseed  01) 
into  another.  Then  take  some  pieces  of 
woollen  rag,  and  roll  them  up  into  a  ball, 
covering  them  with  a  piece  of  linen  divuvn 
tightly  over.  The  rags  inside  should  first 
be  saturated  with  the  polish,  and  the 
whole  should  be  taken  in  the  fingers  ol 
the  right  hand  in  such  a  way  that  the 
linen  may  be  tightly  drawn  over,  and  may 
present  to  the  wood  a  smooth  roundea 
surface.  Begin  by  polishing  with  free, 
circular  sti-okes,  and  gradually  travers- 
ing the  whole  surface.  Aj^ply  now  anl 
then  a  drop  of  polish  and  a  drop  of  oi. 
to  the  surface  of  the  rubber.  When  the 
grain  of  the  wood  disappears,  allow  it  to 
stand  for  an  hour  or  two  till  quite  hard, 
and  then  glass-paper  the  whole  as  in  var- 
nishing. Repeat  the  process  of  polish- 
ing until  the  surface  is  quite  smooth.  If 
dull  patches  ajjpear  in  the  polish,  tLey 
may  be  removeil  bv  a  few  drops  of  spirits 
of  wine  on  a  new  rubber. 

French  Polishing. — As  in  var- 
nishing, a  warm,  dry  atmosphere  is  es- 
sential, and  all  draughts  of  cold  air  from 
door  or  window  must  be  avoided. 

I'our  a  little  linseed  oil  into  a  cu)i  and 
some  polish  into  another  ;  take  a  ]>ieccof 
woollen  rag  a  few  inches  square,  and  hav- 
ing rolled  it  up  into  a  ball  saturatf  it 
with  jiolish,  and  cover  with  a  piece  of 
linen  or  muslin  drawn  tightly  over  it. 
In  this  way  the  rubliei's  or  pads  are  pre- 
pared, and  they  should,  when  taken  by 
the  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  be  held  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  draw  the  linen 
covering  tight,  and  present  a  smooth, 
slightly  convex  surface  to  work  with  ; 
ajipjy  one  ilrop  of  oil  ana  one  drop  of 
jMilish  to  the  surface  of  the  ]iail,  and  it  ii 
ri'ady  tor  use.  Care  must  be  taken  tha:,  the 
material  of  which  th>  rubbers  are  ii:ade 
is  wfdl  washed  anil  fVee  from  slarih  or 
soap.  The  work  having  been  thorocgtuy 
smoothed  with  fine  glass  pa]>er  and  tM 
dust  wiped  away  with  a  clean  cloth,  t^« 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


85 


P'liishing  is  commenceJ  with  free,  con- 
liauous  and  uniform  circular  strokes, 
a[>plied  with  very  slight  pressure,  and 
gradually  traversing  the  whole  surface, 
observing  not  to  do  more  than  a  square 
foot  at  a  time ;  the  same  iirocess  is  re- 
peatedly continued,  varying  the  position 
ot  the  strokes  as  much  as  possible,  but 
keejiing  them  about  the  same  size,  and 
taking  care  that  every  portion  of  the  sur- 
face receives  an  equal  but  not  excessive 
quantity  of  polish,  which  is  regulated 
partly  b}'  the  degree  of  pressure  on  the 
rubber,  and  partly  by  squeezing  it  be- 
tween the  lingers. 

The  process  of  polishing  is  continued 
until  the  grain  of  the  wood  appears  to  be 
thoroughly  filled  up,  and  the  surface  ex- 
hibits a  uniform  appearance,  well  covered 
with  a  thin  coat  of  polish.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  stand  for  an  hour  or  two  to 
become  thoroughly  hard,  when  it  is 
rubbed  with  very  fine  glass  paper,  to 
smooth  down  all  the  irregularities  of  the 
grain  of  the  wood,  and  also  of  the  polish. 
The  polishing  is  then  repeated,  and,  if 
it  should  be  found  necessary,  it  is  again 
smoothed,  and  the  polishing  is  persevered 
in  until  the  surface  appears  quite  smooth, 
and  uniformly  covered  with  a  thin  and 
tolerably  bright  coat  of  polish,  but  which 
will,  nevertheless,  show  cloudy  marks 
I'rom  the  rubber,  owing  to  the  presence 
of  the  oil,  which  is  finally  removed  with 
a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  wine  applied  on 
a  clean  rubber  and  covered  with  a  clean 
soft  linen  rag,  with  which  the  work  is 
rubbed  with  very  light  strokes,  applied 
first  with  a  circular  motion,  and  when 
the  surface  appears  nearly  dry,  straight 
strokes  are  taken  lengthways  of  the  grain 
of  the  wood,  and  traversed  entirely  off 
the  ends  of  the  work  ;  this  is  continued 
until  therubberand  work  are  both  quite 
dry,  when  the  polishing  will  be  completed. 
The  polish,  however,  will  be  partly  ab- 
sorbed by  the  wood  in  the  course  of  a 
day  or  two ;  and  therefore  it  is  desirable 
lo  repeat  the  process  after  a  lapse  of  a 
lew  days,  first  slightly  rubbing  down  the 
former  coat  with  very  fine  or  nearly 
worn-out  glass  paper. 

Stopping  for  Fuexch  Polishing. — 
Plaster  of  Par'*,  "'hen  m  'do  into  a  creamy 


paste,  with  water,  proves  a  most  valuable 
pore-filling  material.  It  is  to  be  rubbed 
by  means  of  a  coarse  rag  across  the  woody 
fibre  into  the  holes  and  pores,  till  they  be 
completely  saturated,  and  then  the  su- 
perfluous stucco  on  the  outside  is  to  be 
instantly  wiped  off.  The  succeeding  pro- 
cesses are  technically  termed  papering, 
oiling,  and  embodying. 

When  finely-pounded  whiting  is  slaked 
with  painter's  drying  oil,  it  constitutes 
another  good  pore-filler.  It  is  applied 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  preceding  one, 
and  it  is  recommended  on  account  of  its 
quickly  hardening  and  tenacious  virtue* 
as  a  cement ;  sometimes  white-lead  is  used 
in  lieu  of  the  whiting. 

Before  using  either  of  these,  or  other 
compositions  for  the  same  purpose,  it  is 
best  to  tint  them  to  correspond  exactly 
with  the  colour  of  the  article  it  is  in- 
tended to  size. 

Holes  and  crevices  may  be  well  filled 
up  with  a  cement  that  is  made  by  melt- 
ing beeswax  in  combination  with  resin 
and  shellac. 

Polishing  Wood  Carving. — 
Take  a  piece  of  wadding,  soft  and  pliable, 
and  drop  a  few  drops  of  white  or  trans- 
parent polisli  or  French  polish,  according 
to  the  colour  of  the  wood.  Wrap  the 
wetted  wadding  up  in  a  piece  of  old  linen, 
forming  it  into  a  pad ;  hold  the  pad  by 
the  surplus  linen  ;  touch  the  pad  with 
one  or  two  drops  of  linseed  oil.  Pass  the 
pad  gently  over  the  parts  to  be  polished, 
working  it  round  in  small  circles,  occa- 
sionally re-wetting  the  wadding  in  polish, 
and  the  pad  with  a  drop  or  so  of  oil.  The 
object  of  the  oil  is  merely  to  cause  the 
pad  to  run  over  the  wood  easily  without 
sticking,  therefore  as  little  as  possible 
should  be  used,  as  it  tends  to  deaden  the 
polish  to  a  certain  extent.  Where  a  carv- 
ing is  to  be  polished  after  having  been 
varnished,  the  same  process  is  necessary, 
but  it  can  only  be  applied  to  the  plainer 
portions  of  the  work.  Plane  surflices 
must  be  made  perfectly  smooth  with 
glass  paper  before  polishing,  as  every 
scratch  or  mark  will  show  twice  as  badly 
after  the  operation.  When  the  polish  is 
first  rubbed  on  the  wood,  it  is  called  the 
bodyinj  in;  it  will  sink  into  the  woof 


86 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


and  not  give  much  glaze.  It  must,  when 
dry,  have  another  boly  rubbed  on,  and  a 
third  generally  finishes  it;  but  if  not, 
the  operation  must  be  repeated.  Just 
before  the  task  is  completed,  greasy 
smears  will  show  themselves  ;  these  will 
disappear  by  continuing  the  gentle  rub- 
bing without  oiling  the  pad. 

Polishing  or  Oiling  Planes. — 
Planes  made  from  naturally  dried  beech- 
wood  are  much  lighter  in  colour  than 
those  made  from  artificially  dried  or 
steamed  beech.  For  planes  made  of  the 
first-named  beech,  use  raw  linseed  oil,  1 
gill;  dragon's  blood,  1  pennyworth  ;  yel- 
low ochre,  as  much  m  bulk  as  dragon's 
blood;  mix  these  together,  and  rub  the 
planes  all  over  except  the  sole  or  bottom  ; 
let  them  remain  about  a  week.  Take  them 
and  rub  well  all  over  with  a  clean  soft 
rag;  give  one  more  coat  of  oil  alone. 
Let  it  dry  for  three  or  four  days,  then 
rub  well  with  a  clean  rag;  lay  them  by 
for  a  week  or  two ;  rub  again  with  rag, 
and  use  them  if  wanted.  Let  care  be 
taken  to  keep  them  free  from  dust  wJiile 
the  oil  is  wet,  or  they  will  be  a  dirty 
colour.  For  steamed  beech  proceed  the 
same,  except  not  to  use  more  than  about 
half  the  quantity  of  dragon's  blood. 

French.  Polish.  —  1.  1  pint  of 
spirits  of  wine,  J  oz.  of  gum  copal,  J  oz. 
of  gum  arable,  and  1  oz.  of  shellac. 
Bruise  the  gums  and  sift  them  through 
a  piece  of  muslin.  Place  the  sjiirits  an<l 
the  gums  together  in  a  vessel  closely 
corked,  place  them  near  a  warm  stove, 
and  frequently  shake  them ;  in  two  or 
three  days  they  will  be  dissolved.  Strain 
through  a  piece  of  muslin,  and  keep  it 
corked  tight.  2.  Shellac,  Goz. ;  naphtha, 
1  quart ;  benzoin,  *    ... ;  saudarach,  1  oz. 

3.  Dissolve  li  oz.  snellac,  J  oz.  sandarach, 
ID  J  pint  n;i|)htiia.  To  ajpply  the  jiolisli 
fold  a  j)icce  of  flannel  into  a  sort  of 
cushion,  wet  it  well  with  the  polish,  then 
lay  a  j)icce  of  clean  linen  rag  over  the 
flannel,  api>Iy  one  drop  of  linseed  oil  ; 
rnb  your  work  in  a  circular  dii-uctiou 
lightly  at  first.  To  f':nish  off,  use  a  little 
naphtha  ap[)lied  the  Kame  as  the  polish. 

4.  Pale  shellac,  2J  lbs.;  mastic  ami 
*«n<larach,  of  each  .3  oz. ;  spirits,  1  gallon. 
OisKolve,  and  a<ld  cojial  varnish,  1   ]>int  ; 


mis  well  by  agitation.  5.  SJicllac, 
12  oz  ;  wood  naphtha,  1  quart ;  dissolve, 
and  add  ^  pint  of  linseed  oil.     (5.  Crush 

3  oz.  of  shellac  with  ^  oz.  of  gum  mastic, 
add  1  pint  of  methylated  spirits  of  wine, 
and  dissolve.  7.  Shellac,  12  oz. ;  gum 
elemi,  2  oz. ;  gum  copal,  3  oz. ;  sjjirits 
of  wine,  1  gallon;  dissolve.  8.  Shellac, 
1^  oz. ;  gum  juniper,  ^  oz. ;  benzoin, 
^  oz.  ;  methylated  alcohol,  ^  ]iint.  9. 
1  oz.  each  of  gums  mastic,  saudarach, 
seed-lac,  shellac,  and  gum  arabic,  reduce 
to  powder  ;  then  add  J  oz.  virgin  wax  ; 
dissolve  in  a  bottle  with  1  quart  rectified 
spirits  of  wine.  Let  it  stand  for  12 
hours,  and  it  is  then  fit  for  use.  10. 
1  oz.  gum-lac;  2  drs.  mastic  in  drops; 
4drs.  saudarach;  3  oz.  shellac;  h  oz.  gum 
dragon.     Reduce  the  whole  to  powder. 

French  Polish  Reviver. — 1.  Lin- 
seed oil,  ^  pint ;  spirits  of  camphor,  1  oz. ; 
vinegar,  2  oz. ;  butter  of  atttimony,  i  oz. ; 
spirit  of  hartshorn,  J  oz.  2.  i  gill 
vinegar;  1  gill  spii'its  of  wine;  1  dr. 
linseed  oil.     3.  Naphtha,  1  lb. ;  shellac, 

4  oz. ;  oxalic  acid,  J  oz.  Let  it  stand 
till  dissolved,  then  add  3  oz.  linseed  oil. 

Furniture  Paste.  —  1.  To  keep 
wood  light,  scrape  J  lb.  beeswax  into 
J  pint  oi' turpentine.  By  adding  linseed 
oil  the  wood  is  darkened.  2.  Dissolve 
G  oz.  pearhush  in  a  quart  of  hot  water, 
adii  I  lb.  of  white  wax,  and  simmer  for 
half  an  hour  in  a  pipkin;  take  from  olT 
the  fire,  and  when  cool  the  wax  will 
float,  which  should  be  taken  off,  and, 
with  a  little  hot  water,  worked  into  a 
jiaste.  3.  P>oeswax,  sjjirits  of  turjientine, 
anil  linseed  oil,  equal  j)arts  ;  melt  and 
cool.  4.  Beeswax,  4  oz. ;  turjieutinc, 
10  oz. ;  alkanet  root  to  colour  ;  melt  and 
strain.  5.  Digest  2  drs.  of  alkanet  root 
in  20  oz.  of  turjieiitine  till  the  colour  is 
im]iarted  ;  add  yeljjw  wax  in  shavings, 
4  oz. ;  jilace  on  a  water  bath  an<l  stir 
till  the  mixture  is  complete.  6.  Bees- 
wax, 1  lb.;  linseed  oil,  5  oz. ;  alkanet 
root,  J  oz. ;  melt,  add  5  oz.  of  turpentine, 
strain  and  cool.  7.  Beeswax,  4  oz. ; 
resin,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  turpentine,  2  oz. ; 
Venetian  red  to  colour.  K.  1  lb.  of  white 
wax  ;  1  oz.  black  resin ;  I  02.  alkanet 
root;  and  10  oz.  linseed  oil. 

Furniture   Cream.  —  1.    Yellow 


WOllKSUOP    IIECEIPTS. 


87 


wax,  4  OE. ;  j'ellow  soap,  2  oz. ;  water, 
50  oz. ;  boil,  with  couslaut  stirring,  auj 
add  boiled  oil  and  oil  of  turpentine,  each 
5  oz.  2.  Soft  water,  1  gallon;  soap, 
4  oz. ;  white  wax,  in  shavings,  1  lb. 
Boil  together,  and  add  2  oz.  of  pearlash. 
To  be  diluted  with  water,  laid  on  with  a 
paint  brush,  and  polished  oil'  with  a  hard 
brush  or  cloth.  3.  Wa.x,  3  oz. ;  pearl- 
ash,  2  oz. ;  water,  6  oz.  Heat  together, 
and  add  4  oz.  of  boiled  oil  and  6  oz.  of 
spirits  of  turpentine. 

White  Furniturio  Crkam.  —  Raw 
linseed  oil,  6  oz. ;  white  wine  vinegar, 
3  oz. ;  methylated  s]]irit,  3  oz.  ;  butter 
of  antimony,  J  oz.  ;  mi.x  the  linseed  oil 
with  the  vinegar  by  degix-es,  and  shake 
well  so  as  to  prevent  separation ;  add 
the  spirit  and  antimony,  and  mix  tho- 
roughly. 

Furniture  Oils. — 1.  Boiled  lin- 
lieed  oil,  1  pint ;  yellow  wax,  4  oz. ; 
melt,  and  colour  with  alkauet  root.  2. 
Acetic  acid,  2  drs.  ;  oil  of  lavender,  J  dr. ; 
rectified  spirit,  1  dr. ;  linseed  oil,  4  oz. 
3.  Linseed  oil,  1  pint ;  alkanet  root, 
2  oz. ;  heat,  stram,  and  add  lac  varnish, 
1  oz.  4.  Linseed  oil,  1  pint  ;  rectified 
spirit,  2  oz.  ;  butter  of  antimon)',  4  oz. 

Oil  for  Daukkning  Furnhurk. — 
1  [lint  linseed  oil  ;  1  oz.  rose  -  pink  ; 
and  1  oz.  of  alkanet  root,  beaten  up  in  a 
metal  mortar  ;  let  the  mixture  stand  for 
a  day  or  two  ;  then  pour  oft'  the  oil, 
which  will  be  found  of  a  rich  colour. 
Or,  mix  1  oz.  of  alkauet  root  with  4  oz. 
of  shellac  varnish,  2  oz.  of  turpentine, 
the  same  quantity  of  scraped  beeswax, 
and  a  pint  of  liuseed  oil :  this  should 
stand  a  week. 

Furniture  Reviver.  —  Pale  liu- 
seed oil,  raw,  10  oz.;  lac  varnish  and 
wood  spirit,  of  each  5  oz.  Jlix  well  be- 
fore using. 

Polish  for  Turners'  Work. — 
Dissolve  1  oz.  of  saudarach  in  i  pint  of 
spirits  of  wine  ;  shave  1  oz.  of  beeswax, 
and  dissolve  it  in  a  sullicient  quantity  of 
spirits  of  turpentine  to  make  it  into  a 
p:iste,  add  the  former  mixture  to  t  by 
dngrces ;  then,  with  a  woollen  cloth,  apply 
it  to  the  work  while  it  is  in  motion  in  the 
iathe,  and  polish  it  with  a  soft  linen  rag  ; 
it  will  appear  as  if  highly  varnished. 


Cleaning  and  Polishing  Ma- 
hogany.— Take  1  pint  of  the  furniture 
oil,  mix  with  it  ^  pint  of  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine and  ^  pint  of  vinegar;  wet  a 
woollen  rag  with  the  liquid  and  rub  the 
wood  the  way  of  the  grain,  then  polish 
with  a  j>iece  of  flannel  and  soft  cloth. 

Furniture  Polish. — Jlelt  three  or 
four  ]iieees  of  saudarach,  each  of  the  size 
of  a  walnut,  add  1  pint  of  boiled  oil,  and 
boil  together  tor  1  hour.  While  cooling 
add  1  dr.  of  Venice  turpentine,  and  if 
too  thick  a  little  oil  of  turpentine  also. 
Ajiply  this  all  over  the  furniture,  and 
after  some  hours  rub  it  olf ;  rub  the  fur- 
niture daily,  without  applying  frssh 
varnish,  except  about  once  in  two 
mouths.  Water  does  not  injure  this 
polish,  and  any  stain  or  scratch  may  be 
again  covered,  which  cannot  be  done  with 
French  polish. 

To  Polish  Wainscot.— Take  as 
much  beeswax  as  required,  and  placing 
it  in  a  glazed  earthen  pan,  add  as  much 
spirits  of  wine  as  will  cover  it,  and  let  it 
dissolve  without  heat.  Add  either  one 
ingredient  as  is  required,  to  reduce  it  to 
the  consistence  of  butter.  When  this 
mixture  is  well  rubbed  into  the  grain  of 
the  wood,  and  cleaned  oft'  with  clean 
linen,  it  gives  a  good  gloss  to  the  work. 

Polish  for  Carved  Cabinet- 
work.— Dissolve  2  oz.  of  seed-lac,  and 
2  oz.  of  white  resin,  in  1  pint  of  spirits 
of  wine.  This  varnish  or  polish  must  be 
laid  on  warm,  and  if  the  work  can  be 
warmed  also,  it  will  be  jO  much  the 
better;  at  any  rate,  moisture  and  damp- 
ness must  be  avoided.  Used  with  a 
brush  for  standards  or  pillars  of  cabinet- 
work. The  carved  parts  of  cabinet-work 
are  also  polished  thus:  varnish  the  parts 
with  the  common  wood  varnish,  and 
having  dressed  them  oft'  where  necessary 
with  emery  paper,  apply  the  polish  used 
for  the  other  parts  of  the  work. 

Copal  Polish. — Melt  with  gentle 
heat  linely-powdercd  gum  copal,  4  parts, 
and  gum  camphor,  1  part,  with  ether  Ic 
form  a  semi-lluid  mass,  and  then  digest 
with  a  siiflicient  quantity  of  alcohol. 

Polishing  in  the  Lathe. — Good 
work  does  not  require  much  polishing, 
for  the  beauty  of  it  depends  more  on  being 


S8 


WORKSHOF    IlECKIPTS. 


executed  with  tools  properly  ground,  set, 
and  in  good  order  :  the  worii  performed 
by  such  tools  will  have  its  surface  much 
sniootiier,  its  mouldings  and  edges  much 
better  fiuished,  and  the  whole  nearly 
polished,  requiring,  of  course,  much  less 
sui)se(iuent  polishing  than  work  turned 
with  blunt  tools.  One  of  tlie  most  neces- 
sary things  in  polishing  is  cleanliness; 
thevet'bre,  previous  to  beginning,  it  is  as 
Well  to  clear  the  turning-lathe  or  work- 
bench of  all  shavings,  dust,  and  so  on,  as 
also  to  examine  all  the  powders,  lacquers, 
linen,  flannel,  or  brushes  which  may  be 
re<iuired  ;  to  see  that  they  are  free  from, 
dust,  grit,  or  any  foreign  matter.  For 
further  security,  the  ])olishing  powders 
used  are  sometimes  tied  up  in  a  piece  of 
liuen,  and  shaken  as  through  a  sieve,  so 
that  none  but  the  finest  particles  can 
pass.  Although,  throughout  the  follow- 
ing methods,  certain  polishing  powders 
are  recommended  for  particular  kinds  of 
work,  there  are  others  applicable  to  the 
same  pui-poses,  the  selection  from  which 
remains  with  the  ojierator;  observing 
this  distinction,  that  when  the  work  is 
rough  and  requires  much  polishing,  the 
coarser  powders  are  best ;  but  the 
smoother  the  work,  the  less  polishing  it 
requires,  and  the  liner  powders  are  ]irc- 
ferable. 

Soft  woods  may  be  turned  so  smooth 
as  to  requii'c  no  other  jiolishing  than 
that  produced  by  holding  against  it  a 
few  fine  turnings  or  shavings  of  the  same 
wood  whilst  revolving,  this  being  often 
sudicient  to  give  it  a  finished  appearance  ; 
but  when  the  surface  of  the  wood  has 
been  left  rough,  it  must  be  rubbed 
fimooth  with  polishing  paper,  constantly 
varying  the  position  of  the  hand,  other- 
wise it  would  occasion  rings  or  grooves 
ID  the  work.  VVlien  tlie  work  has  been 
polished  with  the  lathe  ntvolving  in  the 
Usual  way,  it  apjiears  to  be  smooth  ;  but 
the  roughness  is  only  laid  down  in  one 
direction,  and  not  entirely  removed, 
which  would  prove  to  be  the  case  liy 
turning  the  iathe  the  contrary  way,  an-l 
applying  the  glass  ])aj)er  ;  on  which  ac- 
count work  is  i>olished  best  in  a  )"i|e- 
Infhe,  which  turns  backwards  and  for- 
wiirds  alternately,  and    therefore    it    is 


well  to  imitate  that  motion  as  nearly  as 
possible. 

Mahognny,  walnut,  and  some  other 
woods,  of  about  the  same  degree  of  hard- 
ness, may  be  ]iolished  by  either  of  tlie 
followiLg  methods  : — Dissolve,  by  heat, 
so  much  beeswax,  in  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, that  the  mixture  when  cold  shall 
be  of  about  the  thickness  of  honey.  This 
may  be  applied  either  to  furniture  or  to 
work  running  in  the  lathe,  by  means  of 
a  piece  of  clean  cloth,  aud  as  much  as 
possible  should  then  be  rubbed  off  by 
means  of  a  clean  flannel  or  other  cloth. 
Beeswax  alone  is  often  used  ;  upon  fur- 
niture it  must  be  melted'by  means  of  a 
warm  flat  iron ;  but  it  may  be  apjilied 
to  work  in  the  lathe  by  hoMing  tlie  wax 
against  it  until  a  portion  of  it  adheres; 
a  piece  of  woollen  cloth  should  then  be 
held  upon  it,  and  the  lathe  turned  very 
quickly,  so  as  to  melt  the  wax ;  the  su- 
perfluous portion  of  which  may  be  re- 
moved by  mer.us  of  a  small  piece  of  wood 
or  blunt  metal,  when  a  liglit  touch  witli 
a  clean  part  of  the  cloth  will  give  it  a 
gloss.  A  very  good  polish  may  be  given 
to  mahogany  by  rubbing  it  over  with 
linseed  oil,  and  then  holding  against  it  a 
cloth  dipped  in  fine  brick-dust.  For- 
merly nearly  all  the  maliogany  furniture 
made  in  Kngland  was  polished  in  tliis 
way. 

Hard  Woods. — These,  from  their  na- 
ture, are  readily  turned  very  smooth  ; 
fine  glass  paper  will  sullice  to  give  them 
a  very  jierfect  surface  ;  a  little  linseed 
oil  may  then  be  rubbed  on,  and  a  portion 
of  the  turnings  of  the  wood  to  be  jio- 
lislied  may  then  be  held  against  the  ar- 
ticle, whilst  it  turns  rapidly  round, 
which  will,  in  general,  give  it  a  fine 
gloss.  Sometimes  a  jiortion  of  shellac. 
or  rather  of  seed-lac,  varnish  is  ajijdied 
upon  a  piece  of  cloth,  in  the  way  I'or- 
merly  described.  The  polish  of  all  orna- 
mental work  wholly  depends  on  the  exe- 
cution of  the  same,  which  should  be  done 
with  tools  jiroperly  sliari)enod  ;  and  tiicn 
the  work  requires  no  other  polishing  but 
with  a  dry  hand-brush,  to  clean  it  froir 
shavings  or  dust,  this  trifling  frictior 
being  sullicieiit  to  give  the  rsquircd 
lustre. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


89 


ivory  or  bone  admits  of  being  turned 
<rery  smooth,  or,  when  filed,  may  after- 
vardi  be  scraped,  so  as  to  present  a  good 
surface.  They  may  be  ])olished  by  rub- 
bing Ihem  first  with  liue  glass  paper, 
and  then  with  a  piece  of  wet  linen  cloth 
dipped  in  powdered  pumice-stone;  this 
will  give  a  very  fine  sui-t'ace,  and  the  final 
polish  may  be  produced  by  washed  chalk 
or  fine  whiting,  applied  by  a  piece  of 
cloth  wetted  in  soapsuds.  Care  must  be 
taken  in  this,  and  m  every  instance 
where  ai-ticles  of  different  fineness  are 
successively  used,  that  previously  to  ap- 
plying a  finer,  every  particle  of  the 
coarser  material  be  removed,  and  that 
the  rags  be  clean  and  free  from  gritti- 
ness. 

Ornamented  uvrk  must  be  polished 
with  the  same  materials  as  plain  work, 
using  brushes  instead  of  linen,  and  rub- 
ning  as  little  as  jiossible  ;  otherwise,  the 
more  prominent  jiarts  will  be  injured. 
'J'he  polishing  material  should  be  washed 
off  with  clean  water,  and  when  dry  may 
be  rubbed  with  a  clean  brush. 

Horn  and  tortoiseshell  are  so  similar  in 
their  nature  and  texture  that  they  may 
be  classed  together,  as  regards  the  gene- 
ral mode  of  working  and  j)olishing  them. 
A  very  perfect  surface  is  given  by  scrap- 
ing ;  the  scraper  may  be  made  of  a  razor- 
blade,  the  edge  of  wliich  should  be  rubbed 
u]ion  an  oil-stone,  holding  the  blade 
nearly  upright,  so  as  to  form  an  edge 
like  that  of  a  currier's  knife,  and  which, 
like  it,  may  be  sharpened  by  burnishing. 
Work,  when  properly  scraped,  is  pre- 
pared for  polishing.  To  efl'ect  this,  it  is 
first  to  be  rubbed  with  a  buff,  made  of 
woollen  cloth,  perfectly  free  from  grease  ; 
the  cloth  may  be  fixed  upon  a  stick,  to 
be  used  by  hand  ;  but  what  the  workmen 
call  a  bob,  which  is  a  wheel  running  in 
the  lathe,  and  covered  with  the  cloth,  is 
much  to  be  preferred,  on  account  of  the 
rapidity  of  the  operation.  The  bufl'  is  to 
be  covered  either  with  powdered  char- 
coal and  w'ater,  or  fine  brick-dust  and 
water  ;  after  the  work  has  been  made  as 
Bmooth  as  possible  with  this,  it  is  fol- 
lowea  by  another  buff,  or  bob,  on  which 
washed  chalk,  or  dry  whiting,  is  rubbed; 
the  comb  or  other  article  to  be  polished 


is  moistened  slightly  with  vinegar,  and 
the  buff  and  whiting  will  produce  a  fine 
gloss,  which  may  be  completed  by  rub- 
bing it  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  a 
small  portion  of  dry  whiting,  or  rotten- 
stone. 

Pigments.  Indian  Red. — When 
pure  this  is  a  native  mineral  production, 
it  is  manufactured  artificially  by  calcin- 
ing sulphate  of  iron  until  the  water  ot 
crystallization  is  expelled,  then  roast  it 
with  a  fierce  fire  until  acid  vapours  cease 
to  arise;  cool,  wash  the  remainder  with 
water  until  the  water  ceases  to  aflect 
litmus  paper,  then  dry.  An  inferio.- 
quality  is  made  by  calcining  11  parts 
common  salt  with  25  parts  green  sul- 
phate of  iron,  wash  well  with  water, 
dry,  and  powder  the  remainder.  As  thus 
prepared  Indian  red  is  the  same  as  jewel- 
lers' rouge  and  colcothar.  When  used  as 
a  pigment  it  is  frequently  mixed  with 
red  ochre.  It  is  a  very  permanent  colour, 
can  be  made  of  different  tints,  and  is  es- 
pecially useful  in  fresco  and  silicious 
painting.  The  finest  Indian  red  or  crocus 
usually  undergoes  a  second  calcination, 
in  which  it  is  exposed  to  a  very  intense 
heat. 

Light  Red,  made  from  yellow  ochre 
by  careful  calcination.  This  colour  mixes 
well  w'th  both  oil  and  water,  and  gives 
a  capital  ficsh  colour  when  mixed  with 
white. 

Red  Chalk. —  A  natural  clay  contain- 
ing nearly  i  protoxide  and  carbonate  of 
iron. 

Red-i,ead.  —  Prepared  by  placing 
ground  and  well-washed  massicot  in  iron 
trays  piled  up  on  the  hearth  of  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace,  m  a  heat  of  from  600°  to 
650°  Fahr.,  stirring  it  occasionally  until 
of  the  proper  colour. 

Jfasiiicot  (  Protoxide  of  Lead). — Genuine 
massicot  is  the  strongest  oxide  of  load, 
and  its  colour  is  a  dull  orange  yellow, 
but  artists  occasionally  apply  the  term 
massicot  to  white-lead  roasted  until  it 
turns  yellow.  In  the  preparation  of 
minium  the  lead  is  calcined  in  a  re- 
verberatory  furnace  ;  this  process  gives  a 
mixture  of  massicot  and  lead  ;  these  are 
separated  by  washing  and  trituration ; 
the  massicot  bcinc;  much  litrhter  remains 


90 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


suspended  iu  the  water ;  it  is  drawu  off, 
and  left  to  settle ;  the  deposit  which  it 
then  forms  is  collected  and  dried,  and 
this  is  the  true  massicot.  It  may  be  em- 
ployed with  advantage  in  preparing  the 
drying  oils  ;  it  produces  the  same  eti'ect  as 
litharge  when  very  finely  ground.  It  may 
be  employed  as  a  colour ;  its  tint  is  not 
brilliant ;  but  as  it  is  a  better  drier  than 
white-lead,  it  may  be  substituted  for  it 
in  mixing  with  colours  which  dry  with 
ditficulty,  as  the  lakes  and  the  bitu- 
minous earths. 

Minium. — A  higher  degree  of  oxidation 
transforms  the  massicot  into  minium.  On 
a  large  scale  minium  is  jireparsd  by  cal- 
fiuing  massicot  in  reverberatory  fur- 
oaites  ;  it  becomes  first  of  a  dark  orange 
colour,  then  purple,  but  this  last  tint 
disappears  on  its  cooling  ;  when  at  this 
point,  the  doors  of  the  furnaces  are  closed, 
but  not  hermetically,  so  as  to  allow  of  a 
little  air  entering.  The  massicot  cools 
very  slowly  ;  and  as  it  absorbs  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air,  it  becomes  of  a  strong 
orange  colour  and  grows  liner  in  propor- 
tion to  the  slowness  of  its  cooling.  If 
instead  of  massicot  we  calcine  ceruse,  a 
peculiar  red,  called  "mineral  orange,"  is 
obtained ;  it  is  a  minium,  but  of  a  tint 
more  pure  and  brilliant  than  any  of  its 
class. 

To  Tr.ST  Red-lead. — There  are  few 
gubetanceg  to  be  found  which  can  be 
mixed  with  red-lead  without  injuring  its 
brilliant  colour.  Nevertheless,  it  is  often 
mixed  with  brick-dust  or  red  ochre.  For 
deticiing  bricli-dust,  heat  the  red-lead  in 
an  earthen  crucible,  and  then  dissolve  it 
in  diluted  nitric  acid.  If  brick-dust  is 
present  it  remains  undissolved.  To  de- 
tect red  ochre,  boil  the  red-lead  in  muri- 
atic acid  ;  dilute  the  solution  with  water 
and  filter  it.  Add  to  a  portion  of  the 
clear  solution  a  solution  of  yellow  prus- 
»iate  of  )iota.sh,  and  to  another  portion  an 
excess  of  a  solution  of  cuistic  ]iiitash.  If 
the  fii'st  reagt-nt  produces  a  dark  blue 
precipitate,  and  the  seconii  a  brown  i>re- 
(ipitatc,  the  red-lend  cont-iins  red  ochre. 

Vermilion. —  Vermilion  is  a  sul- 
phide of  mercury  ;  i'.  may  be  used  in  oil, 
wafer,  fresco,  and  silicious  painting.  In 
&U  ca»€8,  however,  it  gets  slightly  darker 


in  time ;  this  is  not  a  chemic;il  but  a 
physical  change.  With  the  exception 
mentioned,  this  pigment  is  very  perma- 
nent. Vermilion  is  composed  of  mer- 
cury and  sulphur,  very  intimately  com- 
bined. It  is  found  naturally  formed  in 
the  quicksilver  mines;  but  that  which 
is  used  in  painting  is  an  artificial  pro- 
duction. 1.  Vermilion  is  prepared  by 
melting  one  ])art  of  sulphur,  and  addiug 
to  it  gradually  live  or  six  parts  of  nicr- 
cuiy ;  the  heat  is  continued  until  the 
mixture  swells  up,  theu  cover  the  vessel 
and  remove  it  from  the  heat ;  when  the 
mixture  is  cold  reduce  it  to  powder  and 
sublime  in  a  closed  vessel  s  placed  iti 
a  furnace  that  the  flames  may  pl.iy 
freely  around  it  to  about  half  its  height. 
The  heat  is  gradually  increased  until  the 
lower  portion  of  the  subliming  vessel 
becomes  red  hot ;  the  cold  sublimate  is 
broken  into  pieces,  ground  in  water  to 
a  fine  powder,  passed  through  a  sieve 
and  dried.  At  first  the  mixture  be- 
comes black,  takes  the  name  of  yEthiops 
mineral,  or  black  sulphuret  of  mercury  ; 
this  substance  is  then  reduced  to  ])owdor, 
and  sublimed  in  appropriate  vessels,  when 
a  crystallized  mass  is  obtained,  com- 
posed of  bright  filaments  of  a  violet  tint ; 
by  trituration  it  becomes  of  a  scarlet 
colour.  But  the  mere  grinding  will  not 
be  suHicient  to  give  a  bright  tone  to  the 
vermilion;  various  methods  are  em- 
ployed for  that  purpose,  which  are  not 
generally  known.  Some  manufacturers 
grind  these  ingredients  up  with  plain 
water  or  with  urine,  and  afterwards  boil 
it  for  some  time;  others  treat  it  with 
nitric  acid;  but  it  does  not  hap|>en  that 
any  of  the  methoils  hitherto  employed 
for  heightening  the  colour  of  vermilion 
obtained  by  sublimation,  give  the  same 
brightness  as  the  Chinese  vermilion,  the 
prejiaration  of  which  is  not  known.  -. 
(Quicksilver  .'iOO  parts,  llowers  of  sulphur 
114  parts,  grind  them  together  or  some 
hours  auil  then  add  gradually  75  parts 
c;iu.stic  potash  dissolved  in  450  jiarts 
water;  continue  the  grinding  for  some 
time  longer,  then  gently  heat  the  mix- 
ture in  an  iron  vessel,  first  stirring  con- 
stantly, but  afterwards  only  at  interval*, 
keepiug  the  heat  as  near  115°  Fan r  as 


WORKSUOr   IIECEIPTS. 


91 


possible,  and  observing  to  add  fresli  water 
as  the  evaporation  takes  place.  When 
the  colour  begins  to  redden  great  care 
IS  necessary  to  preserve  the  mixture  at 
the  proper  temperature  and  to  Ijeep  the 
sulphuret  of  mercury  quite  pulverulent. 
As  soon  as  the  colour  is  nearly  fine  the 
process  must  be  conducted  with  m- 
treased  caution  and  at  a  lower  heat  for 
some  hours,  until  a  rich  colour  is  pro- 
duced. This  is  well  washed  in  water  and 
dried.  It  is  very  injurious  for  those  em- 
ployed to  inhale  mercurial  vapours,  for 
which  reason  this  operation  should  be 
performed  only  in  a  place  where  the 
chimney  has  a  good  current  of  air  ;  there 
also  should  be  fixed  to  the  tube  of  glass 
with  which  the  mi.xture  is  stirred  a  staiF 
sufficiently  long  to  hold  at  good  distance 
from  the  vessel ;  in  the  same  way  the 
spoon  should  be  lengthened  with  which 
the  potash  is  added. 

CARillNE. — Boil  1  lb.  of  cochineal  and 
4  drs.  carbonate  of  potassa  in  7J  galls. 
of  water  for  quarter  of  au  hour.  The  pot 
is  taken  from  the  fii-e  and  8  drs.  alum  in 
powder  mixed  into  the  liquor,  which  is 
afterwards  well  stirred  and  then  allowed 
to  settle  for  20  minutes  or  so.  The 
liquid  is  poured  into  a  fresh  vessel  and  a 
solution  of  4  drs.  fish  glue  or  isinglass, 
dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  and  strained, 
mixed  with  it.  When  a  skin  is  formed 
upon  the  surface  the  heat  is  taken  away 
and  the  liquor  rapidly  stirred,  and  al- 
lowed afterwards  to  settle  for  half  an  hour 
or  so,  when  the  deposited  carmine  is  care- 
fully collected,  drained,  and  dried. 

Painters'  Cream. — Pale  nut-oil,  6  oz., 
mastic  1  oz. ;  dissolve  ;  add  J  oz.  of  sugar 
of  lead  ground  in  a  little  oil;  then  add 
water,  gradually,  until  it  acquires  the 
consistence  of  cream,  working  it  well  all 
the  time.  Used  by  painters  to  cover  their 
work  when  they  are  obliged  to  leave  it 
for  some  time.  It  may  be  washed  off 
with  a  sponge  and  water. 

Lakes. — Lakes  are  made  by  adding  a 
solution  of  alum,  either  alone  or  partly 
saturated  with  carbonate  of  potassa,  to 
a  filtered  infusion  or  decoction  of  the 
colouring  substance,  and  after  agitation 
precipitating  the  mixture  with  a  solution 
of  cai-bonate  of  potash  ;  by  precipitating 


a  decoction  or  infusion  of  the  colouring 
substance  made  with  a  weak  alkalin*; 
lye,  by  adding  a  solution  of  alum  ;  or  by 
agitating  recently-precipitated  alumina 
with  a  solution  of  the  colouring  matter, 
prepared  as  before,  until  the  liquid  is 
nearly  decoloured,  or  the  alumina  ac- 
quires a  sulficiently  dark  tint.  The  first 
method  is  usually  employed  for  acidulous 
solutions  of  colouring  matter,  or  for  those 
whose  tint  is  mjured  by  alkalies;  the 
second,  for  those  that  are  bj'ightened,  or 
at  least  uninjured  by  alkalies  ;  the  third, 
for  those  colouring  matters  that  have  a 
great  afiinity  for  gelatinous  alumina,  and 
readily  combine  with  it  by  mere  agita- 
tion. By  attention  to  these  general  rules, 
lakes  may  be  prepared  from  almost  all 
animal  and  vegetable  colouring  sub- 
stances that  yield  thei'  colour  to  water, 
many  of  which  will  be  found  to  possess 
great  beauty  and  permanence.  The  pre- 
cise process  adapted  to  each  particular 
substance  may  be  easily  ascertained  by 
taking  a  few  drops  of  its  infusion  or  de- 
coction, and  observing  the  effects  of  alka- 
lies and  acids  on  the  colour.  The  quantity 
of  alum  or  of  alumina  employed  shoult) 
be  nearly  sufljcient  to  decolour  the  dye 
liquor,  and  the  quantity  of  carbonate  of 
potassa  should  be  so  proportioned  to  the 
alum  as  to  exactly  precipitate  the  alu- 
mina without  leaving  free  or  carbonated 
alkali  in  the  liquid.  The  first  portion  of 
the  j>recipitate  has  the  deepest  colour,  and 
the  shade  gradually  becomes  paler  as  the 
operation  proceeds.  A  beautiful  tone  of 
violet,  red,  and  even  purple  may  be  com- 
municated to  the  colouring  matter  of  co- 
chineal by  the  addition  of  perchloride  of 
tin ;  the  addition  of  arseniate  of  potassa  in 
like  manner  gives  shades  which  may  be 
sought  for  in  vam  with  alum  or  alumina. 
After  the  laKe  is  precipitated,  it  must  be 
carefully  collected,  washed  with  cold  dis- 
tilled water,  or  the  purest  rain  water,  un- 
til it  ceases  to  give  out  colour,  and  then 
carefully  dried  in  the  shade.  In  this  state 
it  forms  a  soft  velvety  powder. 

Drop  Lake  is  made  by  dropping  the 
moist  lake  through  a  small  funnel  on 
a  clean  board  or  slab,  and  drying  it  by  a 
gentle  heat.  A  very  little  clear  gum- 
water  is  commonly  aided  to  the  pasta 


92 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


to  give  the  drops  consistence  when  dry. 
Synonymous  with  Brazil-wood  Lake. 

Blue  Lake. — A  fugitive  colour  pre- 
pared from  some  of  the  blue-coloured 
Hewers.  The  came  is  also  applied  to 
Ir.mp  archil,  to  moist  alumina  coloured 
with  indigo,  and  to  mixed  solution  of 
jijarlash  and  prussiate  of  potash,  preci- 
pitated with  another  solution  of  sul})hate 
of  iron  and  alum.  These  are  permanent 
and  beautiful,  but  are  seldom  used,  in 
consequence  of  indigo  and  Prussian  blue 
supplying  all  that  is  wanted  in  this  class 
of  colours. 

Buazil-woodLake. —  1.  Ground  Bra- 
zil-wood, 1  lb.;  water,  4  galls. ;  digest  for 
24-  hours,  then  boil  for  half  an  hour,  add 
alum,  IJ  lb.,  dissolved  in  a  little  water; 
mix,  decant,  strain,  and  add  a  solution 
of  tin,  J  lb. ;  again  mix  well  and  filter; 
to  the  clear  liquid  add,  cautiously,  a  so- 
Ir.tion  of  salt  of  tartar  or  carbonate  of 
soda,  as  long  as  a  deeii-coloured  precipi- 
tate forms,  carefully  avoiding  excess  ;  col- 
lect, wash,  and  dry.  The  product  is  deep 
red.  By  collecting  the  precipitate  m 
separate  portions,  lake.«  varying  in  rich- 
ness and  depth  of  colour  may  be  obtained. 
The  first  portion  of  tlie  precipitated  lake 
has  the  brightest  colour.  An  excess  of 
alkali  turns  it  violet,  and  the  addition  of 
cream  of  tartar,  brownish  red.  The  tint 
turns  more  on  the  violet  red  when  the 
solution  of  tin  is  omitted.  Some  persons 
use  less,  others  more,  alum.  2.  Add 
washed  and  recently-precipitated  alu- 
mina to  a  strong  and  filtered  decoction 
of  Brazil-wood.     Inferior  to  the  last. 

CAiiMiNATicn  Lake. —  1.  The  resi.luum 
of  the  cochineal  left  in  making  carmine 
IS  boiled  with  repeated  portions  of  water, 
until  it  is  exhausted  of  colour;  the 
resulting  liquor  is  mixeil  with  that  de- 
canted olf  the  carmine,  and  at  once  fii- 
tereil ;  some  recently-precipitated  alu- 
mina is  then  addeii,  and  the  whole  gently 
heated,  and  well  agitated  for  a  short 
time;  as  soon  .xs  the  alumina  has  ab- 
sorbcil  sulFicient  colour,  the  mixture  is 
alloweil  to  settle,  after  which  the  clear 
portion  is  decanted,  the  lake  coll(!i,te<l  on 
a  filter,  washed,  and  <lrieil.  The  decanted 
liquor  if  still  coloured  is  now  treated 
vrilh  fresh  alamma  until  exhausted,  nnd 


thus  a  lake  of  a  second  quality  is  ob- 
tained. 2.  To  the  coloured  liquor  obtained 
from  the  carmine  and  cociiineal  as  above, 
a  solution  of  alum  is  added,  the  filtered 
liquor  precipitated  with  a  solution  of 
carbonate  of  potassa,  and  the  lake  col- 
lected and  treated  as  before.  Scarcely  so 
good  as  the  last.  Some  makers  mix  a 
solution  of  tin  with  the  coloured  liquor, 
adding  the  alum  or  alumina  ;  this  brigh- 
tens the  colour.  The  above  lake  is  a  good 
glazing  colour  with  oil,  but  has  little 
body. 

CociiiXEAL  Lake. — 1.  1  oz.  cochineal 
in  coarse  powder ;  water  and  rectified 
s]iirit,  of  each,  2i  oz. ;  digest  for  a  week, 
filter,  and  precipitate  the  tincture  with 
a  i'cw  drops  of  solution  of  tin,  added  every 
2  hours,  until  the  whole  of  the  colour- 
ing matter  is  thrown  down;  lastly,  wash 
the  precipitate  in  distilled  water,  and  dry 
it.  2.  Digest  powdered  cochineaJ  in  am- 
monia water  for  a  week,  dilute  the  solu- 
tion with  a  little  water,  and  add  the 
liquid  to  a  solution  of  alum,  as  long  as  a 
precipitate  falls,  which  is  the  lake.  3. 
Coarsely- powdered  cochineal,  1  lb., 
water,  2  galls.;  boil  1  hour, decant, strain, 
add  a  solution  of  salt  of  tartar,  1  lb.,  and 
precipitate  with  a  solution  of  alum.  By 
adding  the  alum  first,  and  i)recii)itatiug 
the  lake  with  the  alkali,  the  colour  will 
be  slightly  varied.  All  the  above  are 
sold  as  Carminated  or  Florence  Lake,  to 
which  they  are  ol'ten  superior. 

GiiKKS  Lake. — Made  by  mixing  blue 
and  yellow  lake  together.  Generally  pre- 
pared extemporaneously  by  the  artist  on 
liis  palette. 

Lac  Lake. — Boil  fresh  stick-lac  in  a 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  filter  the 
solution,  |irecipitate  with  a  solution  oi 
alum,  and  proceed  as  before.  A  fine 
red. 

.Madper  Lake. — 1.  Crop  madder,  2 
oz. ;  tie  it  in  a  cloth,  be:it  it  well  in  a 
pint  of  water  in  a  stone  mortar,  and  re- 
peat the  process  wiin  about  .'i  pints  ol 
fresh  water  until  it  ceases  to  yielil  colour ; 
boil  the  mixed  liquor  in  an  earthen  ves- 
sel, pour  it  into  a  large  basin,  and  add 
1  oz.  of'  alum,  jireviously  dissolved  in  « 
pint  of  boiling  water;  stir  well,  and 
while  stirring,  pour  in  gradually  of  a 


WORKSHOP   RECKirTS. 


93 


strong  solution  of  carbonate  of  potassa 
or  oil  of  tartar,  1^  oz. ;  let  the  whole 
ktand  until  cold,  then  pour  off  the  yel- 
low liquor  from  the  top,  drain,  agitate 
the  residuum  with  boiling  water  iu  sepa- 
rate quantities,  1  quart ;  decant,  drain, 
anii  dry.  Product,  ^  an  oz.  The  Society 
of  Arts  voted  their  gold  medal  to  the 
author  of  this  formula.  2.  Add  a  little 
solution  of  acetate  of  lead  to  a  decoction 
of  madder,  to  throw  down  the  brown 
colouring  matter,  filter,  add  a  solution 
of  tin  or  alum,  ])recipitate  with  a  solu- 
tion of  carbonate  of  soda  or  of  potassa ; 
proceed  as  before.     3.  Ground  madder, 

2  lbs. ;  water,  1  gall. ;  macerate  with  agi- 
tation for  10  minutes,  strain  off  the  watei', 
and  press  the  remainder  quite  dry  ;  re- 
peat the  process  a  second  and  third  time; 
then  add  to  the  mixed  liquors,  alum,  5  lb. 
dissolved  in  water,  3  quarts  ;  and  heat  in 
a  water  bath  for  3  or  4  hours,  adding 
water  as  it  evaporates;  next  filter,  first 
through  flannel,  and  when  sulliciently 
cold,  through  paper  ;  then  add  a  solution 
of  carbonate  of  potassa  as  long  as  a  pre- 
cipitate falls,  which  must  be  washed  un- 
til the  water  comes  off  colourless,  aud, 
lastly  dried.     If  the  alkali  be  added  in 

3  successive  doses,  3  dill'erent  lakes  will 
be  obtained,  successively  diminishing  in 
beauty. 

OiiAXGE  Lake. — Spanish  annatto,  4 
oz. ;  pearlash,  |  lb. ;  water,  1  gall. ;  boil 
for  half  an  hour,  strain,  precipitate  with 
alum,  1  lb.,  dissolve  in  water,  1  gall., 
observing  not  to  add  the  latter  solution 
when  it  ceases  to  produce  an  efferves- 
cence or  a  preciiiitate ;  strain,  and  dry 
the  sediment  in  small  squares,  lozenges, 
or  drops.  Tlie  addition  of  some  solution 
of  tin  turns  this  lake  on  the  lemon  yel- 
low ;  acids  redden  it. 

Kkd  Lake. —  Pearlash,  1  lb.;  clean 
shreds  of  scarlet  cloth,  3|  lbs. ;  water  5 
galls.  ;  toil  till  the  cloth  is  decoloured, 
filter  the  decoction,  and  precipitate  with 
a  solution  0:  alum,  as  before.  See  Mad- 
der Lake. 

Yellow  Lake. — 1.  Boil  French  ber- 
ries, quercitron  bark  or  turmeric,  1  lb., 
and  salt  of  tartar,  1  oz.,  in  water,  1  gall., 
until  reduced  to  one-half;  then  strain  the 
dccoution,  and  precipitate  with  a  solution 


of  alum.  2.  Boil  1  lb.  of  the  dye-stull 
with  alum,  |  lb.  ;  water,  1  gall. ;  as  be- 
fore, and  precipitate  the  decoction  with 
a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash.  See 
Orange  Lake. 

White  Pigments. — Alum  White. 
— Powdered  Roman  a'.um,  2  lbs.;  honey, 
1  lb. ;  mi.x  dry,  powder,  calcine  in  a 
shallow  dish  to  whiteness,  cool,  wash, 
and  dry.  A  beautiful  and  permanent 
white,  both  in  oil  and  water. 

Deuryshiiie  White. — From  chalk  or 
heavy  spar,  by  grinding  and  elutriation. 

Mineral  White. — Precipitated  car 
bonate  of  lead. 

Newcastle  White.  -  White  -  lead 
made  with  molasses  vinegar. 

Nottixgham  White.  —  White  -  lenj 
made  with  alegar.  Permanent  white  is 
now  commonly  sold  for  it. 

Pearl  White.— Fard's  Span'sh  white. 
Trisnitrate  of  bismuth. 

Peujianext  White. — Artificial  sul- 
phate of  baryta,  j)rcpai-ed  by  precipitating 
chloride  of  barium  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  or  a  solution  of  glauber  salts.  A 
good  fast  white  unchanged  by  sulphur- 
ous fumes.  Used  to  mark  jars  and  bot- 
tles for  containing  acids  or  alkalies,  as  it 
is  afTected  by  very  few  substances  ;  also 
to  adulterate  white-lead. 

Spanish  White.  —  The  softest  and 
pjirest  white  chalk,  elutriated,  made  into 
balls,  and  well  dried.  Used  as  a  cheap 
white  paint. 

White-lead. — Made  by  suspending 
rolls  of  thin  sheet  lead  over  malt  vinegar, 
or  pyroligneous  acid,  in  close  vessels,  the 
evaporation  from  the  acid  being  kept  up 
by  the  vessels  being  placed  in  a  heap  of 
dung,  or  a  steam  bath.  Commercial  car- 
bonate  of  lead,  however  prepared,  is  not 
the  pure  carbonate  of  lead,  but  always 
contains  a  certain  proportion  of  hydrate 
It  is  generally  largely  adulterated  with 
native  sulphate  of  baryta  or  heavy  spar, 
and  sometimes  with  chalk.  The  former 
may  be  detected  by  its  insolubility  in 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  or  a  solution  of 
oxalic  acid  or  oxalate  of  ammonia,  after 
having  been  treated  with  sulphui'etted 
hydrogen,  or  a  hydrosulphuret,  to  thro ■w 
down  the  lead.  Pure  carbonate  of  lead 
does  not  lose  weight  at  a  temperati?rc  of 


94 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


212°  Fahr. ;  68  grains  are  entirely  dis- 
solved in  150  minims  of  acetic  acid  diluted 
with  1  fl.  oz.  of  distilled  water;  and  the 
solution  is  not  entirely  precii)itated  by  a 
solution  of  60  grains  of  jihosphate  cf  soda. 
The  solution  in  nitric  acid  should  not 
yield  a  precipitate  when  treateil  with  a 
solution  of  suluhate  of  soda.  Used  as  a 
superior  white  paint,  and,  in  medicine, 
as  an  external  astringent  refrigerant, 
and  desiccant.  The  particles  of  carbo- 
nate of  lead  prepared  by  precipitation, 
or  by  any  of  the  quick  processes,  are 
in  a  somewhat  crystalline  and  semi- 
translucent  condition,  and  hence  do  not 
cover  so  well  as  that  just  noticed;  also 
railed  fine  white,  and  Hake  white.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  varieties  of 
white-lead  found  in  commerce. 

Dl'TOii  White-li:ad. — 1.  From  flake 
white,  1  cwt. ;  chalk,  3  cwt.  2.  (Ordi- 
nary.) Flake  white,  1  cwt. ;  chalk,  7 
cwt.  These  form  the  best  wiiite-lead  in 
the  shops. 

2.  English  White  -  lead.  —  Flake 
white  lowered  with  chalk  ;  covers  badly, 
and  the  colour  is  inferior  to  the  preceding. 

FuKXCn  Whitk.-lead.  —  From  li- 
tharsre  dissolved  in  vinegar  and  the  lead 
thrown  down  by  a  current  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  from  coke.  Does  not  cover  so 
well  as  flake  white. 

Hamburg  White. — From  flake  white, 
1  cwt ;  chalk,  2  cwt.  Also  sold  for  best 
Dutch  white-lead. 

Vexetiax  White.— From  flake  white, 
or  pure  white-load  and  chalk,  equal  parts. 

SuLi'iiATE  OK  I.EAn. — From  an  acetic 
or  nitric  solution  of  litliarge  iireci]iitafed 
by  adding  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  the 
white  powder  washed  and  dried.  The 
clear  liqiwd  decanted  frnm  the  precipi- 
tate is  j)oured  on  fresh  litharge,  when  a 
secoud  solution  takes  place  ;  this  may  be 
repeated  for  any  nuinber  of  times. 

CHi.sraK  White. — Take  as  much  as  is 
required  of  zinc  white  finely  ground,  put 
it  on  a  marble  or  glass  slab,  mix  it  into 
a  cream  of  the  required  consistence  by 
adding  mucilage  of  gum  tragacauth, 
grinding  with  a  glass  muller.  Fur  quan- 
tity required  to  fill  an  orilinary  sized 
Chinese  while  bottle,  adil  to  above  10  or 
12  drojisof  thick*mucilageofgum  ar.ibic 


and  5  or  6  drops  of  pure  glycerine  ;  grind 
well  together,  and  fill  bottle  by  aid  of  pa- 
lette knife.  JIake  tragacanth  mucilage  by 
putting  a  small  piece,  size  of  a  horse  bean, 
into  2  oz.  of  cold  water,  letting  it  remain 
a  day  or  two  till  gum  swells  up  and  ab- 
sorbs water,  then  beat  into  a  pulp.  It 
will  easily  regrind  when  dry  with  a  little 
fresh  medium.  As  required  consistence 
depends  much  on  habit  and  practice,  we  do 
not  specify  any  e.xact  proportions.  It  is 
easy  to  add  white  or  medium  to  suit 
taste.  The  cost  when  thus  made  is  very 
trifling. 

Whiting.  —  The  same  as  prejiared 
chalk,  but  prepared  more  carelessly,  in 
horse-mills. 

Wilkinson's  White. — From  litharge 
ground  with  sea  water  until  it  ceases  to 
whiten,  and  then  washed  and  dried. 

Green  Pigments.  —  Barth's 
Green.  —  Yellow  lake,  Prussian  blue, 
and  clay,  ground  together. 

Bremen  Green. — This  is  properly 
green  verditer,  but  other  preparations 
are  frequently  sold  under  the  name. 

Brighton  Green. — Sulphate  of  cop- 
per, 7  lbs.,  add  sugar  of  lead,  3  lbs. ;  each 
separately  dissolved  in  water,  5  pints  ; 
mix  the  solutions,  stir  in  whiting,  24  lbs., 
set  the  jiaste  on  chalk  stones,  and  when 
dry  grind  it  to  powdei. 

Brunswick  Green.— A  saturated  so- 
lution of  sal  ammoniac,  3  parts,  is  poured 
over  copper  filings  or  shreds,  2  parts, 
contained  in  a  vessel  capable  of  being 
closed  up,  and  the  mixture  is  kept  in  a 
warm  place  for  some  weeks,  whi-n  the 
newly-formed  green  pigment  is  sej>arated 
from  the  unoxidized  cojiper,  by  w.ashing 
the  mixture  on  a  sieve  ;  it  is  then  washed 
with  water,  and  slowly  dried  in  the 
shade.  Colour  very  deep  and  rich.  The 
lighter  shades  are  produced  by  the  ad- 
dition of  sulphate  of  baryta.  In  another 
method  a  solution  of  crude  carbonate  of 
ammonia  or  bone  spirit  is  added  to  a 
mixed  solution  of  alum  and  blue  vitriol, 
as  long  as  it  alfects  the  liijuor  ;  in  a  short 
time  the  |>rccipitate  is  collected,  w.ashed, 
ami  dried.  The  various  shailes  of  grecD 
are|)roduced  by  using  dilVerent  quantities 
of  alum,  which  "  pales  "  and  "  cheajieD*" 
it. 


WOHRSHOP   HECEIPTS. 


95 


CiiKoiti:  GitKEN. — Prepared  by  melt- 
L;.§  in  a  crucible  equivaleut  quantities  of 
auhydrous  boracic  acid  and  bichromate  of 
potassium,  and  treating  the  fused  mass 
with  water.  The  hydrated  oxide  thus 
produced  is  washed  and  finely  triturated. 
Common  chrome  green  is  a  mixture  of 
chrome  yellow  and  Prussian  blue. 

Emerald  Gueex. — A  pulp  is  farmed 
with  verdigris,  1  part,  and  sullicient  boil- 
ing water,  and  after  being  i)assed  through 
a  sieve,  to  remove  lumps,  is  added  gradu- 
ally to  a  boiling  solution  of  arsenious 
acid,  1  part,  iu  water,  10  parts,  the  mix- 
ture being  constantly  stirred  until  the 
precipitate  becomes  a  heavy  granular 
powder,  when  it  is  collected  on  a  calico 
lilter,  and  dried  on  chalk  stones. 

Gellart's  Gkeen. — A  mixture  of  co- 
balt blue  and  Mowers  of  zinc  with  some 
yellow  pigment. 

Iris  Greex. — A  pigment  prepai-ed  by 
grinding  the  juice  of  the  petals  of  the 
blue  flag  with  quicklime.  It  is  very 
fugitive. 

Mountain  Green.  —  Native  green 
carbonate  or  bicarbonate  of  copper  ground 
to  powder,  either  with  or  without  the 
addition  of  a  little  orpimcnt  or  chrome 
yellow.  That  of  the  shops  is  commonly 
prepared  by  adding  a  solution  of  carbo- 
nate of  soda,  or  of  potassa,  to  a  hot  mixed 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  and  alum. 
Green  verditer  is  commonly  sold  for  this 
article. 

Prussian  Green. — The  sediment  of 
the  process  of  making  Prussian  blue  from 
bullock's  blood  or  horns,  before  it  has  had 
the  hydrochloric  acid  added  to  it.  It  is 
also  iire]>ared  by  pouring  liquid  chlorine 
upon  freshly-proci])itated  Prussian  blue. 
As  sold,  this  jiigment  is  generally  a  mix- 
ture of  Prussian  blue  and  gamboge. 

Sap  Green. — A  very  fugitive  pig- 
ment, prepared  from  the  juice  of  buck- 
thorn berries.  The  berries  are  allowed 
to  ferment  for  a  week  or  eight  days  in  a 
wooden  tub.  The  juice  is  then  pressed 
out,  strained,  a  little  alum  added,  and  the 
whole  evaporated  to  a  proper  consistence ; 
it  is  next  run  into  Jiigs'  bladders,  and 
hung  up  in  a  dry  situation  to  harden.  An 
inferior  article  is  made  from  the  juice  of 
black  alder,  and  of  evergreen  privet.     It 


is  a  common  practice  to  add  j  pii:t  of 
lime  water  and  ^  oz.  of  gum  arable  to 
every  pint  of  either  of  the  auove  juices. 
Powdered  arsenious  acid,  11  oz. ;  carbo- 
nate of  potassa,  IJlb. ;  boiling  water, 
1  rail. ;  dissolve,  filter,  and  add  the  so- 
lution, as  before,  to  another  solution  of 
ciystnllized  sulphate  of  co]iper,  2  lbs.,  in 
water,  3  gall.  Product,  H  lb.  A  very 
fine  grass-green  colour. 

Scheele's  Green. — White  arsenic  in 
powder,  1  part ;  commercial  potash,  2 
parts;  boiling  water,  35  jiarts  ;  dissolve, 
filter,  and  add  the  solution  gradually, 
whilst  still  warm,  to  a  filtered  solutijn 
of  sulphate  of  copper,  2  parts,  as  long  as  a 
precipitate  fills  ;  wash  the  newly-formed 
jiigmeut  with  warm  water,  and  dry  it. 

Vienna  or  Sciiweinfuut  Green. — 
Arsenious  acid,  8  lbs.,  is  dissolved  in  the 
least  possible  quantity  of  boiling  water, 
and  added  to  verdigris,  9  or  10  lbs.,  dif- 
fused through  water,  at  120°  Fahr.,  the 
pap  of  the  latter  being  first  passed 
through  a  sieve  ;  the  mixed  ingredients 
are  then  set  aside  till  the  mutual  reac- 
tion produces  the  proper  shade.  2.  Sul- 
phate of  copper,  50  lbs.,  and  lime,  10  lbs., 
are  dissolved  in  good  vinegar,  20  gall.,  and 
a  boiling-hot  solution  of  white  arsenic, 
50  lbs.,  is  conveyed  as  quickly  as  possible 
into  the  liquor;  the  mixture  is  stirred 
several  times,  and  then  allowed  to  sub- 
side, after  which  it  is  collected  on  a  filter, 
dried,  and  powdered.  The  supernatant 
liquor  is  employed  the  next  time  for  dis- 
solving the  arsenic, 

JIanganese  Green.  —  Prepared  by 
mixing  intimately  3  or  4  parts  caustic 
liarytes,  moistened  with  water,  2  parts 
nitrate  of  barytes,  and  2  of  oxide  of  man- 
ganese ;  then  introducing  the  mixture 
into  a  crucible  heated  to  dull  redness,  and 
when  it  has  fused,  pouring  it  out,  pul- 
verizing it,  digesting  it  in  boiling  water 
washing  it  with  cold  water,  and  drying 
it  in  an  atmosjihere  which  contains  no 
c.irbonic  acid.  It  answers  well  for  paper 
hangings,  being  applied  by  means  of  thin 
glue  ,  and  for  some  other  purposes,  white 
of  egg  being  used  instead  of  the  glue. 

Yellow  Pigments.  —  Chrome 
Yellow. — 1.  Add  a  filtered  solution  of 
nitrate  or  acetate  of  lead  to  a  lile  ^lu- 


96 


"WORKSHOr   KECEirl'S. 


tion  of  neutral  chrom.ite  of  potash,  as 
long  as  a  precipitate  falls ;  then  collect 
this,  wash  it  well  with  clean  soft  watsr, 
and  dry  it  out  of  the  reach  of  sulphu- 
retted vapours.  2.  Dissolve  acetate  of 
lead  in  warm  water,  and  add  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  to  convert  it 
into  sulphate  of  lead ;  decant  the  clear 
liquid,  wash  the  residuum  with  soft 
water,  and  digest  it  with  agitation  in  a 
hot  solution  of  yellow  neutral  chromate 
or  jiotash,  containing  1  part  of  that  salt 
to  every  3  parts  of  sulphate  of  lead  ; 
"ivcant  the  liquid,  which  is  a  solution  of 
sulphste  of  potash,  and  carefully  drain, 
wash,  and  dry  the  newly-formed  pig- 
ment. The  product  contains  much  sul- 
jihate  of  lead,  but  covers  as  well,  and  has 
as  good  a  colour  as  pure  chromate  of 
lead,  whilst  .t  is  much  cheaper.  The 
shade  may  be  varied  by  increasing  or 
lessening  the  quantity  of  the  chromate. 

Kixg's  Yicllow,  or  Oui'Ijiknt.  —  A 
native  sulphurct  of  arsenic.  It  is  pre- 
pared artiiicially  by  sublimation  from  a 
mixture  of  arseuious  acid  and  sulphur; 
or  by  collecting  the  precipitate  when  a 
stream  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  is 
])assed  through  a  solution  of  arsenious 
acid. 

Naplks  Yeixow. — 1.  Powdered  me- 
tallic antimony,  3  parts  by  weight,  oxide 
of  zinc  1,  red-load  2,  mixed,  calcined, 
ground  to  a  fine  powder  and  fused  in  a 
closed  ci'ucible;  the  fused  mass  is  ground 
to  a  fine  powder  and  well  washed.  2. 
Washed  diaphoretic  antimony  1  part, 
red-lead  2,  grind  with  water  to  a  siilf 
j)astc,  and  exj)Ose  in  a  crucible  to  a  red 
heat  for  4  or  ^i  hours. 

Blue  Pig-ments. — Ur.TiiAMAniNi:. 
— I'uro  lajiis  lazuli  reduced  to  fragmi-uts 
about  the  size  of  a  jiea,  and  the  colourless 
pieces  rejected  ;  1  lb.  is  heated  to  redness, 
quenched  in  water,  and  ground  to  an  im- 
palpable powder ;  to  this  is  added,  yellow 
resin,  0  <iz. ;  turp'^ntine,  beeswax,  and 
linsccii  oil,  each,  2  nz.,  jireviously  molted 
together;  the  whide  is  next  made  into  a 
mass,  which  is  kneaded  in  successive  por- 
tion.* of  warm  wafer,  as  long  as  it  '•r*- 
lours  it  blue  ;  from  these  it  Is  deposited 
on  rcpn.^,  and  is  then  collcctorl,  well 
*;wh'/i   ^itb   clean  watiT,    drieil.    ani 


sorted  according  to  its  qualities.  The 
first  water,  which  is  usually  dirty,  is 
thrown  away;  the  second  gives  a  blue  of 
the  first  quality;  and  the  third  and  fol- 
lowing ones  yield  samples  of  less  value. 
Ultramarine  is  the  most  costly,  but  at  the 
same  time  the  most  splendid  and  j/'M'ma- 
nent,  of  our  blue  pigments,  and  works 
well  in  oil. 

Ultraxi.vrixe  Ashes. — Obtained  from 
the  resinous  mass  from  making  ultra- 
marine, by  melting  it  with  fresh  oil,  and 
kneading  ;t  in  water  containing  a  little 
potash  or  soda  ;  or,  by  burning  away  the 
wax  and  oil  of  the  mass  and  well  grind- 
ing and  washing  the  residue  with  water. 
Very  permanent,  but  much  less  brilliant 
than  ultramarine. 

AzL'Riv  iJi.cE,  or  Paris  Blue. — 1.. 
Sulphur,  2  parts  ;  dry  carbonate  of  soda, 
1  part  ;  mix  well  ;  gradually  heat  them 
in  a  covered  crucible  to  redness,  or  till 
the  mixture  fuses,  then  sprinkle  in,  by  de- 
grees another  mixture  of  silicate  of  soda 
and  aluminate  of  soda  (containing  72 
parts  of  silica  and  70  ]iarts  of  alumina), 
and  continue  the  heat  for  an  hour.  The 
jiroduct  contains  a  little  free  suljihur, 
which  may  be  separated  by  water.  2. 
Kaolin,  37  parts;  suli)hate  of  soda,  1j; 
carbonate  of  soda,  22;  sulphur,  18; 
charcoal,  8  ;  intimately  mixed  and  heated 
from  24  to  30  hours,  in  large  crucibles: 
the  product  is  then  heated  again  in  cast- 
iron  boxes,  at  a  moderate  temperature, 
till  the  required  tint  is  obtained  ;  it  is 
finally  ])ulverized,  washed,  and  dried.  3. 
Take  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda,  1075 
grs. ;  apply  a  gentle  heat,  and,  when  fused 
in  its  water  of  crystallization,  shake  in 
finely-pulverized  orpiinent,  5  grs.,  and, 
when  ]iaitly  decdniposod,  add  as  much 
gelatinous  hydrate  ofaluinina  as  contains 
7  grs.  of  anhydrous  alumina  ;  finely-silted 
clay,  100  grs.,  and  flowers  of  sul]dnir, 
22  i  grs.,  are  next  to  be  added  ;  the  whole 
placed  in  a  covered  crucible,  and  at  first 
gi'Utly  heated,  to  drive  off  the  water, 
but  as  soon  as  this  is  cllected,  raised  to 
ri'<Iness,  the  he.at  being  so  regulateil  that 
the  ingredients  only  "sinter"  togither, 
without  actually  fusing ;  the  mass  is  then 
til  be  cooled,  finely  pulverized,  suspended 
in  river  water,  and  brouglit  upon  <i  liltcr 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


97 


the  product  has  now  a  very  beautiful  de- 
licate srreen  or  bluish  colour,  but  on  being 
heated  in  a  covered  dish,  and  stirred  about 
from  time  to  time,  until  the  tem])eratnre 
reaches  that  ot"  dull  redness,  at  which 
It  must  be  kept  for  one  or  two  hours,  it 
changes  to  a  rich  blue.  If  the  heat  of  the 
first  calcination  has  been  properly  regu- 
lated, the  whole  of  the  mass  taken  from 
the  crucible  will  have  uniform  colour; 
but  if  too  little  heat  has  been  used,  and 
the  ingredients  have  not  been  ])roperly 
mixed,  there  will  be  colourless  parts, 
which  should  be  rejected  ;  if  too  much 
heat  has  been  used,  or  the  mass  allowed 
to  fuse,  brown  parts  will  appear,  espe- 
cially if  the  crucible  is  of  a  bad  kind, 
or  easily  destroyed  ;  these  must  also  be 
rejected. 

Cobalt  Blue. — Prepared  by  slowly 
drying  and  heating  to  dull  redness  a 
mixture  of  freshly-precipitated  alumina 
freed  from  water  as  much  as  possible, 
8  to  10  parts  ;  arseniate  or  phosphate  of 
cobalt,  1  part.  By  daylight  it  is  of  a 
pure  blue,  but  by  artilicial  liglit  the 
colour  turns  on  the  violet. 

Prussian  Blue. — Jlix  alum,  2  parts, 
with  sulphate  of  iron  1  part,  add  water 
sutTicient  to  dissolve.  Then  make  a  so- 
lution of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  add 
to  it  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  and  when 
mixed  drop  in  the  first  solution  until  the 
precipitate  falls  slowly  ;  wash  well  on  a 
Hlter  and  dr}'.  Or  add  a  solution  of  pro- 
tosulphate  of  iron  to  one  of  red  prussiate 
of  potash  ;  wash  and  dry. 

Saxon  Blue. — Dissolve  in  1  gallon  of 
water  1  oz.  sulphate  of  iron  and  8  oz. 
alum  ;  add  together  separate  solutions 
of  prussiate  of  potash  and  ordinary  pearl- 
ash,  until  the  mixture  ceases  to  deposit 
a  precijiitate.  After  the  deposit  has  stood 
"or  some  time  it  should  be  collected, 
washed  thoroughly,  and  dried. 

Black  Pigments. — Ivory  Black. 
— Take  any  quantity  of  ivory-turner's 
waste  or  ivory  dust,  place  in  a  closed 
:rucible  and  expose  for  a  sufficient  time 
to  strano  heat.  Cool  the  crucible,  re- 
move and  powder  its  contents,  wash  in 
warm  water  and  dry.  An  inferior  pig- 
ment termed  Bone  Black  is  made  by 
creating  bones  in  a  similar  manner. 


Lampblack.— Cooley's  ' Cyclopaedia' 
has  the  following  receipts  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  this  useful  pigment.  1.  A 
conical  funnel  of  tin-plate  furnished  with 
a  small  pipe  to  convey  the  fumes  from 
the  apartment,  is  suspended  over  a  lamp 
fed  with  oil,  tallow,  coal-tar,  or  crude 
naphtha,  the  wick  being  large  and  so 
arranged  as  to  burn  with  a  full  smoky 
flame.  Largb  spongy,  mushroom-like 
concretions  of  an  exceedingly  light,  very 
black,  carbonaceous  matter  gradually 
form  at  the  summit  of  the  cone,  and 
must  be  collected  from  time  to  time. 
The  funnel  should  be  united  to  the 
smoke-pipe  by  means  of  wire,  and  no 
solder  should  be  used  for  the  joints  of 
either.  2.  On  a  large  scale,  lampblack 
IS  made  by  burning  bone-oil,  previously 
freed  from  its  ammonia,  or  common  coal- 
tar,  and  receiving  the  smoke  in  a  suit- 
able chamber.  In  one  process  the  coal- 
tar  is  violently  agitated  with  lime  water 
until  the  two  are  well  mixed,  after  which 
it  is  allowed  to  subside,  and  the  lime 
water  having  been  drawn  off,  the  tar  is 
washed  several  times  with  hot  water. 
After  subsidence  and  decantation,  it  is 
put  into  stills,  and  rectified.  The  crude 
naphtha  in  the  receiver  is  then  put  into 
a  long  cast-iron  tube  furnished  with  nu- 
merous large  burners,  underneath  which 
is  a  furnace  to  heat  the  pipe  to  nearly  the 
boiling  point.  Over  each  burner  is  a 
sort  of  funnel  wliich  goes  into  a  cast-iron 
pipe  or  main,  which  thus  receives  the 
smoke  from  all  the  burners.  From  this 
main  the  smoke  is  conveyed  by  large 
pipes  to  a  succession  of  boxes  or  cham- 
bers, and  thence  into  a  series  of  large 
canvas  bags  arranged  side  by  side,  and 
connected  together  at  top  and  bottom 
alternately.  Fifty  to  eighty  of  these 
bags  are  employed ;  the  last  one  being 
left  open  to  admit  of  the  escape  of  the 
smoke,  which  has  thus  been  made  to  tra- 
verse a  space  of  about  400  yards.  As 
soon  as  the  bags  contain  any  considerable 
quantity  of  black,  they  are  removed  and 
emptied.  The  black  deposited  in  the  last 
bag  is  the  finest  and  best,  and  it  becomes 
progressively  coarser  as  it  approaches 
the  furnace.  The  state  of  minute  divi- 
sion in  which  the  carbon  exists  in  gocd 


8S 


WOHKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


ianij)bla<.k  is  such  as  cannot  be  given  to 
any  otlier  mattpr,  uot  even  by  grinding 
it  on  jiorpnyr)',  or  by  elutnation  or 
washing  over  with  water.  On  this  ac- 
count it  goes  a  great  way  in  every  kind 
of  painting.  It  may  oe  remlered  Jriei 
and  less  oily  by  gentle  calcination  in  close 
vessels,  wiien  it  is  called  Burnt  Lamp- 
black, and  may  then  be  used  as  a  water 
colour  ;  or  its  greasiness  may  be  removed 
by  being  passed  through  water  slightly 
alkalized  with  potassa. 

Hussian  Lampblac/:  is  the  soot  pro- 
duced by  burning  the  chips  of  resinous 
deal.  It  is  objectionable  chiefly  from 
being  liable  to  take  fire  spontaneously 
wheD«,left  for  some  time  moistened  with 
oil. 

I'LUE  Black. — Vine-twigs  dried  and 
then  carefully  carbonized,  in  covered  ves- 
sels, until  of  the  proper  shade.  I'it-coal, 
carefully  burnt  at  a  white  heat,  then 
quenched  in  water,  dried,  and  well 
ground,  forms  a  cheap,  good,  and  durable 
blue  black,  fit  for  most  ordinary  pur- 
poses. 

Ochres. — These  substances  are  hy- 
drates of  iron  mixed  in  various  jiropor- 
tious,  and  sometimes  closely  combined 
with  various  sorts  of  earth.  1  lie  greater 
the  )iroportion  of  clay,  the  lirighter  will 
be  the  colour:  when  there  is  a  portion 
of  clay,  the  substance  feels  greasy  to  the 
touch,  and  has  more  body  than  those  have 
which  are  mixed  with  chalk  and  silex. 
''he  yellow  ochres  become  red  by  calci- 
Un.,!on  :  the  brown  ochres,  when  ])ure, 
jiioihice  the  finest  red.  Ochres  may  be 
prepared  artificially,  by  moistening  the 
rust  of  iron,  and  preci|>itating,  by  the 
^IkalioB,  solutions  of  this  metal.  For  in- 
'tauce,  in  jirecipitatiug  it  by  the  sub-ciir- 
oonate  of  Roda,  or  of  muriate  of  potiiss,  of 
nitrate,  «f  acetate  of  iron,  or  pcrsulpiiate 
of  iron,  the  most  brilliant  brnwn  ochres 
are  obtaiiieil.  If  the  suljihate  of  iron  is 
of  a  low  oxidization,  the  precijiitate  i.s 
olive-coloured,  but  it  »oon  becomes  yel- 
low at  tiiC  Mirface  by  abscirbmg  a  greater 
quantity  of  oxygen.  'I'o  extend  this  o|pc- 
ratiiiu  to  all  the  precipitates,  it  only  re- 
quire* ex|io»ure  to  the  air,  by  stirring  it 
up  lor  a  KUlIicieut  liuie.  The  name  thing 
may  dc  cbtiictd  io  winter  quite  enMly, 


by  exjiosing  it  to  the  action  of  frcst  in 
wide  shallow  pans:  the  water  passing 
;  into  the  state  of  ice  leaves  a  small  quau 
tity  of  air  disengaged,  which  unites  wit4 
the  precipitate,  and  is  suillcient  to  give 
it  an  even  yellow  tone.  When  bright 
ochres  are  required,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  mix  alum,  in  certain  proportion,  witn 
sulphate  of  iron  ;  the  solution  is  tlien  tc 
be  precipitated  by  lime  water.  There 
ezist  in  tlie  natural  state  ochres  of  so 
very  fine  a  quality,  that  they  require  no 
other  preparation  than  that  of  being 
washed  ;  therefore  it  is  scarcely  worth 
while  to  manufacture  them  artificially. 

Cake  Colours. — Procure  a  small 
slab  and  muller  of  glass,  and  grind  tiie 
powders  into  a  smooth  stitl  paste  with 
equal  parts  of  isinglass  size  and  thin 
gum  water;  comj)ress  into  scjuares  as 
closely  as  possible,  and  dry  with  a  very 
gentle  heat.  Old  crumbling  cake-colouri 
may  be  powdered  very  finely  in  a  biscuit- 
ware  mortar,  sifted  through  line  muslin, 
and  ground  u|i  as  above,  omittiutr  the 
dum  water  in  the  mediuii'.  If  the  pow- 
ders are  rubbed  up  with  honey  to  the 
consistence  of  thick  cream,  they  answer 
admirably  as  moist  colours. 

Jay's  Metallic  Paint.— Break 
common  resiu  into  dust  or  small  ])ieces, 
and  then  dissolve  in  Lonzoline  or  turjien- 
tine  until  the  solution  acquires  the  con- 
sistency of  syrup  or  treacle,  or  equal 
I)arts  of  each  of  the  above  spirits  or  hy- 
drocarbons, and  any  other  hydrocarbon 
that  will  dry  and  combine  with  drying 
oils,  can  be  used  instead  of  turi)entiue  or 
beuzoline.  When  the  solution  is  com- 
plete it  is  gradually  added  to  oxide  of 
zinc,  which  has  jireviously  been  made 
into  a  paste  with  boiled  linseed  oil,  until 
ttio  whole  mixture  acquires  the  consist- 
ency of  p.'tiiit  suitable  lor  use.  A  white 
paint  is  thus  jiroduced  of  a  durable  and 
glossy  character.  Otiier  pigments,  such 
as  suljihate  of  barytes,  oxide  of  iron, 
I>ruiiswick  green,  or  red-lead,  can  be 
added  to  make  any  desire<l  colour  of  paint. 
One  great  .advantage  of  its  use,  says  the 
inventor,  is  its  ellectual  resistaiKo  to  heat 
and  moi.-Ntiiie.  It  never  bli.-,tuis  or  cracks, 
even  under  the  hottest  sun  or  the  most 
ibctemeut  we.ither 


VV0RKS130I'   RECEIPTS. 


99 


Paint  for  Wirework. — Boil  good 
lisseed  oil  with  as  much  litharge  as 
<vili  make  it  of  the  consistency  to  be  laid 
on  with  the  brusli ;  add  lampblack  at  the 
rate  of  1  part  to  every  10  by  weight 
of  the  litharge  •  boil  three  hours  over  a 
gentle  fire.  The  first  coat  should  be  thin- 
ner than  the  followmg  coats. 

Economical  Paint. — Skim  milk, 
2  quarts ;  fresh-slaked  lime,  8  oz. ; 
linseed  oil,  6  oz. ;  white  Burgundy  pitch, 
2  oz.  ;  Spanish  white,  3  lbs.  The  lime 
to  be  slatied  in  water,  exposed  to  the  air, 
mixed  in  one-fourth  of  the  milk  ;  the  oil 
in  which  the  pitch  is  previously  dissolved, 
to  be  added  a  little  at  a  time  ;  then  the 
rest  of  the  milk,  and  nfterwards  the 
S])anish  white.  This  quantity  is  suffi- 
cient for  27  square  yards,  two  coats. 

Anti  -  corrosive  Paint.  —  Take 
equal  parts  by  weight  of  whiting  and 
white-lead  with  half  the  quantity  of  fine 
sand,  gravel,  or  road-dust,  and  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  colouring  matter.  This  mix- 
ture is  made  in  water  and  can  be  used  as 
a  water  colour;  but  it  is  more  durable 
to  dry  it  in  cakes  or  powder  after  mixing, 
auil  tiieu  use  it  as  an  oil-paint  by  grind- 
ing it  again  in  linseed  oil.  The  prepara- 
tion of  oil  recommended  for  this  purpose 
is  12  parts  by  weight  of  linseed  oil,  1 
boiled  linseed  oil,  and  3  sul]ihate  of  lime, 
well  mixed.  One  gallon  of  this  prepared 
oil  is  used  to  7  lbs.  of  the  powdei. 

Bronze  Paint  {for  Iron  or  Brass). 
— Chrome  green,  2  lbs. ;  ivoiy  black, 
1  oz. ;  chrome  yellow,  1  oz. ;  good  japan, 
1  gill  grind  all  together  and  mix  with 
linseed  oil. 

Painting  in  Oil  Colours. — The 
implements  and  materials  necessary  for 
oil  painting  are  •  oil,  varnibh,  colours, 
brushes,  a  palette,  a  palette  knife,  an 
easel,  a  rest  stick,  canvas,  and  a  little 
chalk  or  crayon. 

Paleitks. — Palettes  are  made  of  ma- 
hogany, aud  of  satin  and  other  light- 
coloured  woods  also;  those  made  of  the 
latter  are  preferable,  because  the  colours 
and  mixed  tints  are  best  seen  upon  them. 
They  should  be  light  in  weight,  and  thin, 
and  so  perforated  as  to  rest  well-balanced 
ou  the  thumb.  Palettes  are  made  of  oval 
lOQ  oblong  shapes ;    the  latter  form  is 


more  generally  useful  and  convenient,  as 
affording  a  greater  space  for  the  work- 
ing of  tints,  as  well  as  for  their  advan- 
tageous arrangement.  Wooden  palettes 
should  be  prejinreii  for  use  by  rubbing 
into  them  as  much  raw  linseed  oil  as  they 
can  be  made  to  imbibe.  If  this  dressing 
R'ith  oil  be  thoroughly  effected,  and  the 
palette  be  then  suffered  to  dry  till  it  be- 
comes hard,  the  wood  will  subsequentlj 
not  be  stained  by  the  absorption  of  colour 
A  palette  thus  prepared  is  easily  cl(?aned.^ 
and  presents  a  hard  and  polished  suri'ace, 
exceedingly  agreeable  for  the  preparation 
of  tints.  It  is  important  to  keep  the 
palette  free  from  indentations  and 
scratches,  and  on  no  account  to  neglect 
cleaning  it  ;  the  colour  never  being  al- 
lowed to  harden  upon  the  wood. 

The  Easel. — The  easel  is  a  frame  which 
supports  the  painting  during  its  ])rogress. 
Easels  are  of  various  forms  ;  but  the  most 
convenient  is  undoubtedly  the  rack-easel, 
which  allows  the  painter  to  raise  or  lowci 
his  work  with  speed  and  convenience,  as 
occasion  may  require.  The  commoner 
and  cheaper  kinds  are  supplied  with  pegs 
for  this  adjustment  of  the  height  of  the 
work.  It  is  desirable  that  the  easel 
should  stfiml  firmly,  and  not  be  liable,  as 
is  too  often  the  case,  to  be  overset  by  any 
slight  cause. 

Tlie  Rest,  or  Mahl  Stick. — This  is  usea 
to  rest  or  guide  the  right  hand  or  arir 
wiien  particular  steadiness  is  require*?- 
as  is  the  case  in  the  painting  of  small  oi«- 
jects  and  minute  details.  It  is  usually 
formed  of  cane  or  of  lance-wood,  and  it 
should  be  light,  yet  firm.  The  lower 
end  of  the  stick  is  held  in  the  left  hand, 
while  the  upper  extremity,  which  is  co- 
vered with  a  soft  round  ball  or  pad  of 
leather,  to  prevent  injury,  rests  on  the 
cinvas  or  some  other  convenient  sup- 
port. 

Brushes  for  Oil  Paintiiuj. — To  paiat 
witli  effect  it  is  of  the  first  consequence 
to  have  the  brushes  well  selected,  and  of 
the  best  quality  that  can  be  procured. 
They  are  of  various  kinds  : — of  hog-hair, 
sable,  badger,  fitch,  and  goat-hair.  Of 
these,  the  most  useful  are  the  hog-hair, 
sable,  and  badger  brushes.  The  bhicic 
fitch  aad  white  goat-hair  are  but  seldom 

9 


100 


WORKSHOP    HECElPtS. 


used,  as  tlie  sable  aud  hog  tool  will  effect 
all  that  can  be  done  by  tlie  foniior.  No- 
thing can  be  superior  to  a  well-made, 
f.ne,  white  bristle  tool,  in  larger  work  ; 
or  to  a  good  red  sable  for  details. 

Hoij-hair  Tools. — These  bnishcs  are 
made  both  round  and  flat.  Flat  hog-hair 
are  generally  nioi'e  useful  than  round 
ones  ;  they  are  preferred,  as  assisting  in 
giving  a  squareness  and  crisjiness  of 
touch.  They  should  be  strongly  and 
neatly  made;  and  in  selecting  them  be 
EUi-e  that  the  hair  has  not  been'cut  at  the 
]ioints,  for  this  is  sometimes  done  with 
inferior  brushes  ;  but  such  liruslics  have 
an  unjileasaiit  and  coarse  touch,  laying 
on  the  colour  in  a  scratchy  manner.  It 
will  be  found  to  be  a  good  test,  if  they  be 
made  of  a  very  fine  silky-looicing  hair, 
and  be  very  soft  to  the  touch.  They 
should  however  be  firm,  yet  clastic ; 
fpringiiig  back  to  their  form  after  being 
jiressed  laterally  upon  the  hantl.  Lastly, 
their  shape  should  be  flat  and  wedge- 
like, without  straggling  or  divei'ging 
hairs.  Let  tiie  handle  be  of  cdlar,  and 
polished  ;  the  cedar  is  pleasant  and  light 
to  hold,  and  Ijeing  polished  is  easily 
cleaned.  The  old  white  pine  handles, 
sooner  becoming  ingrained  with  coloui-, 
are  both  dirty  and  disagreeable  to  work 
with. 

Sa'dc  lirushes. —  The  observations  re- 
garding liiig-hair  tools  will  a]>ply  to  the 
sable  tools;  but  these  latter  sliould  have 
the  a<ldltioual  projierty  of  coming  to  a 
lino,  yet  lirm  point,  lie  cai'eful  in  choos- 
ing sable  brushes,  the  hair  of  which  is  of 
a  pale  yellowish  cast  ;  and  see  that  the 
brush  is  firm,  and  that  it  springs  well 
to  its  point.  'I'lie  round  sable  fool  is  .as 
SiTviceablr  as  I  lie  llat  one,  and  i.s  used  iu 
wi-rkiiij  the  finishing  |iarts  of  a  jiaint- 
iiig.  Iloiind  brushes  in  quills,  known  by 
the  name  of  sable  pencils,  are  also  ap[)li- 
calde  to  the  same  purpose.  I'encils  that 
bug  or  swidl  where  the  iiair  is  insert cil  in 
tlie  quill,  or  the  hairs  ot' whii'h  diverge 
and  form  several  points,  are  wortiilcss. 

Jiiidjcr  'J'l/ols  ixrc  of  various  sizes;  and 
the  hair,  instead  of  coming  to  a  close 
f  nil  or  point,  as  in  other  brushes,  diverges 
or  sjireails  out,  alter  the  manner  of  a  dust- 
\ng  brush      When  gc-l.  the  ha;r  is  louj;. 


light,  and  jiliant,  of  a  reddish  Ll-o\V5i  or 
black,  with  clean  white  ends.  The  chief 
use  of  the  badger  tool  is  to  soften  or 
sweeten  broad  tints,  such  as  skies,  water, 
distances,  and  the  like;  it  is  a  vei'V  va- 
luable assistant  to  the  young  pamter; 
but  must  be  used  with  caution,  because 
its  injudicious  use  frequently  destroys 
forms,  and  produces  woolliness.  If  the 
badger  tool  be  much  employed  on  a  large 
surliice  of  colour,  the  points  of  the  hair 
freqiientiy  become  so  loaded  with  colour, 
that  it  is  necessary  to  clean  it  often.  This 
is  best  done  by  jiinching  uj)  the  brush 
rather  tightly  at  the  ends,  and  wi]iing  it 
on  a  clean  iMg.  Tlie  brush  is  thus  kept 
free  from  colour  during  the  progress  oi 
the  work,  which  might  otherwise  be 
sullied  and  deteriorated  in  the  |uirity  ol 
its  tones.  The  badger  brush  is  also  use- 
l"ul  to  the  landscape  painter,  for  carrying 
minute  points  of  colour  into  those  wet 
parts  of  the  work  which  require  to  be 
lightened,  enriched,  or  varied. 

Clcanmj  Oil-paint  Brushes.  —  All 
brushes,  after  being  used,  should  be  care- 
fully cleaned.  This  is  best  effected  iiy 
immersing  the  hair  of  the  brushes  in  a 
little  raw  linseod  oil  ;  the  oil  should 
aftei'wards  be  washed  out  with  soap  and 
warm  water,  till  the  froth  which  is 
made  by  rubbing  the  brushes  on  the  ]ialm 
of  the  hand  is  pert'ectly  colourless.  The 
brushes  should  ne.xt  bu  rinsed  in  clean 
water,  and  the  water  ju'esscd  out  by  a 
clean  towel.  Tlie  hair  should  then  be 
laid  straight  and  smooth,  and  each  brush 
restoreil  to  its  ]>roper  shape,  by  passing 
it  between  the  linger  and  thumb,  before 
it  is  let't  to  dry.  Care  should  be  takeu 
not  to  i)reak  the  iiair  by  too  violent  rub- 
bing, as  that  W()uld  render  the  brushes 
useless.  Many  ]iainters  use  turpentiuc 
instead  of  linscx'd  oil,  in  the  cleaning  ol 
brushes,  it  effects  the  object  more  quick  I  v, 
but  the  only  use  of  turpentmu  that 
should  bo  jiermitted,  is  to  rinse  the 
brushes  in  it  slightly,  whi-n  it  is  required 
to  cle.in  them  <iuickly  ;  but  on  no  ac- 
count should  they  be  pcitnitted  to  re- 
main soaking  in  the  tui'|«ntine,  as  this 
practice  is  certain  to  injure  tiie  brushes; 
rendei'iug  the  hair  harsh  and  intractable, 
and  fii'.|Ututly  dissolving  tl;e  cemeut  Ij 


WOCKSHOP   KKCKU'TS. 


101 


which  the  hair  is  held  in  the  socket  of 
the  handle. 

Canvas. — This  is  the  general  material 
used  for  painting.  It  is  kejit  prepared  in 
rolls  of  various  widths,  and  is  sold  also 
strained  on  frames  of  any  required  size. 
The  ground  or  iireparatiou  of  the  canvas 
should  be  thin,  yet  completely  covering 
the  threads  of  the  fabric;  and  it  should 
be  free  from  projecting  lines  and  knots. 

Oil  Shcti:liing  Paper  is  an  extremely 
serviceable  material  for  the  young  artist. 
It  is  made  of  drawing  pajier,  covered  with 
two  or  three  thin  coats  of  oil  colour,  so 
as  to  furnish  a  ground  similar  to  that  of 
prepared  canvas.  It  is  cheap  and  port- 
able, and  serves  very  well  for  early  at- 
tempts and  for  prejiaratory  sketches ; 
for  trying  the  eilccts  of  any  work  pre- 
vious to  its  commencement,  as  well  as 
during  its  progress.  The  jiaper  has  this 
advantage,  that,  if  the  sketch  is  required 
to  be  [)reserved,  it  can  readily  be  pasted 
or  glued  upon  the  canvas,  and  then 
mounted  on  a  deal  frame,  when  it  will 
present  the  appearance  of  strained 
canvas. 

Grounds. — Much  diversitv  of  opinion 
has  existed  respecting  the  colour  of  the 
surface  of  the  prepared  canvas.  It  is  a 
subject  of  considerable  imjjortance,  for  it 
is  impossible  to  jiaint  a  richly-coloured 
]iicture,  with  life  and  warmth,  upon  a 
dull  unsuitable  ground.  A  landscape,  if 
caret'ully  handled,  can  be  biouglit  on  and 
finished  in  a  more  brilliant  manner  on  a 
white  grounil  than  on  any  other.  It  has 
however  been  objected  to  a  purely  white 
ground,  that  it  is  liable  to  impart  a  cold 
chalky  elTect ;  but  it  must  b3  remem- 
bered that  whit  is  at  first  white  in  oil, 
becomes  in  a  short  time  of  a  yellowish 
hue,  and  its  coldness  of  tone  is  thereby 
lowered.  The  white,  or  [lale  cream-co- 
loured, and  pale,  warm,  drab-coloured 
grounds,  see"!  to  surpass  all  others.  The 
reason  is  that  they  throw  a  light,  and 
oousequeatly  a  transparency,  through 
the  work  ;  and,  as  all  colours  in  oil 
paintiug  have  a  tendency  to  sink  into  the 
ground  on  which  they  are  laid,  and  to 
become  darker,  this  tendency  can  be 
counteracted  only  by  having  grounds  of 
considerable    lightness    and    brilliancy. 


Cold  grey  grounds  have  been  used  in 
landscape  painting ;  but  they  impart  a 
heaviness  of  colouring  much  to  be 
avoided.  Some  artists  have  painted  on 
grounds  of  a  dull  red,  or  leather-coloured 
tint,  and  much  richness  may  be  gained 
by  such  tints ;  but  after  a  time  tlie  co- 
lours of  any  portion  that  may  have  been 
thinly  painted  sink  into  this  strong 
ground,  and  the  ell'ect  j)roduced  is  heavy 
and  disagreeab.e.  Upon  the  whole,  a  white 
ground  is  to  be  preferred,  as  soon  as  thn 
learner  has  acquired  some  experience  of 
the  subsequent  ell'ect  of  his  colours  ;  but 
as  the  inexperienced  find  much  dilliculty 
in  preventing  the  coldness  and  poverty 
of  expression  which  it  is  likely  to  cause 
under  their  hands,  it  will  be  advisable 
for  the  beginner  to  take  the  usual  light 
stone  drab  that  is  generally  given  tc 
canvas;  for  it  furnishes  him  with  a 
middle  tint  or  tone  to  start  from,  which, 
when  visible  in  shadows  and  middle  tints, 
has  not  the  raw  chalkiness  shown  uudei 
similar  circumstances  on  an  unskilfuUj 
or  imjierfectly  covered  white  ground. 

\'ehiclks  are  used  to  temper  and 
thin  the  colours,  for  the  pur})ose  o." 
bringing  tiiem  to  a  projier  workin? 
state.  All  oils  or  varnishes  act  more 
or  less  to  the  eventual  ]>rejudice  of  th« 
colour  with  which  they  are  combined 
for  ajiplication.  What  is  desired  in  oil 
painting  is  a  vehicle  which,  while  it 
has  an  agreeable  working  ([uality,  shall 
neither  change  nor  be  degradeil  by  time, 
nor  interfere  with  the  purity  of  the 
tints  as  they  ajipear  at  tlie  moment 
they  are  tu-st  laid  on; — a  vehicle,  that 
shall  neither  perish  nor  crack  as  it 
b:comes  old. 

Oils. — The  linseed,  poppy,  and  nut 
oils  are  the  fixed  oils  used  as  vehicles: 
turpentine  and  occasionally  spike- 
lavender  are  the  essential  oils  so  used. 
Of  the  fixed  oils,  linseed  is  in  most 
common  use.  It  should  be  of  a  pale 
amber  colour,  transparent,  and  limju'd  ; 
and,  when  used  in  moderately  warm 
weather,  it  should  dry  in  a  day.  The 
most  valuable  qualities  of  liu^eed  oil,  as  a 
vehicle,  consist  in  its  great  strength  and 
flexibility.  It  is  by  far  the  strongest  oil, 
and  the  one  which  dries  best  and  firmest 


102 


WORKGHOP   RECEIPTS. 


under  projier  man.igeirfnt.  The  next 
in  iinportiince  is  pojipy  oil.  It  is  in- 
ferior in  strength,  tenacity,  and  drying, 
to  linseed  oil ;  but  it  has  the  reputation 
of  kee[)!ng  its  colour  better  than  lin- 
seed oil  ;  and  it  is  on  this  account  gene- 
rally einjiloyed  in  grinding  white,  and 
most  of  the  light  jiignients.  Nut  oil  is 
more  imcertain  in  its  qualities  than 
either  linseed  or  poppy  oil;  and  is  fre- 
quently extremely  long  in  drying.  Poppy 
oil,  however,  su])plies  its  jilace  so  well, 
that  it  is  not  commonly  required.  Oils 
are  all  more  or  less  influenced  in  their 
drying  by  the  colours  with  wliicli  they 
are  combined ;  some  of  which  greatly 
accelerate,  while  others  retard  it.  With 
certain  colours  some  oils  will  scarcely 
dry  at  all,  unless  means  are  employed 
to  cause  them  to  do  so. 

Jdpaimers'  Gold  Siie  is  sometimes 
cinjiloyed  as  a  powerful  means  of  drying 
dark  and  trans]iarent  colours,  which  are 
in  general  comiiaratively  bad  dryers. 

Me<jilps, — The  vehicles  known  by  this 
name  are  in  great  favour  with  artists. 
'I'hey  possess  a  gelatinous  texture,  which 
enables  them,  while  flowing  freely  frcnn 
the  pencil,  yet  to  keep  their  ])l;;ce  in 
painting  and  glazing.  The  megilp  ge- 
nerally in  use  is  formed  by  mixing  to- 
gether e()ual  parts  of  strong  mastic 
varnish  and  di-ying  oil.  Aftjr  remain- 
ing undisturbed  for  a  (c\\  minutes,  it 
assumes  a  gelatinous  texture,  resembling 
a  thin,  transjiarent,  amber-coloured  jelly. 
Megilp  varies  in  colour,  as  it  is  made 
with  either  a  pale  or  deep -coloured 
drying  oil.  The  palest  is  made  by  using 
insteail  linseed  oil,  in  which  a  small 
quantity  of  finely-ground  sugar  of  lead 
has  i'een  dill'uscd.  Willi  ei|Ual  parts  of 
this  comjiound,  and  of  mastic  varnish,  a 
very  light  megilp  is  obtained.  Another 
niegil)!  is  made  by  mixing  1  part  of  a 
K.'itui'aled  Holution  of  sugar  of  lead  in 
water,  with  '1  ]iarts  of  linseed  or 
popjiy  oil.  'I'he.sc  are  to  be  well  stirred 
or  shakec  together,  till  tliey  arc  com- 
bined; and  then  2  |)arts  of  mastic 
varnixh  added,  and  well  mixed  with  the 
precedinij.  \iy  this  means  a  white 
creamy  emulsion  is  obtained,  whicii, 
tliough    opaque    in   use,    becomes   aiiite 


transparent  as  it  dries.  A  compound 
used  occasionally  in  combination  with 
megilp,  and  consisting  of  1  jiart  of 
copal  varnish,  1  part  of  linseed  or 
pojijiy  oil,  and  1  part  of  turpentine, 
will  furnish  a  i)leasant  and  serviceable 
vehicle  for  general  use.  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  to  fo  -ce  its  drying  by  the 
addition  of  ground  sugar  of  lead,  when 
employed  with  slowly-drying  j)igments. 
Glazing. — A  glaze  is  a  thin  trans- 
parent film  of  colour,  laid  u])on  another 
colour  to  modify  the  tone,  or  to  aid  the 
etlect  of  the  latter;  the  work  thereliv 
ajipearing  distinctly  through  the  super- 
imposed layer  of  glaze,  from  which  it 
receives  a  characteristic  hue.  Glazing 
is  effected  by  diluting  proper  trans- 
parent colours  with  megilp  or  other 
suitable  vehicle.  Thus  diluted,  these 
colours  are  laid  ujion  ]iortions  of  the 
work,  either  in  broad  llat  tints,  or  in 
touches  partially  and  judiciously  dis- 
tributed. The  object  of  this  process  is 
to  strengthen  shadows,  and  to  give 
warmtli  or  coldness  to  their  hue;  to 
subdue  lights  that  are  unduly  obtrusive, 
or  to  give  additional  colour  and  tone  to 
those  that  are  deficient  in  force  and 
richness.  Should  it  Le  necessary  to 
lighten  the  tone  of  any  part  of  the  pic- 
ture, this  cannot  Iw  done  by  merely 
glazing;  the  first  tints  must  first  be 
concealed  with  brighter  colours,  of  sulli- 
c^ent  body  for  that  purjiose,  and  the 
glaze  may  then  be  applied.  The  glaze 
should  usually  be  darker  than  the 
ground  colour  ujion  which  it  is  to  be 
laid  ;  ami,  as  a  rule,  it  may  be  oi)sprved 
that  the  first  painting  of  the  pictuie 
should  be  brighter  than  the  siiliject  may 
require,  in  order  that  tlie  subsequent 
glazings  may  lower  and  obscure  it  to  a 
proj'er  and  ell'cctive  degree  of  tone. 
Glazing  is  generally  effected  by  the  ap- 
jdicition  of  diluted  transparent  colours; 
but  occasionally  semi-trausp:irent  co- 
lours are  used  for  this  jxirjioso,  provideil 
they  are  rendereil  sullicicutly  transpa- 
rent by  the  admixture  of  a  large  pro- 
jiortion  of  vehicle.  These  latter  glazing* 
are  capable  of  being  applied  with  ox<"el- 
lent  effect,  where  it  may  be  necessary  lo 
modify  the  tones  of  those  parts  of  tke 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


103 


picture  which  do  not  ap]iear  satisfac- 
tory, or  to  produce  particular  effects, 
such  as  represeiitatious  of  pmol;e,  dust, 
mists,  and  tlie  liije.  Caution  is,  how- 
ever, necessgjy  in  glazing  with  opaque 
colours ;  because,  if  used  in  excess,  they 
will  deteriorate  the  picture,  by  destroy- 
ing its  transparency.  Should  a  glazing 
produce  a  result  different  from  what 
was  intended,  the  glaze  may  easily  be 
removed  by  a  rag,  or,  if  the  spot  be 
small,  by  the  finger,  provided  the  re- 
moval be  effected  immediately,  that  is, 
before  the  glaze  has  had  time  to  fasten 
itself  upon,  or  to  soften,  the  colour  on 
which  it  is  laid ,  and  in  no  case  must 
glazing  be  attempted  before  the  colours 
over  which  it  is  laid  have  become  per- 
fectly dry  and  firm. 

Impasting.  —  In  oil  painting,  the 
shadows,  or  dark  portions  of  the  picture, 
are  painted  thinly,  while  the  lights  are 
laid  on,  or  impasted  with  a  full  pencil 
and  a  stiff  colour.  In  the  lights  of  the 
foreground,  and  of  parts  not  intended 
to  be  remote,  or  to  retire,  the  impasting 
should  be  bold  and  free ;  while,  in  the 
more  brilliant  lights,  it  cannot  well  be 
too  solid.  There  is,  however,  a  reason- 
able limit  to  the  practice;  since  actmil 
protuberance  or  prominence  of  the  paint 
itself  will,  in  certain  lights,  produce  a 
false  shadow,  and  therefore  a  bad  and 
false  effect.  This  will  be  understood, 
from  observing  that  the  loading  of  thick 
masses  of  colour  upon  the  picture,  so  as 
to  make  them  project  considerably  from 
the  surface,  is  done  with  the  view  of 
their  being  strongly  illuminated  by  light 
actually  incident  upon  the  picture,  and 
of  thus  mechanically  aiding  in  the  pro- 
duction of  roundness  and  relief,  or  in 
giving  a  sparkling  effect  to  polished  ob- 
jects or  glittering  points.  But  this  ar- 
tifice must  be  had  recourse  to  sparingly 
and  cautiously  ,  else  it  defeats  its  own 
object,  and  produces  a  coarse  and  vulgar 
air  and  effect.  The  palette  knife  has 
always  been  a  favourite  instrument  of 
this  impasting,  or  laying  on  of  colour, 
capable  as  it  is  of  producing  an  agree- 
able brightness  on,  and  of  giving  an  ap- 
propriate flatness  to,  th?  pigment.  A 
clear  and  appropriate  tint,  for  instance, 


skilfully  swept  across  a  sky  by  these 
means,  often  produces  a  surprisingly 
brilliant  and  charming  efi'ect. 

Scumbling. — Scumbling,  the  opposne 
process  to  that  of  glazing,  is  dune  by 
going  lightly  over  the  work  with  an 
opaque  tint,  generally  produced  by  an 
admixture  of  white.  For  this  purpose 
a  hog-hair  brush  is  employed,  charged 
with  colour  but  sparingly ;  and  with  it 
the  tints  are  drawn  very  thinly,  and 
somewhat  loosely,  over  the  previous 
painting,  which  should,  as  in  the  case 
of  gla-.ing,  be  dry  and  firm.  Stumb- 
ling is  used  to  modify  certain  effects, 
by  rendering  the  portion,  to  which 
it  is  applied,  cooler,  greyer,  and  in 
fact  less  defined,  than  it  was  before, 
and  to  give  air  and  distance  to  ol)jects 
that  seemed  too  near.  It  is  thus  oi 
service  both  in  correcting  a  tendency  tc 
muddiness  or  dirtiness  of  colour,  and  to 
what  may  be  called  hardness  or  over- 
distinctness  of  detail,  and  in  weakening 
the  force  of  colours  that  are  too  power- 
ful by  softening  and  uniting  such  tints 
as  may  be  too  violently  contrasted. 
It  is  desirable  to  avoid,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, scumbling  over  shadows,  as  an 
inexperienced  hand  might  thus  destroy 
their  transparency. 

Harmony  of  Colours.  —  Har- 
mony of  colour  is  produced  by  an  equable 
use  and  distribution  of  the  primary  co- 
lours, whether  used  simply  as  Svich,  or 
united  in  various  proportions  in  their 
compounds.  Harmony  is  recognized  in 
a  picture  when  nothing  exists  in  it  that 
disturbs  the  eye  by  violent  opposition  or 
contrast  of  colours  ;  judicious  contrast, 
however,  tends  much  to  produce  har 
mony,  when  the  force  of  the  contrast  is 
diminished  by  the  juxtaposition  of  tones 
partaking  more  or  less  of  the  colours  em- 
ployed in  p)roducing  the  contrast.  This 
we  shall  find  is  the  process  employed  by 
nature,  the  reds  in  which  are  harmonized 
with  the  contrasting  green  by  hues  of 
orange,  or  yellow  green ;  and  so  with 
other  colours.  Harmony  of  colour  id 
painting  is  best  obtained  by  setting  the 
palette  with  those  pigments  which, 
through  the  prevalence  of  any  of  the  pri- 
maries, blend,  or,  as   it  were,  run  into 


104 


WORKSHOP   RECKIPTS. 


each  other.  Thus,  commencing  with 
white,  we  proceed  to  yellow,  orange,  or 
yellow-reds,  red,  blue-reds,  blues,  green- 
blues,  greens,  browns,  grey,  and  black. 
A  palette  can  be  set  warm  or  cold,  as  the 
subject  may  require,  by  selecting  pig- 
ments in  which  blue  predominates  or  is 
deficient. 


■!^:;>^^  for  Orange. 


E 

T 
cS 

C 

8 


^Bl0e    is    con-  f  Rc'l  and  \ 

I     trasl"d  by 

IRkd     is     con-  I  HI ue  and)  „,  f>,„„„ 
'     .      .   J  u  -^  \-  11        ,■  or  breen. 

(trasted  by  ..  (\ellow,  ) 
Yellow  Is  con-  (Blue  anili  „  r>.,„i„ 
trasted  by  ..{    Red.    )■  ^^  Purple. 

(n^  ,r,™„  r.r.  i  Rt^  *nd  )  is  contrasted  by 
Orange,  or  J  Y^ll^,^^.  j.      jj^^^^ 

)/-•.„  _     ,     (Blue  and)  is  contrasted  by 
Green,  o.-    -,  y,.i,^„._  j-      1,,.^. 

p ,     ^,.  j  Blue  and)  is  contrasted  by 

I  Purple,  or  |    j.^j^    ^      Yellow. 


Painting  in  Water  Colovirs. — 
The  practice  of  the  art  consists  of"  .sketch- 
ing the  outhne,  oftinting  or  shading  with 
sepia,  bistre,  or  iudia-iuk  ;  and  of  the 
application  of  the  pigments,  in  three  or 
more  successive  stages,  to  the  attainment 
of  a  finished  drawing.  Our  instructions 
must,  of  necessity,  be  of  a  general  cha- 
racter, because  almost  every  artist  of  ge- 
nius finds  out  for  himself  and  practises 
some  peculiar  methods  of  api)lying  the 
pigments,  which  c;in  only  be  learned  by 
those  who  become  his  pupils.  These  pe- 
culiar methods  constitute  the  various 
styles  of  the  masters  of  the  art,  by  which 
their  works  are  so  readily  recognized  and 
distinguished. 

Materials. — The  principal  materials 
required  by  the  painter  in  water  colours 
are  drawing  paper,  ivory,  for  miniatures, 
a  drawing  board,  pigments  or  colours, 
lead  pencils,  hair  pencils,  or  brushes, 
palettes,  slabs,  and  saucers,  cups  or  gla.sses 
for  holding  water,  sponge,  gum  water, 
ox-gall,  india-rubber,  drawing  ]iius,  a 
sharji  convex-pointed  knife,  aflat  ruler. 

'J'he  J'uintin;/  lioom. — The  choice  of  a 
situ;i.*ion  for  the  jjractice  of  ]):iiuting  is 
not  a  matter  of  indillerenoe  :  the  room 
should  be  well  lighted,  of  a  northern 
aspect,  if  possible,  and  free  from  reflected 
colours  from  ojiposite  objects.  As  dust 
and  grease  are  mimical  to  the  delicacy 
and  integrity  of  water-colour  painting, 
it  wi.l  bo  the  first  care  of  the  student  to 


guard  against  them.  Tlie  light  should 
fall  on  the  left  hand  of  the  painter,  and 
not  be  admitted  below  the  head.  A  room 
lighted  from  above,  or  by  a  skylight,  is 
much  to  be  preferred. 

Pencils,  or  Brushes  for  Water  Colours, 
— The  hair  pencils,  or  brushes  used  in 
water-colour  jiaintingare  made  of  camel- 
hair,  and  fitch,  or  sable.  The  best  are 
those  known  as  soft  brown  or  black 
sables ;  those  made  of  red  sable  are  not 
so  useful,  .as  they  possess  the  bad  quality 
of  stiffness,  and  disturb  the  colours  by 
their  harshness.  These  brushes  will  hold 
a  considerable  quantity  of  fluid,  and 
should  be  used  full,  but  not  to  overflow- 
ing, so  as  to  become  unmanageable, 
Af'ter  using,  they  should  be  careful! v 
washed  in  clean  water,  anil  then  slightly 
pressed  in  a  i>iece  of  clean  linen  rag.  A 
brush  ])ut  away  unwashed,  especially  if 
it  has  been  used  for  india-ink,  or  any  dark 
pigment,  can  scarcely  ever  be  cleaner! 
again  so  as  to  be  fit  to  use  with  light  or 
delicate  pigments.  For  large  drawings 
brushes  are  prepared,  both  round  and 
flat,  mounted  in  tin;  these  are  also  use- 
ful in  washing.  The  most  essentia;  ju.-.- 
lity  of  a  good  pencil  is,  that  it  should 
yield  a  good  point,  for  it  is  that  jjart  only 
which  is  used  ;  the  hairs  when  moisteneii 
should  form  a  cone  terminating  in  a  line 
and  delicate  point.  It  should  also  be  firm, 
yet  elastic,  returning  to  a  straight  direc- 
tion immediately  uj)ou  being  lifted  from 
the  paper. 

Jlanai/ancnt  of  a  Watcr-Colour  Draw- 
ing.— The  manipulation  in  water-colovir 
painting  is  of  the  greatest  simplicity,  con- 
sisting merely  in  selecting  the  pigments 
required,  mixing  from  them  the  various 
tints  the  >iiliiivt  demands,  ami  leaving 
them  in  their  proper  jilaces  upon  the 
paper.  These  pigments  are  rubbed  with 
boiled  or  distilled  water,  on  earthenware 
slabs,  with  theaiMition  of  a  small  quan- 
tity of  gum  water,  for  the  strong  mark- 
ing of  the  shadows,  and  ."io  on.  It  is  the 
usu.il  practice  to  lay  on  he  first  tints  or 
wa.shes  with  the  hari1-c;ike  pigments 
ground  on  the  slabs,  wnile  the  middle  or 
foreground  ia  painted  with  the  soft,  »r 
bo<ly-colours  ;  which,  i^y  remaiuing  *on- 
stanlly  moist,  are  always  ready  for  nsc 


V.'OUKSnOP    r.ECElPTS. 


lOl 


The  pigments  should  be  grounl  m  suf- 
ficiout  quantity,  and  with  so  much  water 
as  to  be  quite  fluid,  and  capable  of  en- 
tirely filling  the  b/ush  ;  the  superfluous 
quantity  can  be  easily  removed  by 
slightly  pressing  the  brush  on  the  edge 
of  the  jialette;  for  unless  the  pigments 
are  reduced  to  this  state  of  fluidity,  the 
drawing  acquires  a  dry  and  harsh  ap- 
pearance ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  an 
excess  of  fluidity  produces  a  thinness  and 
meagreness,  leaving  a  dark  edge  sur- 
rounding the  coloured  surface,  which  iu- 
fivitably  betrays  the  inexperienced  hand. 
The  progress  of  a  water-colour  drawing 
IS  from  simj'ly  washing  with  the  requi- 
site colours,  as  a  preparatory  stage,  and 
proceeding  by  gradual  and  delicate  addi- 
tions where  they  are  required,  and  so  on 
to  the  finishing,  which  consists  in  apply- 
ing the  colours  in  their  full  body  and 
strength,  giving  solidity  to  tlie  forms, 
and  a  detiniteness  to  the  outlines  tliat 
constitutes  a  finished  picture,  equal  in 
vigour,  freshness,  and  richness  of  tone  to 
oil  painting.  Jlany  parts  of  the  draw- 
ing must  unavoidably  be  gone  over  with 
colour  that  should  be  left  white  for  the 
high  or  brilliant  lights  :  tlie  colour  must 
be  removed  from  these  places  by  rubbing 
with  a  sharp  scraper  or  by  moistening 
the  spot  to  be  reclaimed  with  a  pencil 
dipped  in  clean  water;  after  it  has  re- 
mained a  few  moments,  the  moisture  is 
removed  with  a  jiiece  of  clean  blotting 
paper,  and  then  rubbing  the  surface  of 
the  pa}ier  by  means  of  a  white  handker- 
chief, india-rubber,  or  bread-crumbs. 

House  Painting-. — To  produce 
the  different  tints,  various  colours  are 
added  to  the  white-lead  base,  in  quantity 
according  to  the  intensity  of  the  tint  de- 
sired, amounting,  sometimes,  to  an  ex- 
clusion of  the  white-lead  in  the  upper  or 
finishing  coats.  The  following  are  the 
colours  generally  used  by  the  house 
painter  : — 

White.  —  White-lead,  Nottingham 
white,  flake  white. 

Black. — Ivory  black,  lampblack,  blue 
black,  patent  black. 

Yellows. — Chrome  yellow.  King's  yel- 
low, Naples  yellow,  yellow  ochre,  raw 
Bjrana,  yellow  lake. 


Brovsns. — Burnt  umber,  raw  umbi  r, 
Vandyke  brown,  purple  brown,  Sj'auisn 
brown,  York  brown. 

Heds. — Vermilion,  scarlet  lake,  crim- 
son lake,  Indian  red,  Venetian  red,  red- 
lead,  orange-lead,  burnt  ochre,  burnt 
sienna. 

Greens. — Brunswick  green,  emerald 
green,  verdigris. 

Blues. — Prussian  blue,  indigo,  cobalt, 
ultramarine. 

To  bring  these  colours  to  a  state  fit  for 
use,  they  are  ground  up  with  a  small 
quantity  of  oil  ;  but  for  painting  in  dis- 
temper, the  colours  must  be  ground  up 
in  water.  Linseed  oil  is  that  which  is  in 
general  use,  and  is  quite  sulficient  for  the 
purpose  of  the  plain  paiuter,  especially 
when  imjiroved  by  being  kept  for  several 
years,  as  it  then  loses  a  great  part  of  its 
colour.  In  rare  instances,  where  the  least 
yellowness  in  the  oil  would  be  injurious, 
nut  or  po]>py  oil  may  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage. Spirit  of  turiicntine  is  largely 
employed  in  oainting  ;  it  is  obtained  by 
distillation  from  crude  turpentine,  which 
is  procured  from  the  larch  and  fir  trees  : 
being  of  a  volatile  nature,  it  is  used  by 
the  jiaiuter  to  j>roduce  what  is  called  a 
flat ;  it  evai)orates,  and  leaves  the  paint 
without  the  least  shine.  It  is  also  em- 
ployed in  those  situations  where  oil  would 
not  dry,  as  in  the  first  coat  on  old  work, 
which  is  likely  to  be  a  little  greasy  from 
smoke. 

Driicrs. — To  hasten  the  drying  of 
paints,  driers  are  generally  used.  Those 
most  in  use  are  sugar  of  lead,  litharge, 
and  white  copjieras.  These,  when  well 
ground  and  mixed  in  small  portions  with 
l)aint,  very  much  assist  them  in  drying; 
indeed,  some  colours  will  not  dry  with- 
out them.  Ked-lead  is  also  an  excellent 
drier  ;  and  in  cases  where  its  colour  is 
not  objectionable,  is  much  used.  Sugar 
of  lead  IS,  however,  the  best  drier, 
though  somewhat  more  exjiensive  than 
the  others.  It  should  be  observed  that, 
in  the  finishing  coats  of  delicate  colours, 
driers  are  generally  avoided,  5s  they  have 
a  slight  tendency  to  injure  the  colour. 
Linseed  oil  has  sometimes  a  drying  qua- 
lity given  *o  it  by  boiling  with  drying 
substances,  which  recders  it  extrcmelv 


106 


WORKSHOP   RF^EIPTS. 


useful  on  some  occasions.  A  very  good 
drying  oil  is  made  by  boiling  1  gallon 
ot"  linseed  oil  with  a  i  lb.  of  litliarge, 
or  red-lead,  reduced  to  a  fine  powder, 
it  must  be  kept  sliglitly  boiling  for 
about  2  hours,  or  until  it  ceases  to  throw 
up  any  scum;  when  cold,  the  clear 
oil  must  be  poured  off,  and  kept  for 
use. 

House  Painters'  Tooi>s. — Tlie  brushes 
used  are  of  all  sizes,  both  round  and 
fl  it,  and  are  made  chiefly  of  iiog-hair. 
The  large  round  brush  called  the  pound 
brush,  and  a  smaller  one  called  the  tool, 
are  those  mostly  used  in  plain  work.  The 
bmallest  hog-hair  brushes  are  called 
fitches,  and  ai'e  used  I'm-  puttmg  in  small 
work  where  the  tool  would  be  too  lai'ge. 
The  pound  brush  is  used  as  a  duster  for 
some  time  previous  to  putting  it  in  co- 
lour, and  thus  it  is  rendered  much  softer. 
The  smallest  brushes  are  the  camel-hair 
pencils  with  long  or  short  hair,  acconling 
to  the  work  to  be  done.  The  stopping 
knife  has  a  shorter  blade  than  the  palette 
knife,  and  is  pointed.  It  is  used  for 
making  good  the  holes  and  cracks  with 
putty.  Putty  is  made  of  common  whit- 
ing, pounded  fine,  and  well  kneaded  with 
linseed  oil,  till  it  becomes  about  the  con- 
sistence of  stiif  dough. 

GiiiNoixG  CoLOuus  FOi:  HocsF,  Paint- 
ing.— When  a  colour-mill  is  not  used, 
the  grindstone  and  muller  is  an  apjiaratus 
necessary  to  every  painter,  as  the  purity 
of  the  colours  sold  ready  ground  at  the 
shojis  is  not  to  be  de[)ended  uimn  ;  and 
some  colours,  as  lakes  and  Prussian  blue, 
will  not  keep  long  after  grimiing.  Tlie 
grindstone  is  a  slab  of  j)orphyry  marble, 
or  granite,  about  two  feet  sfjuare ;  the 
chief  requisite  is,  that  it  be  hard,  and 
close-grained.  The  muller  is  a  hanlaud 
conical-formed  stom-,  the  diameter  of  the 
base  or  rul^bing  surface  of  wiiicli  should 
be  about  one-sixth  of  that  of  the  griml- 
Btone,  and  the  coiio  high  enough  to  get 
a  Hulficient  hold  of  it  with  the  han<l«. 
The  face  of  both  grindstone  an'!  muller 
hhould  be  perfectly  Hat  :inii  smooth.  A 
l;irge  jjalctte  knife  is  useil  to  gather 
the  colour  fri>*n  the  stone  as  soon  as  it 
is  sulliciently  ground.  All  substances 
employed  for  painting  in  oil  require  to 


be  ground  up  with  a  small  portion  ot  the 

oil,  previous  to  mixing  them  with  the 
whole  quantity  required  for  use ;  for  tnis 
pur])ose,  they  must  first  be  pounded,  and 
passed  through  a  tolerably  fine  sieve, 
then  mixed  with  a  portion  of  linseed  oil, 
just  sullicient  to  saturate  them  ;  a  quan- 
tity, about  the  size  of  a  small  egg,  is  to 
be  taken  on  the  point  of  the  palette  knife, 
and  placed  on  the  stone ;  the  muller  is 
then  placed  upon  it,  ami  moved  round 
about,  or  to  and  fro  in  all  directions, 
bearing  a  little  weight  on  it  at  the  same 
time.  This  should  be  continued  until  it 
is  ground  perfectly  fine,  having  the  con- 
sistence and  smoothness  of  butter.  The 
colour  must  be  occasionally  trimmed 
from  the  edges  of  the  stone  and  muller 
with  the  j>alette  knife,  and  put  under 
the  muller  in  the  middle  of  the  stone. 
When  sulliciently  ground,  it  is  removed 
from  the  stone  with  the  palette  knife, 
and  a  fresh  quantity  taken.  It  is  not 
well  to  have  much  colour  on  the  stone 
at  one  time  ;  it  makes  it  more  laborio'.is, 
and  will  take  a  longer  time  to  grind  the 
same  quantity  equally  well. 

Mixing  Colours  for  House  Paint- 
ing.— Before  the  colours  which  have  been 
ground  can  be  ajijdied  to  the  work,  tlicy 
must  be  rendered  fluid  by  theaddifion  of 
linseed  oil,  or  s])ints  of  tur])entiiie,  or 
certain  proportions  of  both.  Wliun  a 
tinted  colour  is  required  to  be  mixed  ufij 
a  small  quantity  of  the  jiroper  tint  should 
be  first  prepared  on  the  palette,  which 
will  serve  as  a  guide  to  mix  the  whole 
([uantity  by.  With  the  ground  white- 
lead  there  should  first  be  well  mixed 
a  portion  of  oil,  and  tlien  the  tinting  co- 
lour should  be  added,  ax  ascertained  by 
the  pattern  on  the  ]>Mlette.  When  these 
are  thoroughly  mixed  and  matched  to  the 
proper  tint,  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
oil  or  turpentine  is  to  be  added;  this  ia 
better  than  juitting  in  all  the  oil  at  once  . 
it  should  then  be  strained  through  a 
piece  of  fine  canvas,  or  fine  sieve,  and 
should  be  about  the  consistence  of  cream, 
or  just  so  as  to  work  easily.  If  it  is  too 
thick,  the  worK  will  have  an  uneven, 
cloudy  appearand!,  and  it  will  be  hard  to 
sjiread  ;  while,  if  it  be  too  thin,  it  will 
be  likely  to  run,  or  wil'  require  a  greater 


■WORKSHOP    RKCEIPTS, 


10"; 


number  of  coats  to  cover  the  ground,  and 
render  the  work  solid.  The  straining 
ought  not  to  be  neglected  where  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  work  is  studied. 

Painting  New  Work.  —  Clean  the 
work,  carefully  removing  all  projec- 
tions, such  as  glue,  or  whiting  spots ; 
this  is  easily  done  with  the  stopping 
knife  and  duster  ■  then  cover  over  the 
knots  with  a  composition  of  red-lead, 
called  knotting.  If  the  knots  are  very 
bad,  they  must  be  cut  out.  After  knot- 
ting comes  the  priming,  or  first  coat  of 
paint.  When  the  priming  is  quite  dry, 
all  nail-holes,  cracks,  and  defects,  are  to 
De  made  good  witn  putty ;  then  proceed 
to  the  next  coat,  called  the  second  co- 
lour ;  when  this  is  dry,  those  places  are 
to  be  stopped  which  were  omitted  in 
the  last  coat :  and  proceed  according  to 
the  number  of  coats  intended  to  be 
given.  It  should  be  observed  that  se- 
cond colour  for  new  work  is  made  up 
chiefly  with  oil,  as  it  best  stops  the 
suction  of  the  wood  ;  but  second  colour 
for  old  work  is  made  up  chiefly  with 
turpentine,  because  oil  colour  would  not 
dry  or  adhere  to  it  so  well.  The  colour 
should  be  spread  on  as  evenly  as  pos- 
sible; and  to  cflect  this,  as  soon  as  the 
whole,  or  a  convenient  quantity,  is  co- 
rered,  the  brush  should  be  passed  over 
It  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  in 
which  it  is  finally  to  be  laid  off;  this  is 
called  crossing.  After  crossing,  it  should 
be  laid  off  softly  and  carefully,  in  a  di- 
rection contrary  to  the  crossing,  but 
with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  taking  care 
that  none  of  the  crossed  brush  marks 
be  left  visible.  The  criterion  of  good 
workmanship  is,  that  the  paint  be  laid 
evenly,  and  the  brush  marks  be  not  ob- 
served. In  laying  off,  the  brush  should 
be  laid  into  that  portion  of  the  work 
already  done,  that  the  joining  may  not 
be  perceived.  Every  coat  should  be  per- 
fectly dry,  and  all  dust  carefully  re- 
moved, before  the  succeeding  one  is  laid 
over  it. 

Painting  Old  Work. — Carefully  re- 
move all  dirt  and  extraneous  matter  with 
the  stopping  knife  and  duster;  those 
places  near  the  eye  should  be  rubbed 
with  pumice-stone,  and  greasy   places 


should  be  well  rubbed  with  turpentine. 
Bring  forward  new  patches  and  decayed 
])arts  with  a  coat  of  priming ;  stop  and 
make  good  with  putty,  then  proceed 
with  the  first  coat,  or  second  colour,  in 
turpentine.  The  quality  of  the  next 
coat  will  depend  upon  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  to  be  finished.  If  it  is  to  be 
jKiinted  twice  in  oil,  and  flatted,  the 
next  coat,  or  third  colour,  should  be 
mixed  up  chiefly  in  oil,  and  tinted  like 
the  finishing  colour,  to  form  a  ground 
for  the  flatting.  The  greater  the  shine 
of  the  ground,  the  more  dead  will  be 
the  finishing  coat  or  flatting :  like- 
wise, the  more  dead  the  ground,  the 
better  will  the  finishing  oil  shine  ;  there- 
fore, it  is  a  general  rule  that  for  finish- 
ing in  oil  the  under  coat  should  be  tur- 
pentine, and  for  finishing  flat,  the  under 
coat,  or  ground  colour,  should  be  oil ; 
but  observe,  that  all  turpentine  under- 
coats have  a  little  oil  with  them,  and  ail 
oil  under-coats,  except  the  priming  or 
first  coat  on  now  work,  have  a  little 
turpentine  with  them.  Knotting  is  made 
with  red  -  lead,  carefully  ground,  and 
thinned  with  boiled  oil  and  a  little  tur- 
pentine. For  inside  work,  red  -  lead 
carefully  ground  in  watei",  and  mixed 
up  with  double  size,  is  a  good  substi- 
tute, and  is  generally  used :  it  must  be 
used  hot. 

Priming  for  New  Wor/i. — This  is  made 
of  white-lead,  with  driers  and  a  little 
red-lead  to  harden  it,  and  further  to 
assist  its  drying;  it  is  thinned  entirely 
with  oil,  and  should  be  made  very  thin, 
as  the  new  wood,  or  plaster,  sucks  it  in 
very  fast.  It  is  a  frequent  practice 
with  painters  to  save  the  oil  coats  by 
giving  the  new  work  a  coat  of  size,  or 
size  and  water,  with  a  little  whiting, 
called  clearcole ;  but  where  durability 
is  consulted,  this  should  not  be  done. 
The  size  stops  the  suction  of  the  wood  or 
plaster,  but  at  the  same  time  it  prevents 
the  oil  paint  from  adhering  to  the  work 
the  consequence  is,  that  it  is  apt  to  pe«l 
or  chip  oir,  especially  in  damp  places. 
Clearcole  is  sometimes  advantageously 
used  on  old  greasy  work  on  which  oil 
paint  would  not  dry. 

Second  Colour  for  New  Work,  or  oil 


1U8 


WORKSHOP    r;ECEll>r3. 


second  colour.  —  This  is  white -load 
thinned  with  oil  and  a  little  turpentine, 
with  suitable  driers.  Tlie  iiroportion 
of  driers  for  ordinar)'  cases  is  about  1 J  oz. 
to  10  lbs.  of  white-iead  ;  but  in  winter,  or 
under  other  unfavourable  circumstances, 
the  quantity  of  driers  must  be  increased. 

Second  Colour  for  Old  11  or/;,  or  tur- 
pentine second  colour. — This  is  white- 
lead  th!nne<i  with  about  3  jjarts  of  tur- 
pentine, and  1  of  oil,  also  a  little  driers. 
Where  mucn  turpentine  is  used,  less  driers 
are  rcquiied. 

Turpentine  Co'our. — This  is  only  useil 
when  the  work  is  to  be  finished  in  oil ; 
that  is  left  shining.  It  is  thinned  al- 
most entirely  with  turpentine,  that  tiie 
finisliing  coat  may  have  a  better  gloss. 

Third,  or  Ground  Colour,  is  thinned 
with  two-thirds  oil  and  one-third  tur- 
pentine, and  tinted  a  shade  darker  than 
the  finishing  colour. 

Finishiwj  Oil  Colour  is  thinned  with 
a  little  more  oil  than  turpentine,  and 
tinted  to  the  desired  colour. 

Flitttinrj,  or  finishing  turpentine  colour, 
is  thinned  entirely  with  turpentine,  and 
has  no  shine. 

Bastard  Fid  is  thinned  with  turpen- 
tine and  a  little  oil,  wiiicli  renders  it 
more  durable  than  the  perfect  llatting. 
To  procure  a  good  fiat,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  perfectly  even  glossy  ground,  and 
it  should  be  of  the  same  tint,  but  a  little 
ilarker  than  the  finishing  llat. 

Clearcole  awl  FinisU.  —  Sto])  defects 
with  putty,  clearcole,  and  tiui.->h  with 
oil  finishing  colour,  as  directed. 

Two  Coats  in  Oil. — Turpentine  second 
colour,  and  finishing  oil  colour. 

I'lco  Coats  in  Oil  and  Flat. — Turpen- 
tine second  colour;  third  colour;  and 
ri.it. 

Three  Coats  in  Oil.  —  Turpentine  se- 
cond colour;  turpentine  colour;  and 
finishing  cil  colour. 

Three  Coats  in  Oil  and  Flat  (old  work). 
— Turpentine  second  colour;  turpentine 
coiour;  third,  or  ground  colour;  and 
tl.ittiug. 

Fuur  Coats  in  Oil  (new  work). — Oil 
priming;  oil  second  colour;  turpentine 
idour;  and  oil  finisliing  colour. 

Four  Coats  in  Oil  and  Flat  (new  work). 


— Oil  priming;  oil  second  colour;  tur- 
pentine colour;  thi~d  or  ground  colour; 
ami  flatting. 

CoLocns   lOR   Ilocsi:  Painting.  — 
Stone  Colour. — White-lead,  with  a  little 
burnt  or  raw  umber,  and  yellow  ochre. 
Grey  Sto7ie  Colour. — White-lead,  and 
a  little  black. 

Drab. — White-lead,  with  burnt  unibei 
and  a  little  yellow  ochre  for  a  warm 
tint,  and  with  raw  umber,  and  a  little 
black  for  a  green  tint. 

Pearl  Colour,  or  pearl  grey. — White- 
lead  with  black,  and  a  little  Prussian 
blue. 

Shij  Blue. — White-lead,  with  I'lu-sian 
blue. 

French  Grcij.  —  White  -  lead,  with 
Prussian  blue,  and  a  little  lake.  These 
last,  used  in  various  jiroportions,  will 
make  purples  and  lilacs  of  all  shades. 

Fu'vn  Colour. — Wiiite-iead,  with  stdue 
ochre,  and  a  little  vermilion  or  burnt 
stone  ochre. 

Buff. — White-lead  and  yellow  ochre. 
Cream    Colour.  —  Same   as   the   last, 
with  more  white. 

Lemon  Colour.  —  White -lead,  with 
chrome  yellow. 

Oramje  Colour.  —  Orange  -  le.id,  or 
chrome  yellow  and  vermilion. 

I'each  Colour. —  White-lead,  with  either 
vermilion,  Indian  red,  purple  brown,  or 
burnt  stone  ochre. 

Gold  Colour. — Chrome  yellow,  with  a 
little  vermilion  and  white. 

\'iolct  Colour.  —  Wliite-lead,  with 
vermilion,  blue  and  black. 

Satje  Green.  —  Prussian  blue,  raw 
umner,  and  yellow  stone  ochre,  wi'h  a 
little  white,  and  thinned  with  boiled 
oil  and  a  little  turpentine. 

Olive  Green.  —  Kaw  umber,  with 
Piussian  Idiip,  thiuni'd  as  beloie. 

J'ea  Green. — Wiiite-lca.i,  with  Bnin?- 
wick  green,  or  with  1'iu.isian  blue  and 
chrome  y<  Mow, 

Chocolate  Colour. — Spanish  brown,  or 
Venetian  red  and  black,  thinned  with 
boih^l  oil  and  n  little  turpentine. 

J.cr.d  ColiMr. — Whiti-lead  and  black. 
Flain    Opai/ue  Oak    Colour. —  Wlnte- 
le.'iil,    with    yellow     uglire     and     l^iuut 
umber. 


WORKSHOP  itEcEirrs. 


lOU 


riahi  Opaiyif  ^fahojan'j  Colour.  — 
Purple  irowu,  or  Veuetiau  reJ,  with  a 
little  uiack. 

Iliac/;  should  be  ground  in  boiled  oil, 
and  thinued  with  boiled  oil  and  a  little 
turiK'utino.  It  will  be  obvious  that  the 
propnrtious  of  the  coloui-s  above  men- 
tioned must  be  determined  by  the  par- 
ticular tone  ot' colour  required. 

Cleaning  House  Paint. — Old 
paint  work  should  be  first  well  dusted, 
then  cleaned  by  washing  with  a  ley  of 
pearlash  and  water;  it  is  sometimes  no- 
cessai'v,  after  the  washing,  to  give  a  coat 
of  weak  size,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  dry, 
apply  varnish,  using  copal  for  light 
work,  and  c;\rriage  for  dark.  Some  hand- 
rails, doors,  and  so  on,  are  so  saturated 
with  grease,  that  no  washing  will  re- 
move it.  When  this  is  the  case,  brush 
the  foul  parts  over  with  sti-ong  fj-esh- 
made  lime-wash,  let  that  dry,  then  rub  it 
olf;  if  the  grease  is  not  removed,  repeat 
*,he  lime-washing,  until  the  gi'ease  is 
thoroughly  drawn  out ;  wash  the  lime 
clean  otl^  and  afterwards  apjdy  the  sizing, 
and  lastly  the  vai'nish. 

To  Paint  Plaster. — Five  coats  are 

generally  requisite  to  paint  ])laster  well ; 

but  where  it  is  not  of  a  very  absorbent 

nature,  four  are  found   to  answer.     Ihe 

first  is  composed  of  white-lead,  diluted 

with  linseed  oil,  to  rather  a  thin  consist- 

enrv,   in  order  that  the  plaster  niav  be 

•  ^       .  .     .       • 

well  saturated  ;  aud   into  this   is  put  a 

small  quantit}'  of  litharge  to  ensure  its 
drving.  In  painting  quick  piaster,  the 
o'd  in  this  coat  is  entirely  absorbed,  thus 
hardening  it  to  the  extent  of  about  the 
eighth  of  an  inch  inwards  from  the  sur- 
face. When  this  is  found  to  be  the  case, 
the  second  coat  sliouhl  also  \>e  thin,  that 
the  plaster  may  be  thoroughly  saturated  ; 
and  it  will  be  found  necessary  al'ter  this 
to  give  other  three  coats,  making  in  all 
five.  The  second  coat  will  be  found  to  be 
b\it  partially  absorbed,  and  it  is  there- 
fore requisite  to  make  the  third  coat  a 
good  deal  thicker,  and  to  introduce  into 
it  a  little  sjiirits  of  turpentine,  and  such 
oi  the  colouring  pigments  already  enume- 
rated, as  may  bring  it  somewhat  near  to 
the  tint  of  which  the  apartment  is  to  be 
finished.     The  fourth  coal  should  be  as 


thick  as  it  can  be  well  used,  and  shoul<i 
be  diluted  with  equal  parts  of  oil  aud 
spirits  of  turpentine.  The  colour  of  it 
ouglit  to  be  several  shades  darker  than 
that  which  is  intended  for  the  finishing 
coat,  and  the  dry  ingredient,  sugar  of  lead 
instead  of  litharge.  These  coats  ought  all 
to  be  laid  on  with  much  care,  both  as  to 
smoothness  and  equality,  and  each  lightly 
rubbed  with  sand  paper  bel'ore  the  aj)pli- 
cation  of  the  other.  The  tiuiihing  or 
Hatting  coat,  as  it  is  termed  from  its 
drying  without  any  gloss,  is  next  applied. 
It  ought,  like  others,  to  be  composed  of 
]iure  white-lead,  ground  as  already  de- 
scribed, and  diluted  entirely  with  spirits 
of  turpeniiue;  and  it  should  ap[)ear, 
when  mixed,  a  few  shades  lighter  than 
the  pattern  chosen  for  the  wall,  as  it 
darkens  in  the  drying.  The  ilryiug  in- 
gredient sliould  be  a  small  p'lrtiun  of 
japauuers'  gold  size.  This  coat  must  be 
a]iplied  with  great  care  and  dispatch,  .\s 
tlie  s])irits  of  turpentine  evaporate  very 
rapidly,  and  if  touched  with  the  brush 
after  that  takes  place,  which  is  in  little 
more  than  a  minute  after  its  application, 
an  indelible  glossy  mark  will  be  left  on 
tlie  surface.  Nothing  has  been  said  of 
the  time  that  each  of' the  coats  will  take 
to  dry  suliiciently  to  receive  the  next,  as 
that  depends  much  ujion  the  state  of  the 
weather,  the  quantity  of  driers  employed, 
and  the  atmosphere  kept  up  in  the  apart- 
ment. It  may  be  observed,  however, 
that  umler  any  circumstances  the  first 
coat  ought  to  stand  a  few  days  befure  the 
apjilication  of  the  second;  the  second  a 
little  longer  bel'ore  the  application  of  the 
thiid  ;  and  the  third,  unless  in  four-coat 
work,  should  have  still  longer  time  tf 
harden.  Uut  the  coat  immediately  be- 
fore the  flatting  or  finishing  coat  ought 
not  to  stand  above  two  davs,  as  much  o'. 
the  beauty  aud  solidity  of  the  work  will 
depend  on  the  latter  dying  into,  and 
uniting  with  the  for.ner. 

Fresco  Painting-. — The  prepara- 
tion of  a  wall  for  t'resco  jiaintiug  is  a 
matter  of  time  and  should  proceed  with 
much  carefulness,  for  on  the  goodness  oi 
this  portion  of  the  work  depends  in  a 
great  measure  the  durability  of  the 
painting.     If  the  wall  is  already  covered 


no 


WORKSHOP   RECEll'TS. 


with  plaster  or  laths  it  should  be  cleared, 
the  bricks  thorouglily  scraped,  and  after- 
wards well  chipped.  See  that  the  bricks 
are  in  good  condition  and  j)ert'ectly  dry, 
and  then  proceed  to  lay  on  the  first  coat, 
consisting  of  river  sand  and  the  best  old 
lime,  mixed  to  about  the  usual  thickness. 
This  should  be  laid  on  so  as  to  leave  a 
level  but  rough  surface.  At  some  places 
on  the  Continent  small  flint  pebbles  are 
mixed  with  tliis  composition  to  give  the 
requisite  roughness.  This  grouud-work 
should  be  allowed  to  dry  tlioiuuglily  ; 
indeed,  unless  the  lime  is  old,  it  will  be 
some  considerable  time  before  it  will  be 
sar>  to  j-dt  on  the  intonaco  or  painting- 
surface.  This  should  be  prepared  with 
the  very  best  old  lime,  perfectly  free 
from  crit.  Tlie  lime  is  mixed  in  troughs 
to  tlie  consistence  of  milk,  and  is  then 
passed  through  hair  sieves  into  jars, 
wliere  it  is  allowed  to  settle,  and  the 
water  poured  off.  It  is  then  ready  to  be 
mixed  with  the  sand  (fine  quartz  sand, 
well  sifted,  is  the  best)  in  the  jiroportiou 
of  one  ]iart  lime  to  two  parts  sand.  Tlie 
implements  used  to  float  on  the  last  coat 
are  made  of  wood  or  glass,  but  trowels  of 
iron  may  be  used  if  free  from  rust,  and 
care  is  taken  not  to  press  the  iron  too 
forcibly  on  the  intonaco.  When  the  lime 
and  sand  coating  is  ready  to  be  laid,  the 
•ough  cast  must  be  wetted  thoroughly, 
iud  tiie  intonaco  floated  on  in  two  coats, 
the  List  with  rather  more  sand  than  the 
first.  The  thickness  of  tiie  two  should 
i<  about  -^glhs  of  an  inch.  After  these 
tre  siu'cad,  go  over  the  whole  with  a  roll 
of  w«;t  linen,  which  will  remove  the 
marks  of  the  trowel,  and  jirevent  the 
surface  being  too  smooth.  While  the 
ground  is  being  i)rei)ared  a  cartoon  or 
drawing  on  paper  is  made  of  the  subject, 
executeil  with  a  correct  outline  and  with 
the  wished-for  effect  ]iro]ierly  shown. 
When  the  finished  cartnon  is  made  the 
K.amc  sizi!  as  the  painting  it  is  usnally 
executed  in  black  and  white  with  ink  or 
crayons,  but  it  i.s  also  necessary  to  have 
a  study  of  the  subject  in  colours,  and 
tins  is  geniM'ally  dons  on  a  small  scale. 
The  jiigmeiitrt  used  are  mostly  niiin'rals, 
and  are  ground  and  a|i|ilied  with  pure 
watir.   Wilh  the  surface  of  tiic  wall  still 


wet  but  firm  and  smooth,  the  tracing  is 
laid  over  the  portion  prepared,  and  the 
lines  of  the  cartoon  slightly  indented  on 
the  plaster  with  a  blunt  point ;  or  the 
lines  have  small  holes  in  them  pierced  at 
certain  intervals  and  the  design  thus 
jjricked  out,  laid  upon  the  ground  and 
dusted  with  a  pounce-bag  containing  tine 
dry  powder,  and  thus  the  outline  is  re- 
peated on  the  ground  by  the  dots  of 
powder  which  have  passed  through  the 
minute  holes.  When  the  intonaco  has 
become  firm  enough  to  just  bear  the 
pressure  of  the  finger  the  first  washes  of 
colour  may  be  ])ut  on.  Jf  the  painting 
is  intended  to  be  large,  only  sulHcient 
plaster  is  put  on  to  serve  for  the  part 
which  can  be  accomplished  in  the  time 
at  the  disposal  of  the  painter,  usually 
enough  only  for  a  day's  work,  and  this 
jiortion  should  end  at  the  edges  of  Mune 
bold  outline,  as  flowing  drapery,  a  pillar, 
and  so  on.  A  dilliculty  in  fresco  paint- 
ing is  that  the  colours  become  much 
lighter  after  the  plaster  dries,  and  for 
this  allowance  must  be  made;  however  by 
jiractice  the  painter  may  overcome  this 
dilliculty,  and  can  test  the  diflereuce  bt- 
tweeu  the  colour  as  wet  and  as  dry  by 
putting  a  touch  upon  a  piece  of  umber, 
which  instantly  dries  the  colour  and 
shows  it  as  it  will  be  when  the  intonaco 


ha: 


■d. 


Transparent  Painting  on 
Liinen. — The  colours  used  in  traiis- 
jiarent  painting  are  mixed  with  megilp 
as  a  vehicle,  except  in  the  case  of  very 
light  colours,  when  turpentine  and  cojial 
varnish  must  be  used.  The  material 
u])on  which  trans])arencies  are  executed 
is  fine  muslin;  and  this,  before  being 
worked  upon,  should  be  strained  in  a 
straining  frame,  and  sized  with  either 
gilder's  size,  isinglass  size,  or  fine  co- 
lourless gelatine  dissolved  and  projierly 
diluted.  After  the  first  coat  of  size  iii 
dry  the  muslin  will  slacken  au'I  liang 
loosely  on  the  frauie.  It  should  be 
stretched  ;  another  coat  of  size  ajiplied; 
and  when  dry  the  muslin  again  pi- 
tended.  A  small  jtiecc  of  musriu  sliould 
at  the  same  time  be  prepared  as  a  trial- 
piece,  strained  in  tlie  same  way  as  the 
larger   jiiece,    iiii    when   dry   it  can   bit 


WORKSHOP   UECEIPTS. 


Ill 


used  to  determine  whether  the  muslin 
IS  sufficiently  sized,  or  whether  the  co- 
Jours  aie  in  working  condition.  The 
design  having  been  prepared,  it  may  be 
traced,  copied,  pounced  or  stencilled 
upon  tlie  prepared  muslin,  care  being 
taken  that  the  outline  from  which  the 
tracing  is  made  consists  of  strong  and 
decided  lines,  that  stencil  plates  are 
made  of  oiled  paper,  and  that  powdered 
charcoal  is  used  in  preference  to  any 
other  powder  for  pouncing.  The  in- 
structions for  oil  painting  will  apply 
equally  to  painting  transparencies,  ex- 
cept that  for  very  line  lints  sponge  can 
be  used  with  great  advantage  to  rub  in 
bread  flat  tints,  however  delicate.  Fine 
effects  may  be  produced  by  the  use  of 
two  transparencies,  arranged  one  behind 
the  other.  On  the  front  surface  is 
painted  all  that  is  required  to  be  seen 
in  the  clearest  relief,  the  painting  on 
the  surface  behind  being  modified  in  its 
effect  by  being  seen  through  the  front 
surface. 

Transparent  Painting  on 
Paper. — The  same  colours  as  those  of 
landscape  painting  are  used  for  trans- 
parencies, and  the  processes  are  also  the 
same  :  only  it  is  requisite  to  be  very 
attentive  in  washing  in  the  tints  with 
the  utmost  possible  correctness,  both 
with  respect  to  form  and  to  the  power 
of  colour,  as  the  surface  of  the  paper 
must  be  pieserved  clear  in  every  part, 
and  this  clearness  is  always  more  or  less 
injured  by  washing  out  or  sponging. 
The  ]).-iper  should  be  the  thinnest  hard- 
wove  drawing  paper  that  can  be  pro- 
cured, carefully  selected,  and  free  from 
luieveuness  or  inequality  of  texture. 
When  the  paper  has  been  selected  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  proposed  sub- 
ject, it  should  be  'aid  on  a  drawing 
board  and  fastened  there,  with  a  })ie<,e 
of  thick  paper  beneath,  in  order  that 
the  tints  may  be  distinctly  seen  during 
the  painting.  After  having  completed 
the  subject  so  far  as  relates  to  the  front, 
it  may  be  cut  off,  leaving  a  margin  of 
\  inch  in  breadth,  for  the  purpose  of 
gluing  it  down  in  the  following  man- 
ner. Take  a  sheet  of  Bristol-board, 
or,   if  the   subject    is  larger,  a  thicker 


material,  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
the  surface  of  the  whole  even  anJ 
flat.  From  the  centre  of  this  board  let 
a  uiece  be  cut  out  corresponding  with 
tfje  size  of  the  painting,  which  must  be 
placed  on  a  drawing  board,  with  its 
face  downwards.  Let  it  then  be  covered 
for  a  few  minutes  with  a  damp  cloth, 
to  cause  it  to  expand  a  little ;  and  in 
the  meanwhile  cover,  with  thick  gum  or 
glue,  the  edges  of  the  aperture  in  the 
board,  to  correspond  with  the  width  of 
the  margin  cut  off  with  the  painting. 
The  damp  cloth  may  now  be  removed, 
and  the  painting  turned  with  its  face 
upwards,  placing  the  board  upon  it  ac- 
curately, in  such  a  manner  that  the 
margin  may  adhere  securely  to  the  gum 
or  glue  in  every  part.  The  whole  may 
then  be  laid  on  a  flat  surface  to  dry. 
In  this  way  the  Bristol-board  will  form 
a  frame  of  such  width  as  may  be  adapted 
to  the  painting,  and  this  frame  may  be 
afterwards  ornamented  according  to  the 
taste  or  fancy  of  the  student.  It  may 
be  observed  that  the  brilliancy  of  a 
transparent  painting  will  be  increased 
by  the  opacity  of  the  border  by  which 
it  is  surrounded,  and  its  width  should  be 
regulated  by  the  size  of  the  painting. 
As  soon  as  the  whole  is  thoroughly  dry, 
the  painting  must  receive  such  additions 
at  the  back  as  may  be  requisite  to  bring 
it  up  to  the  full  luminous  effect  intended. 
For  this  purpose,  the  most  convenieut 
position  will  be  one  inclined  in  a  sloping 
direction,  similar  to  an  ai-tist's  easel,  and 
immediately  in  front  of  a  steady  light. 
When  the  painting  has  been  placed  in 
this  position,  it  will  immediately  be 
perceived,  that  however  strongly  it  may 
have  been  previously  tinted  or  touched 
in  the  front,  a  strong  light  will  cause  it 
to  ai)pear  comparatively  feeble.  But  as 
the  original  intention  of  the  workman 
will  still  be  impressed  on  his  mind,  this 
weakness  in  the  effect,  whici'  only  be- 
comes apparent  by  transmitted  light, 
will  suggest  tlie  addition  of  tints  to  pro- 
duce the  intended  power.  Where  more 
is  required,  it  must  be  cautioubly  aj>- 
plied  at  the  back  of  the  painting,  taking 
all  possible  care  to  jueserve  the  colours 
clear,  and   not  to   injure  or   rutlle  tn« 


112 


WORKSHOP    Ii£CEirTS. 


texture  of  the  paper,  repeating  the  tints 
till   the  due  power  is  obtained.     When 
considerable    power    is    required,    such 
colours  of  Indian  red,  Cologne  earth,  or 
viM-niilion,  must   be  selected   as   have    a 
semi-oi)a((ue   body;    but    care    must   be 
taken  not  to  lay  them  on  so  thicldy  as 
to  produce  blackness.     When  richness  is 
required,  lake,  Prussian  blue,  and  gam- 
boge, which   are  perfectly  transparent, 
are    well   adapted   to   communicate   not 
oalv  richness  but  delicacy  and  power  to 
h:iish.     When,    by  carelully   employing 
llie  means  just  pointed  out,  all  jiossible 
harmony  and  elfect  have  been  imparted 
to  the  painting,  it  may  be  rendered  ])ar- 
tially  or  wholly  luminous,  by  judiciously 
a]iplying  mastic  spirit  varnish.     With  a 
caiiu'l-hair    ji'Micii     nioderattdy  charged 
with  tliis  varn.sh,  let  such  jiarts  as  are 
in  the  highest  lights  be  carefully  touched 
as  well  as  the  major  part  of  the  sky,  and 
the  princi|)al  objects  of  the  piece  toge- 
ther with  whatever  i)art  may  require  it  | 
in  accordance  with  the  character  of  the 
scene.     If  the   whole   of  tlie   subject   is 
covered,   it   will    be   reiiuisito  to  spread 
the  varnish  with  a  tlat  camel-hair  brush, 
]iassing  it  quickly  from  snle  to  side,  and 
from  top  to  bottom,  so  tliat  the  varnish 
may  bo  equally  sj^read  with  all   possible 
expedition.     The   picture  mu»t   then  be 
left  to  dry.     After  the  varnish  has  be- 
come di-y,  by  mixing  a   little  ox-gall  in 
the    water   used    for    the   colnirs,  addi- 
tional  beauty   af  tint,   as    well  as  har- 
mony, may   be   imparted  to  such  parts 
as  ajipear  crude  or  har.sli. 

Painting  and  Preserving: 
Ironwork. — A  good  black  i>aiiit  for 
coarse  ironwork  may  be  made  by  mix- 
ing plumljago  with  hot  coal-tar.  Iviual 
|).irts  of  asphaltiim  and  resin  dissolved 
in  common  turpentine  make  also  a  good, 
ciieap  covering  for  heavy  ironwork. 
For  machlu'Ty,  dissolve  '2  11)S.  india- 
ruld.er,  A  Ib.s.  l■e^in,  and  2  liis.  shellac, 
D  .'.>  gallH.  of  benzine.  This  may  be 
liscil  with  Hliy  other  jiaint  as  a  veliide. 
Wroiigbt-irou  bridge*  are  painted  with 
wliilc-lead  a.s  follows:  The  ironwork  is 
Hr«t  ma<le  clean  by  ncrulibing  and 
brushing  ii  with  wirs  brushcH  •  this 
iuct,  all    the   cavities   ar.d   fissures  are 


filled   up  with  a  putty  of  litharge,  lin- 
seed oil,  varnish,  and    white-lead;    tli:r 
filling  being  dry,   brushing  is  repeated. 
Afterwards  a  paint  is  ajiplicd,  consisting 
of  300  lbs.  of  white-lead,    10  galls.  o( 
crude  linseed  oil,  1  or  '2  galls,  of  boiled 
linseed  oil,  and    IJ   gall,  of  turpeutint. 
Tliis  paint  is  repeated  when  sulliciently 
dry,  and  finally  evenly  overspread  with 
white  sand.      Galvanizing  is  emjjloyed 
also  to  prevent  rusting.     A  galvanizing 
paint    consists    chiefly   of   zinc   powdei 
and    oil    varnish.      Rusting    is    further 
]u-eveuteil   by   rubbing  the  red-hot  iron 
with    wax,    tallow,    pitch,    or    coal-tai-. 
Rubbing  with  heavy  petroleum   is  also 
widl  adapt etl  for  keeping  ironwork  clean. 
Painting   Sign    Boards.— Sign 
or  pattern  boards  ought  to  be  chosen  of 
old  well-seasoned  wood  ;  oak  or  mahogany 
is  much  the  best,  but  many  are  made  of 
pine,  which  ought  to  be  sound,  straight, 
close-grained,  well-dried,  and  made  with 
[lieces  let  in  across  the  back,  to  jireveiit 
warping.      Thus     prepared,    brush    the 
board   over   back   and    front  with   cciual 
quantities  of  raw  linseed  oil,  japanners' 
gold  size,  and  turjientine,  to  which  a<id 
a   little  ground    wliite-lead  ;  ilriving  or 
rulddng    out    the   colour   well  :   for  the 
second    coat,    take    equal    (luantities    of 
white-lead,  common   spruce  ochre,   and 
whiting,  ail  well  dried,  and  ground  (ine 
ami  still',  sejiarately  with   raw   oil  :   mi.\ 
the    whole    together;    add   sulliiieiit   of 
gold  size  to  cause  it  to  dry  quickly,  linn, 
and  hard;  dilute  with    turpentine  to  i 
proper   consistence,    and    apply    two   or 
three  coats  of  the  above  ccdour.     When 
drv  and  hard,  rub  it  smooth  with  either 
sand-paper  or  puinicc-stone  ainl   water; 
then  grind  equal  portions  ofs]U'uce  ochre, 
whiting,  bath-brick,  and  white-le.id,  with 
two  parts  oil   and   one  ]iart   turpentine, 
aililing   a   little  g(dd  size,  diluted   with 
turpentine,  and  apply  onO;  two,  oi-  time 
coats,    if   necessary,  taking  care  to   rut 
down   and    wash   olf  the    iK'.nel    between 
each  coat,  repeating  rubbing  and  colour- 
ing until  the  i)anel  is  a-<  smooth  and  b'vcl 
as  ]date  glass;   it  is  thru   (it  to  receive 
the  required  last  coat,  to  write,  marble, 
paint,  or  grain  up  ^.     The  finishing  ap- 
idication,  whethel    I  be  a   plain  grouU'l, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


113 


landscajw,  figure,  or  letters,  ought  to 
stand  until  thoroughly  dry  and  hard  ;  it 
should  finally  be  varnished  twice  over 
with  best  body  copal  or  amber  varnish, 
as  the  delicacy  of  the  painting  will 
admit. 

To  Prepare  Picture  Canvas. 
— Take  suitable  new  canvas,  stretch  it 
well  upon  a  stretching  frame,  wet  it  well 
with  clean  water,  and  afterwards  dry  it 
thoroughly ;  then  stretch  it  a  second 
time.  Grind  equal  quantities  of  white- 
lead  and  whiting,  well  dried,  with  five 
parts  of  raw  oil,  and  add  one  part  boiled 
oil  ;  prime  the  cloth  over  on  the  fece 
with  a  brush,  palette  knife,  or  trowel ; 
the  latter  is  prelerable,  to  those  who  can 
use  it.  After  the  canvas  has  had  sulli- 
cient  time  to  dry,  scrape  off  from  the 
back  any  superabundant  colour  which 
may  have  passed  through  tlie  canvas ; 
then  repeat  a  second  coat  on  the  face, 
leaving  it  as  smooth  as  possible.  When 
hard  and  dry,  rub  it  smooth  with  a  piece 
of  light  pumice-stone  and  water,  so  as  to 
cut  off  or  lay  all  the  knots  in  the  canvas  ; 
then  grind  two  parts  white-lead,  two 
parts  whiting,  and  one  part  burnt  ochre, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  pumice-stone, 
all  well  ground  separately  rather  stiff  in 
raw  oil ;  afterwards  mix  the  whole, 
adding  a  little  gold  size,  dilute  with  half 
raw  oil  and  half  turpentine,  and  apply  a 
third,  fourth,  or  fifth  coat ;  repeat  rub- 
bing down  with  pumice-stone  and  water 
until  smooth  enough  for  painting  upon. 

Varnishing'  valuable  Paint- 
ings.— Some  artists  employ  for  new 
[>aintings  white  of  egg  as  a  varnish,  others 
do  not  varnish  their  paintings  for  one  or 
two  years  after  being  finished,  when  the 
colours  are  completely  hardened  and  mel- 
low. Mastic  varnish  is  the  only  one  which 
can  be  removed  at  pleasure,  and  for  that 
reason  is  generally  preferred  to  all  others, 
although  it  is  very  liable  to  chill ;  that 
IS,  it  becomes  all  over  of  a  bluish  steamy 
hue,  which  obscures  the  beauty  of  the 
painting,  and  appeaj-s  disagreeable  to  the 
eye.  Many  circumstances  contribute 
towards  causing  it  to  chill  ;  for  instance, 
varnish  made  from  weak,  unripe  gum 
mastic  and  common  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine will  chill,  particularly  if  applied  on 


new  pamtings,  where  the  grounds,  oils, 
and  colours  are  fresh,  soft,  and  absorbent. 
In  order  to  prevent  this,  if  possible,  em- 
ploy no  varnish  but  that  made  from  fine, 
ripe  gum  mastic  and  rectified  turpentine. 
Varnish  for  oil  paintings,  after  being  pro- 
perly made,  ought  to  stand  for  at  least 
twelve  months  in  hu-ge  wide-mouthetl 
glass  bottles,  without  a  cork,  covering 
the  mouth  with  a  piece  of  glass,  so  as  to 
admit  the  air,  but  prevent  dust  falling 
in ;  place  the  bottle  so  as  to  receive  a  full 
light,  but  no  sun.  The  light  and  air  so 
change  and  modify  the  essential  quality 
of  the  turpentine,  that  the  varnish  be- 
comes elastic,  clear,  and  brilliant,  having 
so  much  improved  during  that  time  as 
seldom  or  never  to  chill  or  become 
steamy,  and  by  age  it  loses  that  attrac- 
tion which  all  new-made  varnishes  pos- 
sess for  moisture  and  impure  exhala- 
tions. Therefore,  as  a  preventive  against 
varnish  chilling,  employ  none  but  good 
old  varnish  ;  never  apply  it  on  new  or 
old  paintings  until  properly  cleaned,  and 
well  dried  from  moisture;  apply  the 
varnish  in  a  warm  room,  where  the 
pamtmg  and  varnish  also  receive  a  proper 
warmth  ;  after  the  varnish  is  applied,  let 
it  remain  until  properly  di-y  ;  recollect- 
ing that  with  all  new-painted  -pictures, 
where  the  grounds  and  colours  are  soft 
and  absorbent,  and  where  the  pictures  are 
afterwards  exposed  to  strong  moist  ex- 
halations, the  varnishing  in  time  will 
chill  ;  but  when  paintings  are  properly 
cleaned  and  varnished,  and  afterwards 
hung  up  in  dry  rooms  or  galleries,  there 
is  no  reason  to  fear  their  chilling. 

To  Preserve  a  Scaling  or 
Cracked  Painting. — The  prepara- 
tion  is  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  linseed 
oil  and  methylated  chloroform,  which 
is  to  be  poured  over  the  painting  if  the 
colours  are  too  brittle  to  bear  the  fric- 
tion of  a  soft  brush.  After  remaining  ou 
the  surface  of  the  painting  for  a  day  or 
two,  the  excess  of  oil  may  be  removed  by 
means  of  a  jiiece  of  cotton-wool,  or  a  soft 
brush,  a  fresh  portion  of  the  preservative 
applied,  and  the  excess  removed  as  before. 
The  process  must  be  repeated  from  time 
to  time  until  the  colours  are  firmly  fixed, 
when  the  painting  will  bear  £i-iction,  and 


114 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


may  be  submitted  to  the  cleaning  jn-o- 
cess  or  varnished.  It  is  advisable,  how- 
ever, to  remove  as  much  of  the  dirt  as 
possib'e  iVom  the  picture,  by  careful 
washing  with  soft  water,  previously  to 
the  application  of  the  fixing  agent.  The 
mixture  will  not  restore  the  cracks  in  a 
painting,  but  simply  fixes  the  colours,  and 
renders  the  painting  very  elastic.  A 
mixture  of  one  part  of  methylated  chlo- 
roform and  two  of  linseed  oil  is  used  lor 
reviving  the  colours  of  paintings.  A 
small  portion  is  rubbed  over  the  pictures, 
after  washing,  with  cotton-wool,  and  on 
the  following  day  the  j)aiutiug  is  wiped 
over  with  a  soft  silk  handkerchief.  Oil 
and  chloroform,  when  used  in  the  pro- 
portion given,  possess  the  property  of 
rt-sfoi-ing  the  faded  colours  of  paintings, 
and  develop  colours  which  have  perished, 
i,^«  the  eye,  by  age. 

Drying  Oils. — Poppy  Oil. — Take 
3  lbs.  or  pints  of  pure  water,  1  oz.  of 
sulphate  of  zinc  (white  vitriol),  and  2  lbs. 
of  poppy  oil.  Expose  this  mixture  in  an 
earthen  vessel  capable  of  standing  the 
fire,  to  a  degree  of  heat  sulllcient  to  main- 
tain  it  in  a  slight  state  of  ebullition. 
When  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  the  water 
has  evaporated,  pour  the  whole  into  a 
large  glass  bottle  or  jar,  and  leave  it  at 
rest  till  the  oil  becomes  clear.  Decant 
the  clearest  part  by  means  of  a  glass 
funnel,  the  beak  of  which  is  stopped  with 
a  piece  of  cork  :  when  the  separation  of 
the  oil  from  the  water  is  comjiletoly  ef- 
fected, remove  the  cork  stojiper,  and  su])- 
piy  its  place  by  tiie  forefinger,  which 
must  be  applied  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
suffer  the  water  to  escape,  and  to  retain 
only  the  oil.  I'opjiy  oil  when  prepared 
in  this  manner  becomes,  after  some  weeks, 
exceedin'^'ly  lim|iid  and  coloui'less. 

Kat  DfiviN')  Oils. —  1.  H  lbs.  nut  oil 
or  linseed  oil,  1  oz.  white-lead,  slightly 
talcined,  1  oz.  yellow  acetate  of  lead,  also 
ralcined,  1  oz.  sulphate  of  zinc  (white 
vitriol),  12  oz.  litharge,  and  a  head  of 
({ariic  or  a  Kmall  onion.  When  the  clry 
suostancfR  are  pulverized,  mix  them  with 
the  garlic  and  oil,  over  a  lire  capable  of 
maintaining  the  oil  in  n  slight  state  of 
ebullition  ;  continue  it  until  the  oil  ceases 
\n   throw   up  Rciim,   nsHiimes  a  reddish 


colour,  and  the  head  of  garlic  becomes 
brown.  A  pellicle  will  then  be  soon 
formed  on  the  oil,  which  indicates  that 
the  operation  is  completed.  Take  the 
vessel  from  the  fire,  and  the  pellicle  being 
precipitated  by  rest,  will  carry  with  it 
all  the  unctuous  parts  which  rendered 
the  oil  fat.  When  the  oil  becomes  clear, 
separate  it  from  the  deposit,  and  put  it 
into  wide-mouthed  bottles,  where  it  will 
completely  clarify  itself  in  time,  and  im- 
prove in  quality.  2.  IJ  oz.  of  litharge, 
•|  oz.  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  16  oz.  linseed 
or  nut  oil.  The  operation  must  be  con- 
ducted as  in  the  preceding  case.  The 
choice  of  the  oil  is  not  a  matter  of  indif- 
ference. If  it  be  destined  for  painting 
article*  exposed  to  the  impression  of  the 
external  air,  or  for  delicate  painting,  nut. 
oil  or  poppy  oil  will  be  recjuisite.  Lin- 
seed oil  is  used  for  coarse  painting,  and 
that  sheltered  from  the  elfects  of  the  rain 
and  of  the  sun.  A  little  negligence  in 
the  management  of  the  fire  has  ol\en  an 
influence  on  the  colour  of  the  oil,  to  which 
a  drying  quality  is  communicated;  in 
this  case  it  is  not  proper  for  delicate 
painting.  This  inconvenience  may  be 
avoiiled  by  tying  up  the  drying  matters 
in  a  small  bag;  but  the  dose  of  the  li- 
tharge must  tlien  be  doubled.  The  bag 
must  be  suspended  by  a  piece  of  pack- 
thread fastened  to  a  stick,  which  is  made 
to  rest  on  the  edge  of  the  vessel  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  keep  the  bag  at  the  dis- 
tance of  an  inch  from  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel.  A  ])ellicle  will  iie  formed,  as  ia 
the  first  operation,  but  it  will  be  slower 
in  making  its  appearance.  3.  A  drying 
quality  m;iy  be  communicated  to  oil  by 
treating,  in  a  heat  capable  of  maintaining 
a  slight  ebullition,  linseed  or  nut  oil,  to 
each  lb.  of  which  is  added  3  oz.  of  li- 
tharge, reduced  to  line  powiler.  4.  2  lbs. 
of  lilt  oil,  3  lbs.  of  common  water,  and 
2  oz.  of  .suljihate  of  zinc.  Mix  these 
matters,  and  subject  them  to  a  slight 
ebullition,  till  little  water  remains.  \h- 
cant  the  oil,  which  will  pass  over  with  a 
small  (|iiaiitity  of  water,  and  sejiaratc  the 
latter  by  means  of  a  funnel.  The  oil  re- 
mains nebulous  for  some  time;  after 
which  it  becomes  clear,  and  seems  to  b« 
very  little  coloured.     5.  6  lbs.  of  nut  oil 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


115 


or  linseed  oil,  4  lbs.  of  common  water, 

1  oz.  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  1  head  of 
garlic.  Mix  these  matters  in  a  large  iron 
or  copper  pan  ;  then  place  them  over  the 
fire,  and  maintain  the  mixture  in  a  state 
of  ebullition  during  the  whole  day :  boil- 
ing water  must  from  time  to  time  be 
added  to  make  up  for  the  loss  of  that  by 
evaporation.  The  garlic  will  assume  a 
brown  appearance.  Take  the  pan  from 
the  fire,  and  having  suilered  a  deposit  to 
be  formed,  decant  the  oil,  which  will 
clarify  itself  in  the  vessels. 

Resinous  drying  Oil. — Take  10  lbs. 
of  drying  nut  oil,  if  the  paint  is  destmed 
for  external,  or  10  lbs.  of  drying  linseed 
oil,  if  for  internal  articles.  3  lbs.  of 
resin,  and  6  oz.  of  turpentine.  Cause  the 
lesin  to  dissolve  in  the  oil  by  means  of 
a  gentle  heat.  When  dissolved  and  in- 
corporated with  the  oil,  add  the  turpen- 
tine :  leave  the  varnish  at  rest,  by  which 
means  it  will  often  deposit  portions  of 
resin  and  other  impurities ;  and  then 
preserve  it  in  wide-mouthed  bottles.  It 
must  be  used  fresh  :  when  suffered  to 
grow  old  it  abandons  some  of  its  resin. 
If  this  resinous  oil  assumes  too  much  con- 
sistence, dilute  it  with  a  little  essence,  if 
intended  for  articles  sheltered  from  the 
suu.  or  with  oil  of  popi)ies. 

Distempei'  for  Photographic 
Backgrounds. — Take  whiting,  IJ  to 

2  lbs. ;  lampblack,  3  oz. ;  damp  blue,  4 
oz. ;  glue,  1^  oz.  Dissolve  the  whiting 
in  2  quarts  of  water,  add  nearly  all  the 
blue,  then  add  the  black,  gradually  dry- 
mg  after  each  addition  by  dipping  in  it 
a  piece  of  paper  and  drying  at  the  fire, 
till  you  get  the  exact  colour  required. 
Then  having  dissolved  the  glue  in  warm 
water,  pour'  it  in,  to  keep  the  colour 
from  falling  off,  mix  thoroughly  together, 
and.  strain  through  canvas. 

To  Prepare  Zinc  for  Paint- 
ing.— Dissolve  1  part  of  chloride  of 
copjier,  1  of  nitrate  of  copper,  and  1  of 
sal  ammoniac,  in  64  parts  of  water,  and 
add  1  part  of  commercial  hydrochloric 
acid.  Brush  the  zinc  over  with  this, 
which  gives  it  a  deep  black  ;  leave  to 
dry  24  hours,  when  any  oil  colour  will 
Tirmly  adhei-e  to  it,  and  withstand  both 
neat  and  damp. 


Vehicle    for    Colour. — 1  oz.  oi 

borax,  2  oz.  of  shellac,  1  pint  of  water. 
Boil  a  few  minutes,  stir  with  a  piece  of 
wood  ;  or  1  oz.  of  liquid  ammonia,  2  oz. 
shellac,  1  pint  of  water.  Add  more  or 
less  shellac,  as  it  may  be  required. 

Putty. — Glaziers'  putty  is  made  of 
whiting  and  oil.  The  whiting  should 
be  in  the  form  of  a  very  dry  fine  powder  ; 
it  should  be  specially  dried  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  passed  through  a  sieve  of  45 
holes  to  the  inch,  and  then  mixed  with 
as  much  raw  linseed  oil  as  will  form  it 
into  stiff  paste ;  this,  after  being  well 
kneaded,  should  be  left  for  12  hours, 
and  worked  up  in  small  pieces  till  quite 
smooth.  It  should  be  kept  in  a  glazed 
pan  and  covered  with  a  wet  cloth.  It 
putty  becomes  hard  and  dry,  it  can  be 
restored  by  heating  it  and  working  it 
up  again  while  hot.  For  special  pur- 
poses white  -  lead  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  the  whiting,  or  the  putty  is  made 
of  white-lead  and  litharge  entirely. 

Purifying  Linseed  Oil. — It  is 
requisite  that  artists  should  have  the 
linseed  oil  they  use  perfectly  colourless, 
as  otherwise  it  would  spoil  the  more 
delicate  tints.  To  purify  it  is  extremely 
easy — even  putting  a  bottle  of  the  oil 
in  the  sun  for  some  days  will  accom- 
plish the  object ;  but  as  this  process  is 
somewhat  tedious,  it  is  better  to  put  in 
a  2-oz.  phial  three-quarters  full  of  good 
common  linseed  oil,  a  piece  of  whiting 
as  big  as  a  nut,  previously  powdered. 
Shake  them  together,  and  put  the  phial 
on  the  hob  of  a  stove,  or  in  an  oven.  In 
two  days,  and  sometimes  in  a  few  hours, 
the  whiting  will  have  carried  down  to  the 
bottom  all  colour  and  impurity,  and  the 
refined  oil  floating  at  top  may  be  poured 
off  for  use. 

Silicate  of  Soda  Paint.  —  A 
solution  of  silicate  of  soda  has  been 
found  by  Abel,  when  applied  like  paint 
to  wood,  to  give  ijt  a  very  considerable 
protection  against  fire,  as  well  as  to 
form  a  hard  coating  durable  ibr  several 
years;  it,  can  be  used  with  the  ordinary 
colours  like  distemper.  The  silicate  ot 
soda  must  be  in  the  form  of  a  thick 
syrup  of  a  known  degree  of  concentra- 
I  tion,  and  is  diluted   with   water  when 

I  2 


116 


WORKSHOr    EECEIl'TS. 


required  for  use,  according  to  the  pre- 
scription given  below.  Trie  lime-wash 
should  be  made  by  slaking  some  good 
fat  lime,  rubbing  it  down  with  water 
until  perfectly  smooth,  and  diluting  it 
to  the  consistency  of  thick  cream.  It 
may  be  coloured  by  admixture  with 
miueral  colours.  The  protective  coating 
:s  produced  by  painting  the  wood,  firstly 
with  a  dilute  solution  of  silicate  of  soda; 
secondly,  with  a  lime-wash ;  and  lastly, 
with  a  somewhat  stronger  solution  of 
the  silicate.  The  surface  of  the  wood 
should  be  moderately  smooth,  and  any 
covering  of  paper,  paint,  or  other  mate- 
rial, removed  entirely,  by  planing  or 
scraping.  A  solution  of  the  silicate,  in 
the  proportion  of  1  part  by  measure  of 
the  syrup  to  4  parts  of  water,  is  pre- 
pared in  a  tub,  pail,  or  earthen  vessel 
by  stirring  the  measured  proportion  of 
the  silicate  with  a  very  small  quantity 
of  the  necessary  water  until  a  complete 
mixture  is  i>roduced,  and  then  adding 
the  remainder  of  the  water,  in  successive 
quantities,  until  a  pei'fect  mixture  iu  the 
requisite  proportions  is  obtained.  TJie 
wood  is  then  washed  over  with  this 
liquid,  by  means  of  an  ordinary  white- 
wash brush,  the  latter  being  passed  two 
or  three  tin>es  over  the  surface,  so  that 
the  wood  may  absorb  as  much  of  the 
solution  as  possible.  Wlien  this  first 
coating  is  nearly  dry,  the  wood  is  painted 
with  the  lime-wash  in  the  usual  manner. 
A.  solution  of  the  silicate,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  part  by  measure  of  the 
synip  to  2  parts  of  water,  is  then  made 
as  above  described,  and  a  sufficient  time 
having  been  allowed  to  ela[)se  for  the 
wood  to  become  moderately  dry,  this 
liquid  16  ap[ilie<l,  upon  the  lime,  in  the 
manner  directeii  for  the  first  coating. 
The  preparation  of  the  wood  is  then 
complete.  If  the  lime  coating  has  been 
applied  rather  too  thickly,  the  surlace 
of  the  wood  may  be  found,  when  quite 
dry  after  the  third  coating,  to  give  olT 
a  little  lime  when  rubbed  with  the 
hand.  Id  that  case,  it  shouM  be  once 
more  coated  over  with  a  solution  of  the 
siliotte  of  the  first-n:im<-d  strength. 

To    Lino    Old    Paintings.  — 
1    Take  a  piece  oi    unbleached   calico, 


strain  upon  a  frame,  and  size  it  with 
weak  size.  When  dry,  take  |  oz.  spirits 
of  tur]ientine,  1  drachm  camphor,  dis- 
solve in  it  4  oz.  cold-drawn  linseed  oil, 
2  oz.  white-lead,  stiR"  ground  do.  umber, 
4  oz.  finely-washed  and  dried  whiting. 
Mix  all  together;  apply  to  the  calico 
well,  rubbing  it  iu;  alter  the  second 
coat,  pumice  to  erase  the  lumps.  Give 
the  picture  a  coat,  and  pumice  that ; 
then  coat  both,  and  put  them  together 
upon  a  level  board  face  down  upon  a 
piece  of  brown  paper  well  sized.  Well 
press,  and  rub  the  air  out,  so  as  to  bring 
them  in  perfect  contact,  and  in  a  few 
days  it  may  be  tacked  upon  a  frame. 
2.  JIake  a  temporary  stretcher,  and  let 
it  measure  inside  a  little  larger  than  the 
outside  of  the  jiicture  about  to  be  lined, 
and  on  it  stretch  some  unbleached  calico  ; 
trim  the  picture  square,  cutting  olf  all 
the  old  nails  and  ragged  edges.  Oil  a 
piece  of  paper  the  size  of  picture  with 
linseed  oil,  and  lay  it  on  a  fiat  surface; 
now  lay  the  jiicture  lace  downwards  on 
the  oiled  pajier,  and  coat  it  with  glue 
or  paste  until  there  is  sullicient  to  make 
it  stick  well ;  then  lay  the  unbleached 
calico  on,  rub  well  with  the  flat  of  the 
hand,  iron  it  with  flat  iron  till  quite 
dry,  taking  care  to  jiut  a  piece  of  papei 
between  the  calico  and  the  iron,  or  it 
may  stick,  lie  sure  the  iron  is  not  too 
hot;  and  if  it  is  a  large  picture,  it  will 
be  as  well  to  have  two  irons,  one  getting 
hot  while  the  other  is  in  use.  When  the 
picture  is  quite  dry  it  is  ready  for  put- 
ting on  the  new  stretcher,  which  should 
be  one  with  two  cross-b;irs,  and  can  lie 
obtained  at  any  artist's  colourman's.  Il 
you  cannot  make  some  good  stout  paste 
yourself,  you  had  better  buy  it  at  the 
leather  seller's,  and  add  glue  enough  to 
make  it  a  good  strength,  and  let  tiie  two 
be  well  mixed  togetlier. 

Ox-Gall  Purifying. — Evaporate 
fresh  ox-gall  to  a  syrup,  and, then  spread 
it  out  to  dry  in  a  thin  layer  on  a  plate 
placed  near  the  fire.  This  is  the  phar- 
macopeia ]>lan,  but  it  takes  none  of  the 
coliuir  out  of  ox-gall.  It  simjily  desic- 
cates tlie  bile,  which  c;;u  in  this  con- 
dition be  )nescrved  from  [nitrcfaction 
for  auy   length  of  lime  io  rlostly->toj« 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


117 


pered  bottles.  If  fresh  ox-gall  is  evapo- 
rated to  dryness  on  a  water  bath,  and 
then  treated  with  alcohol,  the  mucus 
and  epithelium  are  precipitated ;  but 
the  colouring  matter  still  exists,  and 
IS  not  precipitated  or  discharged  by 
digesting.  Again,  boil  1  pint  of  fresh 
ox-sall  with  1  oz.  of  alum,  and  m 
another  vessel  a  second  pmt,  with 
1  oz.  of  common  salt.  After  standing 
three  months  in  separate  bottles,  the 
clear  portion  from  these  solutions  is  to 
be  mixed  for  use.  But  the  solutions 
do  not  become  altogether  clear,  al- 
though they  keep  very  well  without 
putrefaction.  Ox-gall  may  be  tho- 
roughly discolorized  by  slightly  aci- 
dulating it  with  acetic  acid,  and  passing 
through  it  a  stream  of  chlorine  gas. 

To  Pvemove  Old  Paint.— Wet  the 
place  with  naphtha,  repeating  as  often  as 
is  required  ;  but  frequently  one  applica- 
tion will  dissolve  the  paint.  As  soon  as  it 
IS  softened,  rub  the  surface  clean.  Chlo- 
roform, mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of 
spirit  ammonia,  composed  of  strong  am- 
moniac, has  been  employed  very  suc- 
cessfully to  remove  the  stains  of  dry 
paint  from  wood,  silk,  and  other  sub- 
stances. 

To  Destroy  Paint. — Mix  1  part 
bj'  weight  of  American  pearlash  with  3 
parts  quick  stone  lime,  by  slaking  the 
lime  in  water  and  then  adding  the  pearl- 
ash,  making  the  mixture  about  the  con- 
sistence of  paint.  Lay  the  above  over 
the  whole  of  the  work  required  to  be 
cleaned,  with  an  old  brush  ;  let  it  re- 
main 14  or  16  hours,  when  the  paint 
can  be  easily  scraped  olf. 

Fireproofing  Shing-le  Roofs. 
— A  wash  composed  of  lime,  salt,  and 
fine  sand  or  wood-ashes,  put  on  in  the 
ordinary  way  of  whitewash,  renders  a 
shingle  roof  fiftyfold  more  safe  against 
fire  from  falling  cinders,  in  case  of  fire 
in  the  vicinity.  It  has  also  a  preserv- 
ing influence  against  the  eilect  of  the 
weather ;  the  older  and  more  weather- 
beaten  the  shingles,  the  more  benefit 
derived.  Such  shingles  are  generally 
more  or  less  warped,  rough,  and  cracked. 
The  application  of  wash,  by  washing  the 
upper   surface,   restores  them  to  their 


original  or  firm  form,  thereby  closing 
the  space  between  the  shingles,  and  the 
lime  and  sand,  by  filling  up  the  cracks, 
prevent  it  warping.  By  the  addition 
of  a  small  quantity  of  lampblack,  the 
wash  may  be  made  of  the  same  colour  as 
old  shingles,  and  thus  the  offensive  glare 
of  a  whitewashed  roof  is  removed. 

Remedy  for  Damp  Walls. — 
f  lb.  of  mottled  soap  to  1  gall,  of  water. 
This  composition  to  be  laid  over  the 
brickwork  steadily  and  carefully  with  a 
large  flat  brush,  so  as  not  to  form  a  froth 
or  lather  on  the  surface.  The  wash  to 
remain  24  hours,  to  become  dry.  Jlix 
^  lb.  of  alum  with  4  galls,  of  water  • 
leave  it  to  stand  for  24  hours,  and  then 
apply  it  in  the  same  manner  over  the 
coating  of  soap.  Let  this  be  done  in  dry 
weather. 

To  "WTaitewash,  or  Coloui'- 
wash.. — If  a  room  is  to  be  whitewashed 
or  coloured,  the  walls  and  ceiling  are  to 
be  washed  with  clean  water,  frequently 
changed,  the  rough  patches  scraped 
smooth,  swept  with  a  broom,  and  all 
cracks  and  loose  places  carefully  stopped. 
When  this  is  done,  before  proceeding 
further,  all  the  rubbish  should  be  cleared 
from  the  room  and  the  floor  swept.  In 
some  instances,  as  after  illness,  it  will 
be  the  best  to  make  the  whitewash  of 
lime,  for  lime  is  a  good  purifier.  But 
as  lime-wash  is  apt  to  turn  black,  white- 
wash is  generally  made  by  putting  whit- 
ing to  soak  in  water  overnight,  and 
afterwards  mixing  very  smooth,  as  thick 
as  cream,  and  with  about  a  teacupful  of 
size  to  2  galls,  of  wash,  which  will  pre- 
vent its  rubbing  off  when  dry :  or  potato 
starch  may  be  used,  which  leaves  the 
white  uninjured.  Another  mode  is  to 
mix  into  a  stiff  paste,  with  cold  water, 
6  balls  of  whiting  ;  to  this  add  2  lbs.  of 
very  hot,  but  not  boi.ing,  size,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  blue  black  ground  fine, 
and  let  the  whole  get  cold.  Whitewash 
thus  prepared  may  be  altered  to  any  re- 
quired colour:  yellow  ochre  mixed  with 
a  small  quantity  of  blue  black  makes  a 
stone-colour ;  without  the  black,  a  buff 
or  straw  colour;  and  warmer  tints  may 
be  produced  by  using  inrt  go  or  the  blue 
black  above  mentioned,  or  Venetian  or 


118 


WORKSHOP   IIECEIPTS. 


orange  red  ;  vermilion  will  give  different 
shades  of  pink,  and  a  green  may  be  ob- 
tained with  mixture  of  indigo  and  yellow 
ochre.  Some  care  will  be  required  in 
the  mixing,  but  if  too  much  of  the  co- 
louring matter  is  not  added  at  iirst,  it 
will  not  be  dilficult  to  get  a  colour  ac- 
cording to  taste.  By  a  little  manage- 
mont  the  wash  may  be  laid  on  without 
splashing,  the  method  being,  not  to  take 
too  much  at  a  time  into  the  brush,  or  to 
jerk  it  at  the  end  of  the  stroke.  As  a 
rule,  ceilings  or  walls  should  be  white- 
washed at  least  once  a  year,  and  oftener 
whenever  necessary.  For  common  work 
a  mixture  of  J  a  bushel  of  lime,  1  lb.  of 
common  salt,  ^  lb.  of  sulphate  of  zinc, 
and  a  gallon  of  sweet  milk  can  be  used. 
For  bricJiwork  exposed  to  damji,  take  J  a 
peck  of  well-burnt  lime,  fresh  from  the 
kiln,  slake  with  water,  than  add  a  sulli- 
cient  quantity  of  water  to  reduce  it  to  a 
paste,  pass  through  a  fine  sieve ;  add  a 
gallon  of  clean  white  salt,  which  has 
been  dissolved  in  boiling  water,  and  a 
thin  smooth  paste,  also  liot,  made  from 
1  lb.  of  fine  rice  flour  ;  also  |  lb.  of  best 
glue,  made  in  a  water  bath.  Mix  these 
ingredients  all  together,  stir  them  well, 
and  then  add  J  lb.  of  best  Spanish  whit- 
ing dissolved  in  5  qts.  of  boiling  water. 
Stir  again,  and  cover  over  to  retain  the 
heat  and  keep  out  dirt.  Let  it  stand  a 
week,  when  boil  again  and  ajqily  hot. 
The  above  ])roporti()ns  will  suliice  to 
cover  40  squ.ire  yards. 

Paper  Hanging. — If  the  walk 
are  quite  new  and  smoothly  finished,  the 
only  ])re]iaration  usually  necessary  is  to 
lay  on  a  thin  coat  of  weak  .size,  the  use 
of  the  .size  being  to  make  a  surface 
to  which  the  paper  will  stick  better 
than  to  the  bare  wall.  In  jirepariug 
an  old  whitewashed  or  coloured  wall 
for  pai)er,  the  wash  or  colour  is  wetted 
with  water  .-lud  scrajied  olT  with  an  old 
plane-iron,  or  any  ])iece  of  steed  which 
hn.s  3  amootli  edge,  .after  which  tlie  wall 
'"  'iiid  be  swept  down  with  a  still'  Ih'ooiii 
nove  all  that  the  scra[)cr  may  have 
left  and  make  an  even  surface.     If  there 

any  loose  plaster,  those  jiarts  should 
L.;  wi'll  sizi.'d  and  have  a  jiiece  of  thin 
Strong  paper  pasted  over  tlieni ;  but  the 


best  way  is  to  get  the  pUcc  re-plastcrofl. 
Cracks  or  holes  may  easily  be  filled  with 
a  little  putty ;  in  no  cast  should  they  be 
left.  If  not  stopped  in  any  other  way^ 
slips  of  jiaper  should  be  pasted  over  them, 
or  else  the  cracks  will  soon  show  througn 
the  outer  pa))er.  After  all  tiiis  is  done 
the  room  may  be  sized,  and  the  size  will 
be  dry  enough  in  an  hour  for  the  paper- 
ing to  be  commenced.  If  the  room  has 
been  already  pajiered,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  go  over  the  walls  and  tear  otf 
all  the  loose  pieces,  especially  at  the  top 
and  bottom,  corners  and  edges.  It'  the 
bare  wall  is  exposeil  by  the  tearing  off, 
these  spots  should  be  sized.  The  walls  of 
rooms  finished  in  a  superior  manner  are 
generally  plastered  three  coats,  and  upon 
the  plaster,  when  quite  dry,  a  coating  of 
liuiug-paper  is  laid  to  obtain  a  smooth 
surface.  Sometimes  common  thin  canvas 
is  used  instead  of  lining-paper,  and  occa- 
sionally instead  of  plaster.  In  the  latter 
case  battens  should  be  fixed  against  the 
walls  to  fasten  the  canvas  to  and  pre- 
vent it  touching  the  walls.  Tiie  prejia- 
rations  having  been  made,  the  hanging 
of  the  paper  may  be  proceeded  with : 
the  rule  is,  that  the  edges  of  the  pajjcr, 
when  hung,  shall  be  towards  the  window. 
The  appearance  of  many  a  handsome 
paper  has  been  spoiled  from  careles-sness 
or  ignorance  in  this  particular;  but 
wlien  this  precaution  is  observed,  the 
lajqied  joints  scarcely  show.  First  of 
all,  the  edges  of  the  paper  are  to  be  cut, 
and  as  the  hanging  is  to  begin  at  the 
window  on  each  side,  that  edge  which  is 
cut  close  for  one  side  must  not  be  cut 
close  for  the  other.  This  ])()iiil  being 
deciiled,  unroll  a  yard  or  two  of  one  oi 
the  pieces  of  pajier,  cut  the  edge,  unroll 
a  yard  or  two  more,  roll  up  loosely 
the  part  that  is  cut,  and  continue  till 
the  end  is  reached,  when  the  ])roce8S 
being  rejieated  with  the  other  edge, 
the  piece  will  be  at  last  rolled  up 
again  ns  it  was  at  starting.  Not  more 
than  about  a  \  inch  of  ])nper  ohould  be 
lefl  at  the  edge  which  is  not  cut  close. 
If  there  is  a  back  and  a  front  window  io 
the  room,  the  same  rule  must  be  ob- 
served, and  the  finish  will  cnmc  in  the 
corner  most  out  ol' sight,  by  the  m.intel- 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


119 


piece,  or  at  the  back  of  the  folding  doors. 
When  the  edges  are  finished,  the  paper 
IS  to  be  cut  into  lengths,  about  J  an  inch 
longer  than  the  height  of  the  room  ;  but 
they  must  be  cut  so  that  the  second  will 
match  the  fir'it,  and  so  on.  There  are 
certain  dots  or  marks  on  the  edges  which 
show  where  the  match  is,  and  if  the 
length  I'equired  comes  between  these 
dots,  the  portion  down  to  the  next  dot 
must  be  cut  off  after  each  length,  which 
will  bring  the  match  the  same  as  where 
it  started  in  the  first  length.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  cut  straight  across, 
and  as  many  lengths  may  be  cut  as  will 
be  sufficient  for  two  sides  of  the  room. 
These  are  to  be  turned  altogether  the 
plain  side  uppermost,  and  the  first  one 
may  be  pasted.  If  the  paper  is  thin 
and  common,  it  must  be  put  on  the  wall 
immediately ;  but  if  of  good  quality,  it 
is  to  be  left  to  soak  for  two  or  three 
minutes,  while  for  a  stiff  glazed  or  flock 
paper,  from  five  to  eight  minutes  would 
not  be  too  much.  The  reason  is,  to  give 
time  for  both  sides  to  become  equally 
damp,  otherwise  there  is  no  certainty 
that  the  paper  will  stick.  The  first 
length  is  to  be  put  up  with  the  close-cut 
edge  close  to  the  woodwork  round  the 
iviudow.  Having  brought  the  top  to 
meet  the  ceiling,  see  that  the  length 
hangs  straight,  trying  it  if  necessary  by 
a  plumb-line,  then  taking  it  by  the  lower 
end,  lift  it  away  from  the  wall  all  but 
about  3  inches  at  the  top,  then  let  it  fall, 
and  it  will  drop  into  its  place  without  a 
wrinkle.  Now  with  a  soft  clean  cloth 
begin  at  the  top  and  press  the  paper 
to  the  wall  all  down  the  centre  to  the 
bottom,  then  beginning  from  the  top 
again,  press  it  from  the  centre  to  eacJi 
side  alternately,  regularly  downwards. 
If  this  operation  be  properly  done,  the 
length  will  be  perfectly  close  to  the 
wall  and  smooth  in  every  part.  It  is 
not  to  be  pressed  heavily  ;  but  the  cloth 
being  taken  in  the  hand  as  a  round  loose 
lump,  must  be  moved  quickly  over  the 
surface — dab — dab — dab — with  a  light 
and  clean  touch,  otherwise  some  of  the 
colours  will  be  apt  to  smear.  Last  of 
ail,  mark  -with  the  end  of  the  scissors 
VPnere  the  paper  meets  the  skirting,  cut 


off  all  that  is  over,  and  press  the  end 
carefully  into  its  place.  Proceed  with 
tlie  second  le:igth  in  the  same  way, 
bringing  the  close-cut  edge  to  meet  the 
pattern  of  the  first  one,  and  taking  care 
that  no  gap  is  left  between.  Neglect  o£ 
these  precautions  will  convert  a  hand- 
some paj)er  into  a  sight  that  wiU  be  a 
constant  eyesore.  Try  the  lengths  fre- 
quently with  the  plumb-line  U'  avoid 
the  chance  of  getting  out  of  upright, 
and  remember  that  the  outside  end  of 
the  jjiece  is  always  the  toj)  of  the  pajxir. 
Paste  is  best  made  with  old  flour,  water, 
and  a  little  size  or  glue;  alum  is  also 
added  to  paste  to  make  it  spread  more 
freely  without  losing  any  of  its  tenacity 
or  sticking  quality  ;  it  should  never  be 
used  while  warm.  The  paste  should  be 
rather  thicker  than  ordinary  gruel,  and 
laid  on  smoothly  and  equally,  not  put- 
ting too  much,  or  it  will  squeeze  out  at 
the  edges.  Where  this  takes  place,  it 
must  be  removed  with  a  clean  damp 
s]jonge :  any  accidental  smears  of  paste 
may  be  removed  in  this  way,  if  taken 
off  lightly  as  soon  as  they  are  made. 
Decorative  paper  for  covering  the  walls 
of  rooms  is  manufactured  in  pieces,  which 
arc  12  yards  long  and  20  inches  wide. 

Pavements, — Asphalte  pavements 
made  with  Val  de  Travers  compressed 
asphalte  are  laid  as  follows.  A  founda- 
tion is  formed  of  cement  or  lime  concrete, 
varying  from  6  inches  to  9  inclios  in  thick- 
ness, according  to  the  traffic.  The  mine- 
ral rock  in  its  natural  state,  and  without 
admixture  with  other  ingredients,  after 
being  broken  into  small  lumps  is  brought 
to  a  state  of  dry  powder  hy  subjecting  it 
to  considerable  heat  in  revolving  ovens  ; 
it  is  then  put  into  iron  carts  with  close- 
fitting  covers,  and  brought  on  to  the 
works,  taken  out,  laid  over  the  surface, 
and  whilst  hot  compressed  with  heated 
irons  into  one  homogeneous  mass  without 
joints.  The  finished  thickness  varies  from 
2  to  2^  inches,  according  to  the  tialHc  of 
the  place  in  which  it  is  laid,  and  it  further 
compresses  and  consolidates  under  the 
tralHc.  Val  de  Travers  liquid  asphalte 
is  laid  upon  a  concrete  bed  6  inches  thick, 
the  asphalte  surface  being  IJ  inch 
thick     The  rock  is  first  ground  to  a  fiue 


120 


■WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


powder,  aud  being  then  placed  iu  caldrons, 
from  5  to  7  per  cent,  of  bitumen  is  added 
to  solve  it ;  heat  being  then  applied,  it 
forms  into  a  semi-fluid  or  mastic  state, 
aud  when  iu  that  condition  about  GO  jier 
cent,  of  grit  or  dry  shingle  is  added  to  it, 
and  after  being  thoroughly  mixed  to- 
gether, the  compound  is  spread  over  the 
concrete  in  one  thickness.  With  Linimer 
asphalte,  a  concrete  foundation  9  inches 
thick  is  first  formed,  and  the  asphalte  is 
used  in  certain  proportions  by  the  judg- 
ment of  those  directing  the  work;  it  is 
broken  up  and  mi.xed  with  clean  grit  or 
sand  of  diflorent  sizes  according  to  the 
place  in  which  the  pavement  is  to  be 
laid  ;  a  small  quantity  of  bitumen  is  then 
•ndded  to  the  materials,  which  are  placed 
in  caldrons  on  the  spot,  made  liquid  by 
heat,  aud  the  compound  is  run  over  the 
surface  and  smoothed  with  irons  to  the 
proper  slopes  and  curvatures.  It  is  run 
in  two  thicknesses,  the  lower  stratum 
being  made  with  grit  of  a  larger  size  tliau 
that  of  the  upper.  The  total  thickness 
of  the  asphalte,  when  finislied,  is  from 
IJ  to  2  inches. 

JJarnett's  Liquid  Iron  Asplialle  can 
be  made  either  of  natural  or  artilkial 
asphalte,  mixed  with  pulverized  iron  ore 
or  sesquioxide  of  iron  and  a  small  pro- 
portion of  mineral  tar.  The  materials 
are  put  into  a  caldron  which  is  brought 
on  to  the  works,  and  are  made  into  a 
liquid  state  by  heat,  run  over  the  surface, 
and  smoothed  in  the  same  way  as  the 
other  liquid  asphaltes  mentioned  ;  the 
thickness  usually  laid  is  about  2  inches. 

Tar  Pavement. — Made  by  mixing  with 
fine  breeze,  or  small  coke,  just  enough  of 
thick  refuse  coal-tar  to  make  it  somewhat 
sticky;  put  a  thin  layer  on  the  smooth 
and  hariit;ncd  surface,  on  this  spread  a 
rouple  of  inches  of  metal,  or  i)ebblrs,  or 
coar.se  gravel,  then  a  thin  layer  of  the 
prepared  breeze,  covered  lightly  with  fine 
gravel,  and  beat  or  press  together.  It  is 
cheap,  .slightly  el.'i.stic,  and  durable. 

Concrete  I'atcmcnls. — 1.  The  terr:iza 
floors  used  in  Italy  at  the  present  day  are 
jiade  in  the  following  m.-inner: — 1st  co.it ; 
a  concrete  consisting  of  common  lime  \, 
Mud  .lud  (ine  gravel  J,  laid  G  inches  thick 
and  well  bcalcn  with  wooden  rammers  ; 


after  two  days  in  that  climate,  it  is  suf- 
ficiently dry  for  the  next  coat.  2nd  coat ; 
a  terraza,  consisting  of  pounded  brick  or 
tile  i,  common  lime  §,  sand  i,  of  the  con- 
sistency of  mortar,  laid  \\  inch  thick, 
well  beaten  with  a  light  tlat  rammer 
After  two  or  three  days  it  is  hard  enough 
for  the  next  coat.  3rd  coat ;  a  similar 
terraza,  but  with  the  grit  of  broken 
stones  instead  of  sand  in  it,  laid  on  like  a 
coat  of  plaster  with  a  trowel.  After  this 
has  been  laid  for  one  day,  a  layer  of  small 
hard  broken  stones  is  pressed  into  it; 
these  stones  should  be  of  some  stibstanro 
that  will  take  a  polish,  and  be  of  uuiforin 
size  (they  are  passed  through  a  gravel 
screen)  of  about  a  walnut  •  these  being 
afterwards  rubbed  to  a  smooth  even  sur- 
face with  some  smooth  hard  stone,  form  a 
kind  of  mosaic-work  ;  the  stones  are  fre 
queutly  selected  by  colour,  and  laid  in  the 
third  coat  to  a  rough  pattern.  They 
should  be  moistened  with  oil  or  water  till 
hard  set.  2.  Dig  the  earth  out  about 
8  inches,  fill  in  with  coarse  gravel  and 
stones,  well  rammed,  and  levelled  about 
5  inilies.  Mix  Portland  cement  to  the 
consistence  of  cream  and  pour  over, 
spreading  it  with  a  stilf  broom;  wnen 
hard  mix  finer  gravel  with  cement  and 
water,  and  fill  up  to  within  J  inch  of 
the  surface;  when  hard  mix  clean  sharp 
sand  and  Portland  cement,  half-and-half, 
with  water  to  about  the  thickness  of 
mortar,  and  finish,  slightly  rounding.  It 
should  not  be  walked  on  for  a  day  O'- 
two.  Cement  must  be  Portland,  and 
fresh. 

Lathing  and  Plastering. — The 
]daster  used  for  covering  the  walls  of 
buildings  is  a  mortar  comjiosed  of  lime 
or  cement,  and  sand,  mixeil  in  various 
proportions,  generally  with  a  little  hair  or 
som«  such  material  to  give  it  elasticity. 
It  is  laid  on  by  hand  with  a  trowel  in 
several  thicknesses  of  about  ^  to  J  inch 
each,  and  cither  on  the  bare  masonry  wall 
or  on  a  s|)crial  screen  of  lathing  m.'ide  for 
it,  to  either  of  which  it  ailheres  by  en- 
tering into  and  key.ng  itself  in  the  joints 
and  openings,  .'ind  by  its  ailhesivc  quality. 
With  some  variations  in  the  materials 
and  mixing,  it  is  used  for  exterior  and 
interior  work  and  Ctr  x-iliogs.     For  tht 


AVOUKSHOP    r.ECElPTS. 


121 


purjiose  of  assisting  to  keep  the  interior 
of  the  rooms  of  a  house  dry,  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  employ  lathing,  which  being 
detached  from  the  masonry  of  the  walls 
forms  a  lining,  distinct  in  itself,  and  not 
liable  to  the  cliect  of  moisture  which  may 
be  in  the  walls.  It  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance, in  plasterers'  work,  that  the  lime 
should  be  most  thoroughly  slaked,  or  the 
consequence  will  be  blisters  thrown  out 
upon  the  work  after  it  is  finished.  JIany 
plasterers  keep  their  stuffs  a  considerable 
period  before  they  are  wanted  t»  be  used 
in  the  building,  by  which  the  chance  of 
blistering  is  much  lessened.  WTien  a  wall 
IS  to  be  plastered,  it  is  called  rendering  ; 
in  other  cases  the  first  operation,  as  in 
ceilings,  partitions,  kc,  is 

Lathiii'j,  nailing  the  laths  to  the  joists, 
quarters,  or  battens.  If  the  laths  are  of 
oak,  wrought-iron  nails  must  be  used  for 
nailing  them,  but  cast-iron  nails  may  be 
employed  if  the  laths  are  of  fir.  The 
lath  is  made  in  3  or  4  foot  lengths,  and, 
according  to  its  thickness,  is  called  single, 
something  less  than  a  J  of  an  inch  thick, 
lath  and  half,  or  double.  The  first  is  the 
thinnest  and  cheapest,  the  second  is  about 
one-third  thicker  than  the  single  lath,  and 
the  double  lath  is  twice  the  thickness. 
When  the  plasterer  laths  ceilings,  both 
lengths  of  laths  should  be  used,  by  which, 
in  nailing,  he  will  have  the  opportunity 
of  breaking  the  joints,  whicii  will  not 
only  help  in  improving  the  general  key 
(or  plastering  insinuated  behind  the  lath, 
which  spreads  there  beyond  the  distance 
that  the  laths  are  apart),  but  will 
strengthen  the  ceiling  generally.  The 
thmnest  laths  may  be  used  in  partitions, 
tecause  in  a  vertical  position  the  strain  of 
the  plaster  u]iou  them  is  not  so  great ;  but 
for  ceilings  the  strongest  laths  should  be 
employed.  In  lathing,  the  ends  of  the 
laths  should  not  be  lapped  upon  each 
other  where  they  terminate  upon  a  quar- 
ter or  batten,  which  is  often  done  to  save 
a  row  of  nails  and  the  trouble  of  cutting 
them,  for  such  a  practice  leaves  only  a 
J  of  an  inch  for  the  thickness  of  the  plas- 
ter ;  and  if  the  laths  are  very  crooked, 
which  is  frequently  the  case,  sufficient 
space  will  not  be  left  to  straighten  the 
plaster. 


Laying.  —  After  lathing,  the  next 
operation  is  laying,  commonly  called 
plastering.  It  is  the  first  coat  en  laths, 
when  the  plaster  has  two  coats  or  set 
work,  and  is  not  scratched  with  the 
scratcher,  but  the  surface  is  roughed  by 
sweeping  it  with  a  broom.  On  brick- 
work it  is  also  the  first  coat,  and  is  called 
rendering.  The  mere  laying  or  render- 
ing is  the  most  economical  sort  of  plas- 
tering, and  does  for  inferior  rooms  or 
cottages.  What  is  called  pricking  up  is 
the  first  coat  of  three-coat  work  upon 
laths.     The  material  used  for  it  is 

Cuarse  Stuff,  being  only  the  prepara. 
tion  for  a  more  perfect  kind  of  work. 
Coarse  stuff  is  made  with  chalk-lime  pre- 
pared as  for  common  mortar,  but  slaked 
with  a  quantity  of  water,  afterwards 
evaporated,  mixed  with  ^n  equal  quan- 
tity of  clean,  sharp  sand  and  ox-hair,  at 
the  rate  of  1  lb.  of  hair  to  3  cub.  feet  of 
stuff.  After  the  coat  is  laid  on,  it  is 
scored  in  diagonal  directions  with  'j 
sciatcher  (the  end  of  a  lath),  to  give 
it  a  key  or  tie  for  the  coat  that  is  to 
follow  it. 

Lath  laycd  or  plastered  and  set  is  only 
two-coat  work,  as  mentioned  under  lay- 
ing, the  setting  being  the  gauge  or  mix- 
ture of  putty  and  plaster,  or,  in  common 
work,  of 

Fi7ie  Stuff,  with  which,  when  very  dry, 
a  little  sand  is  used.  Fine  stuff  is  a  mor- 
tar made  of  fine  white  lime  exceedingly 
well  slaked  with  water,  or  rather  formed 
into  a  paste  in  water  to  make  the  slaking 
complete:  for  some  purposes  a  sma.l 
quantity  of  hair  is  mixed  up  with  ii. 
Fine  stuff  very  carefully  prepared,  and  so 
completely  macerated  as  to  be  held  in  so- 
lution in  water,  which  is  allowed  to  eva- 
porate till  it  is  of  suilicient  consistence  for 
working,  is  called  putty,  plasterers'  putty. 

Settinj  may  1>3  either  a  second  coat 
upon  laying  or  rendering,  or  a  third  coat 
upon  floating,  which  will  be  hereafter  de- 
scribed. The  term  finishing  is  apiliej 
to  the  third  coat  when  of  stucco,  but  set- 
ting for  paper.  The  setting  is  spread  with 
the  smoothing  trowel,  which  the  workman 
uses  with  his  right  liund,  while  in  his  left 
he  uses  a  large  flat-formed  brush  of  hog's 
bristles.     As  he  lays  on  the  putty  or  &>i( 


122 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


witli  the  trowel,  he  draws  the  brush,  full 
of  water,  ))ack  wards  and  forwards  over  its 
surface,  thus  producing  a  tolerably  fair 
face  for  the  work. 

Floating. — Work  which  consists  of  three 
coats  is  called  floated :  it  takes  its  name 
from  au  instrument  called  a  float,  which 
is  au  implement  or  rule  moved  in  every 
di-ectiou  cu  the  plaster  while  it  is  soft, 
for  givmg  a  jierfectly  plane  surface  to  the 
secxmd  cait  of  work.  Floats  are  of  thi'ee 
sorts :  the  hand  float,  which  is  a  short 
rule  that  a  man  by  himself  may  use  ;  the 
quirk  float,  which  is  used  on  or  in  angles  ; 
and  the  Derby,  which  is  of  such  a  length 
as  to  require  two  men  to  use  it. 

Plaster,  float  and  set  is  the  teim  fur 
three  coats  of  i)laster  on  laths.  Tlie  first 
or  pricking-up  coat  is  of  coarse  stulf  put 
on  with  a  trowel  to  form  a  key  behind  the 
laths,  and  about  |  or  |  inch  thick  on  the 
laths  :  while  i',  is  still  moist  it  is  scratched 
or  scored  all  over  with  the  end  of  a  lath 
in  parallel  lines  3  or  4  inches  ajiart,  the 
scorings  being  made  as  deep  as  possible 
without  e.\i)Osing  the  laths ;  the  rougher 
the  edges  are  the  better,  as  the  object  is 
to  produce  a  good  key  for  the  next  coat. 
When  the  jiricking-up  coat  is  sullicicntly 
dry  not  to  yield  to  jiressure  in  the  slightest 
degree,  the  second  coat  or  floating  is  put 
on.  The  floating  is  of  flue  stulf  with  a 
little  hair  mixed  with  it;  ledges  or  mar- 
gins, 6  or  8  inches  wide,  and  extending 
across  the  whole  width  of  a  ceiling  or 
height  of  a  wall,  are  made  at  the  angles 
and  at  intervals  of  about  4  feet  apart 
throughout :  these  must  be  made  per- 
tcctly  in  one  plane  with  each  other  with 
the  help  of  straight-edges.  These  ledges 
are  technically  called  screeds.  They  form 
gauges  for  the  rest  of  the  work,  and  when 
they  are  a  little  set  the  spaces  between 
them  are  filb-d  up  flush,  for  which  a  Derby 
float  or  a  long  straight-edge  is  used.  The 
Bcrceds  on  ceilings  ought  to  be  levelletl, 
and  those  on  the  walls  pliimbcil.  When 
the  floating  is  sulliciently  set  it  is  swept 
with  a  birch  broom  for  the  third  coat  or 
netting.  The  third,  or  setting  coat,  should 
be  of  plasterci-s'  jiutty  if  the  ceiling  or 
wall  is  to  lie  whitened  or  coloured.  If  it 
is  to  be  papered,  the  third  coat  should  be 
of  Hoc  stuff,  with  a  little  hair  in  it.     If 


it  is  to  be  painted,  the  third  coat  should 
be  of  bastard  stucco  trowelled. 

Bastard  stucco  is  of  three  coats,  the 
first  is  roughing  in  or  rendering,  the 
second  is  floating,  as  in  trowelled  stucco  ^ 
but  the  finishing  coat  contains  a  small 
quantity  of  hair  behind  the  sand.  This 
work  is  not  hand-floated,  and  the  trowel- 
ling is  done  with  less  labour  than  what  is 
termed  trowelled  stucco. 

Troicelled  stucco,  which  is  the  best  sort 
of  jilastering  for  the  recejition  of  jiaint,  is 
formed  on  a  floated  coat  of  work,  and  such 
floating  should  be  as  dry  as  possible  before 
the  stucco  is  applied.  In  the  last  process, 
the  plasterer  uses  the  hand  float,  which 
is  made  of  a  piece  of  half-inch  deal,  about 
9  inches  long  and  3  inches  wide,  planed 
smooth,  with  its  lower  edges  a  little 
rounded  off,  and  having  a  handle  on  the 
ui)])er  surface.  The  ground  to  be  stuccoed 
being  made  as  smooth  as  possible,  the 
stucco  is  spread  u])ou  it  to  the  extent 
of  4  or  5  feet  square,  and  moistening  it 
continually  with  a  brush  as  he  proceeds, 
the  workman  trowels  its  surface  with  the 
float,  alternately  sprinkling  and  rubbing 
the  face  of  the  stucco,  till  the  whole  i& 
reduced  to  a  fine  even  surface.  Thus,  by 
small  i)ortions  at  a  time,  he  proceeds  till 
the  whole  is  completed.  The  water  aji- 
plied  to  it  lias  the  effect  of  hardening  the 
face  of  the  stucco,  which,  when  finished, 
becomes  as  smooth  as  glass. 

Ceilinf/s  are  set  in  two  different  ways ; 
that  is  the  best  wherein  the  setting  coat 
is  comj)Osed  of  i)lasfer  and  putty,  com- 
monly called  gauge.  Common  ceilings  are 
foriiu'd  with  ])laster  without  hair,  as  iu 
the  finishing  coat  for  walls  set  for  paper 

Pw/i/ini/  is  plaster  laid  on  boards,  fitted 
in  between  the  joists  of  the  floor  to  pre- 
vent the  passage  of  sound  between  two 
stories,  and  is  executed  with  coarse  stufl. 
Ill  the  country,  for  the  interior  coating 
of  dwiUingsand  outbuildings,  a  species  of 
plastering  is  usedcalleil  roughcast.  It  is 
cheaper  than  stucco  or  Talker's  cement, 
and  therefore  suitiibic  to  such  ])uri)0ses. 
In  the  process  of  executing  it,  the  wall  is 
first  pricked  up  with  a  coat  of  lime  and 
hair,  on  wliich,  when  tolerably  well  set, 
a  second  coat  is  laid  on  of  the  same  ma- 
terials OS  the  first,  both  as  smooth  as  pos< 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


123 


Bible.  As  fast  as  the  workman  finishes 
this  surface,  another  follows  him  with  a 
pailful  of  the  roughcast,  with  which  he 
bespatters  the  new  plastering,  so  that  the 
whole  dries  together.  The  roughcast  is 
a  composition  of  small  gravel,  finely 
washed,  to  free  it  from  all  earthy  parti- 
cles, and  mixed  with  pure  lime  and  water 
in  a  state  of  semi-fluid  consistency.  It  is 
thrown  from  the  pail  upon  the  wall,  with 
a  wooden  float,  about  5  or  6  inches  long, 
and  as  many  wide,  formed  of  §-iuch 
deal,  and  fitted  with  a  round  deal  handle. 
With  this  tool  the  plasterer  throws  on  the 
roughcast  with  his  right  hand,  while  in 
his  left  he  holds  a  common  whitewashers' 
brush  dipped  in  the  roughcast,  with  which 
he  brushes  and  colours  the  mortar  and  the 
roughcast  already  spread,  to  give  them, 
when  finished,  a  uniform  colour  and  ap- 
pearance. 

Builders'  Waterproof  Mas- 
tic Cement. — 1.  5  parts  river  sand  ; 
5,  ground  stone  lime ;  10,  red-lead,  m 
powder.  2.  10,  sand  ;  5,  powdered  whit- 
ing; 1,  powdered  red-lead.  3.  100,  sand; 
25,  plaster  of  Paris ;  10,  red-lead ;  5, 
yellow  ochre,  all  in  powder.  Each  of 
these  cements  must  be  mixed  with  boiled 
oil. 

Concrete  for  Foundations.  — 
5  parts  gravel  and  sand  to  1  part  fresh- 
burned  stone  lime,  ground  to  powdei-, 
without  slaking,  and  measured  dry. 
Well  turn  sad  shovel-  together,  with 
sufficient  water  to  slack  the  lime  into 
the  state  of  very  thick  mortar.  Chips 
and  small  pieces  of  stone  may  be  added 
with  advantage. 

Concrete  for  Masonry. — 1.  Screened 
sand,  9  parts  by  measure  ;  slaked  lime,  7  ; 
forge  ashes,  1 ;  puzzolana,  1.  2.  1, 
slaked  lime ,  1,  sea  sand ;  J,  furnace 
ashes. 

Concrete  for  Brickwork. — Slaked 
lime,  7  parts  by  measure;  sand,  12 
parts. 

Hydraulic  Mortars. — 1. 2 J  parts 
burnt  clay  ;  1  part  blue  lias  lime,  pul- 
verized and  ground  together  between 
rollers.  Use  immediately  2.  2  parts 
fresh  stone  lime ;  3,  wood  ashes,  mixed 
a^  for  common  mortar,  but  must  lie  until 
coll  and  be  beiten  several  times  before 


being  used,  3.  4  parts  blue  lias  lime. 
6,  river  sand  ;  1,  puzzolana  ;  1,  calcined 
ironstone. 

Builders'  Mortar. — 1.  3  parts  by 
measure  of  good  sharp  sand  to  2  parts 
grey  stone  lime,  mixed  with  water,  or  2 
of  sand  to  1  chalk  lime.  Sharp  road 
scrapings  may  be  used  instead  of  sand  ; 
and  where  taken  from  roads  kept  ir 
order  with  flint  or  gravel,  form  a  very 
good  mortar.  2.  1  part  grey  stone 
lime  to  3  river-sand  coarse  mortal-.     3. 

1,  stone  lime;  4,  coarse  gravelly  sand. 
4.  1,  lime;  2,  river  sand;  1,  blacksmiths' 
ashes.  5.  1,  lime ;  2,  sand ;  1,  rough 
ground  coke. 

Composition  for  Picture 
Frames. — 1.  To  make  compo  orna- 
ments for  picture  frames :  Boil  7  lbs.  of 
the  best  glue  in  7  half-pints  of  water, 
melt  3  lbs.  of  white  resin  in  3  pints 
of  raw  linseed  oil ;  when  the  ingre- 
dients are  well  boiled  put  them  into  a 
large  vessel  and  simmer  them  for  half 
an  hour,  stirring  the  mixture  and  taking 
care  that  it  does  not  boil  over.  When 
this  is  done,  pour  the  mixture  into  a  large 
quantity  of  whiting,  previously  rolled 
and  sifted  very  fine,  mix  it  to  the  con- 
sistence of  dough,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

2.  Dissolve  1  lb.  of  glue  in  1  gall,  of 
water;  in  another  kettle  boil  together 
2  lbs  of  resin,  1  gill  of  Venice  turpentine, 
and  1  pint  of  linseed  oil ;  mix  altogether 
in  one  kettle,  and  continue  to  boil  and 
stir  them  together  till  the  water  has 
evaporated  from  the  other  ingredients ; 
then  add  finely-pulverized  whiting  till 
the  mass  is  brought  to  the  consistence 
of  soft  putty.  This  composition  will  be 
hard  when  cold,  but  being  waimed,  it 
may  be  moulded  to  any  shape  by  carved 
stamps  or  prints,  and  the  moulded 
figures  will  soon  become  dry  and  hard, 
and  will  retain  their  shape  and  form 
permanently. 

.Firework  Making, — The  three 
prime  materials  of  the  art  of  jiyrotechny 
are  nitre,  sulpluir,  and  charcoal,  along 
with  filings  of  iron,  steel,  cojiper,  zinc, 
and  resin,  camphor,  lycopodium,  Sic. 
Gunpowder  is  used  either  in  grain,  hall 
crushed  or  finely  ground,  fci  diiferent 
purposes.     The  longer  the   iron   filings. 


124 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


the  brighter  red  and  white  sparks  they 
give;  those  buiug  preferred  which  are 
made  with  a  coarse  file  and  quite  free  from 
rust.  Steel  filings  and  cast-iron  borines 
contain  carbon,  and  aftord  a  very  brilliant 
rire,  with  wavy  radiations.  Copper 
filings  give  a  greenish  tint  to  flame;  those 
of  zinc,  a  fine  blue  colour ;  the  sulphuret 
of  antimony  gives  a  less  greenish  blue 
than  zinc,  but  with  much  smoke  ;  amber 
affords  a  yellow  fire  as  well  as  colojihony 
and  common  salt,  but  the  last  must  be 
very  dry.  Lampblack  jiroduces  a  very 
red  colour  with  gunpowder,  and  a  pink 
with  nitre  in  excess.  It  serves  for 
making  golden  showers.  The  yellow 
sand,  or  glistening  mica,  communicates 
to  fireworks  golden  radiations.  Vei'digris 
imi)arts  a  pale  green  ;  sulphate  of  copjier 
and  sal  ammoniac,  a  palm-tree  green. 
Camjihor  yields  a  very  white  flame  and 
aromatic  fumes,  which  mask  the  bad 
smell  of  other  substances.  Benzoin  and 
storax  are  used  also  on  account  of  their 
agreeable  odour.  Lycopodium  burns 
with  a  rose  colour  and  a  magnificent 
flame. 

Iron  tools  must  never  be  used  in 
making  fireworks  of  any  kind,  as  they 
are  liable  to  throw  out  sjtarks  when 
striking  against  a  hard  stony  substance, 
besides  which  the  sulphur  used  would 
injure  the  iron.  Brass  tools  may  be 
used,  but  cop])er  tools  are  lucferable. 

RoCKirrs. — Of  all  fireworks,  rockets 
are  among  the  most  noble  and  effective. 
The  ingredients  for  these,  the  apparatus 
employed,  and  the  detail  of  the  manu- 
ficture  of  them  may  be  considered  the 
(oundation  of  all  fireworks,  and  to  make 
thern  well  involves  the  same  principles, 
and  refjuires  the  same  caution,  as  in 
making  all  others. 

Sue  of  Rochets. — The  size  of  rockets 
18  indiwited  by  ounces  or  pounds ;  thus 
we  say,  au  eight-ounce  rocket,  a  pound 
rocket,  and  so  on;  by  this  expression  it 
ie  not  meant  that  the  rockets  weigh  so 
much  as  their  name  indicates,  but  that 
the  bore  or  cavity  will  just  sufl'er  a 
leaden  bullet  of  that  weight  to  jiass 
down  them.  .  For  example,  n  pound 
rocket  will  admit  n  leaden  bullet  that 
weighs  a  tiouu  1.     Rockutj  may  be  made 


of  any  size  from  1  oz.  up  to  50  or  wore 
pounds. 

Socket  Cases  or  Cartridges.  —  These 
may  be  made  of  any  kind  of  stiff  thick 
paper,  either  cartridge  paper  or  what  is 
equally  good  and  much  cheaper,  uamely, 
common  bag-cap  paper.  To  roll  up  the 
cases  you  must  have  a  smooth  round 
ruler,  or,  as  it  is  called,  a  former,  exactly 
the  size  of  the  cavity  of  the  rocket,  and 
10  or  12  times  as  long.  Then  lay  a 
sheet  of  the  paper  upon  a  slab  of  slate, 
marble,  or  glass,  and  paste  4  or  5  iu. 
along  the  end  of  it,  leaving  the  rest  ot 
the  sheet  of  paper  without  paste ;  then 
roll  it  smoothly  over  the  fonuer,  dry 
end  first,  until  the  whole  is  rolled  uj), 
when  of  course  the  paste  will  stick  and 
a  thin  case  be  formed.  Keep  rolling  it 
along  the  slab  with  the  hands,  in  the 
same  way  as  a  rolling-pin  is  used,  for 
two  or  three  minutes,  until  the  various 
folds  of  the  paper  set  close  and  tigiit  to 
each  other ;  then  put  on  another  sheet 
in  the  same  way,  and  so  on,  till  the  case 
is  thick  enough.  This  is  known  by  the 
measurement  across  it.  If  the  former 
without  the  case  measures  five  parts, 
when  the  case  is  upon  it  they  must 
measure  together  eight  parts.  That  is, 
the  paper  must  be  rolled  on  till  it  forms 
a  case,  the  thickness  of  the  sides  of 
which  are  a  trille  more  than  oue-third 
of  the  thickness  of  the  former.  The 
length  of  the  rocket  case,  and  conse- 
quently the  width  that  the  sheets  of 
brown  paper  are  to  be  cut  before  pasting, 
varies  with  the  size  of  the  rockets ;  in 
small  rockets  the  length  of  the  case  may 
be  six  times  the  diameter,  in  larger 
rockets  four  or  five  times  i«  sudicicnt. 
When  the  case  has  jirnceoded  thus  far, 
it  is  to  be  choked  while  yet  thunji,  that 
is,  to  be  contracted  iu  diameter  near  one 
end,  and  for  this  purpose  a  simple  con- 
trivance is  reiiuisitc,  called  a  choking 
cord,  and  also  the  former  is  made  with 
a  hole  drilleil  at  one  end,  and  a  second 
joint  made  to  fit  on  by  means  of  a 
wire  projecting  at  one  end  of  it,  and 
which  fits  into  the  hole  of  the  former, 
Fig.  10.  To  choke  the  case,  draw  the 
fonm^r  partly  o-.it,  until  you  can  see 
about  1  inch  o(  the  inner  cavity  of  the 


woiiKSHOP  i:i!,cKii' rs. 


125 


case,  then  put  on  the  second  joint  (the 
wire  of  which  fits  into  the  hole  of  the 
former),  and  pass  this  on  until  its  end  is 


Fig.  10. 


Via.  11. 


about  I  an  inch  within  the  case, 
leaving  a  space  of  about  §  an  inch 
between  the  two  joints  occupied  by  the 
wire  alone.  Then  going  to  an  apparatus 
similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  11,  turn 
the  cord  once  round  the  case  where  the 
cavity  is,  put  the  foot  upon  the  treadle, 
which  tightens  the  cord  and  squeezes 
the  paper  case  at  the  point  required,  and 
that  it  may  squeeze  it  equally  and  neatly 
on  all  sides  the  case  should  be  held  in 
the  hands  and  moved  up  and  down  upon 
the  cord  until  the  operator  sees  that  it 
is  sutliciently  and  properly  comjiressed. 
Let  it  be  observed  that  althourh  the 
choking  apparatus  used  by  the  firework 
maker  is  represented  and  above  alluded 
to,  yet  to  the  amateur  it  is  by  no  means 
necessary.  What  will  do  quite  as  well 
is  a  thin  cord  fa  tened  at  one  end  to  a 
staple  ia  the  wall,  and  by  the  other  tied 
round  the  waist  of  the  operator;  as  he 
may  lean  back,  of  course  the  cord  would 
be  tightened,  and  the  desired  purpose 
accomplished.  When  the  case  is  suffi- 
ciently compressed  it  is  to  be  tied  with 
two  or  three  turns  of  strong  string. 
The  case  is  now  complete,  e.^icept  that 
the  part  of  it  where  it  is  choked  is 
perhaps  rather  rough  and  uneven  insido; 
this  must  be  compressed  down,  for  much 
of  the  effect  of  the  rocket  will  depend 
upon  the  perfect  regularity  on  this  part, 
as  it  is  through  the  hole  left  by  the  wire 
in  the  middle  of  the  choke  that  the  fire 
js  afterwards  to  issue.  To  compress  this 
part  properly  a  inoulii  is  neces.«ary. 


The  Rocket  Mould  is  represented  in 
Fig.  12.  It  consists  of  a  solid  foot  of 
wood ;  upon  the  centre  of  this  stands  a 
Bliort  cylinder  about  i  an  inch  high,  and 
exactly  of  the  size  of  the  mould,  to  be 
placed  over  it,  as  afterwards  described  ; 


Fig.  12 


tlG.  13. 


e 


this  short  cylinder  has  a  shoulder  above, 
and  terminates  in  a  round  top.  Out  of 
the  middle  of  the  top  is  a  tapering  thick 
brass  wire,  projecting  some  inches  uj>- 
wards,  as  is  seen  in  Fig.  13.  The  whole  is 
so  arranged,  that  when  one  of  the  newly- 
made  cases  is  jmt  upon  the  wire  and 
forced  down,  the  wire  fills  up  the  choke- 
hole,  the  round  top  fits  into  the  small 
parts  of  the  case  below  the  choke,  the 
shoulder  of  the  cylinder  bears  the  ex- 
treme end  of  the  case,  and  the  short  cy- 
linder agrees  in  size  with  the  outsides  of 
the  case.  There  fits  over  this  (case  anil 
all)  a  strong  wooden  or  metal  tube ;  so 
that  it  IS  seen  that  there  is  no  cavity 
anywhere,  except  the  inside  of  the  rocket 
case,  and  even  in  this  a  thick  wire  runs 
up  to  nearly  the  top  of  that  part  of  tlie 
case  where  the  composition  is  rammed, 
or  nearly  ^  of  the  whole  case  from 
the  choke  upwards.  The  wire 
above  mentioned  is  called  the 
piercer.  All  rockets  must  be 
placed  in  the  mould  to  be  filled, 
as  well  as  to  smooth  and  consoli- 
date the  part  choked.  With  the 
mould  are  used  rammers,  Fig.  14, 
formed  of  hard  wood,  of  the  shape 
of  a  popgun-stick  ;  these  rammers 
being  rather  less  than  the  dia- 
meter of  the  cavity,  and  having  a 
hole  bored  up  their  centre,  in  order  to 
admit  the   piercer.     It   is   evident   that 


126 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


there  must  be  a  complete  moulJ,  piercer, 
and  one  or  more  rammers  for  every  size 
rocket.  But  to  proceed  with  the  string; 
put  it  in  the  mould  and  the  rammer 
down  into  it,  and  give  this,  the  latter,  a 
blow  or  two  with  a  mallet,  which  driving 
it  down  while  yet  damp  with  the  paste, 
will  render  the  whole  compact  and 
smooth  ;  and  the  case  being  taken  out 
may  be  placed  in  an  oven,  or  near  the  fire, 
to  dry.  If  it  is  desired  to  ornament  it 
in  any  way  or  cover  it  with  white  paper, 
this  must  be  done  before  chokmg. 

Charging  Rockets. — The  next  process 
after  drying  the  case  is  to  charge  them 
with  the  requisite  composition.  Put  the 
cases  in  the  mould  with  the  piercer  in  it 
and  put  enough  composition  in  to  fill 
about  1  inch  of  the  case  ;  then,  taking 
the  rammer,  ram  it  down  with  three  or 
four  strong  blows  with  a  mallet.  Then 
put  in  the  same  quantity  of  composition 
again  and  ram  that  down  in  the  same 
manner,  anil  so  on  till  the  case  is  filled 
to  the  top  of  the  jiiercer  and  one  diameter 
above  it.  Then  separate  some  of  the 
central  folds  of  the  paper  which  it  has 
been  observed  is  not  parted,  and  turn 
them  down  upon  the  composition,  ram- 
ming them  down  hard  upon  it,  or,  what 
will  do  as  well,  put  in  a  piece  of  paper 
as  wadding  When  this  is  rammed  down, 
and  firm,  bore  with  a  brass  bradawl  three 
or  four  holes  through  it.  These  holes 
serve  to  m.ike  the  requisite  communica- 
tion between  two  parts  of  the  rocket.  Oi-, 
having  charged  the  case,  take  some 
comnKjn  potters'  clay  in  dry  powder,  and 
ram  it  down  hard  ujjon  the  top  of  the 
composition,  then  bore  a  hole  througli 
it  about  (»j  of  an  inch  diameter,  which 
will  allow  of  the  necessary  connection 
between  the  rammed  comiio.sition  and 
the  stars  in  the  head  or  pot  of  the 
rocket. 

Priming  Rockets. — The  rocket  is  now 
supposed  to  be  closed  at  one  end.  It 
only  requires  to  bn  prime<l  at  the  other 
end,  an^i  that  it  will  be  observed  is  the 
end  which  was  choked,  which  is  still 
o[»en,  and  which  has  a  hole  passing  up  it 
which  the  pii-rccr  occupied.  To  prime  it 
nil  up  the  hole  with  loose  gunpowder 
made  into  a  stiff'  paste  with  very  weak 


gum  water,  and  paste  a  piece  of  touch- 
paper  over  it. 

Rocket  Pot  or  Head. — The  rocket  being 
then  charged,  the  head  or  pot  must  be 
fixed.  The  pot  is  a  paper  case  made  upon 
a  wooden  former  turned  cylindrical,  about 
4  inches  in  length,  and  a  shade  larger  in 
diameter  than  the  exterior  of  the  rocket 
case.  Take  some  thick  brown  paper  and 
cut  it  in  strips  large  enough  to  go  twice 
round  the  former,  paste  and  roll  as  for 
the  case,  then  pinch  one  end,  and  a  cylin- 
der of  paper  will  be  thus  made  which 
should  fit  nicely  over  the  clay  end  of  the 
rocket.  Tiiere  should  now  be  fixed  upon 
the  pinched  end  a  conical  cap,  madeupcn 
a  former  of  like  shape,  Fig.  15.  This  cap 
by  cleaving  the  air  assists 
the  rocket  in  rising  into  it.        Fig.  16. 

Loading    Rockets.  —  The 
loading  tlie  pots  with  stars 
is  all  that  now  remains  to  be 
done  to  complete  the  rocket. 
A     J  -  lb.      rocket     should 
carry  about   1   oz.  of  stars. 
Weigh  out  the  proper  quan- 
tity of  stars  and  mix  them 
with  meal  powder,  6  parts,  to  fine  char- 
coal I  part,  fill   up  the  pot  and  glue  it 
securely  over  the  clay  or  upper  end  of 
the  rocket  case. 

Rixket  Sticks. — Next  fasten  the  stick 
to  the  rocket  by  two  strings,  as  seen  in 
any  of  the  figures  10  to  19. — The  stick* 

Fio.  16.  Fio.  17.  Fio  18. 


A 


being    previously    prejKirod    of    projier 
length  and  siz«,  as  follows: — The  smnlle» 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


127 


ones  are  easily  and  best  made  of  those 
iaths  called  by  bricklayers  double  laths, 


Fig.  19. 


Fio.  20. 


2=: 


I 


^ 


and  the  larger  ones  pantile  laths ;  but 
any  slip  of  deal  will  answer  the  purpose. 
2-lb.  rockets  require  sticks  9  feet  4  inches 
long,  1  inch  square  at  top,  and  rather 
more  than  J  inch  square  at  bottom.  1-lb. 
rocket  sticks  are  8  feet  2  inches  long, 
I  inch  square  at  top  and  |  inch  at  bottom. 
8-oz.  rocket  sticks  are  t3  feet  2  inches 
long,  f  inch  square  at  top,  and  ^  inch  at 
bottom.  4-oz.  rocket  sticks  are  5  feet 
3  inches  long,  -f  inch  by  J  inch  at  top,  and 
\  inch  square  at  bottom.  2-oz.  rocket 
sticks  are  5  feet  1  inch  "long,  ^  inch  by 
J  inch  at  top,  ^  inch  at  bottom.  1-oz. 
rocket  sticks  3  feet  6  inches  long,  and  so 
on  for  other  various  sizes.  The  weight 
and  the  length  of  the  stick  must  be  such, 
as  that  when  tied  on,  the  rocket  shall 
balance  on  the  finger,  at  a  point  about 
1  inch  from  the  part  choked. 

Rocket  Comi'Ositioxs.  —  The  bril- 
liancy of  the  rocket  depends  upon  the 
composition  in  the  cases,  and  great  care 
uj  required  in  the  mixture  of  the  ingre- 
dients, which  should  be  well  dried  and 
carefully  sifted  through  a  hair  sieve  be- 
fore mixing.  For  a  \-\h.  rocket,  to  12  oz. 
of  saltpetre  add  6  of  charcoal  and  4  of 
sulphur ;  or  for  signal  rockets  the  pro- 
portions are,  saltpetre,  4  lbs. ;  dogwood 
charcoal,  1  lb.  12  oz. ;  sublimed  sulphur, 
I  lb.     Powder  separately,  and  mix  ■^ith 


the  hand  or  a  wooden  spoon.  Saltjjetre 
increases  the  rapidity  of  the  fire,  whilst 
sulphur  retards  it,  and  the  charcoal  emits 
those  volumes  of  sparks  which  form  th« 
golden  train  of  an  ascending  rocket. 
Rockets  are  primed  with  mealed  powder 
and  spirits  of  wine. 

PYROTECilXIC   AND   ROCKET  StAPwS. 

The  stars  that  are  used  as  decorations  to 
the  diflereut  species  of  fireworks  are  of 
various  kinds,  sizes,  and  shapes,  accord- 
ing to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
intended. 

The  ordinary  rocket  stars,  which  are 
called  "brilliant"  or  "bright,"  are  made 
in  small  cubes.  Their  composition  is 
moistened  with  gum  water,  and  while 
moist  flattened  to  the  thickness  required. 
It  is  then  scored  or  cut  across  with  a 
knife,  and  allowed  to  dry.  When  dry 
it  can  be  easily  broken  up  into  cubes  at 
the  places  where  it  was  divided  by  the 
knife.  Tailed  stars  are  also  made  in 
the  same  way  and  of  the  same  size. 

Roman-candle  stars  are  small  cylinders 
of  composition  made  of  a  size  propor- 
tioned to  that  of  the  case  out  of  which 
they  are  to  be  thrown. 

Coloured  rocket  stars  are  made  by 
driving  the  coloured  composition,  slightly 
moistened,  into  small  cases,  which  go 
under  the  name  of  pill-bos  cases.  If  the 
star  is  to  consist  of  one  colour  only, 
these  pill-boxes  are  open  at  both  ends, 
and  a  piece  of  quick-match  is  placed 
between  the  composition  and  the  inside 
cf  the  pill-box,  and  allowed  to  project 
about  I  an  inch  beyond  each  end  of 
it.  When  fired,  these  stars  burn  at 
both  ends  at  the  same  t'me,  and  so  pro- 
duce a  great  amount  of  dre  in  proportion 
to  their  size. 

If  it  is  required  to  make  stars  con- 
sisting of  more  than  one  colour  (in  which 
case  they  are  called  "changeable  stars") 
the  pill-boxes  are  left  open  at  one  ecd 
only.  The  composition  is  thus  prevented 
from  burning  at  more  than  one  of  its 
surfaces  at  a  time.  These  stars  generally 
contain  two  colours ;  the  pill-boxes  are 
half-filled  with  one  coloured  composition 
and  the  remaining  space  filled  with 
another.  These  changeable  stars  burn 
much  longer  than  the  ethers,  and  there- 


123 


AVOUKSHOP   RICCEIPTS. 


fore  produce  a  more  beautiful  elFect ; 
but  being  larger  they  require  to  be  used 
ID  larger  rocl^ets,  the  J  lb.  size  being 
the  smallest  that  is  adapted  for  this 
p\irpose. 

There  is  anotner  and  exceedingly 
bea\itiful  decoration  for  rocket-heads 
wiiicli  IS  called  golden  rain.  This  is  by  no 
means  a  dilHcult  thing  to  make.  Some 
small  paper  cases  are  made,  about  2  inches 
long  and  of  the  size  of  goosequills  ;  these 
are  filled  with  a  sparkling  composition 
and  primed  with  wetted  gunpowder. 
They  are  placed,  mouth  downwards,  in 
the  head  of  the  rocket,  and  arranged  iu 
such  a  manner  that  they  may  all  be 
ignited.  At  the  bursting  of  the  rocket 
they  will  describe  .1  series  of  beautiful 
ringlets  of  sparkling  fire. 

Common  iJrilliant  Stars. — Nitre,  16 
jiarts;  sulphur,  8;  sulj)huret  of  anti- 
mony, 4  ;  meal-powder,  3.  Let  all 
the  ingredients  be  in  as  fine  a  powder 
as  possible  ;  and,  having  carefully 
weighed  out  the  quantities,  mix  them 
tlioroughly.  Ne.\t,  take  some  weak 
gum  water  made  by  dissolving  2  oz.  of 
gum-arabic  in  a  jiint  of  warm  water. 
Spreail  the  star  composition  U]ion  a  jiiece 
of  zinc  jilate  or  slate,  and  add  to  it  a 
little  of '.he  gum  water  at  a  time,  taking 
care  to  stir  tne  composition  about  well 
till  all  the  moisture  is  equally  dilfused. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  tiiis  coini)osition 
sliouM  be  made  wet,  but  only  something 
Mke  brown  sugar  iu  moistness,  so  that 
it  will  bind  well  when  pressed  together. 
Wlicn  tliis  IS  sullicieutly  done,  roll  or 
jiress  the  comjTOsition  into  a  flat  shape 
like  a  thick  pancake,  and  make  it  as 
.-square  as  possible.  Its  thickness  should 
be  about  J  of  an  inch.  Take  a  blunt 
knife  sjiatula,  and  with  it  score  the 
•■omiiositioii  across  both  ways,  so  that 
It  IS  divided  into  a  number  of  little 
cubes. 

Tailed  Stars.— 'These  stars  are  not 
nioiitened  with  plain  gum  water,  but 
with  a  mixture  of  gum  water  and  linseed 
oil.  The  gum  water  sliould  be  of  tlie 
^trength  given  above,  and  sliouid  be 
made  quite  hot  bv  j>lacing  the  bottle 
which  contains  it  In  a  jug  of  boiling 
water.     When  it  is  suirici^^ully  hot,  to 


every  8  oz.  of  gum  water  add  1  f>» 
of  linseed  oil.  Shake  the  bottle  tilj 
these  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  no  oil 
can  be  seen.  Use  the  moistening  Huiil, 
while  hot,  in  the  same  manner  as  directed 
above  for  brilliant  stars.  The  following 
is  the  composition  for  tailed  stars: — 
Nitre,  16  parts;  meal-powder,  12;  anti- 
mony (sulphuret),  8  ;  tine  charcoal,  4J  ; 
suljihur,  4. 

Coloured  Stars. — These  require  con- 
siderable care  in  their  preparation,  the 
beauty  of  their  performance  depending 
entirely  upon  the  uniform  linouess,  the 
intimate  union,  and  the  dryness  of  their 
ingredients.  The  various  prejiarations 
which  enter  into  their  composition  should 
always  be  kept  ready  for  use  in  fine  dry 
powder,  preserved  in  woll-corked  or 
stoppered  bottles.  The  j)ill-boxes  for 
coloured  stars  are  made  in  the  following 
manner: — Procure  a  ])iece  of  straight 
iron  rod,  12  inches  long,  and  from  j  to 
J  an  inch  in  size ;  the  usual  size  for  thi.s 
former  is  about  -^  of  an  inch.  Now 
cut  some  cartridge  paper  into  strijis 
about  8  inches  wide,  and  i'roin  0  to  10 
Indies  long;  paste  these  strips  all  over, 
and  roll  them  round  the  iron  rod  closely 
and  neatly.  When  this  is  dune,  remove 
the  case  thus  formed  from  the  rod 
without  tearing  or  breaking  it,  and  set 
it  aside  to  dry.  When  dry  it  will  be 
very  hard  and  stifl'.  It  can  then  be  cut, 
by  means  of  a  very  sharp  knife,  into 
little  lengths  of  J  an  inch  each.  These 
lengths  are  the  open  jiill-boxes,  into 
which  composition  is  to  be  rammed 
for  coloured  rocket  stars.  In  order  to 
accom])lish  the  filling  of  these  cases  with 
the  least  amount  of  trouble,  procure  a 
piece  of  stick,  of  a  convenient  length,  and 
of  such  a  size  round  that  it  will  ])ass 
easily  into  the  ]iill-boxes,  and  with  a 
short  groove  cut  in  the  side,  siilficicnt  to 
allow  it  to  pass  the  quick-match  without 
injuring  it.  Next  take  a  small  piece  of 
quick-match,  about  H  inch  long,  and 
pa.ss  it  through  the  pill-box  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  may  )uoject  beyond  e.ich 
end  about  i  nn  inch.  The  composition 
pressed  with  the  stick  into  these  boxes  it 
always  slightly  moistened  ;  and  by  thin 
means,  when  once  ury,  will  not  be  liable 


"WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


129 


♦o  be  shaken  out  again.  The  fluid  em- 
ployed for  moistening  these  coloured 
compositions  is  a  solution  of  shellac  in 
methylated  spirit  of  wiue.  Care  must 
be  taken  not  to  make  these  compositions 
wet.  A  very  slight  moistening  is  suffi- 
cient to  make  them  bind  well  when 
pi'essed  into  their  cases. 

Crimson  Stars. — 1.  Chlorate  of  potash, 
24-  parts  ;  nitrate  of  stroutia,  32  ;  calomel, 
12 ;  suljihur,  6 ;  shellac  m  fine  powder, 
6  ;  sulphide  of  copper,  2  ;  fine  charcoal,  2. 
2.  Chlorate  of  potash,  12  parts;  nitrate 
of  strontia,  20;  sulphur,  11;  charcoal, 
2 ;  antimony,  2 ;  mastic,  1.  3.  Nitrate 
of  strontia,  72  ;  sulphur,  20;  gunpowder, 
6 ;  coal-dust,  2. 

Rose-coloured  Stars. — Chlorate  of  pot- 
ash, 20  parts ;  carbonate  of  strontia,  8  ; 
calomel,  10;  shellac,  2;  sulphur,  3; 
fine  charcoal,  1.  The  advantage  of  this 
composition  is  that  it  is  not  at  all  liable 
to  sutler  from  damp  in  winter.  The  car- 
bonate of  strontia  is  a  salt  not  absorbent 
of  moisture  like  the  nitrate,  and  is,  more- 
over, always  to  be  had  in  a  state  of  fine 
powder. 

Green  Stars. — 1.  Chlorate  of  potash, 
20  parts  ;  nitrate  of  baryta,  40  ;  calomel, 
10;  sulphur,  8;  shellac,  3;  fine  char- 
coal, 1  ;  fused  sulphide  of  copper,  1. 
2.  Nitrate  of  baryta,  42  parts  ;  realgar,  2  ; 
sul]ihur,  8;  lampblack,  1.  3.  Chlorate 
of  potash,  28  parts ;  nitrate  of  baryta,  12  ; 
sulphur,  15 ;  mastic,  1.    ' 

Pale  Rose-coloured  Stars. — Nitrate  of 
strontia,  8  parts ;  chlorate  of  potash,  4 ; 
sulphur,  3  ;  sulphuret  of  antimony,  2. 
Take  especial  care  that  the  nitrate  of 
strontia  used  in  this  formula  is  very 
dry. 

Pale  Green  Stars. — Nitrate  of  baryta, 
16  parts ;  chlorate  of  potash,  8  ;  sulphur, 
6 ;  antimony,  3. 

Yellow  Stars. —  I.  Chlorate  of  potash, 
20  parts ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  10 ;  sul- 
phur, 5;  mastic,  1.  2.  Chlorate  of  pot- 
ash, 30;  dried  soda,  12;  sulphur,  8. 

Golden  Yellow  Stars. — Chlorate  of  pot- 
ash, 20  parts ;  nitrate  of  baryta,  30 ; 
oxalate  of  soda,  15  ;  sulphur,  8  ;  shellac,  4. 
If  it  is  thought  advisable  to  give  the 
stars  made  from  this  formula  »  tailed 
appearance,  add  one  part  of  fine  cbai'coal. 
] 


The  composition  is  to  be  moistened  with 
the  shellac  solution.  The  stars  form  a 
beautiful  contrast  with  those  of  an  in- 
tense blue. 

Blue  Stars. — 1.  Chlorate  of  potash,  8 
jiarts  ;  sulphide  of  copper,  6  ;  Chertier's 
copper,  5  ;  sulphur,  4.  2.  Chlorate  of 
potash,  12  parts;  Chertier's  copper,  6; 
sulphur,  4 ;  calomel,  1.  3.  Chlorate  of 
potash,  16  parts;  Chertier's  copper,  12; 
calomel,  8;  stearine,  2;  sulphur,  2; 
shellac,  1.  This  gives  a  most  intense 
blue.  4.  Chlorate  of  potash,  20  parts ; 
carbonate  of  copper,  14;  sulphur,  12; 
mastic,  1.  5.  Nitre,  12  parts;  sulphuret 
of  antimony,  2  ;  sulphur,  4  ;  lam))black,  2. 
All  these  compositions  should  be  moist- 
ened with  gum  water,  and  in  No.  S  the 
stearine  employed  must  be  in  fine  powder. 

Violet  Stars. — Chlorate  of  potash,  9 
parts  ;  nitrate  of  strontia,  4 ;  sulphur,  6  ; 
carbonate  of  copper,  1 ;  calomel,  1 ;  mas- 
tic, 1. 

TT7aYe   Stars.  —  Saltpetre,    9    parts 
sulphur,  3  ;  antimony,  2. 

To  PREPARE  Chertier's  Copper. — 
Take  any  quantity  of  common  sulphate  of 
copper,  or  blue  vitriol,  and  dissolve  it  in 
as  little  water  as  possible  ;  then  take  an 
equal  quantity  by  weight  of  chlorate  of 
potash  and  also  dissolve  it  in  as  little 
water  as  will  hold  it  in  solution.  Mix 
these  two  solutions,  and  boil  them  gently 
over  a  clear  fire  until  the  moisture  is 
nearly  evaporated ;  then  dry  the  green 
precipitate  that  remains  by  a  gentle  heat. 
When  dry  treat  it  with  strong  liquor 
ammoniffi  till  it  changes  to  a  deep  blue 
colour;  then  let  it  dry  very  gradually 
in  a  warm  place.  If  this  operation  be 
properly  performed  you  will  have  a  fine. 
very  light  blue  powder,  which  is  Cher- 
tier's copper. 

To  prepare  Nitrate  of  Strontia. — 
Procure  a  common  earthenware  pipkin, 
or  a  glazed  iron  frying-pan  of  a  con- 
venient size.  Into  this  place  nitrate  of 
strontia  in  rough  crystals.  1  or  2  lbs. 
will  be  sutlicieut  to  prepare  at  a  time. 
Place  the  vessel  on  a  clear  nre,  but  do 
not  make  it  too  hot.  Now  toil,  or  rather 
stew,  the  cryat;>ls  in  their  own  water  of 
crystallization.  The  heat  will  soon  cause 
thera   to   run  into  a  thick  pulpy  masa 


130 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


Wlieu  in  this  state,  they  must  be  con- 
stantly stirred,  or  upon  the  evaporation 
of  the  moisture  they  will  reassume  a 
crystalline  form.  Continue  then  to  stir 
it  with  a  stick  or  flat  piece  of  wood  until 
tlvB  moisture  is  driven  off  by  the  heat, 
and  the  salt  remains  iu  the  condition  of 
a  white  dry  sand.  No  strontia  can  be 
used  for  coloured  stars  or  fires  unpre- 
pared, and  this  operation  is  proper  also 
for  the  preparation  of  the  nitrate  of 
baryta. 

Golden  Rain.  —  Golden  rains  are 
made  in  the  following  manner  : — Procure 
a  piece  of  brass  rod,  the  diameter  of  which 
of  an   inch,  or    rather    less.     The 


IS 


Tff 


length  of  the  former  may  be  from  6  to 
8  inches.  Cut  thin  brown  paper  into 
short  strips,  about  2  inches  wi<.le,  and 
long  enough,  when  wrapped  round  the 
former,  to  make  a  case  whose  external 
diameter  should  be  J  of  an  inch,  or  rather 
more.  The  former  should  have  a  small 
cup-shaped  hollow  cut  in  one  of  its  ends, 
into  which  the  paper  may  be  turned,  to 
form  a  closed  end  to  the  cases.  Paste 
the  strips  of  paper  all  over,  and  also  rub 
some  paste  on  the  former  ;  then  roll  the 
pajjer  round  the  former,  and  draw  it  out 
so  as  to  leave  its  cupped  end  J  of  an  inch 
inside  one  of  the  ends  of  the  case.  Pinch 
in  the  paper  that  projects  beyond  the 
former,  and  drive  it  down  with  a  tap  ui)on 
the  pasting  slab,  so  that  the  twisted  end 
is  ])resse(i  into  the  cup  of  the  former.  By 
this  means  a  neat  and  secure  end  is  ob- 
tained for  the  cases,  which  may  be  dipped 
afterwards  into  w..rm  size  or  glue.  If  a 
little  red-lead  is  mixed  with  this  size,  it 
will  solidify  much  more  rapidly.  This 
dip[)ing  the  ends  of  the  cases  into  size 
tihould  not  be  done  until  they  are  dry 
from  the  p:uste.  For  filling  the  cases  a 
tin  funnel  is  used  that  will  exactly  fit 
into  the  mouth  of  golden-rain  cases.  The 
composition  emj)loyed  for  filling  the  crises 
is  the  following: — 1.  Meal  -  ])Owder,  6 
parts;  nitre,  1;  fine  charcoal,  2.  2. 
meal-powder,  8  parts;  fine  charcoal,  3. 
3.  Saltpetre,  1  lb. ;  mcal-i)Owder,  4  oz. ; 
sulphur,  4  oz. ;  brass  dust,  1  oz. ;  saw- 
ita>t,  2\  oz. ;  glass  dust,  6  di-s.  When 
the  cjuie  is  charged,  the  funnel  must  be 
removed,  and  Uie  space  that  was  occu- 


pied by  its  nozzle  filled  with  gunpowdei 
or  meal-powder  moistened  with  gum 
water.  This  will  prevent  the  composi- 
tion from  being  shaken  out  of  the  cases 
and  at  the  same  time  forms  the  best 
method  of  priming  them.  Take  care  that 
this  paste  is  pressed  well  into  the  mouth 
of  the  cases,  and  fills  them. 

Silver  Sain.  —  1.  Saltpetre,  4  oz. ; 
sulphur,  mealed  powder,  and  antimony, 
each  2  oz. ;  sal  prunella,  J  oz.  2.  Salt- 
petre, 8  oz. ;  sulphur,  2  oz.;  charcoal, 
4  oz.  3.  Saltpetre,  1  lb. ;  antimony,  6  oz. ; 
sulphur,  4  oz.  4.  Saltpetre,  4  oz. ; 
sulphur,  1  oz. ;  powder,  2  oz. ;  steel 
dust,  f  oz.  Used  in  similar  cases  and 
treated  in  the  same  way  as  golden  rain. 

PoRTFiUKS.  —  The  portfires  used  for 
firing  rockets  and  fireworks  are  gene- 
rally made  in  the  following  manner  : — 
The  former  for  this  purpose  should  be  of 
brass,  and  not  less  than  J  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  the  wire  for  filling  them 
not  less  than  ^  of  an  inch.  Portfire 
cases  are  usually  made  very  thin,  but 
prepared  in  precisely  the  same  manner 
as  that  described  for  golden  rains,  and 
are  also  primed  in  the  same  way.  The 
following  are  the  compositions  usually 
employed  for  portfires.  1.  Nitre,  6  parts  ; 
sulphur,  2  ;  meal-powder,  1.  2.  Salt- 
petre, 2  lbs. ;  sulphur,  3  lbs. ;  antimony, 
1  lb.  3,  Saltjietre,  3J  lbs.;  sulphur, 
2J  lbs. ;  meal-powder,  1  lb. ;  antimony, 
i  11). ;   glass  dust,  4  oz.  ;  brass  dust,  1  oz. 

KOMAN  Candlks. — In  the  manufac- 
ture of  these  fireworks  the  following  im- 
portant points  must  be  observed,  namely 
to  have  a  composition  to  burn  in  the  inter- 
vals between  the  stars,  wliich  will  throw 
a  jet  of  fire  uniformly  good  throughou',, 
to  have  stars  of  tolerably  rapid  combur.- 
tion,  otherwise  they  will  not  be  ignited 
before  they  are  blown  into  the  air,  and 
to  have  the  charges  of  powder  for  blow- 
ing the  stars  regulated  to  a  great  nicety. 
The  former  for  the  cases  must  be  -J  of 
an  inch  in  di.araeter,  and  18  inches  long. 
The  cases  require  rather  a  large  amount 
of  paper  and  imperial  board  for  their 
manufacture,  but  otherwise  they  are 
made  similar  to  rocket  cases. 

Jiornan-candle  Stars. —  The  brilliaot 
stars  may  be  made  of  the  same  composj 


WORKSHOP   RKCEIPTS. 


131 


Fig.  21. 


tion  as  that  given  for  rocket  stars  of  that 
kiod.  If,  however,  a  whiter  star  is  re- 
quired, use  the  following  : — Nitre,  48 
parts ;  sulphur,  10  ;  regulus  of  antimony, 
8  ;  realgar,  6  ;  red-lead,  4 ;  shellac,  1. 
Yellow  Roman-candle  stars  may  be  made 
from  the  same  formula  as  fhat  given  for 
yellow-rocket  stars.  Green  Roman-candle 
stars  may  be  made  from  the  formulas 
given  for  rocket  stars;  but  there  is  also 
another  formula,  which  produces  a  rather 
deeper  tmt,  but  is  hardly  rapid  enough 
in  combustion  for  rocket  stars.  It  is  the 
following  :-  -Nitrate  of  baryta,  40  parts  ; 
chlorate  of  potash,  20;  calomel,  12; 
sulphur  12  ;  tine  shellac,  4  ;  fine  char- 
coal, 1.  The  formulas  for  crimson,  rose, 
blue,  and  purple  Roman-candle  stars 
are  the  same  as  given  for  rocket  stars. 
In  order  to  make  the  stars,  moisten  the 
compositions  very  slightly.  The  mould 
in  which  these  stars  are  shaped  is  a 
br&ss  tube,  Fig.  21,  of  a  size  proportioned 
to  the  size  of  the  Roman- 
candle  case,  and  is  gene- 
rally about  Jg-  of  an  inch 
smaller  in  its  inner  dia- 
meter than  the  case.  The 
drift  with  which  the  com- 
position is  pressed  into 
the  tube,  is  made  of  box- 
wood or  metal,  and  fits 
easily  into  the  tubular 
mould.  At  one  of  its  ends 
there  is  a  wire  point.  Place 
the  end  having  the  point  in 
the  mould  as  far  as  it  will 
go.  It  will  leave  a  space 
at  the  end  of  the  mould  un- 
occupied by  the  drift.  Press 
this  empty  end  of  the  tube 
into  the  slightly-moistened  composition 
until  it  is  filled  by  it,  so  that  the  drift, 
being  driven  down  upon  the  composition, 
will  compress  it  into  a  firm  cylindrical 
mass,  into  the  centre  of  which  the  wire 
point  projects.  When  the  star  is  thus 
fonned  in  the  mould  the  drift  must  be 
withdrawn,  reversed,  its  long  plain  end 
inserted,  and  the  star  pushed  out.  Tlie 
object  of  making  the  star  hollow  is  that 
it  may  dry  and  harden  perfectly  in  its 
centre,  and  also  for  the  priming  of  the 
«tar,  which  is  effected  by  placing  a  little 


piece  of  quick-match  into  the  hole  in 
the  star,  and  allow  it  to  project  about 
i  of  an  inch  above.  By  this  means  even 
slowly-combustible  stars  are  ignited,  and 
almost  every  chance  of  failure  is  avoided. 
This  priming,  however,  should  not  he 
done  until  the  stars  are  to  be  put  into 
the  cases — at  all  events,  till  they  are  per- 
fectly diy. 

Composition  for  Boman  Candles. — 1. 
Nitre,  18  parts;  sulphur,  6;  fine  char- 
coal, 7 ;  meal-powder,  4.  2.  Nitre,  16 
parts ;  meal-powder,  8  ;  fine  charcoal, 
6;  suljihur,  6.  3.  Nitre,  16  parts; 
meal-powder,  11  ;  sulphur,  (3 ;  anti- 
mony, 4.  The  next  thing  is  to  fill  the 
case.  Before  filling  it  introduce  a  little 
clay  to  the  bottom  of  the  case,  thus  form- 
ing a  better  and  firmer  bottom.  This 
being  done  pi-operly,  put  in  a  little  coarse 
powder,  and  over  this  a  small  piece  of 
paper,  to  prevent  the  composition  mixing 
with  the  powder ;  then  ram  down  as 
much  composition  as  will  fill  the  case 
one-sixth  of  its  height ;  over  this  put  a 
small  piece  of  paper  covering  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  diameter,  then  a  little  corn 
powder,  and  upon  that  a  ball,  obseiving 
that  the  ball  is  rather  smaller  than  the 
diameter  of  the  case.  Over  this  first  ball 
more  of  the  composition  must  be  put  and 
rammed  lightly  down  tc  prevent  break- 
ing the  ball,  till  the  case  is  one-third 
full ;  then  a  piece  of  paper,  a  little  pow- 
der, and  then  another  ball  as  before,  till 
the  case  is  filled  with  balls  and  composi- 
tion, taking  care  to  place  composition 
above  the  highest  ball.  When  the  case 
is  thus  filled,  cap  it  with  touchpaper  by 
pasting  it  round  the  orifice,  and  a  little 
priming  of  powder  being  added  the  work 
IS  complete. 

Touchpaper.  —  Obtain  some  thin 
blue  paper — not  so  thin  as  tissue  paper 
but  thinner  than  the  ordinary  blue  paper 
used  by  storekeepers ;  brush  or  sponge 
this  over  with  or  dip  it  into  a  weak 
solution  of  saltpetre,  and  when  well 
saturated  dry  for  use.  Touchpaper 
should  be  cut  into  slips,  placed  once  round 
tJie  mouth  of  the  firework,  and  tivisted 
into  a  point. 

Quick-match. — Make  a  thick  paste 
of  gunpowder  and    hot   'vater,   wi!h   a 

k2 


132 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


small  quantity  of  gum  m  it.  Take 
about  four  strands  of  cotton,  such  as  is 
sold  in  balls  and  used  for  makmg  the 
wicks  of  lamps,  steep  this  m  the  solu- 
tion of  nitre  used  for  making  touch- 
paper,  and  wring  it  as  dry  as  possible ; 
then  rub  it  well  in  the  gunpowder  paste 
till  it  is  thoroughly  covered  with  it. 
One  end  of  the  cotton  may  be  passed 
through  a  small  funnel,  whose  mouth  is 
not  more  than  i  of  an  inch  in  width. 
liy  this  means,  if  the  whole  length  of 
the  cotton  is  drawn  through  it,  the 
superfluous  paste  will  be  removed,  and 
the  match  will  be  of  a  nice  round 
form.  Hang  it  out  of  doors  on  a  dry 
day,  and  when  it  is  nearly  dry  coil  it 
upon  a  tray  or  paper,  and  dust  it  over 
with  meal-powder.  In  winter  it  will 
not  be  sulTiciently  dry  for  use  uuder  a 
week.  When  thoroughly  dry  it  should 
be  stiff  and  hard,  and  the  less  it  is  bent 
or  doubled  the  better.  To  use  this  match 
for  connecting  the  mouths  of  dilferent 
fireworks,  or  clothing  them  as  it  is 
termed,  make  some  long  paper  tubes 
round  a  wire  former  which  has  a  dia- 
meter of  not  less  than  -^  of  an  inch. 
These  pipes  are  threaded  on  the  match, 
and  have  a  piece  cut  away  at  their  side 
wherever  they  are  inserted  into  the  mouth 
of  a  case,  in  onler  that  the  match  may 
be  laid  bare  and  convey  its  fire  to  the 
priming  of  the  cases. 

Gekdks  and  Jets  of  BitiLi.iAxr, 
Chinesk,  and  Comjion  Fiiiics. — These 
are  certainly  among  the  most  beautiful 
and  effective  pieces  to  be  met  with  in 
the  whole  range  of  pyrotechny.  They 
have  one  great  advantage — that  there  is 
no  limit  to  the  modes  of  combinatum  or 
arrangement  in  which  these  pieces  may 
be  efl'cctivcly  ein](l()yc<l.  By  moans  of 
them  any  such  things  as  the  following 
can  be  made: — Fouiitaiiis  of  any  size  or 
design,  cascades,  brilliant  kuiis,  either 
fixed  or  revolving,  bouquets  of  Chinese 
(ire,  spread  eagle,  trees  of  silver  flowers, 
and  a  thousand  otlier  devices.  Tiieir  com- 
positions, to  produce  the  desired  cifect, 
must  be  made  as  shortly  a.s  possible 
before  it  is  intended  to  (ire  ihem,  as  iron 
ind  steel  (ilingsarea  princi[)al  ingredient 
in    their   compo.sitton.      Many  atteinjits 


have  been  made  to  secure  these  metallic 
ingredients  from  corrosion.  A  coating 
of  any  kind  is  tolerably  certain  either  to 
rnb  the  spark  wh-ch  each  particle  of 
metal  should  produce  of  its  brilliancy, 
or  to  render  the  composition  during 
combustion  very  smoky,  and  so  impair 
the  intended  effect.  The  most  successful 
plan  is  the  following  : — A  weak  solution 
of  asphalte  in  naphtha  is  made,  and  the 
filings  or  borings  are  stirred  about  in 
this.  V/hen  it  is  thought  that  they  are 
thoroughly  covered  with  it,  the  solution 
is  poured  off,  and  the  filings  spread  out 
upon  paper  to  dry.  But  still  the  best 
way  is  to  prepare  the  compositions  as 
short  a  time  as  possible  before  they  are 
to  be  fired.  The  cases  should  be  made 
like  rocket  cases,  and  choked  while  wet, 
only  it  must  be  remembered  that  their 
aperture  may  be  almost  choked  uj), 
because  when  it  has  been  reopened  by 
the  jioint  over  which  they  are  loaded,  it 
must  not  be  more  than  i  of  the  interior 
diameter  of  the  case  in  size. 

Jicd  Chinese  Fire. — 1.  Jleal-powder, 
16  parts;  nitre,  IG  ;  sul])hur,  4;  char- 
coal, 4  ;  iron  borings,  14.  2.  Meal- 
powder,  16  parts;  sulphur,  3;  charcoal, 
o ;  iron  borings,  7.  3.  Jleal-powder,  8 
jxirts;  nitre,  16;  sul]ihur,  3;  charcoal,  3; 
iron  borings,  8.  4.  Mcal-])owder,  16 
]iarts  ;  nitre,  8  ;  sulphur,  4  ;  charcoal,  3  ; 
iron  borings,  7. 

White  Chinese  Fire. — 1.  ileal-powder, 
16  parts;  nitre,  6;  sulphur,  3;  iron 
borings,  10.  2.  Sleal-powder,  16  parts; 
nitre,  4;  sul|)hur,  2;  iron  borings,  6. 
3.  Meal-powder,  l(i  ]iarts;  iron  borings,  5. 
l'"or  (illiug  the  cases  ni|>plcs  of  various 
sizes  are  emjiloyed,  made  preferably  of 
metal.  The  case  must  now  be  pressed 
over  the  point  of  the  nii)ple.  Fig.  22, 
an<l  by  this  means  its  aperture  will 
be  made  of  the  jiroper 
size.  Jt  will  be  found 
very  convenient  to 
have  a  ring  of  iron 
(i.ved  into  your  block, 
through  which  the  case 
must  be  passed,  which 
will  stea<ly  it  and  keep 
it  in  a  ])erpendiciilar  position  while  beinj; 
filled.      Now  drive    in   the  comjiositiou, 


Fio.  22. 


1 


1 


WORKSHC?    RECEirtS. 


133 


■4  ladleful  at  a   time,  aud  after  putting 
in  each   ladleful,  give   the  drift   twelve 
blows  with  the   mallet.     Fill    the   cases 
till  there    remains  a  space  of  2  inches 
only  unoccupied  at  the  end.     Into  this 
end  put    a    gun    charge  aud    a   half  of 
gunpowder.      Then  with  a  bradawl  se- 
parate one    or  two  of    the  inner  folds 
of   the    paper    of    the    case,    and    turn 
these  down  on  the  top  of  the  powder. 
For  filling  in  the  ends  of  the  cases: — 
Melt  in  an  earthen  pipkin  a  mixture  of 
2  parts  ot  common  resin  and  1  of  wax. 
This  may  be  poured  into  the  ends  of  the 
cases    upon    the    paper    that   has   been 
turned  down.     It  will  harden  in  a  few 
mmutes,   and   will    be    found  to  ensure 
a  good   report    from    the    powder.      To 
prime  these  cases : — This  is  an  operation 
requiring  some  care,  although  it  may  be 
performed  in  a  very  simple  manner.     If 
the  point  of  the  nipple  is  not  too  long, 
all  that  is  needed  is  to  press  into  the 
mouth   of  the    case   some  meal-powder 
paste;  but  if  a  cavity  has  been  left  in 
the  composition,  this  must  be  filled  up 
before  priming,  or  the  case  will  inevitably 
burst.     It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  take 
for   the    first    ladleful,  not  any  of  the 
compositions    for   Chinese     fire,    but    a 
ladleful  of  some  slower  fire  containing 
no  iron  borings,  such  as  a  mixture  con- 
sisting of  nitre,   6   parts ;   sulphur,    1  ; 
charcoal,   1.     These  gej-bes  or  jets  are 
exhibited,  when   finished,  by  being  at- 
tached   to   strong   frames   of    wood    or 
metal,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  the 
exhibitor    may    wish,    to    produce    any 
desired  effect.     The  mouths  of  the  cases 
are  connected    by  means  of  leaders  or 
quick-match. 

Brilliant  Fire. — The  cases  employed 
for  brilliant  fire  need  not  be  so  large  as 
those  employed  for  Chinese  fire,  but 
observe  the  same  rules  in  filling  these 
cases.  1.  Meal-powder,  4  parts ;  bright 
steel  filings,  1.  2.  Meal-powder,  16  parts; 
nitre,  8;  sulphur,  3;  fine  charcoal,  3; 
bright  steel  filings,  10.  Neither  of  these 
compositions  should  on  any  account  be 
mixed  before  their  preparation  is  abso- 
lutely necessary,  for  their  whole  beauty 
depends  upon  the  brightness  of  the 
filings  at  the  time  of  firing. 


Commo7i  and  Sparkling  Fires.  —  1 . 
Meal -powder,  4  parts;  charcoal,  1. 
2.  Meal-powder,  16  parts;  nitre,  8; 
sulphur,  4 ;  charcoal,  4,  3.  Meal-pow- 
der, 16  parts;  very  fine  glass  dust,  5. 
4.  Meal-jiowder,  8  parts  ;  very  finely 
powdered  porcelain,  3.  These  fires  can 
be  arranged  very  effectively  as  stars, 
suns,  iScc.  For  instance,  provide  a  ciicular 
disk  of  hard  wood,  6  inches  in  diameter, 
and  1  inch  thick.  Nail  to  this  five 
spokes  of  wood  at  equal  distances  from 
one  another,  and  15  inches  long.  Nail 
also  to  the  back  of  the  central  disk  a 
strip  of  wood  about  2  feet  long,  2  inches 
wide,  and  j  of  an  inch  thick.  By 
means  of  tliis  you  can  screw  the  whole 
piece  conveniently  to  your  firing  post. 
On  each  of  the  five  si)okes  tie  a  case  of 
brilliant  fire,  reported  at  its  end,  and 
connect  the  mouths  of  these  with  quick- 
match. 

Laxcks. — Lances  are  used  in  making 
up  devices,  such  as  names,  mottoes, 
wreaths,  and  so  on.  They  consist  ot 
small  cases,  generally  made  about  -^^ 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  that  is,  round 
a  piece  of  glass  or  brass  rod  or  tube  of 
that  size ;  tubes  are  always  best  for 
these  small  formers.  The  cases  are 
about  2  or  2J  inches  long,  wath  one  end 
pinched  or  turned  in.  Tv>-o  rounds  of 
thin  demy  or  double-crown  white  paper, 
pasted,  will  give  sulficient  thickness  and 
substance  for  the  case.  The  cases,  when 
dry,  are  to  be  filled  with  either  of  the 
following  compositions  in  the  same  way 
as  golden  rain : — 

Compositions  for  Lances.  Wliite. — 1. 
Nitre,  16  parts  ;  sulphur,  8  ;  meal- 
powder,  6.  2.  Nitre,  16  parts;  sulphur, 
4;  meal-powder,  6.  3.  Nitre,  12  parts; 
sulphur,  4  ;    sulphide   of  antimcoy,   3, 

4.  Nitre,  72  parts;  sulphur,  18  ;  regulus 
of  antimony,  33 ;  realgar,  1 ;  shellac,  1. 

5.  Nitre,  96  parts;  sulphur,  24;  regulus 
of  antimony,  48;  realgar,  6;  shellac,  1. 
These  for  the  most  part  give  a  bluish 
white  flame,  and  when  employed  in  cases 
of  the  size  mentioned  above,  burn  slowly, 
and  will  last  as  long  as  this  species  of 
firework  is  required  to  last. 

Yellow. — 1.  Chlor.  of  potash,  72  parts , 
oxal.  soda,  60 ;  stearine,  6 ;  sulphur,  6. 


134 


WORKSHOP   RECMPTS. 


2.  Chlor.  pot.,  40  parts;  osal.  soda,  16  ; 
fhellac,  8  ;  stearine,  3. 

Green.  —  1.  Chior.  pot.,  60  parts; 
nitr.  baryta,  41  ;  calomel,  49  ;  powdered 
sugar,  30 ;  shellac,  1.  2.  Chlor.  pot., 
63  jx\rts ;  nitr.  baryta,  50  ;  calomel,  50 ; 
sugar,  32;  shellac,  1. 

Eincrald  Green. — 1.  Clilorate  of  bary- 
ta, 18  parts;  calomel,  7;  very  fine 
shellac,  3.  2.  Chlorate  of  baryta,  24 
parts;  stearine,  3;  very  fine  sugar,  1. 

Eed  Lances. — 1.  Chlor.  pot.,  13  parts; 
nitr.  strontia,  10  ;  calomel,  8 ;  shellac,  3  ; 
dextrine,  1 ;  Chertier's  copper,  1.  2. 
Chlor.  pot.,  12  parts;  nitr.  strontia,  12; 
calomel,  G  ;  shellac,  4;  Chertier's  copper, 
1 ;  fine  charcoal,  1. 

Jiose-coloured  Lances.  —  Chlorate  of 
potash,  2+  parts ;  sulphur,  2 ;  stearine,  3 ; 
oxalate  of  strontia,  4.  This  composition 
will  i^emain  good  for  any  length  of  time. 

Blue  Lances. — 1.  Chlorate  of  potash, 
12  parts  ;  Chertier's  co])per,  6  ;  sulpluir, 
4  ;  calomel,  1.  2.  Chlorate  of  potash, 
32  parts;  Chertier's  copper,  12;  calo- 
mel, 40 ;  sugar,  25.  3.  Chlorate  of  pot- 
ash, 6  parts  ;  Chertier's  copper,  1 ;  ca- 
lomel, 5 ;  sugar,  4. 

Violet. — Chlorate  of  potash,  26  parts; 
calomel,  24 ;  carbonate  strontia,  4 ; 
Chertier's  copper,  3  ;  sugar,  14. 

Lilac. — Chlorate  of  potash,  12  parts  ; 
prepared  chalk,  4;  sulphur,  5  ;  calomel, 
3  ,  sulphide  of  copper,  10.  Sugar  fur 
pyrotechnic  comjiositions  must  be  kojit  in 
a  closely-corked  or  sto]ipored  bottle.  It 
should  be  reduced  to  powder  in  a  very 
dry  mortar,  and  then  silled  through  very 
fine  muslin. 

To  exhibit  lances  procure  a  board  of 
snificient  size  for  the  design,  or  make 
a  woo<lcn  framework  of  the  shape  that 
is  required.  Sketch  the  design  upon 
one  side  of  the  board,  or,  larger  than  a 
board  will  allow,  make  a  plain  rough 
framework  describing  the  letters.  When 
this  is  done,  decide  upon  the  distance  at 
which  to  |)lace  the  lances  one  from  an- 
other. This  distance  is  grnorally  about 
2  inches,  but  no  exact  rule  can  be  laid 
down,  for  much  depends  upon  the  kind 
of  iJosign,  and  u|)on  its  size.  Upon  the 
cutlines  of  the  sketch  make  little  pencil 
circles  wherever  it  is  intended  to  place  a 


lance ;  and,  as  far  as  it  is  possible,  ar- 
range that  the  lances  shall  be  equidistant 
one  from  another.  Now  with  a  centre- 
bit,  or,  what  is  better,  a  pin-bi',  bore  p. 
hole  about  a  i  of  an  inch  deep  where 
the  circles  are  pencilled.  These  holes 
must  be  of  such  a  size  that  the  closed 
ends  of  the  lances  will  fit  easily  into 
them.  Get  either  some  glue  or  some  of 
the  mixture  of  size  and  red-lead,  and 
when  it  is  liquid,  dip  into  it  the  closed 
end  of  each  of  the  lances.  Enough  of  the 
mixture  will  adhere  to  the  lances  to 
allow  of  their  being  secured  firmly  in  the 
holts  that  have  been  bored.  In  a  very 
short  time  all  will  be  hard  and  dry,  and 
you  will  then  have  a  series  of  lances  pro- 
jecting at  right  angles  with  your  board 
or  framework,  each  having  its  mouth 
primed,  and  all  being  the  same  length. 
The  only  thing  that  remains  now  to  be 
done  is  to  clothe  these  primed  mouths 
with  quick-match.  This  is  by  no  means 
dillicult,  but  requires  a  certain  amount 
of  patience.  Take  a  length  of  match  in 
its  case,  and,  having  exposed  one  end  of 
the  black  match  itself,  put  a  small  pin 
through  it  into  the  priming  of  one  of  the 
lances.  This  will  fasten  it  down,  and  at 
the  same  time  will  ensure  ignition.  Then 
lead  the  quick-match  on  to  the  next 
lance,  cutting  away  with  scissors  a  piece 
of  the  under  side  of  its  case,  to  allow  the 
match  in  passing  to  touch  its  priming. 
Tut  a  pin  through  the  match  into  the 
jiriiniug  of  this  lance  also,  and  so  on  till 
all  are  clothed.  If  more  of  the  casing  of 
the  match  has  been  cut  away  than  is  ne- 
cessary, it  will  be  well  to  paste  small 
slrijis  of  paper  wherever  this  has  hap- 
jiened,  as  any  exposure  of  the  black  match 
will  endanger  the  piece,  rendering  it 
liable  to  ignition  from  the  sparks  of 
other  fireworks. 

CoLOUUKD  Lights. — Their  preparation 
is  exceedingly  simple.  They  are  gene- 
rally made  in  two  sizes  only;  these  arc 
the  2-oz.  and  the  1-oz.  sizes.  The 
cases  are  maile  of  cartridge  or  fools- 
cap paper,  and  are  about  2  inches  long 
for  the  2-oz,  size  and  IJ  inch  for  the 
1-oz,  size.  Used-up  copy-books  fur- 
nish excellent  paper  for  making  these 
ooUiured-light    cases.       Three   or    four 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


135 


rounds  of  the  paper  will  give  ample 
thickness  for  the  case.  The  paper  should 
be  pasted  all  the  way  along  the  strips. 
When  the  cases  are  thoroughly  dry,  ram 
into  the  bottom  of  them  some  dry  pow- 
dered clay ;  this  will  make  a  close  end, 
and  will  also  furnish  an  incombustible 
part  by  which  the  case  may  be  tied  or 
fastened  to  its  place. 

White  Lights  for  Decoration.  —  1, 
Nitre,  4  parts ;  sulphur,  1 ;  sulphide  of 
antimony,  1.  2.  Xitre,  4  parts ;  sul- 
phur, 1 ;  meal-powder,  1,  These  will 
give  the  ordinary  bluish  light,  and  com- 
positions made  from  them  will  remain 
good  for  any  length  of  time. 

Yellow  Lights  may  be  made  from  the 
formulas  given  under  the  head  of  Lances. 

Green  Lights. — Nitrate  of  baryta,  80 
parts;  chlorate  of  potash,  32;  sulphur, 
24;  calomel,  16;  fine  charcoal,  3; 
Bhellac,  2. 

Hed  Lights. — 1.  Chlorate  of  potash, 
52  parts ;  nitrate  of  strontia,  48 ;  calo- 
mel, 20  ;  shellac,  12  ;  Chertier's  copper, 
4;  fine  charcoal,  1.  2.  Chlorate  of  pot- 
ash, 84  parts ;  nitrate  of  strontia,  80 ; 
calomel,  51;  dextrine,  22;  shellac,  18; 
Chertier's  copper,  4. 

Purple. — 1.  Chlorate  of  potash,  28 
parts ;  Chertier's  copper,  28 ;  calomel, 
13 ;  shellac,  8 ;  stearine,  1.  2.  Chlorate 
of  potash,  40  parts  ;  calomel,  28  ;  Cher- 
tier's copper,  28  ;  dextrine,  10  ;  stearine, 
3.  3.  Chlorate  of  potash,  26  parts; 
Chertier's  copper,  24 ;  calomel,  14 ; 
shellac,  7. 

TouRBiLLOXS.  —  The  tourbillon  is  a 
species  of  firework  very  ingeniously  con- 
trived to  represent  a  spiral  column  of 
fire.  Its  performance  is  of  short  dura- 
tion, but  while  it  lasts  it  produces  a 
very  sta-iking  effect.  A  tourbillon  con- 
sists of  a  stout  case  filled  with  a  strong 
sparkling  composition,  and  closed  very 
tightly  at  both  ends.  In  this  case  are 
bored  four  holes,  at  which  the  fire  is  to 
find  vent.  Two  of  these  holes  are  made 
underneath  the  case ;  from  these  the  fire 
issues  in  a  downward  direction,  and  gives 
the  piece  the  power  of  ascending  per- 
pendicularly. The  outer  two  holes  are 
made  in  opposite  sides  of  the  case  near 
each   end ;    the   five  issuing   from  these 


n 


Fig.  23. 


causes  the  cases  to  revolve  in  a  horizontal 
direction  while  it  is  ascending.  The 
cases  are  made  as  for  rockets,  and  should 
be  about  8  inches  in  length,  and  f  of  an 
inch  in  their  bore.  Their  external  dia- 
meter will  be  found  to  be  about 
mch. 

Plain  Tourhillons.  —  Nitre,  8  pai-ts  ; 
meal-powder,  16;  sulphur,  4;  char- 
coal, 4. 

Brilliant  Tourhillons.  —  Meal-powder, 
16  parts;  nitre,  8;  sulphur,  3  to  4; 
fine  charcoal,  3 ;  steel  filings,  6.  Tour- 
billon cases  are  filled  by  means  of  an  appa- 
ratus which  consists  of  a  block  of  wood, 
Figs.  23,  24,  provided 
with  a  settle,  n,  on  which 
one  end  of  the  tourbillon 
case  is  placed,  and  over 
which  the  composition  is 
rammed.  There  is  a 
wooden  mould  for  enclos- 
ing the  case  and  sup- 
porting it  tightly  and  firmly  while  the 
operation  of  ramming  is  being  performed. 
This  mould  Q,  Q,  Fig.  24,  consists  of  a 
hollow  cylinder  of  wood  pierced  through- 
out, and  of  such  a  size 
in  its  bore  as  will  just 
admit  the  tourbillon 
case.  The  mould  is  di- 
vided longitudinally  in 
halves,  and  these  halves 
are  kept  together  by 
means  of  iron  rings, 
0  000,  which  encircle 
the  whole.  P  P  is  a  pin 
to  pass  through  cylin- 
der and  settle  to  con- 
nect them.  In  order  to 
fill  the  cases,  squeeze  one  end  of  one  of 
them  over  the  projecting  piece  at  the 
top  of  the  settle.  Fit  on  the  two 
halves  of  the  cylindrical  mould,  drive 
down  the  iron  rings  until  they  are  tight, 
and  put  in  the  pin  which  secures  the 
cylinder  to  the  block  and  settle.  First 
put  into  the  tourbillon  case  as  much 
clay  as  will,  when  rammed  very  hard, 
occupy  I  of  an  inch  in  the  length  of 
the  case.  The  settle  projects  into  the 
case  about  \  of  an  inch,  and  thus  J  an 
inch  at  each  end  of  the  case  is  left  for  the 
purpose  of  ensurmg  a  very  firm  ending, 


Fig.  24. 


f\ 

— n  f\ 

fl  r 

« 

qF" 

PC  -J 

JZ 

=1 

4^ 

N 


13G 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


which  cannot  be  blown  out  by  the  com- 
bustion of  the  composition.     When  the 
clay  has  been  rammed  in  as  tightly  as 
jjossible,     drive     in     the     composition, 
a    ladleful    at    a    time,    as    uniformly 
as  possible,  until   only  ^  an  inch  at  the 
upper   end    of  the    case    is    unoccupied 
by  it.     Into  this  vacant  space  drive  the 
same  quantity  of  clay  that  was  put  into 
the   lower   end,  and   be  sure  that   it   is 
rammed   in  very  firmly.     When  this  is 
done,  open   your  penknife,   and    lay   its 
61ade  on  the  table,  back  downwards  and 
edge    upwards.     Place    the    filled   tour- 
billon  case  across  the  edge  of  the  knife, 
and  find  the  exact  central  point  at  which 
it  balances  on  it,  and  mark  that  point  by 
making  a  hole  there  with  a  small  brad- 
awl.    Now,  having  found  the  centre  of 
its    balance,   next    mark    the    places   at 
which  the  holes  are  to  be  made,  and  by 
far  the  best  way  is  to  use  a  shape  made 
of  zinc  or  tin,  such  as  is  shown  Fig.  20. 
This  piece  of  sheet  metal,  when  bent  into 
the  form  of  a  trough  of  such  a  size  as  to 
fit  tightly  round  tJie  tourbillon  case,  will 
give  the  true  position  of  the  holes.     In 
using  it  put  the  filled  tourbillon  case  into 
It,  and  make  pencil  marks  through  the 
holes    that    correspond   to   those    drawn 
in  the  Fig.  26,  and  you  will  then  have 
got  over  the   entire  dilliculty.     In   the 
middle   of  the  scale  is  one  small  hole. 
This  hole  is  to   come  exactly  over  the 
mark    made    with    the    bradawl  at   tlio 
balancing  point,  and  if  this  be  done  all 
the    rest    must    come    right.       Having 
thus  marked   the  position  of  the  liolos, 
tlie   next  thing  is  to  bore   them.     This 
is  best  effected  by  means  of  a  bradawl 
driven  by  a  mallet,  the  tourbillon  during 
the   operation  being   laid   ujion  a  small 
block  of  wood,  M, 
with  a  groove  cut 
in  it,  asw,  Fig.2r>. 
Tlic  holes  should 
■    as    nearly    as 
I  rssible  ^'jf  of  an 
iiich   in  size.     It 
is  easier  to  drive 
the  bradawl  with 
a  m.illot   than   to 
work  it  in  with  the  hand.      It  must  nut 
U  driven  in  f.irther  than  necessary,  tlie 


Fio.  25. 


J 


object  being  merely  to  make  a  clear 
hole  through.  It'  a  block  is  2  inches 
square  or  rather  more  it  will  be  quite 
large  enough.  The  block  will  le  found 
very  useful  afterwards.  The  two  ex- 
treme holes,  which  are  nn  opposite  sides 
of  the  case,  are  made  at  the  ends  of  the 
composition ;  the  fire  issumg  from  these 
gives  the  tourbillon  a  horizontal  revo- 
lution round  its  centre  of  balance.  The 
two  inner  holes,  which  are  on  the  under 
side  of  the  case,  should  be  the  same 
distance  from  one  another  that  they  are 
from  the  extreme  holes;  the  fire  issuing 
from  these  gives  the  tourbillon  its  as- 
cending power.  We  have  now  to  connect 
all  these  holes  with  quick-match,  in  order 
that  the  composition  may  take  fire  at 
all  the  four  points  simultaneously;  and 
unless  this  is  attended  to  with  care,  it 
will  not  only  cause  the  tourbillon  to 
fire  irregularly,  but  entirely  destroy  its 
eflect.  i3ogin  at  one  of  the  under  holes, 
those  marked  F  in  Fig.  20,  and  press 
into    it   the   end   of  a   piece  of  uncased 


quick-match,  taking  care  that  Die  match 
reaches  the  composition.  'I'hen  carry 
the  match  on  to  the  nearest  side  hole, 
ami  press  it  into  it.  Carry  on  the  quick- 
matcii  over  the  tipper  side  of  the  tour- 
hilliin  to  the  side  hole  at  the  other  cn«l 
of  the  case,  and  press  it  in  tiiere;  ami. 


•UORKSIIOP   RECEIPTS. 


137 


lastly,  carry  it  on  to  tlie  remainiDg  uuJer 
hole,  and  press  it  into  it.  Having  com- 
pleted this  operation,  cut  some  strips  of 
thin  paper,  about  1  in.  wide,  paste  them 
well  over,  and  cover  the  quick-match 
with  them,  holes  and  all.  A  very  little 
practice  will  enable  one  to  adapt  this 
pasted  paper  very  neatly.  The  tour- 
billon,  if  now  ignited,  will  be  sure  to  go 
somewhere,  but  in  order  to  regulate  its 
flight  we  must  adjust  a  stick  to  it,  which 
shall  have  the  eftect  of  keeping  its  under 
side  downwards,  and  so  of  compelling  it 
to  move  upwards  perpendicularly.  This 
stick  is  usually  made  of  beech,  8  inches 
long,  about  1  inch  thick,  and  of  a  curved 
shape,  in  the  manner  represented  at  1 1 
in  Fig.  26.  There  is  a  small  hole  in  their 
centre  through  which  a  flat-headed  nail 
is  driven  into  the  tourbillon  at  its  balance 
point.  The  stick  must,  of  course,  lie  at 
riglit  angles  with  the  case  in  the  manner 
represented  at  R,  Fig.  28.  It  is  a  very 
good  plan  to  put  a  drop  or  two  of  glue 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  29. 


at  the  point  where  the  stick  touches  the 
case,  as  it  will  then  be  prevented  from 
shifting  its  ])Osition.  lu  driving  the 
nail  through  the  stick  into  the  tourbillon, 
make  use  of  the  block  represented  at  M, 
having  previously  cut  at  the  bottom  of 
its  rounded  groove  another  small  groove 
diagonally,  so  that  when  the  tourbillon  is 
lying  upside  down  in  the  large  groove,  for 
the  purpose  of  having  the  nail  driven  into 
it,  the  quick -match  that  extends  across  it 
may  lie  in  the  smaller  groove,  and  may 
not  be  injured  by  being  crushed,  as  would 
otherwise  be  the  case.  The  nails  used 
should  be  about  f  of  an  inch  long,  and 
should  have  a  smooth,  fiat  head.  To  fire 
the  tourbillon,  place  it  stick  downwards 
on  a  level  board,  and  see  that  it  spins 
easily  and  ft-eeiy  on  the  head  of  the  nail. 


Then  with  a  portfire  burn  through  the 
quick-match  in  the  middle  on  the  upj>er 
side.  The  tourbillon  will  make  a  few 
revolutions  on  the  board  before  it  begins 
to  rise.  

Reference  to  Figs.  24  to  29. — M,  block 
to  receive  the  tourbillon  while  it  is  being 
bored,  m,  groove  in  it  to  receive  the 
quick-match.  N,  block,  with  settle  (n) 
over  which  tourbillons  are  rammed. 
Q  Q  Q  Q,  wooden  cylinder  to  enclose 
tourbillon  case.  00  0  0,  iron  rings  to 
tighten  cylinder.  P  P,  pin  to  jiass 
through  cylinder  and  settle  to  connect 
them.  R,  tourbillon  complete,  with 
stick  attached.  S,  revolving  cradle  from 
which  tourbillons  are  fired,  ss,  iron 
spike,  with  tubular  top,  in  which  the 
cradle  revolves. 

Dkawing-room  Fireworks. — Light- 
ening  Paper. — Dry  1000  grains  of  pure 
nitre  at  a  moderate  heat,  place  it  in  a 
dry  retort,  pour  on  it  10  drachms  by  mea- 
sure of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  distil 
until  6  drachms  of  nitric  acid  have  passed 
over  into  the  receiver.  Dry  some  thin 
unsized  paper,  such  as  filte-  paper,  and 
weigh  out  60  grains  of  it.  Mix  5  mea- 
sured drachms  of  the  nitric  acid  with  an 
equal  volume  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  in 
a  small  glass  vessel ;  allow  the  mixture 
to  cool ;  immerse  the  paper,  pressing  it 
dewn  with  a  glass  rod,  cover  the  vessel 
with  a  glass  plate,  and  set  it  aside  for 
15  or  20  minutes.  Lift  the  paper  out 
with  a  glass  rod,  throw  it  into  a  bucket 
of  water,  and  wash  it  thoroughly  in 
a  stream  of  water  till  it  no  longer  tastes 
acid  or  reddens  blue  litmus  paper.  Dry 
it  by  exposure  to  the  air,  or  at  a  very 
gentle  heat. 

Japanese  Matches.  —  Lampblack,  5  ; 
sulphur,  11 ;  gunpowder  from  2G  to  30 
parts,  this  last  proportion  varying  witli 
the  quality  of  the  powder.  Grind  very 
fine,  and  make  the  material  into  a 
paste  with  alcohol;  form  it  into  dice 
about  \  of  an  inch  square,  with  a  knife 
or  spatula  let  them  dry  rather  gradually 
on  a  warm  mantelpiece,  not  too  near 
a  fire.  When  dry,  fix  one  of  the  little 
squares  'into  a  small  cleft  made  at  the 
end    of  a    lavender   stalk,   or,    what   \t 


138 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


better,  the  solid  straw-like  material  of 
which  housemaids'  carpet  -  brooms  are 
made.  Light  the  material  at  a  candle, 
hold  the  stem  downward.  After  the 
first  blazing  off,  a  ball  of  molten  lava 
will  form,  from  which  the  curious  corus- 
cations will  soon  appear. 

Quick-match. — Quick-match  is  made 
of  cotton  lamp-wick  thread,  soaked  for 
an  hour  or  two  in  a  mixture  of  gun- 
powder, 1|  lb.,  and  gum  water,  made 
by  dissolving  2  oz.  of  gum-arabic  in  1 
pint  of  water,  into  which  the  gunpowder 
should  be  beaten  up  till  dissolved.  The 
cotton  may  be  3,  4,  or  more  strands  in 
thickness,  and  should  be  wound  off  out 
of  the  mixture,  passed  through  a  funnel 
pipe  to  make  it  even,  and  dried  on  a 
frame.  It  must  be  enclosed  in  paper 
tubes  for  use,  as  it  will  not  burn  with 
the  necessarj'  rapidity  if  not  covered. 

Another  method  is  by  coating  lamp- 
cot. on  as  thickly  as  possible  with  meal- 
powder,  rendered  adhesive  by  mixture 
of  thick  gum-arabic,  and  covered  by  two 
strips  of  paper  wound  round  it  spirally, 
one  over  the  other  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, the  outer  one  being  pasted  to  the 
inner. 

FiUE  Bai,ixx)ns.  —  The  material  for 
making  a  snvall  balloon  should  be  a  fine, 
thin,  close-textured  tissue  pa]ier.  Having 
determined  that  the  balloon  shall  con- 
sist of  a  specific  number  of  gores,  or 
sections,  say  34-  or  16,  a  pattern  for 
cutting  them  by  should  be  made  of 
jiasteboard,  or  some  tolerably  hard  sub- 
stance. Suppose  the  entire  height  of  the 
balloon,  without  its  ajijienflages,  is  to  be 
.3  feet,  and  the  number  of  gores  32,  an 
elegant  shape  will  be  got  by  making  the 
pattern  1  inch  wide  at  one  end,  3  inches  at 
t  he  other,  and  8  inches  at  its  broadest  part, 
which  should  be  at  one-third  of  its  length, 
if  the  balloon  is  intended  to  have  a  pear- 
like  figure.  Varnish  the  gores  with  the 
ordinary  boiled  oil,  and  hang  thcni  up 
singly  on  linos  till  [lorfcftly  dry.  They 
are  next  to  be  put  together,  which  may 
be  done  with  gum  water  or  clean  thin 
j>.iste.  After  p.usling  or  gumming  about 
J  an  inch  of  one  of  the  gores,  lay  the  e<lge 
of  another  about  midway  across  the  [lart 
■>a8ted,  and  then  double  over  about  J  of 


an  inch  of  it,  dabbing  it  iightly  from  end 
to  end  with  a  clean  cloth,  to  ensure  its 
holding  securely.  Two  of  the  gores 
being  thus  united,  unite  two  others  in 
like  manner,  and  so  on,  until,  if  there 
were  32  gores  in  all,  the  number  i» 
reduced  to  16.  In  like  manner  ]iro 
ceed  till  the  number  is  eight,  then  four, 
and  then  two ;  hanging  the  section* 
up  at  every  pasting,  so  that  they  may 
get  thoroughly  dry  whilst  proceeding. 
The  two  halves  are  last  of  all  to  be  con- 
nected in  the  same  way ;  and  this  part 
of  the  undertaking  is  then  completed.  A 
circle  of  wire,  about  6  inches  in  diameter, 
should  be  worked  into  the  bottom  of  it, 
to  keep  the  fabric  of  the  balloon  at  a 
sufficient  distance  from  the  flame  of  the 
spirit.  Another  wire  may  be  fixed  icross 
this  circle  to  hold  a  piece  of  sponge, 
which  should  be  immersed  in  spirits  of 
wine.  A  smouldering  piece  of  brown 
paper  held  underneath  the  aperture  will 
in  a  few  minutes  put  the  balloon  in  an 
ascending  condition.  Having  thus  inflated 
the  balloon,  ignite  the  piece  of  sponge, 
and  let  it  rise.  When  it  is  intended  to 
inflate  the  balloon  with  hydrogen  or  coal 
gas,  the  latter  apparatus  is  not  needed ; 
but  a  light  car,  or  any  other  ornament 
proportioned  to  the  ascending  power  of 
the  balloon,  may  be  appended  to  it, 
which  will  have  the  effect  of  maintaining 
it  in  the  right  position,  and  also  of  keep- 
ing it  longer  in  sight  than  would  other- 
wise be  the  case. 

Saltpktrk  from  damaged  Gunpow- 
der.—  Dissolve  the  powder  in  warm 
water,  filter  the  solution  through  fine 
linen  bags,  and  then  evaporate  the  water 
by  boiling  it,  until  the  solution  is  of  suf- 
ficient strength  to  crystallize. 

StRPEN'TS,  OR  Syuiits.  —  1.  Mealed 
powder,  1  lb.  8  oz. ;  charcoal,  4  oz. ;  sul- 
phur, 1  oz. ;  saltpetre,  3  oz.  2.  Mealed 
j)owder,  1  lb.;  charcoal,  1  oz. ;  salt]ietre 
Ij  oz. ;  steel  filings,  1  oz.  The  case  is 
m.ade  by  rolling  cartridge  paper  in  slips 
of  G  or  8  inches  in  breadth  round  a  for- 
mer, and  p.asting  down  the  last  fold,  for 
seri)ents.  The  case,  having  been  choked 
at  one  end,  is  filled  by  inserting  a  funnel 
into  the  case,  filling  the  funnel  with  cora- 
jiositioa,  and  gently  moving  a  rod  or  ram- 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS, 


139 


mer  up  and  down  the  fuDuel-pjpe,  the  rod 
being  introduced  before  the  composition. 
A  piece  of  touchpapcr  is  fastened  to  the 
end.  For  squibs,  before  filling  the  case, 
ram  in  hare'  a  thimbleful  of  coarse  gun- 
powder. 

Showers  of  Fiue. — Chinese  Fire. — 
Mealed  powder,  1  lb.;  sulphur,  2  oz. ; 
iron  filings,  5  oz.  Ancient  Fire. — Mealed 
powder,  1  lb. ;  charcoal,  2  oz.  To  form 
a  shower  of  fire,  mould  small  paper  cases 
on  a  rod,  ^  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
2J  inches  in  length.  They  must  not  be 
choked,  as  it  will  be  sutFicient  to  twist 
the  end  of  the  case,  and  having  put  the 
rod  into  it,  beat  it  to  make  it  assume  its 
form.  When  the  cases  are  filled,  which 
is  done  bv  immersing  them  in  the  coin- 
position,  fold  down  the  other  end,  and 
then  apply  a  match.  They  must  be  fixed 
on  a  frame  with  leaders,  to  be  flred  si- 
multaneously. 

Pin,  or  Catherine, Wheels. — Mealed 
powder,  12  oz. ;  saltpetre,  3  oz. ;  sul- 
phur, li  oz.  The  pipe  or  case  is  made 
on  a  lono;  wire  former,  about  -A-  of  an 
mch  in  diameter,  into  which  the  compo- 
sition is  poured  through  a  funnel,  and 
shaken  down.  The  case  is  then  rolled 
round  a  small  circleof  wood  about  1  inch 
in  diameter,  and  not  more  than  ^  an  inch 
thick,  with  a  hole  through  the  centre  of 
it  for  a  nail,  or  pin.  One  end  of  the  case 
is  to  be  pasted  round  the  wood,  and  each 
half  turn  of  it  secured  with  sealing  wax, 
or  a  strip  of  paper  pasted  across  the  wheel. 
The  end  is  then  primed. 

Crackers. — The  case  is  made  of  cart- 
ridge paper,  the  dimensions  required 
being  15  mches  by  3J  mches.  First  fold 
down  one  edge,  about  f  of  i\i  inch  broad, 
then  turn  down  the  double  edge  about 
\  of  an  inch,  and  bend  bacK  the  single 
edge  over  the  double  fold,  so  as  to  form 
within  a  channel,  which  is  to  be  filled 
with  mealed  powder,  not  ground  very 
fine  ;  the  powder  is  then  to  be  covered 
by  the  folds  on  each  side,  and  the  whole 
is  to  be  pressed  by  a  flat  ruler ;  and  the 
part  containing  the  powder  is  to  be  folded 
inio  the  remainder  of  the  paper,  every 
fold  being  pressed  down.  The  cracker  is 
then  doubled  backwards  and  forwards  in 
folds  about  2\  inches,  which  are  pressed 


quite  close,  and  a  piece  of  twine  is  passed 
twice  round  the  middle  across  the  folds, 
and  the  joinings  secured  by  causing  the 
twine  to  take  a  turn  round  the  middle  at 
each  fold  successively  one  of  the  ends 
of  the  folds  may  be  doubled  short  under, 
which  will  produce  an  extra  report ;  the 
other  must  project  a  little  beyond  the 
rest  for  the  purpose  of  being  primed. 

Coloured  Fires. — In  the  preparation 
of  coloured  fires  the  utmost  care  should 
be  taken  to  have  the  com]ionent  parts  ot 
the  mixtures  well  triturated  apart  from 
each  other,  passed  through  fine  sieves, 
and  kept  separately  in  stoppered  bottles. 
They  do  not  improve  by  keeping,  and 
therefore  should  be  used  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  mixing.  The  proper  amount 
of  each  ingredient  being  parcelled  out  and 
placed  on  a  sheet  of  glass  or  paper,  the 
whole  is  carefully  mixed  with  a  light 
hand  by  means  of  a  bone  or  wooden  knife, 
a  common  paper  knife  for  instance.  Chlo- 
rate of  potassa  must  be  treated  with 
especial  caution,  as  it  is  very  liable  to 
explosion  from  friction  whilst  in  contact 
with  combustible  matter. 

Blue  Fire. — 1.  Sulphur,  sulphate  of 
potassa,  and  ammonio-sulphate  of  copper, 
of  each,  15  parts;  nitre,  27;  chlorate  ot 
potassa,  28.  For  theatrical  illuminations. 
2.  Metallic  antimony,  1  part ;  sulphur,  2  ; 
nitre,  5.  3.  Sulphate  of  copper,  7  parts  ; 
sulj)hur,  24  ;   chlorate  of  potassa,  69. 

Crimson  Fire. — Chlorate  of  potassa, 
41  parts ;  alder  or  willow  charcoal,  .'>}  ; 
sulphur,  22^ ;  nitrate  of  strontia,  67^. 
For  pots. 

Green  Fire.  —  1.  Charcoal  and  sul- 
phuret  of  arsenic,  of  each.  If  part  ; 
sulphur,  lOJ  ;  chlorate  of  potassa,  23| ; 
nitrate  of  baryta,  62^.  2.  Nitrate  of 
baryta,  77  parts ;  chlorate  of  potassa, 
8 ;  fine  charcoal,  3 ;  sulphur,  13.  3. 
Metallic  arsenic,  2  parts ;  charcoal,  3 ; 
chlorate  of  potassa,  5;  sulphur,  13; 
nitrate  of  baryta,  77. 

Lilac  Fire.  —  Black  oxide  of  copper, 
6  parts  ;  dry  chalk,  20  ;  sulphur,  25 ; 
chlorate  of  potassa,  49. 

Purple  Fire. — 1.  Sulphuret  of  anti- 
mony, 2f  parts ;  black  oxide  of  copper, 
10;  sulphur  and  nitrate  of  potassa,  of 
each,  22J  ;  chlorate  of  potassa,  42.     2. 


uo 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPtS. 


Sulphur,  12  parts ;  black  oxide  of  copper, 
12  ;  chlorate  of  potassa,  30. 

lied  Fire. — 1.  Sulpluir,  sulphuret  of 
antimonv,  and  nitre,  of  eacli,  1  part ; 
dried  nitrate  of  strontia,  5.  2.  Chlorate 
of  potassa,  20  parts;  sulphur,  24-;  nitrate 
of  strontia,  56.  3.  Coal-dust,  2  parts ; 
gunpowder,  6 ;  sulphur,  20 ;  dried  ni- 
trate of  strontia,  72.  4.  Nitrate  of 
strontia,  37 J  parts;  flowers  of  sulphur, 
10  ;  charcoal,  IJ  ;  powdered  chlorate  of 
potash,  5;  black  sulphur  of  antimony. 


-8 


Violet  Fire. — Charcoal,  8  parts ;  sul- 
phur, 10;  metallic  co])per,  15".  chlorate 
of  potassa,  30. 

Wliite  Fire. — 1.  Nitre,  60  parts;  sul- 
phur, 20;  black  antimony,  10;  meal- 
j'owder,  6 ;  powdered  camphor,  4.  2. 
Gunpowder,  12J  parts;  zinc  filings,  18; 
sulphur,  23 ;  nitre,  4GJ.  3.  Charcoal, 
1  j)art ;  sulphur,  24  ;  niti-e,  75. 

yellow  Fire. — 1.  Sulphur,  16  parts; 
dried  carbonate  of  soda,  23  ;  chlorate  of 
potassa,  61.  2.  Charcoal,  6  parts;  sul- 
phur, 19J.     For  pans. 

PvROTKCiiN'ic  Mixtures: — 

White  Light. — Saltpetre,  8  parts  ;  sul- 
phur, 2  ;  antimon)',  2. 

Hcd  Liijld. — Nitrate  of  strontia,  20 
parts;  chlorate  of  potash,  5;  suli)hur, 
l)J  ;  charcoal,  1. 

Blue  Light.  —  Chloride  of  potash,  9 
parts ;  sulphur,  3 ;  carbonate  of  cop- 
per, 3, 

Yellow  ZiV/<f.  — Nitrate  of  soda,  24 
parts ;  antimony,  8 ;  sulphur,  6  ;  char- 
coal, 1. 

Green  Light. — Nitrate  of  baryta,  20 
parts;  chlorate  of  potash,  IS;  sul- 
phur, 10. 

Violet  flight. — Nitrate  of  strontia,  4 
parts;  chlorate  of  jiotash,  9;  sulphur, 
5  ;  carbonate  of  copper,  1  ;  calomel,  1. 

Matchics.  —  Ordinary  matches  are 
small  slijis  of  wood  which  have  been 
dip|ied  iu  suiiihur,  and  afterwards  tipped 
with  a  ]>aste  cajjuble  of  ignition  by  fric- 
tion.  This  paste  contains — 1.  Common 
jihosphorus,  4  parts;  nitre,  16;  red- 
lead,  3;  strong  lead,  6.  2.  Ordinary 
phosjihorus,  9  jiarts  ;  nitre,  14 ;  bin- 
oxide  of  manganese,  14  •,  gum  or  glue, 
16.      Melt  the    glue  at   212°   K.,    gra- 


dually add  the  phosphorus,  which  must 
be  well  stirred  into  the  liquid ;  then  add 
the  nitre  and  colouriofr  matter.  Keep 
the  paste  at  a  regular  temperature  of 
about  97°  F.  by  means  of  hot  water 
under  the  marble  or  cast-iron  slab  on 
which  it  is  spread  whilst  the  matches 
are  being  dipped.  If  gum  is  used,  all 
the  operations  may  be  more  easily  per- 
formed, as  the  materials  can  be  mixed 
cold  ;  but  the  matclies  made  with  gum 
are  easily  spoilt  by  damp. 

Matchks  without  Sulphur. — Char 
the  ends  of  the  splints  with  red-hot  iron, 
dip  them  into  a  thin  layer  of  stearic 
acid,  or  wax,  melted  in  a  llat-bottomt^d 
tinned  copper  jian.  The  dipping  paste 
for  these  matches  is  ordinary  phos- 
phorus, 3  parts;  strong  glue,  3 '5; 
water,  3;  fine  sand,  2*0;  colouring 
matter,  "1  to  *5;  chlorate  of  potash,  3. 
Tliese  matches  burn  readily,  with  a 
bright  flame,  and  have  no  unpleasant 
smell.  Amorjihous  jihosj)horus  nut  being 
poisonous,  or  liable  to  accidental  igni- 
tion, is  preferable  to  ordinary  phosphorus. 
The  paste  used  is  amorphous  phospho- 
rus, 3  parts  ;  chlorate  of  potash,  4 ;  glue, 
2*5;  water,  5  ;  poun<led  glass,  2. 

Safety  Matchks. — Dip  the  splints 
in  a  jiaste  composed  of  clilorate  of  potash, 
6  parts;  sulphide  of  antimony,  2  to  3 ; 
glue,  weighed  dry,  1.  The  paste  for  the 
rubbing  surface  is  amorphous  phospho- 
rus, 10  parts ;  oxide  of  manganese,  or 
sulphide  of  antimony,  8;  glue,  3  to  (>, 
weighed  dry.  The  ingredients  must  be 
thorougiily  mixed,  and  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  mix  the  chlorate  of  pofasli 
in  the  dry  state  with  the  other  mate- 
rials;  it  should  be  mixed  first  with  glue 
dissolved  in  warm  water.  The  paste  lor 
the  rubbing  surface  may  be  spread  with 
a  brush  or  spatula  on  the  side  of  the 
box. 

MATCuia  WITHOUT  Phosphorus.— 1. 
For  the  ])roduction  of  these  lucifers  n 
mixture  of  from  4  to  6  parts  of  chlnr.ite 
of  potash,  and  2  jiarts  each  of  bichro- 
m.ite  of  potash,  and  of  oxide  of  iron  or 
of  loacl,  with  3  parts  strong  glue  is  used. 
For  the  igniting  surface,  a  mixttre  of 
29  parts  suljihate  of  antimony,  2  to  4 
parts  bichromate  of  potash,  4  to  6  part.-* 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS, 


141 


oxide  of  either  iron,  lead,  or  manganese, 
2  parts  of  glass  powder,  and  from  2 
to  3  parts  strong  glue  or  gum.  These 
matches  will  ignite  only  on  the  friction 
surface  thus  prepared.  2.  For  the 
match-heads  a  mixture  of  chlorate  of 
potash  and  a  compound  of  hyposulphur- 
ous  acid  with  soda,  ammonia,  and  oxide 
and  sub-oxide  of  copper.  This  com- 
pound is  formed  by  dividing  a  solution 
of  copper  into  two  equal  parts,  super- 
saturating one  of  Ihem  with  ammouia, 
and  the  other  with  hyposulphate  of 
soda  ;  then  mixing  the  two  solutions,  and 
stirring  the  mixture  well,  a  violet  pow- 
der precipitates.  One  part  of  it  is  to 
be  mixed  with  2  parts  of  the  chlorate  of 
potash,  and  a  small  quantity  of  pounded 
glass.  Lucifers  made  in  this  way  are, 
however,  objectionable,  from  the  fact 
that  they  will  ignite  on  any  rough  sur- 
face, even  more  easily  than  the  common 
kind. 

Gun-Cotton. — There  are  several- 
varieties  of  gun-cotton  —  the  explosive, 
soluble  only  in  acetic  ether ;  pyroxiline, 
soluble  in  sulphuric  ether  and  alcohol ; 
and  xyloidine.  All  these  are  formed  by 
the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  cotton  or 
lignine  iu  some  form.  The  difference 
between  them  consists  mainly  in  the 
strength  and  temperature  of  the  acids 
employed  in  their  preparation.  The 
most  explosive  is  prepared  with  the 
strong  acids,  sulphuric  and  nitric,  mixed, 
the  object  of  the  sulphuric  being  to  take 
water  from  the  nitric,  and  so  leave  the 
latter  m  its  full  strength  to  combine 
with  the  lignine  or  cotton.  The  first 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  thoroughly  cleanse 
the  raw  material.  This  is  effected  by 
boiling  it  in  an  alkaline  solution,  then 
drying  it  in  a  current  of  air,  and  then 
again  boiling  it  in  clean  water.  After 
the  second  boiling  it  must  be  very 
thoroughly  dried  at  about  120°  F.  The 
cotton  must  be  very  thoroughly  dried, 
as  any  moisture  which  might  remain  in 
it  would,  by  combining  with  the  acid, 
generate  heat,  and  set  up  a  destructive 
action.  The  cotton,  in  charges  of  1  lb., 
is.  placed  separately  in  a  bath  containing 
the  mixed  acids,  the  mixture  in  which 
the  cotton  is  submerged  consisting  of  3 


parts  by  weight  of  Nordhausen  sulphuric 
acid,  specific  gravity  1'84-,  and  L  part  of 
nitric  a:ld,  specific  gravity  1'5;  this 
mixture  allowed  to  cool  down — a  pro- 
cess which  occupies  two  or  three  days 
— before  the  cotton  is  placed  m  it.  After 
immersion,  the  charges  of  cotton  are 
strained  until  each  contains  only  about 
10  times  its  weight  of  acids,  and  each 
charge  is  then  placed  in  an  earthenware 
jar  and  covered  down.  In  or  lor  to  pre- 
vent any  heating  from  taking  place,  the 
jars  should  be  placed  in  a  current  of 
co'd  water.  The  cotton  after  beinj  ex- 
posed  to  the  acid  for  48  hours,  in  order 
to  ensure  its  thorough  conversion,  is 
removed  from  the  jars  and  squeezed 
nearly  dry.  It  is  then  to  be  suddenly 
plunged  into  a  strong  fall  of  cold  water, 
and  left  for  a  short  time.  The  object  of 
placing  the  gun-cotton  in  the  fall  of 
water  is  to  ensure  the  sudden  and  com- 
plete submersion  of  the  material,  and 
thus  avoid  the  heating  and  decomposi- 
tion of  the  cotton,  which  would  take 
place  at  the  surface  of  the  water  if  the 
cotton  were  immersed  gradually.  On 
its  removal  from  the  fall  of  water,  the 
gun-cotton  is  wrung  dry,  and  placed  in 
a  stream  of  water  for  48  hours.  After 
being  washed  and  partly  dried  several 
times  more,  the  cotton  should  be 
thoroughly  dried  at  the  temperature  ot 
no  more  than  140°  F.  It  is  now  so  ex- 
plosive that  great  care  is  required  in  its 
arrangement,  being  about  three  times  as 
explosive  as  gunpowder.  As  thus  pre- 
pared gun-cottou  scarcely  differs  from 
unchanged  cotton  in  appearance ;  it  is 
white  and  fibrous,  and  rather  harsh  to 
the  touch.  If  only  a  small  quantity  is 
required — 1.  Mix  4|  oz.  of  pure,  dry, 
nitrate  of  potash  with  30  fluid  drachms 
of  sulphuric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1*845,  and  stir 
into  this  mixture  carefully  120  grs.  of 
best  carded  cotton.  As  soon  as  satura- 
tion is  complete,  in  about  one  minute,  if 
proper  care  has  been  used,  throw  the 
cotton  into  a  large  pan  of  clean  rain 
water,  and  change  the  water  repeatedly 
until  litmus  ceases  to  show  the  presence 
of  acid,  then  squeeze  it  in  a  cloth,  and, 
after  being  well  pulled  out,  dry  it  at 
a  temperature  of  about  180°.     2.  Take 


142 


WORKSHOP   IIECEIPIS. 


of  cotton  1  oz.,  sulphuric  acid,  5  fl.  oz., 
nitric  acid,  5  H.  oz. ;  mix  the  acids  iu  a 
porcelain  mortar,  immerse  the  cotton  in 
the  mixture,  and  stir  it  for  three  minutes 
with  a  glass  rod,  decant  the  liquid,  pour 
more  water  oa  the  mass,  and  repeat  the 
process  until  the  washing  ceases  to  give 
a  precipitate  with  chloride  of  barium. 
Drain  the  product  on  filtering  paper  and 
dry  in  a  water  bath. 

Nitro-Glycerine.  —  Nitro-glyce- 
rine  is  made  in  tiie  ibllowing  manner : — 
Fuming  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  about  1  52) 
is  mixed  with  twice  its  weight  of  the 
stJ'oiigest  suljihuric  acid,  in  a  vessel 
kept  cool  by  being  surrounded  with  cold 
water.  When  this  acid  mixture  is  pro- 
I)erly  cooled,  there  is  slowly  poured  into 
it  rather  more  than  i  of  its  weight  of 
syrui)y  glycerine ;  constant  stirring  is 
kept  up  during  the  addition  of  the  gly- 
cerine, and  the  vessel  containing  the 
mixture  is  maintained  at  as  low  a  tem- 
perature as  possible  bj'  means  of  a  sur- 
rounding of  cold  water,  ice,  or  some 
fi'eezi  ig  mixtuie.  It  is  necessary  to 
avoid  any  sensible  heating  of  the  mix- 
ture, otherwise  the  glycerine,  which  is 
the  sweet  piincii>le  of  oil,  would  be,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  transformed  into 
oxalic  acid.  When  the  action  ceases, 
nitro-glyceiine  is  produced.  It  foims 
on  the  surface  as  an  oily-looking  fluid, 
the  uudecomposed  sulphuric  acid  form- 
ing the  subjacent  layer,  owing  to  its 
greater  specific  gravity.  The  whole 
mixtuie  is  then  poured,  with  constant 
Stirling,  into  a  large  quantity  of  cold 
water,  when  the  relative  specific  gra- 
vities become  so  altered  that  the  nitro- 
glycerine subsiiJes  and  the  diluted  acid 
rises  to  the  surface.  After  the  separa- 
tion in  this  manner  into  two  layers  is 
ellec'-cd,  the  iijijier  hiycr  may  lie  removed 
by  the  process  of  decantation  or  by 
nieais  of  a  sii>hon,  and  the  remaining 
nitro-glycerine  is  w.ashed  and  re-wiished 
with  fresh  water  till  not  a  trace  of  acid 
reaction  is  indicated  by  blue  litmus 
paper.  The  final  purifying  jiroce.ss  is  to 
crystallize  the  uiti'o-glyceriue  from  its 
solution  in  wood  naphtha.  The  final 
process  is  not  necessary  when  the  com- 
pound  ii  Co   be  usc^l   at  once.     As  pia- 


pared  in  this  manner,  nitro-gly(erine  is 
an  oily-looking  liquid,  of  a  faint  yellow 
colour,  ])trtectly  inodorous,  and  possessed 
of  a  sweet,  aromatic,  and   somewhat  pi- 
quant taste.     It  is  poisonous,  small  doses 
of  it    producing    headache,    which   may 
also  be  produced  if  the  substance  is  ab- 
sorbed into  the  blood  through  the  skin, 
and  hence  it  is  not  desirable  to  allow  it 
to  remain  long  in  contact  with  the  skin, 
but  rather  to  wash  it  otl'as  soon  as  pos- 
sible with  soap   and  water.      Glycerine 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  1' 25-1*  2(3,  but 
the  nitro-glycerine  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  almost   I'G,   so  that   it    is   a    heavy 
liquid.      It    is   practically    insoluble    in 
water,  but  it  readily  dissolves  iu  ether, 
in  ordinary  vinic  alcohol,  and  iu  methy- 
lic   alcohol     or    wood    spirit.      If   it    is 
simply  exposed   to  contact  with   tire  it 
does  not  explode,  although  it  is  so  pow- 
erful as  an  exi)lo«:ve.     A  burning  match 
may  be  introduced  into  it  without  pro- 
ducing  any   explosion  ;  the   match   may 
be   made  to  ignite  the  li(iuid,  but  com- 
bustion will  cease  as  soon  as  the  m.itcli 
ceases    to    burn.      Nitro-glyccriue    may 
even  be  burned   by  means  of  a  cotton 
wick  or  a  strip  of  bibulous  paper,  as  oil 
from  a    lam]),    anil   as    harmlessly.       It 
remains  fixed   and    perfectly   unchanged 
at  212^   v.-    if  heated    to    about   8tJU°, 
however,  it  explodes.     It  aetouatcs  when 
struck   by  the    blow  of  a  hammer,  but 
only  the  part  struck  by  the  hammer  ex- 
plotles  ;    the  surrounding  liquid  remains 
unchanged.     As   the    carriage   of  nitro- 
glycerine is  dangerous,  many  trials  have 
Ijeen  made  to  reniler  it  inexplosive,  and 
to  restore  its  exjdosiveness  with  equal 
readiness.      Nobel's    method    of  making 
it    ii\explosive   is    at   once    simple    and 
effective.     It  is  to  mix  with  it  from  5  to 
10   per  cent,   of  wood  spirit,    when  all 
attempts  at   exjiloding   it    are   rendered 
utterly  futile.    Five  jicr  cent,  of  inelhyl- 
aicohol  is  said  to  be  amjjly  suflicient  to 
transform   the   nitro-glycerine   into   the 
;nexi)losivc   or    protected  state,   but   10 
per  cent,  is  generally  a.lded  before  send- 
ing any  liquid   into  the   market.      The 
transformation    of   ]irotected    into  ordi- 
n.irv  nitro-glyccrine  is  eJlected   by  tho- 
roughly  agitating   it  with    water,  aiji 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


143 


allowing  the  mixture  to  settle  for  a 
short  time.  By  this  means  the  water 
dissolves  out  the  methyl-alcohol,  and  the 
mixture  of  spirit  and  water  readily  rises 
to  the  surface,  in  virtue  of  its  low  spe- 
cific gravity,  and  can  be  removed  by 
means  of  a  siphon,  or  by  simply  pouring 
it  off.  As  a  blasting  liquid  it  is  now 
ready  for  use.  If  protected  blasting 
liquid  hi  kept  in  a  closed  vessel,  it  will 
remain  in  that  state  for  an  indefinite 
period  of  time,  and  ready  at  any  moment 
to  be  reduced  or  rendered  fit  for  action  ; 
if,  however,  it  be  exposed  in  an  open 
vessel,  it  will  regain  its  explosiveness,  in 
periods  of  time  proportionate  to  the 
amount  or  degree  of  exposure.  For 
blasting  purposes,  the  chief  advantage 
which  nitro-glycerine  possesses  is  that  it 
requires  a  much  smaller  hole  or  chamber 
than  gunpowder  does,  the  strength  of 
the  latter  being  scarcely -jL  that  of  the 
former.  A  chamber,  34  millimetres  in 
diameter,  was  made  perpendicularly  in 
a  dolomitic  rock,  60  ft.  in  length,  and 
at  a  distance  of  14  ft.  from  its  extremity, 
which  was  nearly  vertical.  At  a  depth 
of  8  ft.,  a  vault  filled  with  clay  was 
found,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
bottom  of  the  hole  was  tamped,  leaving 
a  depth  of  7  ft.  One  litre  and  a  half  of 
nitro-glycerine  was  then  poured  in  ;  it 
occupied  5  ft.  A  match  and  stopper 
were  then  applied  as  stated,  and  the  mine 
sprung.  The  effect  was  so  enormous  as 
to  produce  a  fissure  50  ft.  in  length,  and 
another  of  20  ft.  Nitro-glycerine  has, 
however,  one  disadvantage.  It  freezes 
at  a  temperature  very  probably  above 
92°  F.,  and  it  is  said  that  even  at  a  tem- 
perature of  43°  to  46°  F.  the  oil  solidi- 
fies to  an  icy  mass,  which  mere  friction 
will  cause  to  explode.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  freezmg-point  of  the 
oil  lies  somewhat  lower  than  is  here 
stated,  though  as  yet  no  exact  determi- 
nation of  the  freezing-point  of  the  oil 
has  been  made.  Great  care  must  be  ex- 
ercised whilst  it  is  in  a  frozen  state,  as 
otherwise  it  will  cause  most  dreadful 
accidents. 

Dynamite  is  made  by  mixing  75 
per  cent,  of  nitro-glyc*rine  with  25  per 
fent.  of  powdered  sand.     Dynamite  re- 


tains all  the  properties  of  nitro-glycerine 
for  blasting,  but  is  not  so  dangerous, 
as  it  may  be  handled  freely.  Explosion 
is  produced  by  means  of  a  percussion 
cap  in  the  same  manner  as  with  nitro- 
glycerine. 

Fulminates. — Fulminate  of  Mer- 
cunj.  —  1.  This  highly-explosive  com- 
pound consists  of  protoxide  of  mercury 
united  with  an  acid ;  fulminic  acid, 
formed  of  cyanogen  and  oxygen.  Ful- 
minate of  mercury  is  prepared  by  causing 
alcohol  to  react  on  the  acid  proto- 
nitrate.  A  quantity  of  mercury  is  dis- 
solved in  12  parts  of  nitric  acid  of  35°  or 
40°ofBaume,  and  11  parts  of  alcohol 
at  "86  are  gradually  added  to  the  solu- 
tion ;  while  the  temperature  is  slowly 
elevated,  a  lively  reaction,  accompanied 
by  a  copious  evolution  of  reddish  va- 
pours, soon  ensues,  when  the  liquid,  on 
cooling,  deposits  small  crystals  of  a  yel- 
lowish white  colour.  Fulminate  of  mer- 
cury is  one  of  the  most  explosive  com- 
pounds known,  and  should  be  handled 
with  great  care,  especially  when  it  is 
dry,  and  it  detonates  when  rubbed 
against  a  hard  body.  It  dissolves  rea- 
dily in  boiling  water,  but  the  greater 
portion  is  again  deposited  in  crystals 
during  cooling.  The  fulminating  mate- 
rial of  percussion  caps  is  made  of  ful- 
minate of  mercury  prepared  as  just, 
stated,  after  having  been  washed  in  cold 
water.  The  substance  is  allowed  to 
drain  until  it  contains  only  about  20  per 
cent,  of  water,  and  is  then  mixed  with 
I  of  its  weight  of  nitre,  which  mixture 
is  ground  on  a  marble  table  with  a 
muller  of  guiacum-wood.  A  small 
quantity  of  the  paste  is  then  placed  in 
each  copper  cap  and  allowed  to  dry,  the 
fulminating  powder  in  the  cap  being 
often  covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  varnish 
to  preserre  it  from  moisture.  2.  Weigh 
out  25  grains  of  mercury  in  a  watch- 
glass,  transfer  it  to  a  half-pint  pipkin, 
add  a  measured  J  oz.  of  ordinary  con- 
centrated nitric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1*42, 
and  apply  a  gentle  heat.  As  soon  as  the 
mercury  is  completely  dissolved,  place 
the  pivkin  upon  the  table  away  from 
any  flame,  and  pour  quickly  into  it,  at 
arm's    length,  5    measured    drachms   oi 


141 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


slcoliol,  sp.  gr.  0'87.  A  brisk  action 
will  eusue,  aad  heavy  white  clouds  will 
arise.  When  this  action  has  subsided, 
lill  the  pipkin  with  water,  allow  the 
fulminate  to  settle,  and  then  pour  off 
the  liquid  acid.  Collect  the  fulminate 
on  a  filter,  and  wash  with  water  as 
long  as  the  washing  tastes  acid,  then  dry 
by  exposure  to  the  air.  This  exjilodes 
at  a  temjierature  of  360^  F.,  or  by  being 
touched  by  a  glass  rod  which  has  been 
dipped  in  concentrated  nitric  or  sul- 
phuric  acid.      An    electric    spavk    also 

C.\]ilodcs  it. 

Fulminate  of  Silver.  —  Dissolve  10 
grains  of  pure  silver,  at  a  gentle  heat,  in 
70  minims  of  ordinary  concentrated  ni- 
tric acid,  sp.  gr.  1*42,  and  50  minims  of 
water.  As  soon  as  the  silver  is  dis- 
solved the  heat  is  removed,  and  200 
mmims  of  alcohol,  sp.  gr.  0'87,  are 
added.  If  the  nitric  acid  and  alcohol 
are  not  of  the  exact  strength  here  given 
it  may  be  difficult  to  start  the  action,  in 
which  case  add  two  or  throe  drops  of 
red  nitric  acid,  which  contains  nitrous 
acid.  Standard  silver,  containing  co])per, 
may  be  used  for  the  preparation  of  the 
fulminate.  If  the  action  does  not  com- 
mence after  a  short  time,  a  very  gentle 
heat  may  be  applied  until  effervescence 
begins,  when  the  fulminate  of  silver  will 
be  ilepositcd  in  minute  needles,  and  may 
be  further  treated  as  in  the  case  of  ful- 
minate of  mercury.  As  the  fulminate  of 
silver  is  exploded  much  more  readily 
than  the  fulminate  of  mercury,  it  must 
be  handled  with  the  greatest  caution 
when  dry.  It  should  be  separated  into 
*mall  quantities,  each  j)ortion  wrajipod 
n  paper,  and  kejit  in  a  cardboard  box, 
nothing  harder  than  this  should  be 
brought  in  contact  with  it.  This  mix- 
ture IS  of  no  use  for  percussion  c;ips, 
being  too  violent  in  its  action. 

Tltrow-dmn  Detonntinij  Cracher.  — 
Screw  up  a  particle  of  fulminate  of  silver 
m  a  ]>iece  of  thin  paper,  witii  Kome  Irag- 
mouts  of  a  crushed  rjuartz  ])irljMe. 

JJ'/u'/lo  FulmiTUit<;  of  Silver  and  Am- 
mmi'i. — Dissolve  fulminatj  of  silver  in 
warm  ammonia  :  the  solution,  on  cooling, 
will  de[)Osit  crystals  of  the  doul)lc  ful- 
mina'e     This  is  very  violent  in  its  ex- 


plosion,  and   is   dangerous    whilst    still 
moist. 

Fulminating  Plalinxm. — Dissolve  bin- 
oxide  of  platinum  in  diluted  sulphuric 
acid,  mix  the  solution  with  excess  of 
ammonia,  a  black  j)recii>itate  is  ob- 
tained, which  detonates  violently  at 
about  400°  F. 

Fuliniiialiii;/  Gold. — Add  ammonia  to  a 
solution  of  terchlorido  of  gold  ;  the  but! 
precipitate  which  it  deposits  is  violently 
exjjlosive  at  a  gentle  heat. 

Terchloride  of  Gold. — Dissolve  gold  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  with  one-fourth  of  its 
voluijie  of  nitric  acid.  Evaporate  on  a 
water  bath  to  a  small  bulk  ;  when  cool, 
3'ellow  prismatic  crystals  of  a  compound 
of  the  terchloride,  with  hydrochloric 
acid  are  deposited,  from  which  the  hy- 
drochloric acid  may  be  expelled  by  a 
gentle  heat,  not  exceeding  250°  F.  The 
terchloride  forms  a  red  brown  deliques- 
cent mass,  which  dissolves  very  readily 
in  water. 

Gunpowder.  —  Tlie  component 
parts  of  gunpowcr  are  saltpetre,  sul- 
])luir,  and  charcoal,  uscJ  in  the  follow- 
ing jiroportions  : — 1.  English  war  pow- 
der.— Saltjietre,  75  parts  ;  sul]iluir,  10  ; 
charcoal,  15.  2.  French  war  powder. — 
Saltpetre,  75  parts;  sulphur,  12*5; 
charcoal,  12  "5.  3.  French  sporting 
powder. — Saltpetre,  76*9  parts;  sul- 
]ihur,  i)"G;  charcoal,  13'5.  4.  French 
blasting  jjowder. — Saltjietre,  G2  parts; 
sulphur,  20  ;  charcoal,  18.  There  are  a 
number  of  variations  of  the  above  re- 
ceipts; but  the  difference,  wliich  is 
purely  a  matter  of  opinion,  consists 
lirincii)ally  in  varying  the  quantity  of 
sulphur  or  charcoal  employed. 

Saltpetre. — Crude  saltpetre  cannot  be 
used  for  making  guii]H)wder.  The  crys- 
talline flour,  quite  free  ironi  chloride, 
is  the  best  for  the  i)urpose.  The  wash- 
ing jirocess  is  carried  so  far  that  nitr.ite 
of  silver  produces  no  precipitate  in  the 
purified  siiltpetre.  The  general  rule  is 
to  use  the  saltpetre  whilst  sliL;'itly 
dam]),  allowing  for  the  proportion  of 
moisture  when  mixing  with  the  other 
ingredients.  This  saves  the  processes  of 
drying  and  giiiiding  the  saltpetre  before 
mixing  with  the  sulpimr  and  charcoal. 


Workshop  REcEip'fg. 


145 


^Wfc*rr^—    Tm  _ 


Sl'lpuur.  —  Refined  sulphur  in  rolls 
is  used.  This  must  be  reduced  to  an 
impalpable  powder,  which  is  usually 
pffected  by  placing  the  sulphur  in  hollow 
wooden  drums,  having  projections,  or 
brackets  inside.  A  number  of  small 
brass  balls  are  put  into  the  drum  with 
the  sulphur,  and  the  drum  is  made  to 
rerolve  for  six  hours,  when  the  action 
of  the  balls  and  projections  reduces  the 
sulphur  to  very  tine  powder,  which  is 
theu  extracted  through  wire  gauze.  Any 
small  particles  of  sand,  or  unequally  pul- 
verized sulphur,  are  then  separated  by 
3  bolting  machine. 

Charcoal. — The  quality  of  the  char- 
coal depends  greatly  upon  the  material 
from  which  it  is  obtained,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  prepared.  The 
soft,  woody  parts  of  plants,  which  yield 
a  friable,  porous  charcoal,  leaving  very 
little  ash,  are  preferred.  Black  alder, 
and  spindle  tree,  poplar,  chestnut,  vine- 
stalks  and  willow,  are  most  esteemed. 
Ilemp-stalks,  fibres  of  flax,  and  old  linen 
also  yield  a  very  good  charcoal.  Remove 
the  bark,  leaves,  and  smaller  branches, 
selecting  branches  from  1  to  2  inches  in 
thickness.  These  are  to  be  cut  into 
lengths  of  5  or  6  feet,  and  tied  in  bun- 
dles, weighing  about  oO  lbs.  The  wood 
will  not  be  injured  by  exposure  to  the 
rain,  as  that  tends  to  remove  extrac- 
tive matter.  The  carbonization  is 
cfTected  either  in  pits,'  or  in  cast-iron 
cylinders.  The  yield  of  charcoal  is  18 
to  20  per  cent.,  when  prepared  in  pits ; 
and  from  35  to  40  per  cent,  when  pre- 
pared in  the  cast-iron  cylinders.  The 
process  of  manufacture  is  similar  to  that 
adopted  for  ordinary  charcoal,  the  pits 
or  cylinders,  however,  replacing  the  or- 
dinary kiln.  If  the  charcoal  is  intended 
for  sporting  powder,  it  may  be  with- 
drawn whilst  of  a  brown  colour,  when 
it  IS  called  red  charcoal.  This  would 
make  a  powder  too  explosive  for  war 
purposes ;  this  must  be  prepared  from  the 
black  or  distilled  charcoal,  which  is  more 
completely  calcined,  and  is  used  by  all 
English  makers.  The  best  quality  has 
a  bluish  black  colour,  is  light,  firm,  and 
slightly  flexible,  and  should  be  used  im- 
Dnediately  it  is  made,  as  it  rapidly  dete- 


riorates by  keeping.  Charcoal  that  has 
been  too  highly  burned  for  war  powder 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  blasting 
powder,  as  that  need  not  be  so  inflam- 
mable. 

Pulverizing. — The  required  quantities 
of  sulphur  and  charcoal  are  thoroughly 
pulverized,  and  icvimately  mixed,  by 
being  rolled  for  about  four  hours  in  a 
cast-iron  drum,  with  numerous  small 
brass  balls,  at  a  speed  of  about  28  revo- 
lutions a  minute.  When  the  mixture  is 
complete,  the  powdered  sulphur  and 
charcoal  is  removed  from  the  drum, 
and  a  proportionate  quantity  of  salt- 
petre IS  added.  Great  care  must  bo 
used  in  weighing  out  the  various  ingre- 
dients, according  to  the  quality  of  the 
powder  required,  as  upon  that,  and  the 
complete  mixing  of  the  materials,  the 
success  of  the  manufacture  depends. 

Mixing. — The  powder  is  put  in  a 
mixing  machine,  which  is  a  leatherdrum, 
in  wliich  are  placed  numerous  small 
bronze  balls.  The  machine  revolves  at 
from  23  to  30  revolutions  a  minute,  aiid 
in  about  4  hours'  time  the  mixing  is 
complete. 

Granulating.  —  The  powder  having 
been  damped  and  pressed  into  cakes, 
must  then  be  crushed  to  the  required 
size  of  grain.  It  is  first  roughly 
broken  into  lumps  by  small  mallets ;  it 
IS  then  fed  into  the  granulating  machine, 
which  is  caused  to  revolve  for  35  or  40 
minutes,  at  about  10  revolutions  a 
minute.  A  small  stream  of  water  enters 
the  granulator ;  the  movement  of  the 
machine  rolling  the  damp  grains  con- 
stantly among  the  dry  meal  jiowder, 
causes  the  latter  to  adhere  to  their  sur- 
face, and  each  grain  is  thus  increased  by 
concentric  layers.  When  the  small  meal 
powder  is  all  absorbed  by  the  action  of 
the  granulator,  the  material  is  placed  in 
a  barrel  ready  for  equalization. 

Uqualizing. — The  grains  as  they  come 
fi'om  the  granulator  are  of  various  sizes, 
they  are  therefore  sifted  over  two  lea- 
ther or  parchment  sieves,  one  of  which 
is  pierced  to  separate  the  grains  which 
are  too  large,  wliilst  the  other  allows  all 
the  dust  to  pass  through,  retaining  only 
the  grains  which  are  of  the  desired  sue 


UQ 


WOKKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


The  small  refuse  powder  which  has 
passed  through  the  sieve,  is  again  iilaced 
in  the  gvanulator,  and  acted  upon  as  be- 
fore described. 

Glazing.— The  powder  is  placed  m  a 
cask,  or  barrel,  which  revolves  on  its 
axis  at  about  40  revolutions  a  minute  ; 
by  the  friction  of  the  grains  against  each 
other  they  become  round,  smooth,  and 
polished,  in  which  state  the  powder  will 
bear  the  shaking  and  ft-iction  of  carriage 
without  injury,  and  is  less  likely  to 
absorb  moisture  than  when  in  rough  and 
angular  grains. 

Drying. — The  powder  must  not  be  too 
rapidly  dried,  a  temperature  commenc- 
ing at  about  66°  F,,  and  gradually  in- 
creased to  130°  or  140°  F.,  is  a  safe  one  ; 
the  operation  reqt.ires  from  3  to  4 
hours,  and  is  best  performed  in  a  room 
warmed  by  steam  pipes  or  hot-air 
flues.  The  powder  is  then  fi',  for  use, 
and  may  be  packed  in  sacks,  to  be  after- 
wards placed  in  casks,  or  in  double 
casks  ;  sporting  powder  is  usually  packed 
in  tin  canisters. 

Pharaoh's  Serpents.— Fuse  in  a 
crucible  equal  jiarts  by  weight  of  yellow 
prussiate  of  potash  and  flower  of  sul- 
phur, frequently  it  is  advisable,  if  the 
heat  cannot  be  well  regulated,  to  include 
a  little  carbonate  of  potash;  lixiviate 
the  mass  with  water  and  filter;  the  fil- 
trate will  be  sul]ihocyanide  of  potas- 
Bium,  which,  upon  being  added  to  a  solu- 
tion of  mercury  dissolved  in  nitric  acid, 
gives  a  copious  precipitate  of  suljiho- 
cyanide  of  mercury  ;  collect  this  ;  wash 
well  with  water,  and  dry ;  roll  into  a 
small  pyramid,  cover  with  tin-foil,  and 
when  dry  it  is  re.ady  to  b<'  lit. 

Enfjraving  on  Wood.  —  I:'n- 
gnver's  Lamp.  —  A  clMr  and  steady 
light,  directed  immediately  ujion  the 
block  to  be  cut,  is  a  most  important 
point,  and  in  working  by  lam)diglit  it  is 
necessary  to  protect  the  eyes  from  its 
heat  and  glare.  The  lamp  shown  in 
Fig.  30  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  plea- 
sure by  sli'ling  the  bracket  uj.  or  down 
the  standard,  it  being  fiio<l  in  the  de- 
sired position  by  means  of  the  small  set 
screw.  A  large  glol*  of  trausparcut 
gl;ws,   filled   with   clean   water,   placed 


between  the  lamp  and  the  block,  causes 
the  light  to  fall  directly  upon  the  block. 


Fio.  30. 


The  dotted  line  shows  the  direction  of 
the  light;  by  lowering  the  lamp  this 
light  would  take  a  more  horizontal  di- 
rection, thus  enabling  the  engraver  to 
work  farther  from  the  lamp.  A  shade 
over  the  eyes  is  occasionally  used  as  a 
protection  from,  the  light  of  the  lamp. 

Tools. — These  consist  of  gravers,  tint- 
tools,  gouges  or  scoopers.  Hat  tools  or 
chisels,  and  a  sharp-edged  scraper,  some- 
thing like  a  copper-plate  engraver's  bur- 
nisher, which  is  used  for  lowering  the 
block.  Of  each  of  these  tools  several 
sizes  are  required. 

Gravers.— The  outline  tool,  Fig.  31,  is 
chiefly  used  for  separating  one  figure 
Fio.  31 


from  another,  and  for  outlines.  A  is 
the  back  of  the  tool ;  li,  the  face  ;  C,  the 
]>oint  ;  D  is  tcciinically  termed  the  belly. 
The  horizontal  line,  2,  siiows  the  surface 
of  the  block.  All  the  handles  when 
received  from  the  turner's  are  circular, 
but  as  soon  a.s  the  tool  has  been  inserted 
a  segment  is  cut  away  from  the  lower 
part,  so  that  the  tool  may  clear  the  block. 
The  blade  should  bo  very  fine  at  the 
jioint,  so  that  the  line  it  cuts  may  not 
be  visible  when  the  block  'a  printed,  its 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


147 


chief  duty  being  to  form  a  termination 
to  a  number  of  lines  running  in  another 
direction.  Although  the  point  should  be 
fine,  the  blade  must  not  be  too  thm,  for 
It  would  then  only  make  a  small  open- 
ing, which  would  probably  close  up 
when  the  block  was  put  in  the  press. 
When  the  tool  becomes  too  thin  at  the 
point,  the  lower  part  must  be  rubbed 
on  a  hone  to  enable  it  to  cut  out  the 
wood  instead  of  sinking  into  it.  Nine 
gravers  of  different  sizes,  starting  fi-om 
the  outline  tool,  are  sufficient  for  ordi- 
nary work.  The  blades  as  made  are 
very  similar  to  those  used  in  copper- 
plate engraving ;  the  necessary  shape  for 
wood  engraving  is  obtained  by  rubbing 
the  points  on  a  Turkey  stone.  The  faces, 
and  part  of  the  backs,  of  nine  gravers  of 
different  sizes,  are  shown  on   Fig.  32 ; 


Fio.  32. 


r 


FrrA'"¥ 


the  dotted  line,  A  C,  shows  the  extent 
to  which  the  tool  is  sometimes  ground 
down  to  broaden  the  point.  This  grind- 
ing rounds  the  point  of  the  tool,  instead 
of  leaving  it  straight,  as  shown  at  A  B. 
Except  for  the  parallel  lines,  called 
tints,  these  gravers  are  used  for  nearly 
all  kinds  of  work.  The  width  of  the 
line  cut  out  is  regulated  by  the  thick- 
ness of  the  graver  near  the  pomt,  and 
the  pressure  of  the  engraver's  hand. 

Tint-tools. — The  parallel  lines  form- 
ing an  even  and  uniform  tint,  as  in  the 
representation  of  a  clear  sky,  are  ob- 
tained by  what  is  called  the  tint-tool, 
which  is  thinner  at  the  back,  but  deeper 
at  the  side,  than  the  graver,  and  the 
aagle  of  the  face  at  the  point  is  much 
more  acute,  as  shown  on  Fig.  33 :  A  is 
a  side  view  of  the  blade ;  B  shows  the 
faces  of  nine  tint-tools  of  varying  fine- 
ness. The  handle  is  of  the  same  form  as 
that  used  for  the  graver.  The  graver 
should  not  be  used  in  place  of  the  tint- 
tool,  as  from  the  greater  width  of  its 


point  a  very  slight   inclination   of  the 
hand  will   cause   a  perceptible  irregu- 


FiG.  33. 


rr-'i 


-J-'Y-'i 


Bll 


•m/i 


larity  in  the  distance  of  the  lines,  be- 
sides tending  to  undercut  the  line  left, 
which  must  be  carefully  avoided.  Fig. 
34  shows  the  points  and   faces   of  the 

Fig.  34. 


A 

V 


two  tools,  from  a  comparison  of  which 
this  statement  will  be  readily  under- 
stood. As  the  width  of  the  tint-tool  at 
B  is  little  more  than  at  A,  it  causes  only 
a  very  slight  difference  in  the  distance 
of  the  lines  cut,  if  inclined  to  the  right 
or  the  left,  as  compared  with  the  use  of 
the  graver.  Tint-tools  that  are  strong 
in  the  back  are  to  be  preferred  as  less 
likely  to  bend,  and  giving  greater  free- 
dom of  execution  than  weak  ones.  A  tint- 
tool  that  i;3  thicker  at  the  back  than 
at  the  lower  part,  leaves  the  black  raised 
lines  solid  at  their  base,  as  in  Fig.  35, 


Fig.  36. 


FiQ.  35. 


the  block  being  less  liable  to  damage 
than  in  the  case  of  Fig.  36,  in  which  the 
lines  are  no  thicker  at  their  base  than 
at  the  surface.  The  face  of  both  gravers 
and  tint-tools  should  be  kept  rather  long 
than  short ;  though  if  the  point  be 
ground  too  fine  it  will  be  very  liable  to 
break.  When,  as  in  Fig.  37,  the  face  is 
long, — or,  strictly  speaking,  when  the 
angle  formed  by  the  plane   of  the  face 

L  2 


U8 


WORKSHOP   RECElPTii. 


and  the  lower  line  of  the  blade  is  com- 
pfiratively    acute, — a   line  is   cut   with 

Fig.  37. 


much  greater  clearness  than  when  the 
face  is  comparatively  obtuse,  and  the 
small  shaving  cut  out  turns  gently  over 
towards  the  hand.  When,  however,  the 
face  of  the  tool  approaches  to  the  shape 
seen  in  Fig.  38,  the  reverse  happens ;  the 


Fig.  38. 


:^ 


small  shaving  is  rather  ploughed  out 
than  cleanly  cut  out ;  and  the  force 
necessary  to  push  the  tool  forward 
frequently  causes  small  pieces  to  fly 
out  at  each  side  of  the  hollowed  line, 
more  especially  if  the  wood  is  dry.  The 
shaving,  also,  instead  of  turning  aside  over 
the  face  of  the  tool,  turns  over  before  the 
point,  as  in  Fig.  38,  and  hinders  the  en- 
graver from  seeing  that  part  of  the  pen- 
cilled line  which  is  directly  under  it. 
A  short-faced  tool  of  itself  prevents  the 
engraver  from  distinctly  seeing  the  point. 
When  the  face  of  a  tool  has  become  ob- 
tuse it  ought  to  be  ground  to  a  proper 
form  ;  for  instance,  from  the  shape  of 
the  figure  A  to  that  of  B,  Fig.  39. 


Fio.  39. 


X 


Preparing  Gravers  awl  Tint-tools. — 
Gravers  and  tint-tools,  when  first  re- 
teivcd  from  the  ni.akers,  are  poBurally 
too  hard — a  defect  that  is  soon  discovered 
by  tlie  point  breaking  off  short  as  soon  as 
it  enters  the  wood.  To  n-meiiy  this,  tiio 
bl3<lcof  the  tool  must  be  tempered  to  a 
•traw  colour,  and  either  dipj'cd  in  sweet 


oil,  or  allowed  to  cool  gradually.  If 
removed  from  the  iron  while  it  is  still 
of  a  straw  colour,  it  will  have  been 
softened  no  more  than  sulRcient ;  but 
should  it  have  acquired  a  purple  tinge, 
it  will  have  been  softened  too  much,  and 
instead  of  breaking  at  the  point,  as  be- 
fore, it  will  bend.  A  small  grindstone 
is  of  great  service  in  grinding  down  the 
faces  of  tools  that  have  become  obtuse. 
A  Turkey  stone  is  a  verv  good  substitute, 
as,  besides  reducing  the  face,  the  tool 
receives  a  point  at  the  same  time ;  but 
this  requires  more  time.  Some  engravers 
use  only  a  Turkey  stone  for  sharjiening 
their  tools  ;  a  hone  in  addition  is  of  great 
seryice.  A  graver  that  has  received  a 
final  polish  on  a  hone  cuts  a  clearer  line 
than  one  which  has  only  been  sharpened 
on  a  Turkey  stone  ;  it  also  cuts  more 
pleasantly,  gliding  smoothly  through  the 
wood,  if  it  be  of  good  quality,  without 
stirring  a  particle  on  either  side  of  the 
line.  The  gravers  and  tint-tools  used 
for  engraving  on  a  plane  surface  are 
straight  at  the  point,  as  are  here  repre- 
sented. Figs.  40  and  41  ;  but  for  engrav- 


FiG.  40. 


Fl:.  -11. 


ing  on  a  block  rendered  concave  in  cer- 
tain parts  by  lowering,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  point  should  incline  slightly  up- 
wards, as  in  Fig.  40.  The  dotted  line 
shows  the  direction  of  the  point  used  for 
plane  surface  engraving.  There  is  no 
dillicujty  in  getting  a  tool  to  descend  on 
one  side  of  a  part  hollowed  out  or  low- 
ered ;  but  unless  the  point  is  slightly  in- 
clined upward.s,  as  is  here  shown,  it  is 
extremely  dillicult  to  make  it  .ascend  on 
the  side  op]iosite  without  getting  too 
much  hold,  and  thus  producing  a  wider 
white  line  than  iutendet!. 

Goujes  anil  Chisels,  A  to  E,  Fig.  42. — 
Gouges  of  dilR'rent  sizes  are  used  for 
scoo])ing  out  the  wood  towards  the  centre 
of  the  block  ;  whilst  flat  tools,  or  chisels, 
are  chiefly  employed  in  cutting  away  the 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


U9 


wood  towards  the  edges,  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  below  the  subject.    The  gouge 


n 


Fig.  42. 

~T     n 


iilillUi 


IS  similar  to  an  ordinary  carpenter's 
gouge,  except  that  it  is  solid,  being  a 
round  bar,  with  the  end  ground  ofl'  at 
an  angle.  The  other  articles  required 
are,  a  sand-bag,  on  which  to  rest  the 
block  whilst  engraving  it ;  an  agate 
burnisher,  and  a  dabber,  which  are  used 
for  taking  proof-impressions  of  the  wood- 
cut ;  an  oil  stone,  and  eye-glass  with 
shade. 

Holding  the  Graver.  —  Engravers  on 
copper  and  steel,  who  have  much  harder 
substances  than  wood  to  cut,  hold  the 
graver  with  the  forefinger  extended  on 
the  blade  beyond  the  thumb,  Fig.  43,  so 

Fig.  43. 


that  by  its  pressure  the  point  may  be 
pressed  into  the  plate.  As  boxwood, 
however,  is  much  softer  than  these  me- 
tals, and  as  it  is  seldom  of  perfectly 
equal  hardness  throughout,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  hold  the  graver  in  a  different 
manner,  and  employ  the  thumb  at  once 
as  a  stay  or  rest  for  the  blade,  and  as  a 
check  upon  the  force  exerted  by  the  palm 
of  the  hand,   the    motion  being  chiefly 

Fig.  44. 


juided  by  the  forefinger,  as  is  shown  m 
Fig.  44.    The  thumb,  with  the  end  rest- 


ing against  the  side  of  the  block,  in  the 
manner  just  represented,  allows  the 
blade  to  move  backwards  and  forwards 
with  a  slight  degree  of  pressure  against 
it,  and  in  case  of  a  slip,  it  is  ever  ready 
to  check  the  graver's  progress.  This 
mode  of  resting  the  thumb  against  the 
edge  of  the  block  is,  however,  only  ap- 
plicable when  the  cuts  are  so  small  as  to 
allow  the  graver,  when  thus  guided  and 
controlled,  to  reach  every  part  of  the 
subject.  When  the  cut  is  too  large  to 
admit  of  this,  the  thumb  then  rests  upon 
the  surface  of  the  block,  as  in  Fig.  45, 

Fig.  45. 


still  forming  a  stay  to  the  blade  of  the 
graver,  and  checking  at  once  any  acci- 
dental slip. 

Wood. — For  large  coarse  cuts,  such  as 
are  often  used  for  trade  purposes,  syca- 
more and  pear  tree  may  be  employed, 
but  are  too  soft  and  irregular  in  the 
grain  to  bear  fine  work.  Boxwood,  either 
English,  American,  or  from  the  Levant, 
is  the  favourite  material ;  it  should  be  of 
a  light  straw  yellow  colour,  free  fi"om 
black  or  white  spots  or  red  streaks,  as 
these  indicate  a  soft  wood,  which 
crumbles  away  under  the  graver.  The 
small  wood  is  generally  tolerably  frea 
from  blemishes.  When  a  large  cut  is 
wanted,  if  a  block  of  the  required  size  is 
not  at  hand,  several  smaller  blocks  are 
sometimes  bolted  together.  The  blocks 
are  cut  a  trifle  thicker  than  the  height 
of  type,  about  an  inch  ;  they  are  then 
planed,  brought  to  a  very  smooth  sur- 
face, and  gauged  to  the  exact  height  ot 
type.  These  blocks  should  be  kept  for 
some  months  until  they  are  properly 
seasoned. 

Drawing  on  the  Block. — The  polished 
boxwood  will  not  tuke  the  pencil  with* 


150 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


out  a  slight  wash  is  first  laid  on  it.  A 
thin  wash  of  Chinese  white  mixed  with 
water,  some  very  fine  Bath  brick  dust,  or 
the  white  scrapings  of  glazed  cardboard, 
mixed  with  water,  and  gently  rubbed  otF 
when  dry  with  the  palm  of  the  hand, 
gives  a  capital  surface  for  the  black-lead 
pencil.  Make  a  tracing  of  the  outline  of 
the  subject,  place  a  sheet  of  transfer 
paper  on  the  block,  lay  the  tracing  over 
it,  and  go  carefully  over  every  line  with 
a  sharp  point.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  woodcut  will  be  I'eversed  when 
printed.  The  outlines  must  be  corrected, 
and  completed,  by  a  hard  sharp-pointed 
H  H  H  H  pencil ;  the  tints  may  after- 
wards be  filled  in  by  a  softer  pencil,  or 
thin  washes  of  Indian  ink,  to  show  the 
cflect  of  light  and  shade.  Caution  must 
be  taken  to  use  these  washes  sparingly, 
so  as  not  to  affect  the  wood.  All  parts 
of  the  block,  not  being  cut,  must  be  kept 
covered  up,  so  as  to  preserve  the  drawing 
from  injury,  and  the  fine  lines  of  the  cut 
from  being  blunted  or  broken.  Smooth 
blue  glazed  paper  is  very  good  for  this 
purpose,  as  it  reduces  the  glare  from  the 
lamp. 

Proofs.  —  When  the  engraving  is 
finished,  a  proof  may  be  taken  in  the 
following  manner  before  blocking  out  the 
cut,  that  is,  before  the  superfluous  wood 
IS  cleared  away;  —  rub  down  a  little 
printer's  ink  on  a  slab  till  it  is  fine  and 
smooth;  take  a  little  of  this  on  a  silk 
dabber,  and  carefully  dab  the  block  until 
sufficient  ink  is  left  upon  the  surface, 
without  allowing  any  to  sink  below  it. 
Lay  a  piece  of  India  paper  on  the  block 
with  about  two  inches  margin  all  round  ; 
on  this  place  a  thin  smooth  card  ;  rub 
this  over  with  the  burnisher,  taking  care 
not  to  shift  the  card  or  pa])er. 

Plugging. — If  a  Kli]i,  or  mistake,  occurs 
in  a  woodcut,  it  may  be  remedied  by  the 
insertion  of  a  plug.  A  hole  must  be 
drilled  in  the  block  ;  if  the  error  is  a 
small  one  the  hole  need  not  be  deep,  but 
if  a  large  jiiece  has  to  be  inserted  it  must 
be  deeper  in  proportion.  A  plug  is  cut, 
of  a  round,  taper  shape ;  the  small 
end  is  in.scrted  in  the  hole,  and  the  plug 
is  driven  down,  without,  however,  using 
too  much   force.     The  top  of  the  plug 


must  then  be  cut  off,  and  carefully 
brought  to  a  smooth  surface,  level  with 
the  rest  of  the  block  ;  if  this  is  not  done 
the  plug  will  be  visible  on  the  print. 
If  the  error  to  be  remedied  happens  to 
be  in  a  long  line,  a  hole  must  be  drilled 
at  each  end,  and  the  wood  between  the 
two  holes  removed  by  small  chisels,  the 
hollow  space  being  filled  up  in  a  similar 
way  to  that  already  described. 

Lithography. — The  following  are 
the  principles  on  which  the  art  of  litho- 
graphy depends  ;  —  the  facility  with 
which  calcareous  stones  imbibe  water  ; 
the  great  disposition  they  have  to  adhere 
to  resinous  and  oily  substances  ;  and  the 
allinity  between  each  other  of  oily  and 
resinous  substances,  and  the  power  they 
possess  of  repelling  water,  or  a  body 
moistened  with  water.  Hence,  when 
drawings  are  made  on  a  polished  surl'ace 
of  calcareous  stone,  with  a  resinous  or 
oily  medium,  they  are  so  adhesive  that 
nothing  short  of  mechanical  means  can 
effect  their  separation  from  it ;  and  whilst 
the  other  parts  of  the  stone  take  up  the 
water  poured  upon  them,  the  resinous,  or 
oily  parts,  repel  it.  When,  therefore, 
over  a  stone  prepared  in  this  manner,  a 
coloured  oily  or  resinous  substance  is 
passed,  it  will  adhere  to  the  drawings 
made  as  above,  and  not  to  those  parts  of 
the  stone  which  have  been  watered.  The 
ink  and  chalk  used  in  lithography  are  of 
a  saponaceous  quality;  the  former  is  pre- 
jiared  in  Germany  from  a  compound  of 
curd  or  common  soap,  pure  white  wax,  a 
small  q\iantity  of  tallow  and  shellac,  and 
a  portionof  lampblack,  all  boiled  together, 
and,  when  cool,  dissolved  in  distilled 
water.  The  chalk  for  the  crayons  used 
in  drawing  on  the  stone  is  a  composition 
consisting  of  the  ingredients  above  men- 
tioned. After  the  drawing  on  the  stone 
has  been  executed,  and  is  jierfectly  dry, 
a  very  weak  solution  of  nitric  acid  is 
poured  u[)on  the  stone,  which  not  only 
takes  up  the  alkali  from  the  chalk  or  ink, 
as  the  case  may  be,  leaving  an  insoluble 
substance  behind  it,  but  lowers,  to  a 
small  extent,  that  part  of  the  surface  of 
the  stone  not  drawn  upon,  thus  preparing 
it  to  absorb  water  with  greater  freedom. 
i  Weak  gum  water  is  th«3  applied  to  tho 


■WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


151 


stone,  to  close  its  pores  and  keep  it  moist. 
The  stone  is  now  washed  with  water,  and 
the  printing  ink  applied  with  rollers,  as 
in  letterpress  printing ;  after  which  it  is 
passed,  in  the  usual  way,  through  the 
press,  the  processes  of  watering  and  ink- 
ing being  repeated  for  every  impression. 
If  the  work  is  inclined  to  get  smutty 
a  little  vinegar  or  stale  beer  should  be 
put  into  the  water  that  is  used  to  damp 
the  stone. 

There  is  a  mode  of  transferring  draw- 
ings made  with  the  chemical  ink  on  paper 
preiKired  with  a  composition  of  paste, 
isinglass,  and  gamboge,  which,  being 
damped,  laid  on  the  stone  and  passed 
through  the  press,  leaves  the  drawing  on 
ihe  stone,  and  the  process  above  described 
for  preparing  the  stone  and  taking  the 
impressions  is  carried  into  elfect. 

Lithographic  Stones,  to  Prepare. 
— Stones  are  prepared  for  chalk  drawings 
by  rubbing  two  together,  with  a  little 
Silver  sand  and  water  between  them, 
taking  care  to  sift  the  sand  to  prevent 
any  large  grains  from  getting  in,  by  which 
the  surface  would  be  scratched.  The 
upper  stone  is  moved  in  small  circles  over 
the  under  one  till  the  surface  of  each  is 
sufficiently  even,  when  they  are  washed, 
and  common  yellow  sand  substituted  for 
the  silver  sand,  by  which  means  is  pro- 
cured a  finer  grain.  They  are  then  again 
washed  clean,  and  wiped  dry.  It  will  be 
found  that  the  upper  stone  is  always  of  a 
finer  grain  than  the  under  one.  To  pre- 
pare stones  for  writing  or  ink  drawings, 
they  are  rubbed  with  brown  sand,  washed, 
and  powdered  pumice  -  stone  used  in- 
stead ;  the  stones  are  again  washed,  and 
each  polished  separately  with  a  fine  piece 
of  pumice  -  stone,  or  water  Ayr-stone. 
Chalk  can  never  be  used  on  the  stones 
prepared  in  this  manner.  The  same  pro- 
cess is  followed  in  order  to  clean  a  stone 
that  has  already  been  used. 

Lithographic  Ink. — Tallow,  2  oz. ; 
virgin  wax,  2  oz.  ;  shellac,  2  oz. ;  common 
soap,  2  oz.  ;  lampblack,  J  oz.  The  wax 
and  tallow  are  first  put  in  an  iron  saucepan 
with  a  cover,  and  heated  till  they  ignite  ; 
whilst  they  are  burning  the  soap  must 
be  thrown  in  in  small  pieces,  one  at  a 
time,  taking  care  that  the  first  is  melted 


befoi-e  a  second  is  put  in.  When  all  the 
soap  is  melted  the  ingredients  are  allowed 
to  continue  burning  till  they  are  reduced 
one  third  in  volume.  The  shellac  is  now 
added,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  melted  the 
flame  must  be  extinguished.  It  is  often 
necessary  in  the  course  of  the  operation 
to  extinguish  the  flame  and  take  the 
saucei)an  from  the  fire,  to  prevent  the 
contents  from  boiling  over ;  but  if  any 
parts  are  not  completely  melted,  they 
must  be  dissolved  over  the  fire  without 
being  again  ignited.  The  black  is  now 
to  be  added.  When  it  is  completely  mixed 
the  whole  mass  should  be  poured  out  on 
a  marble  slab,  and  a  heavy  weight  laid 
upon  it  to  render  its  texture  fine.  The 
utmost  care  and  experience  are  required 
in  the  making  both  the  ink  and  chalk, 
and  even  those  who  have  had  the  greatest 
practice  often  fail.  Sometimes  it  is  not 
sulHciently  burned,  and  when  mixed  with 
water  appears  slimy:  it  must  then  be 
remelted  and  burned  a  little  more.  Some- 
times it  IS  too  much  burned,  by  which 
the  greasy  particles  are  more  or  less  de- 
stroyed ;  in  this  case  it  must  be  remelted, 
and  a  little  more  soap  and  wax  added. 
This  ink  is  for  writing  or  pen-drawing 
on  the  stone.  The  ink  for  transfers  should 
have  a  little  more  wax  in  it. 

Lithographic  Chalk. — Common  soap, 
1|  oz.  ;  tallow,  2  oz. ;  virgin  wax,  2§  oz. ; 
shellac,  1  oz. ;  lampblack,  J  oz.  Mix  as 
for  lithographic  ink. 

Lithographic  Transfer  Paper. — 
Dissolve  in  water  ^  oz.  g^m  tragacanth. 
Strain  and  add  1  oz.  of  glue  and  ^  oz.  of 
gamboge.  Then  take  4  oz.  French  chalk, 
J  oz.  old  plaster  of  Paris,  1  oz.  starch; 
powder,  and  sift  through  a  fine  sieve ; 
grind  up,  with  the  gum,  glue,  and  gam- 
boge ;  then  add  sufficient  water  to  give  it 
the  consistence  of  oil,  and  apply  with  a 
brush  to  thin  sized  paper. 

Transferring.  —  The  drawing  or 
writing  made  on  the  prepared  side  of  the 
transfer  paper  is  wetted  on  the  back,  and 
placed,  face  downwards,  on  the  stone, 
which  must  previously  be  very  slightly 
warmed,  say  to  about  125°  F.  Pass  the 
stone  through  the  press  four  or  five  times, 
then  damp  the  paper,  and  carefully  re- 
move it. 


152 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


Dra'.vixg  on  Stoke.  —  The  subject  ; 
should  first  be  traced  on  the  stone  in  red,  ' 
e;reat  care  being  taken  not  to  touch  the 
stone  with  the  fingers.  Or  the  drawing 
may  be  done  by  means  of  a  bhick-lead 
pencil ;  but  this  is  objectionable,  as  it  is 
dilficult  to  distinguish  the  line  from  that 
made  by  the  chalk  or  ink.  Then,  having 
a  rest  to  steady  the  hand,  go  over  the 
drawing  with  the  chalk,  pressing  it  with 
sulFicient  firmness  to  make  it  adhere  to 
the  stone.  For  flat  tints,  considerable 
practice  is  necessary  to  secure  an  even 
appearance,  which  is  only  to  be  obtained 
by  making  a  great  many  faint  strokes 
over  the  required  ground.  Lights  may 
either  be  left,  or,  if  very  fine,  can  be 
scraped  through  the  chalk  with  a  scraper. 
If  aoy  part  is  made  too  dark,  the  chalk 
must  be  picked  olT  with  a  needle  down  to 
the  required  strength. 

Etciiixg-in,  fok  Printixo  ox  Stoxe. 
— Dilute  one  part  of  aquafortis  with  one 
hundred  parts  of  water.  Place  the  stone 
in  a  sloping  position,  then  pour  the  solu- 
tion over  it,  letting  it  run  to  and  fro  until 
it  produces  a  slight  effervescence.  Then 
wa.sh  the  stone  with  water,  and  after- 
wards pour  weak  gum  water  over  it.  The 
acid,  by  destroying  the  alkali  on  the 
lithographic  chalk,  causes  the  stone  to 
refuse  the  printing  ink  e.xcept  where 
touched  by  the  chalk  ;  the  gum  water 
fills  up  the  i)orcB  of  the  stone,  and  thus 
j)revcuts  the  lines  of  the  drawing  from 
spreading.  When  the  stone  is  drawn  on 
with  ink,  there  must  be  a  little  moi-e 
acid  used  with  the  water  than  when  the 
drawing  is  made  with  chalk.  Tiie  roller 
charged  with  printing  ink  is  then  passed 
over  the  stone,  which  must  not  be  too 
wet,  and  the  impression  is  taken  as  before 
described. 

ExoRAvrNr,  ox  Stone. — The  stone 
must  be  highly  polished  ;  pour  the  solu- 
tion of  aquafortis  and  water  over  it, 
wjushing  it  ofl'at  once.  When  ilry,  cover 
with  gum  water  and  lampblack  ;  let  this 
dry,  then  etch  with  a  needle,  as  on  cojiper. 
It  is  necessary  to  cut  the  surf  ice  of  the 
stone  through  the  gum,  the  distinction 
of  light  and  dark  linns  being  obtained  by 
the  use  of  fine  or  broad-pointed  needles. 
Eab  all  over  with  linseed  oil,  ami  wash 


the  gum  ofi"  with  water.  The  lines  on 
the  stone  will  appear  thicker  than  they 
will  print. 

To  Imitate  Woodcuts  on  Stone. — Cover 
with  ink  those  parts  meant  to  be  black  ; 
scratch  out  the  lights  witlx  an  etching 
needle  ;  the  lines  which  come  against  a 
white  background  are  best  laid  on  with 
a  very  fine  brush  and  lithographic  ink. 

Inking  Hollo-. — Fasten  a  smooth  j)iece 
of  leather  round  a  wooden  roller  of  the 
required  length. 

Removing  the  Transfer. — The  existing 
transfer  is  ground  away  by  rubbing  it 
with  another  jiiece  of  stone,  putting  sand 
between,  like  grinding  flour  between  the 
millstones,  using  finer  sand  as  it  gradually 
wears  away ;  then  it  is  ground  with 
rotten-stone  till  of  the  requisite  fineness 
for  the  ne.xt  transfer. 

IVansfcrring  from  Copper  to  Stone. — 
In  transferring  from  copper  to  stone  use 
prepared  paper,  that  is,  ordinary  unsized 
paper,  coated  with  a  paste  of  starch,  gum- 
arabic,  and  alum.  Take  about  GO  parts 
of  starch,  and  mix  with  water  to  a 
thinnish  consistency  over  a  fire;  have 
twenty  parts  of  gum  ready  dissolved, 
and  also  ten  parts  of  alum  dissolved  ; 
when  the  starch  is  well  mixed,  put  in 
vhe  gum  and  alum.  While  still  hot, 
coat  the  pajwr  with  it  in  very  even 
layers,  dry,  and  smooth  out.  Take  an 
impression  from  the  copper  with  the 
transfer  ink  ;  lay  the  pajier  on  the  stone, 
damp  the  back  thorouglily  with  a  sponge 
and  water,  and  pass  through  the  litho- 
]iress.  If  all  is  rigiit,  the  impression 
will  be  found  transferred  to  the  stone, 
but  it  will  of  course  require  preparing  in 
the  usual  manner.  The  great  advantage 
gained  is,  that  very  many  more  impres- 
sions may  be  ]>rinted  from  stone  than 
from  a  copper  jilate,  and  very  much 
quicker. 

Engraving  on  Steel  is  the  same  as 
coiqicr-plate  engraving,  except  in  certain 
modifications  in  the  use  of  the  acids; 
therefore,  so  far  as  the  process  is  con- 
cerned, no  ]iarticular  descrijition  is  neces- 
sary ;  but  the  means  employed  for  de- 
carbonizing and  rccarbonizing  first  the 
steel  i>lato,  so  as  to  reduce  it  to  a  proper 
state  for  being  acted  upon  by  the  graving 


WORKSHOP   nECEIPTS. 


153 


tool,  must  be  explained.  In  order  to 
decarbonate  the  surfaces  of  cast-steel 
plates,  by  which  they  are  rendered  much 
softer  and  fitter  for  receiving  either 
transferred  or  engraved  designs,  pure 
iron  filings,  divested  of  all  foreign  mat- 
ters, are  used.  The  stratum  of  decar- 
bonated steel  should  not  be  too  thick 
for  transferring  fine  and  delicate  en- 
gravings ;  for  instance,  not  more  than 
three  times  the  depth  of  the  engravmg  ; 
but  for  other  purposes  the  surface  of  the 
steel  may  be  decarbonated  to  any  required 
thickness.  To  decarbonate  it  to  a  proper 
thickness  for  a  fine  engra^Tng,  it  is  to  be 
exposed  for  four  hours  in  a  white  heat, 
enclosed  in  a  cast-iron  box  with  a  well- 
closed  lid.  The  sides  of  the  box  must  be  at 
least  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, and  at  least  a  thickness  of  half  an 
inch  of  pure  iron  filings  should  cover  or 
surround  the  cast-steel  surface  to  be  de- 
carbonated. The  box  is  allowed  to  cool 
very  slowly,  by  shuttmg  off  all  access  of 
air  to  the  furnace,  and  covering  it  with  a 
layer  of  sis  or  seven  inches  of  fine  cinders. 
Each  side  of  the  steel  plate  must  be 
equally  decarbonated,  to  prevent  it  from 
springing  or  warping  in  hardening.  The 
safest  way  to  heat  the  plates  is  to  place 
them  in  a  vertical  position.  The  best 
steel  is  preferred  to  any  other  sort  of 
steel  for  the  purpose  of  making  plates, 
and  more  especially  when  such  plates 
are  intended  to  be  decarbonated.  The 
steel  is  decarbonated  to  render  it  suffi- 
ciently soft  for  receiving  any  impres- 
sion intended  to  be  made  thereon  ;  it  is, 
therefore,  necessary  that,  after  any  piece 
of  steel  has  been  so  decarbonated,  it 
should,  previously  to  being  printed  from, 
be  again  carbonated,  or  reconverted  into 
steel  capable  of  being  hardened.  In  order 
to  effect  this  recarbonization  or  recon- 
version into  steel,  the  following  process 
IS  employed ;  a  suitable  quantity  of 
leather  is  to  be  converted  into  charcoal, 
by  exposing  it  to  a  red  heat  in  an  ii-on 
retort  until  most  of  the  evaporable  matter 
IS  off  the  leather.  The  charcoal  is  reduced 
to  a  very  fine  powder ;  then  take  a  box 
made  of  cas';  iron  of  sufficient  dimension 
to  receive  the  plate  which  is  to  be  recon- 
Twted  into  steel,  so  as  that  the  interme-  | 


diate  space  between  the  sides  of  the  bos 
and  the  plate  may  be  about  an  inch. 
Fill  the  box  with  the  powdered  charcoal, 
and,  having  covered  it  with  a  well-fitted 
lid,  let  it  be  placed  in  a  furnace  similar  to 
those  used  for  melting  brass,  when  the 
heat  must  be  gradually  increased  until 
the  box  is  somewhat  above  a  red  heat  ; 
it  must  be  allowed  to  remain  in  that 
state  till  all  the  evaporable  matter  is 
driven  off  from  the  charcoal ;  remove 
the  lid  from  the  bos,  and  immerse  the 
plate  in  the  powdered  charcoal,  taking 
care  to  place  it  so  that  it  may  be  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  a  stratum  of  the 
powder  of  nearly  a  uniform  thickness. 
The  lid  being  replaced,  the  box,  v.-ith  the 
plate,  must  remain  in  the  degree  of  heat 
before  described  for  from  3  to  4  hours, 
according  to  the  thickness  of  the  plate 
so  exposed ;  3  hours  are  sufficient  for  a 
plate  of  J  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  5 
hours  when  the  steel  is  IJ  inch  in  thick- 
ness. After  the  plate  has  been  exposed 
to  the  fire  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time, 
take  it  from  the  box  and  immediately 
plunge  it  into  cold  water.  Here  it  is 
found  by  experience  that  the  plates, 
when  plunged  into  cold  water,  are  least 
liable  to  be  warped  or  bent  when  they 
are  held  in  a  vertical  position,  and  made 
to  enter  the  water  in  the  direction  of 
their  length.  If  a  piece  of  steel,  heated 
to  a  proper  degree  for  hardening,  be 
plunged  into  water,  and  suflered  to  re- 
main there  until  it  becomes  cold,  it  i.« 
found  by  experience  to  be  very  liable 
to  crack  or  break,  and  in  many  cases  it 
would  be  found  too  hard  for  the  opera- 
tions it  was  intended  to  perform.  If  the 
steel  cracks  it  is  spoiled.  Therefore,  to 
fit  it  for  use,  should  it  not  be  broken  in 
hardening,  it  is  the  common  practice  to 
heat  the  steel  again,  in  order  to  reduce 
or  lower  its  temper.  The  degree  of  heat 
to  which  it  is  now  exposed  determines 
the  future  degree  of  hardness,  or  temper, 
and  this  is  indicated  by  a  change  of  colour 
upon  the  surface  of  the  steel.  During 
this  heating  a  succession  of  shades  is  pro- 
duced, from  a  very  pale  straw  colour  to 
a  very  deep  blue.  It  is  found  that,  on 
plunging  the  steel  into  cold  water,  and 
allowing   it  to  remain   there   no  longer 


151 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS, 


than  is  sufficient  ti  lower  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  steel  to  the  same  degree 
as  that  to  which  a  hard  piece  of  steel 
must  be  raised  to  temper  it  in  the  com- 
mon way,  it  not  only  produces  the 
same  degree  of  hardness  in  the  steel,  but, 
what  is  of  much  more  importance,  almost 
entirely  does  away  with  the  risk  of  its 
cracking.  The  proper  degree  of  tempera- 
ture arrived  at,  after  being  plunged  into 
cold  water,  can  only  be  learned  by  actual 
observation,  as  the  workman  must  be 
guided  entirely  by  the  kind  of  hissing 
noise  which  the  heated  steel  produces  in 
the  water  while  cooling.  From  the 
moment  of  its  first  being  plunged  into 
the  water  the  varying  sound  will  be 
observed  ;  and  it  is  at  a  'Certain  tone, 
before  the  noise  ceases,  that  the  eflect  to 
be  produced  is  known.  As  a  guide,  take 
a  piece  of  steel  which  has  already  been 
hardened  by  remaining  in  the  water  till 
cold,  and  by  the  common  method  of 
again  heating  it,  let  it  be  brought  to  the 
pale  yellow  or  straw  colour,  which  indi- 
cates the  desired  temper  of  the  steel 
plate  to  be  hardened.  By  the  above  pro- 
cess, as  soon  as  the  workman  discovers 
this  colour  to  be  produced,  to  dip  the  steel 
into  water  and  attend  carefully  to  the 
hissing  which  it  occasions,  he  will  tlien 
be  able,  with  fewer  experiments,  to  judge 
of  the  precise  time  at  which  the  steel 
should  be  taken  out.  immediately  on 
withdrawing  it  from  the  water,  the  steel 
plate  must  be  laid  ujion  or  held  over  a 
fire,  and  heated  uniformly  until  its  tem- 
perature is  raised  to  that  degree  at  which 
a  smoke  is  perceived  to  arise  from  the 
surface  of  the  steel  plate  after  having 
been  rulibed  with  tallow  ;  the  steel  plate 
must  then  be  again  plunged  into  water, 
and  kept  there  until  the  sound  becomes 
somewhat  weaker  than  before.  It  is  to  be 
taken  out,  and  heated  a  second  time  to 
the  same  degree  as  before,  ind  the  third 
time  plunged  into  water  till  the  sound 
becomes  again  weaker  than  the  last ;  ex- 
posed the  third  time  to  the  fire  as  before; 
and  for  the  l.'ust  time  returned  into  the 
water  and  cooled.  After  it  is  cooled 
clean  the  surface  of  the  steel  plate  by 
heating  it  over  the  fire.  The  ti'mjicr 
must  be  finally  reduced  by  bringing  on 


a  brown  or  such  colour  as  may  suit  tha 
purpose  required.  The  above  is  an  old 
process  and  not  generally  used.  En- 
graving on  steel  is  effected  nowadays  by 
graving  and  etching  like  copper ;  using 
for  biting-in  a  mixture  of  1  part  pyro- 
ligneous  acid,  1  nitric  acid,  3  water  ;  run 
olf  from  the  plate  in  less  than  a  minute, 
rinse  in  running  water,  and  dry  quickly. 
Use  stronger  acid  when  a  deeper  tint  is 
required. 

Eiujratbvj  Steel  Cylinders. — A  cylinder 
of  very  sot't  or  decarbonized  steel  is  made 
to  roll,  under  a  great  pressure,  backward 
and  forward  on  the  hardened  engraved 
plate  till  the  entire  impression  from  tlie 
engraving  is  seen  on  the  cylinder  in  alto- 
relievo.  The  cylinder  is  then  hardened 
and  made  to  roll  again  backward  and  for- 
ward on  a  copper  or  soft  steel  plate, 
whereby  a  perfect  facsimile  of  the  origi- 
nal is  produced  of  equal  sharpness. 

Etching'. — The  apparatus  consists  of 
copper  plates,  etching  needles,  hand-rest, 
etching-ground  dabber,  oil-rubber,  rotten- 
stone,  smoking  taper,  engraver's  shade, 
bordering  wax,  stopping -out  varnish, 
tracing  paper,  and  aquafortis. 

Ground. — The  ground  is  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  asphaltum,  Burgundy- 
pitch,  and  beeswax  ;  place  them  in  an 
earthen  pipkin  in  an  oven,  and  melt. 
The  mass  must  be  kept  stirred  until  well 
incorporated.  Pour  the  mixture  into  a 
basin  of  cold  water,  and,  when  nearly 
cold,  it  should  be  jjressed,  and  rolled  with 
th«  hand  until  all  the  water  is  discharged, 
then  make  into  a  ball.  Procure  a  piece 
of  worn  silk,  without  holes ;  double  it ; 
place  the  ball  therein,  and  tie  up  the 
ends  with  packthread,  taking  care  that 
the  double  silk  reaches  well  and  tightly 
over  the  ball ;  cut  olf  the  surplus  silk, 
and  let  the  knot  remain  ("or  a  hand-hold. 

Dabber. — Take  a  piece  of  silk,  twice  the 
size  of  that  for  the  grounil  ball;  double 
it ;  place  in  it  a  ball  of  coarse  wool  well 
]>icked  out,  about  the  size  of  a  small 
apple;  tic  it  up  in  the  same  way  as  the 
ball  for  the  ground,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Oil-Rubber.  —  An  oil-rubber  is  made 
from  a  strip  of  woollen  cloth,  about  2 
inches  wide,  rolled  up  tightly,  ainl  bouiid 
over  with  packthread  or  thin  tape.    With 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


155 


a  sharp  knife  cut  off  one  end,  avoiding 
the  string,  so  that  the  surface  may  be 
quite  flat.  This  is  used  for  taking  out 
stains,  or  polishing  the  plate,  as  in  Fig.  46. 

Tig.  46. 


Eotten-stone.  —  Take  a  piece  of  fine 
flannel,  rather  less  than  the  silk  which 
covers  the  etching-ground  ball ;  double 
it ;  place  on  it  a  small  quantit}'  of  rotten- 
stone,  in  powder,  which  tie  up  in  a  bag. 
A  small  portion  of  fine  whiting  in  the 
lump  should  be  also  kept  at  hand. 

Smoking  Taper,  or  Lamp. — For  small 
plates,  procure  a  was  taper ;  uncoil  it  by 
degrees  before  the  fire  until  it  is  all 
equally  pliant ;  double  it  up  in  about  six 
lengths ;  give  it  one  twist  while  warm, 
and  turn  it  a  few  times  before  the  fire, 
that  the  pieces  of  taper  may  adhere  to 
each  other ;  melt  the  was  at  one  end,  so 
that  the  wick  is  exposed  ;  see  that  all 
the  cotton  ends  will  light  freely ;  care 
should  be  taken  to  extinguish  the  cotton, 
or  it  will  revive  with  the  least  draught, 
and  may  become  dangerous.  For  large 
plates  it  is  preferable  to  use  an  ordinary 
oil  lamp  mounted  on  gimbals ;  this  ob- 
viates the  inconvenience  occasioned  by 
the  dripping  of  the  tapers. 

Bordering  Wax. —  3  oz.  of  resin,  2  oz. 
of  beeswax,  and  such  a  quantity  of  sweet 
oil  as  will  soften  the  mixture  to  fancy. 
Procure  an  earthen  pipkin  ;  place  in  the 
bottom  ^  oz.  or  more  of  sweet  oil ;  add  the 
resin  and  beeswax,  broken  in  small  pieces  ; 
when  melted  work  the  ingredients  well 
together  with  a  stick  until  thoroughly  in- 
corporated ;  then  pour  into  a  basin  of  cold 
water ;  as  it  gets  cold,  work  it  well  with 
the  hands  by  pulling  out  into  lengths 
and  doubling  it  together  again  ;  the  more 
it  is  worked  the  better  it  will  be  for  use. 
Should  it  turn  out  brittle,  return  it 
broken  to  the  pipkin,  and  add  more  oil ; 
work  it  well  together  as  before,  pour  it 
into  water,  and  work  it  again  with  the 
hands. 

Engraver's  Shade.  —  Bend   a   piece  of 


wire  into  a  half  circle ;  bind  it  together 
with  waxed  string  ;  lay  it  on  tissue  paper , 
cut  away  all  but  J  an  inch  round  the 
wire  :  cover  that  ^  inch  with  paste,  and 
turn  it  over  the  wire  ;  when  dry  the 
shade  is  complete.  Fasten  a  light  string 
to  the  centre  of  the  half-circle,  and  sus- 
pend it  from  the  window-latch  when  in 
use.  This  shade  must  be  placed  in  a 
forward  position,  sloping  before  the 
plate,  and  the  white  light  it  produces 
will  enable  the  engraver  to  see  the  lines 
made  by  the  etching  needle.  An  equally 
effective  shade  may  be  made  by  covering 
a  light  square  wire  frame  with  tissue 
papei",  and  supporting  it  with  two  struts. 
This  frame  can  be  made  to  rest  at  any 
angle,  upon  the  table  immediately  in 
front  of  the  work. 

Hand-Best. — Any  flat  and  thin  piece 
of  wood  will  answer  the  purpose,  which 
is  to  keep  the  hand  clear  of  the  plate 
whilst  at  work.  A  good  hand-rest  may 
be  made  of  a  thin  board  raised  above  the 
work  upon  side  pieces  of  such  a  height 
as  to  allow  the  plate  to  be  freely  moved 
underneath  the  board.  The  front  edge 
of  the  board  may  be  faced  with  a  strip 
of  steel  planed  true  when  it  serves  as  a 
straight-edge.  This  arrangement  will 
be  found  extremely  handy. 

Stopping  -  out  Varnish.  — •  Turpentine 
varnish  is  superior,  for  several  reasons, 
to  Brunswick  black. 

Turpentine  Varnish. — Break  small  pieces 
of  resin  into  a  phial ;  pour  over  spirits  ot 
turpentine  to  about  twice  the  height  of  the 
resin.  Place  the  bottle  in  a  small  saucepan 
of  water  on  the  hob,  near  enough  to  the 
fire  to  make  and  keep  the  water  hot ; 
place  a  cork  lightly  in  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle,  as  the  mixture  will  require  to  be 
shaken  occasionally.  Pour  a  small  portion 
of  this  mixture  into  a  small  pot,  with  a 
little  lampblack  added  to  give  it  a  colour, 
and  well  mixed.  This  last  is  necessary  to 
prevent  lumps  ;  it  may  be  done  by  work- 
ing the  mixture  well  together  with  the 
camel-hair  pencil.  This  is  a  good  stop- 
ping-out varnish.  With  this  varnish  go 
over  the  border  or  margin  of  your  plate  ; 
do  this  when  about  to  put  it  away,  and 
the  varnish  will  become  hard  by  being 
left    a    night   to    set.     When    b'lting-in 


156 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


again,  g5  over  the  margin,  using  the 
same  brush  and  mixture.  It  can  always 
be  worked  up  by  adding  a  little  turpen- 
tine. When  it  is  set  so  hard  that  the 
finger  may  be  placed  on  it  without  ?tick- 
lug,  it  is  time  to  make  up  the  wall  or 
border  of  was  to  hold  the  aquafortis. 

Aquafortis. — Procure  three  half-pint 
bottles  with  glass  stoppers,  and  two 
pint  earthen  jugs  with  spouts.  Place 
\  lb.  of  nitric  acid  in  bottle  No.  1. 
Pour  into  bottle  No.  2  rather  less  than 
the  fourth  of  the  nitre  ;  fill  the  bottle 
three-parts  full  of  water ;  slowly  pass  it 
into  one  of  your  pint  jugs,  and  back 
again  to  the  bottle,  to  mix  it  well.  In 
bottle  No.  3  put  one-half  of  the  remaining 
nitric  acid  ;  water  it  as  before ;  see  that 
the  nitric  acid  in  bottle  No.  1  is  well 
stoppered,  and  cover  it  with  a  piece  of 
old  glove. 

Tracing  and  Tracing  Paper. — Tracing 
can  be  conveniently  efl'ected  by  using 
sheets  of  transparent  gelatine,  similar  to 
that  made  for  Ileliotype  purposes,  and 
placing  it  over  the  drawing,  which  can 
be  seen  clearly  through  the  gelatine. 
Trace  with  a  sharp  etching-needle,  taking 
care  to  remove  the  burr  from  the  lines 
with  tJie  thumb-nail  as  the  work  pro- 
ceeds. When  finished,  fill  in  with  fine 
powdered  Brunswick  black,  entirely  free 
from  grease,  or  powdered  red  chalk, 
reverse  on  to  the  plate,  and  rub  the 
lines  with  a  burnisher.  Tracing  paper 
of  various  qualities  may  be  readily 
purchased.  But  in  case  of  necessity, 
very  good  tracing  paper  may  be  made 
by  satur.'iting,  .with  a  camel-hair  pencil, 
the  finest  tissue  paper  with  the  follow- 
ing mixture  ; — J  oz.  of  balsam  of  Canada, 
to  J  oz.  of  sjiirits  of  turpentine;  shake 
well  together  in  a  2-oz.  bottle.  When 
covered  with  the  mixture,  hang  the  paper 
on  a  line  to  dry ;  then  wash  in  like 
manner  the  other  .si(ie.  I'lace  your  draw- 
ing on  a  tracing  board,  a  piece  of  soil 
[ilancd  deal ;  lay  the  tracing  paper  over 
it ;  fasten  down  with  bnuss-hoadod  |)oiuts, 
not  through  the  drawing,  but  close  to 
it,  80  that  the  pressure  of  the  bniss  head 
Becures  both  the  drawing  and  tracing 
j>ap»?r  from  moving.  Go  carefully  over 
ail   the   jincB  of  your  drawing  with  an 


H  pencil,  occasionally  placing  a  piece 
of  white  paper  between  the  drawing  ani 
the  tracing  paper  to  ascertain  that  no 
lines  on  the  drawing  have  escaped  atten- 
tion. 

Transferring  Paper. — This  is  made  as 
follows; — Take  half  a  sheet  of  very  fine 
bank-post  paper  ;  lay  it  on  a  clean  place, 
and  rub  it  well  with  the  scrapings  of  red 
chalk  with  a  small  piece  of  sponge.  Ap- 
ply the  chalk  until  the  paper  is  all  of 
one  colour ;  then,  with  a  piece  of  clean 
old  muslin,  rub  the  greater  part  of  the 
colour  from  the  surface.  The  colour  may 
be  renewed  occasionally  as  the  markings 
become  foint. 

Testing  the  Ground. — Heat  one  corner 
of  your  plate,  and  rub  over  it  the  ground 
in  a  thin  and  even  surface.  Next  apply 
your  dabbcr,  to  make  a  yet  more  equal 
distribution  of  the  ground.  When  cold, 
mark  over  it  with  ratlier  a  blunt  needle 
(No.  3),  Should  the  ground  be  brittle, 
and  crack  with  the  passage  of  the  needle, 
add  to  it  more  beeswax ;  should  it  drag 
with  the  needle,  add  more  asphaltum; 
the  ground  will  easily  melt  again.  When 
a  ball  is  satisfactorily  made  it  will  last  a 
long  time.  The  weather  has  considerable 
effect  on  the  mixture,  and  the  quality  of 
the  ingredients  is  very  important,  so  that 
it  is  advisable  to  get  the  ground  as  per- 
fect as  possible  while  the  melting  pot  is 
in  use. 

Heating  the  Plate  for  Ground. — Have 
a  small  liand-vice.  Fig.  47,  with  a  hailt  of 
wood  to  resist  the  passage 
of  heat  to  the  hand.  If 
the  plate  is  stained  or  dis- 
coloured, the  inark  must 
be  removed  with  the  oil- 
rubber  with  a  little  rotten- 
stone  and  oil,  polished  off 
with  a  bit  of  old  muslin 
powdered  with  whiting, 
care  being  taken  tliat  no 
dust  remains  on  the  f)late. 
Screw  tlie  vice  on  tiio  long  side  of  the 
copper  plate  with  .i  slight  hold,  covering 
the  part  grasped  by  the  jaws  of  the  vice 
with  a  small  piece  of  paper  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  surface.  Heating  m.iy  be 
performed  by  burning  paper  under  the 
back  of  the  plate  ;  but  a  ktove  or  clear 


Fio.  47. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTo. 


167 


Fig.  48. 


fire  is  preferable,  and  a  couple  of  spirit 
lamps  with  rests  for  the  corners  of  the 
plate,  the  best  plan  of  all.  Be  careful 
not  to  ovei'heat  the  plate.  If  the  surface 
becomes  discoloured  the  plate  is  over  hot ; 
as  a  test,  turn  it  over  and  spit  on  the 
back  ;  if  the  moisture  jumps  off,  the  plate 
is  sufficiently  hot ;  should  it  hiss  and 
remain  on  the  plate,  more  heat  must  be 
obtained.  A  piece  of  canvas,  rather 
larger  than  the  plate,  should  be  warmed 
by  laying  it  before  the  fire  during  the 
heating  process  ;  place  it  on  the  table,  and 
lay  upon  it  the  plate  retained  in  the  vice. 
Now  pass  the  ball  of  ground,  Fig.  48, 
over  it  backwards  and 
forwards  until  the 
plate  is  covered, 
spreading  the  ground 
as  evenly  and  thinly 
as  possible.  Use  the 
dabber  with  a  quick 
action,  pressing  it 
down  and  plucking  it  up.  If  the  ground 
does  not  distribute  itself  easily,  burn  paper 
under  the  plate  as  before  until  it  shines 
all  over,  being  cautious  that  the  ashes  of 
the  paper  do  not  settle  on  the  surface ; 
dab  on  again,  decreasing  the  pressure, 
but  not  the  speed  of  action,  until  the 
surfiice  is  all  over  alike. 

Smoking  the  Pfote.— Have  the  taper 
ready,  and  a  single  taper  or  candle  to 
take'  the  light  from  ;  the  surface  of  the 
plate  being  perfectly  covel-ed,  it  may  be  as 
well  to  renew  the  heat  in  the  plate,  by  a 
paper  burnt  under  the  back  until  the 
surface  shines,  taking  the  same  precau- 
tions as  before.  Hold  the  plate  in  the 
left  hand,  with  the  face  downward; 
light  the  smoking  taper.  Fig.  49,  at  the 


Fig.  49. 


Fig.  50. 


same  time,  having  all  the  wicks  burn- 
ing ;  pass  it  rather  quickly  round  the 
margin,    and    by    degrees    towards    the 


Fig.  52. 


centre,  using  a  fluttering  action  -A-ith  the 
hand.  Fig.  50  ;  smoke  on  until  the  whole 
surface  is  of  a  dark  colour,  keeping  the 
taper  at  such  a  distance  from  the  plate 
that  the-  burning  cotton  may  have  no 
chance  of  touching  it,  although  the  flame 
spreads  over  it.  Another  way  is  to 
suspend  the  plate,  if  of  large  size,  over- 
head, and  smoke  with  the  oil  lamp. 
When  the  surface  is  all  black  alike,  and 
nd  sooty  marks  are  to  be  seen  on  the 
working  part  of  the  plate,  the  ground  is 
fit  for  use.  Take  the  plate,  face  down- 
wards, to  some  convenient  place,  and 
pour  cold  water  over  the  back.  Fig.  51, 
holding;  the  plate 
in  a  sloping  posi-  xm.  ji. 

tion,  the  vice  up. 
This  last  process 
produces  a  stronger 
and  harder  surface 
than  could  be  ob- 
tained if  the  plate 
were  left  gradually 
to  cool.  Now  place 
the  plate  face  down- 
wards, supported 
on  one  side  by  the  ^ 
screw  of  the  vice, 
Fig.  52.  Clean  the 
smoke  from  the  back,  and  let  it  remain 
until  quite  cold.  Some  difficulty  may 
be  found  in  laying  the  first  ground  with 
success,  but  with  a  little  practice  this  is 
surmounted. 

Transferring . — In  the  absence  of  an 
etching  board,  place  the  copper  plate  on 
a  thick  piece  of  brown  paper  larger  than 
the  plate  ;  make  two  ribs  of  the  same 
paper,  doubled  four  or  more  times,  and 
about  an  inch  wide ;  place  them  at  each 
end  of  the  plate  on  the  brown  paper,  and 
fasten  them  with  sealing  wax  ;  these  ribs 
serve  as  shoulders  for  the  rest  to  lay  on. 
which  will  prevent  the  hand  from  touch- 
ing the  work.  Now  cut  the  tracing  paper 
to  the  size  of  the  plate,  having  ruled 
the  margin  line  if  one  is  required.  Place 
the  tracing  reversed ;  that  is,  with  the 
pencil  side  to  the  plate.  Fix  it  with 
pieces  of  soft  wax  round  the  border, 
leaving  open  the  bottom  to  admit  the 
transfer  paper,  which  introduce  with  the 
clialk  side  nest  to  the  plate ;  the  uppei 


158 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


side  of  the  paper  must  be  kept  clean, 
that  the  pencil-lines  on  the  tracing  paper 
may  be  seen.  With  an  H  H  pencil,  cut 
sharp  and  short,  go  over  all  the  lines 
of  the  tracing  with  rather  an  upright 
hand  and  a  strong  pressure ;  the  upper 
side  of  the  tracing  paper  will  show 
whether  all  the  lines  have  been  traced ; 
look  sideways  at  the  work,  and  the  black- 
lead  marks  will  be  perceptible.  Before 
advancing  far  in  the  transfer,  lift  up  the 
bottom  of  the  tracing  to  ascertain  if  the 
lines  are  of  sufficient  strength  ;  if  not, 
apply  more  red  chalk  to  the  transfer 
paper.  When  the  transfer  is  nearly  com- 
pleted, do  not  take  off  the  whole  of  the 
paper,  but  let  the  top  part  remain  fixed. 
Then  lift  up  the  tracing,  and  if  any  part 
of  it  has  been  neglected,  it  can  again  be 
fixed  down,  and  the  omission  rectified. 

Etching.  —  Commence  with  a  fine- 
pointed  needle.  No.  1,  and  go  carefully 
over  the  outline,  not  making  much  im- 
pression on  the  copper,  but  sufficient  to 
remove  the  ground  ;  with  the  same  point 
go  over  all  the  lighter  parts,  increasing 
the  pressure,  so  as  to  make  a  slight  in- 
dentation on  the  plate.  No.  2  point  may 
now  be  used  to  go  over  the  lighter  shade, 
with  an  increa-sed  weight  of  hand.  No.  2 
point  will  answer  for  the  darker  shades 
by  making  the  lines  nearer  together  and 
increasmg  the  pressure.  Interline  parts 
that  require  extra  colour  with  No.  1 
point ;  the  etching  may  be  worked  at  for 
a  .  considerable  time  by  interlining  and 
dotting.  If  there  are  any  marks  to  ex- 
punge, dip  a  pointed  camel-hair  pencil 
into  the  turpentine  bottle,  and  with  its 
point  work  up  some  of  the  ground  on  the 
margin  of  the  plate,  and  therewith  stop 
out  the  objectionable  marks.  When  set 
it  will  resist  the  aquafortis. 

Bordering  t!ie  Plate. — In  cold  weather 
the  wax  will  be  too  hard  to  roll  out 
with  the  hand  ; 
in  that  case  it 
must  be  placdl 
in  moderately 
warm  water  until 
it  becomes  pli- 
able ;  then  pull 
»nd  roll  it  out.  Fig.  53,  to  about  the  thick- 
ness of  a  small  waiking-stick ;  slightly 


Fio.  53. 


grease  the  point  of  the  thumb  and  two 
forefingers  with  deer  or  mutton  fat ;  press 
the  roll  of  wax  flat,  and  place  it  on  the 
border  of  the  plate  with  the  edge  to  the 
varnish,  taking  great  care  that  the  bor- 
dering wax  does  not  go  off  the  varnish. 
At  the  parts  intended  to  be  the  darkest 
corner  of  the  plate  pinch  out  the  wax 
border,  that  the  height  of  the  wall  may 
be  increased  at  that  corner  where  the  s])out 
IS  to  be  formed  with  the  wax  to  prevent 
spilling  the  aquafortis  in  pouring  it  off. 

Biting-in. — Lay  the  plate  flat  on  a  piece 
of  canvas  larger  than  the  plate  as  a  pro- 
tection from  any  splashings  that  may  be 
made.  Place  the  spout  of  the  jdate  in 
front  for  the  convenience  of  pouring  off. 
Pour  a  little  water  over  the  plate  to  see 
if  there  are  any  leaks  in  your  border  ;  if 
there  are  any,  pour  off  the  water ;  let 
the  plate  dry,  particularly  in  the  defec- 
tive part ;  then  press  down  the  outer 
edge  of  the  wax  with  a  piece  of  wood. 
Leaks  can  also  be  found  without  using 
water  by  holding  the  plate  up  to  the  light 
and  looking  at  the  edge,  when  the  smallest 
pin-hole  will  be  immediately  detected. 
Have  two  or  three  small  wedges,  to  be 
used  for  tilting  the  plate  should  the  acid 
not  lay  even.  When  the  border  is  sound 
pour  off  the  water;  then  cover  the  sur- 
face of  the  plate  with  the  aquafortis  from 
No.  2  bottle.  If,  in  the  courbe  of  half  a 
minute,  the  etching  on  the  plate  should 
assume  a  light-grey  coating,  the  mixture 
is  good  ;  but  if  it  should  throw  up  bub- 
bles, it  is  over  strong,  and  more  water 
must  be  added,  but  not  on  the  plate.  The 
mixture  must  be  placed  in  the  jug,  then 
in  the  bottle,  and  afterwards  returned  to 
the  j>late.  Should  the  lines  on  the  plate 
remain  as  bright  copper  after  the  acid 
has  been  on  half  a  minute,  it  is  not 
strong  enough,  and  some  aquat'ortis  out 
of  bottle  No.  3  must  be  added.  Wlien 
the  mixture  on  the  lines  does  not  produce 
a  foam,  but  the  plate  continues  of  a  grey, 
frosty  appearance,  the  jirocess  is  going  on 
well.  The  power  of  biting-in  correctly 
depends  on  the  experience  in  using  the 
acid.  With  a  soft  camel-hair  pencil 
lightly  remove  the  frosty  appearance, 
taking  care  that  the  quill  does  not  touch 
the   ground.     Should   any   part   of    the 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


159 


Fig.  65. 


ground  break  up  by  the  lines  becoming 
united,  pour  otT  the  acid  carefully  into 
tlie  jug.  Lay  the  plate  again  on  the  flat, 
and  cover  it  with  water 
from  the  other  jug, 
moving  it  gently  with 
the  camel-hair  pencil, 
which  place  at  ouce 
in  a  water-jug  when 
taken  from  the  acid, 
or  it  will  soon  be  de- 
I  stroyed.  Throw  away 
the  wash-water  from 
the  plate.  When  the 
first  biting  is  completed  set  the  plate  up 
endways  to  dry.  Fig.  54. 

Second  Biting. —  When  the  plate  is 
perfectly  dry,  take  off  with  a  blunt  point 
covered  with  silk  and  dipped  in  turps  a 
spot  of  ground  in  the  lighter  part  to 
ascertain  if  the  acid  has  made  sufficient 
indentation.  If  it  has,  work  up  the 
stopping-out  varnish  with  a  camel-hair 
pencil,  and  with  it  cover  all  the  parts 
intended  to  remain  light ;  elevate  the  rest, 
Fig.  65,  so  as  not 
to  press  the  bor- 
der wax.  When 
the  stopping-out 
varnish  is  dry, 
which  may  be 
ascertained  by 
placing  the  finger 
on  it ;  if  it  does 
not  stick,  it  is 
dry;  put  on  the 
Same  aquafortis 
(bottle  No.  2),  and 
let  it  remain  until 
you  observe  the 
ground  giving 
way  ;  then  pour  off  the  acid,  and  wash 
well  as  before.  Put  the  plate  to  drain. 
Should  it  be  required,  more  biting  may 
be  done  ;  the  process  is  the  same. 

Cleaning  Off. — Great  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  plate  is  perfectly  dry ;  if 
it  is  not  it  may  be  placed  before  the  fire, 
but  not  close  enough  to  melt  the  wax. 
Having  carefully  wiped  the  canvas,  lay 
the  plate  a  little  more  than  half-way 
upon  it,  so  that  the  balance  remains  upon 
the  table.  Apply  a  lighted  taper,  or  a 
folded  paper  match,  progressively  under 


Fig.  56, 


the  wax  ;  pull  up  the  wax.  Fig.  56,  as  the 
warmth  proceeds  ;  a  very  slight  warmth 
answers  the  pur- 
pose. By  re- 
moving the  wax 
with  a  knife  you 
are  liable  to  in- 
jure the  margin, 
which  is  diffi- 
cult to  remedy. 

Should  any  of  the  wax  adhere  to  the 
plate,  remove  it  by  using  a  piece  of 
wood  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  chisel.  Fix 
the  vice  on  the  same  place  as  when  laying 
on  the  ground.  Rub  the  plate  over  with 
turps,  taking  care  to  go  over  every  part ; 
hold  the  plate  up  by  the  vice ;  heat  the 
back  with  burning  paper  as  before,  until 
the  ground  varnish  and  tallow  are  melted. 
Rub  off  with  a  soft  rag.  Should  any  smut 
remain,  apply  a  little  turpentine;  with- 
draw the  vice,  and  wash  the  spot  it 
covered  with  turpentine.  Rub  the  plate 
front,  back,  and  sides  with  the  rag.  Dab 
the  plate  with  the  bag  of  rotten-stone ; 
pour  on  it  a  little  sweet  oil ;  and  polish 
the  plate  with  oil-rubber,  using  con- 
siderable up-and-down  pressure  ;  wipe 
the  plate  quite  clean,  and  polish  with 
fine  whiting.  Should  the  biting-in  have 
succeeded,  the  plate  is  ready  for  the 
printer. 

Dry  Point. — The  dry  point  may  next 
be  used.  For  this  purpose  the  needle 
No.  3,  well  pointed,  may  be  employed, 
as  indenture  must  be  made  by  pressure 
of  the  hand.  For  interlining  the  parts 
which  are  too  weak,  and  uniting  lines 
neglected  in  the  etching,  the  dry  point 
will  be  sufficient ;  but  the  pressure  will 
leave  a  projection  or  burr  on  the  plate, 
which  must  be  carefully  removed  by  the 
sharp  scraper;  should  the  plate  requiie 
more  than  the  dry  point  can  accomplish, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  re-biting. 

PiC-hiting. — Heat  the  plate  as  before, 
but  make  one  corner,  the  one  with  the 
least  work  in  it,  hotter  than  the  other 
part.  Prior  to  laying  the  ground  the 
plate  should  be  polished  with  whiting,  or 
with  methylated  spirit  and  aquafortis, 
using  a  piece  of  old  muslin  folded  in  the 
shape  of  a  dabber,  which  will  fill  the 
etched    lines,   and  prevent  the   new-laid 


160 


^VORKSItOP   RECEIPtS. 


Fig.  57. 


ground  from  entering.  Rub  the  ground 
on  the  hot  corner,  and  with  the  dabber 
take  the  ground  therefrom,  and  dab 
quickly  over  the  other  part  until  the 
whole  surface  is  covered.  All  the  parts 
but  those  wanting  more  colour  may  be 
stopped  out  as  before ;  the  border  was 
must  again  be  used.  Next  follow  the 
same  process  with  the  acid. 

lic-ctching. — This  is  the  most  certain 
method  of  finishing  the  plate.'  The  ground 
must  be  laid  as  in  the  first  instance,  but 
using  a  greater  body,  and  with  the  dabber. 
Fig.  57  rubbing  it  well  into  the  lines, 
taking  care  that 
DO  whiting  re- 
mains m  the 
etching  marks ; 
for  this  process 
the  pkte  should 
be  merely  washed 
with  turpentine ; 
a  slight  extra  warmth  and  good  dabbing 
will  render  the  ground  acid  proof.  The 
smoking  is  here  dispensed  with.  Set  up 
the  ground,  and  work  at  the  plate  as  in 
the  first  instance.  Now  use  No.  3  shar]) 
point,  and  interline  the  parts  that  should 
be  darker  and  where  greater  strength  is 
wanted,  crossing  the  lines,  not  at  right 
angles,  but  lozenge  -  ways.  The  plate 
cleaned  off  as  before  directed,  receiving  a 
light  oil  rubbing  with  a  little  rotten-stone, 
and  washed  oft' with  turpentine,  may  now 
be  sent  to  the  printer's,  and  a  proof 
obtained.  By  repeating  the  rc-ctching 
the  plate  may  be  worked  up  to  tlie  colour 
of  a  line  engraving.  In  some  of  the 
darker  parts  a  graver  or  lozenge  -  tool 
may  be  used;  but  it  is  rather  dangerous 
in  the  hands  of  the  uninitiated;  as  it  is 
apt  to  slij),  and  make  deep  lines  where 
none  arc  wanted.  Ile-biting  will  ])roiluce 
any  extra  colour  that  may  be  wanted 
with  little  more  trouble  and  with  greater 
safety. 

ErciiiNO. — PR0CI33  AVOiDixa  Sxor- 
I'lNfi-OUT. — For  the  first  biting,  ground 
and  smoke  the  plate  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner, then  etch  those  parts  only  which  are 
to  be  darkest,  such  as  vigorous  foreground 
in  landscapes,  and  other  deep  work.  Use 
no  delicate  lines  at  this  stage;  jai>an 
the  back  of  the  i)latc  and  the  sjiot  where 


the  hand-vice  was  placed ;  use  a  photi)- 
grapher's  tray  as  an  acid  bath,  in  which 
immerse  the  plate  in  nitric  acid  until  the 
very  black  lines  are  bitten-in.  Clean  the 
plate,  and  take  a  proof.  For  the  second 
biting,  ground  the  plate  again,  and  smoke 
it ;  the  first  lines  will  still  clearly  show. 
Di-aw  all  the  work  of  a  medium  dark- 
ness, with  a  sliarper  point  than  that  used 
for  the  first  biting-in.  Place  the  plate 
in  the  acid  bath,  and  let  it  remain  until 
the  lines  are  of  a  moderate  depth.  Re- 
move and  clean  the  i)late,  and  take  a 
second  proof.  For  the  third  biting,  ground 
with  transparent  ground,  and  do  not 
smoke  it.  Etch  all  the  delicate  work, 
keeping  the  lines  close  to  each  other,  and 
using  a  sharper  needle  than  before.  This 
operation  requires  more  care  than  the 
two  previous  ones,  as  the  lines  will  not 
show  very  distinctly.  This  process  is  of 
great  service  for  intricate  work,  in 
consequence  of  the  e;ise  it  gives  of  intro- 
ducing pale  lines  amongst  the  darker 
work,  and  a  delicate  background  beyond 
the  vigorous  lines  of  the  subject ;  whilst, 
by  taking  proofs  after  each  biting,  the 
progress  of  tlie  work  may  be  seen,  and  its 
correctness  ensured.  By  covering  the 
back  and  edges  of  the  plate  with  japau 
varnish,  the  old  and  tedious  process  of 
banking  up  the  sides  with  wax  is  avoided, 
and  tlie  plate  may  be  plunged  into  the 
acid  bath  without  any  further  risk  or 
trouble. 

Etciiino. — Gknt.ral  Instructions.— 
The  following  directions  will  relieve  be- 
ginners from  much  trouble,  and  enable 
them  to  avoid  many  accidents  to  which 
engravers  are  liable; — when  using  the 
acid,  slightly  grease  that  part  of  the 
hand  likely  to  come  in  contact  with  it, 
as  a  preventive  to  its  making  stains, 
which  are  not  easily  eradicated.  When 
your  border  wax  has  done  its  duty,  have 
it  well  washed  in  cold  water,  then  warmed 
before  the  fire,  i)ulled  out  and  jjressed 
together  again,  as  the  more  frequently 
that  is  done  the  more  pliable  the  wax 
will  be  for  future  use.  As  your  aqua- 
fortis will  become  reduced  in  strength 
by  exposure  to  the  air,  it  becomes  Dece.s- 
sary  to  add  a  portion  of  No.  3  bottle  to 
that  of  No.  2,  and  a  smoll  quantity   oi 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


IGl 


No.  1  bottle  to  No.  3,  No.  1  bottle  con- 
tainiug  the  undilute  acid.  When  making 
a  point  to  an  etching  needle,  work  tlie 
point  round,  as,  should  there  be  any  flat 
side  to  the  point,  it  will  bite  the  cop- 
per, and  prevent  the  freedom  of  hand 
required  to  give  spirit  to  the  etching. 
The  burnisher  will  soften  down  any  part 
of  the  etching  that  appears  harsh  or 
crude,  by  gently  passing  it  over  the  parts 
to  be  reduced  in  colour.  The  shade  must 
be  between  the  plate  and  the  light,  in 
order  to  be  able  to  see  the  marks  of  the 
burnisher ;  fine  charcoal  and  oil  will  re- 
move these  marks,  and  the  oil-rubber 
will  clear  away  the  charcoal  marks.  The 
charcoal  can  be  obtained  at  a  copper- 
smith's or  plate-printer's.  If  a  burnisher 
is  good  at  first,  it  never  requires  altera- 
tion. The  scraper  must  be  occasionally 
sharpened. 

Soft  Ground.— Take  half  a  ball  of 
hard  ground,  mixed  as  described  under 
the  head  Etching  Ground ;  to  that  add 
a  piece  of  mutton  suet.  Jlelt  them  well 
together,  observing  that  the  ingredients 
must  be  thoroughly  incorporated  ;  then 
pour  into  cold  water,  and  use  it  as  before 
directed. 

Laying  the  Ground. — The  process  is 
exactly  the  same  as  in  laying  the  etching 
ground,  with  this  difference,  that  the 
plate  does  not  require  so  great  a  heat. 
Smoke  the  plate  the  same  as  in  laying 
etching  ground.  The  ground  must  be 
spread  as  thinly  as  possible,  to  cover  the 
plate  and  bear  smolving.  The  surface  of 
the  plate  must  be  alike  all  over,  and 
quite  bright  or  shining.  If  any  part  but 
the  edges  aj'pears  sooty,  it  must  be 
cleared  off  and  the  plate  polished,  as 
described  for  etching,  and  laid  again.  A 
good  ground  may  be  made  at  the  first 
melting,  but  that  can  scarcely  be  ex- 
pected. It  may  be  as  well  to  test  the 
quality  of  the  mixture  before  laying  a 
whole  ground.  To  this  end,  heat  a  small 
jiortion  of  the  plate  ;  lay  on  the  ground  ; 
smoke  it ;  and  let  it  get  quite  cold. 
Obtain  some  of  the  finest  tissue  paper,  of 
very  even  texture.  Place  a  piece  of  the 
paper  on  the  patch  of  ground  laid,  and, 
with  a  fine-pointed  H  pencil,  make  a 
slight  sketch  ; — a  bit  of  foliage,  for  in- 


stance ;  the  paper  should  slightly  stick 
to  the  plate ;  when  carefully  raised  by 
the  two  bottom  corners,  the  back  of  it 
should  clearly  show  every  line  made  on 
its  surface,  only  darker.  Should  the 
sketch  on  the  copper  look  as  if  it  was 
dotted  all  over,  the  mixture  of  ground 
will  do.  Should  the  ground  adhere  to 
the  paper,  like  marks  with  pen  and  ink. 
the  ground  must  be  melted,  with  an 
addition  of  hard  ground  ;  and  if  even  the 
softest  marks  of  the  pencil  do  not  pull 
tlie  ground  from  the  plate,  the  ground 
must  be  remelted  and  remised  until  it  is 
fit  for  work.  As  the  temperature  has 
great  effect  on  this  ground,  that  which 
will  answer  for  summer  will  not  do  for 
winter,  so  it  may  be  as  well  to  make 
two  or  three  mixtures,  and  number  them 
according  to  their  several  degrees  of 
hardness.'  Having  succeeded  in  mixing 
the  ground,  take  a  piece  of  tissue  paper 
twice  the  size  of  the  plate.  Place  the 
plate  in  the  centre,  and  with  a  black-lead 
pencil  draw  a  line  all  round  it.  Make 
the  same  mark  on  the  other  side;  then 
lay  the  ground  as  described.  When  cold, 
wipe  the  back  and  edges  before  taking  oflf 
the  hand-vice.  This  ground  being  very 
tender,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  touch 
the  face  of  the  plate. 

Lraicing. — The  drawing  is  to  be  made 
upon  the  square  marked  on  the  paper. 
If  it  is  intended  to  copy  a  subject,  the 
same  process  as  in  transferring  for  the 
hard-ground  etching  is  used  ;  only,  in- 
stead of  transferring  the  led  lines  on  to 
the  plate,  they  must  be  made  within  the 
square  marked  on  the  paper.  Take  care 
that  the  tracing  is  reversed.  If  it  is 
intended  to  draw  on  the  plate  without 
copy,  lightly  make  the  design  on  the 
square  marked  with  fine-pointed  red 
chalk.  Should  the  subject  be  figures, 
everything  must  be  drawn  to  the  left 
hand,  or  reversed.  Fold  a  silk  handker- 
chief in  four ;  lay  it  flat  and  smooth  on 
the  table;  place  on  it  the  paper,  with 
the  chalk  sketch  downwards.  Then,  with 
great  care,  lay  the  plate,  face  down, 
exactly  on  the  square  mark  of  the  paper  ; 
fold  over  tlie  back  the  surplus  paper, 
and  fix  the  sides  with  four  thin  spcts  of 
sealing  was   near   the  corners;  b€  sure 


162 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


not  to  m>ve  the  plate  on  the  silk.  Take 
up  the  plate  carefully,  and  place  it  for 
work.  Use  a  hand-rest,  as  in  etching, 
and  a  hai-d-pencil,  H  H,  on  the  places 
you  wish  to  be  dark.  In  soft-ground 
engraving,  the  drawing  must  be  finished 
the  day  it  is  commenced ;  the  mechanical 
part  of  the  work  may  be  delayed.  When 
the  drawing  is  finished,  pull  up  the  paper 
by  the  two  bottom  corners.  Varnish  the 
border  down  the  same  as  in  etching.  The 
acid  used  must  be  much  stronger;  the 
border  wax  higher  and  broader  in  the 
spout,  as  you  may  perhaps  have  to  pour 
off  suddenly. 

Biting-in. — In  biting-in,  pour  off  the 
acid  when  the  ground  begins  to  break 
up  ;  that  is,  coming  up  in  patches.  During 
tiie  bitiug-in  the  soft  camel-hair  pencil 
may  be  used,  but  very  tenderly.  Wash 
well  olT  with  cold  water,  and  place  the 
plate  to  dry.  For  cleaning,  see  Etching. 
Should  the  plate  require  more  finishing, 
have  recourse  to  the  hard  ground  without 
smoking. 

Aqua-tinta  Engravikq. — This  was 
formerly  resorted  to  where  the  object  was 
to  produce  a  j)late,  the  impressions  from 
which  were  to  be  coloured.  It  is  recog- 
nized by  its  similarity  to  Indian  ink  or 
sejiia  drawing  ;  for,  in  working  the  plate 
at  press,  black  and  brown  inks  are  used 
;ndilTerently,  as  the  artist  or  publisher 
may  direct.  Resin  forms  the  ground  in 
this  method  of  engraving. 
.  Aqwi-tint  Ground. — Break  some  of  the 
best  white  resin  into  jiieces,  and  (lut  into 
a  bottle  with  spirits  of  wine,  and  shake 
occasionally  until  the  resin  is  dissolved. 
The  bottles  must  have  corks,  not  glass 
stoppers.  Have  two  other  bottles  ready  ; 
mark  the  bottles  1,  2,  3.  No.  1  is  the 
bottle  into  which  the  resin  Is  placed. 
Pour  a  third  of  No.  1  into  No.  2,  and 
nearly  fill  it  with  s|)irits  of  wine.  Pour 
into  No.  .'i  rather  less  of  the  mixture  from 
No.  1,  and  nearly  fill  it  with  sjiirits  of 
wine.  These  bottles  must  be  occasionally 
shaken,  and  their  contents  allowed  to 
settle  well  before  use.  The  contents  of 
the  three  bottles  must  be  so  mijtoil  tliat 
ihoy  are  one  under  the  other  in  strcnt,'lh, 
aji  the  size  of  tiie  grain  to  be  laid  on  the 
plate  depends  on  the   quantity  oi  resin 


each  mixture  contains.  The  more  of 
resin  the  larger  the  grain.  The  spirits 
should  be  entirely  free  from  water. 

To  Test  the  Spirits. — Place  a  small 
quantity  of  gunpowder  in  a  silver  spoon  ; 
pour  over  it  some  of  the  spirit )  light  the 
spirit,  and  let  it  burn  to  the  powder.  If 
the  powder  takes  fire  and  explodes,  the 
spirit  is  good,  and  fit  for  use.  Should  it 
remain  in  the  bottom  of  the  spoon,  black 
and  wet,  the  spirit  has  been  adulterated 
with  water,  and  is  not  fit  for  the  purpose. 

Trial  of  Aqua-tinta  Ground.  —  Have 
a  tin  trough  about  2  inches  wide,  and 
rather  longer  than  the  plate,  with  a  con- 
venient spout  at  one  end  ;  the  trough  is 
to  act  as  a  receiver  of  the  spirit  when 
poured  over  the  plate ;  the  spout  to  re- 
turn it  to  the  bottle. 

Laying  the  Ground. — Polish  the  plate 
well,  as  before  directed.  Place  it  at  a 
slight  slojie,  the  tin  trough  under  the 
lower  edge  to  receive  the  spare  mixture. 
As  a  trial  of  the  ground,  jiour  the  liquid 
from  each  bottle,  and  make  a  small  patch 
in  different  places  at  the  bottom  of  the 
plate.  When  the  liquid  has  run  ofT  into 
the  tin  trough,  lay  the  plate  flat,  and 
with  a  piece  of  rag  wipe  the  lower  edge. 
Take  a  magnifying  glass,  and  look  at  the 
grains  deposited  on  the  copper.  Having 
poured  the  spirit  from  tlie  trtmgh  to 
bottle  No.  1,  make  choice  of  the  grain 
most  likely  to  suit  the  work ;  if  neither 
of  the  three  shouM,  mix  the  large  grain 
and  the  small  toi:;(.'ther  until  it  does, 
letting  the  mixture  settle  well  before  it 
is  used.  Ilemove  the  trial  spots;  ])olish 
the  plate  well,  and  place  it  as  directed 
for  trial  with  the  side  intended  for  the 
foreground  next  to  the  tin  trough.  I'our 
the  mixture  along  the  top  of  the  plate, 
from  one  end  to  the  otiier,  until  the 
whole  ol'  the  surface  is  covered.  As  soon 
as  the  spirit  has  run  into  the  tin,  lay  the 
plate  flat ;  the  sooner  it  is  laid  flat  the 
rounder  will  be  the  setting  of  the  grain 
the  longer  the  plate  remains  on  the  slope 
the  more  elongated  the  de|)osit  of  resiu 
will  become,  which  for  some  sort  of  work 
will  answer  better  than  round  ;  such  as 
broken  rock,  waterfalls.  In  most  cases 
it  is  advisable  to  make  a  very  fine  etching 
I  of  the  subject  intended  to  be  }<laced  oti 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


163 


the  plate  prior  to  laying  the  aqua-tinta 
ground ;  in  the  end  it  will  save  time. 
The  etching  must  be  very  light,  other- 
wise the  aqua-tinta  ground  will  hang 
round  the  lines,  and  form  a  ray  of  light. 
Should  the  etching  be  strong,  it  will 
require  to  be  filled  up  with  wax,  and 
polished  off  before  laying  the  ground. 
Engravers  send  the  plate  to  the  printer's 
to  have  it  filled  up  with  ink,  which  is 
the  best  method.  If  obliged  to  use  wax, 
heat  the  plate  rather  above  what  is  re- 
quired for  the  etching  ground,  the  surface 
wiped  off,  and  polished  with  the  soft 
part  of  the  hand  slightly  rubbed  with 
whiting. 

Stopping-out  the  Lights. — Place  on  the 
left  side  a  small  looking-glass  in  a  leaning- 
forward  position  ;  lay  before  it  the  draw- 
ing intended  to  be  worked  from,  with 
the  base  or  foreground  towai'ds  the  bottom 
of  the  glass ;  you  will  then  see  the  sub- 
ject reversed  in  the  glass.  Go  over  the 
margin  as  directed  in  the  head  Etcliing.  For 
this  a  camel-hair  pencil  and  the  same  pot 
of  varnish,  with  a  little  more  lampblack 
added,  and  well  worked  together,  should 
be  used.  Stop  out  all  the  white  lights 
seen  in  the  drawing.  By  the  time  this 
is  done  the  varnish  on  the  margin  will 
be  dry  or  set ;  if  not,  the  plate  must 
remain  until  it  is.  Go  over  the  margin 
again  with  the  same  varnish,  and  let 
that  set  hard.  Place  your  border  wax  as 
before  directed,  making  ,the  spout  rather 
larger,  that  you  may  be  enabled  to  pour  olf 
the  acid  quickly  if  necessary.  Use  the 
same  aquafortis  as  for  etching,  but  the 
strength  somewhat  increased,  as  it  must 
remain  on  the  plate  a  much  shorter  time. 
Lay  the  plate  an  inch  or  so  over  the  front 
of  the  table,  with  a  piece  of  canvas 
underneath,  having  small  wedges  of  wood 
ready  to  be  used  should  the  acid  not  float 
evenly. 

First  Lights. — Pour  on  the  acid  rather 
quickly,  running  it  from  the  bottle  to 
the  jug,  then  on  to  the  plate  ;  another 
iug,  having  been  filled  with  cold  water, 
should  be  kept  ready  for  washing  otf. 
When  the  acid  has  entirely  covered  the 
plate,  the  surface  should  immediately 
assume  a  frosty  appearance,  but  not  come 
u^    in    bladders.      Little    more    than   a 


minute  may  be  enough  for  the  acid  to 
remain  on  the  plate;  pour  it  into  the 
jug  as  quickly  as  you  can  without  spilling 
it ;  immediately  wash  otf  with  cold  water  ; 
have  a  receiver  for  the  wash-water,  as  it 
must  be  thrown  away. 

Second  Lights. — Dry  the  surface  of  the 
plate,  and,  should  any  spots  of  moisture 
remain  on  the  surface,  carefully  take 
them  up  with  blotting  paper.  Now,  with 
the  same  varnish,  stop  out  all  the  second 
lights.  To  prevent  injury  to  the  border, 
place  two  blocks  or  old  books  under  the 
ends  of  your  rest. 

Third  Lights. — When  tlie  second  stop- 
ping-out is  set,  put  the  plate  through  the 
same  process  with  the  same  acid.  Again 
dry  the  plate,  and  stop  out  the  third 
light  j)arts ;  when  set,  apply  the  acid, 
but  let  it  remain  on  rather  longer ; 
wash  as  before  directed.  As  all  the  flat 
tints  are  now  laid,  it  only  requires  the 
very  dark  ones.  Ascertain,  with  a  mag 
nifying  glass,  if  the  spots  of  resin  remain 
on  the  plate  ;  if  so,  it  will  bear  biting 
again.  Should  the  ground  remain  sound 
enough  to  stand  another  application  of 
the  nitre,  you  must  prepare  a  mixture 
called  touching  stuff. 

Touching  Stuff.  —  Burn  a  good-sized 
cork  to  ashes  ;  take  some  treacle  and  add 
as  much  ivory  black  as  will  make  the 
mixture  a  dark  colour  by  the  addition  of 
a  small  quantity  of  sheep's  or  ox  gall  ;  it 
works  almost  as  free  as  the  varnish.  Hake 
the  composition  into  a  ball,  a  small  quan- 
tity to  be  used  with  water  when  required. 
Again  lay  the  plate  for  work.  Paint 
over  all  |iarts  that  are  required  to  be  very 
dark,  such  as  projecting  foliage,  and  all 
sharp  shadows,  with  the  touching  stuff, 
loading  all  the  touches  with  as  much  of 
the  mixture  as  can  be  placed  on  them. 
When  the  touching  stuff  is  dry,  mix  some 
turpentine  varnish,  slightly  coloured  with 
lampblack,  and  with  a  larger  brush  go 
over  the  whole  of  the  plate.  When  this 
last  varnish  is  set,  pour  on  some  very 
weak  acid  and  water  ;  the  former  wash- 
ings of  the  plate  will  do.  With  the 
soft  camel-hair  pencil  used  for  the  acid, 
work  up  the  touching  stuff  until  the 
whole  comes  oflF;  then  wash  the  plate 
clean  with  cold  water,  and  again  applj 

M  2 


164 


Workshop  heceipTs. 


ihe  acid.  Foi  this  last  biting  the  acid 
may  remaia  on  the  plate  as  Ions;  as  the 
ground  v^ill  stand.  This  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  clearing  the  plate  with  the 
camel-hair  pencil,  and  using  the  magni- 
fying glass.  The  plate  must  now  be 
cleaned,  and  remove  the  border  wax  as 
before  described.  On  this  tint  the  oil- 
rubber  should  be  very  carefully  used. 
The  jdate  being  quite  clean,  and  placed 
under  the  shade,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  tints  or  bitings  are  rather  sharper 
against  each  other  than  is  required.  The 
burnisher  will  remove  this  by  rubbing 
the  parts  which  are  to  be  reduced  in 
colour.  The  parts  to  be  burnished  should 
be  slightly  touched  with  the  oil-rubber. 
The  use  of  the  burnisher  requires  some 
skill,  which  can  only  be  acquired  by 
practice.  The  scraper  is  useful  for  bring- 
ing nut  sharp  lights,  and  modulating  the 
darker  parts.  If  the  first  ground  is  not 
satisfactory,  the  plate  must  be  jiolished, 
and  another  ground  laid.  The  second 
ground  must  contain  more  resin  than  the 
iirst;  bordering,  biting,  and  stopping-out 
as  before.  The  plate  should  be  sent  for 
proof  before  the  second  ground  is  laid. 
Tiie  proof  will  show  where  increase  and 
where  reduction  of  colour  is  required. 
The  burnisher  will  reduce  ;  the  increase 
can  only  be  had  by  laying  another  ground. 

Ground  to  Etch  on, — Mix  a  small  quan- 
tity of  turpentine  varnish  with  turpen- 
tine slightly  coloured  with  black,  but 
only  .sullici<>ntly  so  as  to  render  the  lines 
ni:i(le  by  the  needle  i>erceptible.  With 
this  thin  varnish,  and  a  good-sized  camel- 
hair  bru^h,  go  over  the  plate  lengthways; 
when  that  is  set,  rejicat  the  coating  cross- 
ways;  let  it  set,  and  lay  it  by  for  a  night 
ifconvenient.  The  etching  tinisheil,  border 
and  bite  as  before  directed,  but  with 
Btrongor  acid. 

AguA-TLST  Enofiavino. —  Gknkrai, 
I.vsruucnoNS.  —  Great  care  must  be 
taken  while  laying  the  ground  that  there 
is  not  much  dust  floating  in  the  nir; 
for,  should  the  slightest  particle  of 
flork  lodge  on  the  plate  whilst  wet,  it 
will  ciuse  what  is  called  an  accident. 
Wherever  the  sjicck  fills  the  nvMn  will 
corrode  around  it,  forming  n  white  spot 
on  the  ground  whcrt  the  acid  has  l>ecD 


applied.  These  accidents  are  of  littie 
consequence,  unless  they  should  happen 
on  the  sky.  To  do  away  with  these 
light  places,  the  chalk  tool,  or  dotter, 
must  be  used ;  this  is  simply  a  bent 
graver.  From  pouringthe  ground  mixture 
backwards  and  forwards,  it  is  likely  to 
become  foul ;  it  should  then  be  passed 
through  a  double  piece  of  clean  muslin, 
and  put  away  in  a  bottle  to  settle.  The 
burnisher  acts  as  principal  in  forming  a 
good  sky  and  background.  As  the  action 
of  the  acid  will  leave  all  the  tints  with 
a  sharp  edge,  they  must  be  softened  down 
with  the  burnisher.  Every  fresh  aqua- 
tiuta  ground  laid  should  be  increased  in 
the  size  of  the  grain,  or  the  ground  will 
become  murky.  To  enrich  and  darken 
the  foreground  and  foliage,  etching  over 
the  parts  with  the  etching  ground  above 
described  is  much  the  easiest  method. 

Ecsin-<jrou)id  Engraving. — This  is  well 
adapted  to  ornamental  work,  as  great 
depth  of  colour  can  be  obtained.  The 
process  is  extremely  simple.  The  best 
white  resin  should  be  reduced  to  powder 
by  pestle  and  mortar,  then  placed  in  fine 
doubled  fiannel,  and  tied  up  in  a  bpj. 
The  plate  must  be  heated  as  in  laying 
etching  ground,  and  the  resin  then  i)iw- 
dered  on  tlie  surf  ice ;  lay  the  ]date  on  a 
table,  so  as  to  leave  both  hands  free. 
Take  the  bag  of  resin  in  the  right  hand, 
and  strike  it  against  the  left,  the  bag 
must  be  heUl  some  distance  from  the 
[date,  which  will  force  the  powdered 
resin  to  escape  from  the  flannel  bag,  and, 
filling  on  the  hot  plate,  will  there  fix 
itself  in  small  spots,  something  similar  to 
the  aqua-tint  deposit,  but  much  more 
enduring.  This  ])roduces  very  imperfect 
results  and  causes  dry  ground  engravings 
to  bo  looked  on  with  disfavour.  The 
sfopping-out  jirocess  is  the  .same  .is  in 
the  a(iua-tint.  Wy  ri'iioating  the  process 
with  the  flannel  bag,  a  [lositive  black 
ground  may  be  procured,  as  d.ii'k  aii.l 
more  enduring  than  a  mezzo-tinto  ground, 
and  it  may  be  scra]>ed  on  much  in  the 
same  way. 

Hamkiiton's  Drcsii  Puoci-ss. —  Tins 
])roce.ss  consists  in  the  employment  of  a 
pigment  which  is  strongly  attacked  by 
acid.     Clean  the  plate  thoroughly  with 


WOllKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


1G5 


whiting  and  turpentine.  Remove  the 
whiting  by  rubbing  the  plate  with  bread  ; 
after  removing  which  do  not  allow  the 
hands  to  touch  the  plate.  Crush  a  soft 
pastel  into  fine  powder ;  mix  with  a 
strong  solution  of  white  sugar.  Add  a 
solution  of  OS-gall,  about  equal  in  quan- 
tity to  half  the  sugar  solution.  The 
pigment  must  be  so  mixed  as  to  worlj 
rather  freely,  and  draw  a  thin  line  with 
ease  and  precision.  With  a  small,  fine- 
pointed  sable-hair  brush,  make  the  draw- 
ing on  the  plate,  depending  mainly  upon 
lines,  as  with  a  pen;  when  this  is  com- 
pleted, be  careful  not  to  let  anything 
touch  the  plate,  as  the  pigment  dries 
slowly.  Dissolve  some  ordinary  etching 
ground  in  ether  ;  hold  the  plate  with  a 
pneumatic  holder,  and  pour  the  solution 
npon  the  plate  till  it  makes  a  pool 
reaching  the  sides  of  the  plate  ;  move  the 
plate  gently  from  side  to  side,  then  pour 
the  superfluous  solution  back  into  the 
bottle.  Heat  the  plate  gently  over  a 
spirit  lamp,  holding  it  about  12  inches 
above  the  flame,  and  taking  care  to 
evaporate  the  ether  gradually,  and  not 
to  allow  it  to  catch  fire.  The  ground  will 
become  transpai-ent.  Place  the  plate  in 
a  bath  consisting  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
100  grammes ;  chlorate  of  potash,  20 
grammes ;  water,  8S0  grammes.  The 
hydrochloric  acid  used  should  not  be  of  a 
deep  yellow  colour;  should  not  give  off 
fumes,  and,  when  mixed  with  water, 
should  have  but  a  slight  odour.  Leave 
the  plate  in  this  bath  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  then  brush  the  surface  of  the  plate 
■very  gently  with  a  feather.  This  will 
remove  the  pigment  and  the  ether  varnish 
over  it,  leaving  the  lines  exposed  to  the 
acid.  The  copper  between  them  will  be 
perfectly  protected.  Leave  the  plate  in  the 
bath  uutil  bitteu-iu  to  the  required  depth, 
stopping-out  when  necessary.  The  finer 
portions  of  the  work  may  either  be 
Hnished  with  the  dry  point,  or  in  point 
etching ;  in  the  latter  case  using  a  trans- 
parent ground.  If  any  erasing  is  neces- 
sary, it  must  be  done  with  a  scraper.  If 
the  pigment  does  not  take  on  the  plate, 
ibe  copper  may  be  slightly  roughened  by 
a  snort  immersion  in  a  weak  nitric  bath. 
Let  the  ether  ground  remain  a  night  on 


the  copper  before  heating  it,  which  must 
be  very  carefully  done. 

Hamektox's  Negative  Process. — 
This  process  avoids  stopping-out  alto- 
gether, and  the  progress  of  the  work  may 
be  judged  of  with  tolerable  certainty. 
The  ground  is  a  solution  of  beeswax  in 
turpentine.  Decant  the  solution  till  no 
sediment  remains  ;  it  should  be  perfectly 
fluid,  and  of  a  bright  yellow  colour. 
Add  about  one-sixth  of  its  volume  of 
japan  varnish  ;  this  quantity  will  vary 
slightly  according  to  the  heat  of  the 
weather.  If  there  is  too  much  japan, 
the  ground  will  be  hard  and  brittle;  if 
there  is  too  little,  it  will  not  be  strong 
enough  to  take  smoke  with  safety.  Clean 
the  plate  with  engravers'  emery  paper, 
and  place  it  in  a  bath  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
100  grammes;  chlorate  of  potash,  20 
grammes;  water,  8S0  grammes.  When 
the  plate  darkens  all  over,  it  is  a  sign 
that  there  is  no  grease  on  it,  and  it  is 
then  ready  to  receive  the  ground.  Pour 
on  the  ground  as  photographers  pour 
collodion,  and  let  it  dry  for  12  hours ; 
apply  a  second  coat  of  ground  in  the  same 
manner,  and  smoke  the  plate  immediately 
without  waiting  for  it  to  dry.  The  ground 
should  then  be  even  and  smooth,  and 
ought  to  be  used  a  few  days  after  it  is 
laid,  as  it  hardens  in  time.  If  in  haste 
to  use  the  plate,  the  first  coat  of  ground 
may  be  dried  over  a  spirit  lamp  until  it 
becomes  transparent;  cool  the  plate,  and 
proceed  as  before  described.  The  use  of 
the  two  coats  of  ground  is  to  prevent 
the  smoke  penetrating  to  the  plate,  and 
causing  the  ground  to  become  detached 
in  the  acid  bath.  Should  the  ground  be 
too  hard,  increase  the  proportion  of  the 
wax  solution.  Draw  all  the  dark  p<irts 
first  ;  jilunge  the  plate  into  a  bath  of 
nitric  acid  for  half  the  time  necessary 
to  complete  the  biting.  In  temperate 
weather  this  would  be  half  an  noui  ; 
the  first  biting  would,  therefore,  take 
about  15  minutes.  Kemove  the  plate, 
dry  on  blotting  paper,  draw  the  next 
darkest  lines  where  required,  and  replace 
the  plate  in  the  bath  for  a  quarter  of  the 
total  time.  This  process  is  repeated,  and 
the  plate,  with  the  paler  work,  is  re- 
placed in  the  bath  for  cue-eighth  of  th« 


J  66 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


total  time.  The  palest  work  of  all  is 
last  drawn,  and  the  plate  is  plunged  into 
the  bath  for  an  eighth  of  the  total  time. 
Thus  the  plate  will  have  had  the  darkest 
lines  in  acid  the  whole  time  required,  the 
darker  lines  half  the  time,  the  pale  lines 
a  quarter,  and  the  palest  lines  one-eighth 
of  the  times,  as  each  biting-in  has  tiie 
advan'^ige  of  those  which  preceded  it. 
Finish  with  the  dry  point  where  required. 
Hamerton's  Positive  Process. — By 
this  process  the  work  is  distinctly  seen 
during  operation ;  black  on  a  white  or 
silvered  ground,  without  any  deceptive 
glitter,  and  exactly  as  it  is  to  be  st-en  in 
the  print.  Clean  the  copper  plate,  and 
rub  it  with  a  clean  rag  and  a  little  of 
Levi's  crime  d'argent,  cyanide  of  silver. 
Remove  the  superfluous  cream  with  a 
clean  rag,  and  the  j)late  will  be  properly 
silvered.  If  the  cream  is  too  thick,  add 
a  little  spirits  of  wine.  If  it  is  wished 
to  make  the  silver  of  a  dead  white, 
slightly  roughen  the  surface  of  the  copper 
before  silvering  with  fine  emery  paper, 
rubbed  from  right  to  left,  or  from  left  to 
right,  of  the  way  it  is  intended  to  work 
the  plate.  Use  a  white  ground,  made  by 
dissolving  white  wax  in  ether — a  satu- 
rated solution.  Let  it  settle  a  few  days  ; 
the  clear  part  only  is  required,  the  milky 
portion  at  the  bottom,  being  undissolved 
particles,  are  probably  insoluble  and  use- 
less. To  apply  this  ground,  hold  the  plate 
underneath  with  a  jmeumatic  holder;  ])our 
the  solution  on  the  silvered  side;  move 
the  plate  gently  but  (irmly  from  side  to 
side,  so  that  the  solution  may  run  to  and 
fro  ;  then  jiour  all  the  sujierHuous  ground 
back  into  the  bottle.  In  finishing,  move 
the  jilate  more  rapidly.  Let  the  ground 
dry  for  3  days.  A]>]ply  a  second  coat 
ID  the  same  manner,  and  let  it  dry  for 
4  diiys  in  a  quiet  room,  where  it  will 
not  catch  any  dust.  If  the  jdate  is  dried 
by  the  heat  of  a  spirit  lamp,  the  ground 
will  be  transjiarent,  liut  not  of  the  dead 
white  colour  which  is  desirable.  Paint 
the  back  and  edges  of  the  jdate  with 
iup-in  varnish  to  protect  them  in  the 
bath,  which  must  be  composed  as  fol- 
lows ; — Chlorate  of  potash,  'JO  grammns  ; 
pure  hydrochloric  acid,  100  grammes; 
water,  880  gramme*  •,  or  the  same  pro- 


portions in  English  weights.  Warm  the 
water,  dissolve  the  chlorate  of  ])0tash  in 
it,  then  add  the  acid.  Sketch  the  subject 
with  some  pale  but  decided  water  colour, 
red  or  yellow  for  example,  using  the 
point  of  a  small  camel-hair  brush.  This 
will  remain  visible  whilst  the  plate  is 
being  etched,  which  must  be  done  whilst 
it  is  in  the  bath ;  the  acid  will,  ot 
course,  attack  the  needle,  but  this  action 
keeps  the  needles  sharp,  and  they  are  not 
costly  tools.  The  bath  should  be  formed 
in  an  oblong  square  piece  of  light  wood, 
about  Ih  inch  thick,  and  larger  than 
the  well,  which  must  be  a  square  hole, 
a  little  larger  than  the  plate,  and 
about  an  inch  deep.  Cover  the  board 
and  well  with  about  si.t  coats  of  japan, 
which  protects  the  wood  from  the  action 
of  the  acid,  and  the  dark  colour  makes 
the  jilate  look  whiter  from  the  contrast, 
A  thin  ]iiece  of  wood,  stained  black,  must 
be  used  as  a  hand-rest.  Before  using  a 
new  bath  or  well  dissolve  a  small  piece 
each  of  copper  and  of  zinc  in  it  with 
acid.  Lay  the  plate  in  the  desired  posi- 
tion, and  fix  it  by  pressing  small  pieces 
of  modelling  wax  at  the  corners  against 
the  ]ilate  and  the  board.  Etch  with  an 
ordinary  strong  sewing  needle  ii>serted 
in  a  holder.  It  must  be  sharp  enough  to 
scratch  well  through  the  silver,  otherwise 
the  line  will  not  blacken  at  once.  The 
wax  ground  permits  the  lines  to  enlarge 
slowly  ;  thus  there  is  a  constant  grada- 
tion in  thickness  from  the  first  to  the 
last  lines ;  as  the  time  of  exposure 
diminishes,  this  projierty  must  be  care- 
fully attended  to.  Thus,  if  the  subject 
requires  only  about  2  hours'  work  in 
etching,  this  must  be  spread  over  5 
hours' exposure  in  the  bath,  which  is  the 
time  necessary  to  produce  the  darkest 
liiips;  other  work  can  be  carried  on 
simultaneously,  but  this  process  cannot 
be  hurried.  If,  however,  the  subject  is 
elaborate,  and  rocjuires  more  etching 
than  can  be  finished  in  5  hours,  select 
for  the  first  sitting  various  parts  over 
the  whole  plate;  cltan  and  re-ground  the 
])late;  at  the  second  sitting  add  work  to 
that  previously  done,  and  so  on  until  the 
j'late  is  finished,  so  arranging  the  times 
.IS  to  work  always  at  the  same  jteriod  of 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS, 


167 


the  operation  on  ^nes  intended  to  be  of 
the  same  depth.  This  process  is  acquired 
with  a  little  practice.  If  necessary  to 
efface,  it  may  be  done  in  the  usual 
manner  with  scraper  and  charcoal  ; 
always  re-silver  before  retouching,  if 
retouching  is  required.  For  cleaning 
the  plates  turpentine  is  usually  em- 
ployed, but  schist-oil  or  petroleum  are 
better  cleansers,  and  remove  the  japan 
varnish  very  rapidly,  whereas  turpentine 
dissolves  it  slowly. 

Etching  from  Nature. — Etching  is 
the  only  kind  of  engraving  which  can 
conveniently  be  done  directly  from  nature. 
The  choice  of  subjects  is  the  most  im- 
portant point,  as,  although  etching  is 
admirably  adapted  for  trees  and  vegeta- 
tion in  all  its  forms,  and  for  picturesque 
buildings  and  animals,  it  is  not  so  well 
suited  for  the  representation  of  figures, 
or  for  other  subjects,  which  require  deli- 
cate gradations  of  tones.  For  anything 
that  can  be  expressed  by  lines,  etching  is 
very  successful,  but  it  is  not  easy  of 
application  to  tones.  In  working  from 
nature,  the  shading,  in  addition  to  giving 
the  light  and  dark  tints,  should  also  be 
used  to  indicate  the  form  and  texture  of 
the  surfiice,  the  lines  being  drawn  in  a 
direction  to  indicate  form  as  well  as 
tint.  Several  plates,  ready  grounded, 
may  be  carried  in  a  small  grooved  box 
to  keep  them  apart ;  if  only  one  plate 
is  intended  to  be  used,  it  can  be  carried 
between  two  light  boards,  but  must  not 
be  allowed  to  touch  them.  This  can  be 
avoided  by  fixing  small  pieces  of  model- 
ling wax  at  the  corners  of  the  plate.  If 
intended  to  be  etched  on  Hamerton's 
positive  process,  the  drawing  board,  with 
the  well  in  it,  must  be  taken,  and  the  ne- 
cessary hydrochloric  acid  and  chlorate  of 
potash  in  two  stoppered  bottles.  These 
can  be  mixed  with  water  when  required. 
Dry  point  is  frequently  used  in  the 
finishing  of  etched  plates.  The  dry  point 
is  an  ordinary  steel  etching  needle,  sharp- 
ened in  a  peculiar  manner  with  a  sharp 
rounded  cutting  edge,  and  used  without 
either  etching  ground  or  acid  bath.  By 
using  this  tool  on  the  bare  copper,  a  burr 
is  raised,  which  catches  the  ink,  and  in 
prin'iag  gives  the  desired  effect  of  a  line 


with  a  delicate  gradation.  The  more  per- 
pendicular the  needle  is  held  the  leso  burr 
there  will  be  raised  ;  by  inclining  the 
hand  to  the  right  the  burr  will  be  in- 
creased, if  the  pressure  on  the  tool  re- 
mains the  same.  Practice  enables  an 
etcher  to  regulate  the  pressure  on  the 
tool ;  but  if  the  pressure  used  has  raised 
too  strong  a  burr,  it  can  be  partially  or 
entirely  removed  by  using  a  sharp  scraper 
worked  at  right  angles  to  the  line,  if  it 
is  desired  to  see  the  progress  of  the  work 
rub  a  mixture  of  tallow  and  lampblack 
over  the  plate ;  remove  what  is  super- 
fluous with  a  soft  rag ;  the  effect  of  the 
etching  can  then  be  fairly  judged  of.  Dry 
point  etching  can  now  be  made  to  give  a 
large  number  of  impressions,  by  having 
the  plate  protected  with  a  coating  of 
steel  applied  by  galvanism.  To  efface 
faulty  work  use  sand-papers  of  several 
degrees  of  coarseness  ;  the  coarsest  first, 
then  the  scraper ;  finally,  rub  over  with 
willow  charcoal  and  olive  oil.  This  leaves 
the  plate  fit  to  be  etched  upon  ;  if,  how- 
ever, it  should  be  hollowed  out  by  this 
process,  mark  the  spot  on  the  back  of  the 
plate  by  means  of  callipers.  Lay  the  face 
of  the  plate  on  a  block  of  polished  steel, 
and  give  it  two  or  three  blows  on  the 
back  with  a  rounded  hammer.  The  en- 
gravers' copper  planers  will  do  this  work 
with  more  precision  and  skill  than  can 
easily  be  acquired  by  ordinary  etchers. 
A  passage  that  has  been  over-bitten  may 
be  easily  reduced  by  being  rubbed  with 
willow  charcoal  and  olive  oil,  which 
merely  reduces  the  copper  without  in- 
juring the  lines,  except  the  very  pale 
one ;  these  must  be  etched  over  again. 
It  is  better  to  have  the  plate  over-bitten 
than  not  enough,  as  the  former  is  more 
easily  remedied  than  the  latter. 

Stippling  is  also  executed  on  the  etch- 
ing ground  by  dots  instead  of  lines  made 
with  the  etching  needle,  which,  according 
to  the  intensity  of  the  shadow  to  be  re- 
presented, are  made  thicker  and  closer 
The  work  is  then  bit-in. 

Etching  on  Steel  is  executed  much  in 
the  same  way  as  in  the  process  on  copper. 
The  plate  is  bedded  on  common  glaziers' 
putty,  anii  a  ground  of  Brunswick  black, 
or  wax,  i«  'aid  in  the  usual  way,  through 


1G8 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


which  the  needle  scratches.     It  is  then 
bitten-in  in  the  way  above  described. 

Etching  on  Cast  Iron. — Use  a  solution 
of  common  salt  and  sulphate  of  copper  for 
the  biting-in. 

Etching  on  Steel  or  Iron. — Take  sul- 
phate of  copper,  sulphate  of  alum,  and 
muriate  of  soda,  of  each  2  drachms,  and 
sti'ong  acetic  acid  IJ  oz.,  mixed  together. 
First  smear  the  part  intended  to  be 
etched  with  yellow  soap,  and  write  with 
a  quill  pen  without  a  split. 

Etching  Glass. — Glass  is  etched  by 
hydroHuoric  acid  gas,  or  by  liquid  hydro- 
fluoric acid.  The  acid  for  this  purpose 
IS  obtained  by  treatmg  fluoride  of  calcium, 
Derbyshire  spar,  with  sulphuric  acid,  in 
a  leaden  vessel,  as  we  shall  presently 
describe.  The  gaseous  hydrofluoric  acid 
has  the  property  of  producing  a  surface 
which  represents  ground  glass  in  its  ap- 
pearance; but  the  liquid  acid  produces 
just  the  contrary  efl'ect,  and  dissolves 
away  the  glass,  leaving  the  surface 
polished  and  clear  Etching  glass,  there- 
fore, consists  of  two  operations  ; — etch- 
ing by  the  gas,  and  producing  a  dull 
opaque  surface,  and  etching  by  the  liquid, 
and  producing  a  surface  which  is  bright 
and  clear.  1.  Gaseous  hydrofluoric  acid  is 
the  product  of  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  fluoride  of  calcium.  Take 
powdered  fluoride  of  calcium,  2  parts ; 
sulphuric  acid,  3  parts.  The  powdered 
fluoride  is  placed  in  a  leaden  dish  or 
shallow  box,  the  sulphuric  acid  poured 
upon  it.  By  means  of  a  stick,  the  acid 
IS  made  into  a  paste  with  the  powdered 
fluoride ;  the  mixture  only  requires  to 
be  warmed  to  evolve  considerable  fumes 
of  gaseous  hydrofluoric  acid.  These  fumes 
are  disagreeable  ;  the  exiierimcnt  should, 
therefore,  be  conducted  in  the  open  air  or 
under  a  chimney.  The  glass  plate  to  be 
etched  is  covered  with  wax,  by  gently 
warming  the  glass  sulficieut  to  mtdt  wax, 
and  rubbing  it  with  a  piece  of  white 
wax  until  it  is  covore<l  by  a  thin  layer; 
it  is  tlicn  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  waxi-d  ; 
surface  is  etched  with  a  graver.  The 
sheet  of  glass  thus  prejiarcd  is  used  .as  a 
cover  for  the  leaden  vessel  containing  the  ! 
materials,  with  the  waxed  side  jiresented 
to  the  escaping  fumes.    These  fumes  will  | 


attack  the  glass  where  the  wax  h:>s  beea 
removed  only,  and  produce  the  dull  ap- 
pearance desired.  The  entire  surface  ol 
the  glass  can  be  rendered  ground  in 
its  apjiearance  by  exposing  it  to  the 
fumes  of  tlie  acid  gas  in  its  ordinary  con- 
dition, unprotected  by  the  wax.  The 
production  of  the  gas  is  accelerated  by 
the  warmth  of  a  hob  or  of  a  s]>irit  lamp 
applied  to  the  bottom  of  the  leaden  vessel 
for  a  few  moments.  2.  To  obtain  the 
liquid  acid,  place  the  mixture  named 
above  in  a  leaden  retort,  and  conduct  the 
gas  from  the  retort  into  a  leaden  bottle 
containing  some  water,  so  long  as  tiie 
water  absorbs  the  fumes.  The  water 
becomes  thus  highly  charged  with  hydro- 
fluoric acid,  and  this  liquid  is  to  be  used 
in  the  second  process.  The  glass  plates 
are  to  be  prepared  as  before,  with  tlie 
addition  of  a  small  wall  of  wax  or  putty, 
which  is  to  be  formed  round  its  edges  ; 
the  liquid  acid  is  poured  upon  the  etched 
waxed  surface,  and  allowed  to  remain 
until  a  sufficient  depth  of  etching  is 
produced.  3.  To  produce  a  colourless 
pattern  on  a  coloured  glass  ground,  you 
proceed  as  for  etching  an  ordinary  pane 
of  glass,  but  the  ojieration  is  conducted 
upon  the  surface  of  flashed  glass  ;  that 
is,  glass  which  is  simply  covered  on  one 
of  its  sides  with  a  colour,  and  which 
is  not  stained  throughout.  Tliis  flashed 
glass  is  a  cheap  imitation  of  stained  glass  ; 
the  thin  coating  of  coloured  material  is 
soon  dissolved  by  the  acid,  so  as  to  leave 
a  trausjiarcut  or  ground-glass  pattern  on 
a  coloured  glass  ground,  according  as  the 
process  is  con<iucted  by  means  of  gaseous 
or  liquid  hydrofluoric  acid.  The  acid 
must  be  carefully  handled,  as  it  attacks 
the  skin  and  firoduces  stubborn  sores, 
which  are  not  easily  healed,  and  it  must 
be  kejit  in  india-rubber  bottles,  as  it  will 
dissolve  glass. 

Engraving  on  Copper  is  per- 
formed by  cutting  linos  representing  the 
suiiject  on  a  copjier  jdate  by  means  of  a 
steel  instnimont,  called  a  graver,  or  bur- 
in, ending  in  an  unoqual-sided  pyramidal 
jioiiit.  llesides  the  graver,  the  other 
instruments  used  in  the  process  arc  a 
scraper,  a  burnisher,  at  oil-stone,  ancl  a 
cushion    for  supportiuj;   the   ^lat&      Jo 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


169 


cutting  the  lines  on  tlie  copper,  the 
graver  is  pushed  forward  iu  the  direction 
required,  being  held  at  a  small  inclination 
to  the  plane  of  the  copper.  The  use  of 
the  burnisher  is  to  soften  down  tlie  lines 
that  are  cut  too  deeply,  and  for  burnish- 
ing out  scratches  in  the  copper ;  it  is 
about  3  inches  long.  Tlie  scraper,  like 
the  burnisher,  is  of  steel,  with  three 
sharp  edges  to  it ;  it  is  about  6  inclies 
long,  tapering  towards  the  end.  Its  use 
is  to  scrape  off  the  burr  raised  by  the 
action  of  the  graver.  To  show  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  work  during  its  progress, 
and  to  polish  off  the  burr,  engravers  use 
a  roll  of  woollen,  or  felt,  called  a  rubber, 
which  is  used  with  a  little  olive-oil. 
The  cushion,  which  is  a  leather  bag  alxsut 
9  inches  diameter  filled  with  sand,  for 
laying  the  plate  upon,  is  now  rarely 
used  except  by  writing  engravers.  For 
architectural  subjects,  or  for  skies,  where 
a  series  of  parallel  lines  are  wanted,  a 
ruling  machine  is  used,  which  is  ex- 
ceedingly accurate.  This  is  made  to 
act  on  an  etching  ground  by  a  point 
or  knife  connected  with  the  apparatus, 
and  bit-in  with  aquafortis  in  the  ordinary 
way. 

Copper  Plate. — The  plate  must  be 
perfectly  polished,  very  level,  and  free 
from  any  imperfection ;  to  this  must  be 
transferred  an  exact  copy  of  the  outlines 
of  the  drawing.  To  do  this  the  plate  is 
uniformly  heated  in  an  oven  or  otherwise 
till  it  is  sulliciently  hot  to  melt  white 
wax,  a  piece  of  which  is  then  rubbed  over 
it  and  allowed  to  spread,  so  as  to  form  a 
thin  coat  over  the  whole  surface,  after 
which  it  is  left  in  a  horizontal  position 
till  the  wax  and  plate  are  cold.  A  tracing 
having  been  taken  of  the  original  design 
with  a  black-lead  pencil  on  a  piece  of 
thin  tracing  paper,  it  is  spread  over  the 
face  of  the  prepared  plate,  with  the  lead 
lines  downwards,  and,  being  secured  from 
slipping,  a  strong  pressure  is  applied,  by 
which  ojieration  the  lead  lines  are  nearly 
removed  from  the  paper,  being  transferred 
to  the  white  wax  on  the  plate.  The 
pencil  marks  on  the  wax  are  now  traced 
with  a  fine  steel  point,  so  as  just  to  touch 
the  copper;  the  wax  is  then  melted  off, 
and  a  perfect  outlioe  will  be  found  on 


the  copper,  on  which  the  engraver  pro- 
ceeds to  execute  his  work. 
Engraving  on  Silver  or  Gold. 

— 1.  The  engraving  is  first  exposed  to 
the  vapour  of  iodine,  which  deposits  upon 
the  black  parts  only.  The  iodized  en- 
graving is  then  applied,  with  slight  j)res- 
sure,  to  a  plate  of  silver,  or  silvered 
copper,  polished  in  the  same  manner  a^ 
daguerreotype  plates.  The  black  parts 
of  the  engraving  which  have  taken  up 
the  iodine  part  with  it  to  the  silver, 
which  is  converted  into  an  iodide  at  those 
parts  opposite  to  the  black  parts  of  the 
design.  The  plate  is  then  put  in  com- 
munication with  the  negative  pole  of  a 
small  battery,  and  immersed  in  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  con- 
nected with  the  positive  pole  by  means 
of  a  rod  of  platinum.  Copper  will  be 
deposited  on  the  non-iodized  parts,  cor- 
responding to  the  white  parts  of  the 
engraving,  of  which  a  perfect  representa- 
tion will  thus  be  obtained  ;  the  copper 
representing  the  white  parts,  and  the 
iodized  silver  the  black  parts.  The  ]date 
must  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  bath 
for  only  a  very  short  time,  for,  if  left 
too  long,  the  whole  plate  would  become 
covered  with  copper.  The  plate,  after 
having  received  the  deposit  of  copper, 
must  be  carefully  washed,  and  afterwards 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  hyposuljihite 
of  soda  to  dissolve  the  iodide  of  silver, 
which  represents  the  black  parts  ;  it  is 
tlien  well  washed  in  distilled  water,  and 
dried.  2.  Heat  a  silver  plate,  previously 
coated  with  coppei",  to  a  temperature 
sudicient  to  oxidize  the  surface  on  the 
copper,  which  successively  assumes  dif- 
ferent tints,  the  heating  being  stopped 
when  a  dark-brown  colour  is  obtained. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  the 
exposed  silver  is  amalgamated — the  plate 
being  slightly  heated,  to  facilitate  the 
operation.  As  the  mercury  will  not  com- 
bine with  the  oxide  of  copper,  a  design 
is  produced,  of  -which  the  amalgamated 
parts  represent  the  black,  and  the  parts 
of  the  plate  covered  with  oxide  of  copper 
represent  the  white  parts.  The  amalga- 
mation being  complete,  the  plate  is  to  be 
covered  with  three  or  four  thicknesses  of 
gold  leaf,  and  the  mercury  is  evaporatej 


170 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


Dy  h!at,  the  gold  only  adhering  to  the 
black  parts.  The  superfluous  gold  must 
then  be  cleared  off  with  the  scratch- 
brush  ;  after  which  the  oxide  of  copper 
IS  dissolved  by  a  ."iolution  of  nitrate  of 
silver;  and  the  silver  and  copper  under- 
neath are  attacked  with  dilute  nitric  acid, 
ihose  parts  of  the  design  which  are  pro- 
tected by  the  gold,  not  being  attacked, 
correspond  to  the  black  parts  of  the 
plate  ;  the  other  parts,  corresponding  to 
the  white  parts  of  the  engraving,  may  be 
sunk  to  any  required  depth.  When  this 
operation  is  completed  the  plate  is  finished, 
and  may  be  jirinted  from  in  the  ordinary 
method  of  jjriuting  from  woodcuts. 

Line  Engraving  on  Gold. — 
To  obtain  from  the  same  prints  plates 
with  sunk  lines,  similar  to  the  ordinary 
engraved  co])per-]>lates,  a  plate  of  copper, 
covered  with  gold,  is  operated  ujjon.  On 
immersion  in  the  sulphate  of  copper  solu- 
tion, the  parts  corresponding  to  the  white 
parts  of  the  engraving  will  become  cohered 
with  copper.  The  iodine,  or  compound 
of  iodine,  formed,  is  then  to  be  removed 
by  the  hyposulphite;  the  layer  of  de- 
posited copper  is  oxidized,  and  the  gold 
amalgamated,  which  may  be  removed  by 
means  of  nitric  acid,  the  oxide  of  copper 
being  dissolved  at  the  same  time.  In 
this  instance  the  original  surface  of  the 
plate  corresponds  to  the  wliite  parts  of 
the  print,  and  the  sunk,  or  engraved,  por- 
tions to  the  black  parts,  as  in  ordinary 
co])iior-plate  engravings. 

Electro-metallurgy.  —  The  first 
and  most  ini]portaut  ojiiTation  in  all 
branches  of  the  eioctro-dejiosition  of  one 
metal  ii[>on  another,  is  to  efl'ect  a  thorough 
and  chemical  cleansing  of  the  surface  of 
the  metal  upon  which  the  coating  is  to 
be  deposited. 

ClKANSINQ    COPl'KR  AND    ITS  AUX)Y.S. 

— This  is  done  in  six  oi)erations.  1. 
Cleansing  by  firi>,  or  by  alkalies.  2. 
Dijiping.       3.   iJipjiing  in  old  aquafortis. 

4.  dipping  in   new  aquafortis  and  soot. 

5.  l>iiipiug  in  comjiound  acids  for  a 
bright  or  dead  lustre.  6.  Dipping  in 
citrate  of  binoxide  of  mercury. 

Cleansing  by  /'ire,  or  by  Alkalies. — 
This  is  to  remove  any  foreign  substances, 
Mpecially  those  of  a  fatty  nature,  which 


are  destroyed  by  heating  the  jieces  in 
every  direction  over  a  gentle  fire  of  char- 
coal, breeze,  or  spent  tan.  A  muflle  fur- 
nace, heated  up  to  a  dull  red  heat,  is 
preferred ;  but  small  articles  may  be 
cleansed  in  a  hot  revolving  cylinder.  This 
operation  is  not  adapted  to  very  delicate 
articles,  or  for  table-forks  and  spoons, 
which  must  keep  their  toughness,  or  to 
those  pieces  m  which  the  different  parts 
are  united  by  soft  solders.  Boil  such 
articles  in  a  solution  of  potash  or  sod.i, 
which  renders  the  fiitty  substances  so- 
luble in  water.  This  is  done  in  a  cast-iron 
kettle,  provided  with  a  cover,  where 
there  is  a  boiling  concentrated  solution 
of  carbonate  of  potash,  or  soda,  or  of 
American  potash.  The  caustic  potash  or 
soda  must  be  dissolved  in  ten  times  its 
weight  of  water.  This  solution  lasts  a 
long  time  ;  when  it  has  lost  part  of  its 
power,  it  may  be  revived  by  a  few  frag- 
ments of  caustic  alkali.  At  the  boiling 
point  it  will  cleanse  copper  in  a  few 
seconds.  If  the  articles  to  be  scoured 
are  joined  with  tin  solder,  they  must  not 
be  allowed  to  remain  too  long  in  the 
caustic  liquor,  which  would  dissolve  the 
solder  and  blacken  the  copper. 

Dipping. — The  pieces  are  then  dijiped 
in  a  mixture  of  from  5  to  20  parts  in 
weight  of  sulphuric  acid  at  6G°  Baume 
for  100  ]>arts  of  water,  ftlost  of  the 
pieces  to  be  cleansed  may  be  dipped  hoi 
in  this  mixture;  but  certain  alloys,  in 
which  tin,  zinc,  or  antimony  i)redominate, 
such  as  cast  bronze,  must  not  be  so  treated, 
asthesu<lden  cooling  will  occasion  cracks 
and  flaws.  Co])per  articles  may  remain 
any  length  of  time  in  the  dipping  bath  ; 
they  should  not  be  removed  before  the 
black  coat  of  binoxide  of  co])per,  causej 
by  the  heating,  is  entirely  ilissol  ved.  The 
remaining  coat  of  red  protoxide  of  coppei 
is  unacted  upon  by  the  sulphuric  acid, 
Articles  having  parts  made  of  iron  or 
zinc  must  not  be  submitted  to  the  action 
of  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  or  they  will  be 
entirely  dissolved ;  therefore  avoid  the 
u.se  of  implements  or  wires  of  iron,  zinc, 
or  steel.  A  di|)])ing  bath  which  contains 
copper  in  solution  from  previous  o[)era- 
tions  will  not  suit  for  articli-s  which  may 
cout.iiu  iron,  tin,  tin  soldi'i-,  antimony, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


171 


bismuth,  or  lead.  In  such  a  case,  use  a 
newly-made  dipping  bath  and  a  small 
proportion  of  acid.  Articles  which 
have  been  cleansed  by  alkalies  must  be 
washed  before  being  put  into  the  dipping 
bath,  or  pickle.  Thoroughly  and  rapidly 
rinsing  in  fresh  water  all  the  articles, 
before  and  after  each  of  the  following 
operations,  must  be  strictly  attended  to. 
The  various  manipulations  which  com- 
plete the  cleansing  succeed  each  other 
without  interruption ;  and  the  articles 
must  be  stirred  as  well  as  possible 
in  the  acid  baths,  and  in  the  rinsing 
water.  After  dipping  and  rinsing,  the 
various  pieces  are  fixed  to  a  brass  wire, 
or  hooked  upon  brass  or  copper  hooks. 
Small  articles  of  jewellery  are  suspended 
to  a  stout  copper  wire.  These  hooks  are 
better  if  made  of  pure  copper  than  of 
brass,  and  it  is  still  better  to  use  glass 
hooks,  which  are  cheap  and  are  not  cor- 
roded by  the  acids.  Such  nooks  or  sup- 
ports can  be  made  by  bending  glass  rods, 
by  the  heat  of  a  charcoal  fire,  or  of  a  gas 
burner,  to  the  desired  shape.  Those  ob- 
jects which  cannot  be  sus])ended  or  at- 
tached to  hooks,  are  put  into  perforated 
ladles  of  porcelain  or  stoneware.  It  is 
less  economical,  but  sometimes  absolutely 
necessar)',  to  use  baskets  of  brass  or  copper 
■fc-ire  cloth.  Those  who  frequently  have 
'o  cleanse  very  small  articles  will  find  it 
advantageous  to  employ  a  basket  of  pla- 
tinum wire  cloth,  which,  although  ex- 
pensive in  the  first  cost,  will  be  found 
cheaper  in  the  end,  as  it  is  almost  inde- 
structible. 

Dipping  in  old  Aquafortis. — If  there 
is  any  aquafortis,  nitric  acid,  already 
weakened  by  preceding  dippings,  plunge 
into  it  the  articles  which  have  passed 
through  the  sulphuric  acid  pickle  bath, 
and  have  been  rinsed.  They  may  remain 
there  until  the  red  coat  of  protoxide  of 
copper  has  entirely  disappeared,  leaving, 
after  rinsing,  a  uniform  metallic  lustre. 
The  dipping  in  old  aquafortis,  though  not 
absolutely  necessary,  is  recommended  for 
two  reasons;  it  economizes  the  cost  of 
fresh  acids;  and,  as  its  action  is  slow,  it 
prevents  the  too  rapid  corrofion  of  the 
cleansed  copper  during  th3  time  of  the 
solution  of  the  protoxide. 


Dipping  in  Aquafortis  and  Soot.  — 
After  rinsing  in  fresh  water,  the  ai-ticles 
are  well  shaken  and  drained,  and  then 
plunged  into  a  bath  composed  of  nitric 
acid  at  36°  Baume,  100  parts ;  common 
salt,  1  part ;  calcined  soot,  1  part.  This 
mixture  attacks  the  metal  with  the 
greatest  energy,  and  the  pieces  should 
therefore  not  remain  in  it  more  than  a 
few  seconds.  The  volume  of  acid  should 
be  about  30  times  that  of  the  articles  to 
be  cleaned,  in  order  to  prevent  too  great 
an  elevation  of  temperature  due  to  the 
chemical  reaction,  which  would  result  in 
the  rapid  weakening  of  the  acid.  After 
this  bath,  and  rapid  rinsing,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  production  of  nitrous  vapours 
the  pieces  present  a  fine  red  lustre,  gold 
yellow  or  greenish  yellow,  according  to 
the  alloy  employed,  and  such  as  to  make 
one  believe  that  they  are  entirely  cleansed 
of  foreign  matter ;  yet  if  the  pieces  in 
this  state  are  plunged  into  a  gilding  or 
silvering  bath,  they  become  entirely  black, 
and  without  any  metallic  lustre.  If  the 
pieces  are  put  aside  without  rinsing,  there 
rises  on  their  surface  a  green  froth  and 
nitrous  vapour,  which  indicate  the  decom- 
position of  the  acid  with  which  they  are 
contaminated.  When  the  vapours  have 
disappeared,  the  pieces,  even  after  wash- 
ing, remain  of  a  dull  black,  on  account  of 
the  formation  of  a  basic  copper  salt  which 
IS  not  soluble  in  water.  This  last  mode 
of  operating,  called  blacking  by  aqua- 
fortis, is  preferred  by  a  few  gilders,  var- 
nishers,  and  colour  fixers,  who  find  it 
economical  to  allow  the  production  of 
nitrous  vapours  while  the  pieces  are 
draining  on  top  of  the  vessel  wliich  con- 
tains the  acids.  Any  subsequent  opera- 
tion is  to  be  prefaced  by  a  rinsing  in  fresh 
water.  When  small  objects,  such  as  piis, 
caps,  or  eyelets,  are  to  be  dipped,  they  are 
put  into  a  stoneware  pot,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  aquafortis,  and  then  rapidly 
shaken  and  stirred.  In  this  case  the 
acid  is  entirely  used  up  with  the  produc- 
tion of  abundant  vapours,  and  the  objects 
remain  blackened,  and  ready  for  a  further 
cleansing.  Care  must  be  taken  in  the 
choice  of  aquafortis.  Three  kinds  oi 
nitric  acid  at  36°  are  to  be  found  in  the 
,  trade ; — One  is  perfectly  white,  anothe 


1' 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


is  straw  yellow,  and  anotlier  which  is 
of  a  more  or  less  dark-red  colour.  The 
white  acid,  without  nitrous  gas,  does  not 
cleanse  well,  especially  when  freshly 
used.  The  red.  acii  acts  too  powerfully 
and  pits  the  copper.  The  straw-yellow 
acid  is  preferred  to  the  others.  Nitric 
acid  at  40°  is  too  energetic  and  costly ; 
however,  certain  opei'ators  who  have 
to  cleanse  large  quantities  of  copper 
wares  prefer  it  on  account  of  the  rapidity 
of  the  operation.  The  acid  is  spent  when 
its  action  on  copper  goods  becomes  too 
slow,  and  when  the  objects  removed  from 
the  bath  are  covered  with  a  kind  of 
bluish-white  film.  Such  acid  is  preserved 
for  the  preceding  operation,  namely,  dip- 
ping in  old  aquafortis ;  or  for  dijipiug  in 
the  whitening  bath.  Very  good  aqua- 
fortis may  cleanse  imperfectly  when  the 
temperature  is  too  low  or  too  high.  This 
accounts  for  the  difficulty  of  cleansing  in 
frosty  weather,  or  during  the  great  heat 
of  summer. 

Aquafortis  for  Bright  Lustre. — There 
is  an  excellent  way  of  obtaining  a  briglit 
lustre  for  any  pieces,  the  surfaces  of 
which  have  been  dulled  or  slightly  pitted 
by  a  defective  cleansing,  or  by  their  pas- 
sage through  the  acids  for  removing  gold 
or  silvei-.  Place  them  for  a  few  minutes 
in  a  bath  composed  of  old  aquafortis, 
nearly  spent,  1  part ;  hydrochloric  acid, 
6  parts ;  water,  2  parts.  The  jiieces, 
when  removed  from  the  bath,  are  entirely 
black,  and  must  be  thoroughly  rinsed  in 
water  to  remove  the  kiii'l  of  black  mud 
which  covers  them.  They  are  Ihcii 
cleansed  and  dipped  again.  This  balii 
will  be  found  useful  by  electro-gilders. 
It  is  also  convenient  for  removing  the 
sand  adhering  to  the  castings  of  cojiper 
alloys.  Large  pieces  may  remain  in  the 
oath  for  20  or  ;S0  minutes,  as  this  mix- 
ture acts  very  slowly  on  copper  and  its 
alloys. 

/Jipping  in  Compound  Acids  for  a 
Jlrif/ht  Lustre. — Tliesc  acids  are  of  two 
kiu'ls,  according  to  the  olijrct  in  view. 
If  the  pieces  are  to  have  a  blight  lustre, 
thiy  .'ire  stirred  for  1  or  2  .seconiis  in  a 
liquid,  prepared  the  day  before,  and  cold, 
ma<lc  of  nitric  acid  at  .36'',  100  i)arts  ; 
fulphuric  acid  at  66°,  100  parts;  com- 


mon salt,  1  ]iart.  Ir  preparing  this 
bath,  nitric  acid  is  tirst  put  into  the 
vessel,  and  then  sulphuric  acid,  which  is 
much  denser,  and  would  not  mis  readily 
if  it  were  put  in  first.  At  the  time  of 
mixing,  especially  when  the  salt  is  added, 
considerable  heat  and  a  quantity  of  acid 
and  injurious  fumes  are  produced,  so  that 
it  is  prudent  to  operate  in  the  open  air, 
or  under  a  good  chimney-hood  with  a 
movable  glass  sash.  As  these  acids  must 
be  employed  cold,  it  is  necessary  to  pre- 
pare them  in  advance.  Copper  articles, 
after  this  dijiping,  are  ligliter  coloured 
and  much  brighter  than  after  the  jiassage 
through  aquafortis.  They  may  then  be 
considered  as  completely  cleansed,  and 
must  be  immediately  rinsed  in  plenty  of 
clean  water.  The  above  acids  are  too 
energetic  for  small  articles,  such  as  pins 
or  hooks,  which  are  generally  cleansed 
in  stoneware  colanders.  As  the  number 
of  small  articles  stop  up  the  perforations, 
the  acid  cannot  run  out  so  quickly  as 
desired,  and  begins  to  heat  and  give  off 
fumes,  and  the  ]iieces  blacken  before  they 
can  be  rinsed.  Therefore,  for  small  pieces, 
add  to  the  above  mixture  one-eiglith  of 
its  volume  of  water.  Phicc  tlie  articles  in  a 
stoneware  pot;  stir  rapidly  with  a  small 
quantity  of  bitters,  as  the  last  mixture 
is  termed,  and  then  the  whole  is  plunged 
into  a  quantity  of  fresh  water  as  soon  fis 
tlie  acid  has  sufficiently  acted.  This 
method  is  not  economical,  as  the  acid  m 
lost ;  but  the  dipping  liquors  do  not  be- 
come heated. 

Whitening  Bath  consists  of  old  aqua- 
fortis, sulphuric  acid,  common  salt,  and 
uncalcined  soot.  Pour  into  a  large  stone- 
ware vessel  a  certain  quantity  of  old 
aquafortis  from  ]>revious  dii>pings,  and 
then  add  twice  the  volume  of  sul|ihuric 
acid  at  (>(!".  The  mixture  is  allowed  to 
cool  olf  until  the  next  day.  The  nitrate 
of  copper  of  the  old  aquafortis  becomes 
converted  into  sulphate  of  copper,  which, 
by  cooling,  crystallizes  against  the  sides 
of  the  vessel.  Decant  the  liquiil  jinrtiou 
into  another  vessel,  and  then  add  2  or 
.'$  per  cent,  of  common  salt,  and  as 
miuh  of  calcined  soot.  This  mixture  is 
much  less  energetic  than  the  compound 
acids  for  a  briglit  lustre,  and  often  r»- 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


178 


places  them  advantageously.  The  crys- 
tallized sulphate  of  copper  is  collected 
and  sold.  This  bath  is  strengthened, 
when  necessary,  by  the  addition  of 
stronger  aquafortis  and  oil  of  ritriol.  To 
replace  the  portion  used  up  during  the 
day,  equal  quantities  of  old  aquafortis 
and  oil  of  vitriol  are  added  at  the  end  of 
the  day.  The  next  morning  the  liquors 
are  decanted,  and  the  sulphate  of  copper 
is  gathered.  Soot  and  common  salt  in 
suHicient  proportions  are  then  added. 
In  this  manner  a  perpetual  and  cheap 
whitening  bath  is  prepared. 

Compound  Acids  for  a  Dead  Lustre. — 
If  it  is  desired  to  give  the  objects  a  dead 
lustre,  they  are,  after  dipping  in  aqua- 
fortis and  rmsing,  plunged  into  a  bath, 
prepared  previousl}-,  composed  of  nitric 
acid  at  36°,  200  parts  ;  su!]>huric  acid  at 
66°,  100  parts;  common  salt,  1  part; 
sulphate  of  zinc,  1  to  5  parts.  Copper 
articles  may  remain  from  5  to  20  minutes 
in  the  cold  bath,  and  the  dead  lustre  will 
be  the  more  apparent,  the  longer  the 
immersion  has  been.  From  this  bath, 
after  a  long  rmsing,  the  objects  have  an 
earthy  appearance.  This  dulness  is  re- 
moved b\-  a  rapid  passage  of  the  pieces 
through  the  compound  acids  for  a  bright 
lustre,  and  by  an  immediate  rinsing.  If 
they  remain  too  long  in  the  latter  acids, 
the  dead  lustre  will  disappear,  and  the 
operation  for  dead  lustre  will  have  to  be 
repeated.  If  a  bath  for  the  bright  lustre 
)s  not  at  hand,  the  objects,  after  rinsing, 
maybe  rapidly  passed  through  the  dead- 
lustre  bath,  which  will  remove  the  dul- 
ness of  the  lustre  caused  by  too  long 
immersion.  After  long  use,  the  com- 
pound acids  for  a  bright  lustre  may  be 
employed  in  a  certain  measure  for  a  dead- 
lustre  bath.  The  mode  of  operation 
remains  the  same.  For  large  embossings 
for  furniture,  or  for  some  clocks,  a  hot 
bath  for  dead  lustre  is  used,  composed  as 
follows  ; — Old  aquafortis,  about  4  to  5 
parts;  sulpnuric  acid,  1  part;  sulphate 
of  zinc,  8  to  10  per  cent.  The  sulphate 
of  zinc  is  gradually  added  when  required, 
for  increasing  the  deadness  of  the  lustre. 
The  lustre  thus  obtained  appears  dull  and 
yellowish  ;  after  a  thorough  rinsing,  a 
passage  through  th»  same  bath  for  1  or 


2  seconds,  and  a  last  rinsing,  it  becomes 
clear  enough. 

Dipping  in  Nitrate  of  Binoxide  of  Mer- 
cury.— This  operation  consists  in  plung- 
ing the  cleansed  articles  for  1  or  2 
seconds  into  a  solution  of  water,  2-^  gal- 
lons ;  nitrate  of  binoxide  of  mercury,  a 
third  of  an  ounce;  nitric  acid  or,  prefer- 
ably, sul])huric  acid,  two-thirds  of  an 
ounce.  When  nitrate  of  binoxide  of 
mercury  is  poured  into  the  water,  a  thick 
cloud  is  formed,  of  a  yellowish-white 
colour,  which  subsequently  disappears. 
Stir  the  mixture  before  using  it.  Tl<8 
proportion  of  mercury  salt  above-named 
must  be  modified,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  pieces,  and  the  nature  of  the  alloy. 
Thus  less  mercury  will  be  used  for  light 
pieces  ofjewellery  which  need  a  very  tliin 
deposit.  On  the  other  hand,  more  mer- 
cury is  required  for  heavy  objects,  such 
as  table  ornaments,  which  should  reo«Mve 
a  thick  deposit  of  gold  or  silver.  The 
latter  must  come  from  the  mercurial  so- 
lution with  a  perfectly  white  and  bi-ight 
appearance,  looking  like  silver,  whilst 
the  colour  of  the  light  articles  is  scarcely 
changed.  After  a  perfect  cleansing,  the 
pieces  will,  after  passing  through  a  strong 
mercurial  solution,  be  perfectly  white 
and  bright.  But  there  will  be  a  cloudy 
appearance,  or  various  shades  of  colour, 
if  the  cleansing  has  not  been  properly 
done.  The  amalgamating  bath  becomes 
spent  by  use ;  it  may  be  revived  by  the 
addition  of  a  few  drops  of  nitrate  of 
mercury ;  but  it  is  better  to  prepare  a 
fresh  one.  No  intervals  must  be  allowed 
between  the  various  operations  of  cleans- 
ing. The  dipping  baths  are  ordinarily 
held  in  vessels  of  glass,  stoneware,  por- 
celain, or  of  any  other  material  which 
resists  the  corrosion  of  acids.  Commf'D 
earthenware  and  that  with  a  lead  glaze 
must  be  carefully  avoided.  The  dipping 
pots  must  be  rather  high,  and  be  fur- 
nished with  a  cover,  in  order  to  prevent 
evaporation.  Those  with  ground  edges 
may  be  covered  with  a  pane  of  glass. 
Wide  open-mouthed  earthen  pans  are 
very  good  for  rinsing.  A  large  hood, 
communicating  with  a  chimney,  and 
closed  with  a  sliding  glass  s.ash,should  con- 
tain the  following  ajiparatus  for  complete 


174 


WOKKSUOP   RECEIPTS, 


cleansing  operations  ;  —  A  furnace  and 
separate  pans  for  first  dipping,  old  aqua- 
fortis, aquafortis  and  soot,  compound  acids 
for  dead  lustre,  compound  acids  for  bright 
lustre,  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury, 
acids  to  dissolve  gold  from  old  pieces, 
icids  to  dissolve  silver  from  old  pieces ; 
with  two  large  pans  for  rinsing  with  a 
constant  (low  of  water.  If  thedrauglit  of 
the  chimney  is  not  sullicient,  a  small  tire 
may  be  kindled  under  the  hood.  A  gas- 
burner  is  often  sulHcient.  The  pot  of 
nitrate  of  meixury,  with  two  rinsing  i)ans, 
may  be  placed  near  the  electroplating 
bath. 

Cleansing  Silver.  —  Mechanical 
agents  will  not,  like  acids,  act  simulta- 
neously on  every  part  of  the  object,  and 
it  is  imjiossible  to  entirely  prevent  the 
action  of  the  air,  steam,  gases,  and  acid 
fumes.  Heat  the  object  to  a  dull  red  heat 
upon  a  slow  fire.  If  the  silver  is  pure,  it 
becomes  covered  with  a  thin  bluish  film  ; 
but  if,  as  is  nearly  always  the  case,  the 
silver  is  alloyed  with  a  variable  propor- 
tion of  copper,  the  latter  becomes  oxidi/.ed, 
and  covers  the  piece  with  a  greyish-black 
coating.  While  the  piece  is  still  hot, 
plunge  it  into  a  boiling  pickle  of  water 
and  sulphuric  acid,  which  dissolves  the 
o.xide.  if  tlie  heat  has  been  sufficiently 
protracted  for  oxidizing  all  the  cojiper 
on  the  surface,  the  object,  when  removed 
from  the  pickle,  is  of  a  perfectly  dead 
white.  It  is  greyish  if  the  heating  has 
been  too  short,  and  the  operation  must  be 
re]>eated  as  many  times  as  are  needed  for  a 
perfect  lustre.  Or  the  silver  may  be 
placed  in  sheet-iron  bo.Tcs  filled  with  a 
mixture  of  powdered  borax,  lime,  and 
charcoal  dust.  The  borax  dissolves  the 
oxide  of  copper  as  soon  as  formed.  If  the 
objects  to  be  cleansed  are  hollow,  it  is 
necessary,  before  heating,  to  make  a  small 
hole  which  will  allow  of  the  escape  <if  the 
air  exj)andcd  by  the  fire.  Without  this 
precaution,  the  jjiece  will  burst  o|)en. 
When  the  piece  is  ])Ut  into  the  pickle,  the 
acid  liquor  enters  through  the  hole,  and 
takes  the  place  of  the  air  between  the 
•hulls,  and  is  iinncult  to  remove.  In  order 
to  |ir<!vent  the  spotting  of  the  j>icce  by  this 
liquor,  it  is  di|i|>ed  for  a  few  minutes  into 
k  very  dilute  solutioD  uf  aininuuia  or  of 


soda  crystals,  which  prevents  the  action 
of  tlie  acid  upon  the  silver.  Then  place 
the  article  between  layers  of  dry  and 
warm  fir  wood  saw-dust,  which  will  ab- 
sorb the  saline  solution.  Nitric,  instead 
of  suljihuric,  acid  may  be  used  for  the 
pickle  bath.  In  this  case,  the  water  must 
be  distilled,  and  the  acid  free  from  chlo- 
rine or  hydrochloric  acid,  otherwise  the 
silverware  will  be  covered  with  a  bluish- 
white  film  of  chloride  of  silver  This 
method  will  not  suit  articles  in  which 
iron  or  zinc  may  be  present.  In  such 
cases,  employ  alkalies,  and  polish  after- 
wards with  very  fine  sand  or  pumice-dust, 
witli  the  aid  of  a  still' and  short  l>rush,  or 
with  a  scratch-brush  alone.  Perfectly 
cleansed  silver  may  directly  receive  a 
metallic  deposit  whicli  will  have  the  same 
dead  lustre  as  the  object  itself,  but  it  is 
customary,  before  introducing  the  articles 
into  the  electroplating  bath,  to  scratch- 
brush  them. 

ScRATCH-nRUSUiNG.  —  Scratch-brush- 
ing  is  to  remove  the  dead  lustre  on  au 
object  by  the  frequently-repeated  friction 
of  ihe  points  of  many  stilf  and  straight 
metallic  wires,  called  a  scratch-brush  or 
wire-brush.  Its  shape  varies  with  the 
articles  to  be  operated  upon.  A  hand 
scratcii-brush  is  made  of  numerous  wires, 
still' and  straight,  taken  from  a  bundle  or 
coil  of  large  diameter,  so  that  the  wires 
have  little  tendency  to  curve.  For  deli- 
cate objects,  scratch-brushes  are  made  of 
s]nin  glass,  the  fibres  of  which  are  very 
thin  and  clastic.  For  making  a  good  hand 
scratch-brush,  choose  a  bundle  or  coil  of 
brass  wire  of  the  pro|)er  thickness,  and 
wrap  a  good  string  tightly  round  it  for 
alxiut  two-thirds  of  the  intended  length 
of  the  instrument,  usually  about  8  inches. 
Then,  with  a  cold  chisel,  cut  the  bundle 
of  wire  close  to  the  string  at  one  end,  and 
at  2  inches  from  the  other  end  of  the 
string  wra|>|)ing.  Dip  th»!  end  closed  by 
the  string  into  a  neutral  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  zinc,  and  plunge  into  melted 
tin,  which  solders  all  the  wires,  and 
prevents  their  sparation  and  injury 
to  the  han<l  of  the  operator.  The  fool  is 
then  fixed  t<ja  thin  wooden  handle  which 
projects  above  the  soldered  end.  Vi  ry 
small  scratch-brushes  are  nucccsary  tor 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


175 


reaching  small  holes  and   corners.     An 
old  scrntch-bi  ush,  the   wires  of  which 
nave  been  bent  in  every  direction,  and 
fixed  to  a  long  handle,  is  useful  for  rub- 
bing the  insides  of  certain  pieces,  such  as 
Etruscan  vases.     Scratch-brushing  is  sel- 
dom done  dry  ;   the  tool  and  pieces  must 
be  constantly  wetted  with  a  stream  of 
water,  which   carries  away   the   impu- 
rities.    Good  metallic  deposits  are  only 
polished  by  the  friction  of  the  scratch- 
brush  ;  bad  ones  scale  otT  from  the  defec- 
tive adhesion.    A  large  tub,  with  a  boai-d 
placed  across  it,  on  which   to  rest  the 
pieces,  may  be  used  ;  and  various  solutions 
are  employed  to  assist  the  brushing,  such 
as    watei-   and    vinegar,    or   sour    wine, 
or  solutions  of  cream  of  tartar  or  alum, 
when   it  is  desired    to  brighten  a  gold 
deposit  which  is  too  dark;  but  generally 
a  decoction  of  liquorice-root,  horse-chest- 
nut, marsh  mallow,  or  bark  of  Panama 
wood,  all  of  which  allow  of  a  gentle  rub- 
bing  with    the   scratch-brush,  with  the 
production  of  an  abundant  scum,     Every 
5  or  6  days  the  old  liquid  is  carefully 
decanted,  so  as   not  to   carry  away  the 
deposits  at  the  bottom,  which  always  con- 
tain some  of  the  precious  metals,  which 
are  collected   to  be  afterwards  treated. 
For  small  objects  and  articles  of  jewel- 
lery, hold  the  scratch-brush  as  a  writing 
jien,  and  the  motior  is  imparted  by  the 
wrist  only,  the  forearm  resting  on  the  edge 
of  the  tub.    For  larger  articles  of  bronze, 
hold   the   fingers  extended   close  to  the 
fore  part  of  the  scratch-brush,  so  as  to 
maintain    the    wires,    and,   with    raised 
elbow,  strike  the  piece  repeatedly  with  a 
sliding  motion  at  the  same  time.     When 
a  hollow  is  met  which  cannot  be  rubbed 
lengthways,  a  twisting  motion  is  given 
to  the  tool.     Circular  wire-brushes,  fixed 
on  the  spindle  of  a  lathe,  and  the  wires 
of  which  move  all  in  the  same  direction, 
have  been  constructed  for  certain  pieces 
of  silversmith  work,  such  as  forks  and 
spoons. 

Lathe  for  Scratch-brush. — An  ordinary 
lathe  is  used  for  scratch-brushing,  upon 
the  spindle  of  which  is  fixed  a  circular 
brush  of  brass  wires.  A  wooden  frame 
covers  the  wire  brush ;  it  is  open  in  front; 
the  top  supports  a  small  reservoir  ftona 


which  a  slender  jet  of  water  runs  upon 
the  brush.  A  board  receives  the  projected 
water,  and  lets  it  fall  into  a  zinc  pan 
resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

Scratch-brushes. — The  brass  wire  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  hand  or  circular 
scratch-brushes  is  of  various  strengths. 
Thick  wires  are  employed  for  bronzes, 
and    thinner  wires  for   lighter  articles. 
The  wires  must  be   preserved  stiff  and 
straight.       When  a  hand  scratch-brush 
becomes  too  short,  cut  the  twisted  ends 
with  a  cold  chisel,  and  a  new  portion  of 
wire  is  uncovered   by  removing  part  of 
the  string   wrapping.      To   remove   the 
twisted  wire  ends,  rest  the  scratch-brush 
upon  a  lead  block,  and  cut  them  with  a 
sharp  cold  chisel,  with  one  stroke  of  a 
hammer  if  possible.     When  they  begin 
to  curl,  they  are  now  and  then   beaten 
with  a  mallet  of  boxwood,  upon  a  small 
block  kept  between  the  knees,  so  as  not  to 
produce  a  dead  stroke.     Scratch- brushes 
if  kept  too  long  in  water  become  hard ; 
when  greasy-,  they  are  cleansed  in  caustic 
potash ;  oxide  is  removed  by  the  compound 
acids.     This  kist  operation,  and  even  dip- 
ping in  aquafortis,  are  sometimes  resorted 
to  for  diminishing  the  size  of  the  wires, 
and  making  them  smoother.   The  circular 
brush  is  occasionally  resorted  to  for  dimi- 
nishing the  size  of  the  wires,  and  making 
them  smoother.     The  circular  brush  is 
occasionally  reversed,  in  order  to  change 
the  direction  of  the  wires. 

Bright  Lustre  for  small  Articles. — Very 
small  articles,  which  cannot  be  scratcli- 
brushed,  receive  a  bright  lustre  by  mu- 
tual friction.  The  operation  is  generally 
performed  with  the  hands.  The  articles 
to  be  hi'ightened  are  introduced,  together 
with  boxwood  saw-dust,  bran,  or  sand, 
into  a  bag ;  the  ends  of  the  bag  being 
gathered  into  the  hands  with  the  thumbs 
inwards,  the  bag  is  shaken  to  and  fro. 
As  this  operation  becomes  very  fatiguing, 
mechanicaV  means  may  be  employed  to 
efiect  the  shaking. 

Cleaxsixg  Zixc. — Zinc  is  cleansed  by 
being  passed  through  a  boiling  solutiou 
of  caustic  lye,  without  remaining  too  long 
in  it,  because  it  may  be  corroded,  and 
even  dissolved ;  after  rinsing,  it  is  plunged 
for  a  few  minutes  into  water  contain- 


176 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


ing  from  one-tent n  to  one-t(ventieth  of 
sulphuric  acid,  *.hen  rinsed  in  plenty  of 
warm  water,  and,  when  necessary,  brushed 
with  a  stiff  brush  and  pumice-stone  dust, 
or  scratch-brushed.  This  last  operation 
IS  especially  useful  when  parts  hare  been 
united  with  tin  solder,  which  becomes 
black  and  dull  by  the  alkaline  and  acid 
baths.  Another  method  is  to  dip  the 
articles  rapidly  into  a  cold  mixture  of 
.sulphuric  acid,  100  parts;  nitric  acid, 
100;  common  .^alt,  1  per  cent.;  and 
quickly  rinse  in  cold  water  perfectly  free 
from  copper  s;ilt,  which  will  blacken  the 
zinc.  If,  instead  of  (juickly  cleansing  the 
zinc,  it  is  allowed  to  remain  a  little  longer 
in  the  mi.\ture,  it  acquires  a  dead  lustre 
which  may  be  utilized  for  producing  con- 
trasts between  the  various  parts  of  the 
same  ornament.  The  dead  lustre  will 
become  a  bright  one,  if  the  object  is 
quickly  plunged  in  several  times,  and 
rinsed  as  often,  in  the  same  compound 
acids.  It  often  happens  that  the  lines  of 
tin  or  lead  solder  are  black  after  being 
dipped  into  the  acid  bath  ;  it  is  then 
sullicient  to  scratch-brush  before  placing 
the  object  in  the  electro]>lating  solution. 
Zinc  may  be  slightly  amalgamated  with 
the  sDlution  of  nitrate  of  biuoxule  of  mer- 
cury ;  this  increases  the  adherence  of  the 
electro  deposits.  It  is  often  necessary, 
fronr.  some  defect  in  cleansing,  or  inelec- 
troi>lating,  which  impairs  the  adherence 
of  the  deposits,  to  do  the  work  over  again. 
In  such  a  case,  remove  the  copper  entirely 
by  plunging  the  object  into  aquafortis 
and  soot,  until  it  appears  black.  Another 
dipping  into  the  comjiound  acids  will 
render  it  perfectly  clean  and  white,  and 
ready  to  receive  a  new  deposit. 

Clkaxsixg  Lkad  and  Tin. — Tin,  ]ea<\, 
and  the  alloys  of  these  mftaN,  are  much 
more  dillicult  to  cleanst;  than  zinc.  A 
rapid  scouring  with  pot.ash  lye,  and  a 
rubbing  with  a  hard  substance  are  the 
only  means  of  effecting  this.  The  objects 
are  sometimes  phingeci  into  diluted  hy- 
drochloric aciil  ;  but  the  first  operation 
is  nearly  always  necessary.  Notwith- 
standing the  greatest  care,  the  direct 
riepysit  of  the  jirrcious  metals  is  diniciilt, 
«i  I  does  not  adhere  well.  The  results 
arc  much  l^cttcr  if  a  coat  of  pure  copper 


or  brass  is  interposed   between  the  low 
metal,  and  the  gold  or  silver. 

Ci.EAXsiKG  Cast  Iron. — Cast  iron  is 
cleansed  by  being  immersed  for  2  or  3 
hours  in  water  containing  one-hundredth 
part  of  suljihuric  acid ;  the  metal  is  after- 
wards rinsed  in  cold  water,  and  scoured 
with  sharp  sand  and  a  fibre  brush,  or  a 
coarse  rag;  then  put  again  in  the  acid 
jiickle,  rinsed,  and  plunged  into  the  elec- 
tro bath.  If  more  than  1  per  cent,  of 
sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  the  water,  the 
length  of  the  immersion  must  be  short- 
eneil,  otlierwise  the  case  iron  will  be 
deeply  corroded,  and  the  carbon  of  the 
metal,  which  is  insoluble  in  the  pickle, 
will  with  great  dilliculty  be  removed  by 
tlic  friction  of  the  sand.  Cast  iron  does 
not  gild  or  silver  well,  by  a  direct  deposit 
of  the  preci-ous  metals.  Copper  or  brass 
deposits  are  better,  although  tar  from 
perfect ;  but  if  cast  iron  is  tinned,  the 
coat  is  adherent,  and  will  afterwards 
receive  copper,  brass,  gold,  or  silver,  if 
desired.  If  it  is  desired  to  keep  cast  iron 
already  cleansed  for  some  time  before 
electroplating  it,  it  is  necessary  to  pre- 
serve it  in  a  liquor  rendered  alkaline  by 
caustic  lime,  potash,  or  soda,  or  their 
carbonates;  but  caustic  lime-water  is  the 
cheapest  and  most  easy  method,  and  cast 
iron  which  has  remained  in  it  for  a  few 
hours  will  not  rust  after  a  long  exposure 
to  a  damp  atmosjihere. 

Clioansino  Wrought  Irox.  —  The 
cleansing  of  wrought  iron  is  effected  in 
the  same  manner  as  cast  iron,  but  will 
bear  a  stronger  pickle  anil  a  longer  im- 
mersion. We  refer  in  this  j)I:ice  to  ordi- 
nary wrought  iron  covered  with  a  film  ol 
black  magnetic  scale  or  of  red  rust. 
Whitened,  filed,  or  polished  iron  must  be 
treated  like  steel. 

Cr.KANSixo  Stkkl. — Polished  articles 
of  steel,  or  iron,  must  be  first  cleansed 
in  a  boiling  solution  of  caustic  lye,  and 
rubbed  with  immicc-stone  dust,  which 
scratches  the  polish  slightly,  and  thus 
produces  a  better  hold  for  the  metals 
afterwards  to  be  dejiosited.  They  aro 
then  rajiidly  passed  through  a  bath  com 
posed  of  water,  1  quart ;  hydrochloric 
acid,  12  oz.;  or  sulphuric  acid,  4  oz. ; 
rinsed  in  cold  water,  and  plunged  into 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


177 


the  electroplating  solution.  Carefully 
avoid  substituting  nitric  acid  for  the  hy- 
drochloric or  sulphuric  acid,  of  the  above 
acid  bath.  Iron  and  steel  may  be  well 
gilt,  without  an  intermediary  cait,  in 
hot  gilding  baths.  Silvering  directly 
upon  steel  or  iron  is  always  imperfect 
and  without  adherence  ;  it  is  therefore 
customary  to  interpose  a  coat  of  copper 
or  brass,  which  renders  the  further  opera- 
tion of  silver  plating  easy. 

Galvanic  Batteries. — There  are  two 
kinds  of  batteries  used  for  electro-depo- 
sition ;  those  which  act  under  the  action 
iif  physical  agents;  but  those,  on  account 
of  their  feeble  intensity,  are  i-arely  used. 
Others  act  under  the  influence  of  chemi- 
cal reactions,  of  decompositions  and  re- 
compositions,  or  of  greater  or  less  afli- 
nities.  The  varieties  of  these  instruments 
are,  at  the  present  time,  very  numerous. 
But  the  best  battery  is  that  which,  under 
the  smallest  volume,  is  the  most  ener- 
getic, constant,  regular,  and  economical. 

Daniell's  Battery. — This  battery  de- 
velops a  constant  and  lasting  current, 
but  is  wanting  in  intensity.  It  is  especi- 
ally adapted  to  slow  deposits,  which 
must  be  thick  and  of  uniform  texture. 
A  great  advantage  of  this  battery  is, 
that  it  will  work  without  acids,  and 
therefore  without  the  production  of 
gases  or  smell,  and  can  be  used  in  a 
private  apartment  without  inconveni- 
ence. The  vase  for  the  battery  is  a  flat 
vessel  of  pure  copper,  which  is  half  filled 
with  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  into  which  is  placed  a  bag  of 
canvas  or  a  cell  of  porous  procelaiu  or 
earthenware,  which  causes  the  solution 
cf  sulphate  of  copper  to  rise  to  about 
1  in.  from  the  top  of  the  copper  vessel. 
The  bag  or  cell  is  filled  with  a  saturated 
solution  of  common  salt,  in  which  a 
well-cleansed  zinc  plate  is  placed.  It  is 
necessary  that  the  levels  of  the  two 
solutions  should  be  nearly  the  same.  If 
there  is  any  difference,  the  solution  of 
chloride  of  sodium  should  be  slightly 
above  the  other,  because  if  the  solution 
of  sulphate  of  copper  passes  into  the 
porous  cell,  the  zinc  is  immediately  cor- 
roded, and  blackened,  and  the  battery 
may    cease    to    work.       When    one    of 


Daniell's  elements  only  is  used,  whi^h 
seldom  happens,  on  account  of  the  feeble 
intensity  of  the  current,  the  conducting 
wire  which  supports  the  article  to  be 
galvanized  is  connected  with  the  zinc 
piate  by  a  binding  screw  of  brass,  ana 
the  other  wire  supporting  the  anode  is 
connected  with  the  copper  of  the  ex- 
terior vase.  The  solution  of  suljihate  of 
coppei"  must  be  kept  constantly  satu- 
rated with  crystals  of  this  rait,  enclosed 
ill  a  tag  of  linen  or  hair  cl-jth.  A  simi- 
lar process  may  be  emidoyid  to  keep  the 
solution  of  common  salt  in  a  state  ot 
satur.ition.  A  battery  thus  arranged 
may  be  kept  in  operation  fjr  three  weeks, 
or  a  month.  When  this  lattery  is  work- 
ing, the  copper  of  the  decomposed  sul- 
phate is  deposited  upon  the  copper  of  the 
vessel,  which  thus  inci  eases  in  weight 
and  in  value.  The  ziuc  is  slowly  dis- 
solved in  the  solution  of  common  salt, 
and  forms  a  double  chloride  of  sodium 
and  zinc.  When  a  number  of  the  ele- 
ments of  a  Daniell's  battery  are  to  be 
joined  together,  the  zinc  of  the  first  ele  - 
ment  is  connected  with  the  copper  of  the 
second  by  means  of  a  well-cleansed 
metallic  ribbon,  then  the  zinc  of  the 
second  with  the  copper  of  the  third,  and 
so  on,  until  the  who.e  apparatus  presents 
at  one  end  a  copper  vase,  and  at  the 
other  a  zinc  jilate,  unconnected.  A 
metallic  wire  connects  the  anode  with 
the  copper  end,  and  a  similar  wire  is 
bound  to  the  zinc  end,  and  supports  the 
object  to  be  electroplated.  Another  bat- 
tery used  by  the  electro-gilders  of  watch 
parts  and  by  telegraphers,  is  composed 
of  a  cylindrical  vase  of  stoneware, 
glass,  or  porcelain  ;  a  cylinder  of  zinc  to 
which  is  soldered  a  ribbon  of  pure  cop- 
per ;  a  porous  clay  cell,  and  a  glass  bal- 
loon with  a  short  neck,  and  filled  with 
crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper.  It  is 
closed  with  a  cork  perforated  with  two 
holes,  or  having  two  notches  cut  along 
its  sides.  The  rolled  zinc  plate  is  put 
into  the  stoneware  pot,  and  the  porous 
cell  inside  the  zinc.  The  copper  ribbon 
of  the  zinc  of  the  first  element  dips  on 
to  the  bottom  of  the  cell  of  the  nest 
element,  in  such  a  manner  that,  when 
several  elements  are  connected  together, 


178 


WOUKoHOP   RECEIPTS. 


iliere  is  at  one  eud  the  ribbon  of  a  zinc 
plate,  and  at  the  other  end  a  copjier  rib- 
bon jiut  into  tiie  ceil.  Then  the  porous 
cell  and  the  stoneware  jiot  are  filled  to 
the  same  level  with  water.  The  balloon 
containing  the  crystallized  sulphate  of 
copper  receives  as  much  water  as  it  can 
hold,  and  the  notched  cork  being  jjut  in 
place,  the  balloon  is  quickly  inverted 
with  its  neck  in  the  water  of  the  ])orous 
cell.  The  battery  is  ready  to  work 
24-  hours  after.  The  ribbon  of  the  zinc 
end  IS  connected  with  the  objects  to  be 
electroplated,  and  that  of  the  other  cell 
end,  with  the  soluble  anode.  The  sul- 
phate of  cop])er  contained  in  the  bal- 
loon is  dissolved  in  the  water  around  it, 
and  as  this  solution  is  denser  than  water 
it  fails  into  the  porous  cells  through  one 
of  the  notches  of  the  cork,  while  an 
equal  quantity  of  purer  and  lightci- 
water  ascends  through  tlie  other  notch, 
and  so  on,  producing  a  circuit  of  denser 
liijuor  falling  by  one  notch,  and  ol"  lighter 
liquor  rising  by  the  other.  The  solution 
of  sulphate  of  copper  is  decomposed  in 
the  porous  cell ;  the  sulphuric  acid 
passes  through  the  cell  by  outward  ])res- 
sure  and  acts  ui)on  the  zinc,  and  at  the 
same  time  Ihe  co]iper  becomes  deposited 
upon  the  co]p])er  ribbon  connected  with 
the  z;n(:of  the  former  element.  In  order 
that  this  battery  may  work  regularly 
for  6  or  7  month:;,  it  is  sullicient  to 
replace  the  eva])orated  water.  The 
.balloon  ought  to  contain  at  least  2  lbs. 
of  sulphate  of  copper,  aud  the  zinc  to  lie 
aljout  7  in.  in  height,  and  from  4  to  4i  in. 
in  ili.imeier.  Tiie  zinc  may  be  amalg.i- 
niated,  in  which  case  the  action  is  a  little 
slow  at  the  start,  but  more  regular 
afterwards.  The  copper  riblion  receives 
all  the  metal  of  the  dccomiiosccl  sulphate, 
Mnd  it  sometimes  happens  that  part  of 
the  cop]>er  bi-comes  di'posited  upon  the 
por  )US  cell,  whicil  must  then  be  cleaned 
in  aquafortis.  When  all  the  sulphate  of 
copper  IS  UHcd  up,  the  balloons  are  tilled 
with  a  fresh  (piantity  of  crystals  and 
Dew  cojiper  ribbinis  inserted  to  take  the 
place  of  those  miden-d  too  V(duiililions. 
If  It  be  desired  lo  start  the  battery 
with  a  ballo(,u  immediately,  add  a  small 
quantity  of  suijthunc  acid,  or  of  common 


salt,  to  the  water  in  which  th«  zinc  i» 
j)laced. 

Bunsen's  Battery. — E;ich  elemert  is 
composed  of  a  glass  vessel  which  is  hali 
filled  with  nitric  acid  at  36°  or  40° 
Baume,  and  which  receives  a  hollow 
cylinder  of  pulverized  coke,  moulded  and 
cemented  at  a  high  temperature,  by 
sugar,  gum,  or  tar.  At  the  upper  part 
of  this  cylimler,  where  it  does  not  dip 
into  the  acid,  a  cojpper  collar  is  lixed, 
which  may  be  tightened  at  will  by  means 
of  a  screw.  A  cojpjier  band  or  ribbon  is 
fixed  to  the  collar,  and  may  be  connected 
with  the  zinc  of  another  element.  A 
porous  porcelain  cell  is  placed  inside  the 
coke  cylinder,  and  contains  a  diluted 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  1  part  acid 
and  9  parts  water,  into  which  is  i)ut  a 
bar  or  cylimler  of  zinc  strongly  amalga- 
mated, or  covered  with  mercury.  When 
a  battery  of  several  elements  is  to  be 
formed,  the  coke  of  the  first  element  is 
connected  with  the  zinc  of  the  second, 
and  so  on,  and  the  apparatus  is  completed, 
at  one  end,  by  coke  communicating  with 
the  anode,  and  at  the  other,  by  a  zinc 
connected  with  the  cathode,  or  object  to 
be  electroplated.  In  this  apparatus  the 
surface  of  the  carbon  is  much  gn^itei 
than  that  of  the  zinc  ;  this  is  a  wrong 
(disposition,  since,  generally,  the  intensity 
of  the  current  is  in  direct  ratio  with  the 
surface  of  the  zinc  corroded,  provided 
that  this  surface  be  oi)posite  and  parallel 
to  that  of  the  carbon. 

Bxmscns  Butter;/  modified  hij  Arche 
re<nt. — This  battery  is  preferred  by  gold 
aud  silver  electrojdaters.  E/ich  element 
is  comjiosed  of  an  exterior  vessel  or 
pot,  most  generally  of  stoneware;  a 
cylinder  of  zinc,  covered  with  meri;ury, 
]irovided  with  a  binding  screw,  or  with 
a  co|i|ier  band,  whether  for  a  single 
element,  or  fur  the  eiiil  of  a  combination 
ff  elements  in  a  l)altery,  or  to  connect 
the  zinc  with  the  carbon  of  anothei 
clement.  A  porous  cell  of  earthenware 
j)ipe  or  porcelain.  A  cylinder  of  gra- 
phite, made  I'rom  the  residue  found  in 
<dd  gas  retorts.  The  graphite  is  bound 
Ijy  a  coipjH'r  band  lixed  to  if  iiv  means  oi 
a  wire  of  the  same  metal,  all  the  bind- 
ing   being   aflerwards    covered    with    a 


WORKSHOP   llECKIPTS. 


179 


thick  varnish  to  protect  it  from  the  acid 
fumes  of  the  battery ;  notwithstanding 
the  varnish,  the  acid  may  rise  by  capil- 
lary attraction  and  corrode  the  copper 
band  between  the  carbon  and  the  wire ; 
therefore  binding  screws  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes  should  be  used  to  con- 
nect the  carbon  or  zinc  by  means  of 
ribbons,  or  wires.  Use  conducting  wires 
of  pure  copper,  covered  with  cotton,  silk, 
india-rubber  or  gutta-percha,  and  pre- 
senting the  metal  at  their  extremities  in 
order  to  effect  the  connections. 

Charge  of  the  Battery. — Taking  as  a 
standard  an  element  10  in.  in  height, 
and  6  in.  in  diameter,  half  fill  the  stone- 
ware pot  with  water ;  add  7  oz.  of  sul- 
ohuric  acid  at  66°;  and  1  oz.  of  amalga- 
mating salt,  or  the  zinc  may  be  amalga- 
mated with  metallic  mercury,  after  it 
has  been  cleansed  in  diluted  sulphuric 
acid,  by  being  dipped  into  mercury,  or 
rubbed  over  with  this  metal  by  means  of 
a  scratch-brush  of  brass  wire.  Put  the 
zinc  cylinder  into  the  stoneware  pot ; 
then  introduce  the  cylinder  of  carbon 
into  the  porous  cell ;  fill  the  empty 
space  between  the  carbon  and  the  sides 
of  the  cell  with  nitric  acid  at  from  36° 
to  40°  Baume  ;  place  the  porous  cell  thus 
filled  into  the  centre  of  the  zinc  cylin- 
der. The  STU'faces  of  the  two  liquids 
should  be  level. 

Beunion  of  Several  Elements. — When 
several  elements  are  to  be  connected, 
they  are  placed  near  each  other,  without 
touching,  and  the  first  carbon  or  gra- 
phite is  left  free  for  the  attachment  of 
the  anode.  The  ribbon  or  band  of  the 
first  zinc  is  pinched  between  the  jaws  of 
the  brass  binding  screw,  and  the  carbon 
of  the  second  element,  and  so  forth, 
until  the  last  zinc  is  ready  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  object  to  be  electro- 
plated. 

Brinijing  Batteries  into  Action. — Bat- 
teries will  furnish  electricity  when  the 
circuit  is  closed,  that  is  to  say,  when  the 
conducting  wires  starting,  one  from  the 
carbon,  and  the  other  from  the  zinc,  are 
put  into  communication,  whether  by 
direct  contact  or  tiu-ough  the  medium 
of  a  conducting  liquid.  It  rometimcs 
happens  that  batteries,  which  appear  to 


be  iu  good  order,  do  not  work.     This  is 
generally  due  to  some  foreign  substance 
preventing    the    conductibility    at    the 
points  of  contact,  or  to  the  copper  band 
of  one  zinc  resting  upon  another  zinc. 
Before  using  a  battery,  try  if  the  cur- 
rent escapes  well  from  both  extremities. 
For  this  purpose  present  the  point  of  the 
negative  wire  to  the  carbon  of  the  other 
end,    and   a   spark   should   immediately 
ensue.  The  same  experiment  being  made 
with  the  positive  wire,  against  the  last 
zinc,  another  spark  should  be  produced ; 
or  it  is  still  more  easy  to  have  the  two 
ends  of  the  wires  made  to  rest  at  a  short 
distance  from  each  other  upon  a  piece  of 
carbon,  or  upon  a  file,  and  then  rubbing 
with  one  wire  while  the  other  remains 
in  contact.     Numerous  sparks  will  im- 
mediately appear.    When  one  element  of 
a   battery  is  wrongly   put   up,   discover 
the  defect  by  successively  presenting  the 
end  of  one  of  the  wires  to  the  carbon  of 
each   element,  and  that  which  does  not 
produce  any  spark  belongs  to  the  defec- 
tive element.     Too  much  porosity  in  the 
cells  is  another  cause  of  stoppage  in  the 
current,    because  the    solution    of  zinc 
which  penetrates  deposits  upon  the  car« 
bon  a  whitish  coat    preventing  further 
action.     Change  the  cell  and  scrape  oil 
the  coat  entirely  from  the  carbon.    This 
generally  takes  place  when  the  battery 
has  been  working  several  days  without 
the   addition   of  fresh  liquor,   or   when 
there  is  too   much   acid.     The   battery 
will  also  cease  working  from  too  great  an 
accumulation  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  which, 
not  having  sutlicient  water  to  remain  in 
solution,  crystallizes  upon  the  zinc,  and 
prevents   any   further   action.     Remove 
the  acid  solution,  substitute  a  fresh  one, 
and  clean  the  zinc.     Laminated  zinc  is 
preferable    to    that    cast    in    a    mould, 
because  the  latter  is  not  so  homogeneous, 
and  is  more  rapidly  corroded,  and  even 
perforated. 

Keeping  Batteries  in  Order. — Every 
24  hours,  or  oftener,  the  losses  of  bat- 
teries must  be  made  good  by  adding, 
without  taking  the  elements  apart,  about 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  amalgamating  salt, 
and  as  much  of  sulphuric  acid,  to  the 
liftfcor  of  the  zinc  plates,  and  stirring 

N  2 


180 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


with  a  glass  rod.    Nitric  aciJ,  to  replace  ' 
that  evaporated,  is  put  into  the  porous  ' 
cell.     This  manner  of  operating  may  be 
sufficient  for  5  or    6    days ;   but    after 
this  lapse  of  time,  all   the  old  liquors 
must  be  removed,  and  fresh  ones  added.  | 
Although  amalgamated  zinc  is  scarcely  [ 
corroded,  even  in  a  very  acid  solution,  | 
when  the  two  poles  are  not  in  connec-  i 
lion  by  direct  contact,  or  through  a  con- 
ducting liquid,  it  is   preferable  to  take  j 
the  batteries  apart  every  evening,  in  the 
following    manner; — All     the     binding  , 
screws  are  let   loose,  and  cleaned ;  the 
cylinders  of   carbon   are  removed,  and, 
without  washing,  deposited  in  a   vessel 
especially  for  their  use  ;  the  porous  cells 
are  removed,  and  their  acid  poured  into 
a   special    vessel.      The    cells    are    not 
washed ;  the  zincs  are  removed  from  the 
acid  liquor,   and   placed   in  an  inclined 
position  upon    the  edges   of  the   stone- 
ware pots ;  the  batteries  are  made  ready 
to  work  by  a  converse  manipulation.. 

Important  Observations  on  Batteries. 
— Batteries  must  be  kept  in  a  place 
where  the  temperature  does  not  greatly 
vary.  A  frost  arrests  their  action,  and 
great  heat  increases  it  too  much.  A 
good  place  for  them  is  a  box,  and  they 
are  put  at  such  a  hei'^lit  that  they  may 
easily  be  manipulated.  Tiiis  box  should 
have  means  of  ventilation,  in  such  a  way 
that  the  air  coming  in  at  the  lower  part, 
will  escape  at  the  top  through  a  flue 
and  carry  away  with  it  the  acid  fumes 
constantly  disengaged.  It  is  best  to  keep 
the  batteries  in  a  room  dillurent  from 
that  where  the  baths  and  the  metals  are 
to  be  operated  upon,  as  these  are  easily 
injured  by  acid  vapours.  The  galvanic 
current  may  be  conducted  iutotiie  work- 
room by  wires  passing  through  holes  in 
the  wall,  and  covoreil  with  gutta-i)ercha. 

Grove's  Battery. — Tiiis  battery  is  like 
the  ]irecoiling  one,  pxce]it  that  it  has  a 
pl;itiuuin  foil  which  plunges  into  the 
nitric  acid,  and  replaces  the  [irism  of 
carton.  This  foil  is  suiiportcij  by  a  small 
brass  stand,  fixed  itself  to  a  round  l)aucl 
resting  upon  a  rim  on  top  of  the  exterior 
va-ie.  A  binding  Ncrcw  is  Ko!dei«l  to  the 
stand  when  connection  is  to  he  made 
with  the  cojp|icr  ribbon  of  the  preceding 


zinc.  The  several  elements  of  batteries 
are  united  together  in  the  manner 
already  mentioned,  the  zinc  to  the  ]ua- 
tinum  of  the  next  element,  and  so  on. 
The  disadvantage  of  this  battery  is  its 
great  cost,  due  to  the  platinum  em- 
ployed ;  it  has  been  proposed  to  substi- 
tute aluminium,  but  still  the  battery  is 
an  expensive  one. 

Grenet's  Battery. — A  solution  of  100 
parts  of  water,  10  of  bichromate  of 
potash,  and  10  of  sulphuric  acid  in  the 
porous  cell,  replaces  the  nitric  acid  em- 
ployed by  Grove  and  Bunsen.  This 
battery  does  not  emit  acid  fumes,  but 
the  carbon  is  rapidly  incrustated  with 
oxide  of  chromium,  which  arrests  the 
galvanic  current. 

Marie-Davy  Battery. — Slightly  damp 
suljihate  of  mercury  replaces  the  nitric 
acid  in  the  porous  cell.  The  working 
expenses  of  this  battery  are  very  high, 
and  it  is  used  only  in  the  telegraphic 
service,  where  the  Daniell  battery  with 
balloons  is  preferred. 

Sinee's  Battery. — This  battery  is  very 
simjile  in  construction.  It  is  composed 
of  a  thick  wooden  frame  open  at  the  top, 
with  three  internal  parallel  grooves 
which  run  the  height  of  the  two  ojiposite 
sides.  The  middle  groove  receives  a  mov- 
able plate  of  silver,  platinum,  gold,  or 
cop|)er  which  has  been  strongly  gilt,  sil- 
vered, or  platinized  ;  its  surfaces  must  be 
rough  or  with  a  dead  lustre.  Two  ])lates 
of  strongly  amalgamated  zinc  are  run 
down  the  other  two  grooves.  The  plates  of 
zinc  must  be  near  to,  but  not  in  contact 
with,  tlie  central  one,  and  are  connected 
by  a  wire  or  metallic  band.  The  positive 
wire  starts  from  the  midille  plate,  and 
the  negative  from  the  zinc,  an  1  the 
whole  apparatus  is  immersed  in  a  solu- 
tion containing  common  salt  or  one-tenth 
of  sulphuric  acid.  Several  elements  may 
be  united  together  l>y  connoctin!:;  the 
zinc  of  the  first  with  the  middle  |)late  of 
the  second.  Or  the  cell  may  be  made  of 
gutta-percha,  with  a  jdate  of  carbon  to 
replace  the  plate  of  silver,  or  ot  plti- 
tinized  copper.  The  two  other  grooves 
receive  two  plates  of  amalgamated  zinc 
with  one  of  the  u])per  corners  cut  away. 
A  double  bimiiug  screw,  for  the  positive 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


181 


wire,  is  fixed  upon  the  plate  of  carbon 
where  the  two  zinc  corners  have  been 
cut  off,  and  another  large  binding  screw 
unites  the  two  zinc  plates,  and  carries 
the  negative  wire.  Fill  the  cell  with 
water  saturated  with  common  salt,  or 
acidulated  with  one-tenth  of  sulphuric 
acid. 

Wat^s  Battery. — In  a  stoneware  jar 
holding  about  4  galls,  place  a  cylimier 
of  thin  sheet  copjier,  dipping  into  water 
acidulated  with  2  lbs.  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  1  oz.  of  nitric  acid.  A  solid  zinc 
cylinder  is  put  into  the  porous  cell, 
which  is  filled  with  a  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  common  salt,  to  which  a  few 
drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  have  been 
added. 

Various  Kinds  of  3Ietallic  Deposits. — 
An  intense  current,  for  brass  and  hard 
deposits  will  be  obtained  by  joining 
alternately  the  zinc  of  one  element  to 
the  copper  or  carbon  of  the  next  one.  For 
silver  plating  a  smooth  and  not  too  hard 
deposit  is  desired,  the  current  should  be 
feeble  in  intensity,  but  considerable  in 
quantity,  and  may  be  obtained  by  con- 
necting together  all  of  the  zincs  on  the 
one  side,  and  all  of  the  coppers  or  car- 
bons on  the  other. 

Porous  Cells. — The  porous  cells  are 
absolutely  necessary  in  batteries  working 
with  two  e.xciting  solutions,  like  the 
Bunsen  battery.  But  the  trouble  arising 
from  the  clogging  of  the  pores  of  the 
cell,  and  from  the  difficulty  of  prevent- 
ing the  diffusion  between  the  two  liquids 
of  the  porous  cell  and  of  the  jar,  the 
specific  gravity  of  which  is  constantly 
varying,  makes  it  desirable  that  the  cell 
should  be  dispensed  with  in  batteries 
worked  with  but  one  exciting  fluid. 

Callaud  Battery. — The  Callaud  battery 
is  a  modification  of  that  of  Daniell,  doing 
away  with  the  porous  cell.  A  jar  is 
filled  with  water  acidulated  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  only  for  starting  the  solu- 
tion of  the  zinc,  as  the  sulphuric  acid 
will  be  furnished  afterwards  by  the  sul- 
phate of  copper.  The  zmc  and  copper 
plates  are  both  placed  horizontally  in 
the  jar  ;  the  zinc  in  the  upper  part,  and 
the  copper  lying  on  the  bottom.  To 
start  this  battery,  throw  into  the  jar  a 


few  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper. 
These  go  to  the  bottom,  dissolve,  and 
form  a  saturated  solution  around  the 
negative  plate  of  copper.  The  electrode 
or  conducting  wire  from  the  copper 
plate  may  be  made  to  pass  through  a 
glass  tube  reaching  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  jar,  and  large  enough  to  contain  a 
supply  of  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper 
necessary  to  keep  a  saturated  solution  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  cell.  This  avoids 
disturbing  the  upper  part  of  the  liquid 
in  which  the  zinc  dips,  and  its  mixture 
with  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper. 
The  deposits  from  the  zmc  and  other  im- 
purities are  prevented  from  falling  upon 
the  copper  plate,  and  thus  interfering 
with  the  current,  by  covering  the  cop- 
per plate  with  a  layer  of  clean  quartz 
sand,  which  serves  also  as  an  obstacle  to 
the  effusion  upward  of  the  sulphate  of 
copper,  because  the  interstices  between 
the  grains  act  as  a  series  of  narrow 
tubes,  but  the  force  of  the  current 
diminishes  by  reason  of  the  increased 
resistance. 

Copper  Deposits.  —  By  Dipping.  — 
Copper  deposits  are  obtained  either  by 
simple  dipping  or  galvanic  methods. 
Copper  deposits  by  dipping  are  seldom 
practised  excejjt  upon  iron,  and  are  gene- 
rally wanting  in  lasting  qualities,  since, 
from  the  thinness  of  the  deposit,  the  iron 
is  not  protected  against  atmospheric  in- 
fluences. If  the  iron  is  steeped  in  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  3^  oz. ; 
sulphuric  acid,  3J  oz. ;  water,  1  to  2 
galls.,  for  a  short  time,  it  becomes  covered 
with  a  coating  of  pure  copper,  baring  a 
certain  adhesion ;  but  should  it  remain 
there  for  a  few  minutes,  the  deposit  of 
copper  is  thicker  and  muddy,  and  does 
not  stand  any  rubbing.  In  this  case, 
compress  it  by  means  of  rollers  or  a 
draw  plate,  in  order  to  impart  a  certain 
cohesion  to  the  particles  of  copper. 
Small  articles,  such  as  hooks,  pins,  or 
nails,  are  coppered  by  jerking  them 
about  for  a  certain  time  in  sand,  bran, 
or  saw-dust  impregnated  with  the  above 
solution,  diluted  with  three  or  four  times 
its  volume  of  water. 

By  Battery. — Electro-deposits  of  cop- 
per are  obtained  by  decomposing  a  double 


182 


WORKSHOP   KECEIPT3. 


salt  of  copper  with  another  base,  such 
as  the  double  cyanide  of  potassium  and 
copper.  This  process  is  equally  well 
tdaptcd  to  all  metals,  and  the  deposits 
are  fine,  lasting,  and  their  thickness  is 
entirely  regulated  by  the  will  of  the 
operator.  Dissolve  about  16  oz.  of  sul- 
phate of  copper  in  2  galls,  cf  water,  and 
add  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  until 
no  more  precipitate  is  formed ;  collect 
the  green  precipitate,  carbonate  of  cop- 
per, thus  obtained  upon  a  cloth  filter, 
and  wash  it  several  times  with  water ; 
then  stir  the  washed  carbonate  of  copper 
in  water,  to  which  cyanide  of  potassium 
is  added  until  the  carbonate  is  entirely 
dissolved,  and  the  solution  is  colourless. 
It  is  well  to  add  a  small  excess  of 
cyanide,  which  will  increase  the  con- 
ducting powev  of  the  liquor.  This  bath 
may  be  emi)loyed  hot  or  cold,  and  i-e- 
quires  an  intense  electric  current  for  its 
'iecompositiou.  A  copper  plate  or  foil 
forms  the  anode,  and  as  it'  slowly  dis- 
solves, nearly  makes  up  for  the  loss  of 
co]iper  in  the  bath  which  has  deposited 
on  the  negative  pole.  This  anode  must 
be  removed  when  the  bath  does  not  work, 
because  it  will  be  dissolved  even  without 
an  electric  current,  and  the  bath  having 
been  overcharged  with  copper,  which  is 
imlicated  by  a  blue  or  green  colour,  will 
require  a  fresh  addition  of  cyanide  to  be 
in  good  order.  This  bath  is  neither 
economical  nor  very  rolialjle.  The  fol- 
lowing formula  is  preferable; — Water, 
'I  galls.;  acetate  of  copper,  crystallized  ; 
carbonate  of  soda,  crystals;  bisulphite  of 
soda  ;  cyanide  cf  potassium,  pure,  per 
cent.,  7  oz.  of  each.  For  this  bath  the 
acetate  of  copper  is  put  first  into  the 
vessel,  and  moistened  with  sullicicnt 
water  to  make  a  homogeneous  paste.  Tliis 
salt,  like  fioiir,  is  wetted  with  dilliculty, 
and  will  float  on  the  surface  of  too  great 
a  body  of  water.  The  carbonate  of  soda 
and  some  water  are  added  to  this  paste, 
and,  after  stirring,  a  light  green  preci- 
jiitate  is  formed.  Three  pints  more 
water  are  then  ad<lc<l  with  the  bisul- 
j)hite  of  Kodn,  and  the  mixture  becomes 
of  a  dirty  yellow  colour.  Lastly,  add 
the  remainder  of  the  water  and  the  cya- 
nide of  uota«sium.     Toe  electro-coj)per 


bath  must  be  colourless.  If,  after  the 
comjdete  solution  of  the  cyanide,  the 
liquor  is  not  entirely  colourless,  add 
more  cyanide.  If  a  perfectly  limpid 
bath  is  desired,  pass  it  through  filtering 
paper,  or  decant  it  after  settling.  This 
bath  requires  an  electric  current  of  me- 
diate intensity  for  its  decomposition. 
The  copper  anode  should  have  a  surface 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  immersed 
objects.  Large  pieces  are  generally 
kept  hanging  and  motionless  in  the 
bath,  whilst  small  articles  are  moved  as 
much  as  possible,  which  is  always  to  be 
preferred,  especially  with  warm  baths. 
If  it  were  always  jiossible  to  obtain  a 
pure  cyanide  of  potassium,  this  formula 
would  be  satisfactory  in  every  case. 
But  it  is  very  dilficult  to  find  a  per- 
fectly satisfactory  cyanide  of  potassium  ; 
the  following  t'ormulaj  require  a  cva- 
nide  containing  from  70  to  75  per  cent, 
of  the  real  article. 

Cold  Bath  for  Iron  and  Steel. — Bisul- 
phate  of  soda  and  cyanide  of  potassium, 
18  oz.  of  each  ;  carbonate  of  soda,  36  oz. ; 
acetate  of  coppsr,  17  oz. ;  aqua  ammo- 
nia, \2\  oz. ;  water,  Tii  gallons. 

Warm  Hath. —  Bisulphite  of  soda, 
7  oz. ;  cyanide  of  potassium,  2")  oz. ;  car- 
bonate of  soda  and  acetate  of  copper, 
18  oz.  of  each  ;  aqua  ammonia,  10  oz. ; 
water,  TiJ  gallons. 

I/ot  or  Cold  Bath  for  Tin,  Cast  Iron, 
or  Large  Pieces  of  Zinc.  —  Bisul|)hite  of 
soda,  10  oz. ;  cyanide  of  potassium, 
18  oz. ;  acetate  of  coii])or,  \2h  oz. ;  aqua 
ammonia,  7  oz. ;  water,  hh  gallons. 
For  small  articles  of  zinc  which  are 
co])pered  in  a  perforated  ladle,  and  in 
nearly  boiling  baths  ; — Cyanide  of  po- 
tassium, 2.")  oz. ;  bisulphite  of  soda, 
.SJ  oz. ;  acetate  of  cojiper,  It?  oz. ;  aqua 
ainmonia,  t^\  oz.  ;  water,  4  to  h\  gal- 
lons. To  ]ire])are  these  dilVereut  baths, 
dissolve  all  the  salts  in  about  4  gallons 
of  r.'iin  or  distilled  water,  exce]it  the 
acetate  of  cop])er  and  the  ammonia, 
which  are  dissolved  ajiart  in  the  remain- 
ing gallon.  These  two  solutions  are 
mixed,  and  that  of  cojipnr  and  ammonia, 
which  was  of  a  magnificent  blue,  must 
become  entirely  colourless.  When  the 
liquors  are  not  colourless  there  is  a  de- 


WOKKSHO?   RECEIPTS. 


183 


nciency  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  -which 
aiust  be  added  until  entire  decolouriza- 
tion  takes  place.     The  bath  is  ready  to 
wori  when  subjected   to  the  action  of 
the   electric   cun-ent.      The    cold   baths 
are  put  into  well-joined  tanks  of  oak  or 
fir  wood,  lined  inside  with  gutta-percha. 
The  vertical  sides  are  also  covered  with 
sheets  of  copper,  which  act  as  the  so- 
luble anode,  and  reach  to  just  below  the 
top  edge  of  the  tank.     This  anode  is  con- 
nected by  the  clean  extremities  of  a  con- 
ducting wire  to  the  last  copper  or  carbon, 
— that  is  to  say,  to  the  positive  pole. 
Fix  a  stout  brass  wire  upon  the  top  of  the 
tank,  without  any  point  of  contact  with 
the  soluble    anode,    and   connect   by    a 
second  wire  with  the  last  zinc  or  nega- 
tive   pole    of  the    same  battery.      The 
objects  to  be  coppered  are  suspended  in 
the    bath    by  copper    wires,    supported 
themselves   upon    a    stout,    clean,  brass 
rod,  the  two  extremities  of  which  rest 
upon    the    brass   conducting  wire  fixed 
upon  the  tank.      Several   of  such  rods 
are   placed  parallel  to   each  other,  and 
great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  any 
contact    with    the    anode,    because    the 
working  of  the  bath  would  then  be  im- 
mediately stopped.     When  the  thickness 
of  the  deposited   copper  is  very  small, 
the  coat  is  sufficiently  bright  to  be  con- 
sidered  finished    after  drying.      But  if 
the    operation  is  more  protracted,  the 
deposit  has  a  more  or  less  dead  lustre  on 
account  of  its  thickness,  and,  if  a  bright 
lustre    is    desired,     we    must    use    the 
scratch-brush.     The   hot  baths  are  put 
into  stoneware  vessels  heated  in  a  water 
or  steam  bath,  or  into  an  enamelled  cast- 
iron  kettle  placed  directly  over  a  fire. 
The  insides  are  also  lined  with  an  anode 
of  copper  connected    with    the  positive 
pole  of  the  battery,  and  the  edges  of  the 
vessels    are    varnished,    or     support    a 
wooden  ring   upon  which   rests   a  brass 
circle  communicating  with  the  negative 
pole.     The   objects  to  be  electroplated 
hang  from  this  circle.     The  hot  process 
is  much  more  rapid  than  the  cold,  and  is 
especially    adapted     to    those     articles 
which   are   difficult   to  cleanse,  because 
anv  remaining  greasy  substance  is  dis- 
solved by  the  alkaline  bath.     Parcels  of 


small  articles,  metallic  pens,  for  in- 
stance, are  not  suspended  in  the  bath  ; 
they  should  be  connected  with  the  ne- 
gative wire  in  the  hand  of  the  operator, 
and  stirred  about  in  every  direction  in 
the  bath.  This  agitation  permits  of  the 
employment  of  an  intense  current,  witt- 
out  danger  to  the  beauty  of  the  dep;sit. 
Small  articles  of  zinc  are  placed  in  a 
stoneware  perforated  ladle,  at  the  bot- 
tom of  which  is  attached  a  zinc  or 
copper  wire,  which  is  wound  up  around 
the  handle,  and  is  connected  with  the 
negative  pole  of  the  battery.  It  is  suf- 
ficient that  one  of  the  small  articles 
touches  the  wire  for  all  of  the  others  to 
be  affected  by  the  current,  as  they  are 
in  contact  with  each  other.  If  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  is  metallic,  the 
ladle  is  made  to  rest  u]ion  a  porcelain  or 
stoneware  ring.  During  the  ojieration 
the  articles  are  often  jerked  in  the  ladle; 
this  agitation  changes  the  jiosition  am\ 
the  points  of  contact  of  the  objects. 
When  the  deposit  is  being  made  too 
slowly  bring  up  the  bath  by  the  addi- 
tion of  equal  weights  of  acetate  of 
copper  and  cyanide  of  potassium. 

To  Copper  Silver.  —  Large  pieces  of 
silverware  may  be  coppered  in  these 
baths.  Very  small  articles  are  simply 
threaded  upon  a  zinc  or  iron  wire,  or 
placed  in  a  perforated  ladle  with  gra- 
nules or  cuttings  of  either  of  these  me- 
tals. Place  the  whole  for  a  few  minutes 
in  a  diluted  but  very  acid  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  the  zinc  or  the  iron 
is  dissolved,  and  the  copper  is  deposited 
upon  the  silver.  When  the  article  is 
intended  to  be  gilded  or  silvered,  it  is 
immediately  passed  through  the  solution 
of  nitrate  of  binoxide  of  mercury,  rinsed 
in  cold  water,  and  placed  in  the  electro- 
baths,  without  drying  or  scratch- 
brushing. 

Brass  Deposits. — All  the  manufac- 
tures of  bronze  composition  made  of  zinc 
or  cheap  alloys,  have  a  brass  deposit 
placed  on  before  the  bronze  lustre  is  giveu, 
as  the  bronzing  operation  is  more  eafj 
and  satisfactory  upon  brass  deposits.  The 
preliminary  aud  finishing  operations  and 
the  disposition  of  the  baths  are  the  same 
for  brass  a^  for  copper  deposits      Heat  is 


184 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS, 


employed  for  brass  deposits  by  those  who 
electroplate  coils  of  iron  or  zinc  wire 
with  this  alloy.  The  projier  temperature 
varies  from  130°  to  140°  F.,  and  the  coils 
of  wire  dip  only  one-half  or  two-thirds 
of  their  diameter  into  the  bath.  The 
bath  is  put  into  an  oblong  open  iron 
boiler  heated  by  fire,  steam,  or  hot 
water.  The  inside  is  lined  with  brass 
sheets  connected  with  the  positive  i)ole 
of  a  battery.  A  stout  copper  or  brass 
rod,  m  the  direction  of  the  length  of 
the  boiler,  rests  upon  the  edges,  and  the 
contact  of  the  two  metals  is  prevented 
by  [lieces  of  india-rubber  tubing.  The 
rod  is  connected  with  the  negative  pole 
by  a  binding  screw.  Remove  the  binding 
wire  from  the  coils,  and  loosen  the  wires, 
bending  the  ends  together  into  a  loop. 
Dip  the  wire  in  a  pickle  of  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  hang  it  on  a  strong 
round  peg  held  in  the  wall,  so  that  the 
coil  may  be  made  to  rotate  easily.  After 
a  scrubbing  with  wet,  sharp  sand  and  a 
hard  brush,  give  the  coil  a  primary  de- 
jiosit  of  pure  copper.  It  is  then  susjiended 
to  the  horizontal  rod  over  the  brass  bath, 
where  only  a  part  of  the  coil  at  a  time 
dips  into  the  solution  and  receives  the 
deposit ;  the  coil  must  be  turned  now  and 
then  one-half  or  one-fourth  of  its  cii'ciim- 
fenmce :  by  dipping  the  coil  entirely  into 
the  lifiuiil,  the  operation  is  not  so  success- 
ful. The  wires  are  washed,  dried  in  saw- 
dust, and  then  in  a  stove,  and  lastly 
passed  through  a  draw-plate,  to  give  them 
the  fine  polish  of  true  brass  wire.  Cop- 
per and  brass  wires  are  also  covered  with 
brass  electro-deposits,  in  order  to  give 
them  various  shades. 

Solutions  for  lirass  Baths. — The  ordi- 
nary cyanide  of  potassium  is  often  ]iie- 
ferred  to  the  pure  art  icle,  onacroiiiit  of  its 
lower  price;  but  the  real  value  ami  dis- 
solving jiroperty  of  ordinary  cyanide  are 
very  varialde.  The  fnilowing  is  a  general 
method  l>y  which  a  bath  ot'  brass  may  he 
pro[)ared  with  any  kind  of  cyanide; — 1. 
Dissolve  togeflier,  in  2  gallons  of  water, 
B  oz.  of  sulphate  of  cop|>cr,  and  8  to  10 
oz.  of  suljiliate  of  zinc.  2.  4  oz.  of  acetate 
of  copfier,  with  4  to  5  oz.  of  fused  jiroto- 
chliiride  of  zinc;  and  add  a  solution  of  .'JO 
oz.  of  raibonatc  of  soda,  which  jiioduccs 


a  precipitate  of  the  carbonates  of  copper 
and  zinc  :  allow  this  to  settle;  then  decant 
the  supernatant  liquor,  and  replace  it  bv 
fresh  water  two  or  three  times,  after  as 
many  settlings.  Then  pour  on  2  gallons 
of  water  containing,  in  solution,  oO  oz. 
of  axrbonate  of  soda,  and  15  oz.  of  bisul- 
phite of  soda ;  while  stirring  with  a  glass 
or  wooden  rod,  add  ordinary  cyanide  of 
potassium  until  the  liquor  is  perfectly 
clear,  or  until  nothing  but  the  greyish- 
black  iron,  found  in  the  cyanide,  or  ilio 
brown-red  oside  of  iron  in  the  sulphate 
of  zinc,  remains  in  suspension.  An  addi- 
tional quantity  of  about  an  ounce  of 
ordinary  cyanide  improves  the  conduct- 
ing jiuwer  of  the  liquor.  With  pure 
cyanide  of  potassium,  or  the  ordinary 
cyanides  with  a  constant  and  known 
composition,  use  the  following  nii.xtures 
Cold  Brass  Bath  for  all  Metals ;  Carbon- 
ate of  copjier,  recently  prepared,  and 
carbonate  of  zinc,  recently  prei)ared,  each 
4  oz. ;  carbonate  of  soda,  in  crystals,  bi- 
sulphite of  soda,  and  cyanide  of  jjotas- 
sium,  pure,  each  8  oz. ;  and  Jjj  of  an 
ounce  of  white  arsenic;  water,  about  2 
gallons.  This  bath  is  prepared  as  follows  : 
Dissolve,  in  3  pints  of  water,  5  oz.  of  sul- 
phate of  coDjier,  and  .')  oz.  of  crystallized 
sulphate  of  zinc,  and  add  a  solution  of 
14  oz.  of  caibonate  of  soda  in  a  quart  of 
water.  A  gieenish  precijiitate  of  mixed 
carbonates  of  copper  and  zinc  is  formed, 
stir  well,  and  allow  to  de]iosit  for  seve- 
ral hours.  The  su]K'rnatant  jiiiuid, 
holding  the  useless  sulphate  of  soda,  is 
thrown  away,  and  replaced  by  nearly 
2  gallons  ot'  water,  in  which  are  dis- 
solved the  bisulphite  and  carbonate! 
dissolve  together  in  the  remaining  warna 
water  the  cy.uiide  of  pota.ssium  and  the 
arsenious  acid,  ;md  pour  this  liquor  into 
the  former  one,  which  is  rapidly  deco- 
lourized, and  forms  the  brass  bath.  Filter 
if  necessary.  Arsenious  acid  causes  the 
deposit  to  be  bright,  but  if  in  too  great 
a  jirojiortion  may  give  a  white  or  steel- 
grey  colour  to  the  metal.  This  incon- 
venience is  slight,  as  the  yellow  colour 
soon  ]iredomiuates.  The  arsenious  acid 
may  be  replaced  by  soluble  arsenites  of 
potash,  soila,  or  ammonia,  but  the  pro- 
portions must    be  doubled.     The  batbs 


WORKSHOP   EECEIPtS. 


185 


for  cold  electroplating  are  generally 
placed  in  wooden  tanks  lined  inside 
with  gutta-percha,  which  resists  their 
action  for  a  long  time.  The  sides  of 
the  tank  are  also  lined  with  one  or  more 
brass  sheets  joined  together,  connected 
with  the  last  carbon  or  copper  of  the 
same  battery,  the  intensity  of  which  is 
regulated  by  the  surface  of  the  articles 
to  be  electroplated.  The  articles  are 
suspended  by  copper  or  brajs  hooks  to 
stout  rods  of  the  same  metal,  all  con- 
nected with  the  last  zinc  of  the  battery. 
Correcting  the  Brass  Bath. — The  losses 
of  the  solution  are  to  be  repaired  by  ad- 
ditions of  copper  and  zinc  salts,  and 
arsenious  acid,  dissolved  in  cyanide  of 
potassium.  The  operator  will  deter- 
mine the  needed  substances  from  the  ra- 
jiidity  of  the  deposit,  its  colour,  and  so  on. 
\i  the  deposit  is  too  slow,  try  whether 
the  batli  will  absorb  the  salts  of  copper 
and  zinc,  without  the  addition  of  cy- 
anide. If  the  coat  of  brass  has  an  earthy 
and  ochreous  appearance,  and  especially 
if  the  liquor  is  blue  or  green,  add  cya- 
r.ide  of  potassium  until  perfect  decolouri- 
zation  takes  place.  If  the  deposit  is  dull 
and  unequal,  add  a  small  quantity  of 
arsenious  acid  dissolved  in  cyanide.  If 
the  deposit  is  too  red,  add  the  salt  of 
zinc,  alone,  or  dissolved  in  cyanide.  If 
the  deposit  is  too  white,  or  of  a  greenish- 
white  colour,  add  the  salt  of  copper 
alone,  or  dissolved  in  cyanide.  When 
the  bath  after  long  use  has  become  over- 
loaded with  salts,  the  specific  gravity  is 
too  great  for  the  easy  passage  of  the 
electric  current,  the  liquor  must  be  di- 
luted with  water  until  it  works  satis- 
factorily. The  specific  gravity  of  a  brass 
bath  may  vary  from  5°  to  12°  Baume. 
The  pieces,  before  brass  electroplating, 
must  be  perfectly  cleansed  in  the  same 
manner  as  zinc  or  iron  ;  if  the  brass  de- 
posit is  irregular,  remove  the  objects 
from  the  bath,  rinse,  scratch-brush,  and 
put  again  into  the  bath  until  the  colour 
and  the  thickness  of  the  deposit  are  satis- 
factory. Scratch-brush  again,  and,  if 
necessary,  rinse  in  hot  water,  dry  in 
warm  ."aw-dust  of  white  wood,  and  put 
in  the  stove-room.  The  last  three  opera- 
tions are  indispensable  for  hollow-pieces. 


Brass  Bath  for  Steel,  Wrought  and 
Cast  Iron,  and  Tin  ;  using  ordinary  Cy- 
anide of  Potassium. — Dissolve  togethei 
in  14  pints  of  pure  or  rain  water  ;— 
Bisulphite  of  soda,  7  oz. ;  cyanide  of  po- 
tassium. No.  2, 17  oz. ;  carbonate  of  soda, 

34  oz.  To  this  solution  add  the  follow- 
ing, made  in  3^  pints  of  water ; — Ace- 
tate of  copper,  4J  oz. ;  neutral  proto- 
chloride  of  zinc,  3J  oz.  The  two  liquors 
become  colourless  when  mixed.  Ammo- 
nia must  not  be  used  for  brass  electro- 
plating baths  for  iron,  especially  for 
solutions  worked  in  the  cold. 

Brass  Bath  for  Zinc. — Pure  or  rain 
water,  4i  gallons  ;  bisulphite  of  soda, 
24i   oz. ;    cyanide  of  potassium.  No.  2, 

35  oz.  Add  the  following  solution; — 
Water,  9  jiints ;  acetate  of  copper  and 
protochloride  of  zinc,  each  12J  oz. ; 
ammonia,  14  oz.  The  filtered  bath  is 
colourless,  and  gives,  under  the  action 
of  the  battery,  a  brass  deposit  of  a  very 
fine  shade,  varying  from  red  to  green, 
by  increasing  the  proportion  of  copper, 
or  that  of  zinc.     The  anode  is  of  brass. 

Colour  of  Brass  Deposit. — The  difficulty 
in  brass  electroplating,  especially  with 
small  baths,  is  in  keeping  the  uniformity 
of  the  colour  of  the  deposit,  as  the  gal- 
vanic current,  having  simultaneously  to 
decompose  two  salts  each  oflering  a  dif- 
ferent resistance,  must,  according  to  its 
intensity,  vary  the  composition  and  the 
colour  of  the  deposited  alloy.  It  will 
be  found  that  a  feeble  current  princi- 
pally decomposes  the  copper  salt,  and 
results  in  a  red  deposit  ;  whilst  too  great 
intensity  in  the  current  decomposes  the 
solution  of  zinc  too  rapidly,  and  the  de- 
posit is  a  white  or  bluish-white  alloy. 
This  is  the  case  more  especially  with 
newlj'-prepared  baths,  and  is  an  indication 
of  irregularity  in  the  conducting  power 
of  the  bath,  which,  however,  becomes 
more  regular  after  being  used  for  some 
time.  The  inconvenience  of  a  red  deposit 
maybe  remedied  by  increasing  the  num- 
ber of  the  elements  of  the  battery,  or 
employing  stronger  acids,  or  decreasirg 
the  number  and  the  surfaces  of  the  ob- 
jects to  be  plated  ;  the  other  inconve- 
nience of  white  deposits  will  disappear  by 
diminishing  the  number  of  elements,  or 


186 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


by  increasing  the  surfaces  to  be  covered. 
The  deposit  m:iy  also  be  modified  by 
substituting  for  the  brass  anode,  either 
a  sheet  of  ]nire  copper,  or  one  of  zinc, 
or  by  siin]ily  hooking  one  of  these  sheets 
to  the  br;iss  anode.  A  bath  of  pure 
copper  will  be  transformed  into  one  of 
brass  by  the  use  of  a  zinc  anode ;  and  an 
electro-bath  of  brass  will  become  one  of 
copper  by  the  aid  of  a  copper  anjde. 

Arrangement  of  the  Brass  Jlath. — In  the 
disposition  of  the  baths  for  brass  plating 
it  is  always  necessary  to  have  all  the 
articles  suspended  at  about  equal  dis- 
tances from  the  anodes;  tl\e  bath  may 
be  subdivided  by  several  anodes  forming 
partitions,  so  that  each  loaded  rod  is 
between  two  anodes,  or  smaller  separate 
baths  employed.  The  anodes  should  be 
removed  when  the  bath  is  not  at  work. 
In  order  that  the  brass  electroplating 
of  zinc  and  copper  may  be  lasting,  the 
deposit  must  not  be  too  thin,  and  must 
be  scratch-brushed,  rinsed  in  water  ren- 
dered slightly  alkaline  by  quicklime, 
and  thoroughly  dried  in  a  stove.  But 
generally  the  articles  are  brass  electro- 
plated by  remaining  in  the  bath  for 
irom  10  to  25  minutes.  Cast  and 
wrought  iron,  lead  and  its  alloys,  re- 
quire brass  solutions  richer  in  the  me- 
tals than  when  depositing  brass  upon 
zinc  or  its  alloys.  The  battery  power 
should  also  be  greater. 

Brass  Plating  by  simple  Dipping. — A 
colour  resembling  brass  is  given  to  small 
articles  of  iron  or  steel  by  a  long  stir- 
ring in  a  suspended  tul),  containing  water, 
1  quart;  sulph.-ite  of  co|i[ier  and  proto- 
chloride  of  tin  crystallized,  about  ^  of 
an  ounce  each.  The  shades  are  modified 
by  varying  the  proportions  of  the  two 
salts. 

Brassing  Bead  and  Pewter. — Lead  and 
pewter  should  be  clean.sed  in  a  solution 
of  about  4  oz.  of  nitr"c  aeid  to  the 
gallon  of  water,  in  which  they  remain 
for  half  an  hour.  I'cwter  is  more  easily 
coated  with  l)rass  than  lead,  but  the 
same  bath  may  be  used  for  either.  They 
are  then  rin.sed,  scoured  with  sand,  anil 
rinsed  again.  A  good  battery  power 
and  a  large  surface  of  anode  arc  neces- 
sary, especially  ai  the  beginning  cf  the 


deposit.  The  proper  temperature  of  the 
bath  for  brassmg  lead,  pewter,  and  tin  is 
about  90°  F.  Stirring  articles  in  a  brass 
bath  has  a  tendency  to  cause  the  deposi- 
tion of  cop]ier  alone. 

Tinning.  —  Tinning  Bath,  by  Ex- 
change, for  Iron.  —  This  process  is  of 
little  importance  as  a  protection  for 
iron  as  the  layer  of  tin  is  a  mere  film, 
but  it  may  be  useful  when  thicker  coats 
of  tin  are  to  be  applied  by  other  jirocesses. 
For  the  bath,  dissolve  with  the  aid  of 
heat,  in  an  enamelled  cast-iron  kettle, 
ammoniacnl  alum,  11  oz,,  and  fused 
protochloride  of  tin,  -^  oz.,  in  Ah  gallons 
of  soft  water.  The  i)ieces  of  iron,  pre- 
viously cleansed  and  rinsed  in  cold 
water,  are  steeped  in  the  solution  as. 
soon  as  it  boils.  They  are  immediately 
covered  with  a  film  of  tin  of  a  fine  white 
dead  lustre,  which  may  be  rendered 
bright  by  friction.  The  bath  is  main- 
tained at  the  proper  strength  by  small 
additions  of  fused  protochloride  of  tin. 
This  bath  is  convenient  for  a  prelimi- 
nary tinning  of  zinc ;  when  the  ammo- 
niacal  alum  may  be  replaced  by  any 
other  kind  of  alum,  or  by  sulphate  of 
alumina;  but  for  wrought  and  cast  iron 
and  steel  this  substitution  cannot  be 
made. 

Electro-Tinning. — The  bath  is  com- 
posed of  rain  or  distilled  water,  110 
gallons;  ipyiojihosjihate  of  soda  or  ]iot- 
ash,  11  lbs.;  crystallized  protochloride 
of  tin,  21  oz.  ;  or  18  oz.  of  the  same  salt 
fused,  in  order  to  have  it  free  from  an 
e.xcess  of  acid  ;  put  the  water  into  a  tank 
entirely  lined  with  anodes  of  tin  sheets, 
united  together  and  connected  with  the 
positive  pole,  carbon  or  cop]ier,  of  the 
battery.  Then  introduce  tlie  jiyrojihos- 
pliate  of  soda  or  |potash,  and  stir  it  in; 
when  dissolved,  the  protochloride  of  tin 
is  jiut  into  a  sieve  of  cojiper  half  im- 
mersed in  the  solution.  A  milky-white 
precipitate  is  jiroduced,  which  disa])pear« 
after  continued  agitation.  When  the 
liciuid  has  become  clear  and  colourless, 
or  only  slightly  yellow,  the  bath  is 
reaily ;  then  ]ilace  ujion  transverse  mo- 
tjijlic  rods,  connected  with  the  negative 
]iole,  the  previously  cleansed  objects 
which  are  to  be  tinncl,      Fhf,  anodiw  ar« 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


187 


not  sufficient  to  keep  the  bath  saturated  ; 
when  tlie  deposit  is  too  slow  add  small 
portions  of  equal  weights  of  tin,  salt, 
and  pyrophosphate ;  put  in  by  the  aid  of 
the  sieve,  as  if  fragments  of  protochlo- 
rideof  tin  foil  to  the  bottom  of  the  bath 
they  become  covered  with  a  crust,  which 
prevents  their  solution.  The  tinning 
thus  obtained  upon  any  kind  of  metal 
is  quite  i-esisting,  and  has  a  white  and 
dead  lustre  resembling  that  of  silver. 
A  bright  lustre  may  be  obtained  with 
the  scratch-brush  or  the  burnishing  tool. 
As  the  reduction  of  these  baths  re- 
quires an  intense  current,  and  the  work- 
ing of  the  batteries  is  expensive,  the  next 
pro'jess  is  preferable. 

Tinning  by  DovJAe  Affinity. — The  bath 
is  composed  of — 1.  Distilled  water,  Q^ 
gallons ;  cream  tartar,  6^  lbs. ;  proto- 
chlonde  of  tin,  lOJ  oz.  The  powdered 
cream  of  tartar  is  dissolved  in  44  gallons 
of  warm  water,  and  the  tin  salt  in  22 
gallons  of  cold  water.  The  two  solutions 
when  mixed  become  clear,  and  the  i-esult- 
ing  bath  has  an  acid  reaction.  Or,  2,  dis- 
tilled water,  66  gallons  ;  pyrophosphate 
of  potash  or  soda,  13  lbs. ;  protochloride 
of  tin,  crystallized  acid,  21  oz. ;  or  the 
same  fused,  neutral,  14  oz.  The  whole 
is  dissolved  at  the  same  time'on  a  metal 
sieve,  and,  after  stirring,  the  bath  is  clear. 
Either  of  these  solutions  is  kept  in  a 
barrel  with  the  top  oft'.  This  barrel  has 
at  its  lower  part  two  tubes  placed  one 
above  the  other,  connected  with  a  small 
boiler  built  below  the  level  of  the 
bottom  of  the  tank.  The  tube,  starting 
from  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  reaches 
nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  ;  the 
other  tube,  which  is  placed  about  three 
inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  is 
connected  to  the  top  of  the  boiler ;  a 
bent  safety  tube,  connected  only  to  the 
boiler,  prevents  any  explosion,  should 
there  be  an  obstruction  in  the  other 
tabes.  A  small  quantity  of  water  or 
mercury  in  the  bent  arm  of  the  safety 
tube  will  prevent  the  escape  of  steam, 
when  it  does  not  exceed  the  working 
pressure  required.  When  the  boiler  and 
tank  are  filled  with  liquid,  as  soon  as 
heat  is  applied  the  expanded  and  lighter 
liquid  will  rise  through  the  upper  pipe 


into  the  barrel,  while  the  colder  and 
denser  one  will  flow  into  the  boiler 
through  the  lower  pipe.  A  continual 
circulation  is  thus  obtained,  which  keeps 
up  a  constant  agitation  of  the  contents  of 
the  bath.  Large  pieces  are  cleansed  and 
rinsed,  and  piled  in  the  bath  with  a  few 
fragments  or  spirals  of  zinc  ;  the  surface 
of  the  zinc  should  be  about  the  thirtieth 
of  that  of  the  tinned  articles.  For 
small  objects,  such  as  pins  or  hooks, 
dispose  them  in  layers  about  an  inch 
thick  upon  perforated  plates  of  zinc, 
which  allow  of  the  circulation  of  the 
liquid,  and  have  their  edges  turned  up 
so  as  to  prevent  the  objects  from  falling 
oft".  These  plates  should  be  removed 
from  the  bath  in  the  inverse  order  in 
which  they  have  been  put  in.  These 
zinc  plates  must  be  scraped  and  cleaned, 
so  as  to  present  fresh  surfaces  of  zinc 
instead  of  the  white  crust,  which  pre- 
vents its  contact  with  the  articles  to 
be  tinned.  The  time  for  the  ojieration 
varies  from  1  to  3  hours.  Then  remove 
all  the  objects,  and  add  to  the  bath 
9  oz.  of  pyrophosphate,  and  as  much 
of  fused  protochloride  of  tin.  Whilst 
the  solution  is  going  on,  scratch- 
brush  the  large  articles,  and  stir  the 
small  ones  about  with  an  iron  fork, 
to  change  the  points  of  contact.  The 
objects  are  then  again  steeped  in  the 
bath  for  at  least  2  hours.  The  larga 
pieces  are  scratch-brushed  again,  and 
the  small  ones  rendered  bright  by  mu- 
tual friction.  Then  dry  the  whole  in 
dry  and  warm  fir-wood  saw-dust.  Cast- 
iron  cooking  vessels  thus  tinned  have  a 
bright  appearance,  and  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  never  communicating  any 
taste,  smell,  or  colour  to  the  food  cooked 
in  them,  even  when  the  tinning,  after 
long  use,  has  completely  disappeared. 

Colour  of  Tin  Deposit. — If  the  tin  de- 
posit is  grey  and  dull,  although  abun- 
dant, prepare  the  bath,  once  or  twice, 
with  the  acid  crystallized  protochloride 
of  tin.  With  a  very  white  deposit,  but 
blistered  and  without  adherence  or 
thickness,  replace  the  acid  salt  by  the 
fused  one.  In  the  latter  case,  also  dimi- 
nish the  proportion  of  tin  salt,  and  in- 
crease that  of  pyrophosphate ;  a  great 


188 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


deal  of  the  success  of  the  operation  de- 
pends upon  the  quality  of  the  pj-rophos- 
jihate.  Wiieu  a  tinning  bath  has  been 
worked  for  a  long  time,  decant  the  liquor 
to  separate  the  pyrophosphate  of  zinc 
formed.  And  when,  after  several  years, 
the  solution  is  entirely  used  up  from 
the  alteration  of  the  salts,  it  should  be 
kept  in  preserving  tubs,  where  the  ob- 
jects to  be  tinned  are  put  after 
cleansing. 

To  Tin  Zinc. — The  proportions  of  the 
bath  are  as  follows; — Distilled  witer, 
66  gallons ;  jiyrophosphate  of  soda, 
11  lbs;  fused  protochloride  of  tin,  35  oz. 
A  thin  tinning  is  obtained  by  simple 
dipping,  and  one  of  any  thickness  by  the 
aid  of  tlie  battery. 

Whitening  h>j  Tin. — This  is  effected 
by  boiling  for  two  or  three  hours  in 
long  copper  troughs,  crude  cream  of 
tartar  with  tin  plates  supporting  a  layer 
of  about  h  an  inch  of  the  pins,  or  other 
small  articles,  to  be  whitened.  The 
whole  charge  is  composed  of  alternate 
I'iyers  of  pins  and  tin  plates,  so  that 
each  layer  of  pins  is  between  two  tin 
plates.  This  process  will  not  succeed 
with  iron  without  an  intermediate  coat 
of  copper  has  been  deposited. 

GiLDixo.  —  Gilding  by  Dipping.  — 
The  baths  employed  contain  gold  in  the 
form  of  a  double  salt  of  protoxide,  and 
should  possess  little  stability,  that  is 
to  say,  be  decomposed  and  abandon  the 
gold  under  feeble  influences,  and  should 
dissolve  the  copper  placed  in  them  in  an 
equivalent  ])roportion  to  that  of  the  de- 
jiositcd  gol(l,  thus  forming  a  new  double 
salt  in  which  the  copper  is  in  the  same 
degree  of  oxidization  as  the  gold.  When 
the  articles  have  been  previously  amal- 
gamated, it  is  mercury  and  not  copj)er 
which  is  substituted  for  gold  in  the 
solution. 

I'repuriition  of  the  Gold  D  dh. — Dis- 
tilled water,  17  jiints;  jiyrophosphate 
of  pota.sh,  or  soda,  28  oz. ;  hydrocyanio 
acid  of  ^  prussic  acid,  \  of  an  ounce ; 
(rystallized  j)crchloride  of  gold,  ^j  of  an 
ounce.  The  pyrophosjihate  olsoda  is  most 
(^I'lieraily  employed,  and  is  obtained  by 
iiii'lting,  at  a  white  heat,  the  ordinary 
crystalli/td    phosphate    of    boda.      The 


pyrophosphate  of  soda  may  be  obtained 
in  the  form  of  crystals,  which  is  a  proof 
of  a  definite  composition.  The  quantity 
of  chloride  represents  a  little  more  than 
■i  of  an  ounce  of  pure  gold  treated  by 
aqua  regia.  Put  16  pints  of  distilled 
water  in  a  porcelain  vessel,  or  an  ena- 
melled cast-iron  kettle,  and  add,  by  small 
portions  at  a  time,  and  stirring  with  a 
glass  rod,  the  pyrojiliosphate ;  heat, 
filter,  and  let  it  cool  down.  The  chloride 
of  gold  is  prepared  by  introducing  into 
a  small  glass  flask  pure  gold  finely  lami- 
nated, -i  of  an  ounce;  hydrochloric  acid, 
pure,  nearly  1  oz. ;  nitric  acid,  pure,  J  an 
ounce.  The  flask  is  slightly  heated,  ell'ei'- 
vescence  and  abundant  nitrous  vapours 
result,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  gold 
has  entirely  disappeared,  leaving  a  reddish- 
yellow  liquor.  The  flask  is  then  put 
upon  a  sheet  of  iron,  with  a  hole  in  its 
centre,  and  supported  by  a  tripod.  The 
whole  is  heated  by  a  gas  or  sj)irit  lamp 
to  evajiorate  excess  of  the  acids;  too 
much  acidity  may  cause  great  irre- 
gularities in  the  working  of  the  bath, 
and  even  prevent  its  action  altogether. 
An  excess  of  nitric  acid  causes  a  jumping 
of  the  heated  liquors,  and  may  over- 
throw the  whole  ;  it  is  preferable  to 
havetiio  hydrochloric  acid  predominating. 
The  evMporation  is  finishoil  wiien  va]iours 
escape  slowly  from  the  flask,  and  when 
the  liquid  has  become  of  an  oily  con- 
sistency and  of  a  deep  red  colour.  The 
flask  is  then  removed  from  the  fire  by 
wooden  pincers,  and  set  to  cool  ujion  a 
ring  of  plaited  straw.  If  a  more  rapid 
eva])oration  is  desired,  heat  the  flask 
over  ignited  charcoal,  or  the  spirit 
lamp;  agitate  the  liquid  to  j)revent  any 
of  the  gold  from  returning  to  the  me- 
tallic state.  Well-prepared  chloride  of 
g(dd,  when  cold,  forms  a  saffron-yellow 
crystalline  mass.  If  the  colour  is  red, 
it  has  been  too  much  evaporated,  and 
will  do  very  well  for  electro-baths;  but 
for  dipf)ing  baths  it  must  be  heated  again 
alter  a  small  addition  of  the  two  acids. 
If  the  perchloride  of  gold,  by  too  pro- 
tra<ted  a  heat,  has  passed  to  the  state  of 
ins<j!uble  ])i  otocliloride,  or  even  of  me- 
tallic gold,  the  treatment  must  be  begun 
again  with  the  indicated  mixture  of  pure 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


189 


nitric  and  hydrochlonc  acids.  The  per- 
forated sheet  of  iron,  upon  which  the 
flask  rests,  is  intended  to  prevent  the 
action  of  heat  upon  the  sides  of  the 
vessel,  which  will  decompose  the  films 
of  chloride  of  gold  wetting  the  flask  at 
these  places.  When  the  chloride  of  gold 
is  cold  and  crystallized,  dissolve  it  in  the 
flask  with  a  little  distilled  water,  and 
pour  the  solution  through  a  paper  filter 
held  in  a  glass  funnel  into  a  clean 
bottle  ;  this  is  to  separate  a  small  quan- 
tity of  silver  always  found  in  the  gold  of 
the  trade.  Rinse  the  flask  and  filter 
with  the  unemployed  water,  so  as  to  get 
all  the  gold  into  the  bath.  Pour  the 
filtered  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  into 
the  cooled  one  of  pyrophosphate,  and 
stir  with  a  glass  rod.  Lastly,  add  the 
hydrocyanic  acid,  and  the  bath  is  heated 
nearly  to  the  boiling  point  for  use.  If 
the  solution  of  pyrophosphate  is  still 
tepid,  add  the  hydrocyanic  acid  before 
the  chloride  of  gold.  Hydrocyanic  or 
prussic  acid  is  not  absolutely  necessary; 
but,  without  it,  the  bath  is  too  easily 
decomposed,  and  the  gold  is  too  rapidly 
precipitated  upon  the  objects  placed  in 
it.  When  the  solutions  are  mixed  in  the 
cold,  the  liquor  is  yellow  or  greenish- 
yellow  ;  but  becomes  colourless  by  the 
increase  of  temperature.  If  the  liquor 
becomes  current  red,  or  wine-lees  violet, 
it  is  an  indication  that  there  is  too  little 
hydrocyanic  acid ;  add  it,  drop  by  drop, 
until  the  liquor  becomes  colourless.  An 
excess  of  this  acid  is  objectionable,  but 
there  is  a  very  simple  method  of  keeping 
the  baths  in  good  working  order,  by 
adding  prussic  acid  gradually  to  those 
too  rich  in  gold  ;  or  correcting  any  ex- 
cess of  prussic  acid  with  a  small  pro- 
portion of  chloride  of  gold,  until  the 
gilding  is  produced  without  dilRculty 
and  of  the  proper  shade.  Thus  pre- 
pared, the  bath  will  produce  very  fine 
gilding  upon  well-cleansed  articles,  which 
must  also  have  passed  through  a  very 
diluted  solution  of  nitrate  of  binoxide  of 
mercury,  without  which  the  deposit  of 
gold  is  red  and  irregular,  and  will  not 
cover  the  soldered  portions.  The  ar- 
ticles are  supported  by  a  hook  or  in  a 
itoneware  ladle  perforated  with  holes,  or 


in  brass  gauze  baskets ;  they  mv.st  be 
constantly  agitated  whilst  in  the  bath. 
Gilders  usually  employ  three  baths, 
placed  in  close  proximity  to  each  ether, 
and  heated  upon  the  same  furnace ;  the 
first  bath  is  one  deprived  of  gold  by  a 
previous  operation,  and  is  used  for  re- 
moving all  excess  of  acid  which  may 
remain  upon  the  articles :  the  second 
bath  still  retains  some  gold,  but  not 
enough  to  give  a  sufficiently  rich  gild- 
ing. The  pieces  passed  through  it  begin 
to  receive  the  deposit,  which  will  be 
finished  in  thickness  and  shade  in  the 
third  bath.  A  gas  furnace,  easy  to 
manage,  and  clean  in  its  working,  may 
be  arranged  by  having  a  properly  sup- 
ported sheet-iron  plate,  with  holes  cut  out 
where  the  kettles  are  to  stand.  Under 
each  kettle  place  suitable  gas  burners ; 
when  the  baths  have  been  heated  nearly 
up  to  boiling  point,  lower  the  gas,  so  as 
not  to  increase  the  temperature.  This 
method  produces  much  more  gilding 
with  a  given  quantity  of  gold,  than  one 
bath  alone.  The  gilding  is  done  in  a 
few  seconds;  the  finishing  operations 
consist  in  rinsing  in  fresh  water,  drying 
in  dry  and  warm  saw-dust,  and  burnish- 
ing, if  desired. 

Colouring  Process. — If  the  gilding  is 
dull  and  irregular  in  colour,  melt  to- 
gether in  their  water  of  crystallization,  at 
about  212°  Fahr.,  equal  parts  of  sulphate 
of  iron,  sulphate  of  zinc,  sulphate  of 
alumina  and  potash,  and  saltpetre 
Cover  the  articles  with  the  mixture,  and 
put  them  into  a  cylindrical  and  vertical 
grate.  This  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  a 
furnace,  where  the  charcoal  burns  be- 
tween the  sides  and  the  grate  which 
holds  the  articles.  When  the  moistened 
finger  is  pi-esented  to  one  piece,  and  a 
slight  hissing  sound  is  heard,  the  heat 
has  been  sutiiciently  raised  ;  put  all  tlie 
articles  rapidly  into  a  very  diluted  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid,  where  the  coatiug 
of  salts  is  quickly  dissolved  ;  the  articles 
present  a  warm,  uniform  shade  of  colour. 
If  the  copper  articles  ai-e  not  entirely 
gilt  by  the  first  operation,  the  ungilt 
portions  will  show  themselves  by  a  red 
colouration,  and  the  articles  must  then 
be  deprived  of  gold,  cleansed,  and    gilt 


190 


WOUKSUOr    RECEIPTS. 


anew.  Sometiiues,  when  the  first  gild- 
ing is  iin])er('ect,  instead  of  colouring  by 
the  process  just  described,  the  articles  are 
placed  for  a  few  moments  into  the  electro- 
bath.  For  articles  which  require  a  good 
plating  there  is  an  easy  method  by  this 
process  of  obtaining  as  good  results  as  by 
the  battery;  it  consists  in  gilding  seve- 
ral times,  by  dipping ;  before  each  dip- 
ping, the  article  is  passed  through  the 
solution  of  nitrate  of  binoxide  of  mercury. 
Gilding  by  dipping  is  superior  to  that 
by  electricity  in  depth  of  shade,  bright- 
ness, and  especially  in  not  scaling  off,  as 
the  deposit  is  of  pure  gold  only. 

Ormolu.  —  This  operation  consists  in 
smearing,  by  means  of  a  brush,  the  gilt 
and  scratch-brushed  objects  with  a  thin 
paste  of  nitrate  of  potash,  alum,  and 
oxide  of  iron,  which  have  been  well 
mixed  and  ground  under  the  mullcr,  and 
to  which  has  been  added  a  solution  of 
saffron,  auiiatto,  oi'  any  colouring  sub- 
stance, according  to  the  shade  desired. 
If  the  gilding  is  strong  and  thick,  the  ob- 
jects are  heated  until  the  previous  coating 
curls  over  at  the  apjjroach  of  a  wet  finger. 
if  the  gilding  is  a  mere  lilm,  the  mixture 
IS  simply  allowed  to  stand  upon  the  ar- 
ticles i\>r  a  few  minutes.  In  either  case, 
the  whole  is  rapidly  washed  in  warm 
water  holding  in  suspension  a  certain 
quantity  of  tlie  materials  for  ormolu ; 
they  are  then  rajiidly  dried,  when  they 
appear  of  a  darker  shade ;  remove  any 
portions  too  much  coloured  by  striking 
them  vertically  with  a  brush  having 
long  bristles.  If  the  tint  does  not  ajijiear 
satisfactory  commence  the  oi>eration 
afresh,  after  washing  olfthe  ormolu  in  a 
diluted  solution  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Green  and  Wliitc  Gildinj. —  These 
shades  may  be  graduated  at  will,  and 
are  olitained  by  adding,  drop  Ijy  ijrop, 
until  the  de>ired  shade  is  arrived  at,  to 
the  bath  of  double  j)yropiiosphate  of  soda 
and  golii,  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver. 
For  the  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  <lis- 
Bolve  in  5  oz.  of  distilled  water,  i  oz.  of 
nitrate  of  silver  crystallized,  or  of  lunar 
caustic.  Before  gilding  green  or  white, 
yellow  gild  the  objects  in  the  ordinary 
Lath,  then  pass  them  rapiilly  thnnigli 
tho  mercurial  solution,  and,  lastly,  ilip 


them  into  the  gold  bath  holding  the 
nitrate  of  silver,  which  parts  rapidly 
with  its  silver  upon  the  first  articles 
steeped  in  it.  It  is  necessary  to  main- 
tain the  constancy  of  the  shade  by  the 
addition  of  a  few  drops  of  the  silver 
solution  when  required. 

Gilding  Silver  by  Dipping. — The  silver 
articles,  previously  cleansed  and  scratch- 
brushed,  are  boiled  for  about  half  an 
hour  in  the  gold  bath  of  pyrojihosiihate, 
to  which  add  a  kw  drops  of  sulphurous 
acid,  or,  preferably,  hydrocyanic  acid,  in 
excess  of  the  quantity  needed  by  the 
primitive  bath.  Tiiis  gilding  is  very 
fine,  but  without  firmness.  The  deposit 
is  rendered  more  rapid  and  thicker  when 
the  silver  articles  are  stirred  with  a  rod 
of  copper,  zinc,  or  brass. 

Gilding  on  Porcelain,  Glass,  or  Crystal. 
— Mix  first  in  a  crystal  mortar,  and 
then  between  a  muller  and  a  ground  jdate 
glass,  neutral  chloride  of  platinum  with 
rectified  essence  of  lavender,  so  as  to 
form  a  thin  syrup,  which  is  applied  with 
a  brush  in  very  thin  layers  upon  the 
glass,  porcelain,  or  other  ceramic  object. 
After  drying,  heat  in  a  mulile  u])  to  a 
dark  red;  this  tem]>eiature  reduces  the 
platinum  to  the  metallic  state;  it  then 
ai)pears  with  a  perfect  polish.  After 
cooling,  pass  the  whole  object  through 
aquafortis,  which  is  without  action  ujion 
the  platinum,  but  destroys  the  imjjuri- 
ties  which  may  tarnish  its  surface. 
Rinse  in  plenty  of  water,  wraj)  the  ob- 
ject with  a  few  turns  of  tine  brass  wire, 
having  numerous  i)oints  of  contact  with 
the  platinized  places,  and  di])  into  the 
gold  bath.  After  a  few  minutes  the  ])la- 
tinum  is  covered  with  gold  which  has 
the  same  aiiherence  and  polish.  Kub  the 
gold  with  chamois  leather;  this  method 
dispenses  with  burnishing,  which  is 
costly,  and  often  impracticable  in  the 
deejily  indented  parts.  If  the  gilding 
IS  too  red,  add  to  the  bath  a  few 
dr<)]is  of  a  solution  of  double  cyanide  of 
jiotassium  and  silver  (liquor  for  silver 
electroplating).  This  iiicthod  is  pre- 
ferable to  that  of  baths  with  separate 
battery;  the  gilding  has  a  bright  instead 
of  a  dead  lustre,  and  its  adherence  t6 
greater. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


191 


Dutertre's  Process  for  Bright  Gold 
Gilding  consists  in  ajiplying  with  a  brush 
to  th.  objects  a  mixture  of  sulphide  of 
gold  and  various  essences,  which  are 
then  submitted  to  a  dull  red  heat. 

Gold  Dipping  Bath  icith  Bicarbonates. 
— The  bicaibonate  bath  is  pre})ared  in  a 
cat.t-iron  kettle,  turned  clean  and  smooth 
mside  on  the  lathe,  and  gilt  by  the  pro- 
tracted ebullition  of  nearly  spent  gold 
baths.  Water  3^  galls.  ;  bicarbonate  of 
potash  or  soda,  i  oz.  ;  pure  metallic  gold, 
transformed  into  cliloridc,  4^  oz.  The 
whole  is  boiled  for  at  least  2  hours, 
and  fresh  water  added  to  replace  that 
evaporated.  A  part  of  the  gold,  m  the 
form  of  a  violet-black  j)owder,  precipi- 
tates, and  requires  the  cooling  and  de- 
canting of  the  liquor.  This  is  boiled 
again  and  the  gilding  proceeded  with,  in 
the  same  manner  as  before  described, 
except  that  the  mercurial  solution  should 
be  more  diluted  than  for  the  baths 
of  pyrophosphates.  The  operation  is 
finished  when  about  half  of  the  gold  in 
the  liquor  is  deposited.  The  remainder 
goes  to  the  saved  waste.  The  bicarbon- 
ate process  is  inferior  in  most  respects 
to  the  pyrophosphate,  and  is  now  rarely 
used 

Gilding  by  Diluted  Bath. — This  bath 
should  be  employed  only  as  a  comple- 
ment to  the  cleansing  process,  before  a 
more  resisting  gilding,  as  its  results 
have  little  durability.  Water,  2  galls.  ; 
bicarbonate  of  potash,  7  oz. ;  caustic 
potash,  63  oz.  ;  cyanide  of  potassium, 
3  oz.  ;  metallic  gold  to  be  transformed 
into  chloride,  a  oz.  The  whole  is  brought 
up  to  the  boiling  point,  and  a  pale  gild- 
ing is  obtained  even  ujion  articles  imper- 
fectly cleansed,  and  without  using  ni- 
trate of  binoxide  of  mercury.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  add  ^  oz.  of  chloride  of  gold  seve- 
ral times  to  this  bath  without  any  other 
substances.  Afterwards  maintain  it  at 
the  proper  strength  by  additions  of  gold 
and  salts  in  the  above  projiortions,  and 
it  will  last  for  an  indefinite  period.  This 
bath  will  gild  about  140  oz.  of  small 
jewellery  with  J^,  oz.  of  gold,  whereas  a 
pyrophosphate  bath  gilds  only  about 
3.T  oz.  of  small  articles  with  the  J^  oz. 
of  gold  extracted  from  the  liquor. 


Gilding  by  Stirring  and  Gold  Amal- 
gam.— In  the  centre  of  a  charcoal  stove 
put  a  crucible  holding  a  given  quantity 
of  pure  and  dry  mercury,  and  when  the 
temperature  has  reached  about  212° 
Fahr.  add  J  the  weight  of  gold.  Stir  with 
an  iron  rod  until  the  amalgam  has  ac- 
quired the  consistency  of  butter,  throw 
it  into  cold  water,  and  keep  it  there  for 
use.  Cleanse  the  articles  to  be  gilded  in 
aquafortis,  put  them  in  a  stoneware 
pan,  and  pour  over  them  a  diluted  solu- 
tion of  nitrate  of  binoxide  of  mercury, 
taking  care  to  move  the  articles  about 
all  the  time,  in  order  to  cover  them  with 
a  regular  white  coating  of  mercury. 
Add  the  desired  proportion  of  amalgam  , 
on  stirring  tlie  articles  this  is  spread  all 
over  them.  Then  rinse  the  articles  in 
cold  water,  place  them  in  a  large  and 
deep  copper  ladle,  perforated  with  nu- 
merous small  holes,  and  having  a  long 
handle.  Hold  the  ladle  over  a  charcoal 
fire,  and  constantly  stir  it  about  in  order 
to  have  the  heat  equal  everywhere.  The 
mercury  of  the  amalgam  is  soon  volati- 
lized, and  the  gold  remains  adherent  to 
the  articles.  If  instead  of  a  yellow 
gilding  a  i-ed  one  be  desired,  this  is  got 
by  waxing,  which  consists  in  pouring 
upon  the  pieces,  kept  in  the  ladle  and 
upon  the  fire,  in  a  well  mixed  and  fluid 
state; — oil,  25  parts;  yellow  wax,  25; 
acetate  of  copper,  10 ;  red  ochre,  40. 
The  articles  must  be  constantly  agitated, 
and  the  mixture  allowed  to  burn  out, 
when  the  whole  is  thrown  into  a  very 
diluted  solution  of  sulphuric  acid.  The 
waxing  is  only  to  be  done  after  the 
complete  volatilization  of  the  mercury. 
When  removed  from  the  pickle,  the 
gilding  has  the  dull  ochre  appearance, 
and  must  be  scratch-brushed.  Small 
articles  are  brightened  in  a  long  narrow 
bag,  where  they  are  put  with  copper 
pearls,  or  the  waste  from  these  pearls, 
and  wet  with  vinegar  water;  a  to-and- 
fro  motion  is  imparted  to  the  bag,  and 
the  gilt  articles  and  the  copper  granules 
polish  each  other.  Rinse  and  dry  m 
saw-dust,  and  burnish  if  required. 

Cold  Gilding  with  the  Rag. — Dissolve 
finely  laminated  pure  gold  in  aqua  regia 
made  of  nitric  acid,   5  parts ;  sal   am- 


WORKSHOP    I!ECEIPTS. 


tnoniac,  2  ;  saltpe'.re,  ^.  Heat  carefully 
ujion  a  geutle  fire  ;  when  all  the  gold  has 
disappeared,  pour  the  cooled  contents  of 
the  flask  into  a  flat-bottomed  stoneware 
pan.  Into  this  liquor,  place  oae  upon 
the  other,  and  in  sulhcient  quantity, 
squares  of  liner  cloth,  strike  them  with 
a  glass  rod,  in  order  that  they  may 
equally  absorb  the  chloride  of  gold. 
Kach  square  of  cloth  is  taken  out  with 
wooden  pincers,  well  drained,  and  sjiread 
for  drying  in  a  dark  chamber.  When 
nearly  dry,  each  piece  of  cloth,  sup- 
ported upon  glass  rods,  is  placed  on  top  of 
a  cliarcoal  fire,  and  soon  takes  fire.  The 
combustion  is  aided  by  the  presence  of 
I  he  saltpetre,  and  is  fiuisned  upon  a 
marble  slab.  Grind  the  ashes  under  a 
muller,  collect  and  keep  them  between 
the  folds  of  a  parchment  leaf,  around 
which  a  wet  cloth  has  been  folded.  The 
powder  is  then  ready  to  use ;  mix  it 
upon  a  slab  with  a  few  drops  of  water, 
and  with  this  paste  rub  the  well-cleaned 
surfaces  of  the  silver  to  be  gilt.  The 
smooth  surfaces  are  rubbed  with  the 
thumb,  the  fillets  or  grooves  with  a  fine 
cork  cut  to  the  proper  shape,  and  the 
corners  or  angles  with  a  stick  of  soft 
wood,  such  as  linden  or  poplar ;  the  arti- 
cles are  then  burnished.  This  gilding  is 
very  thin,  but  quite  resisting,  especially 
after  the  action  of  the  burnishing  tool, 
which  forces  the  gold  into  the  pores  of 
the  silver.  If  a  red  shade  be  desired, 
add  a  small  j)roportion  of  pure  copper  to 
the  gold  to  be  dissolved  in  aqua  regia. 

Gilding  with  the  Brush  or  with  Shell 
Gold. — The  gold  powder  is  prepared  by 
nibbing  the  cuttings  of  gold-beaters' 
foil  under  the  muller;  to  prevent  them 
from  being  blown  away,  add  a  small 
quantity  of  white  honey.  When  fine 
enough  put  the  paste  into  water,  by 
which  the  honey  is  dissolved.  Alter 
several  washings,  settlings,  and  decant- 
ings,  allow  tlie  ])owder  to  dry.  In  case 
of  hurry,  the  washing  may  be  performed 
upon  a  paper  filter.  The  dry  powder  is 
again  groun<l  with  a  little  gummy 
water,  and  the  ])astc  sjn'oail  over  tin,'  in 
ude  of  a  mussel-shell.  The  gihl  jiowilcr 
i«  mixed  with  gum  water,  and  a]i]dicd 
with   a   brush    upon  the   parts    to    be 


mended,  and  allowed  to  dry.  If  a  green 
gold  powder  be  desired,  mix  silver  foil 
with  the  gold  cuttings.  An  addition  of 
rose  copper  foil  jiroduces  a  red  gold. 
The  preparation  is  the  same  for  silver 
powder  employed  for  mending  slight  de- 
fects in  silver  articles  not  exposed  to 
friction. 

Gold  Electroplating. — It  is  not 
always  necessary  in  electrogilding  to 
use  a  battery,  for  the  contact  of  two 
heterogeneous  vessels,  especially  within 
a  salt  or  acid  liquor,  is  enough  to  jiro- 
duce  electricity  ;  thus  it  is  sullicient  to 
plunge  the  articles,  attached  by  zinc 
wires,  into  gold  baths  prepared  for  the 
'•se  of  batteries,  to  have  the  operation 
taking  place  in  the  same  manner  as 
with  a  separate  battery.  Klectrogild- 
iiig  in  the  cold  is  employed  for  large 
l)ieces,  such  as  clocks ;  whilst  elec- 
trogilding by  heat  is  more  adapted  to 
the  gilding  of  small  articles,  such  as 
forks  and  spoons.  The  deposits  produced 
by  hot  gilding  are  more  smooth  and 
clean,  the  colour  is  deeper,  and  the  arti- 
cles when  removed  from  the  bath  may 
not  require  colouring ;  and  with  the 
same  quantity  of  gold,  gilding  by  heat 
is  much  more  durable  than  that  ob- 
tained from  cold  baths.  Steel,  tin,  or 
lead  can  be  gilt  in  hot  baths,  but  not  in 
cold. 

Gold  Elcctrogildini]  Baths.  —  1.  Dis- 
tilled water,  2^ gallons;  cyanide  of  po- 
tassium, ordinary  70  per  cent.,  lOJ  oz.  • 
pure  gold,  3J  oz. ;  aqua  ammouiaj 
17J  oz.  Heat  the  gold  in  a  glass  flasK 
with  9  oz.  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  4J  oz.  of  pure  nitric  acid.  When 
the  gold  is  dissolved,  continue  the  heat 
in  order  to  expel  the  acid  fumes,  and 
until  the  colour  of  llie  liquid  is  dark 
red,  nearly  black.  lltniove  from  the 
fire,  and  dissolve  the  crystalline  mass 
formed  in  cooling  in  3  or  4  jiints  of 
water,  and  pour  into  a  large  jiorcelaiu 
dish.  Adil  the  ammonia,  which  pro- 
duces an  abundant  yellow  i)reciiiitate  of 
gold  aiumoiiium ;  pour  upon  filtering 
pa]ior,  and  the  filtered  li([uid,  which  still 
contains  traces  of  gold,  is  kept  with  the 
saved  waste.  Wash  the  jirecijiitate 
remaining  upon  tho  iilter  seveial  times 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


193 


with    cold  water,    until    it   no  loncrer 
smells    of  ammonia.      It  must  not    be 
dried,  as  it  is  a   fulminating  mixture, 
and  consequently  very  dangerous.    Nest 
dissolve  in   the  vessel   used  as   a  bath 
the    cyanide    of  potassium    in    the   dis- 
tilled  water.     P'ilter,  and   add  the  wet 
gold  ammonium,  which  rapidly  dissolves 
when   stirred,    and   forms  a    clear   gold 
bath.     But  before  using  it  cold,  the  am- 
monia should  be  expelled  by  boiling  for 
about  one  hour.     For  a  newly-prepared 
cold    electrogilding    bath,  the  ordinary 
cyanide  of  potassium  is    preferable,   on 
account  of  the  potash  it  contains,  which 
renders   the  liquor   a    better  conductor 
of  electricity.     But    for  the    preserva- 
tion of  the    strength,    the    pure    cya- 
nide is  better,  as  it  possesses  the  advan- 
tage of  a  constant  composition,  and  does 
not  load  the  solution  with  foreign  salts. 
The  gold  solution  for    maintaining  the 
metallic  strength   of  the    bath    is   pre- 
pared as  follows  ; — Transform  the  gold 
into    precipitate    of    gold    ammonium, 
as  above  described,   ]>lace   it  in    water, 
2  pints  of  water  to  4  oz.  of  gold,  then 
=idd   cyanide    of    potassium    until    the 
liquor  is  colourless.     If  there  is  not  suf- 
Scient  water  with  the  gold  ammonium, 
the  liquor  will  be  dark   red,  and   will 
not  be  decolourized  by  cyanide.     2.  Dis- 
tilled  water,    2i    gallons ;    cyanide     of 
potassium,   pure,    7    oz. ;    or    ordinary 
cyanide,  according  to   strength,   10   to 
14  oz. ;  pure  gold,  3i  oz.     Make  a  neu- 
tral chloride  of  gold,  as  in  the  preceding 
formula,    and,   when    cold   and  crystal- 
lized, dissolve  it  in   3J  pints  of  water. 
Filter  if  needed.     Dissolve  the  cyanide  in 
"14  pints   of  water,    filter,  and  mix  the 
two  solutions,  which  become  colourless. 
When  it  is  possible  to  boil  this  bath  for 
half  an  hour  before  using   it,  it  becomes 
a    better   conductor   of  electricity,  and 
the     gilding    is    more     uniform.       Its 
strength   is  maintained  by  additions  of 
neutral  chloride  of  gold  and  pure  cya- 
nide of  potassium,  from  1  to  IJ  of  pure 
cyanide  to  1  of  gold.     Both   the  above 
baths  may  be  diluted  with  once  or  twice 
their  volume  of  water  ;  the  gilding  will 
remain  fine,  but  the  proportion  of  gold 
deposited  will  be  less  in  a  given  length 


of  time.     3.  Yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
7  oz. ;   pure  carbonate  of  potash,  5  oz. 
sal  ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  pure  gold  trans- 
formed   into    chloride,    §    oz. ;    water, 
2-1.  gallons.     Boil  all  the  salts  together, 
less   the  chloride   of  gold,  separate  by 
filtration  the  precipitate  of  carbonate  of 
iron,  then  add  the  chloride  of  gold  dis- 
solved in  a  little  water,  and  allow  the 
bath  to  cool  off.     Any  kind  of  gold  salt, 
and  the  oxide,  or  even  finely-powdered 
metal,  may  take  the  place  of  the  chloride 
of  gold  ;   but  the  latter  is  preferred  on 
account  of  the   facility  of  its  prepara- 
tion, and  of  its  solubility.     Any  kind  of 
gold  salt  will  be  transformed  into  cya- 
nide by  the  cyanide  of  potassium.     The 
small  ])roportion  of  the  chloride  of  po- 
tassium resulting  from  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  chloride  of  gold  mto  cyanide 
does  not   prevent  the  good  working  of 
the    baths.      The    addition    of    a    little 
])russic   acid    produces   a   brighter,    but 
thinner,   gilding.      The    indicated    cya- 
nides may  be  replaced   by  the  cyanides 
of    sodium,    calcium,    and    ammonium. 
Cold   gilding   baths  are    generally  kept 
in    porcelain  or  stoneware  vessels ;  but 
for  large  volumes  of  liquor  use  wooden 
troughs  lined  with  gutta-percha  plates. 
The  sides  of  the  troughs  support  anodes 
of  laminated   gold,   which   dip   entirely 
into  the  liquor,  and  are  held  by  small 
platinum    wires;    they    are    connected 
with   the  positive  pole  of  the  battery. 
Suspend   the  articles  by  means  of  me- 
tallic slinging  wires  to  a  movable  frame 
of  clean  brass  rods  connected  with  the 
negative    pole.      The    deposit    of  gold 
should  be  pure  yellow,  but  it  has  some.- 
times  a  dull    earthy   grey  colour.      In 
that    case    scratch-brush    it    with    the 
greatest  care,  and  then  pass  it  through 
the  ormolu  colouring.     Tha  gold  anode 
conducts  the  electricity,  and  also  main- 
tains the  metallic  strength  of  the  bath 
up  to  a  certain  point ;  but  it   is  neces- 
sary to  add  now  and  thtd   either  the 
oxide  or  the  chloride  of  gold,  and  a  cer- 
tain proportion  of  cyanide  of  potassium, 
to  make  up  for  that  transformed   intu 
carbonate  of  potash  and  cyanide  of  am- 
monia.     The    proportion  of   cyanide  is 
about  double  that    of  the    chloride   of 


194 


WORKSHOP  LECEIPTS. 


gold  added  ;  this  is  ascertained  by  the 
colour  of  the  bath  and  the  shade  of  the 
deposit ;  if  the  proportion  of  the  chlo- 
ride of  gold  is  too  great,  add  more  cya- 
nide, if  gold  predominates,  the  deposit 
is  quite  black  or  dark  red  ;  when  the 
cyanide  is  in  excess,  the  gilding  is  very 
slow  and  grey,  and  it  will  sometimes 
happen  that  pieces  already  gilt  will  lose 
theii  gold.  When  the  bath  is  not  in 
iise,  the  gold  anode  must  be  i-emoved 
from  it,  otherwise  it  will  be  dissolved 
If  the  anode  were  partly  immersed  in 
the  bath,  it  would  be  rapidly  cut  at  the 
level  of  the  liquid  ;  for  this  reason  use 
the  platmum  wires,  which  are  not  acted 
upon.  It  IS  remarkable  that  the  solu- 
tions of  cyanides,  even  without  the  ac- 
tion of  the  electric  current,  ra)?"dly 
dissolve  all  the  metals  except  platinum 
in  the  cold  or  at  a  moderate  tempera- 
ture, and  that  at  the  boiling  point  they 
have  scarcely  any  action  upon  the  me- 
tals. Cold  electrogilding  should  be 
done  slowly  ;  and  it  is  necessary  to  often 
look  at  the  pieces  in  the  bath,  and 
scratch-brush  those  with  an  irregular 
deposit,  or  with  dark  sjjots.  The  in- 
tensity of  the  current  should  be  often 
changed  by  increasing  or  diminishing 
the  number  of  the  elements,  or  the 
strength  or  the  volume  of  the  liquors 
in  the  battery.  With  too  much  inten- 
sity in  the  current,  the  deposit  is  black 
or  red;  it  is  yellow  with  the  proper 
amount  of  electricity.  With  a  weak 
current  those  portions  ojiposite  the 
anode  only  get  covered  with  gold  ;  it  is 
well  to  change  the  position  of  the  ob- 
jects often,  in  order  that  the  dc])osit 
be  regular.  With  a  fi-eshly-prepared 
Lath,  it  may  happen  that  surfaces 
alicady  gilt  will  lose  their  gold  by 
changing  their  positions.  Tliis  is  a  sign 
that  tiie  bath  contains  too  much  cya- 
nide of  potassium,  and  too  little  gold, 
or  that  tlie  electric  current  is  too  weak. 
When  the  deposit  obfaiacd  in  cold  baths 
IS  uusatihfactory  in  ap])t'arauce,  although 
the  quantity  is  sullicient,  the  pro]ier 
atiade  may  be  imparted  by — 1.  The  gilt 
article  is  steeped  in  a  solution  of  nitrate 
of  binoxide  of  mercury,  until  it  has 
Vtecome  white.      It  'h  heated  afterwards 


to  volatilize  the  mercury,  and  scratch- 
brushed.  2.  Place  the  article  into  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid,  then  heat  it 
until  abundant  white  fumes  are  disen- 
gaged, throw  it,  still  hot,  into  a  weak 
pickle  of  sulphuric  acid.  In  this  c;ise, 
the  acid  has  destroyed  the  organic  im- 
purities which  may  exist  in  the  deposit, 
and  reduces  the  subsalts  of  gold  to  the 
metallic  state.  3.  Smear  the  article 
with  a  thick  paste  of  water  and  pow- 
dered borax,  or  with  biphosjjhate  of 
lime  of  the  consistency  of  honey,  and 
heat  until  igneous  fusion  takes  place. 
Tlien  put  the  article  into  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  dissolves  the  borax 
or  the  biphosphate,  and  leaves  the  gold 
with  its  natural  bright  lustre.  When, 
after  scratch-brushing  small  gill  arti- 
cles, their  colour  is  not  entirely  satis- 
factory, it  may  be  imi)roved  by  plung- 
ing the  articles  again  into  the  bath  but 
for  an  instant,  and  then  immediately 
into  boiling  water.  For  gilding  Ger- 
man silver,  the  solution  should  be 
worked  at  rather  a  low  temperature, 
and  with  a  less  surface  of  anode.  The 
solution  should  be  just  so  weak  in  pre- 
cious metal,  that  the  German  silver  will 
not  ])recipitate  the  gold  without  tlie  aid 
of  tlie  battery ;  otherwise  the  deposit 
will  take  place  so  rapidly  that  the  gold 
will  peel  olT  when  being  burnished  or 
scratch-brushed. 

Gold  Electroplating  in  Hot  Baths  is 
more  regular,  more  rajiidly  obtained, 
and  possesses  a  deejier  shade,  than  that 
by  cold  baths.  1.  Crystallized  phos- 
phate of  soda,  21  oz. ;  bisulphite  of 
soda,  3J  oz  .;  jiure  cyanide  of  potassium, 
^  oz. ;  ]iure  gold,  transformed  into  chlo- 
ride, ^  oz.  ;  distilled  water,  2i  gallons 
This  is  satisfactory  for  electrogilding 
silver,  bronze,  and  other  alloys  rich  in 
cojjper.  For  gilding  wrought  and  cast 
iron  and  steel  directly,  without  a  pre- 
vious coat  of  cojijier,  the  bath  is  modi- 
fied as  follows;  —Distilled  water,  2J- 
gallons;  |)hosi)hate  of  soda,  17J  oz. ; 
bisul|)hate  of  soda,  4J  oz.  ;  pure  cyanide 
of  jjotassium  ^  oz. ;  gold  ti'ansformeil 
into  chloride,  ^  oz.  The  proportion  of 
gold  indicated  is  that  of  the  metal  em- 
ployed, and  it  '**  not  necessary  to  mind 


WORKSHOP  RFCEIPTS. 


195 


the  weight  of  the  :hloride,  if  the  proper 
ainouul  uf  gold  is  dissolved  in  aqua 
i-i'gia.  Ten  parts  of  metallic  gold  cor- 
nsjionds  to  about  18  [larts  of  neutral 
chloride,  or  to  23  or  22  parts  of  acid 
chloride  such  as  is  usually  sold.  Steel 
articles,  after  cleansing  by  alkalies, 
must  be  passed  rapidly  through  a  very 
diluted  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
wiped,  and  dipped  into  a  very  hot  bath 
with  an  intense  galvanic  current  at  the 
beginning,  which  is  gradually  dimi- 
nibhed  bj'  partly  withdrawing  the  pla- 
tinum anode.  Small  articles  of  steel, 
such  as  pens,  or  watch  hands,  are 
threaded  on  a  thin  brass  wire,  and  sepa- 
rated one  from  the  other  by  glass  beads. 
After  cleansing,  they  are  put  into  the 
bulling  bath,  rinsed,  dried,  and  polished 
in  hot  and  dry  saw-dust.  It  is  pre- 
ferable to  give  zinc,  tin,  lead,  anti- 
mony, or  the  alloys  of  these  metals,  a 
previous  coat  of  copper,  or  to  begin  the 
gilding  in  a  hot  gold  electro-bath,  nearly 
worn  out,  and  to  scratch-brush  the 
articles  carefully.  The  gilding  is  com- 
pleted in  a  new  hot  bath,  with  a  strong 
current. 

Preparation  of  the  Gold  Bath. — 1.  Put 
four-Kfths  of  the  distilled  water  into  a 
jiorcelain  dish,  or  an  enamelled  cast-iron 
kettle,  heated  over  a  charcoal  stove,  and 
dissolve  in  it,  by  the  aid  of  stirring,  the 
crystallized  phosj>hate  of  soda.  When 
this  is  entirely  dissolved,  remove  the 
liquor  from  the  fire,  filter  if  necessary, 
and  allow  it  to  cool  off.  2.  Place  the 
gold  in  a  glass  flask,  with  \  oz.  of  pure 
nitric  acid  and  1  oz.  of  pure  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Heal  slowly  until  the 
gold  has  dissolved,  and  then  more  rapidly 
to  expel  the  excess  of  acid.  There 
should  remain  a  thick  liquid  of  a  black- 
ish-red colour.  Keniove  the  flask  from 
ths  lire,  and  by  cooling  the  contents 
forma  brown-red  crystalline  mass.  The 
cooling  is  imiiortant.  3.  Dissolve  in  a 
porcelain  dish,  in  half  the  remaining 
water,  the  bisulphite  of  soda  and  the 
cyanide  of  potassium.  4.  Then  dissolve 
the  neutral  chloride  of  gold  in  the  re- 
maining water,  and  pour  it  slowly, 
sin  ring  with  a  glass  rod,  into  the  cold 
solution  of  phosphate  of  soda ;  add  the 


solution  of  bisulphite  and  of  cyanide. 
The  whole  liquor  soon  becomes  colcur- 
less  ;  the  bath  is  then  ready.  If  the 
chloride  of  gold  were  thrown  into  the 
solution  of  phos]jhate  of  soda  while  hot, 
there  would  be  danger  of  a  partial  re- 
duction of  the  gold  in  the  form  of  a 
metallic  powder.  The  hot  electrogild- 
ing  baths  for  small  quantities  of  liquor 
are  kept  in  porcelain  dishes,  but  for 
large  baths  use  ename.led  cast-iron 
kettles.  The  temperature  may  vary 
from  120°  to  175'=  Fahr.  Small  articles, 
such  as  jewellery,  are  kept  in  the  right 
hand  with  the  conducring  wire,  and 
plunged  and  agitated  in  the  bath.  The 
left  hand  holds  the  anode  of  platinum 
wire,  which  is  steeped  more  or  less  in 
the  liquor,  according  to  the  surface  of 
the  articles  to  be  gilt.  Large  pieces 
are  suspended  to  one  or  more  brass  rods, 
and  are  not  moved  about.  The  gilding 
is  very  rapid,  and  a  sutlicient  thickness 
is  obtained  after  a  few  minutes.  The 
shade  of  the  gold  deposit  is  modified  by 
the  amount  of  the  platinum  anode  dip- 
ping into  the  liquor.  If  it  dips  but  a 
little,  relatively  to  the  surface  of  the 
articles,  the  gilding  is  pale;  by  immers- 
ing it  more  the  shade  will  become  deeper 
and  deeper,  until  it  is  red.  The  |ila- 
tinum  anode  is  connected  by  a  conduct- 
ing wire  to  the  positive  pole  of  the  bat- 
tery, and  the  conducting  wire  starting 
from  the  negative  pole,  touches  or  sup- 
ports the  articles  to  be  gilt.  As  a 
rule,  it  is  preferable  to  replace  the  im- 
poverished baths  by  fresh  ones,  instead  of 
keeping  up  their  strength  by  additions 
of  metal,  especially  for  small  articles. 
When  gilding  large  pieces,  maintain  the 
strength  of  the  baths  bv  successive  ad- 
ditions of  chloride  of  gold,  or,  what  is 
better,  of  equal  parts  of  gold  ammonium 
and  pure  cyanide  of  potassium.  In  this 
manner  baths  may  be  made  to  last  a 
long  time,  but  they  are  open  to  the  in- 
convenience of  furnishing  a  red  or  green 
gilding,  if  many  articles  of  copper  or  of 
silver  have  been  gilt  in  them.  Articles 
of  copper,  or  its  alloys,  should  be  per- 
fectly cleansed,  nd  may  be  passed 
through  a  very  diluted  solution  of  m- 
trate    cf  binoxide   of  mercury.     Silver 

o  2 


196 


AVOUKSUOP    RECEIPTS. 


re. (Hires  to  be  heatci.  dipped,  and  per- 
fectly scratih-brushed.  For  this  metal 
the  f^iUiing  should  be  sti'ong,  in  order  to 
]  ire  vent  the  corners  and  raised  parts 
tVoni  becoming  white  and  bare  ;  and  it  is 
a  good  precaution  to  give  it  a  coat  of 
copper  or  brass,  or  a  first  gilding  in  an 
old  bath.  2.  Phosphate  of  soda,  14  oz. ; 
bisulphite  of  soda,  3.^  oz.  ;  bicarbonate 
of  potash  and  caustic  potash.  If  oz.  of 
each  ;  cyanide  of  jiotassium  and  pure 
^old  for  neutral  chloride,  J  oz.  of  each  ; 
distilled  water,  2^-  gallons.  All  the 
substances  except  the  chloride  of  gold 
may  be  dissolved  together,  and  filtered 
if  necessary;  then  the  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  gold  is  added.  This  bath  is 
heated  at  from  120^  to  UO°Fahr.,  and 
jiroduces  a  very  <iue  gilding,  but  it  re- 
quires an  intense  electric  current.  It 
does  not  suit  for  the  direct  gilding  of 
iron  or  steel.  3.  Yellow  prussiate  of 
potash,  5J  oz. ;  carbonate  of  potash, 
pure,  Ifoz. ;  hydrochlorate  of  ammo- 
nia, I  oz.  ;  pure  gold  for  neutral  chlo- 
ride, ^  oz.  ;  water,  1  gallon.  Dissolve 
the  first  three  salts  in  hot  water,  and 
filter  the  solution  ;  after  cooling  add  the 
fold  solution,  and  boil  for  half  an  hour, 
taking  care  to  replace  the  evaporated 
water.  4.  Pure  cyanide  of  potassium, 
IJoz. ;  pure  gold,  for  neutral  cliloride, 
^  oz.  ;  water,  5  ])ints.  Dissolve  the 
chloi-ide  of  gold  in  the  whole  of  the 
water,  and  add  the  cyanide,  which  dis- 
solves and  makes  the  liquor  colourless. 
This  bath  may  be  employed  with  little 
regard  to  tempei-atui-e,  and  is  simjile  in 
its  ingredients.  Unfortunately  it  is  not 
uniform  in  its  working,  as  it  will  un^ild 
one  face  of  the  objc<'t  while  the  otiiiM- 
'rice  becomes  gilt,  or  may  produce  a  red 
gilding  at  tlie  bottom  and  a  yellow  one 
at  the  top.  TVicse  inconveniences  will 
|iarlly  <lisM]>pi'ar  liy  a  long  ebullition. 

Mnwi'icmmt  of  Hot  (lold  I'laths. — The 
baths  may  be  more  concent latod.  the 
quantity  of  water  may  l<e  diminished, 
without  changing  the  proportions  of  the 
salts  and  of  the  gold,  l»ut  it  is  prefer- 
able to  use  diluted  solutions,  which  de- 
liver the  metal  in  smallrr  quantity  in  a 
given  time,  but  more  homogeneous  iu 
(iibfitauce.     The  articles  kHouIJ  be  kept 


in  constant  agitation ;  there  is  then  no 
difference  of  s])ecitic  gravity  among  the 
layers  of  the  liquor,  ani  the  gilding  pos- 
sesses a  uniform  colour.  A  foil  or  a 
wire  of  platinum  is  preferred  to  a  so- 
luble anode  of  gold  when  electrogilding 
by  the  aid  of  heat,  as  it  is  not  dissolved, 
and  is  more  handy  for  regulating  the 
intensity  of  the  current,  by  immersing  it 
more  or  less  in  the  liquid.  Thus  with 
the  same  bath  and  battery  three  dif- 
ferent shades  can  be  obtained ;  a  pale 
colour,  with  the  anode  dipping  but 
slightly  ;  a  yellow  colour,  when  the  im- 
mersion is  greater,  and  a  red  gold,  if  the 
whole  anode  is  in  the  liquor.  In  a  bath 
of  pink  gold,  composed  of  gold,  co|>iier, 
and  silver,  by  increasing  or  diminishing 
the  length  of  the  iilatiuum  anode  in  tiit 
liquor,  the  deposit  will  have  a  white, 
yellow,  or  red  shade,  as  the  various  metals 
require  ditl'erent  degrees  of  intensity  for 
their  reduction  in  the  galvanic  current. 
In  hot  electrogilding  baths,  and  es]io- 
cially  with  small  artit'les,  keej)  them  in 
the  right  hand  constantly  moving  in  tlie 
liquid,  while  the  left  hand  is  employi'd 
in  changing  the  position  of  the  platinum 
anode,  so  as  to  suit  the  surface  and  the 
nature  of  the  articles,  and  obtain  the 
desireil  shade.  The  hot  baths  may  have 
their  strength  maintained  by  successive 
adilitions  of  chloride  of  gold  with  a 
projier  pro]iortion  of  the  other  salts; 
but  it  is  preferable  to  wear  out  the  bath 
entirely  and  to  pre])are  a  new  one. 
When  a  bath  is  exhausted,  the  gilding  is 
red  if  much  co])per  has  been  gilt  in  it, 
and  green  in  the  case  of  silver  articles. 
It  may  then  be  used  for  a  first  coat  upon 
olijects  whidi  are  to  be  finished  in  a  new 
bath.  Thus  green  or  white  golds  result 
from  the  simultaneous  deposit  of  gold 
or  silver  in  various  proportions;  red 
gold  from  the  alloy  of  copper  and  gold; 
and  ])iiik  gfdd  from  the  combination  of 
gold,  silver,  and  copp{M'. 

Green  <md  White  UoUs. — Add  to  one 
of  the  above  baths  a  solut.on  of  the 
double  cyanide  of  silver  and  potassium, 
or  a  diluted  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  The 
tints  will  vary  from  a  leek-green  to  x 
very  pale  whitish-yellow.     This  kiud  of 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


197 


gilding  mixed  upon  tlie  same  articles 
with  red,  yellow,  or  i)iuk  gold,  will  pro- 
duce splendid  ertects  of  contrast,  espe- 
cially ujion  chased  parts,  where  the 
green  gold  has  a  velvety  lustre. 

Red  Gold. — Mix  in  suitable  propor- 
tions the  electro-copper  bath  already 
described  with  one  of  the  baths  for 
electrogildiug ;  or  use  an  old  bath  in 
which  a  great  many  cojiper  articles 
have  been  gilt,  with  an  intense  current 
of  electricity.  Yellow  gilding  may  be 
made  to  pass  to  red,  by  heating  it  after 
it  has  been  covered  with  a  paste  of  ace- 
tate of  copper,  cream  of  tartar,  and 
common  salt.  Plunge  the  heated  piece 
into  a  weak  solution  of  sulpluiric  acid, 
and  carefully  scratch-brush  afterwards. 

Pink  Gold  or  New  Gold. — This  kind  of 
gilding  is  the  most  dilHcult  to  obtain  on 
account  of  the  different  tendency  of  the 
various  metals  to  galvanic  decomposi- 
tion. Pink  gilding,  to  be  peri'ect,  should 
present  at  the  same  time  the  red,  yellow, 
and  white  shades,  in  such  a  manner  that 
a  practised  eye  will  distinguish  them. 
The  articles  are  first  gilt  yellow  by  the 
pyrophosphate  bath  for  dipping,  or  by 
the  hot  electro-bath.  Then,  without 
drying,  but  keeping  them  in  fresh  water, 
small  packages  are  made  weighing 
from  1  oz.  to  2  oz.  each  ;  pass  lightly 
through  the  mercurial  solution,  and  then 
red  gilt  in  an  old  and  hot  bath,  where  a 
great  deal  of  co])iier  has  already  been 
gilt,  or  in  a  new  bath  composed  of  10 
parts  of  hot  electrogildiug  bath,  first 
formula,  and  3  to  4  parts  of  the  first 
copperiug  solution,  with  battery.  For 
imjiarting  the  whitish  tiut  of  articles 
gilt  by  stirring  and  of  the  gold  alloy  for 
jewellery,  the  red  gilding  is  passed 
through  a  boiling  and  nearly  exhausted 
bath  of  pyrophosphate,  to  which  add 
one-tenth,  or  a  twentieth,  or  a  thirtieth 
of  its  volume  of  a  silver  bath,  or  simply 
a  few  drops  of  a  concentrated  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver.  In  either  ca.se  a 
blush  of  silver  is  dL'posited  upon  the  red 
gilding.  This  gilding  should  be  scratch- 
brushed  or  burnished,  and  may  be 
chased,  but  the  lustre  soon  disappears 
on  account  of  the  proportion  of  copper. 
'lo  oblam  the    ]iroi)er   pink    gilding,  if 


the  first  deposit  is  unsatisfactory,  plunge 
the  articles  for  a  few  seconds  into  h 
mixture  of  5  parts  of  sulphuric  aci<l 
to  1  of  nitric  acid.  The  copper  and 
silver  are  dissolved,  and  the  yellow 
gilding  reappears,  upon  which  the  o])er- 
ation  may  be  begun  anew.  Besides  the 
variations  of  colour  in  gilding  due  to 
the  dipping  of  the  anodes  more  or  less 
into  the  bath,  and  to  the  streugtli  of  the 
electric  current,  moving  the  articles 
about  in  the  bath  will  at  all  times  en- 
able the  operator  to  vary  the  colour  of 
the  deposit  from  pale  straw  yellow  to  a 
very  dark  red.  The  temperature  of  the 
solution  likewise  infiuences  the  colour  of 
the  deposit,  the  colour  being  lightest 
when  the  solution  is  cold,  and  gradually 
becoming  darker  as  the  temperature  in- 
creases. 

Gildiiiij  Watch  Part.^.  —  In  gilding 
small  articles  for  watchmakers,  gold  is 
seldom  directly  applied  upon  the  cop- 
per ;  there  is  generally  a  preliminary 
operation,  called  graining,  by  which  a 
grained  and  slightly  dead  ajipearauce  is 
given  to  the  articles. 

Preparation  of  the  Silver  Parts.  — 
Marks  of  the  file  are  obliterated  by  a 
rubbing  upon  a  wet  stone,  and  lastly 
upon  an  oilstone.  An}'  oil  or  grease  is 
removed  by  boiling  the  parts  for  a  few 
minutes  iu  a  solution  made  of  100  parts 
of  water  and  10  of  caustic  soda  or 
potash ;  rinse  in  clean  water,  which 
should  wet  them  entirely  if  all  the  oil 
has  been  removed.  The  articles  are 
threaded  ujion  a  brass  wire ;  cleanse 
them  rapidly  iu  the  compound  acids  for 
a  bright  lustre,  and  dry  them  carefully 
in  white  wood  saw-dust.  The  pieces  are 
fiistened  upon  the  even  side  of  a  block 
of  cork  by  brass  pins  with  fiat  heads. 
The  parts  are  then  thoroughly  rubbed 
over  with  a  brush,  entirely  free  from 
grease,  and  charged  with  a  paste  oi 
water  and  very  fine  pumice-stone  ]>ow- 
der.  Jkive  the  brush  in  circles,  in 
order  not  to  rub  one  side  more  than  the 
other  ;  thoroughly  rinse  iu  clean  water, 
and  no  particle  of  pumice-dust  should 
remain  upon  the  pieces,  or  the  cork. 
Next  place  the  cork  and  the  pieces  into 
a  weak    mercurial   solution,  which  very 


198 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


slightlr  whitens  the  copper,  composed  of 
— wafer,  2i  gallons,  niti;ate  or  binoxiile 
of  mercury,  yL  of  ao  ounce;  sul]>huric 
acid,  I  of  an  ounce.  The  pieces  are  jiassod 
quicklv  through  the  solution,  and  tlieu 
rinsed.  This  operation  gives  strengtli  to 
the  graining  which,  without  it,  possesses 
no  adherence. 

Graining  Powders. — 1.  Silver  in  im- 
palj-able  powder,  1  oz. ;  cream  of  tartar, 
hnelv  pulverized  and  passed  through 
a  silk  sieve,  10  oz. ;  common  salt, 
pulverized  and  sifted  as  above,  2  lbs. 
2.  Silver  powder,  I  oz. ,  cream  of 
tartar,  4  to  5  oz. ;  common  salt, 
white  and  clean,  13  oz.  3.  Silver 
powder,  1  oz.  ,  cream  of  tartar,  3  oz. ; 
comniou  salt,  white  and  clean.  2  lbs. 
Al!  these  substances  sliould  be  as  pure 
as  possible,  and  jierfectly  dry.  Ci-eam 
of  tartar  is  generally  dry:  common  salt 
often  needs,  before  or  after  it  has  been 
pulverizeil,  a  thorough  drying  in  a  porce- 
lain or  silver  dish,  in  which  it  is  kept 
stii-red  with  a  glass  rod  or  a  silver 
spoon.  The  mi.xture  of  the  three  sub- 
stances must  be  thorough,  and  elfected 
at  a  moderate  and  protracte<l  heat. 
The  graining  is  the  coarser  the  more 
common  salt  there  is  in  the  mi.xture  ; 
and  it  is  the  finer  and  more  condensed 
as  the  proportion  of  croam  of  taitar  is 
gi'eatcr,  but  it  is  then  more  dillicult  to 
8cratcli-l)rush. 

Silver  J'fnvdcr. — The  silver  powder  Is 
obtained  by  immersing  cleansed  cojiper 
plates  in  a  very  diluted  solution  of  ni- 
trate of  silver  made  with  distilled 
water.  The  more  diluted  the  solution 
is,  the  finer  is  the  iireci].itate  of  silver 
upon  the  (•opi)er,  and  the  more  easily  it 
is  removed.  In  a  glass  or  porcelain 
vessel  1|  of  an  ounce  of  cryst.-illized  ni- 
trate (if  silver  are  dissolved  in  2jt  gal- 
lons of  distilled  water,  and  .5  or  6  i)ands 
of  cleansed  copper  jf  of  an  inch  wi<!e  are 
jilaced  in  it.  These  bauds  should  be 
long  enough  to  .allow  of  a  jiortioii  being 
above  the  liipiid.  'I'ho  whole  is  ke]pt  in 
a  (lark  pl.ace  for  24  hours,  and  now  and 
then  stirred  with  the  copper  bands. 
This  motion  is  Bulficiont  to  loosen  the 
I'epoHited  silver,  and  (iresent  fresh  cop- 
uti  surf.ice.i  to  the  action  of  the  liijuor. 


When  no  more  silver  depssits  on  th»" 
copper,  the  operation  is  completed,  anil 
there  remains  a  blue  solution  of  nitrate 
of  co])per.  The  silver  powder  is  washed 
by  decautation,  or  upon  a  filter,  until 
there  remains  nothing  of  the  co]>per 
solution.  It  is  then  carefully  drieil, 
avoiding  contact  with  hard  bodies.  Nu- 
remberg powder  is  produced  by  grind- 
ing a  mixture  of  honey  and  silver  foil 
upon  a  ground-glass  plate  with  a  muller 
until  the  pio])er  fineness  is  obtained. 
The  silver  is  separated  by  dissolving 
the  honey  in  boiling  water,  and  washing 
the  dei)osited  metal  in  a  filter,  until 
there  is  no  remaining  trace  of  honey. 
The  silver  is  then  carefully  dried  at  a 
gentle  heat. 

Graining. — A  thin  paste  made  of  one  ol 
the  above  powdei-s  and  water  is  spread  by 
means  of  a  spatula  upon  the  watch  parts 
held  upon  the  cork.  The  cork  itself  is 
placed  upon  an  earthenware  dish,  to 
which  a  rotating  movement  is  imparted 
by  the  left  hand.  An  oval  brush  with 
close  bristles,  held  in  the  riglit  hand, 
rubs  tlie  watch  jiarts  in  every  direction, 
but  always  with  a  rotary  motion.  A 
new  quantity  of  the  paste  is  added  two 
or  three  times,  and  rubbed  in  the 
manner  indicated.  The  more  the  brush 
anil  the  cork  are  turned  the  rounder 
becomes  the  grain,  which  is  a  good  qua- 
lity; and  the  more  paste  added  the 
larger  the  grain.  When  the  desired  grain 
IS  obtained,  the  pieces  are  washed  and 
then  scratch-brushed.  The  wire  brushes 
employed,  which  usually  come  from 
Nuremberg,  are  made  of  brass  wires  as 
fine  as  hair,  very  stilf  and  sipringy.  It 
is  necessarv  to  anneal  them  upon  an  even 
fire  to  dillerent  degrees;  one  soft,  or 
\\M  anneale<l.  for  the  first  operation  or 
uncovering  the  grain;  one  harder,  foi 
bringing  up  the  lustre;  and  one  very 
sot't,  or  fully  annealed,  used  before  gild- 
ing for  removing  any  marks  which  nay 
h.ive  been  made  by  the  jireceding  tool, 
and  for  scr.itili-brii->liiiig  after  the  gild- 
ing, which,  like  the  graining,  must  !••• 
done  by  giving  a  rotary  motion  lo 
the  tool.  Decoctions  of  li(|iiorice  or 
sa|>onaire  are  employed  in  this  oj'eia- 
tion. 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


199 


Resists. — 1.  If  it  happens  that  the  same 
watch  part  is  composed  of  copper  and 
Bteel,  this  latter  metal  requires  to  be 
preserved  against  the  action  of  the 
cleansing  acids  and  of  the  graining  mix- 
ture, by  a  composition  called  resist. 
This  consists  in  covering  the  pinions  and 
other  steel  parts  with  a  fatty  composi- 
tion, wliich  is  suliiciently  hard  to  resist 
the  tearing  action  of  the  bristle  and 
wire  brushes,  and  insoluble  in  the  alka- 
lies of  the  gilding  bath.  Yellow  wax, 
2  oz. ;  translucent  colophony,  3i  oz. ; 
extra  fine  red  sealing-wax,  1-i  oz.  ;  im- 
palpable peroxide  of  iron  or  polishing 
rouge,  1  oz.  Melt  the  colophony  and 
sealiug-wax  in  a  porcelain  dish  upon  a 
water  bath,  and  afterwards  add  the 
yellow  wax.  When  the  whole  is 
thoroughly  fluid,  gradually  add  the 
rouge,  and  stir  with  a  wooden  or  glass  rod. 
Withdraw  the  heat,  but  continue  the  stir- 
ring until  the  mixture  becomes  solid, 
otherwise  all  the  oxide  of  iron  will  fall  to 
'.he  bottom  of  the  mixture.  The  flat 
parts  to  receive  this  resist  ai'e  slightly 
neated,  and  then  covered  with  the  mix- 
'.ure,  which  melts  and  is  easily  spread. 
For  covering  steel  pinions.,  employ  a 
tmall  gouge  of  copjier  or  brass  fixed  to  a 
wooden  handle.  The  metallic  part  of 
the  gouge  is  heated  upon  an  alcohol 
lamp,  and  a  small  quantity  of  resist  is 
taken  with  it.  The  composition  soon 
melts,  and,  by  turning  the  tool  around 
the  steel  pinion,  this  becomes  coated. 
Use  a  scratch-brush  with  long  wires,  as 
their  flexibility  prevents  the  removal  of 
the  composition.  When  the  resist  is  to 
be  removed  after  gilding,  place  the  parts 
in  warm  oil  or  into  tepid  turpentine, 
then  into  a  very  hot  soap-water  or  alka- 
line solution,  and,  lastly,  into  fresh 
water.  Scratch-brush  and  dry  in  warm 
saw-dust  of  white  wood.  The  holes  of 
the  pinions  are  cleaned  and  polished 
with  small  pieces  of  very  soft  white 
wood,  the  friction  of  which  is  sufficient 
to  restore  the  primitive  lustre.  The 
gilding  of  parts  composed  of  copper  and 
stael  requires  the  greatest  care,  as  the 
s!ii;htest  rust  destroys  their  future  use- 
fulness. Should  some  gohl  deposit  upon 
the  steel,  it  should  be  removed  by  rub- 


bing with  a  piece  of  wood  and  impal 
pable  pumice-dust,  tin  putty,  o-  rouge. 
2.  Again,  when  it  is  desired  to  obtain 
gildings  of  several  colours  upon  the 
same  object,  resists,  genei-ally  made  of 
some  kind  of  varnish,  are  used ;  after 
having  gilt  an  article  of  a  uniform  red 
or  green  colour,  it  is  covered  with  a  fat 
varnish,  made  drying  by  the  addition  of 
chromate  of  lead,  at  those  places  which 
are  to  resist  the  action  of  the  new  bath. 
By  means  of  resists  and  successive  baths, 
several  difierent  shades  can  be  obtained 
upon  the  same  object.  The  resist  var- 
nishes are  applied  with  a  brush  or 
pencil,  and  should  be  thoroughly  dried 
in  a  stove  before  placing  the  object  into 
another  solution.  These  varnishes  may 
be  coloured  with  various  oxides  or 
coloured  salts,  in  order  to  facilitate 
their  use  upon  those  places  which  should 
be  sharply  marked  ;  chromate  of  lead 
and  artificial  ultramarine  blue  are  well 
suited  for  the  purpose.  Resist  var- 
nishes are  also  used  for  preserving  the 
reverse  parts  of  articles  which  have  to 
receive  the  gilding  only  on  the  front. 
When  the  operation  is  finished,  the  re- 
sist is  easily  removed  by  a  washing, 
first  with  essence  of  turpentine,  gaso- 
line, benzine,  or  benzole,  and  then  with 
alcohol  ;  when  benzole  is  used,  it  is 
sufficient  to  wash  the  article  in  boiling 
water,  and  then  to  dry  it  in  warm  saw- 
dust of  fir-wood.  It  comes  out  perfectly 
clean.  This  is  not  always  the  case  with 
rectified  turpentine,  and  it  may  be 
necessary  to  plunge  the  object  into  a 
hot  alkaline  lye,  then  to  rinse  and  dry 
it  in  warm  saw-dust. 

Gilding. — After  the  preparations  de- 
scribed, the  gilding  may  be  effected  by 
some  of  the  processes  already  mentioned. 
Hot  baths  must  not  be  employed  for 
those  pieces  covered  with  the  resist. 
Heat  i  of  an  ounce  of  finely  laminated 
and  pure  gold  in  order  to  destroy  all 
organic  substance,  dissolve  in  a  glass 
flask  with  ^  of  an  ounce  of  pure  nitric 
acid,  and  |  of  an  ounce  of  pure  hydro- 
chloric acid.  When  the  gold  is  dis- 
solved, evaporate  the  excess  of  acids, 
leaving  in  the  flask  a  syrupy  dark-red 
liquid  ;  th?  whole  is  thea  removed  from 


yoo 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


the  fu-e  and  allowed  to  cool.  Dissolve 
the  chloride  of  gold  in  about  2  oz.  of 
distilled  water,  aud  pour  into  a  large 
glass  vessel.  Dilute  with  about  a  pint 
of  distilled  water,  and  pour  into  the 
liquor  a  certain  excess  of  pure  ammonia, 
which  precipitates  the  gold  in  the  state 
of  a  yellow  powder  of  ammoniuret  of 
gold,  or  fulminate  of  gold,  which  is  a 
detonating  powder  when  dry.  The  ])ro- 
portion  of  ammonia  is  sullicient,  when 
a  new  quantity  of  this  reagent,  being 
added  to  the  clear  liquid  above  the 
settled  powder,  does  not  produce  any 
new  precipitate.  The  clear  liquor  is 
decanted  aud  kept  among  the  saved 
waste.  Collect  the  settled  powder  upon 
a  small  filter,  previously  wetted  with 
distilled  water,  there  wash  with  dis- 
tilled water  until  all  amraoniacal  smell 
has  disappeared.  The  filter  aud  its  con- 
tents are  afterwards  put  into  a  glass  or 
porcelain  vessel  with  a  quart  of  distilled 
water  and  ^  of  an  ounce  of  j)ure  cyanide 
of  potassium,  whicli  rapidly  destroys  the 
gold  and  passes  through  tlie  filter.  The 
whole  is  filtered  a^ain,  boiled  for  15  to 


inches.  The  articles  to  be  gilt  are  sus- 
pended to  metallic  holders,  connected 
with  the  zmc  pole  of  a  battery,  and  of  a 
shape  appropriate  to  the  nature  and  form 
of  the  watch  parts.  One  or  more  plati- 
num wires  are  used  for  anodes,  and  are 
disposed  in  the  centre  or  round  the  bath. 
The  battery  most  generally  employed 
is  com])osed  of  thi-ee,  four,  five,  or  si.\ 
small  Daniell's  elements.  Those  with 
balloons,  on  account  of  their  constancy, 
should  be  preferred.  The  slower  the 
gold  dejiosit,  the  finer  and  more  adherent 
it  is.  When  the  coating  is  sutficient, 
wash  the  articles  in  clean  water,  and  fix 
again  upon  the  cork  iu  order  to  proceed 
to  the  last  scratch-brusiiing  with  a  de- 
coction of  liquorice,  or  of  horse-cliestnut. 
Gilding  Thin  Wires. — Gilt  silver  is 
fine;  gilt  copper  is  half  fine;  and  copper 
or  brass  alone,  is  filse.  At  the  jiresent 
time,  nearly  all  gilt  wire  is  gilt  by  elec- 
tricity ;  the  batlis  and  the  batteries  are 
the  same  as  those  already  mentioned,  but 
for  the  success  of  tlie  operation  a  certain 
disposition  of  the  apparatus  is  required. 
U])on  a  brick  furnace  A,  Fig.  58,  which 


Fig.  58, 


20  minutes,  filtered  ngafn,  and  left  to 
c<>ol.  Tlie  bath  obtained  iu  excellent  for 
^ildJDg  the  most  dclicite  watch  parts, 
with  an  electric  current  regulated  to  suit 
the  surfaces  to  be  gilt.  Several  of  these 
baths,  in  variou.s  degrees  of  exhaustion, 
are  genei-ally  kept  in  glass  or  ]i(ii'celain 
vessels  fl.it-bottomed,  and  holding  from 
7  to  'J  pints  within  a  depth  pf  4  to  5 


may  be  heated  either  with  solid  fuel  or 
g.a.s,  is  a  cast-iron  enamelled  kettle  1'., 
about  3  feet  long.  IS  inches  wide,  and  4  to 
7  inches  deep,  I'or  holding  the  gold  Ijalh. 
If  gas  is  usetl  as  fuel,  the  burner  should 
be  an  ellijitic  ring  with  25  or  .'50 
jets  attached  to  it,  or  the  same  kettle 
may  be  used  as  a  cold  bath  if  de-siied, 
the  fire  being  oj)tloual.     At  one  end  of 


WOIIKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


201 


the  apparatus,  near  the  battery,  are  two 
wooden  stands  C,  supporting  an  iron  rod 
which  passes  through  a  certain  number 
of  wooden  spools  carrying  the  wire  to 
be  gilt.  These  spools  turn  freely  upon 
the  rod,  and  the  unwound  wires,  before 
di]iping  into  the  bath,  are  pressed  against 
a  copper  or  brass  rod  D  connected  with 
the  negative,  zinc,  pole  of  the  battery ; 
thus  the  wires  are  connected  with  this 
pole.  The  wires  dip  into  the  bath  to 
about  two-thirds  of  its  depth,  and  are 
kept  stretched  by  small  grooved  pulleys 
E  E  of  glass,  porcelain,  or  ivory,  rolling 
freely  upon  glass  or  ivory  axes,  which 
are  kept  near  the  bottom  by  supports 
screwed  on  the  top  edges  of  the  kettle. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  bath,  and  crossing 
the  wires  to  be  gilt,  are  two  or  more 
platinum  wires  G  G,  the  vertical  branches 
of  which  communicate  with  the  positive, 
or  carbon,  pole.  These  j)latinum  anodes 
must  nowhere  touch  wires  to  be  gilt,  as 
these  two  kinds  of  wire  represent  the 
two  poles  of  the  battery  in  the  bath. 
At  the  other  end  of  the  apparatus  is 
another  series  of  wooden  reels  M,  ujjon 
which  the  gilt  wire  is  wound  up. 
These  reels  are  fixed  to  the  square  iron 
axis  which  traverses  them,  and  which  is 
turned  by  gearing,  slowly  enough  to 
ensure  a  good  gilding  to  the  wire,  dur- 
ing its  passage  through  the  bath.  After 
passing  through  the  gilding  bath,  the 
wires  are  rinsed  and  dried  by  winding  over 
two  wooden  rollers  H  11  revolving  freely 
upon  their  axes,  and  jilunged  by  means  of 
grooved  rollers  into  the  first  trough, 
filled  with  a  weak  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potassium,  which  cleans  and  brightens 
the  gilding ;  they  then  pass  into  the 
second  trough  filled  with  water,  which 
is  constantly  replaced,  which  removes  the 
salts  from  the  wires.  The  drying  rollers 
K,  covered  with  several  layers  of  calico, 
are  moved  by  gear  in  opposite  direc- 
tions; the  wires  are  thoroughly  dried 
in  a  flat  tube  L,  kept  at  a  dull  red- 
heat  in  the  furnace  L'.  In  a  kettle 
of  the  size  named,  20  wires  may 
be  gilt  at  the  same  time.  Copper 
wires  are  generally  previously  sil- 
vered and  passed  once  through  a  draw- 
plate,    to    avoid   the    cleansing   process 


before  gilding.  The  more  intense  the 
battery,  or  the  slower  the  wires  pass 
through  the  bath,  so  will  the  deposit  of 
gold  be  increased  ;  and  it  will  be  well 
to  weigh  the  bobbins  before  and  after 
the  operation,  for  which  purpose  the 
spools  for  winding  up  and  winding  out 
should  be  of  the  same  weight.  This 
gilding  requires  constant  supervision, 
either  for  uniting  the  broken  wires,  the 
severed  parts  of  which  may  touch  the 
anodes  and  stop  the  operation ;  or  for 
regulating  the  intensity  of  the  battery, 
which,  if  too  powerful,  will  produce  a 
red  gilding,  or,  if  too  weak,  a  green 
gilding.  liaths  of  double  cyanide  of  gold 
and  i)Otassium  are  employed,  cold  or 
slightly  tepid ;  baths  with  phosphate 
and  bisulphite  of  soda  are  used  for  hot 
electrogilding,  but  they  are  concen- 
trated until  the  proportion  of  water  is 
one-half  of  that  indicated.  As  the 
platinum  anodes  do  not  make  up  for  the 
metallic  loss  of  the  bath,  it  is  frequently 
necessary  to  add  new  portions  of  metal 
and  salts,  in  the  manner  already  de- 
scribed. Pure  gold  wire  is  sometimes 
gilt,  in  order  to  impart  to  it  a  more 
uniform  and  deeper  shade.  After  being 
gilt,  the  wire  is  passed  through  the 
draw-plate  or  the  rollers.  By  the  draw- 
plate  it  is  diminished  by  about  one- 
fourth  or  one-half  of  a  number  to 
remove  the  dulness  of  the  deposit,  and 
bring  up  the  lustre.  When  the  gilt 
wire  is  fiattened  between  the  rollers,  its 
surface  is  bright  or  dull,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  surface  of  the  rollers. 
Silvering,  or  any  other  metallic  electro- 
deposit  upon  thin  wires,  can  be  efl'ected 
in  a  similar  manner. 

Gildinij  with  a  Dead  Lustre. — 1.  By 
the  slow  deposit  of  a  large  proportion 
of  gold.  This  gilding  is  very  durable, 
but  dull  and  earthy  in  appearance,  and 
is  costly.  2.  By  acids ;  giving  a  dead 
lustre  to  the  metallic  surface,  before 
gilding,  and  by  the  processes  indicated 
in  the  cleansing  operations.  Tliis  is  em- 
ployed for  small  articles,  or  when  gild- 
ing by  dipping,  for  bronze  articles,  or 
large  embossed  work.  3.  With  frosted 
silver,  by  depositing  upon  the  object  to 
be  gilt  a  coat  of  frosted  silver,  and  then 


■202 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


gilding  in  a  good  bath  ;  this  method  is 
expensive,  the  buraishod  parts  are 
greeuish,  and  the  iutennediary  coat  of 
silver  is  more  easily  blackened  by  sul- 
phur fumes  than  gold.  4.  By  copper, 
by  depositing  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper  decomposed  by  a  battery  a  coat 
of  this  metal,  which  possesses  a  pink 
dead  lustre.  The  whole  is  rapidly  passed 
through  the  compound  acids  for  a  bright 
lustre,  and  the  mercurial  solution,  and 
then  gilt  in  a  good  bath.  When  the 
dead  lustre  obtained  in  the  bath  is  per- 
fect, the  com])ound  acids  may  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  merely  i)lace  the  article 
in  the  mercurial  solution  before  it  is  gilt. 
This  mode  is  generally  preferred,  as  the 
gilding  is  very  handsome  in  lustre  and 
colour.  The  burnished  parts  will  be 
red,  if  vinegar  or  soap-water  is  used ; 
and  of  a  fine  yellow  (olour,  if  the  bur- 
nishing tool  be  wetted  with  a  decoction 
of  flax-seed,  or  of  marsh-mallow  root.  If 
the  gold  de])0sit  is  of  iusutlicieut  thick- 
ness, it  will  blacken  in  time,  by  the 
oxidization  of  the  intermediate  coat  of 
copper.  5.  Dead  lustre  by  mercury,  or 
the  old  process  of  gilding  by  fire,  which 
furnishes  the  most  durable  gilding,  al- 
though costly. 

GU'liri'j  by  Fire  or  Mercuri/. — Mer- 
cury gilding  will  furnish  gold  with  a 
bright  or  a  dead  lustre,  scratch-brushed, 
ormolued,  and  with  different  shades. 
The  amalgam  of  gold  is  prepared  in  the 
manner  described  in  the  ))rocess  of  gild- 
ing by  stii'riug,  only  a  little  less  mer- 
cury is  useil,  in  order  to  have  an  amal- 
gam about  as  hard  as  wax.  This  amal- 
gam is  crystalline,  and  a  certain  crack- 
ling sound  is  heard  when  the  crystals 
are  crushed  between  the  fingers.  A 
stock  of  amalgam  is  generally  prepared 
in  advance,  and  is  divided  into  small 
balls  of  nearly  ci|ual  size,  the  value  of 
which  i.s  ascertained  from  their  iiuinber, 
and  from  the  total  weight  of  golii  em- 
I)ioyed.  These  balls  are  kept  in  water, 
but  should  not  remain  too  long  without 
being  useil,  as  the  ilill'ereut  parts  do  not 
then  pres-sLt  flic  same  composition.  Tlie 
amalgam  is  spread  with  the  linger  upon 
a  flat,  hard  stone,  called  the  gilding 
stone ;    and    having    dipped    a    sci.itch- 


brush  of  stout  brass  wire  into  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  binoxide  of  mercury  until 
it  becomes  completely  white,  it  is  passed 
over  the  amalgam,  a  portion  of  which  is 
carried  away.  The  object,  previously 
well  cleansed,  is  scratch-brushed  in  every 
direction,  and  the  brush  must  be  fre- 
quently dipped  into  the  mercurial  solu- 
tion to  facilitate  the  regular  and  even 
spreading  of  the  amalgam.  This  opera- 
tion requires  great  care  to  obtain  a 
uniform  coat  ujion  the  hollow  and  raised 
parts.  When  the  back  part  of  a  j)iece 
does  not  require  gilding,  the  flat  outline, 
and  the  back  edge,  should  be  gilt,  so 
that  the  naked  copper  shall  cause  no 
injury  in  the  subsequent  operations. 
The  article,  when  uniformly  covered 
with  the  amalgam,  is  heated  ujion  a 
charcoal  fire  without  draught,which  rests 
upon  a  cast-iron  plate.  It  is  advisable 
to  employ  a  gilding  forge,  which  allows 
the  workman  to  watch  the  ojieration 
from  behind  a  glass  frame,  which  pro- 
tects him  from  the  mercurial  vapours. 
The  entire  attention  is  now  required  for 
watching  the  process.  With  the  left 
hancl  covered  with  a  thick  glove  ot 
buckskin,  turn  the  piece  in  every 
direction  upon  the  fire,  and,  as  the 
mercury  disappears,  with  the  right 
hand  strike  the  article  in  every  direction 
with  a  brush,  the  handle  and  the  bristles 
of  which  must  be  long  to  equalize  the 
gilding,  and  to  push  the  remaining 
amalgam  upon  those  parts  which  appear 
less  charged  with  it.  When  all  the 
mercury  has  volatilized,  the  gilding  has 
a  dull  greenish-yellow  colour,  resembling 
that  of  boxwood;  examine  whether  the 
coat  of  gold  is  continuous.  Should  a 
few  cmjjty  places  a]ipear,  add  more 
amalgam,  and  heat  tlie  whole  again. 
The  next  o])eration  is  scratch-hnishing, 
wliich  furnishes  a  pale  green  colour,  and 
reciuires  another  heating  for  arriving  at 
the  desired  shade.  The  reheating  should 
ex[«>l  any  remaining  mercury,  and  pro- 
duce a  line  orange-yellow  colour.  In 
case  a  bright  lustre  is  rc(iiiired,  submit 
the  <ihject,  with  the  aid  of  heat,  to  tlio 
ormolu  process  already  described.  Tc 
obtain  dead  lustre,  the  object  is  finnly 
fixed  to  an  iron  rod,  by  wne  of  the  sain) 


WORKSHOP   IIECEIPTS. 


203 


metal,  and  smeared  with  a  hot  paste  for 
dead  gilding,  composed  of  saltpetre, 
common  salt,  and  the  double  sulphate 
of  alumina  and  potash.  The  whole  is 
heated  upon  a  brisk  charcoal  fire,  with- 
out drauglit,  and  moved  about  until  the 
mixture  dries  and  begms  to  fuse,  when 
the  article  is  immediately  placed  iu  a 
barrel  half  filled  with  water.  The 
covering  of  salts  dissolves,  and  the  dead 
lusti-e  appears;  this  operation  requires 
a  certain  amount  of  practice.  The 
gilding  must  be  strong  to  stand  the 
dead  lustre  process,  especinlly  when  the 
first  trial  is  not  successful.  The  red 
lines  left  by  the  iron  wire  disappear  by 
plunging  the  object  into  a  not  too 
diluted  solution  of  nitric  acid,  or  pure 
hydrochloric  acid.  Mercury  gilders  do 
not  emjiloy  pure  gold  ;  what  they  use 
IS  previously  alloyed  with  a  certain  por- 
tion of  copper  or  silver.  With  the 
latter  metal  the  gilding  is  green.  Red 
gilding  is  either  obtained  with  a  dark 
ormolu  or  with  the  green  for  red, 
already  mentioned. 

Gilding  with  a  partly  Dead,  partly 
Bright  Lustre.  —  1.  Gild  those  parts 
with  the  amalgam  which  are  intended 
for  a  dead  lustre,  and  heat,  scratch- 
brush,  and  reheat  to  the  orange-yellow 
colour.  Then,  with  the  battery,  give  a 
sulficiently  strong  gold  deposit  to  the 
whole,  without  regard  to  the  parts  already 
mercury-gilt ;  scratch  -  brush  all  the 
surfaces  carefully,  and  smear  the  electro- 
gilt  portions  first  with  a  thin  mixture 
of  water,  glne,  and  Spanish  white,  and 
afterwards  with  a  thick  paste  of  yellow 
clay.  After  drying,  cover  the  mercury- 
gilt  portions  with  the  paste  for  dead 
gilding,  and  proceed  as  already  described. 
The  Spanish  white,  &c.,  are  dissolved  in 
a  dilute  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid. 
The  glued  paste  is  to  preserve  the 
electro-gilt  portions  from  the  heat  ; 
these  are  again  wire-brushed  with  all 
the  care  necessary  for  not  scratching 
the  dead  lustre.  Brushing  to  finish. 
This  method  will  sometimes  produce 
red  spots  on  those  places  which  have 
been  heated  too  much,  or  where  the 
coat  of  gold  was  not  thick  enough. 
2.  Gila  with    the  amalgam,  and   bring 


up  the  dead  lustre  upon  thcs«  portions 
which  are  to  receive  it,  and  preserve  the:n 
entirely  with  the  resist  varnish.  After 
thorough  di'ving,  cleanse  the  object  by 
dipping  it  into  acids,  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, and  gild  in  the  electro-bath.  The 
resist  varnish  stands  all  these  acids  and 
solutions.  When  the  desired  shade  is 
obtained,  dissolve  the  varnish  with 
gasoline  ov  benzine,  which,  unless  there 
has  been  friction  ajiplied,  does  not  injure 
either  the  shade  or  the  velvety  appear- 
ance of  the  dead  lustre.  Wash  in  a 
hot  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium, 
then  in  boiling  water,  and  allow  to  dry 
naturally.  The  resist  varnish  may  also 
be  removed  by  allowing  the  object  to 
remain  for  a  time  in  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  at  6^°  Baume,  which  has 
n  action  whatever  upon  the  gilding. 
In  this  case,  washing  with  cyanide  is 
unnecessary,  pure  water  is  sufficient. 
Gilding  with  a  dead  lustre,  whatever 
process  is  employed,  only  suits  those 
objects  which  will  never  be  subjected  to 
friction.  Even  the  contact  of  the  fingers 
injures  it.  A  new  freshness  is  imparted 
to  old  dead  gildings  by  a  washing  in 
caustic  lye,  and  then  in  a  dilute  solution 
of  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid.  This  process 
removes  dirt,  grease,  dust,  and  smoke, 
but  will  not  remedy  scratches.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  objects  must  be  scratch- 
brushed,  and  then  heated  with  the  com- 
position for  a  dead  lustre. 

Gilding  Zinc  with  a  Dead  Lustre. — 
There  is  no  artistic  bronze,  whatever 
the  elegance  and  delicacy  of  its  shape, 
wliich  may  not  be  reproduced  in  zinc 
with  an  accuracy  which  often  deceives 
a  practised  eye.  A  great  many  articles 
have  a  simple  coating  of  brass,  bronzed 
afterwards  to  imitate  similar  objects  of 
real  copper,  brass,  or  bronze ;  but  others 
are  gilt  by  mercury,  either  with  a  dead 
lustre,  scratch-brushed,  or  burnished 
With  tin  solder  fill  all  the  holes  and 
the  smallest  defects  which  may  exist  in 
the  zinc  object,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
remove  all  seams,  burrs,  and  rough 
spots.  Afterwards,  scour  the  piece  by 
passing  it,  for  a  few  seconds  only,  through 
a  boiling  solution  of  100  parts  of  water 
and   5   or  6  parts  of  caustic   soda  ;  if 


204 


WOilKSIIOP   RECEIPTS. 


left  too  long  ia  this  caustic  lye  it  will 
spoil  the  polish  of  the  zinc,  which  dis- 
solves. After  this  scouriag  the  object 
is  riuseJ  iu  fresh  water.  It  is  then 
steejieti  for  half  a  minute  in  a  pickle 
com])oscd  of  1  part  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
10  parts  of  water,  and  lastly  rinsed  in 
boiling  water.  Then  place  the  object 
iu  a  cold  or  warm  electro-bath  of  copper 
or  brass,  for  a  few  moments,  until  it  is 
covered  with  a  thin  metallic  coating, 
which  is  deposited  very  uniformly  if  the 
object  has  in  it  no  tin  solder,  and  is  per- 
fectly cleansed ;  the  deposit  is  black  and 
dull  on  those  parts  which  have  been 
soldei'ed,  or  imperfectly  cleansed.  In 
this  case,  thoi'oughly  scratch-brush  the 
article,  and  dip  again  into  the  electro- 
bath  until  the  deposit  is  suflicieutly 
thick.  Most  gilders  use  a  warm  bath 
for  the  first  coating,  scratch-brush,  and 
complete  the  deposit  in  a  cold  bath.  If 
a  bright  gilding  is  desired,  the  article 
may  be  rinsed  in  fresh  water,  and  then 
dijiped  into  an  electrogildiug  bath. 

Dead  Lustre  Gilding,  e(iual  in  ap- 
pearance to  the  best  mercury  gilding,  is 
obtained — 1.  With  silver.  An  electro- 
silvering  bath  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
in  2i  gallons  of  water,  b\  oz.  of  fused 
nitrate  of  silver,  and  adding  9  oz.  of 
pure  cyanide  of  potassium  ;  tliis  at  first 
produces  an  abundant  ]]recipitate,  wliich 
soon  dissolves.  The  (iltered  liiiuid  is  the 
silver  bath,  in  which  is  steejjcd  the  zinc 
article  previously  coated  with  coj)per  or 
brass.  Under  the  influence  of  a  pro]ier 
electric  current,  the  silver  deposited  is 
of  a  handsome  frosted  dead  lustre  a|)- 
pearance,  and  perfectly  white.  'ilie 
object  is  tlien  rai)idly  and  thoroughly 
rinsed,  and  dijiijcd  into  an  electrogildiug 
bath,  of  wliicli  we  sh.iU  give  the  com- 
position. Tlie  dead  gililing  by  tliis  pro- 
ci-is  is  very  fine  and  silky,  but  is  soon 
darkened  by  the  suljihuretted  hydrogen 
of  the  atmosphere  and  of  gaslight, 
wiiicl)  sulplniriz<;s  the  silvei'  tlirough 
tlie  rtiin  lilm  of  gohl.  2.  The  galvano- 
plastic  process  is  both  more  durable  and 
more  economical  than  that  with  silver. 
Add  to  the  necessary  quantity  of  water, 
one-tenlli  of  its  >olume  of  sul|)huri(; 
ac.d  ;  in  tliii  dissolve  as  ir.-s.-h  sulpliMte 


of  copper  as  it  will  Lo!d  at  the  ordinarj 
temperature.  This  solution  will  mark 
from  20°  to  24°  Baume,  then  add  enough 
water  to  reduce  its  specific  gravity  to 
16°  or  18°.  This  galvanoplastic  batii  is 
generally  held  in  large  vessels  of  stone- 
ware, slate,  wood,  or  gutta-percha  ;  and 
porous  shells  are  immersed  in  it,  filled 
with  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  of  amalgamating  salts.  Plates  or 
cylinders  of  zinc  are  put  into  these  cells, 
and  are  connected  by  binding  screws 
with  one  or  more  brass  rods,  which  rest 
upon  the  sides  of  the  trough,  and  sup- 
port the  articles  which  are  to  receive  a 
dead  lustre  in  this  bath.  The  articles 
of  zinc,  previously  ;oated  with  copper 
or  brass,  suspended  to  the  rods,  remain 
in  tlie  solution  of  sulphate  of  cojjper 
until  they  have  acquired  a  satisfactory 
dead  lustre,  A  few  seconds  after  the 
articles  have  been  jilaced  in  the  bath, 
withdraw  and  examine  them  carefully  ; 
should  the  previous  coat  of  cojiper  or 
brass  be  insulTicient  to  resist  the  cor- 
roding action  of  the  acid  solution  of 
sulphate  of  cojjper,  there  is  jiroduced  a 
muddy  dark  deposit,  which  is  easily  re- 
moved with  the  finger.  Should  this 
occur,  the  object  must  be  scratch-brushed 
and  placed  again  in  the  former  alkaline 
baths  of  cojiper  or  brass,  in  order  to 
increase  the  de|)osit  which  protects  the 
zinc  in  the  galvanoplastic  bath.  When 
the  galvanoplastic  dead  lustre  is  success- 
ful, the  deposit  is  perfectly  regular,  and 
of  a  pink  shade  which  jxissesses  groat 
freshness.  When  it  is  irregular,  marbled, 
crystalline,  of  a  vinous  or  fire-red  colour, 
and  dull  or  earthy  in  ap]>earance,  tiiese 
defects  are  lUie  to  the  following  causes; 
cither  the  bath  is  in  a  bad  state  of  cou- 
ductibility  or  of  saturation  ;  or  the  sur- 
face of  the  zincs  is  too  large  in  pro])or- 
tion  to  that  of  the  objects,  and  therefore 
too  much  electricity  is  given  out;  or 
tlic  ])revious  electro-deposits  of  copper 
or  brass  were  insullicieut  or  infei'lor  in 
(juality.  Tlie  remedy  for  either  of  these 
inconveniences  is  easily  found  out,  and 
only  requires  a  little  care  and  attention. 
The  galvano])lastic  dead  lustre  boi!i>» 
satisfactory,  two  ])relimin;iiy  opeivitiins 
are  nccdrd   to  ensure  the  success  of  the 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


0(\} 


gilding.  They  consist  m  rapidly  passing 
the  object,  alter  rinsing,  through  a  solu- 
tion made  of  water,  2-1  galls. ;  nitrate 
of  binoxide  of  mercury,  a  of  an  oz. ; 
sulphuric  acid,  -f  of  an  oz.  ;  then,  after 
rinsing,  place  it  in  another  solution 
composed  of  water,  2-i-  galls. ;  cyanide 
of  jiotasRium,  14  oz.  ;  nitrate  of  silver, 
3§  oz.  The  object  acquires  a  slightly 
"■\hite  tinge  in  this  liquor,  and  is  again 
rinsed  in  fresh  water,  before  being  put 
into  the  following  gilding  bath  ; — Dis- 
tilled water,  2i  galls.;  phosphate  of  soda, 
21  oz. ;  bisulphite  of  soda,  3^  oz. ;  cyanide 
of  potassium,  pure,  -i  of  an  oz. ;  chloride 
of  gold,  neutral,  -|  of  an  oz.  The  mode 
of  preparation  of  this  bath  is  given  in 
the  receipt  for  hot  gilding  bath.  This 
bath  should  be  nearly  boiling,  and 
worked  with  an  intense  galvanic  cur- 
rent. The  anode  is  a  platinum  wire, 
which,  more  or  less  immersed  in  the 
liquor,  allows  of  the  regulation  of  the 
.imount  of  electricity  according  to  the 
volume,  weight,  and  sui-face  of  the 
object  to  be  gilt.  This  gilding  requires 
an  energetic  electric  action  at  the  be- 
ginning ;  this  is  obtained  by  steeping 
the  platinum  wire  deeply  in  the  liquid, 
to  have  the  entire  surface  of  the  piece 
covered  instantaneously  ;  as  the  thick- 
ness of  the  deposit  increases,  the  anode 
is  grndunlly  removed  from  the  bath 
until  it  only  dips  in  a  little.  The  gild- 
ing by  this  method  has  a  remarkable 
freshness  of  tone.  Before  using  the 
bath  with  battery,  the  zinc  articles 
may  be  passed  through  a  preparing 
bath  ;  this  is  the  same  as  a  gold  bath 
for  dipjiing.  Or  the  gilding  may  be 
done  in  two  operations.  After  having 
deposited  about  half  of  the  gold  in- 
tended for  the  object,  remove  it  from 
the  bath,  wash,  pass  again  through  the 
mercurial  solution,  and  replace  in  the 
gold  bath  for  finishing  the  gilding. 
After  gilding,  the  articles  are  rinsed  in 
clear  boiling  water  for  a  few  seconds  to 
remove  any  saline  matters ;  they  are 
then  dried  in  the  stove,"  or  in  warm 
saw-dust  of  firewood.  All  friction  should 
be  carefully  avoided,  so  as  not  to  scratch 
the  dead  lustre.  VVhen  pai'ts  of  this 
gilding  are    burnished,  their   colour    is 


green  if  the  frosted  surface  has  been 
oDtamed  in  the  silver  bath,  and  red  if 
the  galvanoplastic  bath  has  been  em 
ployed.  These  inconveniences  are  re- 
medied by  dipping  the  burnished  article, 
for  a  short  time,  into  the  gold  bath, 
this  last  deposit  of  gold  must  be  so  thin 
as  not  sensibly  to  impair  the  briglitnoss 
of  the  burnished  parts.  Dead  lustre 
electrogilding  upon  zinc  will  only  suit 
such  objects  as  have  no  friition  to  bear, 
and  which  are  not  often  handled  ;  it  is 
especially  useful  for  clocks  and  similar 
articles,  which  remain  under  glass.  The 
dead  lustre  gilding  here  described  can 
be  applied  to  all  metals  ami  alloys,  pro- 
vided that  those  corroded  by  the  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  copper  be  previously 
coated  with  copper  or  brass ;  these  pre- 
vious coatings  are  always  desirable,  as 
they  prevent  crystalline  and  irregular 
deposits  often  formed  upon  metals  which 
are  not  corroded  by  the  bath  of  sulphate 
of  copper.  The  galvanoplastic  dead  lustre 
upon  copper  is  much  finer  when  the 
pieces  have  been  previously  covered  with 
copper  or  brass  in  the  alkaline  baths. 
Faded  gildings  may  be  renovated  by 
dipping  them  into  a  weak  tepid  solu- 
tion of  cyanide  of  potassium,  and  after- 
wards into  very  dilute  nitric  or  sul- 
phuric acid.  Imperfect  gildings  mav 
be  removed  by  inverting  the  poles  in  a 
solution  of  cyanides,  connecting  the  gilt 
articles  with  the  positive  pole,  carbon 
or  copper,  and  the  negative  pole,  zinc, 
with  the  anode  which  becomes  gilt. 
This  process  is  employed  for  removing 
the  gold  from  articles  of  iron,  steel,  and 
silver,  which  cannot  be  submitted  to 
the  ungilding  bath.  Silver,  copper,  and 
brass  may  also  be  removed  by  similar 
processes. 

Dissolving  Gold  from  Gilt  Articles. — 
Iron  and  steel  articles  are  ungilt,  with- 
out any  injui-y  to  themselves,  by  dipping 
them  into  a  bath  of  10  parts  of  cyanide 
of  potassium  and  100  parts  of  water, 
and  connecting  them  with  the  positiv,' 
pole  of  a  battery.  A  wire  or  foil  of 
platinum  is  fixed  to  the  negative  pole. 
This  is  inverting  the  position  of  the 
poles  ;  and  in  this  case  the  gold  applied 
upon  the  iron  or  steel  is  dissolved  in  the 


206 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


s-olution  of  cyanide,  and  partly  deposited 
Qpou  the  platinum  auode,  tVom  which 
'.t  is  removed  in  a  regular  gold  bath. 
When  there  is  only  a  Kim  of  gold  upon 
iron  or  steel,  it  may  be  removed  by  the 
cyanide  alone,  without  the  aid  of  elec- 
tricity, but  this  method  is  slow.  Silver, 
copjier,  and  their  alloys  may  also  be 
uiigilt  by  this  process;  but  the  cyanide 
dissolves,  at  the  same  time,  the  gold,  and 
part  of  tlie  other  metals;  it  is  therefore 
j)referable  to  operate  as  follows  ; — For 
iingilding  silver,  it  is  heated  to  a  cherry- 
red  heat,  and  immediately  thrown  iuto  a 
jiickle  of  more  or  less  diluted  suljihuric 
acid.  The  gold  scales  off,  and  falls  to 
the  bottom  in  the  shape  of  spangles. 
The  operation  is  repeated  until  gold  no 
longer  appears  upon  the  surface  of  the 
silver,  which  is  then  white  and  frosty. 
This  process  is  not  adajited  to  light  and 
hollow  articles,  tor  which  the  preceding 
process  is  better.  For  cojijier  and  its 
alloys,  in  small  articles,  such  as  false 
jewellery  thinly  gilt,  either  by  battery 
or  by  dipping,  use  the  following  bath; — 
1.  Sulphuric  acid,  10  j)arts  ;  nitric  acid, 
I  part;  hydrochloric  aci'l,  2  parts.  The 
large  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  allows 
of  the  solution  of  gold,  whilst  it  does 
not  sensibly  attack  copper  or  its  alloys. 
The  suljihuric  acid  is  put  alone  into  a 
stoneware  jar,  and  the  mixture  of  hydro- 
chloric and  nitric  acids,  ke|)t  in  a  stop- 
jK'red  bottle,  is  gradually  added  to  it  as 
the  operation  ]iroceeds.  The  same  sul- 
phuric acid  may  last  a  long  time,  if  it 
is  kept  well  covered,  and  its  dissolving 
action  promoted  by  successive  additiou.> 
of  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids.  The 
articles  should  be  often  withdrawn  to 
watch  the  oi)eration,  whicii  is  termi- 
nated when  no  gold  is  seen,  anil  when 
the  copper  has  acquired  a  uniform 
blackish-greycoat;  or  by  |)lungiug  the 
objects  iuto  the  coin])Ound  acids,  they 
will  be  perfectly  clean.sed  when  the 
^(t\'\  has  all  dissolved.  2.  Saltpetre 
:ind  common  salt  may  be  sul<stit  uieil 
for  nitric  acid  and  hydrochloric  acid  ; 
the  salts  miibt  be  finely  powdered,  and 
stirred  with  a  glass  rod.  .'i.  For  large 
objects,  such  as  clocks  or  chandeliers, 
rfin('cuti'ated  sulphuric  .irid,  66"  Baume,  | 


is  put  into  a  glass  or  stoneware  vessel 
supporting  two  brass  rods.  One  of 
these  rods  is  connected  by  a  conducting 
wire  with  the  last  carbon  of  a  battery 
of  two  or  three  Bunsen's  iuvertec 
elements,  and  supports  the  objects  to 
be  ungilt,  which  are  entirely  covered 
by  the  sulphuric  acid.  The  other  rod 
supjiorts  a  coi)])er  j)late  facing  thti 
object,  and  is  connected  with  the  last 
zinc  of  the  battery.  The  electric  fluid 
traverses  the  sulphuric  acil,  and  carries 
the  gold  from  the  positive  to  the  nega- 
tive pole;  as  the  co]iper  plate  is  not 
prepared  for  letaining  the  gold,  it  falls 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bath  in  a  black, 
powder,  which  is  easily  recovered.  i$o 
long  as  the  sulphuric  acid  is  concen- 
trated, and  even  under  the  action  of  tlie  ■ 
galvanic  current,  it  does  not  sensibly 
corrode  the  cojiper ;  and  as  it  rai)idly 
absorbs  the  dampness  of  the  atmospiiere, 
the  vessel  in  which  it  is  contained 
should  be  kejit  perfectly  closed,  svhen 
the  ungilding  process  is  not  in  active 
operation;  and  the  pieces  for  ungilding 
should  be  ])ut  in  perfectly  dry.  If  it  is 
intended  to  sacrilice  the  gilt  articles  ol' 
cojiper  or  silver,  let  them  remain  in 
jiure  nitric  acid,  wiiich  dissolves  all  the 
metals  except  gold,  which  either  floats 
at  the  surface  of  the  liquid  as  a  metallic 
foil,  or  falls  to  the  bottom  as  a  blackish 
])owder.  If  the  liciuor  is  diluted  with 
distilled  water,  and  filtered,  all  the  gold 
will  remain  on  tlie  filter,  and  the  solu- 
tion will  contain  the  other  metals. 

SiLVKiuNG. —  \\7titeni7ig  uit/i  Silver 
in  a  J'ot. — This  operation  is  atill  em- 
))loyed  for  whitening  small  wares  for 
which  durability  is  of  secondary  impor- 
tance, and  which  simply  rei|uire  the 
whiteness  of  silver;  such  are  hooks  and 
eyes,  or  buttons.  This  whitening  i* 
maile  as  follows; — 1.  Dissolve  a  cciiain 
quantity  of  \)uvc  granulated  silver  in 
double  its  weight  of  pure  nitric  acid. 
The  solution  is  largely  diluted  with 
w;iler,  and  the  mel;il  is  precipitated  in 
heavy  white  clods  by  coiiimon  .salt  or 
hydrochloric  acid.  All  the  nitrate  of  sil- 
ver has  been  decomjiosed  when  a  further 
addition  of  hydrochloric  acid  or  common 
salt  to  the  (dear  supernatant  liquid  does 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


207 


not  produce  auy  turbidness.  The  clear 
liquors  are  then  thrown  away,  and  th« 
chloride  of  silver  obtained  is  washed 
several  times,  to  deprive  it  of  all  free 
acid.  If  this  precipitate  is  to  be  kept 
some  time  before  use,  it  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  sunlight,  which  blackens 
it  raindly.  The  chloride  of  silver,  with 
a  little  water,  is  thoroughly  mixed  with 
at  least  80  times  its  weight  of  finely 
powdered  bitartrate  of  potash,  and  kept 
iu  a  stoneware  jiot.  2.  Pure  silver  for 
making  the  chloride,  1  part  ;  powdered 
cream  tartar,  salt,  83  parts  of  each  ;  a 
few  spoonfuls  of  the  paste  thrown  in, 
and  dissolved  in  boiling  water  contained 
in  a  pure  copper  kettle.  The  articles  are 
di])i)ed  into  this  bath  by  a  hook,  or  in  a 
basket  of  wire  gauze,  such  as  indicated 
m  receipt  for  gilding  by  dipping.  Or 
have  another  basin  of  copper,  shallow 
and  perforated  with  holes,  which  rests 
against  the  upper  sides  of  the  kettle.  By 
means  of  handles,  this  basin  can  be  re- 
moved at  once  with  its  contents.  Stir 
the  articles  with  a  wooden  spatula ; 
ftnd  at  each  operation  add  a  quantity  of 
paste,  proportioned  to  the  surfaces  to  be 
whitened.  These  baths  do  not  work  well 
when  freshly  maile,  but  improve  as  they 
are  more  used.  They  acquire  a  dark 
green  tint,  due  to  the  copper  which  is 
dissolved,  and  which  takes  the  place  of 
the  deposited  silver.  Varnishing,  colour- 
ing, and  cleansing  may  be  done  in  aqua 
fortis;  but  these  cleansing  methods  are 
inferior  to  those  employed  for  gilding ; 
in  general,  use  the  worn-out  acids  of  gil- 
ders. Brighten  the  articles  by  friction 
with  saw-dust.  The  smallest  particle  of 
iron,  zinc,  or  tin  introduced  into  the 
whitening  bath  imparts  a  red  colour  to 
the  brass  or  copper  articles  in  the  liquor. 
The  iron  is  separated  by  a  magnet ;  the 
zinc  is  dissolved  in  pickles  of  hydrochlo- 
ric or  sulphuric  acid,  which,  when  cold, 
do  not  sensibly  corrode  the  copper  arti- 
cles ;  tin  or  lead  must  be  picked  out  by 
hand.  If  the  operation  has  not  succeeded, 
the  articles  are  plunged  for  a  few  seconds 
mtoa  boilici;  solution  of  water,  2i  galls. ; 
nitrate  o^'  silver,  3J  oz. ;  ordinary 
cyanide  of  potassium,  21  oz.  This  bath 
-etains  it*  strength  for  a  long  time,  and 


increases  the  brightness  and  whiteness 
of  the  deposit.  The  pi'ocess  of  silvering 
by  dipping  has  nearly  superseded  this 
method. 

Plated  Silver  is  obtained  by  rolling  to- 
gether a  plate  of  copper  of  the  first  qua- 
lity, and  one  of  silver;  these  are  either 
wdded,  or  simply  united  by  placing  their 
hot  and  clean  surfaces  together,  wetted 
with  a  concentrated  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver.  The  two  metals  are  reduced 
and  drawn  out  about  equally  by  the  pres- 
sure of  rolls,  and  long  sheets  or  bands  of 
silvered  metal  are  thus  obtained,  with 
which  a  great  manj'  articles  may  be  ma- 
nufactured. By  this  mode  of  operation, 
a  great  quantity  of  material  is  lost,  as 
the  objects  have  to  be  cut  out  from  a  sheet 
entirely  silvered,  and  the  waste  retains  a 
large  jiroportion  of  that  metal ;  the  cut 
sections  present  parts  without  silver, 
which  must  be  hidden  by  ledges,  or  by 
silvering  by  another  method.  There  is 
also  the  absolute  necessity  of  employing 
pure  copper,  which  is  more  costly,  less 
sonorous,  and  not  so  tough  as  its  alloys  ; 
but  the  greatest  defect  of  the  process  is 
the  difteience  of  thickness  of  the  silver, 
according  to  the  shape  of  the  object. 
Raised  surfaces  are  the  most  exposed  to 
friction,  and  it  is  just  there  that  the  coat 
of  silver  is  the  thinnest  ;  the  conditions 
are  reversed  with  electro-silvering,  and 
the  parts  in  relief  receive  a  more  abun- 
dant deposit  of  silvei-,  which  is  a  satis- 
factory result.  The  best  plated  silver  is 
manufactured  by  ap]ilying  upon  an  ingot 
of  [lure  copper  weighing  9  parts,  another 
ingot  of  pure  silver  weighing  1  part,  to 
coat  one  side  only ;  add  another  part  of 
silver,  if  it  is  intended  to  coat  both  sides. 
The  two  are  rolled  together  until  the  do- 
sired  thickness  is  obtained.  The  silver 
of  the  plated  metal  will  be  bright  if  the 
rollers  are  well  polished,  and  dull  with 
rough  rollers.  The  only  solder  which 
does  not  injure  plated  silver  is  tin  solder  ; 
and  when  the  objects  manufactured  are 
required  to  resist  a  warm  temperature, 
nuts  and  screws  are  employed.  The 
electroplating  of  old  wares  made  from 
copper  with  a  covering  of  silver,  is  often 
difficult.  Supposing  it  is  required  to 
electroplate    an    old    cruet-stand,   the 


208 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


bottom  is  separated  from  the  wire,  either 
by  unsoldering  or  iiuscrewing.  Smooth  by 
emery  cloth,  or  pumice-stone  and  water, 
or  by  powdered  bath-brick  brushed  over 
with  a  hard  brush.  Spots  of  verdigris 
ure  removed  with  a  few  drops  of  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  great  dilliculty  con- 
sists in  giving  a  good  electro-deposit  ujjon 
the  edges  or  mounts  where  there  mav  be 
some  lead  or  lead  solder  ;  apply  to  such 
parts,  with  a  rather  soft  brush,  a  solu- 
tion made  by  <lissolving  4  oz.  of  mercury 
in  nitric  acid,  and  adding  about  half  a 
|iint  of  cold  water.  This  solution  is 
lightly  brushed  over  the  lead  mounts 
only;  the  article  and  brush  are  then  to 
be  well  rinsed,  and  the  brush  and  plain 
water  applied  in  the  same  way.  The 
solution  of  mercury  will  turn  the  edges 
black,  or  dark  grey,  but  the  subsequent 
brushing  will  render  them  bright  again. 
The  frame  when  well  rinsed  is  ready  for 
the  depositing  bath.  If,  on  its  first  immer- 
sion, any  black  spots  appear,  the  frame 
may  be  removed,  again  brushed  over,  and 
finally  returned  to  the  bath.  If  the 
edges  do  not  receive  the  coating  of  silver 
as  readily  as  the  other  parts,  the  solution 
may  require  a  little  more  cyanide,  or  a 
greater  battery  power,  or  an  increase  in 
the  surface  of  the  anode.  These  lead 
edges  may  be  prepared  for  receiving  the 
silver  deposit  by  a  previous  coat  of  cop- 
]ier  a])plied  as  follows; — The  edges  are 
plunged  into  a  solution  of  sul])hate  of 
cop])cr,  with  a  little  free  sul])huric  acid 
in  it ;  then,  by  touchmg  the  lead  edge 
with  an  iron  wire,  it  is  immediately 
coated  with  a  bright  deposit  of  coi)per, 
which  is  rinsed  and  becomes  a  good  con- 
ductor for  the  further  electro-deposit  of 
silver.  The  coating  of  tin  underneath 
the  bcttom  of  cruet  frames  is  very  dif- 
Hcult  to  plate,  unless  in  a  solution  made 
expressly  lor  it  ;  therefore  it  is  ])refer- 
able  to  remove  it  either  with  abrading 
materials,  or  with  nitric  acid  emidoyed 
with  care.  This  process  of  depositing 
eop|ier  will  be  found  useful  not  only  fur 
obi  plated  ware,  but  also  l'i>r  many  arti- 
cles on  which  are  found  unruly  sjiots  of 
tin  solder. 

Sitieriru)  vith  Silver  Foil. — This  mct?iod 
IS  never  ]iractised  except  upon  objects 


already  manufactured,  in  their  definite 
shape;  and  is  adapted  to  all  kinds  of 
copper,  bronze,  or  brass.  It  is,  in  cer- 
tain respects,  superior  to  plated  silver; 
but  is  very  difficult  of  e.'cecution,  and  has 
less  adhesion  to  the  metal  underneath. 
After  annealing  the  articles,  they  are 
thrown  whilst  hot  into  a  bath  of  sul- 
phuric acid  with  a  small  ])roj)ortion  of 
hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids.  They  have 
then  a  dull  and  dead  lustre,  owmg  to  a 
multitude  of  small  holes,  which  are  so 
man)-  points  of  attachment  for  the  silver 
foil.  The  objects,  thus  pre])ared,  are 
tightly  fixed  upon  an  iron  rod,  which  is 
held  in  a  vice.  Their  temperature  is 
raised  to  about  300°  F.,  by  means  of  in- 
candescent charcoal  put  at  the  proper 
place,  so  as  to  open  the  pores  of  the 
metal,  which,  by  cooling  afterwards, 
will  im]ii-ison  the  silver  applied.  The 
silver  foils,  taken  from  the  book  with 
small  tweezers,  are  cut  to  the  proper  size 
upon  a  cushion  with  an  ivory  or  steel 
knife.  After  each  foil  is  deposited  upon 
the  object,  it  is  made  to  adhere  by  a 
light  pressure  of  a  rag  pad,  ami  after- 
wards by  the  friction  of  a  steel  burnish- 
ing tool.  The  parts  of  the  silver  foil  which 
do  not  adhere  are  removed  with  a  soft 
brush.  Gold-beaters  pre])are  silver  foil 
either  with  bright  or  dead  lustre.  The 
latter  is  made  to  adhere  only  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  ]>ad,  and  not  by  the  burnish- 
ing tool.  This  dead  lustre  cannot  com- 
pare in  fineness  with  that  obtained  by  the 
battery;  however,  it  resists  handling 
and  the  sulphur  gases  of  the  atmosphere 
Ijetter.  Articles  thus  silvered  are  only 
liurnished  after  all  the  silver  foils  have 
been  applied;  round  or  cylin<lrical  ob- 
jects are  burnislu'd  upon  the  lathe,  other 
forms  by  the  hand  ;  there  are  always 
places  and  lines  showing  the  vil)rations 
of  the  burnishing  tool.  This  method  of 
silvering  is  only  einployed  for  very  large 
objects,  such  as  high  chandeliers  aud 
other  church  orniiments.  Spoons  and  forks 
may  be  covered  with  silver  foil,  as  fol- 
lows;— First  slightly  silver  with  a  dead 
lustre  in  a  silver  bath  by  clipjiing,  heat, 
and  then  cover  with  silver  foil,  by  the 
jirossure  of  an  iron  scrr.tch-brush  strik- 
ing vertically,  forcing    the  si  Iyer    foil* 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


2oy 


icto  the  pores  of  the  metal  underneath. 
Burnish  ly  the  usual  method ;  it  is  im- 
possible to  obtain  a  dead  lustre  by  this 
method. 

Cold  Silvering  by  rubbing,  with  the 
thumb,  a  cork,  or  a  orush.  The  results 
are  better  than  those  by  the  whitening 
process,  but  not  very  durable ;  the 
method  is  useful  to  repair  slight  defects 
upon  more  durable  silverings,  and  to  pro- 
duce mixtures  of  gold  and  silver,  or  gold, 
upon  slightly  gilt  objects,  thus  avoid- 
ing the  use  of  resist  varnishes.  JIake 
a  paste  by  thoroughly  grinding  in  a 
porcelain  mortar  or  with  a  muller,  and, 
as  far  as  practicable,  not  in  the  light ; — 
1.  Water,  3^  to  5  oz. ;  white  fused 
nitrate  of  silver,  or,  preferably,  the  chlo- 
ride, 7  oz. ;  bino.xalate  of  potash,  lOg  oz. ; 
bitartrate  of  potash,  10^  oz.;  common 
salt,  15  oz. ;  sal  ammoniac,  2f  oz.  2. 
Chloride  of  silver,  3^  oz. ;  bitartrate  of 
potash,  7  oz. ;  common  salt,  lOJ  oz. 
When  finely  pulverized  in  a  porcelain 
mortar,  triturate  it  under  a  muller  u]ion 
a  plate  of  ground  glass  until  there  is  no 
granular  feeling.  Keep  the  paste  in  a 
porcelain  pot,  or  in  a  black  glass  vessel,  to 
preserve  it  from  the  liglit,  which  decom- 
poses it  rapidly.  When  about  to  use  it, 
add  a  little  water  so  as  to  form  a  thin 
paste,  which  is  applied  with  a  brush  or 
pencil  upon  the  cleansed  articles  of  cop- 
per, or  upon  those  gilt  by  dipping,  or 
even  upon  those  gilt  by  the  battery,  jiro- 
vided  that  the  coating  is  thin  enough  to 
allow  the  copper  to  decompose  the  silver 
jiaste  through  the  coat  of  gold  ;  allow 
the  paste  to  dry  naturally,  or  with  the 
aid  of  a  gentle  heat.  The  chemical  re- 
action is  more  or  less  complete,  accord- 
ing to  the  thickness  of  the  gold  deposit, 
and  the  dry  paste  is  of  a  pink  shade,  or, 
entirely  green.  The  salts  are  removed 
by  a  thorough  rinsing  in  cold  water, 
and  the  silver  appears  with  a  fine 
frosted  appearance,  the  brightness  of 
whi2h  may  be  increased  by  a  few  seconds' 
immersion  in  a  very  diluted  solution  of 
sulphuric  acid,  or  of  cyanide  of  potassium. 
This  silvering  bears  the  action  of  the  wire 
brush  and  of  the  burnishing  tool  very 
R-ell ;  and  it  may  also  be  o.xidized.  Should 
a  first  silverintr  not  be  found  sufficiaitlv 


durable,  after  scratch-brushing,  a]jply  a 
second  or  a  third  coat.  This  silvering  is 
not  so  adhering  or  white  on  pure  copper 
as  upon  a  gilt  surface.  For  the  reflectors 
of  lanterns  the  paste  is  rubbed  upon  the 
reflector  with  a  fine  linen  pad;  tlien, 
with  another  rag,  a  thin  paste  of  Spanish 
white,  or  similar  substance,  is  spread 
over  the  reflector  and  allowed  to  dry. 
Rubbing  with  a  fine  and  clean  linen  rig 
will  restore  the  lustre  and  whiteness  of 
the  plated  silver. 

For  Plated  Silver  He/lectors — A  bath 
made  of  water.  If  pint ;  nitrate  of  chlo- 
ride of  silver,  2  oz.  ;  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium, lOJ  oz.  Add  sufficient  Sjianish 
white,  or  levigated  chalk,  in  fine  powder, 
to  produce  a  thin  pjaste,  which  is  kept  in 
a  well-closed  pot.  Tliis  paste  is  spread 
by  a  brush  or  a  pad  of  old  linen,  all  over 
the  surface  of  the  reflector,  and  al- 
lowed almost  to  dry,  when  it  is  briskly 
rubbed  over  by  another  clean  dry  rag 
of  old  linen. 

Silvering  by  Dipping  in  a  Wann  Bath. 
— For  small  articles  a  bath  is  made  by 
dissolving  in  an  enamelled  cast-iron 
kettle  in  2  galls,  of  water  17 J  oz.  of 
ordinary  cyanide  of  potassium.  Also 
dissolve  5J  oz.  of  fused  nitrate  of  silver 
in  If  pint  of  water  contained  in  a  glass 
or  porcelain  vessel.  The  second  solu- 
tion is  gradually  poured  into  the  first 
one.  Stir  with  a  glass  rod.  The  white 
or  greyish-white  precipitate  produced 
soon  dissolves,  and  the  remaining  liquor 
is  filtered  if  a  perfectly  clear  bath  ii 
desired.  When  brought  to  the  boiling 
point  it  will  immediately  silver  the 
cleansed  copper  articles  plunged  in  it. 
The  objects  must  be  quickly  withdrawn. 
The  silvering  should  immediately  follow 
the  cleansing,  although  the  rinsings 
after  each  operation  should  be  thorough 
and  complete.  Tiiis  bright  and  liglit 
silvering  is  adapted  for  set  jewellery, 
which  cannot  be  scratch-brushed  witli- 
out  flattening  the  clasps,  and  to  wliich 
a  bright  lustre  is  absolutely  necessary 
as  a  substitute  for  the  foil  of  burnished 
silver  placed  under  the  precious  stones  of 
real  jewellery.  The  employment  of  the 
solution  of  nitrate  of  bino.\ide  of  mercury 
is  useless,  and  even   injurious,  for  this 

r 


210 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


bath.  It  is  useless  to  keep  up  the  strength 
of  the  solution  by  new  additions  of 
cyanide  and  silver  salt ;  thus  reinvigo- 
rated,  it  gives  results  far  inferior  to 
those  of  the  former  solution.  The  bath 
should,  therefore,  be  worked  out  as  long 
as  the  silvering  is  satisfactory,  and  when 
exhausted,  put  away  with  the  waste. 
With  this  process  a  battery  and  a  so- 
luble anode  may  be  used  to  obtain  a 
more  durable  dejjosit  ;  but  the  opera- 
tion is  no  longer  a  sim]>le  dijiping,  and 
properly  belongs  to  electro-silvering  by 
heat.  A  solution  which,  when  boiling, 
produces  a  very  fine  silver  coat,  with  a 
dead,  or  partly  dead,  lustre,  u[ion 
cleansed  coppers,  is  made  by  dissolving 
with  the  aid  of  heat,  in  a  well-scoured 
copper  kettle,  distilled  water,  9  pints; 
ferrocyanide  of  jiotassium,  21  oz. ;  carbo- 
nate of  potash,  14  oz.  When  the  liquid 
boils  add  the  well-washed  chloride  ob- 
tained from  1  oz.  of  pure  silver.  This 
should  boil  for  about  half  an  hour,  and 
be  filtered  before  using;  part  of  the 
silver  de])Osits  upon  the  copper  kettle, 
and  should  be  removed  when  a  new 
bath  is  prepared.  On  account  ot  this 
inconvenience  the  process  has  been  nearly 
abandoned,  although  the  products  are 
remarkably  fine.  All  the  dipping  silver- 
ing baths,  which  contain  a  comparatively 
groat  eicess  of  cyaniile  of  jiotassiuin  to  the 
pnijiortion  of  the  silver  salt,  will  silver 
Well  copper  articles  perfectly  cleansed, 
even  in  the  cold  ;  whereas  this  pro])erty 
diminishes  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
of  the  amount  of  silver  in  the  bath,  or 
with  the  decrease  of  the  amount  of  cya- 
nide. For  small  articles,  partly  copper 
and  [>ai'tlv  iron,  such  as  those  used  for 
saddlery  and  carriage  wares,  a  j)articular 
process  of  silvering  is  used.  The  bath 
is  composed  of; — Water,  9  pints  ;  caustic 
potash,  >)  oz. ;  bicirbonate  of  j>oiash, 
3J  oz. ;  cyanide  of  jxitnssium,  2  oz. ; 
I'used  nitrate  of  .silver,  <(  oz.  Tiie  cy- 
anide, caustic  potash,  ami  iiicariiouato 
are  dissolved  in  7  jiints  of  wafer  in  an 
enamelled  c.-ist-iron  kettle,  then  the 
remaining  quart  of  water,  in  which  the 
nitrate  of  silver  has  been  separately  dis- 
solved, is  added  to  the  former  solution. 
VoT   tlie   silvering   operation    a    certain 


quantity  of  articles  is  cleansed,  tho- 
roughly rinsed,  and  put  into  a  small 
enamelled  kettle.  Enough  of  the  silvei 
bath  is  poured  in  to  cover  the  articles 
entirely,  and  the  whole  is  brought  to  a 
boil  for  a  few  seconds,  and  stirred  with 
a  wooden  spatula.  When  the  silvering 
appears  satisfactory,  the  liquor  em- 
ployed is  put  with  the  saved  waste;  the 
same  liquid  is  never  used  tor  two  batciies 
of  articles.  This  jirocess  gives  a  some- 
what durable  silvering  with  a  dead  lustre, 
of  a  greyish  white,  which  is  increased 
in  whiteness  and  brightness  by  soap  and 
burnishing. 

Silvering  by  Dipping  in  a  Cold  Bath. — 
As  the  batn  is  cold  it  is  always  ready 
for  use,  and  the  deposit  is  finer  an  i 
more  unalterable,  because  only  chemi- 
cally pure  silver  is  dejiosited,  without 
any  mi.tture  of  subsalts.  The  bath  is 
formed  of  bisulphite  of  soda,  to  which 
is  added  nitrate  of  silver,  until  it  begins 
to  be  dissolved  with  dilliculty.  It  is 
therefore  with  a  double  sulphite  of  soda 
and  silver  that  the  cold  silvering  by 
dip])ing  is  efi'ected.  Bisulphites  of  pot- 
ash, ammonia,  and  other  alkalies  may 
be  substituted  for  the  bisulphite  of  soda, 
but  the  latter  is  to  be  jtreterred,  be- 
cause its  preparation  is  cheaper,  more 
easy,  and  better  known. 

Preparation  of  JUsul/i/tite  of  Soda  for 
Cold  Silvering. — Put  into  a  tall  ve.s.sel 
of  gj.iss  or  ]iorcel.iin,  water,  10  pints; 
crystallized  carbonate  of  soda,  10  lbs. 
Pour  a  little  mercury  into  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  so  th.at  the  glass  tube 
carrying  sulphurous  acid  gas,  which  lias 
to  be  pl.icoii  into  it,  inav  not  be  stop|ied 
by  the  crystals  formeil  during  the  tipe- 
ration.  Arrange  an  apparatus  tor  the 
production  of  sulphurous  acid  gas,  an<l 
Set  the  washed  gas  pa.ss  through  the 
vessel  holding  the  carbonate  of  soda. 
Part  of  the  soda  is  t ransl'ormed  into 
sulpliite  ol'  so<la,  which  dissulves,  and  a 
|>arl  tails  to  the  bottom  as  bicarbonate. 
The  latter  is,  however,  transformed  into 
sulphite  of  soda  by  a  continuous  ]iro- 
duction  of  8ul|ihurous  acid,  an<l  the  car- 
bonic acid  escapes.  When  ali  has  dih- 
Bolved,  continue  tlie  jiassage  of  sulphur- 
ous acid   until    the  liquid  slightly  red- 


WORKSHOP   RECKIPTS. 


211 


dens  blue  litmus  paper,  and  then  put 
the  whole  aside  for  24  hours.  After 
that  time  some  crystals  are  found  upon 
the  mercury,  and  the  liquid  above,  more 
or  less  coloured,  is  the  bisulphite  of 
soda  for  silvering.  The  crystals  are 
separated  from  the  mercury,  drained, 
and  kept  for  gilJiug  baths.  They  are 
not  suitable  for  silvering.  The  liquid 
bisulphite  of  soda  thus  prepared,  should 
be  stirred  with  a  glass  rod,  to  throw  off 
the  carbonic  acid  which  may  still  re- 
main. The  liquor  should  then  be  again 
tried  with  blue  litmus  paper.  If  it 
turns  a  deep  red,  add  a  little  carbonate 
of  soda  for  neutralizmg  the  excess  of 
sulphurous  acid  ;  if  red  litmus  paper 
becomes  blue,  there  is  too  much  alkali, 
and  more  sulphurous  acid  gas  should  be 
passed  through  the  liquid,  which  is  in 
the  best  condition  when  litmus  paper 
becomes  violet  or  slightly  red.  This 
solution  marks  from  22°  to  26°  Baume, 
and  must  not  come  in  contact  with  iron, 
zinc,  tin,  or  lead. 

Cold  Silvering  Bath  for  Dipping. — A 
stoneware  or  glass  vessel  is  about  three 
parts  filled  with  the  liquid  bisulphite  of 
soda,  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  in 
distilled  water,  of  medium  concentra- 
tion, is  gradually  added  while  the  bath 
IS  continually  stirred  with  a  glass  rod; 
a  white  flocculent  precipitate  of  sulphite 
of  silver  is  produced  by  stirring;  this  is 
dissolved  by  the  bisulphite  of  soda. 
The  silver  solution  is  added  so  long  as 
the  precipitate  reailily  disappears,  and 
stopped  when  it  becomes  slow  to  dis- 
solve. This  bath  is  always  ready  to 
work,  and  instantaneously  produces  a 
naaguificentsilveringupon  copper,  bronze, 
or  brass  articles  which  have  been  tho- 
roughly cleansed,  and  passed  through  a 
weaK  solution  of  nitrate  of  binoside  of 
mercury,  although  this  last  operation  is 
not  absolutely  necessary.  According  to 
the  length  of  time  of  the  mimersion  the 
bath  will  give,  a  very  line  whitening  by 
silver  is  as  cheap  as  any  of  the  other 
described  processes.  A  bright  silvering, 
especially  adapted  for  setting  jewellery; 
or  a  silvering  with  a  dead  lustre,  still 
more  durable,  without  electricity,  and 
in  the  cold.     Tlie  loss  of  silver  is  made 


good  by  additions  of  nitrate  of  silver. 
When  the  proportion  of  bisulphite  i» 
not  sufficient  to  dissolve  the  metallic 
salt,  add  some  bisulphite  of  soda  to 
restore  the  bath  to  its  primitive  state. 
Silver  is  slowly  deposited  upon  the  sides 
of  the  vessel ;  this  may  be  dissolved  in 
nitric  acid  for  future  uses. 

Solution  of  Silver  or  Gold  for  Silvering 
or  Gilding  without  the  Aidofa  Battery. — 
1  oz.  of  nitrate  of  silver  is  dissolved  in 
1  quart  of  rain  or  distilled  water,  and  a 
few  crystals  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  are 
added  which  form  a  brown  precipitate 
soluble  in  a  slight  excess  of  hyposul- 
phite. Small  articles  of  steel,  brass,  or 
German  silver  may  be  silvered  by  dip- 
ping a  sponge  in  the  solution  and  rub- 
bing it  over  the  surface  of  the  article  to 
be  coated.  A  solution  of  chloride  of 
gold  may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner, 
and  applied  as  described.  A  more  con- 
centrated solution  of  either  gold  or 
silver  may  be  used  for  coating  parts  of 
articles  which  have  stripped  or  blistered, 
by  applying  it  with  a  camel-hair  pencil 
to  the  part,  and  touching  the  spot  at 
the  same  time  with  a  thin  clean  strip  of 
zinc. 

Silver  Electroplating.  —  Bath.  — 
Water,  2^^  galls.;  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium, pure,  17|  oz. ;  pure  silver  for 
cyanide,  8f  oz.  The  composition  of 
commercial  cyanide  of  potassium  is  ex- 
ceedingly irregular.  The  pure,  or  No.  1, 
contains  from  90  to  100  per  cent,  of 
real  cyanide,  and  is  especially  employed 
for  gilding  and  silvering  baths.  No.  2 
contains  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  real 
cyanide ;  it  is  the  article  prepared  by 
Liebig's  method,  and  is  used  for  electro- 
baths  of  copper  and  brass.  No.  3,  which 
marks  from  55°  to  60°,  is  for  scouring 
and  preparing  baths,  and  for  photo- 
graphic operations.  1.  Put  in  a  por- 
celain dish,  holding  a  quart,  pure  gra- 
nulated silver,  8|  oz. ;  pure  nitric  acid 
at  40°  Baum^,  17 J  oz.  Heat  by  char- 
coal or  gas.  The  dish  should  be  sup- 
ported by  an  iron  triangle,  and  not  in 
direct  contact  with  the  fire.  The  acid 
rapidly  attacks  and  dissolves  the  silver 
with  an  abundant  production  of  yellow 
nitrous   vapours,    which    must    not    be 

P  ? 


212 


iiTORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


inhaled.  When  the  vapours  have  dis- 
appcii-ed,  there  remains  a  liquid  more  or 
less  colcurless,  according  to  the  propor- 
tion of  copper  held  by  the  commercial 
silver,  which  is  seldom  entirely  pure. 
The  heat  is  then  increased  in  order  to 
evaporate  the  excess  of  acid,  which  es- 
capes in  white  fumes.  The  material  in 
the  dish  swells  up  and  dries,  and,  with 
a  further  increase  of  heat,  melts  like 
wax.  The  dish  is  then  removed  from 
the  fire,  and  being  held  with  a  clotli, 
the  molten  mass  is  made  to  flow  upon 
the  sides,  where  it  soon  solidities;  the 
fused  bitrate  of  silver,  lunar  caustic,  is 
more  or  less  white,  or  grey,  according 
to  the  purity  of  the  silver  employed. 
When  perfectly  cooled,  turn  the  dish 
upside  down,  and  by  a  gentle  tap  on  the 
siiles,  the  mass  is  detached.  2.  Dissolve 
the  nitrate  of  silver  in  ten  or  fifteen 
times  its  weight  of  distilled  water;  hy- 
drocyanic acid  poureil  into  this  solution 
immediately  ])roduces  an  abundant  white 
precipitate  of  cyanide  of  silver.  A  sulFi- 
cieut  quantity  of  prussic  acid  has  been 
emjdoyed  when,  by  adding  a  few  drops 
of  it  to  the  clear  liquid,  no  precipitate 
or  turbidity  appears.  Throw  the  liquid 
upon  a  filter  of  calico  stretched  on  a 
wooden  frame,  the  cyanide  of  silver  re- 
mains on  the  cloth,  the  solution  with 
the  nitric  acid  and  excess  of  prussic  acid 
passes  through.  Wash  the  firecipitate 
left  upon  the  filter  two  or  three  times 
with  j)ure  water.  3.  This  cyanide  of 
silver  is  put  into  the  vessel  intended 
for  the  bath,  and  stirred  with  the  2^ 
galls,  of  water.  The  cyanide  of  ])otas- 
siuin  is  then  added,  dissolves  it,  and  also 
dissolves  the  cyanide  of  silver,  thus 
giving  a  solution  of  a  double  cyanide  of 
potassium  and  silver.  Those  who  cm- 
ploy  small  baths,  often  renovated,  may 
■uijstitute  for  the  cyanide  of  silver  the 
chloride,  or  the  nitnite  of  this  metal. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  quantity  of  cya- 
nide of  ]>otassium  kIiouM  lie  increased. 
Such  baths  will  be  prepared  a:  foiiows; 
— 1,  The  nitrate  of  silver  is  prepared  in 
the  manner  indicated  above,  and  5}  oz. 
of  it,  nearly  equal  to  I^J  oz.  of  |)ure 
dilTcr^  are  dissolved  in  2^  galls,  of 
water.      2.    The    rjanidj  of  potassium 


No.  1,  about  8|  oz.,  is  then  added. 
Stir  to  facilitate  the  solution,  filter  the 
liquor,  to  separate  the  iron  contained  in 
the  cyanide.  This  operation  may  m 
some  cases  be  dispensed  with,  because 
the  iron  rapidly  falls  to  the  bottom  of 
the  bath,  and  the  solution  becomes  limjiid. 
The  proportion  of  cyanide  of  potassium 
employed  is  more  than  is  required  for 
dissolving  the  silver,  as  IJ  part  of  good 
cyanide  is  sullicient  for  1  part  of  silver ; 
but  unless  there  is  an  excess  of  cyanide 
of  j)0tassium,  the  liquors  do  not  conduct 
electricity  well,  and  the  deposit  of  silvei 
is  granulated  and  irregular.  The  silver- 
ing IS  elfected  with  a  battery,  and  with 
baths  either  warm  or  cold.  The  latter 
method  is  generally  adojited  for  articles 
which  require  great  solidity.  Tiie  hot 
process  is  used  for  small  articles,  ami  is 
preferable  for  steel,  iron,  zinc,  lead,  and 
tin  which  have  been  previously  electro- 
coppered.  The  hot  baths  are  generally 
kept  in  enamelled  cast-iron  kettles,  .'.ud 
the  articles  are  either  susjiended,  or 
moved  constantly  about  in  them.  The 
I>reliminary  cleansing  in  acids,  and  pas- 
ring  through  the  mercurial  solution,  are 
necessary.  A  somewhat  energetic  cur- 
rent is  needed,  especially  when  the  ar- 
ticles are  moved  about,  in  order  to  ojie- 
rate  rapidly.  There  is  too  much  elec- 
tricity when  the  articles  connected  with 
the  negative  pole  of  tlie  battery  liecoine 
grey  or  black,  an<l  ])roduce  many  bub- 
bles of  gas.  A  ])latiuum,  large  wire  or 
thin  foil  anode,  is  generally  jireferred  to 
the  soluble  anode  of  silver  employed  in 
cold  baths,  but  the  solution  is  ra|iidly 
impoverished.  In  hot  silvering  baths, 
the  separate  battery  is  often  re]ilaced  by 
a  zinc  wire  wrapjied  around  the  articles. 
The  points  of  contact  of  the  two  metala 
ai-e  black  or  grey,  but  the  stain  disap- 
jiears  by  i)lunging  the  object  into  the 
liquor  for  a  few  moments,  after  it  has 
liecii  separated  from  the  zinc,  and  care- 
fully scratch-brushed.  Instead  of  scj'a- 
rate  batteries,  a  simple  a]i|)aratu!  may 
be  made  of  a  glass,  porcelain,  or  stone- 
ware vessel  holding  the  butn,  and  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  a  jiorous  jar  filled 
with  a  solution  of  10  per  cent,  of  cya- 
nide of  jiotassium  or  commpi  salt.     'Die 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


213 


cyiiuder  of  zinc,  immersed  in  this  porous 
jai',  carries  a  larger  circle  of  brass  wire, 
tJie  cross  diameters  of  which  are  soldered 
to   the   zinc.     This  brass  ring  projects 
over  the  bath,  and  the  articles,  suspended 
to    the    ring    b_v    slinging    wires,    hang 
du\\n  into  the  bath.     At  the  beginning, 
the  operation  goes  on  rapidly,  and  the 
deposit  is  good  ;  but,  after  a  time,  the 
solution  of  zinc  traverses  the  porous  cell 
and  impairs  the  purity  of  the  bath.     An 
impoverished   hot  bath  is  reinvigorated 
by  additions  of  equal  parts  of  cyanide  of 
potassium  and  silver  salt.    It  is  necessary 
to  replace  the  water  in  proportion  as  it 
IS  evaporated.     When  the  silver  baths 
rapidly  deposit  metal  without  the  aid  of 
electricity,  it  is  a  proof  that  they  are 
too  rich  in  cyanide,  or  too  poor  in  silver. 
A  deposit  effected  under  such  conditions 
is  rarely  adhering,  especially  when  upon 
articles  previously  copjiered,  because  the 
excess  of  cyanide  dissolves  the  deposited 
copper,  and  the  silver  which  takes  its 
place  may  be  removed  with  the  finger. 
The  remedy    consists   in    adding  to    the 
bath    only    enough    silver    salt    and    no 
more,  so  that  a  piece  of  copper  will  not 
become  sensibly  silvered  in  it,  without 
the  aid  of  electricity.     The  cold  electro- 
silvering  baths  generally  employed  for 
electroplating    such    articles    as    table- 
spoons or   forks  are  contained  in  large 
rectangular  wooden  troughs  lined  with 
gutta-percha,  or  made  of  riveted  wrouglit 
iron.  They  are  sufficiently  high  to  allow 
about  4  inches  of  liquid  above  the  im- 
mersed object,  whose  distance  from  the 
bottom   and  sides  should   be  nearly  the 
same,  to  give  a  regular  deposit  of  metal  at 
both  extremities  of  the  object.     The  up- 
per ledge  of  the  trough  carries  two  brass 
rods  all  round,  svhich  do  not  touch  one 
another,   one  above  the  other,   so  that 
other   metall.c   rods,   being   put   across, 
will  rest  upon  the  higher  or  the  lower 
rod,   but    not    both    at   the   same  time. 
Each  rod  is  connected  with  one  of  the 
poles  of  the  battery  by  conducting  wires, 
the  jioiuts  of  contact  of  which  should  be 
l)erfectly  clean.    The  rod  which  supports 
the  articles  to  be  silvered  is  connected 
with   the  negative  pole   represented  by 
zinc  in  most  batteries;  and  the  other, 


supporting    the   anodes,   is  attached  to 
the  positive  pole,  which  is  carbon  with 
Bunsen's  elements,  copper  for  DanicU's, 
and    platinum    with    Grove's   cells.      A 
certain  number  of  spoons  and  forks  fixed 
to  a  rod,  by  means  of  copper  wires,  are 
cleansed  at  the  same  time,  and  the  rod 
is  placed  upon  the  negative  conducting 
rod  of  the  trough.     Then,  facing  these 
articles,  hang  upon  the  positive  conduct- 
ing wire  of  the  trough  another  metallic 
rod  to  which  the  soluble  silver  anode  is 
attached   like  a  flag.      Next  comes  an- 
other series   of  spoons  and  forks,  faced 
by   another   soluble    anode,  in    such    a 
manner    that    each    row  of  spoons  and 
forks  is  between  two  anodes.     The  ar- 
ticles to  be  silvered  all  rest  upon  the 
negative  conducting  rod,  and  the  soluble 
anodes  upon  the  positive  one.     This  dis- 
position  is  for   obtaining   an   equal    de- 
posit upon  all  the  pieces.     The  objects 
require  turning  upside  down  during  the 
operation,  in  order  to  prevent  a  thicker 
deposit  on  the  lower  parts,  as  the  richest 
part  of  the  solution  is  the  densest,  and 
therefore    lies   near  the  bottom  of  the 
trough.    The  denser  layers,  being  richer 
in    metal,    deposit   it    more   abundantly 
upon  the  direction  which   they   follow, 
and  form  grooves  which  cannot  be  filled 
by  the  lighter  and  poorer  currents.     It 
is,  therefore,  advantageous  to  keep  the 
objects  in  constant  motion.    In  this  case 
the  frame  supporting  the  articles  does  not 
rest  upon  the  trough,  but  is  suspended 
above  the  bath,  and  receives  its  motion 
from  a  small  eccentric,  or  other  motive 
power.     The  silver  deposit  will  adhere 
strongly,  if  the  articles  have  been  fully 
amalgamated   in  the  solution  of  nitrate 
of  binoxide  of  mercury,   and    have  re- 
mained in  the  silver  bath  from  12  to  15 
hours,  according  to  the  intensity  of  the 
current.      The    silvering    will    be    the 
better  and  finer  as  the  intensity  of  the 
current  is  weaker,  up  to  a  certain  limit. 
A   sufficient  quantity  of  silver  may   be 
deposited  in  3  or  4  hours,  but  the  result 
is  not  satisfactorv,  and   the   burnishing 
is  very  difficult.  When  the  articles  have 
acquired  a  film  of  silver,  they  are  some- 
times removed   from  the  bath  and  tho- 
roughly   scratch-brusjied,    cJeimsed    in 


2U 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


alcohol,  or,  preferably,  in  a  hot  silvering 
bath,  thence  again  passed  through  the 
mercurial  solution,  and  finished  in  the 
former  cold  electro-bath.  This  first 
scratch-brushing,  which  is  not  always 
necessary,  obviates  the  tendency  of  cer- 
tain alloys  to  assume  a  crystalline  ap- 
pearance, and  corrects  imperfections  of 
the  cleansing  process.  Electro-silvering 
baths  do  not  generally  work  so  well 
when  freshly  prepared,  as  when  they 
hare  been  used  for  a  certain  time;  the 
deposit  is  often  granulated,  bluish,  or  yel- 
lowish. It  is  therefore  desirable  to  mis 
a  portion  of  old  liquors  with  those  re- 
cently prepared,  or  new  baths  may  ac- 
quire an  artificial  age  by  boiling  them 
for  a  few  hours,  or  adding  to  them  one  or 
two  thousandths  of  aqua  ammonia. 

To  prevent  Electro-silver  Plating  turn- 
ing Yelloio  by  Contact  with  the  Air. — This 
change  of  colour  is  due  to  the  deposit, 
by  galvanic  action,  of  ]>ure  silver  and  of 
a  subsalt,  t-he  subcyanide  of  silver,  which 
is  rapidly  decomposed  and  darkened  by 
light.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  re- 
move the  subcyanide  by  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing methods; — 1.  The  articles  are 
left  immersed  in  the  bath  for  some  time 
after  the  electric  current  has  been  m- 
terrupted,  when  the  subcyanide  of  silver 
is  dissolved  by  the  cyanide  of  potassiiim. 
2.  Having  smeared  the  objects  with  a 
pa.ste  of  borax,  they  are  heated  in  a 
muflle  until  the  salt  fuses  and  dissolves 
the  subcyanide.  This  process  anneals 
and  softens  the  metal.  3.  The  poles  of 
t..e  battery  are  inverted  for  a  few  se- 
conds, that  is  to  say,  the  articles  become 
soluble  anodes,  and  the  electric  current 
iTarries  away  the  subcyanide  of  silver  in 
preference  to  the  metal ;  this  ojieration 
ihould  be  very  short,  otherwise  the 
lilvor  will  entii-eiy  abandon  the  objects 
•nd  will  coat  the  silver  sheets. 

Silver-jildting  liritannin  Metal,  Pewter, 
and  (til  Comhinalidna  of  Lead  and  Tin. — 
These  are  best  placed  in  a  8<dution  con- 
taining a  gofnl  deal  of  free  cyanide,  and 
the  deposit  shouM  bo  rapid  at  first. 
The  surfai;e  of  the  anode  should  be  about 
three  times  that  required  for  Gorman 
•liver  and  the  battery  power  strong, 
but  not  too  intense.     It  is  better  not  to 


disturb  these  articles  in  the  solution  at 
the  beginning  of  the  deposit.  After- 
wards they  may  be  shifted  for  obtaining 
a  uniform  coat.  If  the  articles,  whea 
they  have  been  a  short  time  in  the 
plating  bath,  present  an  unequal  sur- 
face, remove  them,  and  brush  over  again 
as  before ;  then,  after  well  rinsing,  re- 
turn quickly  to  the  bath  and  allow 
them,  if  possible,  to  remain  without 
further  disturbance. 

Small  Silver  Bath  for  Amateurs. — The 
bath  is  a  cylindrical  stoneware,  glass, 
or  porcelain  vessel.  After  cleansing 
and  amalgamation,  the  articles  are  at- 
tached by  clean  copper  wires  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  brass  ring,  supported 
upon  the  top  of  the  apparatus  by  three 
or  four  soldered  cross  wires.  The  ring 
is  connected  with  the  negative  pole  of 
the  battery,  and  the  positive  pole  with 
a  platinum  anode,  or  a  cylinder  formed 
of  a  sheet  of  silver  rolled  round,  which 
dips  into  the  middle  of  the  apparatus. 
The  articles  must  be  now  and  then 
turned  upside  down,  and  sideways,  so 
that  each  face  of  the  object  will  be,  in 
turn,  directly  opposite  the  silver  anode, 
and  thus  also  the  points  of  contact  with 
the  suspending  wires  receive  their  quota 
of  metallic  deposit.  Points,  edges,  cor- 
ners, and  all  raised  parts,  oiler  a  more 
easy  passage  to  the  electric  current,  and 
therefore  become  more  coated  with 
metal.  As  the  wear  of  tablespoons  and 
forks  is  greater  on  their  convex  sides, 
those  parts  should  face  the  silver  anode 
longer  than  the  concave  jiortions. 

Bright  Lustre. — Bisulphide  of  carbon, 
in  small  proportion,  imparts  a  bright 
lustre  to  eiectroi)lated  articles.  Put  an 
ounce  of  bisulphide  of  cariion  into  a  pint 
bottle  containing  a  strong  silver  solu- 
tion with  cyanide  in  excess.  The  bottle 
should  be  repeatedly  shaken,  and  the 
mixture  is  ready  for  use  in  a  few  days. 
A  few  drops  of  this  solution  may  be 
poured  into  the  plating  bath  occasion- 
ally, until  the  work  ajjpears  sufficiently 
bright.  The  l)isul|>hide  solution,  how- 
ever, must  be  added  with  care,  for  an 
excess  IS  apt  to  spoil  the  solution.  In 
j)lating  surfaces  which  cannot  easily  b« 
scratch-bra.'-hed,    this   brightening  prO" 


WOUKSHOr    RECEIPTS. 


2U 


cess  IS  very  serviceable.  Care  must  be 
taken  never  to  add  too  much  at  a 
I  lire. 

Deposits  on  Solder. — The  difficulty  of 
obtaining  regular  deposits  of  gold  or 
silver  over  articles  which  have  parts 
soldered  may  be  greatly  obviated  by 
scratch-bi'usliing  those  parts  dry,  that 
is,  without  the  usual  liquid  employed. 
This  renders  these  refractory  parts 
better  conducting,  provided  that  during 
the  operation  no  impurities  are  left  on 
these  s]>ots. 

Method  by  which  the  Weight  of  De- 
posited Silver  is  directly  ascertained. — 
1.  The  articles  are  cleansed  by  the  pro- 
cesses already  described,  then  dried  in 
saw-dust  or  otherwise,  and  weighed  in  a 
scale.  However  rapidly  this  may  be 
done  the  surface  of  the  copper  will  be 
slightly  oxidized  and  tarnished  ;  to  re- 
cover their  former  cleanliness  the  ar- 
ticles must  be  plunged  into  a  strong 
pickle  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  into 
the  mercurial  solution.  After  rinsing, 
and  immersion  in  the  bath,  practical 
exi)erience  will  teach  when  it  is  nearly 
time  to  withdraw  the  ai'ticles  from  the 
solution.  They  will  have  to  be  wei.ghed 
several  times  before  the  intended  weight 
of  silver  has  been  deposited.  2.  Cleanse 
the  articles,  and  put  them  immediately 
into  the  bath,  except  one,  which  is 
treated  as  above,  and  used  as  a  test. 
This  piece  is  now  and  then  removed 
from  the  bath  to  ascertain  its  increase 
of  weight,  and  when  it  has  acquired  its 
proportion  of  silver  it  is  supposed  that 
the  other  pieces  are  also  finished. 
Strongly  amalgamated  articles  will  not 
become  sensibly  oxidized  during  the  diy- 
ing  which  precedes  their  weighing. 
When  the  objects  have  been  dried  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  proportion  of  de- 
posited silver,  they  should  not  be  re- 
turned to  the  bath  without  having  been 
cleaned  in  a  hot  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potassium,  which  dissolves  the  grease 
from  the  handling,  and  passed  again 
through  the  solution  of  nitrate  of  bin- 
oxide  of  mercury,  and  rinsed.  Alcohol 
may  be  substituted  for  the  hot  solution 
of  cyanide,  but  the  results  are  not  so 
sure,  and  the  expense  is  greater.     Both 


tliese  methods  are  tedious,  and  only  give 
approximate  results.  3.  Remove  one 
dish  of  an  ordinary  pair  of  scales,  sub- 
stitute for  it  a  metallic  frame  which 
supports  the  articles  to  be  silvered,  and 
communicates  through  the  beam  and  the 
column  with  the  negative  electrode  of  a 
battery;  connect  the  soluble  anode  with 
the  positive  pole.  When  the  articles 
are  suspended  to  the  frame,  and  are  in 
the  bath,  the  equilibrium  of  the  scale  is 
established  by  weights  upon  the  other 
dish  ;  add  to  this  a  weight  equal  to  the 
silver  it  is  desired  to  deposit.  The  ope- 
ration will  be  finislied  when  the  equili- 
brium of  the  beam  is  re-established. 
This  method  is  not  mathematically  ac- 
curate, but  is  sufficiently  exact  for  all 
practical  purposes.  An  automatic  ar- 
rangement, by  which  the  electric  cur- 
rent may  be  broken  at  the  time  the 
articles  in  the  bath  have  received  a  suffi- 
cient deposit  of  silver,  ii  easily  arranged, 
and  saves  time  and  metal. 

Anodes. — Should  the  anodes  become 
black  during  the  passage  of  the  electric 
current,  the  solution  contains  too  little 
cyanide  of  potassium  and  too  much 
silver.  In  this  case  the  deposit  is  ad- 
herent, but  too  slow,  and  the  bath  loses 
more  silver  than  it  can  gain  from  the 
anodes.  Carefully  add  sufficient  cya- 
nide of  potassium.  If  the  anodes  remain 
white  during  the  current,  the  proportion 
of  cyanide  of  potassium  is  too  great,  the 
deposited  silver  is  often  without  adhe- 
rence, and  the  anodes  lose  more  metal 
than  is  deposited  ;  add  silver  salt  until 
it  dissolves  with  difficulty.  When  in 
good  working  order  the  soluble  anodes 
become  grey  during  the  passage  of  the 
electricity,  and  white  when  the  circuit 
is  broken.  The  specific  gravity  of  the 
bath  may  vary  from  5°  to  15°  of  the 
Baume  hydrometer  for  salts,  and  still 
furnish  good  results.  There  is  a  simple 
and  rapid  process  for  ascertaining  the 
state  of  the  bath,  and  establishing  the 
proper  ratio  between  the  silver  and  the 
cyanide.  About  half  a  pint  of  the 
liquor  is  put  into  a  tall  glass,  and  a 
solution  of  i  of  an  ounce  of  nitrate  of 
silver  in  3  oz.  of  distilled  water  is 
poured   into  the  former,  drop  by  drop. 


21G 


WORKSHOP   IIECEIPTS. 


If  the  white  precipitate  produced  is 
rapidly  dissolved  by  stirring,  the  liquor 
is  too  rich  in  cyanide,  or  too  poor  in 
silver ;  should  the  precipitate  remain 
undissolved  after  long  stirring,  the 
liquor  is  too  rich  in  silver  and  too  poor 
in  C3'anide  of  potassium.  When  the 
precipitate  is  dissolved  but  slowly,  the 
liquor  is  in  the  best  condition. 

Burnishing.  —  By  burnishing,  the 
ri'ughness  of  an  object  is  flattened  down 
until  the  surface  is  smooth  and  i)olished, 
like  a  looking-glass.  Burnishing  is  an 
important  operation  for  electro-deposits 
wiiich  consist  of  a  multitude  of  small 
crystals  with  intervals  between  them, 
and  with  facets  reflecting  the  light  in 
every  direction.  The  deposited  metal  is 
hai-dcned,  and  forced  into  tlie  pores  of 
the  underlying  metal,  anil  the  durability 
is  thus  increased  to  such  an  extent,  that 
with  the  same  amount  of  silver  a  bur- 
nished article  will  last  twice  as  long  as 
one  which  has  not  been  so  treated.  The 
instruments  employed  for  burnishing  are 
made  of  dillerent  materials,  and  must  be 
of  great  hanluess  and  a  perfect  polish. 
Such  are  hardened  cast  steel,  agate, 
flint,  and  blood-stone.  For  metallic 
electro-deposits  steel  and  blood-stones 
are  especi;illy  employed.  There  are 
several  qualities  of  blood-stone;  its 
grain  should  be  close,  hard,  and  without 
seams  or  veins;  it  should  leave  no  white 
•lines  on  the  burnished  parts,  nor  take  oil' 
any  metal,  and  its  colour  should  be  of 
an  intense  black-red.  _  The  steel  must  be 
fine  and  close  grained,  and  perfectly  i)o- 
lished.  Should  the  ]iolish  of  any  bur- 
nishing tool  alter  by  use,  it  is  restored 
by  friction  upon  a  skin  or  leather  at- 
tached to  a  woollen  block,  which  is  fi.xed 
to  the  bench.  The  leather  is  covered 
with  polishing  rouge  in  impaljiable  pow- 
der, or,  pn-ferably,  with  pure  alumina 
oljtainei!  i>y  calciuing  ammonia  alum  iu 
a  forge  lire.  Venetian  tiip(di,  rotten- 
stone,  tin  putty,  eiiirry,  or  many  other 
hard  substauii's  finely  powdered  may  be 
cinjiloyed.  The  burnishing  tools  are  of 
various  shapes,  .such  as  a  lance,  a  tooth, 
a  knife,  a  half-sphere,  or  a  dog's  tongue, 
flud  a  considerable  stock  is  necessary. 
The  buruishiug  is  i|ivid"il   Into  two  dis- 


tinct operations;  the  fi/st  consists  in 
roughing,  and  the  second  in  iiuishiag. 
Tlie  tools  for  the  first  have  a  sharp 
edge,  whilst  for  the  second  operation 
they  have  a  rounded  surface.  Tlie 
tools  for  the  hand  or  the  lathe  are  fi.ved 
by  copper  ferules  into  short  round 
wooden  handles,  so  that  the  hand  is  not 
influenced  by  their  weight ;  the  tools 
for  the  arm  or  the  vice  are  fastened  to 
wooden  handles  sufficiently  long  to  rest 
their  slender  part  upon  the  arm  or  the 
shoulder,  tlie  stouter  lower  portion  is 
grasped  by  the  hand.  The  burnishing 
tools  and  the  objects  must  be  frequently 
wetted  by  certain  solutions,  some  of 
which  facilitate  the  sliding  of  the  instru- 
ment, or  with  others  wiiich  have  a  che- 
mical action  tipon  the  shade  of  the  bur- 
ni.^lied  articles.  Of  the  first  are  pure 
water,  solutions  of  soap,  decoctions  of 
linseed,  and  infusions  of  the  roots  of 
jiiarsh-mallow  or  liquorice ;  the  second 
includes  wine-lees,  cream  tartar,  vine- 
gar, alum  in  watei'.  When  burnishing 
gold  a])])lied  u])ou  electro-dejiosits  of 
copper,  as  in  gilding  with  a  dead  lustre 
by  that  method,  use  pure  water  for  fear 
of  [>roducing  a  disagreeable  red  shade. 
A  solution  of  green  soap  is  sometimes 
preferred  by  operators,  although  when 
old  it  imjiarts  an  unjileasant  tinge, 
owing  to  the  sulphides  of  the  liquor. 
When  the  burnishing  is  comjiieted,  the 
surface  is  wi]ied  longitudinally  with  a 
soft  and  old  calico  rag.  The  polish  ob- 
tained by  burnishing  is  called  black, 
when  it  reflects  the  rays  like  a  mirror; 
and  should  the  ]iresence  of  mercury  or 
a  bad  deposit  ))revent  the  tool  from  |)ro- 
ducing  a  bright  surface,  the  object  is 
said  to  be  greasy.  Articles  which  have 
been  jireviously  polished,  and  which 
generally  receive  a  very  trilling  deposit, 
are  not  burnished,  but  rubbed  with 
chamois  leather  and  the  best  quality 
pidi.sliiiig-rouge.  Too  thick  or  tim  rapid 
electro-deposits  ciiinot  be  burnislied, 
but  must  be  ]>olislieil  by  ruiiliing  with  a 
leather  and  a  mixture  of  oil  and  )iow- 
dered  pumice-stone,  trijioli,  or  tin  putty. 
Co.'irse  jiowders  are  used  at  the  begin- 
ning, and  impalpable  ones  at  the  end  of 
the  operation.     Polished  silver  deposits 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


217 


a/e  tLurc  agreeable  to  tlie  ej'e  than  bur- 
nished ones  ;  but  the  hardening  of  tlie 
latter  renders  them  more  durable. 

To  Dissolve  Silver  from  Silvered  Ar- 
ticles.— Cold  Bath. — For  dissolving  sil- 
ver in  the  cold  the  objects  are  hung  in 
a  large  vessel  filled  with  the  following 
nii.xlure  ; — Sulphuric  acid  at  66°  Baumii, 
10  parts  ;  nitric  acid  at  40°  Baume,  1, 
in  which  they  remain  for  a  greater 
or  less  length  of  time,  accordmg  to  the 
thickness  of  the  coat  of  silvej'  to  be  dis- 
solved. This  liquid,  when  it  does  not 
contain  water,  dissolves  the  silver  with- 
out sensibly  coi-roding  copper  and  its 
alloys  ;  therefore  avoid  introducing  wet 
articles  into  it,  and  keep  the  liquid  per- 
fectly covered  when  not  in  use.  As  far 
as  practicable  place  the  articles  in  the 
liquid  so  as  not  to  touch  each  other,  and 
in  a  vertical  position,  so  that  the  silver 
salt  will  fall  to  the  bottom.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  action  of  the  liquor  dimi- 
nishes, pour  in  small  and  gradual  addi- 
tions of  nitric  acid.  Dissolving  silver  in 
the  cold  is  regular  and  certain,  but 
slow,  especially  when  the  proportion  of 
silver  is  great.  The  other  more  rapid 
process  is  then  resorted  to. 

Hot  Bath. — Nearly  fill  a  flat  pan  of 
enamelled  cast  iron  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  and  heat  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  from  300°  to  400°  Fahr. ;  at 
the  moment  of  using  it,  pinches  of  dry 
powdered  saltpetre  are  thrown  into 
it  ;  then  hold  the  article  with  copper 
tongs  in  the  liquid.  The  silver  rajiidly 
dissolves,  and  the  copper  or  its  alloys 
are  not  sensibly  corroded.  According 
to  the  rapidity  of  the  solution  more  or 
fewer  pinches  of  saltpetre  are  added. 
All  the  silver  has  been  dissolved  when, 
after  rinsing  in  water  and  dipping  the 
articles  into  the  cleansing  acids,  they  pre- 
sent no  brown  or  black  spots,  that  is, 
when  they  ajipear  like  new  metals, 
fhese  two  methods  are  not  suitable  for 
removing  the  silver  from  wrought  and 
cast  iron,  zinc,  or  lead  ;  it  is  preferable 
to  invert  the  electric  current  in  a  cya- 
nide bath,  or  to  use  mechanical  pro- 
i-esses.  Old  desilvering  liquors  become 
green  after  use  ;  to  recover  the  silver 
they  are  diluted  with  4  or  5  times  their 


volunr.e  of  water,  then  add  hydrochloric 
acid  or  common  salt.  The  precipitation 
is  complete  when  the  settled  liquor  does 
not  become  turbid  by  a  new  addition  of 
common  salt  or  hydrochloric  acid.  The 
resulting  chloride  of  silver  is  separated 
from  the  liquid  either  by  dccantation  or 
filtration,  and  is  afterwards  reduced  to 
the  metallic  state  by  one  of  the  methods 
which  will  be  described. 

liesists  and  Reserves.  —  By  reserves, 
certain  parts  of  a  metallic  article,  which 
may  be  already  covered  with  an  electro- 
deposit  on  its  whole  surface,  are  coated 
with  another  metal.  To  gild  the  parts 
in  relief  of  an  object  of  which  the  body 
is  silvered,  make  a  gold  reserve,  and  use 
a  silver  reserve  for  silvering  of  certain 
parts  of  a  body  already  gilt.  This  re- 
quires a  little  practice  and  care,  and  a 
firm  hand  to  make  thin  lines  with  the 
hair  pencil.  Thoroughly  scratch-brush 
and  wipe  the  object ;  the  parts  intended 
to  have  the  primitive  colour  must  be 
covered  by  a  brush  with  a  resist  var- 
nish ;  dry  in  the  air,  or  in  a  stove,  or 
upon  a  gentle  fire  until  it  no  longer  feels 
sticky.  Place  in  the  bath  ;  the  galvanic 
deposit  will  only  coat  those  parts  un- 
protected by  the  varnish.  The  tempe- 
rature of  the  bath  should  be  low,  and 
the  current  w^eak,  for  fear  of  having 
rough  lines  where  the  deposit  touches 
the  varnish,  from  the  latter  becoming 
softened,  or  from  bubbles  which  are  dis- 
engaged at  the  negative  pole  under  the 
action  of  a  strong  electric  current. 
When  the  deposit  is  completed,  remove 
the  resist  varnish  with  warm  essence  of 
turpentine,  and  afterwards  with  tepid 
alcohol ;  gaseine  or  benzole  are  prefer- 
able, as  they  rapidly  dissolve  in  the  cold 
nearly  all  resinous  and  fatty  bodies,  or 
the  varnish  may  be  destroyed  by  a  brief 
immersion  in  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  when  cold.  It  often  happens  that 
several  colours  and  metals  have  to  be 
placed  upon  the  same  object,  such  as 
silver  with  both  a  bright  and  a  dead 
lustre,  and  yellow,  green,  red,  white,  or 
pink  golds,  or  platinum.  Varnishes  are 
also  employed  for  avoiding  the  deposit 
of  the  precious  metals  upon  those  parts 
which  do  not  need  them. 


218 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


Resist  or  Reserve  Varnishes. — Dissolve 
in  boiled  linseed  oil  or  essence  of  tur- 
pentine, resin,  or  copal ;  these  var- 
nishes are  not  sulTiciently  coloured  to 
distinguish  the  places  whore  they  have 
boen  hud  on,  mix  with  them  therefore  a 
Certain  proportion  of  red-lead,  chrome 
ysllow,  or  Prussian  blue,  which  at  the 
sniue  time  facilitates  their  drying. 

Old  Silvering.  —  To  imitate  old 
artistic  productions  made  of  solid  silver, 
the  groundwork  and  hollow  portions  not 
subject  to  I'riction  are  covered  with  a 
blackish  red  earthy  coat,  the  parts  in 
relief  remain  with  a  bright  lead  lustre. 
Mix  a  thin  paste  of  fincJy-powdered 
plumbago  with  essence  of  turpentine,  to 
which  a  small  proportion  of  red  ochre 
may  be  added  to  imitate  the  copper 
tinge  of  cei'tain  old  silverware;  smear 
this  all  over  the  articles.  After  drying, 
gently  rub  with  a  soft  brush,  and  the 
reliefs  are  set  off  by  cleaning  with  a 
ragdipjjed  inspirits  of  wine.  Old  silver 
is  easily  removed,  and  the  brightness  of 
the  metal  restored,  by  a  hot  solution  of 
caustic  potash,  cyanide  of  potassium,  or 
benzole.  To  give  the  old  silver  tinge  to 
small  articles,  such  as  buttons  and  rings, 
throw  them  into  the  above  paste,  rub 
in  a  bag  with  a  large  quantity  of  dry 
fir-wood  saw-dust  until  the  desired  shade 
is  obtained. 

OxiDizKD  SiLVF.R. — This  is  not  an 
oxidization,  but  a  combination  with  sul- 
phur or  chlorine.  Sulphur,  sohildo  sul- 
phiibis,  and  hydrosulphuric  acid  blacken 
silvtr,  and  insoluble  silver  salts,  and 
particularly  the  chloride  of  silver,  ra- 
pidly blackens  by  solar  light.  Add  four 
or  (ive  thousandths  of  hydrosuljihato  of 
ammonia,  or  of  f|iiintisulpliide  of  potas- 
sium, to  ordinary  water  at  a  tcmjicra- 
ture  of  160°  to  \WP  Kahr.  When  the 
article.s  arc  dipped  into  this  solution  an 
iridescent  coating  of  silver  sulphide 
covers  them,  which  after  a  few  seconcls 
more  in  the  liquid  turns  blue -black. 
iJcmove,  rinse,  scratch-brush,  and  liur- 
nish  when  desii-eii.  Use  the  solution 
when  freshly  preftared,  or  the  jirolonged 
heat  will  prccij)itate  too  much  suljiliur, 
and  the  deposit  will  be  wanting  in  ad- 
liercnce;  besides  the  oxidization  oltainpl 


in  freshly-prepared  liquors  is  always 
brighter  and  blacker  than  that  produced 
in  old  solutions,  which  is  dull  and  grey. 
If  the  coat  of  silver  is  too  thin,  and  the 
liquor  too  strong,  the  alkaline  suli)hido 
dissolves  the  silver,  and  the  underlving 
metal  appears.  In  this  case  cleanse  and 
silver  again,  and  use  a  weaker  black- 
ening solution.  Oxidized  parts  and 
gilding  may  be  put  upon  the  same  ar- 
ticle by  the  following  method.  After 
the  whole  surfoce  has  been  gilt,  certain 
portions  are  covered  with  the  resist 
varnish,  silver  the  remainder.  Should 
the  process  of  silvering  by  paste  and 
cold  rubbing  be  employed,  the  gilding 
should  be  very  pale,  because  it  is  not 
preserved,  and  is  dco]ily  reddened  by 
the  sulphur  liquor.  When  this  incon- 
venience occurs  from  a  too  concentrated 
liquor,  it  is  ])artly  remedied  by  rapidly 
washing  the  article  in  a  te])id  solution 
of  cyanide  of  potassium.  Deep  black  is 
thus  obtained  upon  cleansed  coj)per ; — 
Dissolve  3  or  4  oz.  of  blue  ashes,  hy- 
drocarbonate  of  copper,  in  a  sullicient 
quantity  of  aqua  ammonia,  place  the 
cleansed  copjier  in  this  solution,  cold 
or  toj)id,  it  will  be  instantaneously  co- 
vered with  a  fine  black  deposit.  This 
coat  is  so  thin  that  burnished  articles 
look  like  varnished  black. 

N I  i:lli:d  Si  lvkk. — This  is  a  kind  of  in- 
laiil  enamel  work,  and  is  obtained  by  the 
sulphurafion  of  certain  ]>arts  of  a  silver 
ol)ji>ct.  Hut  instead  of  being  direct, 
this  is  produced  by  inlaying  the  silver 
surface  with  a  suljihidc  of  the  same 
metal  prepared  beforehand.  For  pre- 
paring the  niel,  heat  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  sulpiiur  in  a  deep  crucible;  heat 
a  certain  q^iantity  of  silver,  co|)per,  and 
leail  in  another  crucible,  an<l  when 
melted  pour  into  the  fused  sulphur, 
which  tr.insforms  these  metals  into  sul- 
phides; then  add  a  little  sal  ammoniac, 
remove  from  the  crucible,  pulverize  for 
use.  First  crucible — flowers  of  sul|)hur, 
27  oz. ;  sal  ammoniac,  2J  oz.  Second 
crucible,  which  after  fusion  is  |)oured 
into  the  first — silver,  J  oz.  ;  copper, 
1§  or,.;  lend,  2j  oz.  1.  After  having 
reduced  the  niel  to  a  fine  powder,  mix 
witli  a  RinnJI  proportion  of  a  solution  of 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


219 


sal  ammoniac,  hollow  out  the  engraving 
upon  a  silver  surface,  and  cover  the 
whole,  hollows  and  reliefs,  with  the 
composition.  The  article  is  then  to  be 
heated  in  a  muffle  until  the  composition 
solders  to  the  metal.  Uncover  the  pat- 
tern by  a  level  polish,  when  the  silver 
will  appear  as  over  a  black  ground. 
This  method  is  costly,  as  each  article 
must  be  engraved.  2.  Engrave  in  relief 
a  steel  plate,  and  press  it  against  the 
silver  plate  between  two  hard  bodies. 
The  copy  is  hollow,  and  readj'  to  receive 
the  niel.  A  great  many  copies  may  be 
obtained  from  the  same  matrix. 

Platixuji  Deposits  by  Dipping. — 
Copper  and  its  alloys  only  will  receive  a 
satisfactory  platinum  deposit ;  iron,  zinc, 
lead,  or  tin,  coated  with  this  metal, 
even  after  a  previous  coppering,  give  but 
defective  results.  The  platinum  depo- 
sits are  obtained  by  dipping  thoroughly 
cleansed  copper  articles  in  the  following 
solution,  kept  boiling; — Distilled  water, 
100  parts  by  weight;  caustic  soda,  12 
parts;  platinum  for  neutral  chloride,  1. 
The  deposit  is  bright,  durable,  and 
of  a  dark  colour,  resembling  oxidized 
silver. 

Thin  Platinum  Electro-deposits. — The 
platinum  baths  for  electro-deposits  will 
succeed  when  the  chloride  of  platinum 
IS  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  a  salt  with 
alkaline,  neutral,  or  acid  reaction,  but 
sulphites  aud  cyanides,  even  those  having 
soda  for  base,  should  be  excepted.  Dis- 
tilled water,  100  parts  by  weight;  car- 
bonate of  soda,  40  parts  ;  platinum  for 
neutral  chloride,  1.  Temperature  of 
the  bath,  from  160°  to  180°  Fahr.  Dis- 
tilled water,  100  parts  by  weight ;  phos- 
phate or  borate  of  soda,  60  parts ;  pla- 
tmum  for  neutral  chloride,  1.  Distilled 
water,  100  parts  by  weight ;  pyrophos- 
phate of  soda,  or  chloride  or  iodide  of 
sodium,  30  parts;  platinum  for  dry 
chloride,  1.  These  baths  only  give  ex- 
ceedingly thin  deposits  ;  if  the  coating 
v.ere  allowed  to  increase  most  of  it 
would  be  without  adherence,  and  often 
m  the  form  of  scales.  The  deposit  is 
black  or  steel  grey. 

Tliick  Platinum  Electro  -  deposits.  — 
Fill  a  fflass  flask  with  ^  of  an  ounce  of 


finely-lammated  spongy  or  black  pla- 
tinum, and  a  mixture  of  5^  oz.  of  hy- 
drochloric acid,  and  3J  oz.  of  nitric  acid 
at  40°  Baume.  Place  the  flask  upon  a 
piece  of  sheet  iron  perforated  in  the 
centre,  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  flask 
alone  receives  the  heat.  After  an  abun- 
dant production  of  orange-yellow  fumes, 
the  platinum  will  disappear  and  leave  a 
red  liquid,  which  should  be  heated  until 
it  becomes  viscous  enough  to  stick 
against  the  sides  of  the  flask.  This 
latter  part  of  the  operation  may  be 
effected  in  a  porcelain  dish,  the  shallow 
form  of  which  aids  in  the  evaporation  of 
the  acids  in  excess.  After  cooling,  the 
residuum  is  dissolved  in  17^  oz.  of  dis- 
tilled water,  and  filtered  if  necessary. 
Dissolve  3^  oz.  of  jihosphate  of  ammonia 
in  17 J  oz.  of  distilled  water,  and  mix 
the  two  solutions.  This  produces  a  pre- 
cipitate of  phosphate  of  ammonia  and 
platinum  in  a  liquid  of  orange  colour, 
which  should  not  be  separated ;  pour 
into  it,  stirring  all  the  while,  another 
solution  of  17J  oz.  of  phosphate  of  soda 
in  If  pint  of  distilled  water.  Boil  the 
mixture,  and  replace  the  evaporated 
water,  until  no  more  ammonia  is  dis- 
engaged, which  is  ascertained  by  the 
smell ;  and  until  the  liquor,  which  was 
previously  alkaline,  begins  to  redden 
blue  litmus  paper.  When  the  yellow 
liquor  becomes  colourless,  it  indicates 
the  formation  of  a  double  platinum  salt. 
The  bath  is  then  ready  to  deposit  pla- 
tinum upon  articles  of  copper  or  its 
alloys,  by  the  aid  of  heat  and  of  an  in- 
tense electric  current.  Copper  coated 
with  platinum  resists  nitric  and  sul- 
phuric acids  to  a  considerable  extent. 
If  iron,  zinc,  lead,  or  tin  come  in  contact 
with  the  bath  they  will  decompose  it, 
and  the  metal  deposited  will  be  black. 
The  dead  lustre  of  ])latinui'n  is  pearl- 
grey  ;  it  is  very  hard,  and  cannot  be 
brightened  by  scratch-brushes  of  brass, 
which  render  its  surface  yellow;  pow- 
dered pumice  -  stone  or  iron  wires 
should  be  employed.  Platinum  depo- 
sits may  be  burnished  by  an  energetic 
friction,  and  the  lustre  obtained  is  very 
durable.  Platinum  may  be  removed 
fi'om  copper  by  a  very  long  immersion 


220 


WORKSHOP   UKCKIPTS. 


\a  the  liquors  given  for  ungilding,  but 
the  success  is  doubtful. 

Nickel  Deposits. — Nickel  deposited 
by  the  wet  way  is  white,  with  a  slightly 
yellow  tinge,  having  a  dull  pearl-grey 
dead  lustre  ;  it  is  obtained  by  dissolving 
the  nitrate  of  nickel  in  its  own  weight  of 
ammonia,  and  diluting  the  whole  with 
20  or  30  times  its  volume  of  liquid  bi- 
suljihite  of  soda,  marking  about  24-^ 
Baume.  This  application  is  found  use- 
ful when  articles  require  to  be  pro- 
tected against  the  o.xidizing  action  of 
damp  or  salt  air,  sulphurous  gases,  and 
weak  acids.  Nickel  electrotypes  stand 
the  wear  and  tear  caused  by  ink,  and 
press  much  better  than  the  ordinary 
copper  ones.  Another  bath  is  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  nickel,  without  excess  of  acid, 
jirecii>itated  by  cyanide  of  potassium, 
and  the  precipitate  redissolved  by  more 
cyanide.  An  acid  solution  of  nickel  may 
be  precipitated  by  alkalies,  such  as 
potash,  soda,  or  ammonia;  after  wash- 
ing tile  precipitate,  dissolve  in  cyanide 
of  jiotassium.  A  moderate  battery 
power  and  nickel  anodes  are  emj)l<)yed. 

Nichcl  Plating  without  a  Battery. — 
Into  the  plating  vessel,  which  may  be 
of  porcelain  or  cop])er,  place  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  zinc  chloride,  dilute 
it  with  from  1  to  2  volumes  of  water, 
and  heat  to  boiling.  If  any  jirecipitate 
separates,  it  is  to  be  redissolved  by  add- 
ing a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid.  As 
much  powdered  zinc  as  can  be  taken  on 
the  point  of  a  knife  is  thrown  in,  which 
covers  the  vessel  internally  with  a  coating 
of  zinc.  The  nickel  salt,  for  which  pur- 
j)ose  cither  the  chloride  or  sulpliate  may 
be  used,  is  added  until  the  liquid  is  dis- 
tinctly green;  then  ]iut  in  the  articles  to 
i>e  plated,  previously  tlioroughly  cleaned, 
togetiier  with  some  zinc  fragments. 
Continue  the  boiling  for  (ifleen  minutes, 
when  the  coating  of  nickel  is  c<)m]ileted. 
Well  w.i.sh  the  articles  with  water,  and 
clean  witii  chalk.  If  a  thicker  coating 
IS  desired,  the  ojieration  may  be  re- 
peated. Wrougiit  and  cast  iron,  steel, 
copper,  brass,  zinc,  and  lead  have  been 
KUccessfiiily  coated  by  tiii.i  j)roce.ss.  It 
ii>  necessary  that  the  oljjects  should  be 
eptirely  covered  by  the  plating  liquid, 


ond  that  their  surfaces  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned.  Salts  of  cobalt, 
treated  in  the  same  manner,  aflbrd  a 
cobalt  plating,  which  is  steel  grey  in 
colour,  not  so  lustrous  as  the  nickel, 
and  more  liable  to  tarnish. 

Zinc  Dei'OSITS. — Zinc  is  deposited  by 
the  wet  w\ay  and  by  the  battery.  The 
dead  lustre  colour  is  a  grey  bluish- 
white.  Precipitate  a  soluble  zinc  salt 
by  ammonia;  this  precipitate  redissolved 
in  an  excess  of  alkali  gives  a  satisfac- 
tory bath ;  any  kind  of  zinc  salt  may 
also  be  dissolved  in  cyanide  of  potassium 
or  a  soluble  sulphite.  These  deposits 
are  entirely  ditl'ereiit  as  regards  the  du- 
rability, from  tlie  so-called  galvanizing, 
wlieii  cleansed  iron  is  plunged  into  a 
bath  of  molten  zinc,  and  is  thus  pro- 
tected against  oxidization  for  a  long 
time,  which  is  not  the  case  with  electro- 
deposited  zinc.  For  depositing  upon 
copper  or  brass,  in  the  wet  way,  prepare 
linely  -  divided  zinc,  by  pouring  the 
molten  metal  into  a  previously  strongly 
heated  iron  mortiir,  and  stiiring  until 
nearly  cold.  The  powdered  zinc  thus 
obtained  is  placed  in  a  porcelain  vessel, 
and  to  it  is  added  a  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  sal  ammoniac.  This  mixture  is 
heated  to  boiling;  and  tiie  cofiper  or 
brass  objects  to  be  coated  with  zinc,  but 
previously  well  cleansed,  even  with  an 
acid,  are  then  placed  in  a  liquid  where 
they  obtiiin  a  brilliantly  white  adhering 
layer  of  zinc. 

Iron  AND  Stekl  Deposits. — Iron  may 
be  deposited  by  the  wet  way,  but  is  very 
easily  oxidized.  It  is  obtained  by  de- 
composing by  the  battery  a  perfectly 
neutral  protochloride  of  iron.  Thi» 
bath  is  rapidly  altered  by  the  air,  anti 
is  transformed  into  sesquichloride,  which 
is  iinsuiteii  (or  tlie  purpose.  The  double 
chloride  of  iron  and  ammonium,  obtained 
by  the  ])rotra(:te<i  boiling  of  a  solution 
of  sal  ammoniac  upon  iron  filings,  pro- 
duces a  very  thin  deposit  of  iron,  very 
difficult  to  oxidize,  which  is  employed 
for  hardening  the  surface  of  engraved 
I)lates  or  of  ordinary  electrotypes. 
Double  suli)hates  of  iron  and  ammonia, 
or  of  iron  and  potash,  and  double 
chlorides  of  the  siiipe  bases,  have    been 


WORKSHOP  KECKIPTS* 


221 


successfully  used  for  electro-deposits  of 
iion. 

Antimony  Deposits. — This  has  all 
tiie  brightness  of  polished  cast  iron.  Its 
dead  lustre  is  a  slate  grey,  and  it  may 
be  easily  scratch-brushed  and  polished ;  it 
resembles  black  platinum,  and  may  take 
its  place  in  many  cases.  Boil  for  an  hour, 
in  a  porcelain  dish  or  enamelled  cast- 
iron  vessel ; — Water,  2i  galls. ;  carbon- 
ate of  soda,  70  oz. ;  finely-powdered 
sulphide  of  antmiony,  17^  oz.  Filter 
the  boiling  solution  through  paper  or 
fine  cloth ;  by  cooling  it  deposits  a  red- 
dish-yellow powder  of  oxysulphide  of 
antimony.  Boil  this  powder  again  in 
the  same  liquor,  and  the  new  solution  is 
the  antimony  bath.  It  is  necessary  to 
use  the  bath  constantly  boiling.  For 
the  anode,  use  either  a  plate  of  antimony 
or  a  platinum  wire. 

Lead  Deposits  are  ootained  by  the 
plumbite  of  potasli  or  soda,  which  is 
prepared  by  the  protracted  boiling  of 
^  of  an  ounce  of  protoxide  of  lead  in 
3J  oz.  of  raustic  potash  or  soda,  dis- 
solved in  '24.  galls,  of  distilled  water. 

Coloured  Electro -Chromic  Rings. — 
After  the  plumbite  of  soda  bath  has 
cooled  off,  the  metallic  or  metallized 
article,  connected  with  the  positive  pole, 
is  dipped  into  it.  Then  the  platinum 
wire,  communicating  with  the  negative 
pole,  is  gradually  introduced  into  the 
liquor  without  touching  the  article, 
which  is  immediately  coloured  in  vari- 
ous shades  ;  too  much  intensity  in  the 
current  will  hide  all  the  various  tinges 
under  a  uniform  dark  brown  coat. 
When  an  article  is  unsatisfactory  in  its 
colouration,  dip  it  rapidly  into  aqua- 
fortis, to  dissolve  the  oxide  of  lead,  and 
restore  the  metallic  surface  to  its  primi- 
tive state.  This  process  may  be  used  for 
the  decoration  of  stoneware  and  porce- 
lain previously  coated  with  platinum. 

Reduction  of  Old  Baths. — Extrac- 
tion of  Gold. — All  the  liquids  which 
contain  gold,  except  those  in  which 
there  is  a  cvauido,  are  strongly  acidu- 
lated by  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acids, 
unless  they  are  already  acid,  and  then 
largely  diluted  with  water.  Precipitate 
the  frccious  metal  by  a  solution  of  sul- 


phate of  protoxide  of  iron,  copperas,  and, 
after  a  few  hours  standing,  it  is  ascer- 
tained that  the  liquor  does  not  contain 
any  more  gold  when  a  new  addition  of 
sulphate  of  iron  does  not  produce  any 
turbidity.  The  precipitated  gold  is  in 
the  form  of  a  red  or  black  j'owder ;  collect 
upon  a  filter,  wash,  and  dry  in  an  iron 
pan,  with  weights  equal  to  its  own,  of 
borax,  saltpetre,  and  carbonate  of  potash. 
Gradually  introduce  the  powder  into  a 
refractory  crucible  heated  to  a  white 
heat  in  a  good  air-furnace.  When  all 
is  introduced,  increase  the  heat  and  close 
the  furnace,  so  that  all  the  metal  may 
fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible.  After 
cooling,  extract  the  button  of  juire  gold 
which  remains.  If  it  is  desired  to  dis- 
solve the  powdered  gold  left  on  the 
filter  in  aqua  regia,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  wash  it  several  times  with  diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  to  remove  the  sulphate 
of  iron  with  which  it  is  impregnated. 
This  mode  of  reduction  is  adapted  to  an 
impure  chloride  of  gold,  to  the  baths  by 
dipping  with  the  bicarbonate  or  pyro- 
phosphate of  soda,  and  also  to  the  ungild- 
ing  acitls ;  but  it  is  imperfect  with 
baths  holding  a  cyanide,  which  never 
completely  part  with  all  the  gold  they 
contain,  by  this  process.  The  best  man- 
ner of  treating  the  latter  liquors  is  to 
evaporate  them  to  dryness  in  a  cast-iron 
kettle,  and  calcine  the  residue  to  a  white 
heat  in  a  good  crucible.  A  small  [)ro- 
portion  of  bora.x  or  saltpetre  may  be 
added  to  aid  the  fusion,  but  generally 
it  is  unnecessary.  The  resulting  button 
of  gold  at  the  bottom  of  the  crucible  is 
red  when  saltpetre  has  been  employed, 
and  green  with  borax  ;  but  these  differ- 
ences of  colour  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  purity  of  the  metal.  Gold  may  be 
separated  from  liquors  which  contain  nc 
cyanide,  by  an  excess  of  protochjoride  of 
tin,  which  produces  a  precipitate  easily 
reduced  by  heat.  Sulphurous  acid  will 
also  reduce  the  gold;  but  in  this  case, 
the  liquor  should  be  heated.  Granu- 
lated gold  is  obtained  by  ruuniTig  the 
molten  metal,  :a  a  small  stream,  and 
from  a  certain  height,  into  a  large 
quantity  of  cold  water. 

Extraction  of  Silver. — Liquors  confai.o 


222 


WORKSHOl    RECEIPTS. 


ing  silver  in  the  foiin  of  a  simple  salt, 
in  solution  by  an  acid,  are  easily  treated  ; 
add  to  them  an  excess  of  common  salt, 
or  hydrochloric  acid,  the  silver  will  be 
precipitated  as  chloride  of  silver,  which, 
after  washing,  may  be  employed  for  the 
preparation  of  new  baths,  or  reduced  to 
the  metallic  form.  Solutions  of  nitrate 
of  silver,  or  desilverizing  acids,  belong 
to  this  class.  Common  salt,  however, 
IS  without  action  upon  the  liquids  which 
hold  silver  m  the  state  of  a  double  salt, 
and  will  rather  aid  the  solution  than 
the  precipitation  ;  such  are  the  double 
tartrate  of  silver  and  potash,  whitening 
bath,  the  double  sulphite  of  soda  and 
silver,  and  the  bath  for  dipping.  Before 
employing  common  salt,  add  suljjhuric 
acid,  which,  displacmg  the  other  acids, 
restores  the  silver  to  tlie  state  of  a  simple 
salt,  easily  precii)itated  by  common  salt. 
Hydrochloric  acid  alone  precipitates 
silver  well  from  these  solutions.  Liquors 
containing  silver,  as  cyanide,  are  also 
exceptions ;  to  extract  all  the  metal, 
use  the  process  employed  for  similar 
combinations  of  gold,  evaporate  to  dry- 
ness, and  reduce  the  mass  in  a  crucible, 
with  an  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda 
and  powdered  charcoal.  The  metallic 
silver  remains  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible.  To  reduce  chloride  of  silver — 
1.  Put  well-washed  chloride  of  silver 
into  an  iron  ladle,  with  a  little  ])\ive 
water  above  the  chloride.  Tlie  greater 
alfinity  of  iron  for  chlorine  determines 
Its  dep.Trture  from  the  silver  ;  and, 
after  standing  24  to  30  hours,  throw 
the  contents  of  the  ladle  upon  a  filter, 
and  wash  tiioroughly  with  pure  water, 
to  remove  the  soluble  chloride  of  iron; 
the  resiilue  will  be  p\ire  silver  in  a 
minute  state  of  division.  This  method 
is  rarely  employed  on  account  of  the 
length  of  time  required.  2.  Well- 
washed  chloride  of  silver,  water  does 
uot  diss(dve  a  trace  of  it,  is  put  into  a 
Htoneware  pan  with  two  or  tluee  times 
Its  weight  of  zinc,  and  the  whole  is 
covered  with  w.iter  rendered  acid  by 
sul|)huric  acid.  As  soon  as  they  are  in 
contact,  these  substances  react  upon  each 
other;  the  sulphuric  acid  and  the  zinc 
docomoose    the    water,    the    oxygen    of 


which  oxidizes  the  zinc,  which  then 
combines  with  the  acid,  and  forms  sul- 
phate of  zinc,  a  very  soluble  salt ;  the 
hydrogen  transforms  the  chlorine  of  the 
silver  into  hydrochloric  acid,  which  is 
also  very  soluble  in  water.  Before 
filtering,  wait  until  all  the  zinc  is  dis- 
solved. The  remaining  silver  is  in 
impalpable  powder,  and  cannot  pass 
through  the  filter.  Wash  the  silver 
thoroughly  with  i)ure  water,  and  it  may 
then  be  dissolved  in  pure  nitric  acid  to 
form  a  pure  nitrate  of  silver.  This  pro- 
cess is  seldom  employed,  as  it  is  dilfi- 
cult  to  find  zinc  without  lead,  which 
will  unite  with  and  follow  the  silver 
in  subsequent  manipulations.  3.  The 
chloride  of  silver,  freed  from  foreign 
metallic  salts  by  washing,  is  mixed 
with  tour  times  its  own  weight  of 
crystallized  carbonate  of  soda,  and  half 
of  its  weight  of  pulverized  charcoal. 
Make  into  a  homogeneous  paste,  dry 
thoroughly  in  an  iron  pan,  and  then 
l)lace  in  a  red-hot  crucible.  After 
fusion  the  heat  is  raised,  in  order  to 
allow  the  smallest  globules  to  reach  tne 
bottom  of  the  crucible.  Should  the 
crucible  be  moved  at  the  time  of  the 
solidification,  the  silver  will  be  of  a  very 
irregular  shape.  To  obtain  granulated 
silver,  ]iour  it  in  a  small  striMin,  and 
from  a  height,  into  a  large  volume  of 
water. 

Extraction  of  riitinum. — 1.  Render 
any  kind  of  platinum  bath  acid  by 
hydrochloric  acid,  unless  it  is  already 
so,  and  then  plunge  cleansed  iron  iiito 
it.  The  ]ilatiuum  is  reduced  to  a  black 
powder,  wash,  and  calcine  to  a  white 
heat.  Dissolving  it  in  aqua  regia  re- 
constitutes the  chloride  of  platinum 
necessary  for  the  preparation  of  the 
baths.  2.  Keduce  by  evapoiviting  the 
bath  to  dryness,  strongly  calcine  the 
residue,  then  wash  upon  a  filter  to 
remove  the  soluble  salts,  and  again  heat 
to  a  wliite  heat.  The  platinum  thr.s 
obtained  is  soluble  in  aqua  regia. 

Kxtr.iction  of  Copper  Salts. — Collect 
all  the  liquids  holding  copper  in  a  large 
ciusk  filled  with  wrought  or  cast  iron 
scraps;  a  chemical  reaction  immediately 
takes   place,  the  iron  is  substituted  for 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


223 


the  copper  to  make  a  soluble  salt,  and 
copper  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  cask 
in  the  shape  of  a  brown  powder.  The 
cask  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  all 
the  liquids  employed  in  a  day's  work. 
Tlie  iron  scrap  should  be  suspended  in 
willow  baskets  on  the  top  of  the 
liquor,  and,  by  stirring  now  and  then 
the  liquid  with  them,  the  metallic 
powder  of  copper  will  alone  fall  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cask.  The  same  method 
may  be  employed  for  recovering  the 
copper  from  old  cleansing  acids,  or 
from  worn  out  galvanoplastic  baths. 
The  copjier  thus  obtained  is  quite  pure ; 
calcining  it  in  contact  with  the  air,  gives 
a  black  binoxide  of  copper  for  neutraliz- 
ing too  acid  galvanoplastic  baths. 

Ashes. — Sweepings,  saw-dust,  residues 
from  the  bottoms  of  scratch-brushing 
tubs,  filters,  papers,  and  rags,  must  be 
collected,  mixed,  and  burned  in  a  furnace 
constructed  for  the  purpose.  The  ashes 
are  finely  pulverized,  sifted,  and 
thoroughly  mixed  with  a  quantity  of 
mercury,  which  combines  with  the  gold 
and  silver.  The  amalgams,  separated 
by  washing,  are  then  distilled  in  cast- 
iron  retorts  of  a  peculiar  shape.  The 
mercury  volatilizes,  and  the  gold  and 
silver  remain  in  the  retort.  For  sepa- 
rating these  metals,  granulate  the  solid 
mass  and  treat  with  pure  nitric  acid, 
which  dissolves  the  silver,  and  is  with- 
out action  upon  the  gold.  The  latter 
metal  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ressel  in  a  black  or  ^nolet  powder,  and 
IS  pure,  after  having  been  washed  in 
distilled  water.  If  an  ingot  contains 
only  a  little  silver  and  much  gold,  melt 
previousl}'  with  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  former  metal,  in  order  to  more 
easily  dissolve  in  nitric  acid.  The 
ingots  of  silver  and  copper  should  be 
boiled  in  cast-iron  kettles  with  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid,  which  transforms 
the  copper  into  soluble  sulphate  of 
copper,  and  silver  into  sulphate  of 
iilver,  only  slightly  soluble.  The 
"separation  of  the  two  may  be  partly 
etiected  by  washing,  but,  generally, 
the  silver  is  precipitated  by  plates  of 
copper.  The  alloy,  previous  to  its  solu- 
tion, should  be  granulated. 


Galvanoplasm.  Thick  De- 
posits.— Galvanoplasm  consists  of  de- 
posits with  sufficient  thickness  to  form 
a  resisting  body,  which  may  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  objects  serving  as  moulds, 
and  which  will  preserve  the  shape  and 
dimensions  of  the  model.  A  statue  ot 
plaster  of  Paris,  wood  sculpture,  an  im- 
press in  wax,  fruit,  and  similar  things, 
may,  after  certain  preiiaratious,  be 
covered  with  electro  -  deposits,  for  in- 
stance, which  will  give  a  deposit  ro|ire- 
senting  the  same  shape  and  dimensions. 
In  galvanoplastic  operations  copper  is 
almost  exclusively  employed.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  have  the  deposits  entirely  of 
silver  and  gold ;  but  these  are  excep- 
tions, on  account  of  the  cost  of  the  ma- 
terials and  of  the  diiliculties  of  the  ope- 
ration. The  following  is  a  summary  of 
the  usual  requirements; — 1.  To  ajiply 
upon  a  metallic  surface  conductor  of 
electricity,  a  deposit  of  copper  adheiing 
to  the  metal  underneath.  2.  The  above 
operation  being  completed,  the  two 
metals  must  be  separated  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  will  furnish  two 
identical  productions,  one  of  which  will 
be  in  relief,  and  the  other  hollow,  for 
casts  of  medals,  &c.  3.  To  apply  the 
electro-deposits  upon  substances  not  na- 
turally conductors  of  electricity,  but 
rendered  so  by  the  process  of  metalliza- 
tion ;  upon  ornaments  of  plaster  of 
Paris,  wax,  glass,  or  porcelain,  or  upon 
leaves,  fruits,  and  insects.  4.  After  the 
deposit  to  separate  the  non-metallic 
model  to  have  a  perfect  copper  copy  of 
it.  For  reproduction  of  type  in  stearine, 
gutta-percha,  gelatine.  5.  Or,  if  it  is 
impossible  to  apply  the  electro-deposit 
of  co]>per  directly  upon  the  model,  make 
moulds  upon  which  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  copies  may  be  obtained. 
This  is  the  general  case  ; — The  im]innt  of 
the  model  is  taken  with  a  plastic  sub- 
stance, which  IS  rendered  a  conductor  of 
electricity,  and  upon  which  the  galvano- 
plastic deposit  is  etiected. 

The  Baths.  —  I.  Put  into  a  vessel, 
made  of  glass,  stoneware,  porcelain, 
gutta-percha,  or  lead,  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  water,  to  which  is  added  from  8 
to   10  per  cent,  of  sulchuric  acid.      If 


224 


W^ORKSHOP    llECEIPt^. 


in  a  glass  vessel,  or  one  lined  with 
gutta-percha,  poui-  iu  the  acid  slowly 
aud  stir  all  the  time,  otherwise  the  acid, 
which  is  much  denser  than  water,  falls 
to  the  bottom,  and  slowly  combining  with 
the  surrounding  water,  may  cause  an  in- 
crease of  temperature  sulficieut  to  break 
the  glass  or  melt  the  gutta-iicrcha.  2. 
Dissolve  iu  tliis  liquor  as  mucii  sulphate 
of  cojijier  as  it  will  absorb  at  the  ordinary 
temperature.  Stir  frequently  with  a  glass 
or  wooden  rod,  to  mix  the  solution;  or 
the  sul|)h:ite  of  coi)per  may  be  put  into  a 
perforated  ladle  of  copper  or  stoneware,  or 
into  a  bag  of  cloth,  fixed  near  the  surface 
of  the  li'iuid.  Wlien  the  liquid  refuses 
to  absorb  any  mure  crystals,  it  is  satu- 
rated, an  1  marks  about  2.")^  of  Daumc's 
hydrometer,  iiaths  of  sulphate  of  cop- 
per, while  they  are  working,  must  always 
be  kei)t  saturated;  new  sulphate  of  cop- 
per must  be  introduced  to  rei)]ace  that 
decomposed  and  forming  the  metallic  de- 
posit ;  for  this  purpose  suspend  to  the  top 
iif  the  vessel,  and  in  the  upper  portion  of 
the  liquid,  bags  always  filled  with  crys- 
tals of  sulphate  of  copper.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  use  good  sulphate  of  copper;  the 
best  is  in  crystals,  semi-transparent,  and 
of  a  fine  blue  colour.  Its  solution  is  also 
a  pure  blue.  These  baths  are  always 
used  cold,  and  are  kept  in  vessels  of 
shapes  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  ope- 
rator. Stoneware,  porcelain,  and  glass  are 
■the  best  materials  for  the  purpose;  but 
us  it  IS  dillicult  to  find  vessels  sulliciently 
large,  wooden  troughs  covered  inside  with 
coats  of  gutta-percha,  marine  glue,  or 
with  a  sheet  of  lead,  are  used,  painted 
with  resist  varnish. 

J'eposits  hi/  •Separate  Duttcrics. — After 
pro[)er  preliminary  operations,  the  object 
which  is  to  receive  the  deposit  is  con- 
ntctcd  witli  the  conducting  wire  iitfached 
lo  the  negative  pole  of  the  battery,  zinc 
ifcuerally,  and  immersed  in  the  soiutiim  ; 
:iiid  tiie  conducting  wire  starting  from 
the  po>itive  pole,  carbon  or  cojijier,  is  at- 
tached to  a  foil  or  plate  of  cojiper,  and 
this  anocje  is  placeil  iH  Mic  liquor  parallel 
lo  the  object  connected  with  the  other 
pole.  This  ]ilatc  shouhl  have  a  surface  at 
le;i«t  equal  to  that  of  the  article  to  be 
aivrred.     The  deposit  will  begin   imme- 


diately, and  its  progress  may  be  seen  by 
removing  the  object  from  the  solution. 
If  upon  a  clean  metallic  substance,  the 
deposit  of  copper  will  be  instantaneous  oi' 
every  part  of  it ;  if,  on  tlie  contrary,  th<e 
surface  only  moderately  conducts  the 
electricity,  as  plumbago  or  graphite,  the 
deposits  will  begin  at  the  points  touched  by 
the  conducting  wire,  and  then  proceevi 
forward.  With  a  little  practice  it  is  eas) 
to  ascertain  whether  the  intensity  of  the 
current  corresponds  to  the  surfaces  to  be 
covered.  The  operation  will  be  slow  with 
a  weak  c.^'rent,  but  there  is  no  other 
inconvenience,  unless  the  substance  of  the 
mould  is  alterable,  like  gelatine.  Too  in- 
tense a  current  results  in  a  granular  ile- 
posit,  of  which  the  [larticles  have  little 
cohesion  between  themselves,  and  no  ad- 
herence to  the  mould. 

Simple  Apparatus  for  Atnatcurs. — 
Place  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper 
in  a  stoneware,  earthenware,  or  porcelain 
vessel,  iu  the  centre  of  which  stand  a 
porous  cell  filled  with  water  with  2  or  o 
jier  cent,  of  sidpliuric  acid,  and  1  ])er 
cent,  of  amalgamating  salts.  This  liquid 
must  surround  an  inner  cylinder  of  zinc, 
upon  the  top  of  which  rests  a  circle  o/ 
brass  wire,  by  two  crossed  bars  soldered, 
or  fixed  iu  four  notches  on  the  top  of  the 
zinc  cylinder.  Suspend  from  this  circular 
framework,  projecting  over  the  cojqier 
s(dution,  a  certain  number  of  objects  oi 
moulds,  immersed  in  the  licjuid  in  such  a 
way  as  to  have  their  faces  to  be  covei'ed 
near  and  opposite  to  the  cell.  Two  small 
hair  bags  filled  with  sulphate  of  cojiper 
crystals,  sliould  be  attached  to  the  upjjcr 
edge  of  the  vessel. 

Larjc  Apparatus. — To  cover  large  sur- 
faces, use  a  bath  contained  in  a  large 
wooden  trough,  lined  inside  with  gutta- 
percha, or  lead,  or  other  substance  un- 
acted iipou  by  the  bath.  In  the  middle 
of  the  trough  disjiose  a  row  of  cells  close 
to  each  other,  and  each  with  its  zii:. 
cylinder.  Connect  a  thin  metallic  ribbon 
with  all  the  bimliug  screws  of  the  cylin- 
ders, iu  contact  at  its  extremities  with 
two  metallic  bands  on  the  ledges  of  the 
trough.  The  metallic  rods  to  support  thi' 
moulds  are  ]]laceil  in  contact  with  the 
metallic  bands  of  the  ledges,  and  thi,re- 


Workshop  receipi's. 


225 


i'ore  in  connection  with  the  zincs.  If  the 
objects  are  in  high  relief,  use  a  circuhir 
trough,  place  the  cells  in  a  circle,  and  the 
mould  to  be  covered  in  the  centre.  What- 
ever the  shape  of  the  mould,  its  position 
should  now  and  then  be  changed,  because 
the  lower  layers  of  the  bath  give  more 
abundant  deposits,  owing  to  the  difference 
of  specific  gravity  of  the  layers  more  or 
less  charged  with  sulphate.  As  far  as 
practicable,  maintain  the  liquids  in  the 
bath  and  in  the  cells  at  the  same  level ; 
or  it  is  better  lo  have  that  of  the  bath 
slightly  above  that  of  the  cell,  to  prevent 
the  solution  of  zinc  from  mixing  with  the 
copper  bath. 

Porous  Cells. — Pipeclay,  pasteboard, 
bladder,gold-beater's  skin,  and  parchment, 
sail-cloth,  and  certain  kinds  of  wood  may 
be  employed,  but  nothing  equals  porcelain 
clay,  submitted  to  a  certain  heat,  which 
hardens  the  paste  without  destroying  its 
porosity.  Vases  made  with  this  material 
are  just  porous  enough,  and  resist  the 
action  of  concentrated  acids. 

Batteries. — The  battery,  charged  as 
has  been  described,  will  work  well  for  24 
hours ;  and,  for  four  consecutive  days,  it 
will  only  be  necessary  to  add  small  quan- 
tities of  acid  and  amalgamating  salt,  in 
proportion  to  the  volume  of  the  cells. 
Stir  the  mixture  each  time  with  a  glass 
rod.  The  fifth  day,  throw  away  all  the 
exciting  liquors,  and  substitute  fresh  ones, 
otherwise  the  zinc  salt  will  be  so  abund- 
ant f.s  to  crystallize  upon  the  zincs  and 
the  cells.  A  cell  may  be  clogged  in  two 
ways, — by  the  sulphate  of  zinc  which 
liaving  an  insufficiency  of  water,  crystal- 
lizes in  the  pores.  In  this  case  boil  the 
cells  in  water  acidulated  by  sulphuric 
acid.  Or  by  deposits  of  copper  caused  by 
bad  working  ;  dip  the  cells  in  aquafortis 
imtil  all  the  copiier  is  dissolved,  and  rinse 
in  plenty  of  water  afterwards.  It  is  also 
possible  to  clean  cells  by  keeping  them 
filled  with  water,  which,  escaping  through 
the  pores,  pushes  out  the  salts  and  the 
acids  with  which  they  are  clogged.  Cast 
zmc  will  work,  but  is  far  inferior  to 
laminated  zinc,  which  will  be  uniformly 
corroded  instead  of  being  perforated.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  zinc  is  scarcely 
attacked,  even  by  concentrated  liquors, 


and  that  a  multitude  of  small  cavities  arr 
engraved  on  its  surface.  It  also  becomes 
covered  with  a  blackish-grey  crust,  and 
no  electricity  is  disengaged.  These  in- 
conveniences occur  when  the  z  no  is  too 
rich  in  lead. 

Amalgamating  Salt. — ^To  avoid  the  so- 
lution of  the  zinc  when  the  apparatus  is 
not  at  work,  cleanse  it  in  diluted  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  then  amalgamate  it  by 
rolling  the  cylinders  in  a  trough  fillcii 
with  mercury. 

Acid  Baths. — When  a  bath  contains  too 
weak  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  the 
electro-deposit  is  pulverulent,  black  and 
irregular.  The  same  inconvenience  occurs 
when  the  liquors  become  too  acid,  be- 
cause then  they  do  not  dissolve  enough  of 
sulphate  of  copper.  When  the  bath  is  too 
acid,  add  carbonate  of  copper  to  it  until 
effervescence  no  longer  takes  place.  The 
bath  should  then  be  acidified  anew  to  in- 
creaje  its  conducting  power.  The  car- 
bonate of  copper  may  be  replaced  by  the 
oxide  of  the  metal,  which  dissolves  without 
effervescence.  If,  after  very  long  use,  a 
bath  becomes  overloaded  with  free  acid 
and  sulphate  of  zinc,  there  is  no  remedy 
but  to  start  a  fresh  one. 

Placing  the  Pieces  in  the  Bath. — The 
depth  of  the  bath  should  be  sutficieut  to 
have  a  little  liquor  above  and  below  the 
moulds.  If  the  moulds  are  lighter  than 
the  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  sink 
them  with  lead  pieces  covered  with 
varnish,  with  stones,  or  other  non-con- 
ductors of  electricity.  When  the  object 
to  be  covered  is  metallic,  and  unacted 
upon  by  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  cop- 
per, attach  the  conducting  wire  to  any 
part  of  its  surface,  and  it  will  be  rapidly 
covered  with  a  uniform  deposit ;  if  the 
mould  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity, 
and  has  been  covered  with  some  conduct- 
ing substance,  such  as  plumbago,  bronze 
powder,  or  reduced  silver,  multiply  the 
points  of  contact,  as  much  as  pa-acticable, 
of  the  electrode,  by  uniting  the  connect- 
ing wire  with  a  number  of  fine  copper 
wires,  and  making  their  bent  extremities 
touch  the  mould  at  various  places.  Thi« 
method  gives  a  greater  rapidity  of  opera- 
tion, and  a  uniform  thickness  of  de- 
posit.     It   is    especially   necessary    for 


226 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


moulds  having  deeply  indented  surfaces. 
As  soon  as  the  surface  is  entirely  covered 
remove  the  supplementary  wires.  If 
only  one  face  of  the  mould  is  to  receive 
the  deposit  protect  the  other  surfaces  by 
a  resist  varnish,  melted  yellow  wax,  or 
softened  gutta-percha. 

Adhesive  Deposits  upon  Metals. — 
Metals  are  unequally  qualified  to  receive 
the  galvanoplastic  deposit ;  and  some  are 
naturally  unfit  for  it.  For  instance, 
wrought  and  cast  iron,  steel,  and  zinc, 
as  soon  as  immersed  in  the  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  and  without  the  aid 
of  electricity,  decompose  the  salt,  and  are 
coated  with  a  muddy  precipitate  of  cop- 
per without  adlierence.  It  is  necessary 
to  give  them  previously  a  thick  coat  of 
copper  in  the  bath  of  double  salts  before 
submitting  them  to  the  action  of  the  sul- 
phate of  copper.  Tin,  although  present- 
ing these  inconveniences  in  a  much  less 
degree,  should  also  be  copper  electro- 
plated in  the  solutions  of  double  salts 
before  going  into  the  bath.  When  the 
metal  to  be  covered  is  unacted  upon  by 
tiie  bath,  cleanse  it  well,  and  submit  it 
to  the  action  of  the  current,  which  will 
give  a  rapid  and  uniform  deposit;  this 
should  not  be  too  thick,  otherwise  the 
surfaces  may  have  a  coarse  ajjpearanco, 
which  imi)airs  tiie  fineness  of  the  Hues  of 
the  mould.  With  a  good  bath,  and  a  well- 
regulated  electric  current,  tiie  delicacy  of 
the  pattern  will  not  be  <lefaced  by  a  copper 
coat  having  the  thickness  of  stout  writing 
paper.  A  brigiit  lustre  may  be  obtained 
by  scratch-brushing  or  burnishing;  or 
by  a  passage  througli  a([uufortiK  and 
soot,  and  aftei'wards  through  the  com- 
pound acids  for  a  bright  lustre. 

Dead  Lustre  Gilding  by  Galvanoplastic 
Deposit. — Adhering  galvanoplastic  de- 
posits give  a  very  cliea])  and  handsome 
gilding  with  a  dead  lustre,  which, 
although  not  equal  in  duraiiility,  has  tlio 
apjiearance  of  that  obtained  with  mer- 
cury, ali'eady  descriVjcd.  Having  cleansed 
the  mould  if  metallic,  or  rendered  it  a 
conductor  if  non-metallic,  immerse  it  in 
the  solution  of  suljihate  of  copjier,  and 
allow  the  dcjiosit  to  acquire  a  dead  lusfi-e 
((lightly  in  excfss  of  that  di'sired.  After 
tins   ojicration,  which   may  last  from   2 


to  6  hours,  remove  the  article  from  the 
bath,  rinse  it  in  plenty  of  water,  and  pass 
it  rapidly  through  the  comjiound  acids 
for  a  bright  lustre,  which  diminish  the 
previous  dulness  of  the  appearance.  Next 
rinse  in  fresh  water ;  steep  in  a  mercurial 
solution  similar  to  that  employed  for 
gilding  by  dipping ;  rinse  again ;  and 
immerse  in  an  electro-gilding  bath  made 
of; — Distilled  water,  2i  galls.;  phos- 
phate of  soda,  21  oz.  ;  bisulphite  of 
soda,  3A  oz. ;  cyanide  of  potassium, 
•|  of  an  ounce ;  gold,  for  neutral 
chloride,  A  of  an  ounce.  At  first,  the 
current  is  rendered  sufficiently  intense 
by  dipping  the  platinum  anode  in  deejily  ; 
afterwards  the  intensity  is  diminislied  by 
partly  withdrawing  the  annde  until  the 
entire  shade  of  gold  is  obtained.  This 
gilding  requires  but  little  gold,  as  the 
frosty  dead  lustre  comes  from  the  cop}>er. 
When  the  lustre  of  the  co])per  is  very  fine 
and  velvety,  dis]iense  with  the  dipping 
into  the  compound  acids,  but  the  rajud 
passage  through  the  mei'curial  solution 
is  always  desirable.  If  the  deposited  gold 
is  not  uniform,  or  appears  cloudy,  it  is 
proof  of  an  imjierfect  deposit  in  the  bath, 
or  of  an  insullicient  steejiing  in  the  com- 
jiound  acids.  The  piece  should  tiien  be 
removed  from  the  bath,  washed  in  a  te])id 
solution  of  cyanide  of  ])otassium,  rinsed 
in  fresh  water,  dipped  in  the  solution  of 
nitrate  of  binoxide  of  mercury,  and 
electro-gilded  anew.  This  gilding  bears 
burnishing  well  ;  avoid  acid  waters  and 
soap,  which  will  produce  a  red  ])oIish, 
and  use  only  the  fresh  solutions  of  lin- 
seed, or  of  marsli-mallow  root.  The  tone 
of  gold  thus  obtained  is  richer,  deepei-, 
and  more  durable  than  that  produced 
ujion  frosted  silver,  the  lattei  being  re- 
cognized by  the  green  colour  of  the  bur- 
nished )ia)-ts.  Tills  kind  of  de]iosit  may 
be  employed  for  binding  substances  to- 
gether, because  the  covering  coat  will  be 
continuous. 

Galvanoplastic  Deposits  without  Adhe- 
sion.— After  thoroughly  cleaning  the 
pattern,  rub  it  with  a  brush  charged 
with  plumbago,  or  with  a  soft  brush 
slightly  greased  by  a  tallow  candle. 
The  film  of  fatty  substance  should  not 
lie  seen    at    all.     The    deposit    obtainod 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


227 


represents  an  inverted  image  of  the 
pattern,  and  the  raised  parts  become 
hollow.  Remove  the  mould,  and  per- 
form the  same  operation  upon  the  de- 
posit, and  this  second  deposit  is  the 
accurate  reproduction  of  the  first  pat- 
tern. 

Deposits  upon  Non-metallic  Sub- 
stances.— By  this  process  porcelain, 
crystal,  plaster  of  Paris,  wood,  flowers, 
fruits,  animals,  and  the  most  delicate 
insects  may  be  coated.  These  substances 
have  no  conductive  power  for  electricity ; 
it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  metallize 
them. 

Metallization. — This  coat  should  be  so 
thin  as  not  to  alter  the  shape  or  the 
minutest  parts  of  the  model. 

Plumbago,  or  graphite,  is  generally 
preferred,  and  in  most  cases  its  conduct- 
ing power  is  suflicieut ;  and  it  may  be 
ipl)lied  in  films  thin  enough  not  to 
impair  the  sharpness  of  the  mould.  The 
plumbago  found  in  the  trade  is  rarely 
pure.  Remove  the  impurities  by  di- 
gesting for  24  hours  a  paste  made  of 
plumbago  and  water,  with  hydrochloric 
acid.  Several  washings  with  water,  and 
slow  drying  in  a  stove,  finish  the  opera- 
tion. If  the  plumbago  is  in  large  lumjis, 
it  should  be  powdered  and  passed  through 
a  silk  sieve.  The  conducting  power  of 
tliis  substance  is  sullicient  when  the 
surfaces  are  not  deeply  indented  ;  but 
tiie  mould  should  be  rough  enough  for 
the  plumbago  to  stick  to  it. 

Gilt  Plumbago  has  a  conducting  power 
much  greater  than  that  of  the  ordinary 
substance.  Prepare  as  follow; — In  Ij 
jiint  of  sulphuric  ether  dissolve  \  of  an 
ounce  of  chloride  o^  gold,  and  thoroughly 
mingle  with  it  from  18  to  20  oz.  of  good 
jilumbago.  Then  pour  into  a  shallow 
porcelain  vessel,  and  expose  to  the  action 
of  air  and  light.  After  a  few  hours 
the  ether  completely  volatilizes  ;  stir  the 
powder  now  and  then  with  a  glass  spa- 
tula.    Finish  the  drying  in  a  stove. 

Silvered  Plumbago. — Dissolve  3  oz.  of 
crystallized  nitrate  of  silver  in  3  pints  of 
distilled  water;  mix  this  solution  with 
2  lbs.  of  good  plumbago.  Dry  in  a  por- 
celain aisn,  and  then  calcine  at  a  red 
heat  in  a  covered  crucible.     After  cool- 


ing, powder  and  sift.  Plumbago  thus 
metallized  conducts  electricity  nearly  as 
well  as  a  metal,  although  it  is  very 
expensive.  Bronze  powder  mixed  with 
plumbago  is  also  used. 

Rendering  Moulds  Impervious  to  Li- 
quids.— Porous  substances,  before  being 
coated  with  plumbago,  are  submitted  to 
a  previous  operation,  to  render  them 
impervious,  by  covering  them  with  a 
coat  of  varnish,  or  by  saturating  them 
with  wax,  tallow,  or  stearine.  For  in- 
stance, with  a  plaster  cast,  cut  a  groove 
on  the  rim  of  the  mould,  place  in  it  a 
brass  wire,  twist  the  ends,  which  must 
be  long  enough  to  hold  the  cast  by.  The 
cast,  having  been  previously  dried,  is 
then  dipped  into  a  bath  of  stearine  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  from  180°  to  212^ 
Fahr.,  and  a  number  of  bubbles  of  air  will 
escape  from  the  mould  to  the  surface. 
When  the  production  of  air-bubbles  is 
considerably  diminished,  remove  the  cast 
from  the  bath.  When  the  cast  is  tepid, 
cover  it  with  powdered  plumbago,  and 
let  it  get  quite  cold.  Then,  after  breath- 
ing upon  it,  rub  thoroughly  with  a  brush 
covered  with  plumbago  ;  and  be  careful 
that  the  surfaces  are  completely  black 
and  bright,  without  grey  or  whitish 
spots.  When  the  mould  is  very  under- 
cut, it  is  difficult  to  employ  plumbago. 
In  such  cases  metallize  the  whole,  or  the 
deep  parts  only,  by  the  wet  way.  Soft 
brushes  should  not  be  used  for  rubbing 
plumbago.  When  the  substances  to  be 
metallized  are  not  porous,  such  as  glass, 
porcelain,  stoneware,  horn,  and  ivory, 
cover  them  with  a  thin  coat  of  varnish, 
which,  when  nearly  dry,  receives  the 
plumbago. 

Metallization  of  Ceramic  Articles. — 
After  having  varnished  the  portions  of 
the  piece  to  be  cojipered,  cover  them 
with  very  finely  laminated  foils  of  lead, 
which  bend  to  all  desired  shapes;  then 
connect  a  brass  conducting  wire  with 
the  lead,  and  dip  the  whole  into  the 
bath  ;  copper  is  immediately  deposited 
upon  the  metallic  parts.  Thus  glass 
vases  may  be  entirely  covered  with 
copper,  upon  which  deposit  layers  of 
gold  or  silver.  The  chaser  may  pene- 
trate with  his  tool  to  different  depths, 

Q  2 


228 


Workshop  receipts. 


and  uncover  one  after  the  other,  first 
the  layer  of  silver,  next  that  of  copper. 
Bad  at  last  the  crystal  itself.  The 
vase  will  ajipear  as  if  set  in  a  net  of 
various  colours.  For  very  fiue  work, 
tlie  gold  oruament  first  jtaintod  with  the 
jienci),  and  fixed  in  the  usual  manner  by 
heating  in  a  muille,  is  jmt  in  contact 
with  a  very  thin  conducting  wire,  and 
the  whole  immersed  in  a  copper,  silver, 
or  gold  bath,  where  the  deposit  takes 
place  in  the  same  manner  as  upon  an 
ordinary  metal,  and  the  adherence  is  as 
perfect  as  that  of  tjie  film  of  gold  upon 
the  porcelain.  The  deposit  is  afterwards 
polished,  chased,  or  ornamented  on  the 
lathe. 

Metallization  by  the  Wet  Way. — Silver, 
gold,  anil  platinum,  reduced  from  their 
solutions,  have  an  excellent  conducting 
power.  Silver  is  generally  preferred, 
and  its  nitrate  is  dissolved  in  certain 
liijuids,  variable  with  the  substances  to 
be  covered.  Apply  the  solution  with  a 
pencil  upon  the  mould,  and  let  it  dry ; 
ri']ieat  the  ojieratiun  two  or  three  times. 
Lastly,  expose  the  mould  to  the  action  of 
the  sunlight,  or  of  hydrogen,  or  fix  it  to 
the  top  of  a  box  which  closes  hcinieti- 
cally,  and  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  a 
porcelain  dish  holding  a  small  quantity 
of  a  concentrated  solution  of  phos])horus 
in  bisuljihide  of  carbon.  After  a  few 
hours  this  solution  completely  evapo- 
rates, and  reduces  to  the  metallic  state 
the  nitr.ite  of  silver  covering  the  mould, 
which  becomes  black,  and  is  then  ready 
for  the  bath.  When  used  to  metallize 
wood,  porcelain,  and  other  resisting  sub- 
stances, dissolve  1  part  of  nitrate  of 
silver  in  20  parts  of  distilled  water. 
With  faffy  or  resinous  materials,  which 
water  will  not  wet,  use  aiiua  ammonia. 
With  very  delicate  articles,  which  will 
not  bear  a  long  manipulation,  make  the 
solution  in  alcohol,  which  evaporates 
raj'idly.  Concentrated  alcohol  dissolves 
nitrate  of  silver  l/ut  slightly;  but  enough 
will  be  clissolved  for  metallizing  llowers, 
leaves,  and  similar  arli(des.  it'  the  'olu- 
tion  is  aideil  by  grinding  in  a  mortar. 
If  the  conilucting  wire  is  (ixe<l  to  the 
mould  before  the  metallization,  the  wire 
iiriHt  be  of  gold,  silver,  or  jdatinnm,  a." 


the  other  metals  rapidly  decompose  the 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver;  but  brass 
and  copper  wires  may  be  employed  when 
the  metallization  is  completed,  after  the 
reduction  by  jihosphorus. 

Snlution  of  Phosphorus  in  Bisulphidi 
of  Carbon. — Half  fill  a  glass  stoppered 
bottle  with  a  large  neck  with  bisulphide 
of  carbon,  then  gradually  introduce  the 
phosphorus  gently  dried  with  blotting 
paper,  and  shake  the  bottle  now  and 
then.  Phosphorus  is  added  until  no 
more  dissolves.  This  preparation  re- 
quires great  care  in  the  handling,  because 
in  drying  upon  combustible  materials  it 
takes  fire  s])ontaneously. 

Plaster  of  Paris  Moulds. — After  the 
original  model,  say  a  medal,  has  been 
thoroughly  rubbed  with  soap  or  plum- 
bago, wrap  round  the  rim  a  piece  of 
stout  paper,  or  thin  lead  foil,  and  bind  it 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  article  to  be 
copied,  face  upwanls,  is  at  the  bottom  of 
the  box  thus  formed.  Then  iu  a  vessel 
filled  with  a  sulficient  quantity  of  water, 
sprinkle  fine  jilaster  of  Paris  until  the 
last  portions  reach  the  level  of  the  water. 
Al'ter  waiting  for  one  or  two  minutes, 
stir,  and  the  tliin  resulting  ]iaste  must 
be  em]>loyed  immediately.  With  a  pain- 
ter's brush  give  a  thin  coat  of  this  paste, 
and  jiress  into  all  the  recesses;  this  is  to 
expel  the  air;  then  )iour  the  remainder 
of  the  paste  up  to  a  iiro|ter  height,  ami 
allow  it  to  set.  After  a  hv/  minutes 
the  plaster  hardens,  and  may  be  sei>a- 
rated  from  the  paper.  Scra])e  olF  what 
has  run  between  the  pa])er  and  the  rira 
of  the  me.ial,  and  the  plaster  cast  will 
separate  from  the  model.  Plaster  of 
Paris  moulds  c;mnot  be  introduced  into 
the  bath  without  having  been  previously 
rendered  ini]iervious. 

Moulding  vith  Slcaritic  and  Wax. — 
Stearine  is  melted  and  poured  upon  the 
model  when  it  is  going  to  set.  When 
stearine  is  too  new  or  dry,  it  crystallizes; 
in  cooling,  and  this  iiiqiairs  the  beauty 
of  the  cast.  In  such  case  it  should  be 
mixed  with  a  few  drops  of  olive  oil,  or 
with  tallow,  or  stiet ;  if  it  is  made  too 
fat,  it  will  remain  soft  and  dilFicult  to 
8ej)arate  from  the  mould.  It  should 
then  be  mixed  with  virgin  wax  or  sper- 


WOllKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


229 


m.iceti.  As  steanne  contracts  consider- 
ably by  cooling,  its  employment  must  be 
avoided  when  the  copies  are  required  to 
be  perfectly  accurate.  When  it  is  de- 
sired to  make  a  cast  with  stearine  of  a 
plaster  model,  the  latter  should  be 
thoroughly  saturated  with  water  or 
stearine  beforehand,  and  should  also  be 
]>erfectly  coated  with  plumbago  before 
the  melted  substance  is  poured  upon  it, 
otherwise  the  two  will  stick  together, 
and  it  will  not  be  possible  to  separate 
the  cast  from  the  model.  Wax  may 
also  be  employed  in  the  same  manner, 
but  its  price  and  want  of  hardness  inter- 
fere with  its  ai)plication. 

Moulding  with  Fusible  Metal. — This 
metal  is  a  perfect  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity, and  therefore  well  adapted  to 
the  production  of  homogeneous  deposits 
ol'  equal  thickness ;  it  is,  however,  seldom 
employed,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
the  operation,  of  its  crystalline  textui-e, 
and  of  the  presence  of  air-bubbles. 
1.  Pure  lead,  2  parts  in  weight;  tin,  3  ; 
bismuth,  5  ;  fusible  at  212°  Fahr.  2.  Pure 
lead,  5  parts  in  weight ;  tin,  3  ;  bismuth, 
B;  fusible  from  180°  to  190°  Fahr.  3. 
Pure  lead,  2  parts  in  weight ;  tin,  3  ;  bis- 
muth, 5;  mercury,  1;  fusible atl58°  Fahr. 
4.  Pure  lead,  5  parts  in  weight  ;  tin,  3 ; 
bismuth,  5  ;  mercury,  2;  fusible  at  125° 
Fahr.  For  those  alloys  without  mercury, 
thn  component  metals  may  be  melted 
together ;  when  mercury  is  employed,  it 
should  be  added  when  the  three  other 
melted  metals  have  been  removed  from 
the  fire.  To  obtain  a  thorough  mi.xture 
the  alloy  should  be  stirred  with  an  iron 
rod,  or  melted  over  and  cast  several 
times.  1.  Run  the  metal  into  a  small 
dish,  remove  the  oxide  with  a  card,  and 
then  apply  the  model,  give  it  a  few  taps 
wlien  the  setting  takes  place  ;  or  put 
the  model  into  the  dish,  and  pour  the 
clean  alloy  upon  it.  2.  Put  the  medal 
at  the  bottom  of  a  small  box  of  iron  or 
copper,  and  bury  half  of  its  thickness  in 
plaster  of  Paris  ;  then,  cover  the  medal 
with  the  cold  fusible  alloy,  and  apply 
heat  until  it  is  melted,  when  it  is 
allowed  to  cool  off.  It  is  easy  to  sepa- 
rate the  medal  from  the  fusible  alloy,  as 
t.'XJ  portion  protected  by  the  plaster  of 


Paris  may  then  be  grasped.  A  well-madfi 
cast  of  fusible  alloy  is  the  best  mould  for 
galvanojilastic  oj)erations  with  silver  and 
gold.  Alloys  containing  mercury  should 
not  be  used  for  taking  casts  from  metallic 
medals,  iron  excepted,  which  would  bo 
amalgamated  and  injured.  Cojiiier  de- 
posits obtained  upon  such  alloys  a;  e 
very  brittle.  Melted  sulphur  produces 
very  neat  and  sharp  casts ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, very  dilficult  to  get  it  metallized, 
and  it  transforms  the  dejiosit  of  copper 
into  sulphide. 

Moulding  with  Gelatine. — In  certain 
conditions,  the  elasticity  of  gelatine  and 
gutta-percha  allows  of  removing;  them 
from  undercut  or  highly-wrought  parts, 
and  they  reacquire  the  shape  and  position 
tliey  had  before  the  removal.  This  pro- 
perty is  found  in  gelatine  to  a  higher 
degree  than  in  gutta-percha,  but  it  re- 
quires a  very  ra]iid  deposit,  otherwise 
it  will  swell  and  be  partly  dissolved  by 
too  long  an  immersion  in  the  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper.  Put  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  colourless  plates  of  gelatine 
in  cold  water,  and  let  it  swell  there  for 
about  2-1  hours ;  then  drain  off  the 
water,  and  heat  the  gelatine  upon  a  water 
bath  until  it  has  become  of  a  syrupy 
consistency  ;  it  is  then  ready  to  be  poured 
upon  the  object,  which  must  be  encased 
in  a  box  of  pasteboard  or  of  thin  lead. 
After  cooling  for  about  12  hours,  sepa- 
rate the  cast  from  the  object.  To  enable 
Ihe  gelatine  to  remain  longer  in  the 
bath  without  alteration,  use  one  of  the 
following  mixtures  ; — 1.  Dissolve  the 
best  gelatine  in  hot  water,  and  adj 
■jLth  of  the  weiffht  of  trelatine  in  tannic 

5  1)  o  o 

acid  and  the  same  quantity  of  rock 
candy ;  then  mix  the  whole  thoroughly, 
and  pour  upon  the  model  in  its  box. 
After  a  few  hours  the  gelatine  may  be 
easily  separated  from  the  object,  2.  A 
mould  having  been  made  with  gelatme 
alone,  pour  on  it  a  solution  of  water  hold- 
ing 10  per  cent,  of  bichromate  of  potash, 
and  after  draining,  exjiose  the  mould  to 
the  action  of  the  sun.  3.  Beat,  in  2 
pints  of  dijtilled  water,  the  whites  of 
3  eggs,  filter,  and  cover  the  entire 
surface  of  the  gelatine  mould  with  this 
liquid.     After  drying,  operate  with   the 


2:30 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


solution  of  bichromate  of  potash,  as  in 
No.  2.  4.  Pour  some  varuish  upou  the 
gelatine  mould,  drain  carefully,  and  let  it 
dry.  The  best  varnish  for  the  purjiose  is 
a  solution  of  india-rubber  in  benzole,  or 
in  bisuliihide  of  carbon.  The  mould  must 
be  metallized,  and,  when  in  the  bath, 
submitted  to  a  galvanic  current  of  great 
intensity  at  the  beginning.  When  the 
entire  surface  is  covered  with  the  copper 
deposit,  and  swelling  is  no  longer  to  be 
I'eared,  the  intensity  may  be  reduced. 

Moulding  with  Gutta-percha. — Gutta- 
percha is  entirely  insoluble  in  water,  in 
weak  acids,  and  in  the  solution  of  sul- 
jihate  of  copper.  After  purification  in  boil- 
ing water,  jdates  of  various  thicknesses 
or  lumps  are  formed.  A  quantity  sulli- 
ciont  for  the  intended  mould  is  cut  and  put 
m  cold  water,  which  is  gradually  heated, 
until  it  is  soft  enough  to  be  kneaded  with 
the  fingers  like  dough.  After  having 
]iulled  the  gutta-percha  in  every  di- 
rection, the  edges  are  turned  in  so  as  to 
foi-m  a  kind  of  half  ball,  the  convex  and 
smooth  surface  of  which  is  then  ap]ilied 
upon  the  middle  of  tlie  model.  Then  the 
gutta-percha  is  spread  over  and  forced  to 
|)enetrate  the  details  of  the  object.  The 
kneading  is  continued  so  long  as  the  ma- 
terial remains  sutTiciently  sot't,  when  it 
IS  allowed  to  cool.  As  soon  as  it  is  luke- 
warm, the  gutta-percha  is  separated  from 
the  model,  and  dipped  into  cold  water, 
wlien  it  hardens,  and  may  thou  be 
handled  without  danger  of  impairing  its 
accuracy. 

Moulding  with  the  Press. — After  the 
<)l)ject  has  been  carefully  coated  wifii 
plumljago  01  tallow,  it  is  put  s(|uare  and 
(inn  upon  the  table  of  the  press,  and  sur- 
rounded with  a  ring  or  frame  of  iron, 
which  should  be  a  little  higher  than  the 
most  raised  parts  of  the  object.  A  piece 
of  gutta-percha  at  least  double  the  tliick- 
u/!ss  of  the  pattern,  is  cut  so  as  to  fill  the 
ring  or  frame  of  iron,  and  then  heated,  on 
one  of  its  faces  only,  before  a  bright  fire. 
Wlien  about  two-thirds  of  its  thickness 
have  been  softened,  it  is  to  be  placed, 
soft  portion  downwards,  in  the  iron  ring 
or  frame,  and  the  whole  covered  with  a 
block  of  metal  exactly  lilting.  The  screw 
to  the  press  is  made  to  act  slowly  at  (irst, 


but  with  gradually  increased  force,  a.s 
the  gutta-percha  becomes  harder  and 
more  resisting. 

Moulding  with  a  Counter-mould. — Cast 
a  thick  block  of  lead  upon  sand,  hollow 
out  apjiroximately  with  a  graver  tli* 
places  corresponding  to  the  reliefs  of  th»w 
pattern,  bearing  in  mind  the  desired 
thickness  of  the  gutta-percha.  Spread 
over  the  pattern  a  plate  of  gutta-percha 
of  the  same  thickness  all  through,  upon 
this  place  the  lead  block,  compress  by  the 
screw  press.  This  process  jjroduces  ex- 
cellent results. 

Moulding  in  the  Stove. — This  is  con- 
venient for  brittle  articles  of  plaster  of 
Paris,  m;irble,  or  alabaster.  The  pattern 
is  put  upon  a  dish  of  iron  or  earthen- 
ware, a  ball  of  gutta-percha  is  placed 
in  the  middle  of  the  object  to  be  moulded, 
and  the  whole  is  placed  in  a  stove,  whore 
the  temperature  is  just  sulKcient  to  melt 
the  gutta-percha,  which  softens  and 
penetrates  all  the  details ;  when  it  has 
sunk  comi)letely,  remove  it  from  the 
stove,  and  allow  to  cool  olf  until  it 
still  retains  sullicient  elasticity  to  be 
separated  from  the  pattern. 

Moulding  by  Hand. — The  foregoing 
process  does  not  suit  objects  which  will 
not  bear  the  heat  of  the  stove  ;  for  such 
articles  heat  the  gut ta-i)ercha  slowly  un- 
til it  becomes  a  semi-fluid  jiaste;  pour  a 
sullicient  quantity  of  it  upon  the  pattern 
previously  placed  in  an  iron  frame  or 
ring.  After  a  few  minutes,  knead  it, 
with  wet  or  oiled  fingers,  to  make  it 
])enetrate  all  the  details  of  the  pattern 
until  it  s(!arcely  yields  to  the  inessui-e. 
In  removing  the  mould  from  the  pat- 
tern, cut  olf  all  the  useless  ])arts  of 
the  gutta-jiercha,  and  especially  tho.sc 
which  may  have  jiassed  under  the  pattern 
and  bind  it.  Then  the  ju-oper  ]iosition 
and  shape  of  the  covered  ))attern  must  be 
asceitaiued, so  as  not  to  break  the  model, 
or  tear  the  gutta-percha.  In  moulding 
with  the  press,  gutta-percha  of  the  besit 
quality  is  generally  em])l(>yed.  For 
moulding  by  sinking  or  kneading,  gutta- 
percha should  be  mixed  with  certain 
substances  to  increr.i^e  its  fusibility,  such 
as  linseed  oil,  lanl,  tallow,  or  yellow  wax. 
Their  juoportious  should  uevei    be  ever 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


231 


one-third  of  the  total  weight.  The  mix- 
ture With  linseed  oil  is  made  by  heating 
in  a  kettle  1  part  of  linseed  oil,  and  when 
its  temperature  has  reached  from  190° 
to  212°  Fahr.,  add  gradually,  and  stir  in 
2  parts  of  gutta-percha  cut  into  small 
pieces.  When  the  whole  is  in  a  pasty 
form,  and  begins  to  swell  up  with  the 
production  of  thick  fumes,  remove  the 
kettle  from  the  fire,  and  throw  its  con- 
tents into  a  large  volume  of  cold  water, 
where,  without  loss  of  time,  the  paste 
must  be  wsU  kneaded.  While  still  hot, 
place  it  upon  a  slab  of  marble  or  stone ;  it 
may  afterwards  be  rolled  between  mid- 
dling warm  rollers.  Gutta-perclia  may 
be  used  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time. 
Models  of  plaster  of  Paris,  from  which 
moulds  of  fusible  metal  or  of  gelatine 
are  to  be  taken,  will  stand  the  operation 
much  better  if  they  have  been  hardened 
by  being  saturated  with  boiled  linseed 
oil,  to  which  a  certain  proportion  of  dryer 
has  been  added.  They  must  be  oiled 
again  just  before  pouring  the  gelatine 
over  them. 

Deposits  on  Undercut  Patterns  which 
are  Sacrificed. — A  cast  of  a  human  head 
in  plaster  of  Paris  may  be  rendered  im- 
pervious, and  then  metallized.  After  a 
deposit  of  copper  has  been  effected  on  its 
surface,  remove  the  plaster  by  boiling, 
and  breaking  it  through  the  opening  of 
the  neck.  The  copper  mould  thus  ob- 
jained,  after  being  slightly  greased  inside, 
serves  as  a  galvanoplastic  trough,  which 
is  to  be  filled  with  the  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  copper.  Suspend  bags  filled 
with  crystals  of  blue  vitriol  to  the  edges, 
and  with  a  separate  battery  and  soluble 
anode,  or  with  a  porous  cell  placed  inside 
the  mould,  which  is  connected  with  the 
zinc,  another  deposit  of  copper  takes  place 
in  the  cavity.  When  the  thickness  of 
the  metal  is  sufficient,  strip  off  the 
mould  or  first  deposit.  This  process  is 
expensive,  but  gives  sure  results  with 
large  patterns  having  Isrge  raised  parts. 
With  small  or  narrow,  or  very  crooked 
objects,  moulds  in  several  parts  must  be 
used,  although  the  searcj  require  mend- 
ing. 

Method  for  Articles  in  High  Relief  with 
Gutta-perch-n  Moulds. — If  it  is  required 


to  imitate  a  statue,  or  other  large  article, 
commence  by  making  with  gutta-peniha 
a  mould  in  several  pieces,  which,  by 
means  of  proper  marks,  may  be  united 
together,  and  form  a  perfect  hollow 
mould  of  the  pattern.  Cover  all  these 
parts  carefully  with  plumbago.  Slake 
a  skeleton  with  platinum  wires,  to  re- 
present the  outline  of  the  pattern ;  this 
must  be  smaller  than  the  mould,  as  it  has 
to  be  suspended  in  it  without  any  point 
of  contact.  The  skeleton  is  to  be  enclosed 
in  the  metallized  gutta-percha  mould, 
and  the  whole  immersed  in  the  galvano- 
plastic bath ;  connect  the  inner  surface  ol 
the  mould  with  the  negative  pole  of  the 
battery,  and  the  skeleton,  which  should 
have  no  point  of  contact  with  the  metal- 
lized surface  of  the  mould,  of  platinum 
wires  with  the  positive  pole  ;  this  decom- 
poses the  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper, 
which  must  be  placed  in  the  mould. 
When  the  deposit  has  reached  the  proper 
thickness,  remove  the  gutta  -  percha 
mould,  inside  which  will  be  found  the 
statue,  which  may  be  finished  at  a  very 
small  expense.  Lead  wires  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  platinum,  they  are 
cheaper,  and  may  easily  be  removed, 
when  done  with,  by  melting.  But  the 
execution  of  the  process  is  not  easy,  as  it 
is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  that  the 
skeleton  anode  is  nowhere  in  contact  with 
the  enclosing  mould ;  to  avoid  such  con- 
tact, wrap  all  the  external  parts  of  the 
platinum  anode  with  a  spiral  of  india- 
rubber  thread.  As  the  increase  of  the 
deposit  of  copper  reduces  the  distance 
between  the  mould  and  the  anode,  the 
latter  and  th<'  deposit  may  come  in  con- 
tact, and  stop  the  operation  without  any 
exterior  sign  to  attract  attention.  Thus, 
if  in  a  trough  holding  many  moulds,  one 
point  of  contact  were  established  between 
the  two  poles,  mould  and  skeleton,  all 
the  electricity  of  the  battery  would  es- 
cape at  that  place,  and  the  working  of 
the  bath  would  stop  entirely.  To  obri- 
ate  this  inconvenience,  support  all  the 
moulds  of  the  same  bath  by  hooks  sus- 
pended to  a  metallic  rod.  These  hooks 
must  have  no  contact  with  the  metal- 
lized surfaces  of  the  moulds,  which  must 
be  connected  wi*h  the  negative  pole  by 


232 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


metallic  wires  terminated  above  the 
liquid  by  very  fine  iron  wires.  The  con- 
necting wires  of  the  skeleton  anode  are 
to  pass  through  the  same  opening  as  the 
negative  electrodes,  but  without  contact, 
and  are  united  to  the  positive  pole.  So 
long  as  there  is  no  contact  between  the 
skeleton  and  the  interior  of  the  mould, 
the  electric  fluid  finds  sufficient  passage 
through  the  several  fine  iron  wires  which 
connect  the  moulds  with  the  battery  ; 
but,  if  any  contact  takes  place,  the  whole 
of  the  electricity  rushes  to  that  point, 
and,  being  too  abundant  for  the  small 
iron  wire,  it  heats  and  burns  it  out  ra- 
pidly. The  work  is  thus  instantaneously 
stopped  for  this  mould,  and  continues  for 
the  others ;  and  the  broken  wire  shows 
where  the  defect  is.  The  iron  wire 
should  be  very  short,  so  as  to  burn  ra- 
pidly. In  closed  moulds  and  with  an  in- 
soluble platinum  anode,  the  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper  will  be  rapidly  trans- 
formed into  sulphuric  acid  and  water. 
Therefore  make  two  holes  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  mould,  through  which  and 
the  opening  at  the  head  left  for  the  pas- 
sage of  the  electrode  a  free  circulation 
of  the  liquor  in  the  bath  may  take  place. 
When  the  operation  is  completed,  re- 
move the  gutta-percha  mould,  and  the 
skeleton  anode  must  be  pulled  out.  Close 
the  three  holes  in  the  statue,  and  file  otf 
the  seams  left  at  the  junction  of  the  dif- 
ferent jtarts  of  the  mould. 

FiUiwj  the  IIullow  Deposit  with  Brass 
Solder. — First  cover  the  exterior  with 
clay,  jjlaster  of  Paris,  or  Spanish  white 
mixed  with  charcoal  dust,  and  dry  in  a 
stove-roum.  This  coat  is  to  prevent  the 
copper  deposit  from  losing  its  shape  and 
being  oxidized  by  the  heat.  The  interior 
of  tlie  article  is  then  to  be  filled  with  the 
boftcst  brass  solder,  and  powdered  borax, 
which  are  melted  by  a  gas  or  turpentine 
blowpipe.  All  the  hollow  j)arts  are  soon 
filled  with  the  solder,  wliich  imjtarts  to 
them  as  much  firmness  and  durability  as 
18  to  be  found  in  cast  articles. 

liernoving  the  Mould. — With  a  metallic 
mould,  after  having  removed  the  useless 
|>ortioiis  of  the  deposits,  pass  a  card  or  a 
blade  of  ivory  between  the  model  au(l  flic 
d"po»it.     The  operation  is  the  same  with 


moulds  of  plaster  of  Paris,  porcelain, 
marble,  glass,  or  wood ;  but  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  save  a  plaster  mould  which  has 
been  in  the  bath,  and  which  is  nearly  al- 
ways sacrificed.  Moulds  of  wax,  stearine, 
fusible  metal,  gelatine,  or  gutta-percha 
are  softened  in  boiling  water,  and  their 
separation  presents  no  difficulty  what- 
ever. 

Finishing  up  the  Articles. — Tiie  articles 
when  separated  from  the  moulds  ai"e  ge- 
nerally spotted  with  plumbago,  grease, 
or  other  substances  from  the  moulds.  It 
is  usual  to  heat  them,  so  as  to  burn  out 
the  impurities,  and  to  cleanse  them  by 
immersion  in  a  pickle  of  diluted  sulphu- 
ric acid.  Tlie  heating  renders  the  cop- 
per deposit  softer  aud  more  malleable; 
but  It  may  result  in  injury  to  the  minute 
details  aud  the  fineness  of  the  copy. 
Tlierefore,  for  delicate  works,  it  is  pre- 
ferable to  clean  with  alcohol,  turpentine, 
or  benzole,  and  to  rub  the  surface  with 
a  stiff  brush ;  finish  with  a  paste  ot 
Spanish  white  in  water,  which  let  dry 
upon  the  object  before  it  is  wiped  out. 
Should  any  Spanish  white  remain  in  the 
hollows,  it  may  be  dissolved  in  water 
holding  one-tenth  of  its  volume  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  which  does  not  corrode  the 
coitper.  Complete  the  operation  by  rins- 
ing in  fresh  water,  aud  drying  in  saw- 
dust or  otherwise.  When  it  is  desired  to 
anneal  the  articles  without  injury  to 
their  surface,  plunge  them  into  boiling 
colza  or  linseed  oil,  or  simi>ly  grease, 
which  will  bear  a  heat  sufficient  i'or  an- 
nealing, aud  will  prevent  the  oxiiliziug 
action  of  the  air.  This  annealing  iu 
fatty  substances  is  to  be  recommended  in 
the  case  of  higiily  undercut  moulds  of 
gutta-percha,  which  may  have  left  part 
of  tiicir  substance  iu  the  deep  recesses  of 
the  copy.  The  gutta-jjercha  is  first 
softened,  and  then  dissolved  in  the  fatty 
material. 

Gai.vanoplastic  Operations  with 
Gold  or  Silver. — The  processes  are 
more  difficult  and  less  effective  than 
those  for  cojiper.  In  the  case  of  uon-cou- 
ducting  aud  deeply- wrought  moulds, 
after  haviug  deposited  by  tlie  ordinary 
process  a  thin  coating  of  copjier,  the 
whole  is  plunged   into  the  silver  bath, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


233 


B-hich  then  works  very  well.  After  the 
separation  of  the  copy  from  the  mould, 
allow  it  to  rest  in  a  solution  of  ammonia 
or  of  very  dilute  nitric  acid,  which,  after 
a  time  dissolves  the  copper,  and  leaves 
the  silver  deposit.  This  reproduction 
must  be  imperfect,  as  there  is,  between 
the  mould  and  the  precious  metal,  an 
intermediate  layer  of  copper  of  unequal 
thickness.  When  the  surfaces  ai-e  but 
sliglitly  in  relief,  employ  moulds  of  lead, 
tin,  or  fusible  metal,  upon  which  silver 
or  gold  will  deposit  well  and  without 
adherence.  Lead  is  preferable  to  the 
other  metals,  esjiecially  when  the  mould 
may  be  obtained  by  j^i'esiure.  Cover 
the  pattern  with  a  very  tliin  foil  of 
lead  larger  than  the  object,  the  gutta- 
percha is  applied  upon  it,  and  pressed, 
is  before  explained.  The  lead  foil,  with- 
out being  torn,  will  follow  all  the  details 
of  the  i>attern,  and  may  be  separated 
afterwards  with  the  gutta-percha  which 
it  has  metallized.  Instead  of  lead,  silver 
or  gold  foils  may  be  used,  and  are  so  thin 
that  the  seams  disappear  by  simple  pres- 
sure. A  somewhat  thick  sheet  of  very 
pure  lead  may  be  employed  for  taking 
moulds  of  engravings  upon  copper  or  steel. 
The  lead  and  the  engraved  plate  are  to 
be  passed  between  rollers,  or  simjjly 
pressed  under  a  screw  press. 

Baths  for  Silver  and  Gold. — The  bath 
for  silver  is  composed  of  distilled  water, 
If  pint ;  cyanide  of  potassium,  7  oz. ; 
nitrate  of  silver,  fused,  2 J  oz.  The  gold 
bath  is  made  ol' distilled  water,  2  piuts  ; 
:;yanide  of  potassium,  6  oz.;  neutral 
chloride  of  gold,  2  oz.  In  this  case,  the 
weight  of  the  chloride  of  gold,  and  not 
that  of  the  metal  employed  for  its  pre- 
paration. These  baths  generally  work 
with  separate  batteries,  and  with  anodes 
of  the  metal  used  in  the  solution,  or  the 
porous  cells  and  zincs  may  be  put  into 
the  bath  itself,  provided  that  the  exciting 
liquor  be  a  more  or  less  concentrated 
solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  The 
zincs  must  not  be  amalgamated,  unless 
in  separate  batteries.  Green  gold  is  ob- 
tained by  mixing  10  parts  of  gold  bath 
with  1  of  silver  bath,  or  by  employing 
for  a  time  a  silver  anode  in  the  gold  solu- 
tion.    The  deposits  of  gold  and  silver, 


after  their  separation  from  the  mould, 
should  be  heated  and  scratch-brushed  ; 
and  a  proper  shade  may  be  given  to  them 
by  a  short  sojourn  in  ordinary  electro- 
gilding  or  silvering  baths. 

Galvanic  Etching. — The  most  simple 
process  consists  in  covering  entirely  a 
copper  plate,  with  an  insulating  varnish, 
which  is  not  acted  upon  by  the  bath,  and 
then  in  tracing  the  drawing  with  a 
graver,  which  must  penetrate  through 
the  coat  of  varnish,  and  expose  the  cop- 
per. By  using  this  plate  as  the  soluble 
auode  of  a  bath  of  sulphate  of  copper,  and 
suspending  another  copper  plate  at  the 
negative  pole,  the  latter  will  receive  the 
deposit,  whereas  the  former  will  become 
hollow  at  the  places  uncovered  by  the 
graver.  The  engraving  produced  will 
only  need  a  slight  finishing  up.  Instead 
of  using  varnish  as  an  insulating  mate- 
rial, a  metallic  film,  which  cannot  be  dis- 
solved in  the  bath,  may  be  used.  If  the 
copper  plate  is  strongly  gilt  with  the  bat- 
tery, the  gilt  portions  will  remain  en- 
tirely unacted  upon,  as  the  acid  of  the 
sulphate  of  copper  does  not  dissolve  gold. 
It  is  equally  easy  to  produce  a  drawing  in 
relief,  by  making  the  drawing  with  some 
insulating  material  like  varnish  or  a 
lithographic  pencil.  The  uncovered  por- 
tions around  the  lines  of  the  drawing  will 
become  hollow,  and  the  image  will  be  in 
relief.  The  baths  employed  generally 
hold  in  solution  the  same  metal  as  that 
to  be  engraved  ;  thus,  baths  of  sulphate 
of  copper  are  used  for  etching  copper 
plates,  solutions  of  sulphate  of  zinc  foi 
zinc  plates,  and  gold  or  silver  baths  for 
the  corresponding  metals.  Copper  and 
zinc  plates  m.-y  be  engraved  by  the  bat- 
tery, in  a  simple  bath  of  water  with  a 
little  sulphuric,  acetic,  or  nitric  acid. 
Upon  a  varnished  plate  of  copper,  a 
drawing  is  traced ;  this  plate  is  dipped 
into  a  weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  binox- 
ide  of  mercury,  and  then  set  perfectly 
level.  By  covering  it  with  metallic  mer- 
cury, this  becomes  fixed  upon  the  lines 
traced  y  the  graver,  and  all  the  draw- 
ing is  reproduced  in  relief  by  the  mer- 
cury. Cover  the  plate  with  a  thin  paste 
of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  when  the  lattci 
has  set  the  two  moulds  are  separated. 


231 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


and  the  mercury  still  adheres  to  the  cop- 
per. Tlie  plaster  mould  may  be  treated 
either  for  getting  a  counter-mould  from 
it,  or  for  directly  obtaining  a  galvano- 
plastic  deposit  after  its  metallization. 
2.  The  co}>per  plate  is  varnished  as 
above,  and  witli  the  graving  tool  the 
parts  which  will  produce  the  blacks  of 
the  engraving  are  uncovered.  A  solu- 
tion of  neutral  protochloride  of  zinc  is 
poured  upon  the  plate,  and  a  quantity 
of  fusible  metal,  fusible  at  from  190°  to 
2r2°,  is  melted  by  means  of  an  alcohol 
lamp  moved  about  under  the  copper 
plate.  The  same  result  is  obtained  as 
with  the  mercury,  except  that  the 
mould  may  be  immediately  reproduced 
by  galvanoplastic  methods. 

Composition  for  Rendering  the 
Decomposing  Baths  Impervious. — A 
well-joined  and  screwed,  or  bolted,  oak 
bath  will  last  from  12  to  15  years,  if 
coated  with  a  mixture  composed  of; — 
Burgundy  pitch,  6  parts;  gutta-percha, 
old  and  cut  into  small  pieces,  1  ;  finely- 
powdered  pumice-stone,  3.  Melt  the 
gutta-percha,  and  mix  it,  by  kneading, 
with  the  pumice-stone,  then  add  the 
Burgundy  pitch.  When  these  three  sub- 
stances are  thoroughly  mixed  and  in 
the  liquid  state,  several  coats  must  be 
spread  over  the  inside  of  the  trough. 
The  angles  and  corners  require  a  greater 
proportion  of  material,  which  is  run  in 
by  means  of  an  iron  ladle.  These  various 
coats  are  at  first  coar.ie  and  irregular;  an 
even  surface  is  obtained  by  a  heated  flat- 
iron  and  a  soldering  iron  for  the  angles. 
The  heat  increases  the  adherence  and 
the  penetration  of  tho  wood.  The  exte- 
rior of  the  trough  and  the  iron  jiarts 
are  varnished,  either  with  a  fat  varnish 
nr  the  residuum  of  some  turpentine 
varnish.  A  trough  thus  ])repared  will 
resist  galvanoplastic  baths  at  28° 
Baumd,  composed  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
Kulphate  of  copjier,  and  even  pure  nitric 
or  sulphuric  acid,  provided  that  neither 
«(■  these  latter  remain  long  in  it;  but  it 
will  not  stand  the  eyani<lcs. 

Dei'OBIT.s  to  Imitate  Mosaic  Work. 
— (!ut  an  open  pattern  ujton  a  sheet  of 
copper,  upread  it  even  uj)on  another  me- 
tallic plate,  and  dip   the  whole   into  a 


bath  of  silver  or  gold,  the  empty  spaces 
will  be  filled  with  the  new  metals ;  or  a 
pattern  may  be  hollowed  out  with  a 
graver  from  a  plate  of  ivory  or  mother- 
of-pearl,  and  the  whole  metallized  and 
immersed  in  the  galvanoplastic  bath. 
When  the  whole  surface  is  covered  with 
the  metallic  deposit,  grind  and  polish  it 
until  the  reliefs  of  ivory  or  mother-of- 
pearl  reappear,  and  the  metal  will  form 
the  relief. 

Bronze,  for  Medai5. — ^This  opera- 
tion IS  to  give  to  new  metallic  objects  the 
ap})earance  of  old  ones,  by  imitating  -le 
characteristic  appearance  imparted  by 
age  and  atmospheric  influences  to  the 
metals  or  metallic  compounds,  and  espe- 
cially to  copper  and  its  alloys.  1.  The 
most  simple  bronze  is  obtained  by  ap- 
plying upon  the  cleansed  object  a  thin 
paste  made  of  water  with  equal  parts  of 
plumbago  and  peroxide  of  iron,  with  a 
certain  proportion  of  clay.  Then  heat 
the  whole,  and  when  the  object  is  quite 
cold,  brush  in  every  direction  for  a  long 
time  with  a  middling  stitf  bi'ush,  which 
is  frequently  rubbed  upon  a  block  ot 
yellow  wax,  and  afterwards  upon  the 
mixture  of  plumbago  and  peroxide  ot 
iron.  This  process  gives  a  very  bright 
red  bronze,  suitable  for  medals  kept  in 
a  show  case.  2.  This  bronze  may  also 
be  produced  by  dipping  the  article  into 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  jtcrchloride 
and  nitrate  of  sesquioxide  of  iron,  and 
heating  until  these  salts  are  quite  dry. 
Then  rub  with  the  waxed  brush  as  de- 
scribed. 3.  Cleanse  the  article,  and 
cover  it  with  hydrosulphate  of  ammo- 
nia, which  allow  to  dry,  then  brush 
with  peroxide  of  iron  and  plumbago, 
and  afterwanis  with  the  waxed  brush. 
If  the  piece  imi)rcgnatod  with  hydro- 
sul|iliate  of  ammonia  is  gently  heated  a 
black  bronze  is  obtained,  which  being 
uncovered  at  certain  places  produceR  a 
good  eflcct. 

Bronze  for  Zinc.  —  The  zinc  to  Ic 
bronzed  must  receive  an  electro-depouit 
of  brass,  which  is  then  dipped  into  n 
weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  cojijier  for 
a  red  tinge.  When  dry,  wet  with  a  rag 
di[)ped  into  nydrosul|)liate  of  ammonia, 
or  a  solution  of  polysulphide  of  potas- 


■\VORKSUOP   RECEIPTS. 


235 


xium,  or  protochloride  of  copper  dis- 
solved in  hydrochloric  acid.  After  ano- 
ther drying,  the  surface  is  brushed  over 
with  a  mixture  of  peroxide  of  iron  and 
pi  imbago,  according  to  the  tint  desired. 
The  brush  may  be  slightly  wetted  with 
essence  of  turpentine,  which  aids  the 
adhesion  of  the  powders.  The  raised 
parts  are  strongly  rubbed  to  uncover 
the  brass.  Afterv/ards  give  a  coat  of 
colourless  varnish. 

Antique  Bronze. — Dissolve  in  20  parts 
by  weight  of  ordinary  strong  vinegar 
3  parts  of  carbonate  or  hydrochlorate  of 
ammonia,  and  1  each  of  common  salt, 
cream  of  tartar,  and  acetate  of  copper, 
and  add  some  water.  When  an  inti- 
mate mixture  has  been  obtained,  smear 
the  copper  object  with  it,  and  let  it  dry 
at  the  ordinary  temperature  for  nearly 
48  nours.  After  that  time  the  object 
is  entirely  covered  with  verdigris  of 
various  tinges.  Then  brush  the  whole, 
and  especially  the  reliefs,  with  the 
waxed  brush.  If  necessary,  the  raised 
parts  are  set  off  with  chrome  yellow,  or 
other  suitable  colours.  Light  touches 
with  ammonia  give  a  blue  shade  to  the 
green  portions,  and  carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia deepens  the  colour  of  the  parts  on 
which  it  is  laid. 

Black  Bronze. — A  steel  bronze  is  ob- 
tained by  wetting  the  copper  articles 
with  a  diluted  solution  of  chloride  of 
platinum,  and  slightly  heating.  This 
bronze  will  sometimes  scale  off  by  fric- 
tion. It  may  also  be  obtained  by  dip- 
ping the  cleansed  copper  into  a  weak 
warm  solution  of  chloride  of  antimony 
in  hydrochloric  acid.  But  sometimes 
the  colour  is  violet  instead  of  black. 

Br-onze  Powders.  —  Bronze  powders 
made  of  impalpable  brass  are  applidl 
upon  metals  to  imitate  bronze,  and 
also  upon  articles  of  plaster  of  Paris, 
and  ceramic  wares.  After  the  object 
has  been  cleaned,  it  receives  a  thin 
coat  of  fatty  drying  varnish,  which 
is  all  wed  to  become  nearly  dry.  The 
bronze  powder  is  then  laid  on  with  a 
brush,  and  adheres  strongly.  After 
drying,  cover  it  with  a  coat  of  trans- 
parent colourless  varnish.  This  process 
15  only  suited  to  large  pieces  which  are 


imperfectly  finished,  and  will  not  do  for 
reproductions  intended  to  respect  the 
small  details. 

Acetate  of  Copper,  Neutral. — It 
is  found  in  the  trade  either  in  dark  green 
crystals,  or  as  a  bright  green  powder 
soluble  in  water,  which  becomes  green; 
very  soluble  in  ammonia,  and  the  solu- 
tion is  of  a  sky-blue  colour  ;  it  is  used 
for  preparing  electi'o-baths  of  copper  and 
brass  ;  manufactured  with  copper  cor- 
roded by  fermenting  grape-mash,  and  by 
other  processes. 

Acetate,  or  Sugar,  of  Lead.— 
This  is  usually  in  masses  form-ed  of  needle- 
like crystals  ;  white ;  light,  although 
having  lead  for  its  base;  very  soluble. 
Obtained  by  dissolving  litharge  or  pro- 
toxide of  lead  in  an  excess  of  vinegar  or 
acetic  acid.  Its  solution  forms,  with 
caustic  potash  or  soda,  a  white  precipi- 
tate wlrich  is  soluble  in  an  excess  of 
alkali,  and  then  constitutes  the  bath  for 
coloured  rings. 

Acetic  Acid. — It  is  more  or  less 
concentrated  and  pui-e,  according  to  the 
mode  of  manufacture.  Wood  vinegar 
or  pyroligneous  acid  is  emjijoyed  in 
large  quantities,  and  is  colourless  or 
more  or  less  yellow.  It  often  possesses 
an  empyreumatic  smell,  and  generally 
marks  8°  of  the  hydrometer  for  acids. 
Wine  vinegar  is  more  or  less  coloured,  and 
may  be  concentrated.  Crystallizable 
acetic  acid  is  obtained  by  the  distillation 
of  perfectly  dry  acetate  of  soda,  or  ace- 
tate of  lead,  with  concentrated  suljiluiric 
acid.  The  vapours  are  condensed  in  a 
glass  receiver,  which  should  be  sur- 
rounded by  ice,  sometimes  mixed  with 
common  salt. 

Nitrous  and  Hyponitric 
Acids. — These  two  acids  are  of  an 
orange-yellow  colour,  more  or  less  deep, 
and  are  always  produced  by  the  action  of 
nitric  acid  upon  a  metal.  The  smell  is  flat 
and  nauseous, and  it  is  dangerous  to  inhale 
much  of  these  gases.  They  colour  aqua- 
fortis yellow,  and  also  impart  a  greenish 
tinge  to  metallic  solutions,  those  of  silver 
for  instance,  which  may  appear  as  hold- 
ing copper.  This  colouration  disappears 
by  heating,  which  it  will  not  do  if  copper 
be  present.     They  are  abundantly  pro 


23  G 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


duceJ  during  the  cleansing  of  copper  and 
its  allo_vs  lu  aquafortis. 

Nitric  Acid. — Called  also  aqua- 
fortis or  si)irit  of  nitric.  It  is  bought  at 
40°  Baume,  colourless  or  dark  yej'ow  , 
and  at  3(3°  Baume,  colourless  or  more  or 
less  deep  yellow.  This  colouration  is 
generally  due  to  the  ]ireseuce  of  nitrous 
gases,  and  is  perfectly  satisfactory  for 
cleansing  copper;  but  it  sometimes  re- 
sults from  the  presence  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  thus  forming  aqua  regia,  or,  what  is 
vorse,  of  iodine,  bromine,  or  chlorine, 
!.nd  then  the  cleansing  processes  with  it 
are  unsuccessful.  Pure  nitric  acid  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  the  preparation  of 
nitrate  of  silver.  The  jireseuce  of  chlo- 
rine, hydrochloric  acid,  or  suljdiuric 
acid  will  transform  a  part  of  the  metal 
into  insoluble,  or  scarcely  soluble,  com- 
pounds. A  pure  nitric  acid  is  obtained  ; 
— 1.  By  distilling  in  a  large  glass  retort 
the  commercial  article,  and  collecting 
the  product  only  when  it  no  longer  pro- 
duces a  precipitate  or  turbidity  in  a  soiu- 
tion  of  nitrate  of  silver.  The  distillate  is 
then  collected  into  a  glass  receiver  and 
cooled  with  fresh  water  or  ice.  The 
operation  is  terminated  when  about  five- 
sixths  have  been  distilled,  otherwise  the 
sulphuric  acid  will  also  \y,\ss  over.  2. 
By  precii)itating  with  nitrate  of  silver 
and  nitrate  of  baryta,  the  hydrochloric 
and  sulphuric  acids  of  commercial  aqua- 
fortis, and  then  distilling  the  whole 
nearly  to  dryness.  Tho  residuum  in  the 
retort  is  composed  of  sul|iliatc  of  baryta, 
chloride  of  silver,  and  the  excess  of  tlie 
nitrates  of  these  two  bases.  3.  By  dis- 
tilling in  a  glass  retort  a  mixture  of  lUO 
parts  of  ]iure  nitrate  of  potash  with  GO  of 
[lure  concentrated  sulpiiuric  acid  and  40 
of  distilled  water.  The  lie,;t  is  gradually 
raised,  and  sto])pcd  when,  after  having 
disapjjcared,  tiie  yidhnv  vapours  riMji- 
pear.  The  acid  thus  obtained  is  sliglitly 
yellow,  and  is  blcaclicd,  by  heating  it  to 
near  the  boiling  point. 

Boracic  Acid  is  obtained  in  the 
form  of  scales  by  decomposing,  with  a 
jiowerful  acid,  a  concentrated  and  boil- 
ing solution  of  borax;  the  boracic  acid 
i-rystallizcs  by  cooling.  It  is  used  for 
making  platinum  adhere,  by  the  heat  of 


a  muffle,  to  ceramic  wares  ;  thus  causing 
the  metallization  of  surfaces  which  wer» 
not  naturally  conducting.  It  is  also  em- 
ployed for  increasing  the  whiteness  ot 
Oliver  alloys,  and  for  the  decomposition 
of  the  subsalts  deposited  in  electro-laths 
containing  cyanide  of  potassium. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid,  or  Prussia 
Acid. — Diluted  hydrocyanic  acid  is 
colourless,  although  it  is  often  coloured 
by  a  small  proportion  of  Prussian  blue, 
which  does  not  change  its  properties, 
with  a  bitter  taste,  and  the  characteristic 
smell  of  bitter  almonds  or  jjcach-treo 
flowers,  although  less  aromatic,  more 
jiungcnt  and  dek'terious.  It  is  prepared 
by  introducing  into  a  large  retort  fixed 
to  a  receiver,  which  is  cooled  by  ice,  24  ' 
lbs.  of  the  double  cyanide  of  iron  aud 
potassium,  yellow  prussiate  of  potash, 
1}  pint  of  wafer,  and  3^  lbs.  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid 
and  water  should  be  mixed  beforehand 
and  allowed  to  cool.  The  distillation  is 
effected  in  a  sand  bath,  and  the  condensed 
liquid  is  clear  and  colourless.  The  o]iera- 
tion  must  be  stopjied  when  the  substances 
in  the  retort  begin  to  swell  up,  other- 
wise a  certain  ]iroi)ortiou  of  cyanide  of 
iron  and  sulphate  ol'  potash  will  pass  into 
the  receiver.  Avoid  inhaling  the  vapour 
produced  during  this  prejjaration.  Hy- 
drocyanic acid  may  also  be  obtained  by 
jiassiug  a  stream  of  washed  suli)huretted 
hydrogen  through  a  tall  glass  vessel  hold- 
ing water  and  cyanide  of  mercury.  The 
latter  com]iouiid  is  transformed  into  the 
iasoiuble  suljihide  of  mercury,  whereas 
the  hydrocyanic  acid  remains  in  solut  ion. 
After  filtering,  the  liquor  is  gently- 
heated  in  order  to  expel  the  remaining 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  is  more 
volatile  than  hydrocyanic  acid.  This 
method  is  not  so  simple  as  the  jireccding 
one,  and  is  open  to  tlie  inconvenience  ot 
often  having  the  acid  contaminated  with 
undecom posed  cyanide  of  mercury  or  sul- 
I)huretted  hydrogen.  Hydrocyanic  acid 
is  em])i)ycd  for  maintaining  the  metal 
strength  of  gold  dipping  balhs  with  p)'- 
ro-phosphates,  and  for  decomposing  the 
alkaline  carbonates  formed  in  baths  with 
cyanide  of  potassium. 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  Spirit  of 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


237 


Salt- — During  the  preparation  of  this 
acid,  it  is  gaseous,  and  emits  abundant 
and  thick  fumes  in  contact  with  the 
air.  Water,  at  the  temperature  of 
70°  Fahr.,  dissolves  460  times  its  own 
A'olume  of  this  acid.  This  solution  is 
always  employed  in  the  arts,  and  is 
generally  contaminated  with  sulphur- 
ous and  sulphuric  acids,  and  by  per- 
chloride  of  iron,  imparting  a  yellow 
colour  to  it.  It  is  employed  for  pre- 
paring the  chlorides  of  certain  metals, 
for  mstance  that  of  zinc;  it  enters  into 
the  comjiosition  of  aqua  regia  ;  and  the 
common  salt,  added  to  certain  cleansing 
acids,  is  intended  to  form  a  small  quan- 
tity of  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  prepared 
by  introducing  common  salt  into  a  glass 
balloon,  and  an  excess  of  commercial 
sulphuric  acid.  A  gentle  heat  is  gra- 
dually applied,  and  the  gas  is  collected 
and  dissolved  in  a  series  of  tubulated 
bottles.  These  receivers  should  be  con- 
stantly cooled  by  a  stream  of  water  or  by 
ice,  because  the  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture caused  by  the  combination  of  the 
water  and  acid,  would  prevent  the  liquid 
from  becoming  thoroughly  saturated. 
The  first  liottle  contains  but  little  water, 
and  is  intended  to  arrest  the  impurities 
mechanically  carried  by  the  gas.  The 
gl.iss  balloon,  after  the  operation,  con- 
tains acid  sulphate  of  soda. 

Hydrofluoric  Acid. — Hydrofluo- 
ric acid  is  prej)ared  by  decomposing  in 
a  lead  retort  a  paste  of  fluoride  of  cal- 
cium and  sulphuric  acid.  The  various 
joints  of  the  retort  are  carefully  luted 
with  clay  or  plaster  of  Paris,  and  the 
receiver  is  a  bent  tube  of  lead  plunged 
into  a  mixture  of  3  parts  of  broken  ice, 
and  2  of  common  salt,  or  more  simply, 
into  ice  alone.  The  end  of  the  receiver 
is  perforated  with  a  small  hole,  in  order 
to  aid  the  condensation  by  a  small  pres- 
sure. A  gentle  heat  is  applied  at  the 
b-ittom  of  the  retort.  This  acid  must 
be  kept  in  lead  bottles  which  are  but 
slightly  acted  upon,  or  in  platinum  ves- 
sels, upon  which  it  has  no  action  what- 
ever; gutta-percha  bottles  have  been  sub- 
stituted fur  the  metallic  ones,  and  appear 
to  stand  the  acid  well  when  it  is  not  too 
concentrated.     Avoid  any  contact  with 


the  vapours  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  other- 
wise after  a  few  hours  the  skin  will  be 
covered  with  painful  blisters. 

Stearic  Acid. — This  acid  is  white, 
and  more  or  less  greasy  to  the  touch  ;  it 
melts  at  a  temperature  from  140°  to 
150°  Fahr.  into  a  clear  liquid,  which 
again  solidifies  by  cooling.  It  is  this 
property  which  renders  stearic  acid 
valuable  for  taking  casts.  If  too  greasy 
it  will  stick  to  the  pattern,  and  espe- 
cially to  plaster  of  Fans  coated  with 
plumbago ;  in  this  case  it  should  be 
mixed  with  a  certain  proportion  of  wax 
or  spermaceti.  When  too  dry  it  con- 
tracts considerably  by  cooling,  often 
breaks,  and  the  galvanoplastic  deposits 
have  a  crystalline  surface.  This  defect 
IS  corrected  by  tallow  or  olive  oil. 

Hydrosulphuric  Acid. — Gene- 
rally in  the  gaseous  form,  but  mav  be 
dissolved  in  water,  which  absorbs  two  or 
three  times  its  own  volume  of  it  at  the 
ordinary  tem}ierature,  and  then  acquires 
the  same  properties  as  the  gas  itself. 
Hydrosulphuric  acid  is  obtained  by  the 
reaction  of  hydrochloric  acid,  or  diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  upon  many  sulphides, 
such  as  those  of  antimony,  iron,  barium, 
or  strontium.  The  gas  is  collected 
under  receivers  filled  with  mercury,  or 
IS  dissolved  in  an  apparatus  such  as  that 
described  in  the  manufacture  of  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  distilled  water  em- 
ployed should  be  deprived  of  air  bv 
boiling,  otherwise  the  solution  will  be 
milky  from  the  partial  decomposition  of 
the  acid.  Be  careful  not  to  bring  in  con- 
tact with  this  gas  metallic  salts,  gilt  or 
silvered  articles,  or  even  pure  gold  and 
silver,  which  are  rapidly  blackened  by  it. 

Tannic  Acid. — This  acid  is  gene- 
rally prejiared  by  digesting  powdered 
gall-nuts,  at  a  temperature  of  about 
90°  Fahr.,  in  commercial  ether,  and  in 
closed  vessels.  After  about  eight  days 
the  settled  liquid,  which  is  quite  syrupy, 
is  decanted  and  spread  ujion  many 
dishes,  which  are  put  into  a  stove  T!ie 
ether  is  evaporated,  and  the  nearly  juire 
tannic  acid  remains  in  uncrystalli/.ed 
scales,  which  are  light,  thin,  yellowish, 
and  with  the  lustre  of  mother-of-pearl. 
It   is  purified   by   solution    in    boiling 


238 


W5SKSH0P   RECEIPTS. 


watei^  which,  by  cooling,  allows  it  to 
deposit  in  tlie  shape  of  needle-like  crys- 
tals. Tannic  acid  possesses  the  singular 
property  of  rendering  insoluble  certain 
gums,  gluten,  and  gelatine  especially, 
the  latter  being  transformed  into  a  kind 
of  leather  which  will  not  putrefy. 

Gold  Amalgam. — Amalgam  is 
the  name  given  to  alloys  of  metals  with 
mercury,  but  the  latter  must  absolutely 
be  one  of  tiie  component  parts.  Whatever 
be  the  proportions  of  gold  and  mercury 
put  together,  an  amalgam  is  always 
formed  ;  but  there  are  certain  propor- 
tions which  are  more  or  less  favour- 
able for  oiitaiuing  a  certain  result.  The 
gold  amalgam  for  gilding  by  stirring 
should  be  more  fluid,  and  therefore  con- 
tain more  mercury,  than  that  prepared 
for  gilding  by  (ire  for  a  dead  lustre,  or 
i'ur  ormolu.  The  lattei-  should  be  of  the 
consistency  of  hard  cold  butter,  a  little 
rough  to  the  touch,  and  with  a  crystal- 
line texture  which  causes  the  production 
of  a  noise  when  the  amalgam  is  pressed 
between  the  fingers.  That  for  gilding  by 
stirring  should  be  of  the  consistency  of 
honey  and  quite  soft.  An  amalgam  is 
generally  prep;ired  by  heating  distilled 
mercury  to  a  tem])erature  of  about  U90° 
F.,  and  adding  to  it  foils  or  ribbons  of 
gold,  which  readily  incorporate.  The 
whole  is  then  thrown  into  cold  water.  It' 
the  proportion  of  mercury  has  been  too 
great,  the  amalgam  may  be  heated  over 
the  fii-e,  until  part  of  the  mercury  is  vo- 
latilized, and  the  proper  consistency  is 
reached.  Should  the  amalgam  be  too 
hard,  an  addition  of  mercury  will  soon 
mix  with  the  mass.  When  an  amalgam 
is  heated  at  a  dull  I'cd  heat,  all  the  mer- 
cury IS  volatilized,  and  the  gold  remains 
in  the  form  of  a  spongy  and  crumbling 
inaM.s. 

Ammonia. — Ammonia  is  obtaineil 
by  treating  any  kind  of  ammoniacal  salt 
by  a  fixed  alkali.  Sul|'bate  or  hydro- 
chlorate  of  ammonia  i.s  generally  cm- 
jiloyed,  and  is  heated  in  a  .stoneware  re- 
tort with  slaked  limn.  The  gas  jiroduccd 
is  received  either  undei'  glass  bells  or 
tubes  filled  with  mercury,  if  we  desire  to 
keep  it  in  the  gaseous  slate  ;  or  is  dis- 
Bolvcil  in  the  water  coutained   in  lubu- 


lated  bottles  if  its  solution  is  desired. 
After  the  operation  there  remains  in  the 
retort  sulphate  of  lime  or  chloride  of 
calcium.  Ammonia  is  employed  for  aid- 
ing the  solution  of  the  copper  salts  enter- 
ing into  the  composition  of  the  baths  for 
electro-deposits  of  copper  or  brass,  for 
ageing  freshly-made  silver  baths,  for  pre- 
cipitating gold  ammonium  from  the  chlo- 
ride of  gold,  ami  for  dissolving  the  film 
of  copper  deposited  at  the  beginning  ot 
galvanoplastic  operations  with  silver,  &c. 
Silver. —  The  silver  found  in  the 
trade,  even  under  the  name  of  virgin 
silver,  retains  traces  of  cojjper.  Silver 
is  ]iurilied  by  several  mcthot'.s; — 1.  The 
impui'e  metal  is  dissolved  by  nitric  acid, 
and  the  solution  being  largely  diluted 
with  water,  add  to  it  an  excess  of  a  fil- 
tered solution  of  common  salt.  Aa 
abundant  white  precipitate  of  chloride 
of  silver  is  produced,  which  rapidly  set- 
tles to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  All  tlie 
silver  salt  is  decomposed  when  the  clear 
liquid  is  not  rendered  turbid  by  a  furtiier 
addition  of  common  salt.  The  chloride 
of  silver  is  collected,  and  washed  several 
times,  until  the  liquors  are  no  longer 
coloured  brown  by  yellow  prussiate  of 
jiotassa.  This  is  the  proof  that  all  the 
co]iper  has  been  washed  out.  Tiie  washed 
chloride  of  silver  is  mixed  with  two  or 
three  times  its  own  weight  of  carbonate 
of  soda,  dried,  and  melted  in  a  crucible. 
After  cooling,  the  metal  is  found  in  a 
conical  button  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible.  To  granulate  it,  the  molten 
silver  is  ))oured  IVom  a  certain  height, 
about  .3  ft.,  into  a  lai'ge  volume  of  water. 
2.  The  alloy  of  copjier  and  silver  is  dis- 
.solved  in  nitric  acid,  and  the  solution 
evaporated  until  the  salts  fuse.  After 
cooling,  the  fused  mass  is  gradually 
thrown  into  a  red-hot  crucible,  when  the 
nitric  acid  oseap('s,  leaving  behind  tiii? 
silver  in  the  metallic  state,  and  the  cop- 
per as  oxide.  The  separation  of  the  two 
takes  place  naturally,  and  is  aided  by  the 
addition  of  dry  borax,  which  dissolves 
th(.'  oxide  of  copper.  Silver  is  easily  di.s- 
solvecl  in  )iure  nitric  actid,  but  not  so 
rapidly  in  uue  contaminated  by  chlorine 
or  hydrochloric  acid,  which  jiroduces  a 
coat  of  chloride  of  silver   around    the 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


239 


metal,  and  therefore  forms  an  obstacle  to 
its  solution.  Salphuric  acid  also  com- 
bines with  silver,  and  the  resulting  salt 
is  but  slightly  soluble.  Pure  silver  is 
employed  for  the  preparation  of  the 
nitrate  and  other  silver  salts,  and  for 
soluble  anode  in  silver  baths. 

Nitrate  of  Silver,  or  Lunar 
Cavistic. — This  salt  is  found  in  the 
trade  under  three  forms ;  either  as  crys- 
tallized  nitrate  of  silver  in  thin  trans- 
jiai'ent  plates  ;  or  in  amorphous,  opaque 
white  plates  of  fused  nitrate  ;  or  in  small 
cylinders,  which  are  white,  or  grey,  or 
blacic,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
mould  employad,  and  constitute  the  lunar 
caustic  for  surgical  uses.  The  crystal- 
lized nitrate  of  silver  still  retains  a  small 
proportion  of  nitric  acid  and  water  ;  the 
white  fused  one  is  pure  when  it  has  not 
been  fraudulently  adulterated  by  nitrate 
of  potash  or  soda.  The  third  kind,  or  lunar 
caustic,  generally  has  its  surface  coated 
with  a  lilm  of  reduced  silver  and  of  oxide 
of  copper  from  the  moulds  ;  its  colour 
may  also  be  due  to  the  inferior  quality  of 
the  silver  employed.  Nitrate  of  silver  is 
prepared  by  dissolving  pure  silver  in 
double  its  own  weight  of  pure  nitric  acid 
at  40°  Baume,  in  a  glass  flask  or  in  a 
porcelain  capsule.  Abundant  nitrous 
vapours  are  disengaged,  and  the  metal 
soon  disappears  to  form  a  colourless 
liquid,  blue  or  green  if  there  be  copper. 
After  cooling,  and  a  rest  of  a  few  hours, 
a  mass  of  crystals  of  nitrate  of  silver  is 
found,  which  is  drained  and  washed  with 
a  little  distilled  water  already  saturated 
with  nitrate  of  silver,  in  order  to  remove 
the  excess  of  acid.  The  crystals  are  dried 
m  a  stove,  and  kept  away  from  solar 
light.  If,  instead  of  cooling  the  liquid 
after  the  silver  has  been  dissolved,  the 
evaporation  be  continued,  the  mass  will 
become  spongy,  and  then  fuse  by  a  greater 
heat  into  a  greyish  liquid  which  may  be 
run  into  moulds.  The  fused  mass,  ob- 
tained by  the  fusion  of  the  separated 
crystals  of  nitrate  of  silver,  is  whiter. 
This  salt,  whatever  be  its  mode  of  prepa- 
ration, should  be  kept  in  black  or  blue 
Lotties ;  it  is  smployed  for  preparing 
baths,  metalliiing  moulds,  and  many 
other  purposes. 


Nitrate  of  Binoxide  of  Mer- 
cury.— This  salt  is  used  for  slightly 
amalgamating  the  pieces  which  are  to  be 
silvered  or  gilt.  It  is  obtained  by  dis- 
solving at  the  temperature  of  about  212° 
F.  some  mercury  in  double  its  own  weight 
of  nitric  acid  at  40°  Baume,  and  con- 
tinuing the  heat  until  yellow  fumes 
no  longer  appear. 

Nitrate  of  Potash,  or  Salt- 
petre.— Nitrate  of  potash  is  colourless, 
and  has  a  salt  taste;  it  is  very  soluble 
in  water,  and  a  concentrated  solu- 
tion deposits,  on  cooling,  fine  prismatic 
crystals,  which  are  more  or  less  trans- 
lucent. Distilled  in  closed  vessels  with 
more  or  less  diluted  sulphuric  acid, 
nitrate  of  potash  produces  nitric  acid,  or 
aquafortis  of  various  degrees  of  concen- 
tration. Saltpetre  is  used  for  producing 
a  dead  lustre  upon  objects  gilt  by  lire, 
and  for  desilverizing  baths. 

Bicarbonate  of  Potash. — This 
is  white  and  colourless,  and  crystallizes 
either  like  nitrate  of  silver,  or  like  com- 
mon salt  or  iodide  of  potassium.  It  is 
soluble  in  tepid  water,  without  decomjio- 
sition  ;  but  at  the  boiling-point  it  loses 
one-fourth  of  its  carbonic  acid  and  be- 
comes a  sesquicarbonate.  This  is  em- 
ployed for  the  preparation  of  certain 
gilding  baths  by  dipping,  and  for  that  of 
the  ordinary  cyanide  of  potassium,  is  ob- 
tained by  conducting  a  stream  of  car- 
bonic acid  through  a  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  carbonate  of  potash,  until  the 
liquor  is  no  longer  rendered  turbid  by 
the  addition  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  or 
nitrate  of  lime. 

Bitartrate  of  Potash,  Cream 
of  Tartar. — This  salt  is  nearly  pure 
in  wine,  from  which  it  separates  in  the 
shape  of  small  white  or  red  crystals, 
according  to  the  colour  of  the  liquid. 
It  is  gathered  on  the  sides  of  wine  casks, 
and  purified  by  bone  black.  The  price  of 
cream  of  tartar  varies  with  that  of  wine. 
This  substance  is  often  adulterated  with 
alum,  saltpetre,  &c.  It  is  therefore  pre- 
ferable to  buy  it  in  the  crystallized  foi-m, 
and  to  pulverize  it  in  tlie  shop.  It  is 
employed  for  the  preparation  of  the 
whitening  silver  baths,  for  those  of  tin, 
and  for  the  silveiiug  paslu  by  rubbing. 


MO 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


India-rubber. — This  substance  is 
white  when  pure ;  but  its  colour  is  ge- 
nerally brown  or  rei^l,  caused  by  the 
smoke  of  the  fires  employed  for  drying 
it.  Water,  alcohol,  and  acids  do  not 
dissolve  india-rubber ;  ethers,  bisulphide 
of  carbon,  essential  oils,  and  benzole 
dissolve  and  abandon  it  after  their  vola- 
tilization. These  solutions  give  the 
means  of  obtaining  very  delicate  moulds. 
Apply  it  in  very  thin  and  successive 
coats,  otherwise  the  exterior  surface 
being  the  first  to  solidifv,  will  prevent 
the  (irying  of  the  intermediate  coats. 

Chloride  of  Silver. — This  sub- 
stance turns  black  if  exposed  to  the 
light,  it  must  therefore  be  kept  in  blue 
or  black  bottles.  It  melts  at  a  high 
temperature,  and  acquires  the  appear- 
ance of  horn.  Wlien  chlorine  water, 
hydrochloric  acid,  or  a  soluble  chloride 
IS  introduced  into  a  solution  of  a  silver 
.•.alt,  there  is  immediately  produced  an 
abundant  white  precipitate  of  chloride 
of  silver,  which  is  insoluble  in  water 
and  in  concentrated  acids,  but  soluble 
in  ammonia,  cyanides,  anil  the  hypo- 
sulphites and  sulphites  of  alkaline  or 
earthy  bases.  This  precipitate  is  but 
slightly  soluble  in  the  bromiiles,  iodides, 
chlorides,  and  fluoi'ides  of  the  alkaline 
or  cartliy  metals.  Chloride  of  silver  is 
employed  in  the  preparation  of  the 
baths  for  electro-silvering,  and  for 
whitening,  and  for  the  pastes  for  silver- 
ing in  the  cold  by  rubbing. 

Protochloride  of  Tin,  or  Tin 
Salt. — This  salt  is  gi'easy  to  tlic  touch, 
and  molts  easily.  I'r()t()chloridc  of  fin 
IS  soluble  in  water,  but  is  ]>artly  prcci- 
pitatcil  in  the  state  of  a  white  subsalt, 
which  is  easily  dissolved  ia  a  slight 
excess  of  acid.  Alums,  pyrophns])hatcs, 
tartrates  and  bitartratcs  ))rccipit;ite  at 
first  the  aqueous  solution  of  this  salt, 
but  an  cxcci?s  of  the  reagent  redissolvcs 
the  [irecipitate.  The  ])roto(:hli)ridL'  of 
tin  is  j)reiiared  by  dissolving  granulated 
zinc,  in  excess,  in  hot  liydroclijoric  acid, 
evajiorating  tho  solution,  and  letting  it 
crystallize,  if  the  crystals  are  heated, 
they  first  molt  in  their  water  of  crys- 
tallization, wiiich  soon  evaporates,  car- 
'ryipg  oflf  a  small  proportion  of  hydro- 


chloric acid.  This  operation  is  com- 
pleted when  thick,  white  fumes  begis 
to  be  evolved,  which  are  proof  that  the 
salt  itself  volatilizes.  The  melted  chlo- 
ride of  tin  thus  obtained  is  preferable 
for  tinning  with  alkaline  liquors. 

Chloride  of  Gold.— This  salt  is 
in  yellow,  red,  or  brown-red  needle-like 
crystals,  according  as  it  has  been  more 
or  less  deprived  of  acid.  Chloride  of 
gold  is  decomposed  by  light  into  the 
metal  and  chlorine ;  it  should  be  kept 
in  black  bottles,  with  gi-ound  -  glass 
stoppers.  Cork,  like  other  organic  sub- 
stances, decomposes  this  salt.  Chloride 
of  gold  absorbs  the  dampness  of  air,  and 
resolves  into  a  liquid  of  a  fine  vellow 
colour.  It  i)roduces  violet  stains  on  the 
skin,  and  is  very  soluble  in  water.  A 
diluted  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  is 
decolourized  by  sulphurous  acid;  af'tec 
a  time  the  metal  is  precipitated  as  a 
powder,  which  is  green  by  trans]iarency, 
au'l  red  by  rellected  light.  Chloride  of 
gold  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  the 
finely  -  divided  metal  in  aqua  regia, 
formed  of  2  ])arts  of  pure  hydrochloric 
acid  to  1  of  pure  nitric  acid.  'I'he  ojiera- 
tion  is  efTected  in  a  glass  fiask,  and  with 
the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat,  until  all  the  gold 
is  dissolved  into  a  yellow  liquid,  whicL 
retains  a  great  excess  of  acid.  The  heat 
is  then  slightly  increased,  anil  continued 
until  the  liquid  is  a  hyacinth-red. 
After  cooling,  a  crystallizeii  mass  of  a 
fine  yellow  colour  remains,  which  is 
well  adapted  to  the  preparation  of  the 
gilding  baths  by  di)>ping.  If  for  baths 
working  with  a  battery,  continue  the 
action  of  the  fire  until  the  li(iiiid  in  the 
flask  api>ears  a  dark  lilackisli  red,  with- 
out ceasing  to  be  (liiiil.  Uy  cooling,  the 
crystals  are  brown-red.  Tiie  flask  should 
stand  upon  a  jdate  of  sheet  iron  per- 
forated in  the  centre  with  a  hole,  the 
diameter  of  which  is  not  larger  tlian 
the  layer  of  liquiil  after  evajioraticn. 
This  is  to  avoid  the  reduction  by  .in 
excess  of  heat  of  a  portion  of  the  chl'>- 
riiie  of  gold.  It  is  preferable  to  make 
the  aqua  rogia  just  iicl'ore  using  it. 

Bichloride  of  Platinum. — This 
salt  IS  ainor]ihous,  reddish  vellow,  of 
blackish  red,  according  to  tln'  degree  ol 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


241 


eviiporation  of  the  acids  in  excess.  It 
resembles  chloride  of  gold  in  appeai*- 
ance  and  in  its  deliquescent  propert}-, 
when  acid,  but  it  is  not  so  easily  decom- 
posed by  light  and  organic  substances. 
Its  diluted  solution  is  gold-yellow,  and 
iark  yellow  when  concentrated ;  but 
never  wine-red,  unless  it  contains  jjalla- 
anim,  iridium,  or  rhodium.  The  chlo- 
ride of  ])latinum  resists  the  action  of  the 
fii'e  better  than  that  of  gold  ;  however, 
at  first  it  becomes  jirotochloride  of  pla- 
tinum, and  lastly  metal.  When  a  brass 
article  is  rubbed  with  chloride  of  pla- 
tinum, it  acquires  the  colour  and  lustre 
of  steel,  and  this  coat  is  often  quite 
durable.  Perfectly  neutral  chloride  of 
platinum,  mixed  under  a  muller  with 
certain  fatty  and  essential  oils,  furnishes 
a  paste  for  applj'mg  thin  coats  of  metal 
upon  stoneware,  pottery,  glass,  and  por- 
celain. Chloride  of  platinum  is  easily 
soluble  in  caustic  soda,  and  in  the  carbon- 
ate and  phosphate  of  this  base,  and  thus 
furnishes  more  or  less  satisf;\ctory  baths 
for  platinum  deposits.  This  salt  is  pre- 
pared like  the  chloride  of  gold  ;  but  the 
aqua  regia  is  composed  of  5  parts  of" 
hydrochloric  acid  to  3  of  nitric  acid. 
The  product  is  evaporated  nearly  to 
dryness  in  a  porcelain  dish,  and  then 
removed  after  cooling.  If  it  be  desired 
to  have  it  more  acid,  and  therefore  more 
easy  to  dissolve,  it  is  poured  still  fluid, 
tut  emitting  little  fumes,  into  a  porce- 
lain plate,  from  which  it  is  easily  sepa- 
rated after  cooling. 

Chloride  of  Zinc. — This  sub- 
stance is  grey  or  white  according  as  it 
has  been  prepared  in  iron  or  porcelain 
vessels,  and  has  been  more  or  less  dried. 
It  is  caustic,  greasy,  and  hot  to  the 
touch.  It  absorbs  moisture  very  ra- 
pidly. It  may  be  distilled,  and  then 
possesses  the  appearance  of  butter. 
Chloride  of  zmc  is  employed  for  aiding 
soldering,  brazing,  or  welding  opera- 
tions, and  in  this  case  it  should  be  as 
neutral  as  possible,  in  order  not  to  act 
as  an  acid  upon  the  metals.  It  enters 
into  the  composition  of  the  brass  or  zinc 
baths.  It  is  prepared  by  dissolving  zinc 
in  hydrochloric  acid,  filtering  the  solu- 
tion left  for  a  few  days  in  contact  with 


an  e.xcess  of  zinc,  and  evaporating  it 
down  to  igneous  fusion.  At  that  mo- 
ment abundant  and  tliick  white  fumes 
are  disengaged.  The  mass  is  then  cast 
into  plates,  which  are  put  into  well- 
closed  vessels  immediately  after  cooling. 

Cyanide  of  Silver. —  This  sub- 
stance is  white,  becomes  slowly  black 
when  exjiosed  to  the  light,  and  is  in- 
soluble in  water  and  in  cold  acids, 
which,  however,  will  dissolve  it  on  the 
temjierature  being  raised  sulliciently. 
It  is  dissolved  and  decomposed  by  the 
suljihites,  hyposulphites,  and  chlorides; 
the  cyanides  and  prussiates  form  with  it 
double  salts.  A  cyanide  of  silver  is 
always  formed  when  any  kind  of  soluble 
silver  salt  is  treated  by  a  small  propor- 
tion of  cyanide.  Cyanide  of  silver  is 
prepared  by  adding  hydrocyanic  acid  tc 
a  cold  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  The 
precipitate  formed  is  thoroughly  washed, 
and  kept  wet  in  blue  or  black  bottles. 

Cyanide  of  Copper. — This  salt, 
as  a  powder  of  a  brown  colour,  is  ob- 
tained by  the  precipitation  of  a  soluble 
cop]ier  salt  by  yellow  prussiate  of  pot- 
ash, or  may  be  obtained  of  a  dirty  white 
with  a  greenish-yellow  tinge,  from  the 
precijiitation  of  a  soluble  copper  salt  by 
cyanide  of  potassium.  Whatever  its 
mode  of  production,  it  is  easily  soluble 
in  all  the  alkaline  cyanides,  and  even  in 
yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  if  it  has  been 
recently  prepared.  By  solution  in  an 
excess  of  cyanide  it  forms  the  double 
cyanide  of  potassium  and  copper  for 
electro-coppering. 

Cyanide  of  Calcium. — This  is 
em])loyed  for  decomposing  the  car- 
bonates tbrmed  in  the  baths  of  cyanide 
of  potassium.  A  solution  of  cyanide  ot 
calcium  is  obtained  by  adding  prussic 
acid  to  a  paste  of  caustic  lime  in  e.xcess. 
By  filtration,  the  excess  of  lime  remains 
behind,  and  the  cyanide  of  calcium  is 
in  the  liq'jor.  This  salt  cannot  be  ob- 
tained in  Ihe  solid  state,  is  decomposed 
by  heat,  and  it  is  better  to  use  it  wl-.en 
recently  prepared. 

Cyanide  of  Gold. — It  is  of  yellow 
colour,  and  acts  witli  reagents  very  much 
like  the  cyanide  of  silver.  Cyanide  of 
gold    is  prepared  by  pouring  a  conceu- 

R 


242 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


tr.it  ed  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium 
iuto  a  concentrated  one  of  chloride  of 
g..ld.  An  excess  of  alkaline  cyanide  will 
dissolve  the  precipitate  and  form  an 
electro-gilding  bath  holding  a  double 
cyanide  of  gold  and  potassium.  This 
salt  may  be  employed  for  the  preparation 
of  gold  baths  ;  but  it  is  more  expensive, 
and  does  not  seem  to  give  better  results 
than  any  other  good  salt,  and  particu- 
larlv  the  gold  ammonium. 

Cyanide  of  Potassium. — Xo 
other  product  is  more  im)i()rlaiit  to  the 
electroplater  than  the  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium, wliich  is  the  basis  of  most  of  the 
baths  employed,  and  the  purity  of 
which  is  necessary  for  the  sucoess  of 
the  operation.  To  obtain  the  cyanide 
jiure,  several    operations  are   necessary 

1.  The  recrvstallization  of  the  com- 
mercial yellow  prussiate  of  potash 
until  it  is  entirely  free  from  sulphates. 

2.  The  thorough  drying  of  the  pure 
crystals  at  a  temperature  of  from  212° 
to  2.')0°  F.  o.  The  melting  at  a  white 
heat  of  the  dried  prussiate  in  thick  iron 
crucibles  with  their  covers  on.  4. 
Keo]iiug  the  contents  for  some  time  in  a 
state  of  quiet  fusion,  to  permit  the  set- 
tling of  the  iron  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible.  5.  When  the  surfice  of  the 
molten  cyanide  ap[iears  transparent 
withdraw  the  crucible  with  iron  tongs, 
and  |iour  its  contents,  without  shaking, 
upon  a  polished  iron  pan,  the  bottom  of 
which  is  immerseil  in  water.  The  ircpu 
generally  remains  in  a  spongy  mass  at 
the  bottom  of  the  crucible ;  but,  as  a 
further  pri'caution,  the  midten  cyanide 
is  sometimes  passed  through  a  fine 
metallic  sii'vc,  which  h.xs  been  jireviously 
raised  to  a  red  heat.  An  iron  ladle, 
j)erforate<l  with  numerous  holes,  may 
also  be  tilled  with  the  iron  of  the  pre- 
vious operations,  ami  the  whole  being 
raised  to  a  red  heat,  the  molten  cyanide 
is  liltered  through  it.  I)unng  the  fusion 
of  the  cyaiiidu,  now  and  then  plurij;e 
into  it  a  dry  glass  rod;  if  th*-  cyanide 
gathered  upon  it  is  perfectly  white  and 
clean,  the  moment  haa  arrived  to  jiour 
the  contents  muI.  The  cyanide  manufac- 
tared  in  this  manner  is  cyanide  No.  1  ;  it 
ii>  of  a  milky  white,  more  or  less  translu- 


cent, and  its  fracture  is  crystalline  and 
vitreous.  It  is  cumidetely  odourless,  when 
perfectly  dry,  but  if  it  has  absorbed  the 
least  quantity  of  water,  it  possesses  the 
characteristic  smell  of  the  bitter  aiinoud. 
Exposed  to  the  damp  air,  it  soon  deli- 
quesces, and  is  decomposed  into  car- 
bonates and  formiates  of  potash  and  am- 
monia. When  a  cyanide  is  to  be  kept  for 
a  long  while,  it  is  prepared  with  a  pure 
yellow  prussiate  of  soda,  and  the  product 
is  rather  elllorescent,  that  is  to  say,  re|pels 
dampness  instead  of  attracting  it  like  the 
cyanide  of  potassium. 

Ordinary  Cyanide  of  Potas- 
sium.— Sometimes  it  is  advantageous 
to  substitute  for  pure  cyanide  marking 
98^  or  100'-' one  not  so  rich,  which  owes 
to  free  potash  the  property  of  improving 
the  conducting  power  of  freshly-made 
baths.  The  facility  of  its  manufacture 
allows  of  a  much  lower  price.  The  second 
quality,  which  contains  75  per  cent,  of 
real  cyanide,  is  intended  for  freshly-made 
baths,  and  for  those  of  brass  and  cop[)er; 
the  thinl  ijuality,  having  55  jier  cent,  of 
rei'.l  cyanide,  is  a|i]died  to  ])hotograj(hic 
uses.  The  tollowiiig  is  mixture  for  No. 
2  : — S  parts  of  purilied  and  dried  yellow 
prussiate  of  potash,  and  -I-  parts  of  bicar- 
bonate of  potash-,  or  .3  parts  of  pure  ciir- 
bouate  of  potash  ;  and  for  No.  3,  equal 
parts  in  weight  of  yellow  prussiate  and 
l)ure  carbonate  of  pctash.  Place  in  a 
covered  iron  crucible  and  bring  to  a  red 
heat.  The  remainder  of  the  operation  is 
the  same  as  has  been  described  tor  the 
pure  cyanide,  except  that  the  tem)>era- 
ture  tloes  not  require  to  be  so  high.  The 
trial  coating  upon  the  glass  rod  should 
be  porcelain  white.  The  fracture  of  these 
cyanides  is  more  or  less  crystalline  or 
granular,  according  as  the  co<ding  ha.s 
been  sudden  or  gradual.  The  presence 
of  sulphates  in  the  yellow  jirussiate,  or 
the  carbonate  of  potasli  employed,  will 
impart  a  |)ink,  green,  or  blue  colour  tc 
the  cyanide. 

Ffrrocyanide  of  Potassium, 
or  Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash. 
— This  is  in  line  yellow,  and  semi-trans- 
lucent, crystals,  which  break  gradually 
and  without  noise.  The  fracture  is 
jagged,  and  filled  with  a  multitude    ot 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


243 


iniall  bright  spots.  The  solution  of  fer- 
n«;v;inide  of  potassium  is  straw  yellow, 
and  like  the  simple  cyanide  of  potassium, 
precipitates  and  redissolves  afterwards 
nearly  all  metallic  salts.  However,  its 
dissolnng  power  is  much  less  energetic. 
The  soluble  anodes  are  but  little  dis- 
solved, in  baths  composed  of  this  yellow 
prussiate,  which  renders  their  use  expen- 
sive. This  cyanide  is  scarcely  poisonous, 
and  does  not  emit  any  smell  or  absorb 
dampness.  It  is  prepared  by  carbonizing 
animal  residue,  such  as  blood,  horn,  hair, 
&c.,  with  a  mixture  of  carbonate  of 
potash  and  iron  scraps.  The  mass  is 
then  lixiviated  with  water,  and  the  so- 
lution crystallized.  For  the  manufacture 
of  white  cvanide  of  potassium,  avoid 
those  crystals  of  yellow  prussiate  which, 
when  viewed  obliquely,  present  other 
small  bright  crystals  of  sulphate  of 
potash,  as  they  are  injurious  to  the 
operation. 

Cyanide  of  Zinc. — This  article  is 
costly,  and  does  not  present  any  real  ad- 
vantage over  the  other  zinc  salts.  It  is 
white  or  dirty  white,  according  as  the 
einc  salt  was  without  or  with  iron.  It 
is  insoluble  in  water,  bnt  soluble  in  am- 
monia, and  in  the  earthy  or  alkaline  sul- 
phites and  cyanides,  with  which  it  forms 
double  salts,  suitable  for  zinc  electro- 
baths.  Its  solution  is  the  more  easy  as 
it  has  been  more  recently  prepared. 
Cyanide  of  zinc  is  obtained  by  incom- 
pletely precipitating  with  cyanide  of 
potassium,  a  solution  of  sulphate,  nitrate, 
chloride,  or  acetate  of  zinc.  The  pre- 
cipitate is  drained  upon  a  filter  of  paper 
or  calico,  and  washed  to  remove  the  re- 
maining soluble  zinc  salt. 

Gelatine  or  Isinglass. — This 
article  is  extracted  by  acids,  or  super- 
heated water,  from  bones,  skin,  cartilage, 
and  similar  substances ;  it  is  more  or 
less  coloured,  according  to  its  degree  of 
purity.  The  common  sorts,  or  glue,  are 
employed  for  making  galvanojdastic 
moulds.  The  least  coloured  are  preferred, 
because  the  casts  are  more  delicate.  Cold 
water  swells  and  softens  gelatine,  but  hot 
water  will  dissolve  it.  This  property  is 
very  useful  for  the  production  of  the 
ipoulds,  but  is  disadvantagjous  when  the 


mould  is  in  the  bath.  This  incon- 
venience may  be  partly  remedied  ly  add- 
ing to  the  gelatine,  before  pouring  it 
upon  the  pattern,  a  few  hundredths  oi 
tannic  acid,  which  with  it  forms  a  kind 
of  leather,  and  resists  the  action  of  the 
liquids  better.  Gelatine  moulds  should  be 
rapidly  coated  with  the  metallic  deposit, 
otherwise  they  will  give  very  imperfect 
copies.  Although  hot  water  dissohres 
gelatine,  which  sets  by  cooling,  this  pro- 
perty disappears  after  too  long  a  boiling, 
and  the  liquid  that  remains  will  not 
coagulate. 

Benzine. — Benzine  dissolves  all  the 
oils,  resins,  gum  resins,  varnishes,  and 
fats,  and  is  therefore  very  useful.  It  is 
much  superior  to  alcohol  and  essence  of 
turpentine,  formerly  employed  for  re- 
moving resist  varnishes,  and  may  be  used 
in  the  cold,  which  is  a  great  advantage 
with  inflammable  substances.  A  small 
quantity  of  naphthaline  gives  a  pink,  red, 
or  brown  tinge  to  benzine  ;  but  this  is  of 
no  consequence. 

Phosphate  of  Ammonia. — 
Necessary  for  the  composition  of  baths 
for  thick  platinum  deposits  ;  it  is  obtained 
by  the  exact  saturation  of  phosphoric 
acid  with  ammonia.  The  liquid  is  then 
evaporated  at  a  gentle  heat ;  add  a  few 
drops  of  ammonia  now  and  thonto  com- 
pensate for  that  removed  by  the  decom- 
position of  small  quantities  of  the  salt. 
When  the  liquid  becomes  syrupy  it  is 
set  aside  to  crystallize  in  a  cool  place. 
It  may  also  be  prepared  by  decomposing, 
with  carbonate  of  ammonia,  the  biphos- 
phate  of  lime  resulting  from  the  diges- 
tion in  sulphuric  acid  of  ground  and  cal- 
cined bones. 

Phosphate  of  Soda. — This  salt 
crystallizes  in  fine,  transparent,  colour- 
less prisms ;  it  effloresces  by  losing  part 
of  its  water  of  crystallization.  It  is  so- 
luble 'n  distilled  water  without  pro- 
ducing any  procijiifato,  but  causes  a 
deposit  of  white  phosphate  of  lime  in 
calcareous  waters.  This  salt  is  formed 
of  1  part  of  phosphoric  acid,  saturating 
2  of  soda,  and  1  of  water  acting  a  base. 
Phosjihate  of  soda  is  used  for  hot  electro- 
gilding  baths,  and  is  prepared  by  treat- 
ing calcined  and  powdered   bones  with 

B  2 


244 


WORKSHOP  llECEIPTS. 


julphuiic  acid,  and  letting  the  mixture 
rest  for  several  days.  The  acid  phos- 
phate of  lime  is  then  removed  by  wash- 
ing the  i-esidue,  and  the  tiltereJ  liquid  is 
sjiturated  by  carbonate  of  soda  until 
carbonic  acid  is  no  longer  disengaged. 
The  clear  settled  liquor  is  then  concen- 
trated until  it  marks  33°  Baumc,  and  is 
allowed  to  crystallize  once  or  several 
times. 

Pyrophosphate  of  Soda. — The 
commercial  salt  is  generally  in  a  white 
powder,  soluble  in  water,  but  not  so  so- 
luble as  the  preceding  salt ;  it  requires 
distilled  water,  as  it  produces  precipi- 
tates in  calcareous  waters.  The  pyro- 
phosphate of  soda  gives  a  white  precipi- 
tate with  nitrate  of  silver,  whereas  that 
of  the  ordinary  phosjihate  is  yellow.  It 
is  employed  for  the  i)re])aratiou  of  gild- 
ing baths  by  dipping;  and  is  obtained  by 
fusing  the  ordinary  dried  tribasic  i)hos- 
phate,  wliicli  by  tliis  ojieration  loses  an 
equivalent  of  combined  water,  and  be- 
comes bibasic.  The  temi)erature  required 
is  liigh,  and  few  crucibles  will  stand  the 
heat  and  the  lluxing  action  of  this  sub- 
stance. 

Plumbago,  or  Black  Lead. — 
Nearly  pure  carbon,  black,  with  a  cer- 
tain lustre,  soft  to  the  touch,  without 
smell  or  taste,  and  dillicult  to  biuii. 
I'lumbagn,  in  the  natuial  state,  is  geni> 
rally  mixed  with  a  i)rop()rtiou  of  oxide 
or  suljihide  of  iron  and  earths,  which 
should  be  removed  by  washing  with 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  best  plumbago 
is  very  black,  and  witliout  much  lustre, 
excejit  atlcr  rubbing;  it  should  firmly 
adhere  to  wax  and  ]daster  of  I'aris  ar- 
ticles, and  should  not  detach  fi'om  tiiem 
by  being  immersed  into  a  liquid.  Tlie 
best  way  to  ascertain  its  quality  is  to 
apply  a  dejiosit  ujmu  it;  the  sooner  it  is 
rej;ular!y  coated  the  better  it  is.  It  is 
em]>loyeil  for  rendering  conducting  cer- 
tain substances  whicli  are  not  naturally 
80,  an<l  for  preventing  the  adher(Mice 
between  two  supcrjiosed  metals.  I'liim- 
bago  i.s  also  used  for  bronzinij;  but  in 
this  case  it  is  useless  to  jiurify  it  with 
hyilrochioric  acid.  When  plumbago  is 
moistened  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
gold  Id  ether,  and  then  allowed  to  dry 


in  a  shallow  vessel  exposed  to  solar 
light,  a  gilt  plumbago  is  obtained,  which 
is  much  more  conducting  than  plum- 
bago alone. 

Amalgamating-  Salt.— This  is  a 
mercury  salt  with  three  acids,  and  is 
composed  of  the  sulphate,  nitrate,  and 
bichloride  of  this  metal.  It  is  liquid, 
more  or  less  coloured,  very  dense,  and 
gives  in  water  a  yellow  precipitate, 
wliich  is  dissolved  by  an  excess  ol  acid. 
It  jiroduces  a  violet  stain  on  the  skin, 
and  amalgam-ites  copper  and  its  alloys 
thoroughly  and  ra]iidly.  It  is  used  for 
amalgamating  the  zincs  of  batteries, 
and  dispenses  with  the  metallic  mer- 
cury; it  is  more  easily  ajjplied,  and  i)re- 
ventsmucli  trouble  in  gilding  woi'ks.  It 
is  jireparod  by  boiling  the  nitrate  of  bin- 
oxide  of  mei'cui'y  ujion  an  excess  of  a 
powder  composecl  of  eciual  parts  of  bisul- 
]ihate  and  bichloride  of  mercury  ;  the 
liquor  only,  remaining  after  cooling,  is 
used. 

Sulphate  of  Copper,  or  Blue 
Vitriol. — Easily  soluble  in  water, 
especially  when  the  latter  contains 
some  free  acid,  and  the  solution  is  blue. 
Hot  water  dissolves  much  more  of  this 
salt  than  oold,  and  it  crystallizes  by 
cooling.  The  solution  of  suljihate  of 
cop])er  constitutes  tlie  galvanoplastic 
baths,  wliich  are  rendered  more  con- 
ducting by  the  addition  of  ■Yf5th  in 
volume  of  sulphui-ic  acid.  Many  kinds 
of  commercial  sulphate  of  copper  are 
impure,  and  have  variable  propor- 
tions of  the  sul]ihates  of  ii-on  and 
zinc,  which  are  injurious  when  their 
amount  is  too  great.  Sulphate  of 
zinc  is  detected  by  j)assiug  through  the 
acid  solution  a  current  of  sulphuretted 
liydi'ogen  gas.  'I'ho  sulphide  of  copper 
produced  is  se])arated  by  liltratiou,  and 
the  clear  liquor  is  ti-cated  by  ammonia, 
which  produces  a  white  )>roci]vitate  of 
oxide  of  zinc,  sohiide  in  an  excess  of 
alkali.  The  iron  remains  also  in  the 
acid  liquor  filtered  from  the  copper,  and 
its  presence  is  ascertained  by  the  red 
prussiatc  of  potatih,  which  gives  a  blue 
colour.  Another  ju'ocess  for  the  detec- 
tion of  iron  is  to  add  to  a  small  quan- 
tity of  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


245 


e^iough  ammonia  to  dissolve  all  the 
oxide  of  copper  precipitated  at  first, 
and  the  brown  oxide  of  iron  will  be 
seen  floating  in  the  blue  liquor.  The 
best  sulphate  of  copper  comes  from  the 
rtifining  of  silver  coin  by  sulphuric  acid, 
or  from  the  solution  in  the  same  acid  of 
the  scales  of  copper  oside  produced  in 
rolling  sheets  of  this  metal.  Avoid 
cheap  copper  sulphates  extracted  from 
old  acid  dipping  liquors,  as  they  contain 
zinc  and  other  metals,  and  also  nitrate 
of  copper  with  free  nitric  acid.  These 
sulphates  are  generally  very  wet,  and  in 
small  crystals. 

Sulphate  of  Protoxide  of 
Iron,  or  Green  Copperas. — This 
salt  crystallizes  like  the  preceding  one, 
and  is  of  a  fine  green  colour.  It  is  very 
soluble  in  watei",  and  is  rapidly  o-xidized 
by  contact  with  the  air.  The  sulphate 
of  protoxide  of  iron  is  employed  for  i)re- 
cipitating  gold  from  its  acid  solutions. 
It  is  prepared  either  by  evaporating  and 
crystallizing  the  li(juors  used  for  cleans- 
ing iron,  or  by  the  oxidization  in  the  air 
of  iron  pyrites.  The  salt  obtained  by 
this  latter  process  generally  contains 
some  copper,  which  is  precipitated  by 
iron  scraps  put  in  the  solution. 

Sulphate  of  Mercury.  —  Pre- 
pared by  heating  in  a  porcelain  dish 
1  part  of  mercury  with  2  parts  of  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid,  and  completely 
drying  the  product.  Great  quantities 
of  sulphurous  acid,  and  then  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  are  disengaged  during  the 
operation  ;  when  nearly  dried  the  paste 
should  be  constantly  stirred  with  a  glass 
rod. 

Sulphate  of  Zinc  is  either  in 
white  or  opaque  plates,  in  large  trans- 
parent crystals,  or  in  a  mass  formed 
of  a  quantity  of  crystals,  it  is  very 
soluble  in  water,  which  remains  colour- 
less. Sulphate  of  zinc  is  employed  for 
zinc  and  brass  electro-baths,  in  the  pre- 
paration of  acids  for  a  dead  lustre,  and 
for  a  frosted  lustre  upon  cloclcs  and 
iewellery. 

Sulphite  and  Bisulphite  of 
Soda. — The  former  forms  white  crys- 
lals,  which  are  rapidly  transformed  into 
an  amorphous  powder  by  efflorescence. 


It  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and  is  gra- 
dually transformed  into  sulphate  by  the 
absorption  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 
Sulphite  of  soda,  and  generally  all  the 
soluble  sulphites,  dissolve  the  salts  of 
gold,  silver,  or  copper,  and  transform 
them  into  double  colourless  salts,  which 
possess  more  or  less  stability,  and  are 
employed  for  electro-baths.  The  sul- 
phite of  soda  may  absorb  an  excess  of 
sulphurous  acid,  and  thus  become  a  bi- 
sulphite, which  should  always  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  neutral  salt.  The  neutral 
s'llphide  of  soda  is  prepared  by  passing 
a  stream  of  sulphurous  gas  through  a 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  until  the 
liquor  neither  turns  red  litmus  paper 
blue,  nor  reddens  a  blue  one.  If  the 
solution  is  very  concentrated,  a  quantity 
of  small  crystals  of  bicarbonate  of  soda 
precipitate  during  the  operation,  and 
should  be  stirred  to  prevent  them  from 
obstructing  the  gas  tube.  An  excess  of 
sulphurous  acid  decomposes  them  with 
abundant  production  of  carbonic  acid. 
The  saturated  liquor  crystallizes  by 
cooling  if  concentrated ;  in  the  other 
case  it  should  be  evaporated  to  a  certain 
point.  The  bisulphite  of  soda  is  pro- 
duced by  continuing  the  passage  of  the 
sulphurous  gas  until  the  solution  red- 
dons,  and  even  destroys  the  colour  of 
blue  litmus  paper.  This  salt  in  the  air 
loses  its  excess  of  sulphurous  gas,  then 
becomes  neutral  sulphite,  and,  after  a 
long  time,  sulphate  of  soda,  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  oxygen. 

Sulphide  of  Ammonium.  — 
This  is  prepared  by  saturating  ammonia 
with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas.  It  is 
generally  used  with  an  excess  of  sul- 
phur, that  is  to  say,  after  it  has  been 
kept  for  a  few  hours  with  an  excess  of 
flowers  of  sulphur,  and  at  a  temperature 
of  about  160°  Falir.  The  liquid  is  then 
of  a  dark  reddish-yellow.  It  may  also 
be  prepared  by  the  decomposition  of  the 
sulphide  of  barium,  calcium,  or  stron- 
tium, ty  carbonate  of  ammonia.  Avoid 
opening  a  bottle  of  sulphide  of  ammo- 
nium in  silver-plating -.rooms. 

Sulphides  of  Calcium,  Potas- 
sium, and  Sodium. — These  salts 
are  obtained   in  solution  by  boiling  tha 


246 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


alkali  and  the  flowers  of  sulphur  in,  a 
certain  quantity  of  water.  They  are 
produced  in  the  dry  way  by  projecting 
powdered  quicklime  or  potash  or  soda 
into  melted  sulphur,  and  then  casting 
the  mixture  on  a  marble  slab.  The 
dry  sulphides  are  generally  in  plates, 
which  are  greenish  or  whitish  at  the 
surface  and  reddish  yellow  inside.  They 
are  soluble  in  water,  which  is  coloured 
yellow  or  red,  according  to  the  degree 
of  concentration.  Their  uses  are  the 
same  as  those  of  sulphide  of  ammonium. 

Bisulphide  of  Carbon. — Bring 
to  a  red  heat  a  stoneware  or  porcelain 
tube  filled  with  charcoal  and  in  connec- 
tion with  a  condensing  receiver,  and 
then  introduce  fragments  of  sulphur 
into  it,  and  immediately  close  the  aper- 
ture, the  liquid  which  results  from  the 
combination  of  the  sulphur  and  carbon 
is  condensed  at  the  bottom  of  the  water 
in  the  receiver,  and,  after  a  distillation 
in  another  vessel,  is  a  pure  bisulphide  of 
carbon.  It  is  a  colourless  transparent 
liquid,  which  is  very  dense,  and  possesses 
the  double  refraction.  Bisulphide  of 
carbon  dissolves  many  kinds  of  resins, 
fats,  and  gum  resins,  such  as  india- 
rubber  and  gutta-percha,  and  also  sul- 
phur and  phos])horus.  This  last  solu- 
tion is  employed  for  reducing  the  nitrate 
of  silver  to  the  metallic  state  upon  cer- 
tain moulds,  which  thus  become  con- 
ductmg.  Sulphide  of  carbon  is  now  ob- 
tained in  the  trade  at  a  very  low  price; 
when  pnre  it  should  volatilize  without 
leaving  any  residue. 

Stirring  Rods. — These  are  made 
of  various  substances,  and  are  employed 
for  mixing ;  those  made  of  glass,  stone- 
ware, or  porcelain  are  the  best  in  most 
cases.  Wood  and  most  metals  should 
be  avoided,  because  the  former  is  ab- 
sorbing, and  the  latter  are  corroded  and 
easily  oxidized. 

Anodes. — Tlvese  are  the  plates  or 
WHO  of  differfnt  metals,  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  connecting  wire  starting  from 
the  positive  pole  of  a  battery.  The 
anodes  are  soluble  or  insoluble,  that  is, 
they  either  dissolve  under  the  influence 
of  the  galvanic  current  lo  )..irlly  niain- 
Uin  the  metallic  strenglh  of  the  buth, 


or  they  simply  bring  the  current  into 

the  bath  without  being  dissolved.  Gene- 
rally the  soluble  anodes  are  of  the  same 
metal  with  which  the  bath  is  composed  , 
and  the  insoluble  anodes  are  of  platinum, 
graphite  of  gas  retorts,  carbon,  or  any 
other  conducting  and  insoluble  sub- 
stance. Soluble  anodes  are  generally 
completely  immersed  in  the  solution, 
and  connected  with  the  conducting  wire 
by  other  platinum  wires.  Insoluble 
anodes  are  rarely  completely  immersed  ; 
dipping  them  more  or  less  increases  oi 
diminishes  the  amount  of  electiicity. 

Mixtures  employed  in  gilding  by 
fire  or  by  the  wet  processes. 

Hed  Ormolu. — Potash  alum,  nitrate 
of  potash,  30  parts  of  each ;  sul  phate 
of  zinc,  8  ;  common  salt,  3  ;  red  ochre, 
28  ;  sulphate  of  iron,  1.  Add  to  it  a 
small  proportion  of  annatto,  madder, 
cochineal,  or  other  colouring  matter, 
ground  in  water  or  in  weak  vinegar. 

Yellow  Ormolu. — Red  ochre,  17  parts; 
potash  alum,  50  ;  sulphate  of  zinc,  10  ; 
common  salt,  3  ;  nitrate  of  potash,  20. 

Dead  Lustre  for  Jeiceltery. — Sul]>hate 
of  iron,  sulphate  of  zinc,  potash  alum, 
nitrate  of  potash,  equal  parts  of  each. 
All  the  salts  are  melted  in  their  water 
of  crystallization. 

/fard  Dead  Lustre  for  Clocks. — Water, 
.S  parts  ;  nitrate  of  potash,  37 ;  potash 
alum,  42  ;  common  salt,  12  ;  pulverized 
glass  and  sulphate  of  lime,  4.  The 
whole  is  thoroughly  ground  and  mixed. 

Soft  Dead  Lustre  for  Smooth  Surfaces 
and  Figures. — Water,  5  parts  ;  nitrate 
of  potash,  46  ;  potash  alum,  4(5 ;  com- 
mon salt,  3.  The  same  treatment  as 
the  preceding  mixture. 

Green  for  lied  Lustre. — Bitartrale  of 
potash,  6.T  parts ;  common  salt,  2j  ;  ace- 
tate of  copper,  10.  The  whole  is  ground 
together. 

Wax  for  0 tiding. — Oil,  25  parts; 
yellow  wax,  25;  acetate  of  cop|)er,  13  • 
red  ochre,  37.  The  whole  is  melted, 
and  stirred  until  cold. 

Photography.  —  The  Opcrattny 
Room  should  be  in  an  elevated  position, 
the  south  side  entirely  closed,  the  north 
side  hcing  glazed  with  tolerably  thick 
glass,  as    free  from  colour  as  possiblfti 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


247 


but  preferably  of  a  jiue  tint,  to  Anj- 
thing  at  all  approaching  green  or  yel- 
low, as  these  colours,  by  neutralizing 
the  light,  tend  to  prolong  the  photo- 
graphic o])eratious.  If  possible  the 
leu^'th  of  the  room  should  run  from  east 
to  west,  and  the  ends  be  pi'otectod  from 
the  morning  and  afternoon  sun.  A 
room  lighted  only  tVom  the  north  side 
has  the  softest  and  most  unifoi-m  light 
that  can  be  obtained.  Part  of  the  roof 
may  be  glassed,  and  curtains  of  a  bluish 
colour  should  be  fi.xed,  with  an  arrange- 
ment of  cords  and  pulleys,  by  w-hich 
they  may  easily  be  adjusted  to  admit 
light,  or  cast  a  shadow  in  the  required 
direction.  Tlie  colours  of  the  wall  must 
be  carefully  chosen,  avoiding  red,  3'el- 
low,  or  green  ;  a  bluish  grey  is  the 
safest,  and  may  be  used  of  several  tints 
to  give  variety.  Jlovable  backgrounds 
painted  in  different  de]iths  of  colour  are 
useful  to  modify  the  result  of  any  ill- 
chosen  colours  worn  by  the  sitter.  Oil 
colour  must  be  avoided  for  walls  or 
backgrounds ;  a  mi.iiture  of  slaked  lime, 
litmus,  or  lampblack  may  be  employed, 
varying  the  quantity  of  lampblack  to 
give  the  required  shade.  In  the  choice 
of  dress,  the  sitter  must  remember  that 
coid  colours,  such  as  blue  or  violet,  come 
out  white  in  photographs,  whilst  tlie 
warm  colours,  red,  orange,  or  yellow, 
give  various  shades  of  black.  Articles 
of  dress  with  vertical  stripes  tend  to 
give  an  appearance  of  increased  height 
to  the  portrait.  The  sitter  should 
assume  an  easy  natural  position,  avoid- 
ing a  direct  vertical  light,  which  falling 
on  the  top  of  the  head  gives  to  dark 
glossy  hair  the  appearance  of  grevness, 
and  throws  verv  heavy  shadows  under 
the  eyes,  nose,  and  chin.  The  best  posi- 
tion is  a  little  back  from  under  the 
skylight,  with  the  head  slightly  retiring 
from  the  side  light.  The  whole  figure 
.s  thea  well  illuminated ;  the  deepest 
shadow  on  the  face  will  be  on  the  retir- 
ing cheek,  in  a  three-quarter  view, 
which  is  generally  the  best  to  take. 
The  partial  profile  will  be  clearly  de- 
fined on  the  shadowed  cheek.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  body  in  relation  to  the  head 
is  a  matter  of  taste.     The  distance  of 


the  figure  from  the  background,  and  its 
height  on  the  plate,  are  points  which 
must  be  regulated  by  tlie  artistic  skill 
of  the  operator.  If  the  sitter  is  placed 
several  feet  in  front  of  the  screen,  the 
picture  will  have  greater  relief,  and  the 
apjiareut  height  of  a  person  is  much 
atl'ected  by  the  position  of  the  portrait 
on  the  plate.  Avoid  overcrowding  the 
background  with  vases,  columns,  and 
curtains,  or  anything  which  will  divert 
the  attention  t'rom  the  principal  object ; 
as  a  rule  a  plain  background  is  the  best, 
the  introduction  of  sujiertiuous  furniture 
and  ornamentation  most  frequently  gives 
a  photograph  an  un]deasant  tone  of  vul- 
garity. If  the  head-rest  is  used,  it 
must  be  carefully  adapted  to  the  head, 
which  should  only  lightly  press  on  it. 
When  the  position  is  settled  and  the 
focus  arranged,  the  sitter  should  not 
alter  his  attitude,  though  pertect  im- 
mobility is  unnecessary.  When  the 
operator  has  the  plate  ready  to  e.xposo, 
he  should  caution  the  sitter  to  keep  the 
eyes  fixed  in  one  direction,  and  to  lemain 
perfectly  steady ;  he  may  then  uncover 
the  lens.  The  nearer  the  camera  is 
brought  to  the  sitter,  the  longer  the 
exposure;  thus  the  time  of  exposure 
may  be  varied  from  one  second  to  300 
seconds.  As  a  general  rule,  for  a  full- 
length  figure,  in  summer,  the  plate 
should  be  exposed  20  seconds;  a  sitting 
portrait  will  require  30  seconds.  In 
winter  the  exposure  must  be  increased 
in  duration  one-half. 

Dark  Room. — During  certain  pa.-ts  o? 
the  process  it  is  imperative  that  the 
operator  should  work  in  a  room  into 
which  not  a  ray  of  direct  light  is  ad- 
mitted. This  is  usually  effected  bv 
closing  every  window  but  one,  and  that 
is  carefully  obscured  by  yellow  or 
orange  coloured  curtains,  or  calico  cloth, 
or  a  second  window-sash  may  be  glazed 
with  dark  yellow  glass.  Lamps  or  can- 
dles, provided  with  yellow  screens,  mav 
also  be  used.  The  dark  room  should 
not  be  too  small,  as  in  it  several  im- 
portant operations  have  to  be  per- 
formed ;  it  should  be  fitted  up  with 
shelves  for  chemicals,  a  sink  and  tap, 
with  a  good  supply  of  water,  seve'"*! 


248 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


pails  for  refuse  slops,  jugs,  and  draining 
stands  for  the  plates.  The  room  should 
be  well  ventilated,  the  door  and  window 
being  ke]>t  open  as  much  as  possible 
when  the  room  is  not  in  use,  provided 
that  the  weather  is  not  too  cold,  as  an 
even  and  tolerably  warm  temjierature  is 
necessary  for  the  ju'oijer  workiug  of  the 
photographic  chemicals.  In  winter  the 
room  must  be  kept  warm  ;  gas  or  char- 
coal stoves  for  this  jmrpose  should,  how- 
ever, be  avoided.  Keep  the  room  as 
clean  and  tree  from  dust  as  possible,  and 
place  over  the  bottles  of  chemicals  small 
covers  of  papei',  twisted  round  like  an 
e.Ntinguishcr,  to  keep  the  dust  from  the 
necks  and  »to]pj)ers. 

TIte  Camera. — This  consists  of  2 
square  wooden  boxes,  the  one  sliding, 
like  a  telesco])e,  within  the  other.  On 
the  front  of  this  is  screwed  an  arrange- 
ment of  lenses,  ca]iable  of  adjustment  ; 
and  at  the  other  end  is  a  movable  screen 
of  ground  gla.'  s. 

Lens. — There  are  two  dcscrijitions  of 
lenses  in  use,  the  single  lens  which  is 
used  for  views  and  ]iliotographs  of  inani- 
mate subjects.  Tiiis  lens  re(|uires  a 
longer  e.xjiosure  of  the  ])late  than  the 
Jouble  lens,  but  the  resulting  photograpli 
is  very  clear  in  the  details.  The  com- 
pound lens  used  for  portraits  consists  of 
two  i>airs  of  lenses,  mounted  in  a  teles- 
cojiic  bra.ss  frame,  having  dia])hragms  or 
stojis,  and  provided  with  a  turnscrew  to 
regulate  the  focus  to  a  nicety,  after  it 
has  been  roughly  obtained  by  adjusting 
the  camera.  Tiie  interior  of  the  lirass 
tubes  holding  the  lenses  must  be  kept  of 
a  dull  black  colour  ;  should  this  wear  oil', 
a  coating  of  gum-water  and  lampblack 
Khould  be  apidied  when  cle.insing  the 
lenses.  It  is  important  to  replace  the 
glasses  in  the  lens  in  ex.actly  the  same 
order  ancl  jiosilion,  after  having  removed 
them  to  cle.in,  which  is  to  be  done  with 
n  piece  of  very  soft  wa.sh-leatlier.  '  The 
single  leu.s  is  compo.sed  of  an  achromatic 
leus  mounted  in  a  bra.ss  tube,  fixed  with 
diaphr.igms  or  stops  of  various  sizes. 
These  diaphr.igms  are  simply  llat  disks 
of  brass,  each  having  in  the  centre  a  v\r- 
ciilar  opening,  and  upon  the  size  <if  the 
0]>eniug  of  the  diaphragm  used,  depends 


the  length  of  exposure  necessary,  and  the 
sharpness  of  the  resulting  picture.  The 
larger  the  opening  of  the  stop,  the  shorter 
will  be  the  time  necessary  to  e.xpose  the 
plate  in  the  camera,  but  if  a  stoj)  be 
used  with  a  smaller  opening  the  picture 
will  be  sharper  and  more  distinct  in  the 
details.  Thus,  in  working  with  the 
view,  or  single  leus,  the  ojiorator  can 
choose  which  point  is  most  material  for 
the  particular  picture  he  desires.  The 
plate  is  of  course  more  rapidly  atl'ected  in 
pro]iortion  to  the  brilliancy  of  the  light 
striking  u])on  it.  It  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  use  a  dia]ihragm  with  tiie  com- 
pound lens,  as  for  instance  in  photo- 
graplis  of  groups,  but  the  ojieiiings  in 
these  stops  are  much  larger  than  those 
used  with  the  single  lens.  Porti«it 
lenses  are  usually  provided  with  central 
diaphragms. 

JIow  to  arrange  the  Lenses  in  a  Pur- 
trait  Combination.  —  The  lenses  in  a 
portrait  combination  are  occasionally 
removed  from  their  cells  for  the  jiur- 
pose  of  cleaning.  When  the  lenses  are 
taken  out  of  their  cells  they  may  be 
variously  transposed,  and  thus  rendered 
iuca]iable  of  ]iroducing  good  jiictures. 
In  a  portrait  combination  there  arc  four 
lenses  in  all,  the  so-called  front  and 
back  lenses  being  really  each  formed  of 
a  pair.  The  front  ones  are  always 
cemented  together,  and  may  thus  be 
easily  taken  for  one  lens;  the  back  pair 
are  distinct,  and  are  usu.illy  sejiarated 
from  each  other  by  a  narrow  ring. 
T;ike  the  front  lens — the  jiair  cemented 
together — and  observe  that  one  surface  is 
considerably  curved,  and  the  other  al- 
most (lat ;  )ilace  the  lens  in  its  cell,  so 
that  when  screwed  into  the  tube  the 
curved  side  will  be  to  the  sitter.  The 
two  glasses  forming  the  back  lens  are 
Very  unlike  each  other;  one  is  thick  at 
the  centre  and  thin  at  the  edge,  the 
other  thick  at  the  edge  an<I  thin  at  the 
centre;  put  the  thin-edged  one  first  into 
the  cell,  resting  on  the  least  curved 
side;  ne.\t  jiut  in  the  ring,  and  then 
the  thick-edged  gl;iss,  concave  side  to- 
w.irds  the  other  lens;  fix  them  in  their 
]daces  with  the  part  provided,  aiiii  screw 
the  cell  in  its  place.     With  many  por- 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


249 


tr.iit  lenses  there  is  au  arrangement 
whereby  the  front  lens  may  be  used  as 
a  landscape  leus ;  to  use  it  for  this 
jiurpose  proceed  as  follows  ; — Unscrew 
the  back  lens  and  lay  it  aside  alto- 
gether, as  it  is  only  required  in  the 
double  combination;  then  remove  the 
brass  hood  before  the  front  leus ;  next 
unscrew  the  front  lens,  and  rcscrew  it 
in  the  place  where  the  back  lens  was. 
In  doing  this  the  flat  surface  will  be 
presented  to  the  object.  The  lens  tube 
may  be  now  put  on  the  camera,  and  the 
central  stops  will  be  in  their  pi'oper 
place  for  use.  As  the  focus  of  the  front 
lens,  when  thus  used  singly,  is  mucli 
longer  than  when  used  in  combination 
with  the  back  lens,  the  picture  it  will 
yield  is  proportionately  larger,  but  a 
much  smaller  stop  must  be  employed 
than  when  the  lens  is  used  for  por- 
traiture. Tlie  ex])osure  must  be  con- 
siderably longer  than  when  the  double 
combination  lens  is  used. 

Focus. — An  object  is  said  to  be  in 
focus  when  its  image  is  clearly  and 
sharply  reflected  on  the  ground-glass 
screen  at  the  back  of  the  camera.  The 
ground  glass  usually  has  the  sizes  of  the 
various  plates  marked  on  it,  and  having 
decided  what  size  the  picture  is  to  be, 
move  the  camera  to  or  from  the  object 
until  its  reflexion  occupies  the  proper 
position,  and  is  of  the  size  required  (or 
the  picture.  The  neai'cr  the  camei-a  is 
to  the  object  the  larger  will  be  the 
picture.  The  next  step  is  one  upon 
which  the  chief  beauty  of  the  photo- 
graph depends,  the  exact  adjustment  of 
the  focus,  so  as  to  bring  out  quite  clearly 
those  points  which  are  considered  essen- 
tial. Having  roughly  settled  the  dis- 
tance, lay  the  black  focussing  cloth  on 
the  camera,  put  your  head  under  it,  slide 
the  body  of  the  camera  gently  in  or  out, 
until  tiie  reflexion  is  clearly  seen  on  the 
ground  glass.  As  diflerent  portions  of 
an  object  are  necessarily  at  varying  dis- 
tances from  the  camera,  some  will  come 
into  focus  earlier  than  others.  In  por- 
traits, to  make  the  features  show  dis- 
tinctly is  generally  the  chief  point  aimed 
at.  For  views  no  rules  ran  be  given, 
but  it  is  advisable  to  so  place  the  camera 


and  adjust  the  focus  that  the  photograph 
shall  not  distort  or  confuse  the  natui'al 
lines  of  perspective.  A  little  practice  is 
required  to  adjust  the  focus  satisfac- 
tor.ly,  as  the  image  reflected  on  the 
ground  glass  is  upside  down. 

The  Gl  (ss  Frame. — This  is  always  sold 
with  the  camera  ;  it  consists  of  a  wooden 
fi'ame,  with  two  shutters,  the  one  opens 
on  hinges,  and  allows  the  plate,  which 
has  been  just  removed  from  the  nitrate 
of  silver  bath,  to  be  inserted,  with  its 
collodiouized  face  placed  towards  the 
sliding  shutter,  which  must  be  kept 
closed.  The  frame  is  provided  at  the 
corners  with  pieces  of  wire,  which  pre- 
vent the  plate  from  coming  m  contact 
with  the  sliding  shutter.  Close  and 
fasten  the  hinged  shutter,  and  the  frame 
is  then  ready  for  use.  Remove  the 
ground-glass  screen,  place  the  glass 
frame  in  its  place,  with  the  collodion 
side  towards  the  object,  then  on  raising 
the  sliding  shutter  the  time  must  be 
noted  in  seconds  for  the  desired  exposure. 
Close  the  sliding  shutter,  remove  the 
frame  to  the  dark  room,  and  take  out 
the  plate  by  opening  the  hinged  shutter. 

Cleaning  the  Glasses. — The  glasses  for 
photography  are  sold  in  certain  fixed 
sizes.  When  new,  the  sharp  edges  must 
be  smoothed  over  with  acorrundum  file, 
then  carefully  wash,  rub  with  a  soft  rag, 
finish  with  chamois  leather.  When  the 
glasses  have  been  used  they  are  more 
dillicult  to  clean.  If  they  have  been  var- 
nished they  must  be  soaked  in  a  solution 
of  common  soda,  or  carbonate  of  potash, 
till  the  varnish  peels  off.  If  the  carbon- 
ate of  potash  or  common  soda  does  not 
bring  off  the  varnish  quickly  enough, 
use  a  solution  of  an  ounce  of  nitric  acid 
to  every  half-pint  of  water.  Apply  this 
to  the  glasses  with  a  piece  of  cotton 
wool,  fixed  on  a  handle,  so  as  to  avoid 
contact  with  the  nitric  acid,  which  stains 
the  hands.  When  the  plates  have  been 
well  covered  with  any  of  these  solutions, 
let  them  stand  to  drain  in  a  rack,  then 
rub  and  wash  well  with  a  sponge  and 
water.  Dry.  The  side  intended  for  the 
collodion  must  next  be  polished  with 
Tripoli  powder  and  a  few  drops  of  spirit 
of  wine,  rubbed  over  with  cotton  wool, 


250 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


wipe  off  the  excess  of  Tripoli,  and  polish 
with  a  dry  chamois  leather.  Place  the 
cleaned  plates  iuta  a  properly  grooved 
box,  with  all  the  faces  prepared  for  the 
collodion  turned  one  way.  It  is  ad- 
visal)le  to  wash  all  glasses  as  soon  as 
possible  after  use,  as  by  not  doing  so  the 
varnishes  dry  on  very  (irmly  and  are 
difficult  to  remove.  Waste  collodion 
may  be  utilized  for  cleaning  glasses;  it 
removes  all  grease.  When  glasses  have 
once  been  cleaned,  avoid  touching  them 
with  the  naked  hand,  as  it  is  sure  to  leave 
stain.  There  are  various  holders  in  use  ; 
the  india-rubber  pneumatic  is  one  of  the 
best.  Before  using  a  plate  dust  it  care- 
fully with  soft  silk  or  a  piece  of  clean  old 
rag.  Perfect  cleanliness  is  imperative. 
Sizes  of  Photographic  Glasses. — 2J  in. 
X  2  in.,  ninth  plate;  3J  X  2f,  sixth; 
i\  X  3},  quarter,  carte  de  visile ;  5  x 
4,  third;  6i  x  4^,  half;  ^  x  6J, 
whole.  All  plates  above  whole  size  are 
denote<l  by  dimensions  only,  Gj  in.  x 
'i\  in  stereoscopic  plate.  The  following 
are  the  diameters  and  focal  lengths  of 
lenses  suitable  for  portraits  of  the  usual 
sizes : — 


Uiam.  of 

Kocal 

S 

zc  of 

Lens. 

length, 
ins. 

pi 

cture. 

ins. 

ns. 

u 

H 

O  1 

X  2 

2 
3 

5 

H 

X3i 

7 

r> 

X  4 

2 

7 

.ij 

X  4i 

'A 

9.i 

8i 

X  6i 

For  groups 

1 

H 

11 

9 

X  7 

4i 

l.i 

10 

X  8 

4} 

l.j 

12 

X   10 

H 

19 

15 

X   12 

For  views; 

n 

8 

6 

X  r, 

2 

10 

7 

X    <i 

n 

14 

9 

X  7 

3 

HJ 

12 

X  ic 

4 

24 

16 

X   12 

Tiie  dimension*  of  pint  uren  given  are  maxi- 
mum sizes,  and  to  ensure  a  thoroufjhiy 
good  picture.  It  is  be.st  to  use  a  lens  ol'n 
larger  Hize  than  is  nbsfduicly  necessary. 
Fatent    jdate    glasses  are    the  best    for 


negatives,  although  llatttd  crown  and 
sheet  glass  may  be  used.  Positives  are 
sometimes  taken  on  deep  red  or  purjile 
coloured  glass.  Whatever  kiuJ  of  glass 
is  chosen,  it  should  be  as  Hat  as  pos- 
sible, otherwise  it  will  be  dilficult  to 
place  in  the  dark  slide. 

Hie  Argentometer. — This  very  useful 
instrument  is  for  ascertaining  tlie 
strength  of  the  nitrate  of  silver  solu- 
tion, which  becomes  weakened  to  a 
certain  extent,  after  the  immersion 
of  every  plate.  To  use  the  argento- 
meter, fill  the  glass  jar  to  within  about 
two  inches  of  the  top  with  the  liquid  to 
be  tested,  and  then  insert  it;  the  degree 
on  the  scale  that  floats  on  a  level  with 
the  surface  of  the  fluid  will  indicate  the 
number  of  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  con- 
tained in  each  ounce  of  tiie  solution. 
Tliere  must  be  sufficient  liquid  to  prevent 
tlie  argentometer  resting  on  the  bottom 
of  the  jar.  For  strengthening  a  bath  to 
the  required  standard,  it  is  generally 
found  more  convenient  to  have  a  stronger 
prepared  bath  to  add  to  the  weak  one, 
than  to  add  the  nitrate  of  silver  direct. 

Positives  and  JS'cgitives. — With  the 
excejition  of  tlie  collodion  used,  there  is 
very  little  dill'erenie  bet  ween  the  chemi- 
cals used,  or  the  manipulation  required, 
for  the  production  of  a  positive  or 
negative.  A  positive  is  simply  a  glass 
plate  coated  with  a  thin  film  of  col- 
lodion, rendered  sensitive  to  the  light, 
wliii'h  receives  the  image  thrown  ujion 
it  by  the  lens.  The  ether  and  ali-oliol 
evaporate,  leaving  a  dry,  very  thin  tihn 
of  gun-cotton  upon  the  gla.s.s.  Tiiis  lilni 
constitutes  the  picture,  and  maybe  kept 
upon  the  glass,  or  removed  if  dosire<l. 
Positives  are  now  less  used  than  nega- 
tives ;  they  are  generally  ke]it  upon  the 
glass,  with  a  backing  of  black  varnish, 
and  are  in  fact  the  result,  whereas  ne- 
gatives are  only  taken  as  a  medium  for 
printing  from  afterwards. 

TiiK  C()i.i/)i)iON  Proce-ss. — Plain  cul- 
Icxliiin  is  a  mixture  of  alcohol,  sulphuric 
ether,  and  gun-cotton,  which  is  made 
suifalile  for  negative  photographic  pi.i- 
po.ses  by  an  iodide,  or  bromide  ;  it  is  then 
termed  sensitized  collodion. 

Tlic  Spirits  of  U'lVif  must  be  i)erfectly 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


251 


clear,  transparent,  and  free  from  any 
floating  impurities.  Should  it  contain 
luy  impurities,  they  must  be  removed 
by  filtration  tlirough  a  sheet  of  filtering 
paper;  properly  sujiported  in  the  mouth 
of  the  bottle.  Should  it  not  run  clear 
and  bright  the  first  time,  it  must  again 
be  filtered.  The  specific  gravity  of  the 
alcohol  should  be  about  -810,  and  is  not 
suitable  for  photography,  if  stronger 
than  -819. 

Ether. — Care  must  be  taken  to  procure 
the  sulphuric  ether  free  from  foreign 
substances,  and  to  keep  it,  and  liquids 
containing  it,  particularly  the  collodion, 
in  well-filled  and  closely-stojipered  bot- 
tles. The  chemical  action  which  takes 
place  when  the  ether  is  exposed  to  the 
air  is  very  injurious  to  its  photographic 
utility ;  it  is  very  volatile,  and  as  the 
vapour  it  gives  off  is  explosive  when 
mixed  with  atmospheric  air,  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  pour  it  from  one  vessel 
to  another  near  a  £re  or  artificial  light ; 
as  the  vapour  is  heavier  than  air,  it  will 
have  a  tendency  to  fall;  the  artificial 
light,  if  used,  should  therefore  be  consi- 
derably above  the  vessel  from  which  the 
ether  or  collodion  is  being  poured.  The 
specific  gravity  of  the  ether  may  vary 
from  -720  to  -ToO  ;  its  strength  is  ascer- 
tained by  the  hydrometer.  If  the  ether 
obtained  is  not  sutBciently  pure  for  pho- 
tographic purposes,  it  must  be  rectified. 
Place  it  in  a  tall  bottle,  with  about  a 
quarter  of  its  bulk  of  water,  cork  the 
bottle  tightly,  and  shake  it  for  some 
minutes.  Wlien  left  to  settle,  the  pure 
ether  will  float  on  the  water  ;  remove 
the  water  by  passmg  a  small  siphon-pipe, 
filled  with  water,  through  the  cork  and 
nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  liquid  in  the 
bottle,  holding  the  thumb  over  the  longer 
end  of  the  tube.  Remove  the  thumb; 
the  water  in  the  lower  part  of  the  bottle 
will  then  flow  up  the  siphon,  leaving 
the  washed  ether  in  the  bottle.  This 
operation  should  be  repeated,  and  the 
ether  must  then  be  dried  and  distilled, 
by  placing  it  in  a  glass  retort,  with  about 
a  quarter  of  its  bulk  of  quicklime. 
Connect  a  tube  to  the  retort,  and  arrange 
a  supply  of  very  cold  water  to  fall  upon 
the  tube,  so  as  to  cool  its  contents.    The 


end  of  this  tube  must  be  placed  over,  or 
into,  a  bottle;  the  retort  being  fixed  in 
a  water-bath  ;  a  small  charcoal  fire  is  lit 
underneath  it,  and  the  heat  of  the  wat;  r 
acting  upon  the  ether  causes  it  to  eva- 
porate. In  pasiring  along  the  tube  it  is 
condensed  and  falls  into  the  bottle.  Th'i 
water  falling  on  the  condensing  tube 
must  be  very  cold,  or  the  vapour  will 
not  be  properly  condensed.  Remove 
the  fire  when  all  the  ether  is  distilled, 
and  clean  out  the  retort  at  once,  as  it 
will  be  more  ditficult  to  clean  after- 
wards. Keep  the  heat  of  the  fire  from 
the  vessel  containing  the  distilled  ether, 
and  cork  the  bottle  immediately  the 
operation  is  completed.  A  double-stoji- 
pered  glass  bottle  is  best  suited  to  con- 
tain this  liquid.  As  ether  boils  at  a  very 
low  temperature,  about  96°  Fahr.,  it  will 
commence  to  evaporate  very  quickly ; 
and  the  water  in  the  water-bath  should 
not  be  allowed  to  rise  in  temperature 
much  beyond  110^  Fahr.,  if  pure  ether  is 
desired.  As  the  first  small  portion  of 
the  ether  will  probably  contain  some 
imjnirities,  that  should  be  rejected. 

Gun-Cotton. — Ordinary  gun-cotton  is 
used,  which  is  soluble  in  a  mixture  of 
ether  and  spirits  of  wine.  The  propor- 
tion of  gun-cotton  regulates  the  density 
of  the  liquid  obtained  and  materially 
atfects  the  action  of  the  mixture,  whet 
poured  on  the  glass  plate. 

Weights  and  Measures  itsed  in  Photo- 
graphy.— Most  chemicals  are  sold  by 
avoirdupois  weight,  but  all  photographic 
receipts  are  given  either  in  troy  weight, 
or  fluid  measure.  The  pound  is  the  same 
in  both  troy  and  avoirdupois,  but  in  the 
former  it  consists  of  12  oz.,  in  the  latter 
of  16.  Consequently,  for  an  ounce  of 
chemical  required  by  the  receipts,  more 
than  an  ounce  must  be  purchased. 

Fluid  Measure. — 69  mmims=l  dram 
or  1  3  ;  8  drams  =  1  ounce  or,  1  ^ ;  20 
ounces  =  1  pint ;  8  pints  =  1  gallon. 
Glass  measures  graduated  for  these  quan- 
tities are  used,  and  wherever  fluids  are 
spoken  of,  this  measure  is  intended. 

Collodion  Positives. — The  articles 
required  are  positive  collodion,  nitrate  of 
silver,  developing  and  fixing  soiutioivi, 
black  and  crystal  varnishes. 


252 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


Positive  CoUodior,.  —  Pyrotiliue,  and 
iodide  of  cadmium,  or  ammonium,  15 
grains  each  ;  ether,  3J  oz. ;  alcohol, 
i  J  oz.  Place  the  two  first  in  a  dry  bottle, 
then  pour  on  the  spirits  of  wine,  shake 
the  mixture  well,  then  add  the  ether, 
shake  again,  and  let  it  stand  for  12  hours. 
Decant  the  clear  portion  into  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle,  keep  well  .stoppered,  and 
in  the  dark.  Avoid  shaking  the  buttle 
when  about  to  use  the  collodion,  and 
never  use  quite  all  the  bottle  contains, 
as  the  sediment  which  will  accumulate 
at  the  bottom,  would  sjioil  the  picture. 
The  glass  plates  used  for  this  process  need 
not  be  so  carefully  chosen  as  for  the  ne- 
gative process ;  thev  should  be  as  tiat 
as  is  necessary  for  them  to  go  iuto  the 
camera  back,  but  the  colour  is  not  ma- 
terial. 

Xitrate  of  Silver  Bath. — Re-crystal- 
lized nitrate  of  silver,  5  drams,  dissolved 
in  10  oz.  of  distilled  water.  Filter  the 
solution  until  it  is  quite  clear,  then  add 
3  droi)s  of  nitric  acid,  and  10  drops  of 
collodion.  Shake  well  together  and  fil- 
ter. Blue  litmus  paper  should  slightly 
red'len  in  this  bath  ;  should  it  turn  very 
red  add  a  little  ammonia  or  oxide  of  sil- 
ver should  it  not  redden  at  all,  add  a  little 
acid  carel'ully,  <lrop  by  drop.  It  is  pre- 
ferable to  have  a  slight  excess  of  acid. 

Dctclopinij  Solution. — Protosul)  hate  of 
iron,  2  drams,  dissolved  in  8  oz.  of  dis- 
tilled water,  add  2J  drams  glacial  acetic 
acid,  2J  drams  alcohol,  and  5  minims 
nitric  acid.  Killer,  and  ]ioiir  iuto  a  woll- 
stopjiered  bottle;  this  solution  will  keep 
good  for  several  weeks  if  not  exposed  to 
the  air.  When  about  to  use  this  solu- 
tion, nearly  till  a  vertical  gl.iss  bath  with 
it ;  the  j>late  is  immersed  in  the  liquid  by 
means  of  hooks,  called  dippers. 

Fixinij  Solution. — jO  grains  of  cyaDide 
of  pot.-ussium  <lissolved  in  5  oz.  of  dis- 
tilled water,  that  is  to  say,  for  every 
(luiil  ounce  of  solution  required,  mix  10 
grains  of  cyanide  of  potassium  in  1  oz.  of 
distilled  water.  Filter,  and  keep  in  a 
weli-stopi)ereJ  bottle,  which,  from  the 
dangerous  nature  of  the  solution,  should 
be  Labelled  jwison. 

Conlintj  tlic  J'latc  with  Coll'Alion. — IFidd 
the  plate,  which  must  be  perfectly  clean 


and  dry,  in  the  left  hand,  or  sjppoitefl 
by  a  jineumatic  holder,  then  pour  on  very 
steadily  about  as  much  collodion  as  will 
half  cover  the  jdate.  Incline  the  plate, 
so  that  the  collodion  flows  from  one 
corner  to  the  other,  until  the  whole  of 
the  plate  has  been  coated ;  then  pour 
back  the  superfluous  collodion  into  its 
bottle,  from  one  of  the  corners  of  the 
plate.  Now  exclude  all  but  yellow  light 
from  the  dark  room.  Wlieu  the  collodion 
has  been  on  the  plate  a  few  seconds  it 
will  set  and  have  a  dull  appearance,  the 
plate  must  then  be  immersed  in  the  ni- 
trate of  silver  bath.  Lift  the  dipjier, 
lay  the  back  of  the  plate  on  it,  jdunge 
them  both  steadily  into  the  bath,  move 
the  plate  about  in  the  solution  for  a  few 
seconds,  then  put  the  cover  on  the  bath. 
The  time  the  plate  must  be  kept  in  the 
nitrate  of  silver  varies  with  the  tempe- 
rature, from  2  minutes  in  warm  wea- 
ther, to  10  in  cold  weather.  As  soon  as 
the  collodion  film  assumes  a  creamy  ap- 
pearance, remove  the  i)late  from  the 
bath,  being  cautious  to  hold  it  as  much 
•as  i)ossible  by  the  sides;  let  it  drain  on 
blotting  paper,  then  lay  it  in  tlie  dark 
slide,  collodion  side  downwanls;  close 
the  sliile.  Have  a  little  blotting  paper 
in  the  dark  slide,  to  absorb  any  little  i.i 
the  nitrate  solution  which  remains  on 
the  plate.  Have  some  of  the  developing 
and  fixing  solutions  ready  in  separate 
gla.sses,  and  clean  water  handy.  The 
action  of  the  nitrate  of  silver  bath  trans- 
forms the  iodide  of  cadmium  into  iodide 
of  silver,  which  is  seusitive  to  light;  the 
])late  is  then  ready  for  ex]iosure  in  the 
camera.  If  the  plate  is  placed  in  the 
bath  before  the  collodion  film  has  set 
properly  it  will  peel  olf,  and  it  will  be 
necessary  to  filter  the  nitrate  cf  silver 
bath  to  remove  it.  The  film  must  not 
be  allowed  to  get  toodiy,  before  immer- 
sion in  the  bath,  as  it  will  then  turn 
white  at  once,  and  will  not  produce  a 
good  photograph.  It  is  imjiortant,  in 
first  jdacing  the  plate  in  the  nitrate  os 
silver  bath,  to  do  so  steadily  and  conti- 
nuously, so  as  toavoid  marking  the  plate 
with  wavy  lines  and  stains.  Cover  the 
bath  when  not  in  u<e. 
Exposure, — Having  arranged  the  focus, 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


253 


and  finally  adjusted  the  sitter,  remove 
the  focus  screen  from  the  camera,  and 
put  the  dark  slide  in  its  place,  cover  the 
lens  with  the  cap,  draw  up  the  shutter, 
which  will  turn  down  on  the  camera. 
Up  to  this  point  au}-  little  movement  of 
the  sitter  is  of  no  consequence,  but 
having  now  given  the  final  caution, 
gently  remove  the  leus-caji,  so  as  not  to 
shake  the  camera,  and  note  the  time  in 
seconds.  The  time  for  exposure  varies 
considerably,  on  a  bright  day  a  shorter 
period  suffices  than  on  a  dull  day,  but 
no  certain  rules  can  be  laid  down,  as 
the  nature  of  the  light,  the  time  of  day, 
and  the  qualities  of  chemicals  em]iloved, 
are  all  elements  in  the  calculation — a 
little  practice  will  soon  give  an  approxi- 
mation ;  the  usual  failing  with  beginners 
is  too  long  an  exposure.  Replace  the 
cap,  close  the  sliding  shutter,  and  take 
the  slide  into  the  dark  room. 

Developing. — The  jilate  must  be  im- 
mersed in  the  developing  bath,  by 
means  of  dippers,  for  about  15  seconds, 
gently  moving  it  about  in  the  solution. 
On  removing  the  plate,  it  must  be  well 
washed  with  clean  water;  for  this  pur- 
pose a  siphon  washing  bottle  is  very 
handy.  This  is  a  bottle,  through  the 
cork  of  which  two  glass  tubes  are 
passed.  One  of  these  tubes  reaches 
nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle,  the 
other  only  just  passes  through  the  cork; 
by  blowing  through  this  short  tube  the 
water  passes  up  the  long  one,  and  is 
projected  with  more  or  less  force  in  the 
desired  direction.  After  the  process  of 
developing  and  washing,  the  plate  is  no 
longer  aflected  by  light,  which  may 
therefore  be  admitted  if  desired. 

Fixing. — The  iodide  of  silvej  which 
gives  the  creamy  appearance  ..o  the 
collodionized  plate,  must  be  dissolved, 
by  pouring  some  of  the  fixmg  solution 
on  and  off  the  plate.  As  soon  as  those 
parts  of  the  plate  which  should  repre- 
sent the  black  parts  of  the  picture  are 
quite  clear,  pour  off  the  fixing  solution, 
and  wash  the  plate  thoroughly.  Dry 
over  a  spirit  lamp.  At  this  stage  ex- 
amme  the  plate,  it  should  have  a  glossy 
appearance,  and  the  blacks  be  very  pure. 
\i  there  is  a  foggy  appearance,  this  may 


be  removed  by  washing  the  plate,  im- 
mediately after  the  fixing,  in  a  solution 
composed  of  15  grains  of  iodine,  to  an 
ounce  of  spirits  of  wine.  When  the 
fogging  has  disappeared,  wash  away  the 
iodine,  use  the  fixing  solution  again, 
wash  and  dry.  If  the  plate  is  now 
satisfictory,  varnish  the  film  side  with 
crystal  varnish,  or  a  very  clear  solution 
of  gum  arable  ;  apply  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  collodion,  but  run  the  surplus 
varnish  off  the  plate  quickly,  as  an 
excess  of  varnish  injuj-es  the  etiect.  The 
glass  side  should  be  coated  with  black 
varnish,  applied  in  a  smooth  layer,  by  a 
camel-hair  brush.  Place  the  plate  in 
its  mount,  with  a  clean  glass  in  front, 
and  close  in  the  back  and  sides,  to  pre- 
vent dust  from  getting  in. 

Crystal  Varnish. — Dissolve  1  oz.  of 
white  lac  in  10  oz.  of  warm  spirits  of 
wine.  Let  the  varnish  settle  for  several 
weeks,  then  carefully  decant  the  clear 
portion  into  a  bottle  for  use. 

Black  Varnish  for  Backing,  see  p.  72. 

General  Instructions  for  Glass  Posi- 
tives.— If  the  picture  is  very  dark  it  has 
not  been  exposed  long  enough ;  if,  on 
the  contrary,  the  shadows  are  weak,  and 
the  dark  parts  are  not  dark  enough,  the 
plate  has  been  exposed  too  long.  Foc- 
giug  is  a  very  common  and  troublesome 
occurrence;  there  are  many  things  likely 
to  cause  it,  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult 
to  find  which  of  them  it  is.  Impure  air 
in  the  rooms,  such  as  from  an  escape  of 
gas,  or  from  new  paint,  will  sometimes 
cause  it,  but  usually  it  arises  from  some 
error  in  the  manipulation,  or  defect  in 
the  chemicals.  Try  the  nitrate  of  silver 
bath  with  litmus  paper;  add  a  little  acid 
if  the  paper  does  not  turn  slightly  red. 
Examine  the  window  in  the  dark  room, 
to  see  that  the  light  admitted  is  of  a  suffi- 
ciently dark  yellow  or  orange  tinge,  and 
see  that  no  light  enters  at  any  other 
place — also  make  sure  that  there  is  nc 
crevice  in  the  camera  through  which 
light  can  pass.  Collodion  should  not  be 
used  too  soon  after  it  is  made.  It 
should  be  of  a  golden  sherry  colour;  this 
may  be  obtained  by  adding  a  little  of  an 
old  bottle  of  collodion,  which  is  of  a  dark 
colour,  or  by  pouring  in  a  few  drops  of 


254 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPT5?, 


tiuclure  of  iodine.  The  principal  causes 
of  Jefects  arising  from  faulty  manipula- 
tion are,  leaving  the  developing  solution 
too  long  upon  the  plate  ;  this  results  in  a 
bright  silvery  deposit.  When  the  de- 
veloping solution  has  not  been  properly 
washed  olT  before  fixing,  there  will  be 
green  stains,  especially  at  the  edges.  If 
the  collodion  is  allowed  to  get  too  dry 
before  being  placed  in  the  nitrate  of 
silver  bath,  there  will  be  trans]K\rent 
hpots  on  the  plate.  If  the  developing 
solution  does  not  flow  readily  over  the 
plate,  and  the  operator  does  not  perform 
the  developing  steadily  and  carefully, 
there  will  be  stains  or  wavy  lines  on  the 
picture.  Any  floating  dust  in  the  air, 
or  impurities  in  the  solutions  used,  will 
cause  s])ots  and  marks.  If  a  picture, 
which  is  brilliant  when  wet,  turns  dull 
on  drying,  with  misty  blue  shadows, 
the  cause  is  bad  collodion. 

Coi.LODio.v  Xkgativks. — The  priu- 
npal  difference  between  the  processes 
fif  negative  and  positive  phutograj>hy  is, 
that  the  negative  plate  requires  about 
three  times  longer  exposure  than  the 
positive.  The  plates  used  may  be  the 
same,  but  certain  modifications  are 
necessary  in  the  bath,  chemicals,  and 
collodion.  The  ilevelnping  solution  must 
be  kept  on  as  long  as  the  details  of  the 
picture  continue  to  come  out,  then  wash 
oflf.  When  the  plate  is  held  up  to  the 
light  it  should  present  the  appearance 
of  a  much  over-e.xposed  positive,  there 
being  very  little  clear  glass,  and  that 
only  where  the  sh.adows  are  quite  black, 
while  those  i)arts  which  rcjirescnt  the 
white  parts  of  the  picture  should  he 
quite  ojiaque.  It  only  happens  under 
the  most  favourable  conditions,  in  jjor- 
tr.iiture,  that  the  (irst  developing  of  the 
negative  renders  it  sulficiently  dense  to 
produce  good  prints,  hence  the  m'cessity 
of  the  subsequent  ojieration  called  in- 
tensifying; this  is  a  kind  of  second 
developing,  by  which  the  density  is 
increased  to  the  required  degree.  The 
process  is  as  follows  : — I'ut  four  or  live 
drops  of  intensifyiui;  solution  No.  2  into 
a  clean  >;lass;  then  tlond  the  jilate  with 
intensifying  soluti<tn  No.  1,  and  when  it 
ha»  covered   the  whole  surface,  pour  it 


off  into  the  glass  containing  the  No.  2 
solution,  and  shake  the  glass  round  so 
as  to  mix  them,  then  immediately  pour 
the  mixture  upon  the  plate  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  developer,  pouring  it  off 
into  the  glass  every  few  seconds,  and 
holding  the  negative  up  to  the  light 
each  time  until  it  appears  sufficiently 
dense.  By  careful  printing  a  f  lirly  good 
proof  may  be  got  from  an  over-exposed 
negative,  but  with  an  under-exposed 
negative  no  good  result  can  be  obtained. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  continue 
the  intensifying  too  long,  or  a  deposit  of 
red  f  )g  will  take  place,  and  the  negative 
will  be  spoilt.  While  the  intensifying 
is  proceeding,  the  liquid  gradually 
assumes  a  dark  claret  colour,  and  if 
kept  on  too  long  will  become  turbid  and 
cause  fogging.  The  point  to  which  in- 
tensifying can  be  safely  carried  may  be 
known,  after  a  little  ex])erience,  by  a 
peculiar  change  of  colour  in  the  high 
lights  of  the  picture  which  takes  place 
just  before  fogging  commences.  When 
this  change  is  observed  the  solution 
must  be  quickly  washed  otf.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  intensifier  should  not 
be  poured  on  at  the  same  part  of  the 
plate  each  time,  or  that  part  will  become 
denser  than  the  rest.  The  fixing  is  the 
same  as  in  the  positive  process  ;  but  a 
rather  longer  washing  should  be  given. 
When  dry,  the  film  should  be  very 
slightly  brushed  with  a  soft  camel- 
hair  brush,  made  for  the  purpose,  to 
remove  any  dust  or  loose  particles  of 
silver  ;  the  plate  must  then  be  warmed 
until  it  is  as  hot  as  can  be  borne  upon 
the  back  of  the  hand,  and  the  negative 
varnish  jwuredover  the  film  in  the  same 
manner  .as  the  collodion ;  it  should  not 
be  drained  off'  too  rapidly,  but  allowed 
to  flow  slowly  over  the  |>late,  so  as  not 
to  k'.-ive  too  thin  a  coating.  If  only  a 
few  prints  are  requiieil  from  the  nega- 
tive, crystal  varnish  will  answer  the 
jturjiose  ;  but  if  it  is  desired  to  preserve 
the  negative,  and  to  get  many  jiriuts 
from  it,  the  crystal  varnish  will  not 
give  hullicient  protection,  .and  a  spirit 
varnish  must  be  used,  which  gives  a 
niuch  harder  surfice.  When  the  sur- 
plus v.arnish  has  run  off,  the  plate  must 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


255 


be  again  gently  heated  until  the  vai-nish 
IS  di'y.  Experience  alone  will  indicate 
the  proper  heat  to  use  when  applying 
the  varnish  ;  if  the  plate  be  not  warm 
enough  the  varnish  will  dry  dull,  and  if 
too  hot  it  will  run  into  streaks  and  be 
lialile  to  blister.  If  any  varnish  should 
get  upon  the  wrong  side  of  the  glass  it  can 
be  cleaned  off  with  a  little  alcohol.  As 
soon  as  the  j)late  is  cold  it  is  ready  for 
printing  from. 

Faults  in  Negatives. — In  addition  to 
tht  faults  which  occur  in  positives, 
there  are  some  others  to  which  negatives 
are  liable.  If  the  negative  is  deficient 
in  density,  and  has  somewhat  the  appear- 
ance of  a  positive,  it  is  the  result  of 
under-exposure,  or  may  be  caused  by 
washing  off  the  developer  too  soon.  If 
the  deep  shadows,  which  should  be  clear 
glass,  are  veiled  by  a  grey  deposit,  and 
the  whole  picture  is  wanting  in  vigour 
and  contrast,  it  is  caused  by  over-expo- 
sure. Red  or  brown  fog,  generally 
beginning  at  one  corner  of  the  plate,  is 
caused  by  keeping  the  intensifier  on  too 
long.  The  film  tears  and  leaves  the 
glass  while  being  washed.  This  will 
sometimes  occur  when  the  negative  has 
been  much  intensified.  Remedy — longer 
exposure  and  less  intensifying.  The 
film  splits  and  peels  off  the  plate  when 
dry.  Cause — imperfectly  cleaned  glass 
or  bad  collodion.  Numerous  minute 
transparent  spots,  called  pinholes,  indi- 
cate that  the  bath  is  out  of  order. 
Small  crystals  which  form  under  and 
upon  the  film  when  dry  are  from  traces 
of  the  fixing  solution  which  has  not 
been  completely  washed  off. 

Softening  of  Photographic  Piitures. — 
The  likenesses  produced  by  photograph 
have,  in  many  cases,  a  harshness  which 
is  extremely  disagreeable.  The  camera 
will  tell  the  truth,  but  its  elTects  may 
be  toned  down  so  as  to  give  the  features 
something  of  that  softness  which  is 
generally  imparted  by  the  portrait 
painter.  For  this  purpose  use  a  lace 
curtain  stretched  between  the  sitter  and 
the  camera — the  nearer  it  is  to  the 
latter,  the  more  sot'tness  it  imparts. 
The  grain  of  a  chalk  drawing  is  pro- 
duced by  the  threads,  and  characteristics 


of  the  model  which  would  not  bear  pro- 
minence are  pleasingly  softened  down. 

Printing  Process. — The  copies  taken 
from  the  negative  are  printed  u]ion 
paper  containing  a  salt  which  forms 
chloride  of  silver  by  decomposing  the 
nitrate  of  silver  in  the  sensitizing  solu- 
tion. 

Positive  Paper, — Specially  prepared 
paper  for  positives  is  easily  obtained. 
The  size  is  22  in.  by  17  in.;  the  weight 
varies,  but  should  not  be  less  that 
24  lbs.  to  the  ream  for  paper  to  be 
albumenized,  and  for  salted  paper  about 
18  lbs.  a  ream  will  be  heavy  enough. 
Reject  any  sheets  having  black  spots  or 
blemishes,  and  those  that  are  uneven  in 
texture.  Select  the  most  even  side  for 
the  chemicals,  by  examining  each  sheet 
in  a  refiecteil  light,  marking  the  wrong 
side  with  a  pencil.  Always  hold  the 
paper  by  the  extreme  edge,  as  a  slight 
stain  is  sure  to  be  found  where  the 
fingers  have  touched  it.  For  portraits, 
and  most  other  uses,  the  pajier  is  albu- 
menized on  one  side,  the  resulting  print 
then  having  a  more  or  less  glazed  sur- 
face, according  as  to  whether  or  not  the 
albumen  has  been  diluted.  When  pho- 
tographs are  printed  to  be  afterwards 
coloured,  so-called  j^lciia  i)aper  is  used, 
which  gives  a  dull  surface  like  an  en- 
graving. Positive  paper,  when  treated 
with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  has 
the  property  of  rapidly  darkening  on 
being  exposed  to  the  sunlight;  if,  there- 
fore, a  sheet  of  it  is  placed  behind  a 
negative  and  exposed  to  the  light,  wliere 
the  clear  portions  of  tho  negative  allow 
the  light  to  pass  through,  the  paper  will 
become  dark,  whilst  the  dark  parts  of 
the  negative  which  obstruct  the  light 
will  remain  white  on  the  positive  paper. 
When  the  positive  print  is  obtained,  it 
has  to  be  soaked  in  the  fixing  solution 
to  remove  all  the  chloride  of  silv^jr 
which  has  not  been  affected  by  the  light. 
A  careful  washing  in  clean  water  com- 
pletes the  process  of  printing. 

Albumenized  Paper. — There  are  several 
well-known  pa]iers  sold;  Rive,  which  ;,? 
a  French  paper,  has  a  high  glaze  and  fine 
surface ;  the  Saxe,  which  is  more  uni- 
form in  its  texture,  is  made  in  Germany 


256 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


and  that  made  by  Towgood.  Positive 
pajier  i«  albumenized  by  placing  it  in  a 
mixture  composed  of  the  white  of  eggs 
and  salt.  To  the  white  of  each  mo- 
derate-sized egg  use  15  grains  of  com- 
mon salt  reduced  to  a  fine  jiowder; 
whisk  until  the  albumen  is  all  white 
troth.  Leave  this  froth  in  a  glazed 
earthen  pan  for  about  12  hours,  by 
which  time  most  of  it  has  settled  into 
clear  albumen ;  pour  the  clear  portion 
into  a  Hat  porcelain  tray.  This  tray 
should  be  somewhat  larger  than  the 
sheets  of  paper  to  be  albumenized.  Lift 
the  paper  up  by  the  ends,  and  lay  it 
carefully  on  the  albumen,  keeping  the 
.side  marked  as  inferior  uppermost  and 
dry.  The  paper  should  be  slightly 
damp  before  it  is  thus  treated,  as  it  then 
takes  the  albumen  more  regularly,  and 
is  not  so  liable  to  air -bubbles.  Tiie 
paper  must  be  liftc<l  at  each  end,  and 
should  any  air-bubbles  appear,  brush 
them  off  with  a  card  or  small  brush, 
reiilacing  the  paper  in  the  bath.  Wher- 
ever the  albump"!  does  not  come  into 
actual  coutaci  with  the  paper,  a  white 
mark  will  appear  in  the  piiut.  Itemove 
the  paper  from  the  bath,  and  place  it  to 
dry  on  a  cardboard  frame,  or  suspcii<lcd 
at  the  corners  by  clips.  I'a])er  glazed 
with  pure  albumen  acquires  too  brilliant 
a  glaze  for  portraits;  the  albumen  may 
be  diluted  with  from  J  to  -^  of  its  bulk 
.of  water.  Albumenized  paper  is  not 
sensitive  to  light,  but  absorbs  moisture 
from  the  atmospheie  very  rajiidly,  it 
should  therefore  be  ke[it  in  tin  or  zinc 
cases. 

rtain  P'ipcr.  —  Albumenized  pajier 
may  be  used  ns  ]ilain  jiajier,  if  instead  of 
sensitizing  the  glazed  side,  the  ]dain 
side  is  placed  in  the  sensitizing  solution. 
Or  place  some  sheets  of  Saxc  paper  in  a 
salting  bath  of  100  grains  each  of  chlo- 
ride of  barium  and  chloride  of  ammo- 
nium, and  20  grains  of  citrate  of  soda 
dissolved  in  'JO  oz.  of  water.  Leave  the 
pa{>cr  in  the  bath  lor  about  5  minutes, 
f.irrl'ully  removing  all  air-bciiibles.  Thr>n 
hang  the  Klicets  to  dry.  The  pictui-os 
produced  on  this  latter  j)aper  are  not  so 
rich  in  apfiearauce  as  those  printed  on 
albumenized  pa]>er. 


Prcpnrinj  the  Pitper.  —  1  his  opera- 
tion must  be  performed  in  the  dark 
room,  or  it  may  be  done  by  candlelight, 
as  the  prepared  paper  is  not  so  sensitive 
as  the  glass  jilafes.  The  paper  must  be 
cut  into  pieces  of  a  convenient  size,  at 
least  a  quarter  of  an  inch  smaller  than 
the  dish  which  is  used  to  contain  the 
sensitizing  nitrate  of  silver  solution. 
The  dish  must  be  perfectly  clean,  ami 
contain  solution  at  least  half  an  incii 
deep.  The  piece  of  paper  is  then  to  be 
laid  gently  upon  the  surfice  of  the  solu- 
tion, with  the  albumenized,  or  the 
selected,  side,  if  plain  paper,  downwards, 
and  allowed  to  float  upon  it  without 
wetting  the  back  ;  after  about  30  se- 
conds the  paper  should  be  raised  from 
the  solution  at  one  end,  and  if  any  air- 
bubbles  ai)])ear  they  must  be  broken, 
either  by  blowing  on  tiiem  or  by  touch- 
ing them  with  a  piece  of  clean  blotting 
pajier,  aud  : he  pajier  being  again  laid 
ujion  the  solution,  the  other  end  must 
be  raised  and  treated  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  pajier  must  not  be  en- 
tirely removed  from  the  bath,  or  it  will 
curl  uji,  and  the  back  come  in  contact 
with  the  prepared  side.  After  floating 
from  4  to  5  minutes  the  jiajier  may 
be  removed  from  the  bath,  being  lifted 
slowly  by  one  corner  with  ebonite  for- 
ce])s,  and  held  over  the  dish  until  it 
ceases  to  drip,  when  it  should  be  hung 
U])  to  dry,  either  by  suspending  it  with 
a  jiin  through  one  corner,  to  the  edge  of 
a  shelf',  or  by  h.iiiging  it  by  a  glass  clip 
to  a  line.  Carefully  prevent  any  of  the 
solution  from   running  on   the  back   of 

'  the  ]iaper.  When  the  paper  is  thoroughly 
dry  it  should  be  cut  into  pieces  rather 
smaller   than   the  negative   to   be   used, 

i  and  ]ilaced  in  a  jxirtfolio  or  a  book. 
Good  ]iaper  will  keej)  two  or  three  days 
after  being  sensitized  if  carefully  ex- 
cluded from  light  and  air;  but  it  should 
always  be  used  as  soon  as  jiossible,  as 
recently-sensitized  paper  always  yields 
better  prints  than  that  which  has  been 
kept  fur  some  time.  If  it  is  requii-cd 
to  kci'p  the  sensitized  pajx-r  for  any 
length  of  time,  it  must  be  jdaced  in  an 
air-tight   zinc  or  tin  box,  with   a  little 

,  saucer  containing  some  dry  crystals  of 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


257 


chloride  of  calcium.  This  substance 
absorbs  any  moisture  there  may  be  in 
the  air  in  the  box,  and  thus  keeps  the 
paper  dry. 

Printing. — The  negative  being  placed 
in  the  printing  frame,  plain  side  down- 
wards, the  paper  is  to  be  laid  upon  it, 
with  the  prepared  side  in  contact  with 
the  varnished  side  of  the  negative  ;  the 
back  of  the  frame  is  then  put  into  its 
place  and  the  springs  closed  ;  if  it  has 
screws,  these  should  be  tightly  screwed 
down  to  prevent  the  paper  from  shift- 
ing ;  it  is  then  ready  to  be  exposed  to 
the  light.  With  good  dense  negatives 
the  printing  may  be  conducted  in  direct 
sunshine,  but  weak  negatives  are  best 
printed  from  in  diffused  light.  The 
print  must  be  examined  at  intervals  to 
see  how  it  proceeds ;  this  is  done  by 
raising  one  side  of  the  hinged  back  of 
the  frame  and  turning  back  the  paper 
from  the  negative,  being  careful  always 
to  keep  the  other  end  of  the  frame 
closed,  so  that  the  paper  may  not  be  dis- 
placed, and  not  allowing  any  strong 
light  to  f;\ll  upon  the  paper  while  the 
frame  is  open.  The  printing  must  be 
allowed  to  go  on  until  the  picture  has 
become  rather  darker  than  it  is  in- 
tended ultimately  to  be,  as  the  subse- 
C[uent  operations  of  tonmg  and  fixing 
exercise,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  kind  of 
bleaching  efiect  upon  it.  The  back  of 
the  printing  frame  must  be  quite  flat, 
otherwise  the  paper  will  not  oe  in  per- 
fect contact  with  the  negative.  A 
passable  print  may  be  got  from  a  weak 
negative,  if  the  exposure  to  the  light  be 
prolonged,  but  ditfused,  not  direct  sun- 
light, should  be  used  in  this  case.  For 
vignettes,  or  other  photographs,  where 
white  or  graduated  backgrounds  are  de- 
sired, glasses  for  the  printing  frame  are 
used,  having  yellow  borders,  which  pre- 
vent the  passage  of  the  pure  white  rays 
of  light.  The  resulting  print  will  only 
be  black  under  the  unob.scured  portions 
of  the  glass.  The  same  course  may  be 
adopted  when  the  background  of  a  ne- 
gative is  m  any  way  defective.  If  a 
recently  varnished  negative  is  exposed 
to  the  direct  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  it 
will    probably  stick    to   the   paper ;    m 

\ 


such  cases  it  is  preferable  to  use  dili'used 
light,  or  to  cover  the  face  of  the  frame 
with  thin  white  paper.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  printing  should  proceed  until 
those  parts  which  are  to  be  white 
assume  a  slight  tint ;  this  will  take 
from  ten  minutes  to  a  whole  day,  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  the  negative 
and  the  amount  of  light.  When  the 
prints  are  finished  they  must  be  kept  in 
the  dark  until  all  that  are  required  the 
same  day  are  done ;  the  toning  and 
fixing  should  then  be  proceeded  with  as 
soon  as  possible,  as  if  delayed  many 
hours  the  prints  will  not  tone  readily, 
and  if  kept  long  not  at  all. 

Toning. — The  toning  and  fixing  may 
be  carried  on  in  dilfused  light,  as  it  is 
difiicult  to  judge  of  the  colour  in  toning 
by  artificial  light;  but  not  more  light 
than  is  necessary  should  be  admitted  to 
the  room,  and  the  prints  shielded  from 
it  as  much  as  convenient.  If  too  much 
light  be  admitted,  the  prints  will  ac- 
quire a  pink  colour  while  toning.  The 
prints  must  first  be  washed  for  10  or 
15  minutes  in  at  least  three  changes  of 
rain  or  distilled  water,  and  then  im- 
mersed in  the  toning  bath,  which  should 
be  poured  into  a  glass  or  porcelain  dish  ; 
while  in  the  toning  bath  the  prints  must 
be  moved  about  from  time  to  time,  so 
that  it  may  act  equally  on  all  parts  of 
thern,  and  only  a  few  prints  should  be 
in  the  bath  at  one  time.  After  being 
in  the  toning  bath  a  few  minutes,  the 
red  brick  colour  which  the  prints 
usually  present  after  washing  will  begin 
to  change,  and  gradually  become  darker 
until  they  are  a  purple  black,  at  which 
point  they  should  be  removed  from  the 
bath  and  placed  in  clean  water  until  all 
are  ready.  If  it  is  desired  that  the 
prints  should  be  of  a  brown  or  sepia 
tone,  they  must  be  taken  from  the  bath 
when  they  reach  the  required  tint, 
which  will  be  rather  lighter  after  fixing. 
If  the  prints  are  left  too  long  in  the 
bath  they  will  acquire  a  cold  inky  tone, 
which  is  very  undesirable.  Prints  on 
albumenized  paper  require  more  gold  in 
the  toning  bath  than  those  on  plain 
salted  paper. 

Fixing. — The  quantity  ol  "ixing  solu- 


258 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


tion  required  will  be  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  prints  to  be  fixed  ;  for 
one  dozen,  or  less,  of  the  ^-plate  size, 
5  oz.  will  be  surticient,  and  for  a  larger 
number  the  quantity  must  be  propor- 
tionally increased.  The  prints  must  re- 
main in  it  for  20  minutes,  and  during 
that  time  must  be  frequently  moved 
about  and  separated,  and  from  time  to 
time  turned  over,  so  that  the  solution 
shall  act  equally  on  every  part  of  the 
paper.  If  this  is  not  carefully  attended 
to  the  pictures  will  soon  become  dis- 
coloured and  fade.  After  20  minutes' 
immersion  in  the  Hxmg  bath,  the  prints 
must  be  lifted  out,  one  at  a  time,  held 
up  by  one  corner  for  a  few  seconds  to 
drain,  and  then  plunged  into  a  vessel  of 
clean  water.  The  hyjiosulpiiite  solution 
should  be  used  slightly  warm. 

Washing. — The  object  of  this  process 
is  to  secure  the  stability  of  the  picture 
by  removing  all  traces  of  the  li.xing 
solution  with  which  the  paper  i  satu- 
rated. One  of  the  chief  causes  of  tlie 
fading  of  prints  is  insullicient  washing. 
The  water  in  which  the  prints  are  placed 
muht  be  changed  at  least  six  times,  at 
intervals  of  about  an  hour,  and  each 
lime  the  water  is  changed  the  prints 
should  be  taken  out  separately  and 
drained  before  being  put  into  the  fresh 
water.  In  the  last  change  they  may 
remain  all  night.  The  more  capacious 
tiie  vessel  u.'-ed  in  this  process,  and  the 
tftener  the  water  is  changed,  tlie  more 
permanent  the  prints  will  be.  An 
earthenware  pan  will  lie  found  conve- 
nient. Woodi.'u  or  metallic  vessels  must 
be  carefully  avoided.  A  convenient  way 
of  washing  ]iriuts  is  to  jilace  them  in  a 
large  pie-<ii»h  or  a  photographic  dish, 
and  place  this  in  u  sink,  under  a  tap 
turned  on  only  sullicieutly  to  run  a  small 
stream  continuously,  which  i;hould  run 
in  at  the  higher  end  of  the  cli.sh,  this 
being  slightly  tilted.  The  prints  will 
thus  be  kept  in  continual  motion  by  the 
water,  and  in  one  night  b«  perfectly 
washed.  Another  method  is  to  pin  the 
prints  by  their  edges  in  a  row  to  a  long 
slip  of  wood,  such  a<3  a  lath,  and  set 
Ihein  afloat  in  a  water  cistern  for  12 
hours. 


Mounting.  —  When  the  prints  have 
been  thoroughly  washed  and  drained 
they  should  be  laid  between  sheets  of 
clean  blotting  paper,  to  absorb  the  su- 
perfluous water,  and  afterwards  dried. 
As  they  usually  curl  up  when  dry,  they 
may  be  flattened  by  drawing  the  back  of 
the  paper  over  any  blunt-edged  instru- 
ment, such  as  a  paper  knife,  or  the  back 
may  be  pressed  with  a  warm  flat-iron 
they  are  next  to  be  cut  to  the  iiiojicr  size 
by  means  of  a  glass  cutting  shape  and 
a  sharp  knife,  and  then  mounted  on 
cards  with  a  newly-made  cold  paste  of 
dextrine  or  starch.  Tlie  appearance  of 
the  Hnished  prints  is  greatly  improved 
by  having  them  rolled. 

Good  jihotographers  usually  cover 
small  defects  in  likenesses  by  touching 
them  witn  a  small  brush  di])ped  m 
colour  the  same  tone  as  the  print. 

To  Varnish  Cartes  de  Visitc.  —  Tiie 
mounted  jihotograph  must  first  be  sized 
with  a  warm  solution  of  10  grains  of 
gi'latine  dissolved  in  1  oz.  of  water. 
Hot-press,  or  burnish  with  a  burnisher. 
Then  ai)i)ly  crystal  enamel,  by  means  of 
a  small  piece  of  cotton  wool  saturated 
with  the  enamel,  and  wrajipcd  iu  a  per- 
fectly clean  piece  of  white  calico  lag, 
slightly  moistened  with  hnseed  oil. 
Gently  rub  this  over  the  picture  with  a 
circular  motion,  until  it  becomes  bril- 
liant, then  finish  by  a]iplying  a  little 
sjiirits  of  wine,  and  lastly  linseed  oil,  in 
the  same  manner. 

Crystal  Enamel.  —  Dissolve  1  oz.  of 
white  lac  in  10  oz.  of  warm  alcohol. 
Let  the  mixture  stand  for  some  weeks, 
then  dec;iut  the  clear  portion  for  use. 

Defects  in  Paper  Prints. — A  marbled 
ajipearanre  on  the  surface  of  the  paper 
indicates  that  it  has  been  removed  from 
the  sensitizing  solution  too  soon,  or  else 
that  the  solution  i  too  weak.  As  the 
strength  of  the  solution  is  decreased 
each  time  it  is  used,  it  should  be  tested 
occ;usioually  with  the  argentometer,  and 
sullicient  nitrate  of  silver  added  to  bring 
it  to  its  original  strength  of  60  grains 
to  the  oun(«.  White  spots  are  thi! 
result  of  air-bubble.H  which  have  nc-t 
been  detected  and  dis])ersed  while  the 
paper  was  being  sensitized.     Red  spot^i 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


^59 


which  will  not  change  colour  in  the 
toning  bath  are  caused  by  touching  the 
face  of  the  print  with  the  finger,  which 
has  left  a  greasy  impression  on  the  al- 
bumen. If  the  prints  are  weak  and 
slaty  iu  colour,  either  tlie  negative  is  in 
fault,  the  paper  is  bad,  or  the  sensi- 
tizing solution  is  too  weak.  If  the 
prints  become  yellow  or  spotted  after 
they  are  finished  it  is  because  the  fixing 
and  washing  processes  have  not  been 
properly  carried  out. 

Plain  Collodion. — Jlix  in  a  bottle, 
gun-cotton,  450  grains;  ether,  25  oi.\ 
spirits  of  wine,  7  oz.  Shake  these 
well  together,  and  leave  to  settle  for 
several  days.  If  well  corked,  this  mix- 
ture may  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time. 

Sensitized  Collodion. — Add  to  1  oz. 
of  the  plain  collodion,  6  drams  spirits  of 
wine.  If  oz.  ether,  and  3  drams  o( 
lodide  of  bromide  solution.  Shake  the 
bottle  well ;  the  mi.\ture  is  then  ready, 
but  is  improved  by  being  kept  4  or 
5  ho'u's  before  using.  In  hot  weather 
a  litue  more  alcohol  and  less  ether,  in 
Tery  cold  weather  more  ether  and  less 
alcohol  must  be  used.  As  sensitized 
collodion  does  not  preserve  its  qualities 
well,  it  is  better  not  to  mis  the  ])lain 
collodion,  and  the  iodide  and  bromide 
solution  until  shortly  before  required 
for  use. 

Iodide  and  Bromide  Solution. — Iodide 
of  cadmium,  154  grains;  bromide  of  cad- 
mium, 54  grains ;  spiiits  of  wine, 
3J  oz.  Pound  the  iodide  and  broniide 
very  fine  in  a  mortar,  adding  the  spirits 
gradually,  when  the  iodide  and  bromide 
are  dissolved,  pass  the  solution  through 
a  filter  paper  into  a  bottle.  This  solu- 
tion will  not  deteriorate  if  kept  In  a 
closelv-stoppered  bottle. 

Iodide  of  Cadmium. — Put  4  oz.  of 
iodine  mto  a  pint  of  water,  add  2  oz. 
of  cadmium,  broken  small.  Warm  gra- 
dually, and  keep  the  water  at  about  190° 
Fahr.  for  several  hours;  when  the  liquid 
becomes  colourless,  let  it  cool,  and  then 
filter.  The  remaining  cadmium  may  be 
again  used.  Evaporate  the  solution 
down  to  crystals,  which  must  be 
pounded  in  a  mortar  to  a  fine  powder. 
Keep  in  a  stoppered  bottle. 


Bromide  of  Cadmium. — Pour  3  oz.  of 
bromide  into  1  pint  of  water,  then  add 
2  oz.  cadmium,  broken  small ;  put  into 
a  stoppered  fiask.  Let  the  ingredients 
stand  for  several  days,  shaking  the  fiask 
occasionally.  When  the  solution  becomes 
discoloured,  filter  and  evaporate,  reduce 
to  powder,  and  keep  in  a  stoppered 
bottle. 

Iodized  Collodion  may  be  made  at  one 
operation ;  it  should  be  kept  2  days 
before  being  used,  but  is  less  reliable,  if 
kept  for  any  length  of  time,  than  is 
sensitized  collodion  which  has  been  made 
as  above  described,  as  the  iodide  will 
decompose  the  other  ingredients.  Place 
16  grains  of  gun-cotton  in  a  bottle,  add 
18  grains  of  iodide  of  cadmium  in 
powder,  and  6  grains  of  bromide  of 
cadmium  in  powder,  and  IJ  oz.  of 
spirits  of  wine,  sp.  gr.  -805.  Shake  the 
bottle  until  the  iodide  and  bromide  are 
dissolved,  then  add  3  oz.  ether,  sp.  gr. 
•720,  and  shake  until  the  cotton  is  dis- 
solved. After  settling  for  24  hours 
decant  the  clear  portion  into  small  well- 
stoppered  bottles. 

A' it  rate  of  Silver  Bath  for  Negatives. 
— Kecrystallized  nitrate  of  silver,  ^  oz.; 
distilled  water,  7  oz. ;  collodion,  7  dro]is. 
Shake  well  together  until  the  crystals 
have  dissolved,  then  filter.  The  purity 
of  the  negative  bath  is  a  matter  or 
great  importance ;  none  but  the  best 
recrystallized  nitrate  of  silver  must  be 
used,  and  the  introduction  of  foreign 
matter  of  every  kind  must  be  carefully 
guarded  against.  When  the  bath  gets 
out  of  order,  which  will  not  occur  very 
soon  if  it  is  properly  used,  it  should  br, 
diluted  with  an  equal  bulk  of  distilled 
water,  and  exposed  to  the  sun  for  a  few 
days  in  a  white  glass  bottle,  tiien  filtered 
and  sufficient  nitrate  of  silver  added  t 
restore  the  strength  to  35  grains  an 
ounce,  as  indicated  by  the  argentometer. 

Developing  Solution  for  Negatives. — 
Protosuiphateof  iron,  75  grains;  glacial 
acetic  acid,  2  drams;  alcohol,  2  drams; 
distilled  water,  5  oz.  Dissolve  the  Tys- 
tals  in  the  water,  then  add  the  acid 
and  alcohol,  and  filter.  This  solution 
will  keep  good  for  several  weeks.  Id 
hot   weather  a  little  more  acetic  acid 


2G0 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


may  be  added,  and  if  it  does  not  flow 
readily  the  alcohol  may  be  increased. 

Intensifying  Solution,  No.  1, — Pyro- 
gallic  acid,  10  grains;  citric  acid,  10 
grains ;  distilled  water,  5  oz.  This 
solution  will  not  keep  long;  when  it 
becomes  brown  it  sliould  be  thrown 
away.  Xo.  2. — Keci-ystallized  nitrate 
of  silver,  40  grains;  distilled  water, 
1  oz.  Dissolve  and  filter.  This  solution 
will  keep  for  any  length  of  time. 

Another  Intensif'jing  Bath. — A  satu- 
rated solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury 
in  water.  Powder  the  bichloride  of 
mercury,  place  in  a  bottle,  add  the 
water,  and  shake.  Place  the  negative 
plate  in  a  bath  of  the  solution,  remove 
when  the  film  assumes  a  milky  white 
appearance,  wash,  and  then  plunge  in  a 
solution  of  1  oz.  of  liquid  ammonia  to 
10  oz.  of  water,  which  immcliately 
darkens  the  plate.  Remo\e  the  plate, 
vrash,  and  place  to  dry.  This  mode  of 
intensifying  may  be  regulated  by  leaving 
the  plate  in  the  bichloride  of  mercury 
a  shorter  time,  when  it  will  require  a 
weaker  ammonia  bath  than  that  above 
given. 

Fixing  Solution  for  Negatives. —  Hypo- 
sulphite of  soda,  5  oz. ;  distilled  water, 
5  oz.  Dissolve  and  filter.  Thissolution 
will  keep  good  lor  many  months. 

Sensitizing  Solvtion  for  Paper. — Ni- 
trate of  silver,  5  drams;  distilled  water, 
5  oz. ;  nitric  acid,  2  drops;  kaolin, 
1  oz.  Dissolve  the  nitrate  of  silver 
in  the  water,  anil  then  add  the  acid  and 
kaolin;  the  kaolin  will  not  dissolve,  its 
use  being  to  prevent  the  solution  becom- 
ing discoloured  after  using.  This  solu- 
tion will  not  require  filtering;  it  must 
be  allowed  to  settle  until  quite  clear, 
and  when  require<l  for  use  decanted 
carefully,  leaving  the  kaolin  in  the 
bottle;  after  using,  it  shouM  be  returned 
to  the  bottle  and  well  .shaken  with  the 
kaolin,  which  will  carry  down  all  the 
colouring  matter  as  it  subsides.  As  this 
Kolutiun  rapidly  becomes  weaker  by 
using,  it  tthould  be  tested  with  the 
argeutoracter  occisionally,  and  sullirieut 
nitrate  of  silver  adiled  to  restore  it 
to  Its  projicr  strength,  which  is  60 
grainn  to  the  ounce. 


Another  Negative  Collodion. — Ether, 
J  oz. ;  alcohol,  ^  oz. ;  cotton,  7  grains; 
bromide  of  cadmium,  i  grain  ;  bromide  of 
ammonium,  1 J  grain;  iodide  of  cadmium, 
2^  grains  ;  iodide  of  calcium,  1  grain ; 
iodide  of  potassium,  1  grain ;  iodide  of 
ammonium,  1  grain.  For  intensifying, 
flood  with  chloride  of  gold,  1  grain; 
water,  15  oz. ;  then  wash  and  flood 
with  pyrogallic  acid,  2  grains ;  water, 
3oz. 

Toning  Baths. — 1,  Chloride  of  gold, 
4  grains ;  acetate  of  soda,  J  oz. ;  distilled 
water,  10  oz.  Dissolve  and  filter.  In 
purchasing  chloride  of  gold  in  small 
quantities  it  will  be  found  best  to  have 
it  in  solution  containing  4  grains  to 
each  ounce  of  water.  This  solution 
improves  by  keeping,  but  will  require  a 
little  chloride  of  gold  added  to  it  occa- 
sionally. A  black  deposit  will  form  in 
it  at"ter  using,  which  should  be  removed 
by  filtering. 

2.  To  produce  black  to  bright  sepia 
tones,  according  to  length  of  immer- 
sion ; — Take  carbonate  of  soda  sullicient 
to  cover  a  three])euny-]iiece;  dissolve 
it  in  a  teaspoonful  of  cold  water  in  a 
cup ;  add  2  grains  chloride  of  gold ; 
then  add  3  oz.  of  boiling  water;  use 
in  1 J  minutes.  After  toniug,  i>our  it  into 
a  stock  bottle,  adding  a  particle  of  ace- 
tate of  soda  to  give  it  keepng  qualities. 
The  next  batch  to  tone,  commencing 
in  same  manner,  but  using  half  the 
above  (juantities.  Add  it  to  the  stock, 
and  tone  immediately,  and  so  keep  on, 
omitting  the  acetate  of  sod.n,  which 
should  be  used  but  once  in  twenty 
times.  It  is  well  known  that  one  for- 
mula will  suit  one  |)n]ier  but  not  another. 
This  will  suit  Hart's  albumenized  pa])er. 

Firing  Solution  for  I'upcr  Pri7Us. — 
Hyposulphite  of  soda,  8  oz. ;  distilled 
water,  1  pint.  This  solution  must  only 
be  used  once,  .as  it  is  useless  afterwards. 

Stopping-out  Negatives. — Small  round 
transparent  sjiots  are  frequently  found 
on  gl;i.ss  negatives,  which  if  not  sto]>p('cl- 
out,  occasion  corresponding  black  spots 
on  tiie  ]iiint.  Lay  the  [date  on  a  slab 
of  glass,  having  either  direct  or  reflected 
light  shining  up  through  it.  Then 
cover  the  spots   with   a   mixtrj*   com- 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


2G1 


posed  of  10  parts  ivory  black,  2  parts 
saturated  solution  gum  arabic,  2  parts 
white  honey,  1  part  sugar-caudy  ;  well 
mix,  and  apply  with  a  tine  camel-hair 
brush.  Should  the  spots  on  the  negative 
be  black,  or  opaque,  white  spots  will  be 
formed  on  the  print,  these  are  easily 
tinted  with  a  little  water  colour,  to 
match  the  other  portions  of  the  print, 
it  is  seldom  necessary  therefore  to  alter 
the  negative  on  this  account. 

Albumen  Varnish  for  Neijaiivcs. —  Re- 
move the  cords  and  yolks  from  several 
eggs,  whisk  the  albumen  to  a  froth,  let 
it  settle.  Decant  the  clear  portion,  add 
half  its  bulk  of  distilled  water,  and  one 
dram  of  liquid  ammonia  for  each  pint 
of  the  varnish.  After  having  washed 
the  plate,  and  whilst  the  film  is  still 
damp,  apply  the  varnish  in  the  same 
way  that  collodion  is  poured  on.  Re- 
peat the  operation,  then  place  the  j)late 
to  dry,  with  the  film  side  protected 
from  dust. 

Amber  Varnish  for  Negatives. — Fill 
three-fourths  of  a  bottle  with  small 
pieces  of  yellow  amber,  pour  upon  it  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  chloroform 
and  ether,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  just 
cover  the  amber.  After  standing  several 
days  filter  the  liquid  ;  use  closely-stop- 
pered bottles.  I'our  the  varnish  over 
the  collodion  film  of  the  negative,  drain 
and  let  dry.  This  varnish  is  more 
easily  applied  than  the  crystal  varnish, 
as  it  does  not  require  artificial  heat  to 
dry  it,  but  it  does  not  give  such  a  firm 
varnish  to  the  negatives.  The  amber 
which  remains  in  the  bottle,  after  the 
liquid  varnish  has  been  poured  off,  may 
be  used  acain  and  again  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Views  and  Landscapes. — In  taking 
views,  the  process  is  exactly  the  same 
as  in  the  case  of  portraits,  except  that  the 
exposure  is  very  much  less.  Views  can 
be  taken  with  the  ordinary  portrait  lens, 
although  distant  objects  are  generally 
produced  by  it  on  too  small  a  scale ; 
this  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  re- 
moving the  back  pair  of  lenses  from  the 
tube  and  using  the  front  combination 
only,  provided  the  camera  will  open  to 
a  sufficient  length  for  focussing. 


Copying  Pictures.  —  Pictures  and 
engravings  can  be  easily  reproduced  by 
photography.  If  framed  the  glass  must 
be  removed,  or  the  reflected  light  will 
interfere  with  the  image  formed  by  the 
lens.  The  picture  must  be  placed  in  a 
good  light,  and  the  front  of  the  camera 
must  be  parallel  with  it,  or  the  copy 
will  be  distorted.  A  small  stop  should 
be  used,  and  the  negative  rather  under- 
exposed than  otherwise.  Copies  of  pho- 
tographs, except  on  a  reduced  scale,  are 
seldom  as  satisfactory  as  the  original,  for 
the  grain  of  the  paper  gives  a  peculiar 
mottled  efl'ect  to  the  picture. 

Toning  Bath. — To  pj-oduce  rich  pur- 
ple tones  ; — 30  grains  acetate  of  soda, 
10  oz.  water,  5  grains  carbonate  of 
soda.  This  to  be  mixed  some  hours 
before  wanted,  and  chloride  of  gold 
sufficient  to  tone  the  prints  in  hand 
added  just  before  required  fur  use.  The 
bath  works  quickly  hot  and  slowly  when 
cold  ;  the  solution  may  be  used  over  and 
over  again. 

Toning  and  Fixing  in  one  Eath. — The 
following  formula  yields  a  fine,  ricn, 
warm,  black  tone,  with  somewhat  rosy 
half  Water,  2  oz. ;  sulphocyanide  of 
ammonium,  50  grains;  hyposulphite 
of  soda,  240  grains;  acetate  of  soda,  15 
grains  ;  chloride  of  gold,  1  grain.  Dis- 
solve the  gold  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water,  and  add  it  to  the  other  solution. 
The  bath  may  be  used  immediately  after 
preparing.  The  prints  are  not  washed 
before  putting  them  into  the  bath.  They 
become  yellow  at  first,  but  afterwards 
recover  their  force.  The  toning  and 
fixing  takes  about  10  or  15  minutes, 
but  can  be  continued  for  some  hours. 
The  acetate  may  be  substituted  by  the 
benzoate,  the  phosphate,  borate,  citrate, 
or  any  other  such  salt,  for  the  purpo*e 
of  modifying  the  tint  desired. 

To  quickly  obtain  Positive  Prifits. — 
In  dull  weather  it  is  sometimes  nect-s- 
sary  to  expose  the  paper  for  a  whole 
day  bel'ore  a  positive  print  can  be 
obtained,  and  although  albumenized 
paper  prints  more  rapidly  than  plain 
paper,  the  time  necessary  is  still  often 
inconveniently  long.  This  trouble  may 
be  avoided  by  the  foll«wing  process: — 


262 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


Cut  plain  paper  to  the  required  size,  let 
it  float  on  the  sui'face  of"  a  solution  cinn- 
posed  of  10  grains  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium dissolved  in  every  3J  oz.  of  the 
water  required  for  the  bath.  When  it 
has  remained  in  this  solution  about  one 
minute,  remove  and  drain.  Then  float 
it  for  about  one  minute,  in  the  dark, 
on  a  sensitizing  bath  composed  of  3J  oz. 
of  water,  30  grams  of  fused  nitrate  of 
fiilver,  and  30u  grains  of  glacial  acetic 
acid.  Witlidraw,  di'ain,  and  press  care- 
fully between  several  folds  of  pure  wliite 
bliitting  paper.  Then  place  the  paper, 
still  slightly  damp,  upon  the  negative. 
The  exjiosure,  in  didiisi'il  light,  ni-ces- 
sary  in  tiiis  case,  will  only  be  from  about 
5  to  15  seconds.  Kf^move  the  j)ap(>r  from 
the  negative,  and  place  it  on  a  glass  plate, 
with  the  sensitized  side  of  the  jiajier 
uppermost.  Then  spread  some  of  the 
fiillowing  developing  solution  over  it, 
with  a  flue  soft  biush  ; — 15  grains  of 
gallic  acid,  dissolved  in  35  oz.  of 
warm  water,  3J  drams  glacial  acetic 
acid;  mi.T  and  lilter.  As  soon  as  the 
picture  is  sulFiciently  developed,  place  it 
in  water,  to  stop  the  action  of  the 
developing  solution.  Tone  in  a  weak 
solution  of  chloride  of  gold,  with  a 
small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  soda. 
Then  soak  for  several  hours  in  plenty  of 
clean  water. 

'J'liOMAS  Sutton's  \Vi;t  Coij/)niON 
Prockss. — The  old  process  has  one  weak 
point,  whii'h  renders  it  unfit  for  long 
exposures  to  dark  subjects,  i>u<:h  as 
interiors, — the  free  nitrate  which  must 
be  left  u|ion  llii'  film  in  onler  to  render 
it  sensitive  gradually  attacks  the  ioclide 
cf  silver,  and  combines  with  it  to  form 
lodo-nitrate.  From  this  Sutton's  wet 
collodion  jirocess  is  free,  whilst  all  the 
gooii  qu.-ilities  of  the  old  method  are 
retained.  The  process  consists  in  using  a 
brciini/.i'd  collodion  containing  no  iodide, 
exciting  the  plate  in  a  nitrate  bath, 
wrwhiiig  oflT  the  {rec  nitrate,  jioiiring 
an  organifier  over  the  film,  exposing 
t  wet  in  the  camera,  and  devclojiing  it 
ly  the  alkaline  method,  after  which  it 
may  bi'  liied,  waslieil,  and  varnislinj  in 
•die  usual  way.  After  m.iking  the  plate 
vmibly  clean,  and  wi|iin-.'   it  dry,  put  it 


upon  a  wooden  French  ]ilato-holder  wit>i 
a  screw,  and  pour  upon  it  a  little  trijicdi 
made  into  a  cream  with  a  mixture  of 
e(iual  jiarts  of  alcohol  and  ammonia. 
Alter  rubbing  this  all  over  the  ]ilatc 
with  a  tuft  of  cotton  wool,  polish  it  with 
a  clean  dry  tuft  of  the  same  wool,  and 
carefully  wipe  the  edges.  The  mere 
cleaning  of  tlie  plate  may  be  done  with 
nitric  acid  or  aqua  rcgia,  followed  by 
cojiioiis  washing.  The  collodion  tiliii 
adheres  best  to  a  jilate  which  has  been 
Anally  polished  with  tripoli  rendered 
alkaline  in  the  manner  described.  It  is 
a  good  ]dan  to  use  a  coating  fluid  made 
by  dissolving  india-rubber  in  any  ot'  its 
solvents,  such  as  mineral  n:iiditha,  chlo- 
roform, or  korosolene.  Three  grains  of 
inilia-rubbor  ])aste  dissolved  in  a  dram 
of  chloroform,  add  kerosolene  to  make 
up  the  ounce.  The  solution  is  then  left 
to  settle,  and  the  U]ii>er  partis  carefully 
decanted  for  use.  It  is  poured  over  the 
dry  polished  |date  in  the  same  way  as 
collodion;  the  lilm  sets  in  a  minute  or 
two,  and  then  the  collodion  may  be 
poured  on.  A  slight  opalescence  in  the 
rubber  film  is  of  no  consequence,  as  this 
does  not  show  after  the  collodion  has 
been  applii'd  to  it.  The  advantage  of 
the  coating  fluid  is,  that  it  lills  up  holes 
and  scratches  in  the  jdate,  and  renders 
them  comjiaratividy  harmless.  It  is  a 
great  safeguard  against  sjilitting  and 
lilistering  of  the  film  in  the  various 
o]>i'rations,  where  these  are  protracted. 
Albumen  must  not  be  used  as  a  coating 
11  nil!  in  this  process,  because  it  would 
injure  the  batli.  For  the  collodion  any 
good  pyroxyline  will  do;  it  need  not 
be  especially  ])owdery.  The  collodion 
should  not  be  anhydrous.  The  ether 
should  be  absolute,  but  the  alcohol  Uiay 
lie  between  8()H  sp.  gr.  and  812  sj).  gr., 
a<'cording  to  the  projHU'tinn  in  which  it 
is  added.  In  summer,  and  ]>aiticiilarly 
in  a  hot  climate,  the  alcohol  should  be 
in  excess  of  the  ether ;  but  in  winter 
there  may  be  5  parts  of  ether  to 
3  of  alcolufl.  The  more  alcolud,  the 
stronger  it  should  be.  When  alcohol 
811.")  sp.  gr.  is  used,  with  the  tlierinometer 
at  [to"  Fahr.,  there  may  be  three  timei 
as  much  alcohol   as  ether  in  tiie  coilo. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


26d 


dioa,  but  the  film  is  then  very  subject 
to  nibs.  The  collodior  should  be  bro- 
mized  with  bromide  ot"  cadmium,  because 
that  IS  so  soluble  in  alcohol  that  a 
larger  dose  of  it  may  be  introduced  with 
tacility.  There  are  two  kinds  of  cad- 
mium bromide — one  anhydrous,  the 
other  containing  four  equivalents  of 
water.  The  latter  is  preferable,  as 
being  the  least  trouble  to  dissolve,  but 
the  water  may  be  expelled  by  heating 
the  crystals  in  a  capsule.  The  quantity 
of  bromide  to  an  ounce  of  collodion  is  a 
matter  of  some  importance,  because  the 
sensitiveness  of  the  film,  and  the  density 
of  the  negative,  depend  upon  there  being 
plenty  of  bromide  of  silver  upon  the 
]ilate.  Twelve  grains  of  hydrated  cad- 
mium bromide  to  an  ounce  of  collodion 
will  be  found  a  good  proportion.  Less 
t  han  this  is  liable  to  give  thin  nega- 
tives,  which  require  to  be  intensified 
with  silver.  Films  thinly  bromized 
are  also  less  sensitive  than  those  of  the 
full  density.  According  to  Sutton  a 
good  test  for  the  mechanical  quality 
of  collodion  is  to  pour  a  little  upon  a 
glass  plate,  and  examine  the  film  a  few 
minutes  after,  when  it  has  become  per- 
fectly dry.  If  it  appears  opalescent,  or 
if  it  shows  structure,  the  collodion  is 
bad,  and  useless  for  any  purpose.  The 
best  solvents  to  employ  are  pure  alco- 
hol, and  methylated  ether  which  has 
been  redistilled  with  quick  lime.  The 
fresher  they  are,  the  better  apparently. 
The  bromized  collodion  will  keep  inde- 
finitely; but  when  great  sensitiveness 
is  required  it  is  better  to  use  it  fresh. 
The  nitrate  bath  should  not  be  less  than 
80  grains  to  the  ounce.  It  should  be 
made  with  pure  neutral  nitrate  of  silver. 
A  minim  of  nitric  acid  may  then  be 
added  to  every  5  oz.  of  solution,  in 
oi-der  to  neutralize  any  free  oxide  of 
silver  which  it  may  contain.  This  bath 
is  costly  in  the  first  instance,  but  as 
there  is  subsequently  no  waste  of  silver 
it  is  economical  in  the  long  run.  No 
silver  is  used  in  developing,  and  all  that 
clings  to  the  back  and  front  of  the  plate 
on  its  removal  from  the  bath  goes  into 
the  washing  waters,  and  is  eventually 
restored  to  the  bath  without  bavins  to 


be  reduced.  It  is  immaterial  how  long 
the  plate  remains  in  the  bath,  provided 
it  remains  long  enough,  about  3  minutes 
in  summer,  and  5  minutes  in  winter. 
Too  short  an  immersion  in  the  bath  is 
proved  bj  the  film  not  possessing  its 
maximum  of  sensitiveness,  and  the  ne- 
gative being  bright,  dense,  and  hard. 
The  appearance  of  the  film  is  a  sure 
guide  to  the  full  time  of  immersion  in 
the  bath ;  but  as  it  matters  not  how 
much  the  proper  time  is  exceeded,  no 
mistake  need  be  made  in  this  matter. 
This  strong  bath  does  not  produce  pin- 
holes. These  proceed  in  general  from 
particles  of  dust  which  stick  to  the  film. 
The  film  is  so  thoroughly  washed  in 
this  process  that  any  crystals  of  brorao- 
nitrate  which  might  adhere  to  it  would 
be  decomposed  and  .emoved  by  the 
washing  water.  This  immunity  from 
pinholes  produced  by  double  salts  is  one 
of  the  advantages  of  Sutton's  method. 
The  nitrate  bath  does  not  seem  to  get 
out  of  order  so  quickly  in  this  as  in  the 
common  wet  process.  It  does  not  re- 
quire treatment  with  bicarbonate  or 
soda,  and  sunning  every  now  and  then, 
to  keep  it  in  good  working  condition. 
It  is  necessary,  however,  to  keep  it 
always  up  to  the  right  strength.  The 
vessel  in  which  it  is  kept  should  be  left 
open  in  order  that  the  ether  and  alcohol 
may  evaporate.  There  should  be  a  series 
of  at  least  three  vertical  washing  baths, 
placed  side  by  side,  and  filled  with  dis- 
tilled or  clean  rain  water.  The  plate, 
on  its  removal  from  the  nitrate  bath,  is 
to  be  placed  in  each  of  these  for  2  or 
3  minutes,  and  then  transferred  to 
a  large  pan  of  rain  water,  with  a  lid,  in 
which  it  may  remain  until  required  for 
use.  Washing  bath  No.  1  soon  acquires 
a  quantity  of  silver  nitrate,  and  this 
solution  should  be  used  instead  of  water 
for  making  fresh  nitrate  bath  to  replen- 
ish with.  The  gap  thus  made  in  No.  1 
must  be  filled  up  by  water  from  No  2, 
and  so  on.  By  proceeding  thus,  not  a 
single  grain  of  nitrate  of  silver  is  wasted, 
but  the  whole  of  it  is  utilized  in  forming 
the  sensitive  film  of  bromide  upon  the 
plate.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
remove  all   the   free   nitrate  from   the 


261 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPtS. 


film,  lor,  if  aay  should  remain,  it  would 
at  once  be  darkened  by  the  contact  of 
the  alkaline  developer.  Five  minutes 
m  the  three  baths  is  the  least  time  that 
can  with  safety  be  allowed  for  the 
removal  of  the  free  nitrate.  A  plate 
which  has  been  left  for  30  hours  in 
the  nitrate  bath  may  afterwards  be  left 
for  3  days  in  the  pan  of  i-ain  water,  and 
still  give  a  bright  and  beautiful  nega- 
tive. Portrait  photographers  will  find 
it  a  great  advantage  to  be  able  thus  to 
prepare  their  ])lates  beforehand,  ready 
for  use  at  a  moment's  notice  when  a 
sitter  arrives. 

The  Onjinifwr  must  be  applied  after 
the  removal  of  the  plate  from  the  rain- 
water pan.  It  is  only  necessary  first  to 
give  it  a  rinse  w..h  a  little  clean  rain  or 
distilled  water.  Spring  water  should  on 
no  account  be  employed  for  rinsing  the 
))late.  For  the  usual  organiiier  employ 
albumen,  1  part ;  distilled  water,  from 
3  to  6  parts.  For  the  highest  attain- 
able degree  of  sensitiveness  use  Nelson's 
neutral  gelatine,  3  grains ;  sub-carbo- 
nate of  soda,  1  gram;  distilled  water, 
l,oz.  The  albumen  and  water  should  be 
beaten  up  together  and  then  allowed  to 
settle.  The  clear  liquid  should  be  filtered 
through  a  piece  of  cambric  folded  twice. 
The  gelatine  should  be  dissolved  by 
heat,  and  tlic  solution  filtered  after  the 
alkali  is  added.  Neither  of  the  above 
organifiers  keep  well.  They  ferment  ami 
become  putrid  in  a  few  days.  It  is  im- 
portant to  use  pure  neutral  gelatine. 
When  the  ])late  is  not  to  be  exposed  im- 
mediately after  it  is  organificd,  but  lias 
to  be  ke]pt  tor  some  hours  before  the  ex- 
posure or  develojTnent,  onohalf  of  the 
water  which  the  organifier  contains 
should  be  rcjdaced  by  pure  glycerine. 
This  will  keep  the  lllm  moist  and  in  good 
condition  for  at  least  a  day  and  a  night. 
Uv  the  use  of  glycerine  in  the  organifier 
a  laudsra])e  photogra])lior  may  |iiepai-e 
his  plates  in  the  rnoiiiing,  e.xpdse  them 
during  the  day,  and  develop  them  at 
night.  Such  [)late»  Ciinnot  well  be  ]ire- 
pared  iu  a  tent,  but  they  may  be  carried 
lor  a  whole  summer's  day  ready  pre- 
pared, and  be  developed  in  a  light  and 
jKjrtiib'.e  ten'.  »oon  -.ifter  their  exposure. 


This  method  is  less  troubkscme  than  the 
preparation  of  dry  plates.  The  plates 
are  much  more  sensitive  than  common 
wet  ones;  yet  the  exposure  is  by  no 
means  a  critical  matter;  certainly  not 
more  so  than  in  the  common  wet  process. 
It  is  always  well  to  jml  a  sheet  of  damp 
red  blotting  paper  at  the  back  of  the 
plate,  in  order  to  prevent  blurring  from 
internal  reflection.  There  are  two  me- 
thods of  develojiment — one  a  quick,  the 
other  a  slow  one.  The  quick  method 
takes  about  2  minutes,  the  slow  method 
about  5.  The  plate  is  then  washed  ami 
fixed,  no  intensification  with  silver  being 
in  general  required,  or,  if  required,  being 
done  after  fixing.  The  following  is  the 
slow  method  of  development,  the  quick 
method  only  differing  from  it  in  doubling 
the  strength  of  tlie  solution.  Wake  a 
solution  ot  bromide  of  potassium  5  grains 
to  the  oz. ;  and  a  solution  of  ammonia 
fortis  and  water,  equal  parts.  Keep  these 
in  1-oz.  wide -mouthed  bottles,  each 
of  which  is  provided  with  a  dropjiing 
tube.  Now  take  a  glass  measure,  and 
put  it  into  2  minims  of  potassium  bro- 
mide solution,  1  oz.  of  water,  s]U'ing 
water  will  do,  and  3  grains  of  pyrogallic 
acid.  This  done,  proceed  quickly  with 
what  follows,  for  the  developer  should 
bo  used  fresh.  Wash  the  organifier  off 
the  ])lafe  with  some  clean  water,  then 
add  a  minim  of  the  ammonia  solution  to 
the  develoiier,  and  pour  it  over  the  plate 
in  the  usual  way  with  one  sweep,  and  not 
too  violently  ujton  any  particular  s))ot, 
or  that  will  begin  to  develop  before  the 
rest.  Keep  the  developer  flowing  back- 
wards and  forwards  u]ion  the  ]ilate  for 
about  a  minute,  up  to  all  the  edges  and 
corners,  and  then  the  image  may  begin  to 
show  of  a  pale  red  tint.  Now  add  an- 
other drop  of  bromide  of  potassium  solu- 
tion and  another  of  ammonia.  Repeat 
this  from  time  to  time  until  the  nega- 
tive IS  dense  enouch  ;  liut  although  am- 
monia intensifies  it  and  brings  out  the 
details,  be  extremely  careful  not  to  add 
a  drop  too  much,  or  the  image  may  be 
suddenly  veiled  and  the  picture  be  irre- 
parably lost.  The  development,  whether 
blow  or  quick,  is  always  gr.adual  and 
under  command,  and  the  image  does  not 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


265 


jiash  out  as  with  iron  in  the  com-mon 
process,  but  by  degrees,  as  when  pyro- 
gallic  acid  is  used.  The  film  must  now 
be  washed,  and  fixed  with  weak  hypo- 
sulpliite  of  soda,  auJ  tlien  be  washed 
thoroughly  again.  It  will  then  be  seen 
that  the  image  is  of  a  yellow  colour, 
and  although  thin,  possibly,  will  yield  a 
vigorous  print. 

The  Varnisk  should  be  made  with  lac 
only,  and  should  contain  ueitlicr  sandarac 
nor  benzoin.  Purified  seed  lac  is  the  best. 
Mix  alcohol,  820  sp.  gr.,  1  oz. ;  lac,  50 
grains.  Dissolve  without  heat,  and  decant 
from  the  sediment.  This  varnish  may  be 
partially  decolourized  by  mixing  animal 
charcoal  with  it.  Do  not  heat  the  plate 
much  before  varnishing,  but  heat  it  as 
much  as  desired  afterwards.  The  nega- 
tive is  now  finished,  and  may  be  kept  in 
a  paper  envelope. 

For  the  conversion  of  a  Negative  into  a 
Positive,  a  full  ex})Osure  should  be  given, 
in  order  that  the  light  may  act  entirely 
through  the  film  in  the  sky  and  other 
spaces  which  are  to  be  eventually  clear 
glass ;  and  the  development  should  be 
pushed  to  the  very  verge  of  fog.  The 
film  should  now  be  washed,  and  instead 
of  fixing  it  with  hypo,  some  strong  nitric 
acid  should  be  poured  over  it.  This  will 
quickly  dissolve  all  the  blacks,  leaving 
them  bare  glass,  whilst  the  half-tones 
and  real  shadows  of  the  view  will  be  re- 
presented by  the  pale  yellow  bromide  of 
silver  in  layers  of  difierent  thickness,  so 
as  to  produce  a  beautiful  kind  of  positive 
transparency.  In  order  to  blacken  this, 
the  bromide  image  must  be  converted 
into  one  composed  of  metallic  silver. 
This  is  elTected  by  removing  the  bromine 
from  the  bromide  of  silver  by  rfteans  of 
redevelopment.  The  best  plan  is,  after 
washing  off  the  nitric  acid  very  tho- 
roughly, to  pour  some  alkaline  developer 
over  the  image  and  expose  it  to  the  light ; 
then  add  more  ammonia  to  the  deve- 
loper, and  thus  blacken  the  image  as 
much  as  you  can.  Of  course  no  fixing 
with  hypo,  is  required.  These  positives 
are  very  perfect  in  their  details,  and 
although  of  an  ugly  colour,  are  suitable 
for  the  multiplication  of  negatives  by 
copying,    or  for  producing  an  enlarged 


negative,  without  having  recourse  to  a 
print.  The  only  trouble  in  this  opera- 
tion consists  in  the  high  lights  not  com- 
ing out  clear  glass,  as  they  ought  to  do 
under  treatment  with  the  nitric  acid. 
To  make  a  good  positive  the  sky  of  the 
negative  should  look  very  nearly  as  black 
on  the  back  as  on  the  face  of  the  film. 
For  Sutton's  process  there  must  not  be 
too  much  light  in  the  operating  room  or 
tent,  and  the  colour  of  the  light  should 
be  orauge,  aud  not  yellow.  The  main 
dilliculty  in  the  prwcess  is  to  get  the  ne- 
gatives to  intensify  sufficiently  without 
silver  ;  but,  when  all  else  is  right,  feeble- 
ness can  only  proceed  from  a  deficiency 
of  bromide  of  silver  in  the  film.  With 
12  grains  of  cadmium  bromide  to  the 
ounce  of  collodion,  and  an  80-grain  bath, 
this  difficulty  ought  never  to  occur,  un- 
less the  [ilate  is  much  under-exposed. 
For  common  subjects,  where  great  sen- 
sitiveness is  not  required,  the  quantity 
of  bromide  may  be  reduced  to  8  grai-ns, 
and  2  grains  of  chloride  of  cadmium  may 
be  added.  The  negatives  will  then  be 
very  bright  and  deuse.  This  is  recom- 
mended for  copying  paintings,  engrav- 
ings, and  maps.  \Yhere  very  thin,  de- 
licate negatives  are  required,  full  of 
harmony  and' detail,  use  less  bromide  in 
the  collodion,  and  give  a  longer  exposure. 
In  working  b}'  candlelight,  inclose  the 
candle  within  a  screen  made  of  orange- 
coloured  paper,  or  of  Solomon's  orange- 
coloured  oiled  muslin. 

Dr.  Ryley's  Modified  Collodio- 
Albumen  Process. — The  plate  has  to 
be  sensitized  as  usual,  and  thoroughly 
well  washed.  Coat  with  the  following 
solution  ; — Albumen,  1  oz. ;  water,  2  oz. ; 
ammonia,  30  minims.  Beat  well  up  to 
a  froth,  allow  it  to  settle,  and  filter  be- 
fore use.  Pour  sufficient  of  this  over  the 
plate  to  cover  it ;  let  it  flow  backwards 
and  forwards  to  soak  into  the  film.  Pour 
the  solution  away,  aud  thoroughly  wash 
the  plate,  the  last  rinsing  being  with 
distilled  water.  Let  the  plate  dry.  When 
perfectly  dry,  moisten  the  plate  with 
distilled  water,  and  pour  over  the  fol- 
lowing ; — Gallic  acid,  2  grains  ;  watei', 
1  oz.  Filter  the  solution  before  using. 
Pour  it  on  and  off  the  plate  to  woll  per- 


266 


WORKSHOP    IIECEIPTS. 


merite  the  film,  then  set  the  plate  up  to 
Irain,  and  dry  without  washing  ofl'  the 
gallic  acid  solution.  When  surface-dry, 
Huish  by  the  heat  of  a  dull  fire.  These 
j)lates  retain  their  sensitiveness  well. 
The  development  of  the  plates  may  be 
by  the  plain  or  alkaline  pyro  method. 
The  peculiarity  of  this  process  consists 
in  the  final  wash  of  gallic  acid  after  the 
prepai-ed  i)late  has  dried  from  its  albu- 
minous coating. 

England's  Modified  Collodio- 
Aluumion  PiiOCKSS. — The  plate  having 
been  coated  with  bromo-iodized  collo- 
dion, and  sensitized  as  usual  in  a  40-grain 
bath,  should  be  washed  till  all  greasy 
lines  are  removed;  next  float  over  the 
film  an  albuminous  solution  formed  of 
one  white  of  egg  to  3  oz.  of  water  and 
2  drops  of  ammonia.  These  require  to 
be  well  beaten  together  and  filtered. 
When  tills  solution  has  been  jmured  over 
the  film  backwards  and  forwards  to  well 
perme-ate  it,  the  plate  has  to  be  washed 
again  under  a  gentle  stream,  ending  with 
a  little  distilled  water.  The  i)late  has 
now  to  be  rescnsitized  by  flowing  olf 
and  on  a  30-grain  solution  of  nitrate  of 
siiver,  slightly  acudulated  with  acetic 
acid.  Again  wash  well  and  dry.  This 
latter  sensitizing  gives  increased  vigour 
and  sensitiveness  to  the  plate.  The  ex- 
posure should  be  about  three  times 
longer  than  for  a  wet  plato.  Either 
plain  or  alkaline  pyro  may  be  useil  to 
(leveloj),  and  iutensif/  with  acid  silver 
and  pyro. 

CoiAXjino  -  Bromidk  Prockss.  —  The 
peculiarity  of  this  process  mainly  con- 
sists in  dis|>ensing  with  tiic  nitrate  bath 
and  using  a  collodion  whicii  contains  the 
sensitive  salt.  The  greatest  care  is  re- 
quired in  preparing  the  collodion.  It  is 
composed  of — Pyroxyline,  G  grains; 
ether,  ^  oz.  ;  alcohol,  J  oz. ;  bromide  of 
cadiniiiTii,  0  gr.'iiiis;  brnmide  of  ammo- 
nium, 'J  grains.  Mix  as  much  of  this  as 
may  be  required,  as  if  will  keep  indefi- 
nitely. It  should  ^fanll  a  wrek  before  being 
emjiloyed.  When  ready  for  use,  pound 
nitrate  of  silver  to  the  finest  jjossiblc 
powiier  in  a  glass  mortar,  and  add  11 
f^rains  to  every  ounce  of  the  above 
broiKizedcollodioa.    Ad<l  graduiilly,  and 


shake  so  as  to  get  it  well  combined. 
Allow  this  sensitized  collodion  to  rest 
for  3  hours  before  use.  The  mixing 
must  be  made  in  a  non-actinic  light,  and 
the  collodion  must  be  kept  in  the  dark. 
In  this  state  the  collodion  will  not  keep 
for  many  days,  therefore  not  much  more 
should  be  semsitized  than  will  be  speedily 
required.  Varnish  the  edges  of  the 
glasses  a  quarter  of  an  inch  with  india- 
rubber  and  benzole  varnish,  and  coat 
the  jilate  with  the  sensitive  collodion. 
Allow  it  to  set  well,  and  immerse  in  a 
dish  of  water  till  all  greasiness  disap- 
pears ;  next  put  the  plate  in  a  dish  con- 
taining a  solution  of  tanning,  15  grains 
to  the  ounce  of  water,  or  use  the  follow- 
ing solution  ; — Tannin,  10  grains  ;  gallic 
acid,  3  grains  ;  grajie  sugar,  6  grains  ;  al- 
cohol, 10  minims;  water,  1  oz.  Prepare  as 
follows; — Dissolve  the  gallic  acid  first 
in  the  water,  using  heat ;  next  add  the 
tannin,  then  the  grape  sugar.  Filter, 
and,  when  cold,  add  the  alcohol.  Allow 
the  plate  to  remain  in  this  solution  3 
minutes.  Let  the  plate  dry  evenly  and 
quickly  in  any  convenient  manner,  and 
it  is  ready  for  use.  Ex])ose  three  times 
the  time  required  for  a  wet  plate.  Use 
the  alkaline  pyro  developer,  adopting 
all  the  ju'ecautions  described  in  the  use 
of  the  bromide  of  potassium.  If  there 
be  any  dilficulty  in  obtaining  the  ulti- 
mate intensity,  the  acid  ]>yr()  and  silver 
may  be  used.  Tiio  fixing  may  be  done 
with  cyanide,  as  it  c(uinteracts  any 
s])litting  of  the  film  on  drying.  When 
experience  is  gained  in  working  the 
])rocoss,  the  quantity  of  nitrate  of  silver 
in  the  collodion  may  be  increased  to  12 
or  even  Hi  grains,  acconipanieil  with  in- 
creased sensitiveness  in  the  plate.  A  very 
simple  iiKjthod  of  using  up  the  residues 
of  sensitized  collodion  is  to  add  an  equal 
quantity  of  j)lain  bromized  collodion, 
reserving  the  necessary  addition  of  ni- 
trate of  silv.,;r  until  a  few  hours  before 
it  is  required  for  using  the  next  time. 
Tins  prevents  deterioration  and  loss  of 
material. 

TiiK  AirroTYPK  Pnocicss,  or  Carbon 
Printinfj. — Johnson's  process  in  adnjited 
to  8iip|ily  the  place  of  i.iliiimeni/fd 
|)a))er   anil  silver,  gold,  and  liyjio.  solu- 


WOr.KSHOP   RECEII'TS. 


2G7 


lions ;  the  manipulations  are  more 
simple  than  silver  printing,  and  less 
skill  is  required  for  producing  prints  by 
this  method  than  by  the  usual  silver 
one.  The  most  troublesome  portion  of 
any  carbon  process  is  the  preparation  of 
the  tissue,  that  is,  the  sheet  consisting 
of  the  layer  of  gelatine  and  carbon  or 
pigment.  This  carbon  tissue  consists  of 
a  layer  of  gelatine  containing  the  carbon 
or  other  permanent  pigment  spread  on 
paper.  As  sold  it  is  not  sensitive  to 
light,  but  requires  the  action  of  a  solu- 
tion of  bichromate  of  potash  to  render  it 
sensitive.  So  far  the  process  resembles 
the  silver  printing  one — the  tissue  cor- 
responding with  albumenized  paper,  the 
bichromate  sensitizing  solution  with  the 
silver  one.  When  the  paper  is  dry,  the 
coloured  surface  is  placed  in  contact 
with  the  negative  and  exposed  to  light ; 
the  exposure  should  be  about  one-third 
the  time  required  for  silver  printing. 
The  pigmented  paper  is  prepared  in  long 
rolls,  so  that  much  larger  sheets  can  be 
obtained  than  of  albumenized  papei".  It 
should  be  cut  into  convenient  sized 
sheets  for  sensitizing.  A  solution,  20 
grains  to  the  ounce,  of  bichromate  of 
potash  is  provided  in  a  flat  dish.  The 
sheets  may  be  ])laced  in  the  solution  one 
at  a  time  until  all  are  immersed.  Each 
should  be  turned  over  to  see  that  no  air- 
bubbles  form.  They  must  remain  in  for 
one  minute,  but  may  stay  longer  without 
injury.  They  should  then  be  taken  out, 
and  hung  to  dry.  This  sensitizing  and 
drying  must  be  done  in  chemical  dark- 
ness, like  sensitizing  silvered  paper ; 
more  caution  must,  however,  be  taken, 
as  the  carbon  paper  is  so  much  more 
sensitive.  When  the  paper  is  dry  it 
must  be  placed  in  contact  with  the  ne- 
gative to  be  printed.  It  is  advisable  for 
carbon  printers  to  classify  their  nega- 
tives. Let  those  negatives  that  print 
the  quickest  be  called  No.  1 ;  those  that 
require  longer  printing.  No.  2  ;  and  those 
still  denser,  No.  3.  By  the  use  of  an 
actinometer  the  amount  of  printing 
given  in  a  certain  time  can  be  measured. 
This  simple  little  apparatus  consists  of 
0  i-ound  japanned  tin  box,  with  a  slot  in 
tTiC  lid  about   ^  of  an    inch    wide  and 


an  inch  long,  like  a  money-box.  Inside 
the  box  is  a  strip  of  Carrier's  sensitized 
albumenized  paper,  about  §  an  inch 
wide,  coiled  up  in  a  roll.  The  lid  of  the 
box  is  painted  a  chocolate  colour,  like 
the  tint  that  sensitized  albumenized 
paper  quickly  takes  when  exposed  to  the 
light.  By  a  simple  means  a  portion  of 
this  paper  is  pulled  out  of  the  box,  anil 
in  doing  so  a  portion  is  exposed  to  light 
through  the  slot  in  the  lid,  the  rest  of 
the  strip  being  screened  from  light. 
The  paper  when  exposed  begins  to 
darken,  and  presently  arrives  at  the 
same  tint  as  that  surrounding  it  on  the 
lid  of  the  box.  Let  us  suppose  a  nega- 
tive to  have  sensitized  pigmented  pa]ier 
placed  under  it,  and  the  actinometer  to 
have  a  piece  of  the  white  sensitive  silver 
exposed  through  the  slot,  then  let  the 
actinometer  and  the  negative  be  both 
exposed  simultaneously  to  the  same 
light ;  by  the  time  the  light  has  dark- 
ened the  silver  paper  to  the  standard 
tint,  the  actinometer  and  the  negative 
will  both  be  said  to  have  received  one 
tint,  that  is,  they  will  both  have  re- 
ceived that  amount  of  action  from  the 
light  necessary  to  produce  on  the  sil- 
vered paper  that  particular  tint.  In  the 
first  instance  each  negative,  or  each 
class  of  negative,  will  have  to  be  tested 
by  the  actinometer,  how  many  tints 
have  to  be  darkened  before  the  carbon 
print  is  made,  and  the  negatives  may 
then  be  marked  accordingly.  When  a 
negative  has  been  once  tried  and  marked 
the  number  of  tints  it  requires,  no  mis- 
takes will  be  made  afterwards  as  to  the 
exposure  that  will  be  required.  The 
next  o})eration  is  to  attach  the  print  to 
a  temporary  support  during  tlie  deve- 
lopment, or  removal  of  the  unacted-on 
pigmented  gelatine.  Plain  gelatine  is 
not  sensitive  to  light,  but  is  easily  so- 
luble in  hot  water.  The  bichromate  ot 
potash  makes  it  sensitive  to  light,  and 
the  change  effected  in  the  gelatine  by 
light  renders  it  insoluble  in  hot  water, 
but  the  rest  of  the  gelatine  still  remains 
soluble.  The  insoluble  portion  consti- 
tutes the  picture,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
dissolve  everything  but  that  which  light 
has  rendered  insoluble.     The  print  h;is 


268 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


to  be  attached  for  this  purpose  to  a 
temporary  support.  Almost  any  sub- 
stance impermeable  by  water  will  an- 
swer, but  some  substances  are  more  con- 
Vftnient  than  others,  such  as  the  surface 
of  ground  opal  glass,  or  zinc  jdates  that 
hare  a  finely-ground  surface.  To  faci- 
litate the  removal  of  the  print  from  this 
slightly-roughened  surfice,  rub  the  sup- 
port over  with  a  dilute  solution  of  resin 
and  wax  in  turpentine,  using  a  soft  rag, 
and  leaving  only  a  very  thin  film  of  the 
solution  on  the  surface.  The  pigment 
print  is  first  immersed  in  cold  water, 
gelatine  side  downwards;  the  print  at 
rirst  curls  inwards  as  the  paper  on  the 
back  expands  with  the  water,  but  in  a 
few  seconds  it  flattens  and  shows  signs 
of  curling  outwards;  at  this  juncture 
take  it  out,  and  previously  wetting  the 
glass  or  zinc  that  you  are  going  to  de- 
ve]o])it  on,  lay  it  on  gelatine  side  down- 
wards, and  with  an  india-rubber  scrajior, 
or  squeegee,  press  the  print  in  close  con- 
t;ict  to  the  support  to  expel  the  water. 
Sweep  the  squeegee  backwards  and  for- 
wards once  or  twice  to  get  rid  of  all 
moisture  that  can  be  driven  out.  Allow 
the  print  to  remain  thus  for  a  few 
minutes,  and  if  you  have  other  prints 
ready  to  go  on  with,  you  may  serve  them 
all  the  same  until  you  have  several 
ready.  This  jiressure  ensures  the  ]ipr- 
fect  adhesion  of  the  print  to  the  sui-face 
6f  the  support  through  all  the  subse- 
quent iiot  and  cold  water  washings. 
The  glass  or  zinc  with  the  print  thus 
firmly  attached  by  atmospheric  pressure 
may  now  bo  immersed  iu  hot  water  at 
say  100^  Fahr.  Let  it  remain  for  a 
few  minutes.  Wh.en  the  coloured  gela- 
tine begins  to  show  itself  oozing  from 
the  edge  of  the  paper,  try  one  of  the 
corners  of  the  jiaper  if  it  will  lift  easily  ; 
if  so,  lift  it  slowly  and  steadily  from  the 
»up|(ort,  and  it  will  come  oil',  bringing 
with  it  a  great  di'al  of  the  unaltered 
gelatine.  If  it  does  not  lift  otF  e:isily, 
allow  it  to  remain  until  it  will  do  so. 
On  no  account  force  it  ii[).  The  time  it 
takes  for  the  jiaper  to  come  freely  away 
de])ends  on  the  tcin|>eratiire  of  the 
water  it  is  immersed  in  ;  the  water  need 
not  be  hotter  than  the  hands  caa  bear. 


When  the  pa[)er  is  remove<l  the  le^t  ol 
the  unaltered  gelatine  will  speedily  flow 
away,  and  the  picture  will  gradually 
emerge  from  the  dirty  mass  that  enve- 
lops it.  Allow  it  to  remain  in  the 
hot  water  till  all  the  soluble  gelatine  is 
removed  ;  this  is  known  by  the  ceasing 
of  the  dirty  or  coloured  streams  that 
previously  have  come  from  the  picture. 
There  is  no  fear  of  the  jirint  itself  being 
dissolved  away,  for  the  altered  gelatine 
that  forms  it  is  insoluble.  When  all 
that  will  come  away  has  come  away, 
remove  the  glass  from  the  warm  water, 
and  well  wash  in  cold  water;  the  pic- 
ture may  then  be  set  aside  to  dry,  still 
ailhering  to  the  glass  or  zinc.  When 
the  ]iriut  is  in  this  state  it  can  easily  be 
seen  if  the  exposure  to  light  under  the 
negative  has  been  too  little  or  too  much. 
If  it  has  been  too  little,  the  print  will 
be  too  light,  that  is,  there  will  not  be 
enough  pigmented  gelatine  left  on  the 
glass  to  proju-rly  re|)rescut  the  negative, 
showing  that  sutlicieut  time  was  not 
given  for  the  light  to  render  enough  of 
the  gelatine  insoluble.  The  print  will 
betray  the  deficiency  of  exjjosure  by  the 
absence  of  the  half-tones.  If  the  print 
is  too  dark,  then  the  exposure  has  been 
too  great,  and  too  much  of  the  gelatine 
has  been  rendered  iusolul)!e.  If  either 
error  has  been  committed  a  mark  should 
be  made  on  the  margin  of  the  negative 
showing  the  greater  or  lesser  number 
of  tints  that  the  negative  should  receive 
iu  future  printings.  Gelatine  prints 
never  look  tsiiari)  when  they  are  wet ; 
tiiey  will  be  shar|)  enough  when  the 
gelatine  is  hard  ancj  dry.  After  the 
print  is  dry,  proceed  to  transfer  it  to 
the  permanent  jiaper  base  to  which  it  U 
to  remain.  Ordinary  jilain  paper,  or 
even  paper  slightly  gelatinized,  is  not 
suirnient  lor  finally  attacJiing  to  the 
image  on  the  glass  or  zinc.  If  such 
jiapers  be  attaeheil  to  the  gelatine  image 
the  liner  jiaris  of  the  high  lights  and 
half-tones  are  so  attenuated  that  this 
kind  of  paper  will  be  sure  to  leave  thcin 
behinil.  There  is,  however,  a  paper 
provided  with  a  coating  of  insoluble 
gelatine  that  reailily  attaches  itself  to 
the  image,  and  brings  it  ail  off  the  glau 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


269 


jerfectly.  Pour  boiling  water  in  a  flat 
lish  and  immerse  the  transfer  paper 
supplied  by  the  Autotyjie  Company ; 
many  sheets  may  be  immersed  at  a  time. 
One  side  of  the  paper  is  covered  with  a 
gelatinous  layer  that  softens  but  is  not 
soluble  in  even  boiling  water.  Allow 
it  to  remain  in  the  hot  water  until  it 
thoroughly  softens  and  becomes  pulpy. 
When  it  has  arrived  at  this  condition, 
lay  it  on  the  image  on  the  glass  or 
zinc,  and  with  the  squeegee  smooth 
it  down  so  as  to  be  in  close  contact, 
and,  by  stroking  the  paper,  expel  su- 
perfluous moisture.  Allow  the  paper 
to  dry.  When  thoroughly  dry  the 
paper  may  be  stripped  from  the  glass, 
bringing  the  print  with  it.  In  some 
cases  it  will  come  off  spontaneously,  but 
usually  it  may  be  started  at  the  cor- 
ners and  will  come  off  freely.  Some- 
times it  may  be  dry  at  the  corners  and 
damp  in  the  middle ;  wait  till  it  is 
quite  dry  all  over,  as  it  will  not  be 
forced.  Occasionally  it  may  happen  that 
even  when  it  is  quite  dry  it  will  not 
freely  come  away ;  a  little  heat  may 
then  be  applied  to  the  glass,  and  the 
print  will  almost  fly  off.  In  such  in- 
stances there  has  been  rather  too  much 
resin  in  the  waxing  solution  that  was 
applied  to  the  support;  remedy,  add  a 
little  more  wax.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  be  too  much  was  and  not  enough 
resin,  the  print  will  come  away  too 
easily  before  it  is  even  quite  dry.  A 
little  turpentine  or  benzole  should  be 
rubbed  over  the  surface  of  the  print,  to 
remove  any  of  the  wax  and  resin  that 
may  show  on  the  face.  In  every  stage 
of  the  process  many  prints  may  be  car- 
ried on  simultaneously,  more  particu- 
larly in  the  development.  If  the  prints 
are  considered  too  dull,  increased  glaze 
may  be  given — thereby  increasing  the 
brilliancy — by  the  use  of  varnish,  col- 
lodion, or  other  glazing  materials.  This 
may  be  done  before  the  pictures  are 
finally  mounted  on  cardboard,  or  after- 
wards. There  is  one  point  of  great  im- 
portance in  carbon  printing,  the  edges 
of  the  pigmented  paper  must  never  be 
exposed  to  light.  It  is  not  sufficient 
that    the  carbon  paper  is  smalb:r  than 


the  negative,  but  all  around  the  margin 
of  the  negative  a  safe  edge  of  a  band 
of  dark  paper,  or  black  varnish,  must 
be  put  to  protect  from  light  for  a  | 
of  an  inch  the  edges  of  the  pigmented 
paper.  If  the  margin  of  the  print  has 
been  protected  from  light  it  remains 
soluble,  and  it  retains  its  adhesive  pro- 
perty, and  thus  the  whole  print  is  se- 
curely attached  by  the  edges,  and  the 
water  cannot  get  between  the  film  and 
the  support,  but  can  only  act  on  the  face 
of  the  print.  There  is  a  method  by 
which  the  pigmented  tissue  is  attached 
at  once,  after  coming  from  tlie  j.iiuting 
frame,  on  to  paper,  instead  of  to  a  tem- 
porary support ;  when  development  is 
finished  the  picture  is  complete  without 
any  further  transferring.  The  prints 
so  produced  are  all  reversed  ;  it  is  there- 
fore necessary  in  working  by  this  me- 
thod to  either  take  reversed  negatives 
in  the  camera,  or  to  strip  the  negatives 
off  the  glass  so  as  to  use  them  from  the 
contrary  side.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
entire  principle  of  this  printing  process 
depends  upon  obtaining  an  image  in  in- 
soluble gelatine,  and  the  colour  of  the 
image  will  chiefly  depend  on  the  colour- 
ing substance,  or  pigment,  that  is  held 
imprisoned  in  the  insoluble  image. 

Guji  AXD  Gallic  Actd  Process. — 
Any  good  collodion  may  be  used,  but 
commercial  ones  may  be  improved  by 
the  addition  of  2  grains  to  the  ounce  of 
bromide  of  cadmium.  The  nitrate  bath 
should  be  as  nearly  neutral  as  possible, 
and  not  of  less  strength  than  40  graTDs 
an  ounce.  Allow  the  jilate  coated  with 
collodion  to  remain  from  10  minutes  to 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  the  bath,  so  as 
to  sensitize  thoroughly;  wash  in  dis- 
tilled water  in  two  successive  dipping 
baths,  then  under  the  tap,  and  finish 
with  distilled  water;  then  flood  tie 
plate,  still  wet,  with  the  following  solu- 
tion;— 1.  Picked  gum  arable,  20  grains ; 
sugar-candy,  5  grains  ;  distilled  water. 
1  oz.  2.  Gallic  acid,  3  grains ;  hot  water. 
1  oz.  Dissolve  these  two  solutions  sepa- 
rately, and  mix  in  equal  proportions,  fil- 
ter at  the  time  of  using.  The  first  portion 
of  the  solution  should  be  allowed  to  freely 
flow  off,  carrring  with  it  the  water  on 


270 


WOllKSliOl'    UKCEll'TS. 


the  film.  A  second  portion  should  be 
allowed  to  soak  into  the  film  for  about 
a  minute,  and  then  be  poured  off,  and 
the  plate  put  away  to  drain  and  dry  in 
a  dark  place.  The  plates  must  be  edged 
witn  india-rubber  solution,  or  dilute 
albumen,  or  varnish,  before  develfp- 
ment.  The  exposure  in  summer  tiuie 
with  good  light  will  be  about  twice  that 
of  wet  plates,  but  in  winter,  or  a  dull 
lijht,  the  exposure  will  be  ]>roportion- 
ately  luuger.  Tiie  backs  of  the  plates 
should  be  painted  with  some  yellow, 
green,  or  red  colour,  to  prevent  the 
light  passing  througli,  and  causing  blur- 
ring. This  paint  must  be  removed  after 
exposure  and  before  develoi)iug.  The 
plates  will  keep  for  a  considerable  time 
before  exposure,  but  in  this,  as  in  all  dry 
processes,  develop  as  soon  after  esposui'e 
as  convenient. 

Photo-Crayon  Portraits. — This  is 
a  method  of  producing  a  delicate  style 
of  portrait,  consisting  of  a  transparency 
on  glass,  the  lights  of  the  portrait  being 
formed  by  a  tinted  paper  backing.  The 
picture  is  made  from  an  ordinary  por- 
trait negative,  wliich  should  be  soft, 
sharp,  and  clean.  Place  the  negative  in 
a  copying  camera  for  transparencies,  or 
in  the  wiu'low  of  a  darkened  room,  and 
proceed  to  make  a  transparency  from 
the  negative.  An  ordinary  carte-ile- 
visite  vignette,  or  a  cabinet-sized  head, 
is  most  suitable.  Provide  a  screen  out- 
side the  camera,  and  in  advance  of  the 
negative,  of  a  somewhat  oval  shape,  and 
allow  the  light  to  pass  through  this 
aperture  on  to  the  negative  so  that  only 
the  head  and  shoulilers  are  visible,  the 
rest  being  vignetted  gradu.-iily  away. 
Make  the  image  to  yield  a  head  of 
about  an  inch  ar.d  a  half  in  size.  Any 
ordinary  good  bromo-iodized  collodion 
will  do  if  half  a  grain  of  chloride  of 
ammonium  to  the  ounce  is  add<!d.  The 
nitrate  balh  should  be  ;is  nearly  neutral 
as  c;iii  be  workml  without  fugging.  Tiie 
ilevcloper  should  be — Pyr()gallic  acid,  2 
graiu.s;  citric  acid,  ^  grain;  glacial  acetic 
acid,  .30  minims;  water,  1  oz.  The  expo- 
sure should  l>e  abundant,  so  that  the 
image  rapidly  appears  wnen  t  lit;  di-voltipor 
JH  applied.     Very  little  devclojuneot  is 


required,  as  the  image  luuat  be  a  thin 
one  and  of  a  purple-brown  colour,  it 
the  image  is  under-exposed,  or  too  much 
developed,  it  will  be  a  disagreeable 
colour,  and  be  deficient  in  delicate  defi- 
nition, as  only  a  very  thin  transparency 
is  required.  During  development  the 
action  must  be  carefully  watched,  soma- 
tliiug  like  developing  a  glass  positive, 
and  directly  the  details  are  visible — 
without  w.ishing  off — saturated  solu- 
tion of  hyposulphite  must  be  flooded 
over  the  plate  to  fix  it.  When  fixed 
the  plate  must  be  well  washed  and 
dried,  and,  if  the  operation  is  jierlect, 
the  transparency  will  show,  when  laid 
on  white  |)aper,  as  a  portrait  with  a. 
white  vignetted  margin,  the  whites  in 
all  cases  being  sui)])lied  by  the  p:i|ier 
backing.  JIuch  of  tlie  beauty  of  those 
pictures  is  due  to  the  tinted  bicking 
not  being  in  absolute  contact  witli  the 
image.  These  pictures  can  be  produced 
by  the  magnesium  light. 

DiAPiiA.\OTYi-i:s. — Produce  a  good 
photograjih  on  jilain  paper,  with  11  the 
delicate  half-tones  of  the  negative  well 
preserved.  Let  it  be  deeply  printed,  as 
when  it  is  rendered  transparent  by  the 
balsam  its  tbrce  is  considerably  reduced. 
Do  not  attach  the  j)rint  to  cardboard ; 
retouch  the  unmounted  print  in  the 
shadows  of  the  drapery,  but  do  not 
interfere  with  the  face.  Place  the 
|)rint  in  contact  with  a  jiiece  of  the  best 
white  jtlate  glass,  using  the  following 
solution; — Canada  balsam,  2  oz. ;  tur- 
pentine, 1  oz.  Pour  this  over  the  glass 
in  much  the  s.inie  manner  as  collodion, 
and  lay  the  juint  down  on  it,  and  with 
the  finger  or  a  sol't  pad  commence  from 
one  corner  carefully  to  jiress  out  all  air- 
bubbles.  When  the  picture  is  sulli- 
cieutly  set  to  paint  upon,  work  in  the 
local  colours  of  the  face,  drapery,  and 
accessories  in  oil  colours,  having  a  care- 
ful regard  to  the  general  outlines.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  jiaint  in  all  the  sha- 
dows as  carefullv  as  an  artist  would  do, 
a.s  the  transparent  photogra])h  suj)plies 
these.  When  the  work  is  done  the 
effect  is  very  rich  and  mellow,  witt?  the 
reitainty  nf  retaining  all  the  L  leiity  of 
the  photograjih. 


tVOKKSHOP    KECEll'TS. 


ii71 


The  Ivorytype. — Make  a  good  print 
on  plain  paper  ;  if  the  portrait  is  that 
of  a  fair  person  let  the  tone  of  the  print 
be  warm,  if  of  a  dark  person  let  it  be  a 
cold  tone.  The  print  has  to  be  coloured 
on  the  surface  as  an  ordinary  coloured 
miniature,  only  colouring  it  stronger  to 
allow  for  the  toning  down  it  will  pre- 
sently receive.  In  this  stage  it  will 
look  like  an  ordinary  jihotograph  ovei'- 
coloured.  The  next  point  is  to  commu- 
nicate to  it  the  softness,  creamy  delicacy, 
and  transparency  of  an  ivory  miniature. 
This  is  eftected  by  attaching  it  to  white 
plate  glass  by  white  wax  and  gum  dam- 
mar. Melt  in  a  jar  by  gentle  heat  2  oz. 
of  the  best  white  wax,  and  add  a  piece 
of  gum  dammar  about  the  size  of  a 
hazel  nut.  When  these  are  thoroughly 
mixed,  place  a  little  on  the  clean  gl.-'ss 
plate  which  is  to  receive  the  picture. 
Heat  the  plate  gently,  and  when  the 
gum  and  wax  melts  and  flows  over  the 
plate,  the  coloured  photograph  mubt  be 
carefully  laid  down  on  the  melted  wax, 
the  greatest  care  being  taken  to  avoid  air- 
bubbles  and  to  preserve  an  equal  laver 
of  wax  all  through.  Should  air-bubbles 
show  when  the  plate  is  cold,  or  the 
wax  appear  unequally  thick,  the  plate 
can  be  rewarmed,  and  with  a  warm 
palette  knife  remove  the  irregularities 
by  gentle  pressure. 

Heliotype. — When  a  layer  of  varnish 
composed  of  gelatine  and  bichromate  of 
potash  is  spread  upon  a  suitable  surface, 
and  is  then  dried  iu  the  dark,  it  forms  a 
sensitive  compound  upon  which  the  light 
exercises  such  action  as  to  cause  it  to 
resist  water,  the  parts  unacted  on  being 
capable  of  absorbing  water.  Au  ordi- 
nary photographic  negative  is  then 
placed  upon  the  film,  those  parts 
through  which  the  light  passes  are 
rendered  insoluble,  whilst  those  parts 
unacted  upon  by  the  light,  are  capable 
of  absorbing  moisture,  when  the  nega- 
tive has  been  removed,  and  the  film 
Slightly  damped.  Thus  when  a  roller 
charged  with  greasy  ink  is  passed  over 
the  surface,  the  ink  adheres  to  those 
parts  only  on  which  the  light  acted,  the 
water  with  wliieh  the  other  parts  are 
tharged  preventing  the  adhesion  of  the 


ink.  The  proofs  are  then  obtained  by 
means  of  the  usual  printing  j)ress — a 
typographic  being  preferred  to  a  lithe 
graphic  press.  The  details  of  the  pro- 
cess are  as  follows ; — A  plate  of  glass, 
the  surface  of  which  is  ground  and  not 
polished,  having  received  a  coating  of 
wax,  and  been  carefully  levelled,  a 
sullicient  quantity  of  a  mixture  of  gela- 
tine, bichromate  of  potash,  and  chrome 
alum  is  poured  over  it  to  form,  when 
spread  out  and  subsequently  dried,  a 
film  of  the  thickness  of  very  thin  card 
or  thick  paper.  The  coating  and  drying 
must  be  done  in  a  dark  room,  or  one 
into  which  only  a  yellow  light  is  admit- 
ted. The  use  of  the  chrome  alum  is  to 
prevent  the  subsequent  solubility  of  th: 
film,  this  substance  having  the  property 
of  preventing  gelatine  from  becoming 
again  liquid  after  it  has  once  set;  with- 
out it  tlie  portions  of  the  film  that  had 
not  been  acted  on  by  the  light  would  be 
at  the  mercy  of  the  water,  which  would 
cause  it  to  become  so  soft  and  swollen  as 
to  seriously  interefere  with  the  success- 
ful working  of  the  process,  which  de- 
ponds  for  good  results  on  its  firmness 
and  uniformity  of  condition.  The  pro- 
jiortiou  of  bidiromate  of  potash  to  the 
gelatine  is  about  5  per  cent.,  but  this 
may  be  varied  to  any  extent  to  suit  the 
requirements  of  the  negative,  much  in 
the  same  way  as  the  strength  of  a  silver 
bath  for  positive  printing  is  altered  for 
special  purposes.  After  the  glass  plate 
has  been  coated,  it  is  retained  in  its 
level  position  for  a  few  minutes  until 
the  film  has  set  sufficiently  to  permit  it.s 
being  lifted  up  on  its  edge,  wnen  it  is 
stored  away  in  the  drying  room,  where 
the  temperature  is  tolerably  high,  and 
the  atmosphere  dry.  The  drying  and 
store  rooms  must  be  dark.  In  about 
24  hours  the  film  has  become  thoroughly 
dry,  when  it  is  removed  from  the  gla.ss 
— an  opera tioT  which  is  effected  with 
ease,  the  previous  substratum  of  wax 
conducing  to  this  end.  The  advantages 
derived  from  the  removal  of  the  film 
from  the  glass  are  very  great.  One  of 
these  is,  that  whereas  foimerly,  when 
the  film  remained  on  the  thick  plate  of 
glass  ou  which   it  was  printed,  it  w^e 


272 


WORKSnOP   RECEIPTS. 


difficult  to  secure  perfect  contact  be- 
tween the  negative  and  the  sensitive 
surface,  and  any  hollow  or  inequality  in 
the  negative  caused  a  separation  to  take 
place  between  the  two  plates,  loss  of 
sharpness  in  the  printed  gelatinous  sur- 
face being  the  result.  But  now  that 
the  system  of  removing  the  film  from 
the  glass  has  been  adopted,  its  flexibility 
permits  it  to  be  pressed  in  intimate  con- 
tact with  the  negative,  no  matter 
whether  the  latter  be  flat  or  not.  The 
next  operation  is  to  attach  the  film  to  a 
plate  of  zinc.  This  is  effected  by  first 
placing  the  plate  in  a  flat  vessel  of 
water,  and  then  immersing  the  gelatine 
film,  bringing  l)oth  in  contact  without 
allowing  air-bubbles  to  intervene.  With 
one  or  two  strokes  of  a  squeegee  is 
secured  the  intimate  union  of  the  sheet 
of  gelatine  with  the  metallic  plate,  on 
the  sucker  principle.  After  the  j>late 
becomes  surface-dry — which  is  the  case 
in  a  i'ew  minutes — a  brush  charged  with 
india-rubber  solution  is  passed  round 
the  KA.-gin,  which  has  the  eflect  of  pre- 
venting the  ingress  of  air  when  the 
plate  is  being  printed  from.  To  prevent 
the  film  from  shifting  during  subse- 
quent operations,  the  zinc  plate,  previous 
to  the  laying  down  of  the  film,  is  usually 
coated  with  india-rubber  varnish.  The 
plate  is  now  ready  for  furnishing  im- 
pressions. These  are  obtained  by  treat- 
ing it  in  much  the  same  way  as  is  a 
lithographic  stone;  it  is  first  of  all 
sponged  with  water ;  the  surplus  water 
is  removed  by  the  squeegee,  wliich  is 
followed  by  pressing  over  the  surface  of 
the  plate  a  sheet  of  blotting  paper.  The 
ink  rollers  are  then  passed  over  it,  the 
iijit  adhering  according  to  the  action  of 
the  light.  It  is  in  the  jirinting  that  the 
great  value  of  the  strijiping  ofl'of  the  film 
and  transferring  it  to  the  zinc  plate  is 
seen.  la  the  Albcrtype  process,  so  long  as 
a  plate  of  glass  was  used  for  printing 
from,  an  element  of  extreme  danger  and 
uncertainty  was  present — rinngor,  be- 
cause any  particle  of  granular  tr.atter 
^ettin;^  uniler  the  j)late  would  ensure 
its  being  fractured  under  the  jiressure 
of  the  printing  press.  Kxpericnce  has 
proTc-l  that  a  greater  drgree  of  i-cscure 


must  be  applied  to  obtain  the  finest 
effects  of  certain  subjects  than  a  glass 
plate  can  safely  bear.  The  degree  of 
pressure  to  which  a  zinc  plate  may  be 
subjected,  compared  with  that  which 
glass  will  bear,  forms  a  feature  of  value 
in  the  recent  modifications  of  the  helio- 
tvpe  process.  When  the  desired  num- 
ber of  prints  have  been  obtained,  the 
film  is  detached  from  the  zinc  plate  and 
placed  away  in  a  portifolio,  ready  for 
future  use.  This,  also,  is  an  improve- 
ment,  for,  previously,  the  reserving  of 
some  hundreds  or  thousands  of  printing 
films,  each  of  them  permanently  attached 
to  a  large,  very  thick,  and  costly  piece 
of  jilate  glass,  entailed  both  expense  and 
inconvenience.  As  the  printing  pressure 
is  direct,  a  considerable  number  of 
proofs  can  be  obtained  from  one  film ; 
1500  uniformly  good  prints  have  been 
tnus  got.  Of  course,  as  the  preparation 
of  the  ]u-inting  plate  or  film  involves  so 
little  trouble  and  expense,  when  a  large 
order  has  to  be  executed  a  number  of 
plates  are  prepared,  and  the  uniformity 
of  these  is  ensured  by  exposing  them  all 
to  the  same  actinometric  figure.  An- 
other ])oint  in  the  process  is  the  adapta- 
tion of  it  to  chromotypic  printing;  by 
printing  upon  a  sheet  of  paper  previously 
coloured  iu  broad  masses  by  lithographic 
or  other  means.  The  effect  of  a  helio- 
type  when  printed  upon  such  a  base  is 
very  good.  There  is  no  other  way  by 
which  the  peculiar  effect  of  photographs 
on  albumenized  paper  can  be  so  well 
obtained  as  by  using  paper  with  an 
enamelled  face.  We  have  stated  that 
the  sensitive  film  of  gelatine  was  tbrmed 
upon  a  plate  of  ground  glass.  For  sub- 
jects requiring  great  delicacy,  the  upper 
or  shining  siile  of  the  film  is  invariably 
placed  next  to  the  negative;  but  if  a 
granular  texture  in  the  finished  print  be 
desired — sui'h  a  texture  as  would  be  ob- 
tained from  a  grained  lithographic  stone 
— it  is  only  necessary  to  print  ujion  the 
granular  instead  of  the  smooth  side  of 
the  film,  the  degree  of  granularity  de- 
pending  upon  that  of  the  surface  of  the 
glass  on  which  the  film  was  prepared.  It 
is  found  that  the  stilfuess  of  the  ink  exei- 
ciscs  a  marked  influence  on  the  image. 


WORKSHOP   RfeCElt'tS. 


273 


A  stitr  ink  adheres  only  to  the  deepest 
shadows,  while,  on  the  contrary,  a  thin 
ink  attaches  itself  to  the  demi-tints. 
Taking  advantage  of  this  property,  the 
plates  are  rolled  over  with  ink  or  inks 
to  suit  the  particular  kind  of  work,  or 
the  effect  wanted.  One  consequence  of 
this  is  that,  if  a  very  soft  picture  be  re- 
quired, a  thin  transparent  ink  will  give 
the  desired  quality,  while,  if  the  oppo- 
site quality  be  desired,  it  is  only  requi- 
site to  use  a  stiff' opaque  ink.  Doth  can 
advantageously  be  combined  in  one 
picture.  In  printing  by  the  heliotype 
process,  the  pictures  do  not  require  to 
be  mounted  like  other  photographs,  for 
the  margin  is  left  clean  and  white. 
This  renders  the  process  specially  appli- 
cable for  book  illustration. 

Swan's  Process. — Photographs  in 
Pigments. — The  tissue  is  jirepared  by 
machinery,  by  which  a  perfect  and  uni- 
form coating  is  secured.  Each  piece  of 
paper  is  made  into  an  endless  band  re- 
volving round  rollers,  which  keep  it 
stretched,  and  repeatedly  pass  it  over  a 
surface  of  melted  gelatine,  sugar,  and 
pigment,  until  a  perfectly  even  coating 
of  the  right  thickness  is  applied  to  the 
whole  length.  The  trough  of  gelatine 
is  kept  at  a  proper  temperature  by 
means  of  steam.  By  repeated  contact 
with  the  gelatine,  a  thin  coating  being 
ai>plied  eadi  time  it  passes  over  it,  a 
more  perfect  surface  and  even  thickness 
of  the  gelatine  is  secured  than  could  ba 
obtained  by  any  plan  which  applied  the 
full  thickness  at  once.  By  the  arrange- 
ment adopted,  waves  of  irregular  drain- 
ing are  entirely  avoided.  These  lengths 
of  gelatine  are  then  cut  up  to  s]ieciric 
sizes,  and  will  keep  ready  for  sensitizing 
when  required.  The  paper  employed 
must  possess  a  fine  surface,  and  be  free 
from  inequalities  and  imperfections,  so 
that  it  may  receive  an  even  layer  of  the 
gelatine,  as  any  imperfection  in  this 
layer  may  result  in  a  blemish  in  the 
picture.  It  is  desirable  that  the  paper 
•iiiall  be  sufficiently  permeable  by  the 
./ater  to  facilitate  its  removal  from  the 
gelatine  prior  to  development.  The 
tissue  is  prepared  in  three  varieties  of 
colour;  and  in  each  there  are  three 
1 


gradations  of  intensity  to  suit  negatives 
of  various  kinds.  The  colours  are  indian 
ink,  sepia,  and  photographic  purple. 
The  indian  ink  tissue  is  a  pure  black, 
nearly  neutral  in  tone,  inclining  to 
warmth.  The  sepia  tissue  is  of  a  warm 
sepia  tint.  The  photographic  purple 
tissue  is  of  a  tint  resembling  that  com- 
mon in  gold-toned  silver  prints,  of  a 
purple-brown,  in  its  extreme  depths  a 
purple-black.  In  this  pigment  printing, 
although  the  best  picture  will  result 
from  the  best  negative,  it  is  possible 
with  a  very  intense  hard  negative, 
possessing  abrupt  contrasts-,  to  produce 
extremely  soft  and  harmonious  prints  ; 
wliilst  brilliant  prints  may  also  be 
obtained  from  a  feeble  negative  possess- 
ing very  little  contrast  or  intensity.  It 
will  be  seen,  then,  that  by  forming  the 
picture  in  a  thin  film  of  insoluble  matter 
of  intense  colour,  vigorous  contrasts  and 
perfect  gradations  from  light  to  dark 
may  be  secured  with  a  thin  negative ; 
and  that  by  using  a  thicker  film  of  in- 
soluble matter,  less  intense  in  colour, 
the  excessive  contrasts  of  a  hard  nega- 
tive may  be  softened,  thus  materially 
ameliorating  the  faults  of  bad  negatives 
in  either  direction.  The  kind  of  nega- 
tive which  suits  best  for  Swan's  process 
is  a  negative  of  average  density,  with 
full  detail  in  the  shades,  such  as  is  g^t 
bv  ample  exposure  and  development. 
There  should  be  some,  although  little, 
absolutely  bare  ghiss;  but  whatever 
deposit  of  silver  there  is  on  the  deepest 
shades  should  be  a  pure  photographif? 
deposit,  and  not  "  fog."  The  tissue  is 
prepari'd  in  each  tint  to  suit  negatives 
of  three  qualities,  numbered  1,  2,  and  3. 
Xo.  1  possesses  the  smallest  proportion  of 
colour,  and  is  suited  to  the  production 
of  harmonious  prints  from  negatives  in 
which,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject, 
from  under-exposure  or  over-intensify- 
ing, the  contrasts  are  abrupt.  No.  'J  is 
suited  to  good  negatives  cf  normal 
character,  in  which  the  densest  parts 
are  not  absolutely  opaque.  No.  3 
possesses  a  large  proportion  of  colour, 
and  is  suited  to  thin,  soft  negatives,  a 
little  lacking  in  force  and  intensity. 
By  a  classification  of  the  negatives,  aud 

T 


274 


WOKKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


the  use  of  a  suitable  quality  of  tissue 
for  each,  it  will  be  found  possible  to 
secure  more  complete  control  over  the 
character  of  the  prints,  and  a  more  per- 
fect uniformity  of  result  than  is  pos>.ible 
m  ordinary  silver  printing.  The  tissue 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place, 
packed  flat,  and  kept  under  a  weight. 
If  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  it  will  in 
iiot  weather  curl  up  and  become  un- 
manageably horny ;  whilst  in  damp 
weather  it  would  absorb  moisture. 

Sensitizing  the  Tissiic,  and  other  sub- 
sequent operations,  will  be  conducted 
in  the  dark  room.  A  nearly  saturated 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  is  em- 
ployed. As  the  strength  of  a  saturated 
.solution  varies  with  temperature,  make 
a  solution  of  deliuite  strength,  by  dis- 
solving such  a  quantity  of  bichromate  of 
potash  as  will  not  during  cold  weather 
crystallize.  Such  a  solution  is  formed  by 
dissolving  1  lb.  of  bichromate  of  potash 
in  12  lbs.  of  water.  The  tissue  is  im- 
mersed by  drawing  it  face  upwards, 
under  the  solution,  contained  in  a  dish 
2  or  3  inches  deep,  care  being  taKcn  to 
avoi  1  the  formation  of  air  -  bubbles. 
After  immersion,  the  sheet  is  turned,  and 
with  a  Hat  camel-hair  pencil  remove 
the  bubbles  that  form  on  the  back  ;  it  is 
tlien  again  turned,  and  drawn  repeatedly 
through  the  solution.  Then  attach 
Americ.in  cii])s  along  one  of  the  edges, 
and  slowl)'  witlnlraw,  so  that  the  solu- 
tion drains  oil'  without  being  repelled 
from  tlie  face  of  the  tissue,  and  running 
o.T  in  streams.  If  the  sheet  is  large,  a, 
thin  lath  of  wood  may  be  laid  along  the 
edge  of  the  tissue  that  is  first  withdrawn 
from  the  trough,  the  tissue  ami  lath 
}(oing  clip])ed  together  with  American 
clips.  The  time  of  immersion  may 
vary  from  1  to  3  minutes,  according  to 
the  temperature  and  the  facility  with 
which  tlie  tissue  absorbs  the  solution. 
As  a  rule,  n.s  soon  as  it  is  quite  limj)  it 
should  be  removed.  The  liui'^er  the 
immersion,  within  certain  limits,  tiic 
more  sensitive  will  be  the  tissue;  but  if 
too  much  pniloiigeil,  there  is  a  danger  of 
the  paper  becoming  rotten,  the  gelatine 
aUo  loses  toughness,  ancl  the  large 
quantity  of  watiT  absorbed    n^nders   it 


liable  to  tear  with  its  own  weight. 
Long  immersion  in  a  satursed  solution 
is  also  ai)t  to  produce  a  crystallized 
surface  in  drying,  which  renders  the 
tissue  quite  useless.  The  tissue  should 
be  placed  to  dry  in  a  dark  room,  through 
which  a  current  of  dry  air  is  constantly 
passing.  In  the  lirst  stage  of  drying, 
the  temperature  of  the  air  must  not  be 
above  70°  Fahr.,  otherwise  the  gelatine 
would  melt.  During  damp  weather,  the 
air  of  the  drying  room  may  be  raised 
10°  after  the  tissue  has  become  half 
dry.  Jf  the  drying  is  slow,  the  deve- 
lopment of  the  image  afterwards  will 
be  extremely  slow  or  altogether  impos- 
sible. After  complete  drying,  the  seu» 
sitive  tissue  may  be  kept  for  several 
days.  By  keei)ing  it  too  long,  a  dis- 
colouration of  the  print  results,  and  the 
print  develops  tardily,  and  the  lights 
are  not  clear.  As  a  rule,  by  sensitizing 
in  the  evening,  a  supply  of  paper  may 
be  ]irepared  for  printing  next  day  ;  12 
hours'  suspension  in  a  dry  atraospheie 
being  sullicient  for  the  necessary  drying. 
Should  the  tissue  by  accident  be  ren- 
dered too  dry  and  horny,  it  is  desirable 
to  hang  it  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  damp 
place,  when  it  will  quickly  become  juxi 
sutliciently  pliant  to  permit  easy  mani- 
pulation. 

Exposure  under  the  Negative. — As  the 
pref.ared  side  of  the  tissue  is  placed  in 
contact  with  the  negative,  if  it  retained 
the  slightest  adhesiveness  of  surface,  it 
would  be  dangerous  to  bring  them  to- 
getlier.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  use 
(lamp  tissue.  Before  jdaciug  the  tissue 
in  contact  with  the  negative,  apply  to  its 
surface,  with  a  (lat  camel-hair  brush, 
some  powdered  Krciu'h  clialk.  This  ma- 
terial prevents  the  risk  of  the  gelatine 
lilm  adhering  to  the  negative,  ainl  serves 
other  useful  piir|ioses.  On  applying  it 
to  the  gelatine  surface,  it  indicates  if 
anv  s|iot  is  not  perfectly  Jry  by  adhering 
there  in  a  patch  instead  of  s])reading  in 
a  scarcoly  perceptible  coating;  it  also 
prevents  an  excessive  absor|>tion  of  light 
at  those  i)oints  of  the  tissue  which  are 
in  such  j)erfect  contact  with  the  negative 
as  to  destroy  the  reflection  from  its  second 
surf  ice.  Although  the  gloss  of  the  tissue 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


275 


is  slightly  deadened  by  the  trace  of  pow- 
der attached,  it  does  not  in  any  degree 
interfere  with  the  progress  of  printing, 
or  cause  any  imperfection  in  the  print. 
The  negative  is  also  rubbed  over  in  the 
same  way  ;  and  all  risk  of  the  tissue 
sticking  to  the  negative  is  removed.  For 
the  exposure  it  is  not  necessary  to  use 
pressure  frames  with  hinged  backs,  as 
the  print  is  not  examined  in  progress,  the 
sole  guide  as  to  time  being  the  actino- 
meter.  The  back  pressure  should  be 
comparatively  light,  and  the  backing 
should  be  smooth  and  level.  Fine  cloth 
forms  an  excellent  backing.  Where  the 
padding  of  the  back  is  coarse,  a  piece  of 
smooth  cardboard  may  be  placed  at  the 
back  of  the  tissue.  If  the  tissue  is  quite 
dry,  there  can  be  no  objection  to  sun 
printing ;  but  if  the  slightest  moisture 
is  left  in  the  gelatinous  film,  prolonged 
exposure  to  a  hot  sun  with  a  dense  ne- 
gative would  soften  the  film,  and  cause 
it  to  adhere.  As  this  tissue  is  much  more 
sensitive  than  albumenized  paper,  print- 
ing in  diffused  light  will  generally  be 
more  convenient,  as  well  as  safer.  As  a 
rule,  the  exposure  is  from  one-third  to 
one-half  of  that  required  for  albumen- 
ized paper.  In  direct  sunlight,  it  may 
vary  from  1  to  10  minutes  ;  in  diffused 
light  from  10  minutes  to  an  hour,  or  even 
more.  In  using  the  actinometer,  it  must 
be  exposed  to  the  same  light  as  the  prints, 
the  progress  of  which  it  is  to  indicate. 

Mounting  and  Preparing  for  Develop- 
ment of  the  Inuige.— As  the  washing  away 
of  the  superfluous  compound  must  be 
effected  at  the  side  opposite  to  that  which 
was  in  contact  with  the  negative,  before 
commencing  development,  the  tissue 
must  be  mounted  on  another  piece  of 
paper  with  a  material  which  is  not  af- 
fected by  water,  in  order  that  the  paper 
■upon  which  the  compound  has  rested  up 
to  the  present  time  may  be  removed,  so 
as  to  expose  the  hitherto  protected  sur- 
face to  the  water.  As  the  paper  upon 
WTiich  the  tissue  has  to  be  supported, 
during  future  operations,  is  placed  in 
contact  with  the  surface  which  will  be 
the  surface  of  the  finished  print,  it  should 
be  smooth  and  free  from  blemish  ;  and  it 
should  be  sufficiently  tough  to  bear  the 


treatment  necessary  in  hot  water.  Fine 
Saxe  paper  answers  well.  A  solution  of 
india-rubber  is  used  for  mounting  the 
tissue.  Pure  india-rubber  should  be  cut 
up  into  fine  shreds,  and  dissolved  in  pure 
benzole  at  the  rate  of  about  10  grains  to 
1  oz.  of  the  solvent.  When  properly 
prepared,  it  forms  a  thin  varnish,  but  it 
leaves  a  palpable  film  of  india-rubber  on 
the  paper  to  which  it  is  applied.  When 
desirable  to  hasten  the  complete  solution 
covering  the  shreds  of  india-rubber  with 
a  little  chloroform  will  quickly  reduce 
them  to  a  pasty  mass,  readily  dissolved 
by  the  addition  of  benzole.  The  india- 
rubber  solution  is  poured  into  a  flat  dish, 
and  the  paper  drawn  over  it,  so  as  to 
secure  an  even  coating  on  the  whole  sur- 
face. The  fiaper  is  then  hung  up  by 
Amerii;an  clips  to  dry.  The  tissue,  re- 
moved from  the  negative,  having  been 
wiped  to  remove  the  French  chalk,  is 
floated  over  the  surface  of  the  india- 
rubber  solution  in  the  same  manner,  care 
being  taken  not  to  allow  it  to  sink  below 
the  surf;\ce ;  it  is  then  hung  up  to  dry 
for  about  an  hour.  When  the  india- 
rubber  on  both  the  paper  and  the  tissue  is 
dry,  the  extreme  edge  of  the  tissue  is  cut 
off,  and  the  two  coated  surfaces  are  care- 
fully brought  into  contact,  and  in  order 
to  secure  perfect  contact  and  cohesion, 
they  must  be  submitted  to  heavy  rolling 
pressure.  The  coated  surfaces  should  be 
pi'eserved  from  dust  and  from  contact 
with  anything  which  could  impair  the 
cohesion  of  the  india-rubber  surfaces.  In 
bringing  the  tissue  into  contact  with  the 
india-rubber  coated  paper,  the  tissue 
should  be  bent  back,  so  that  contact  is 
first  made  with  the  middle  of  the  print  ; 
the  ends  of  the  tissue  being  then  allowed 
to  fall  after  first  contact.  After  being 
placed,  the  back  of  the  tissue  may  be 
lightly  rubbed  with  the  hand  or  a  pad, 
the  rubbing  being  from  the  centre  out- 
wards. Several  prints  may  be  attached 
to  one  piece  of  paper.  In  rolling,  the 
india-rubber  coated  paper  is  laid  on  the 
steel  plate,  and  a  blanket  of  thick  felt  is 
laid  over  the  tissue,  which  is  uppermost, 
whilst  it  passes  through  the  press.  Al- 
though the  prepared  surface  of  the  sen- 
sitive  tissue  must  be  always  carefully 

T  2 


276 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


shielded  frc-n  light,  when  ouce  that  has 
been  ccvsred  up  by  mounting,  it  may  be 
submitted  to  a  dull,  diffused  light  with 
im])unity,  care  being  taken  that  the  back 
of  the  original  tissue  is  uppermost.  This 
permits  the  rolling  of  the  mounted  tissue 
to  be  effected  in  a  moderately  light  room. 
The  back  of  each  print  should  be  ex- 
amined, and  any  india-rubber  solution 
removed  by  rubbing  with  a  piece  of 
india-rubber.  The  print  is  now  ready  for 
development.  To  effect  this  a  plentiful 
supply  of  warm  water  is  necessary.  Three 
large  wooden  troughs  should  be  used, 
provided  with  hot  and  cold  water  taps 
and  waste-])iiie.  Into  these  troughs  jiass 
the  prints  in  succession.  But  the  same 
result  could  be  obtained  on  a  more 
limited  scale  in  photographic  dishes, 
and  by  having  at  hand  a  large  vessel  of 
hot  water,  as  well  as  the  ordinary  cold 
water  su]iply.  The  prints  must  be  first 
immersed  in  cold  water,  all  air-bubbles 
being  cai-el'ully  removed.  Here  they  are 
left  for  half  an  hour  or  more,  as  may  be 
convenient,  to  permit  the  water  to  pene- 
trate and  soften  the  gelatine  ;  after  this, 
place  them  one  by  one  in  water  of  from 
80°  to  100°  Fahr.  This  immo.liately 
loosens  the  backing  paper  upon  which  the 
tissue  compound  was  originally  coated, 
which  must  be  stripped  off,  It  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  tissue  at  one  edge,  and 
lifted  gently  away.  If  it  should  still 
adhere,  a  little  longer  soaking  in  the 
warm  water  will  lie  necessary  to  effect 
the  removal  of  the  [jajier  ;  but  this  is 
always  a  bad  sign.  The  back  surf  ice  of 
the  tissue,  opposite  to  that  which  was 
exposed,  is  now  uncovered  ;  and  the  next 
operation  is  to  remove  all  gelatine,  ])ig- 
ment,  anil  chromio  salt  which  have  not 
been  rendered  insoluble.  As  the  sensi- 
tive surface  is  now  nxjioscd,  strong  white 
light  should  1)0  avoidod  until  the  bichri)- 
mate  has  been  washed  out  of  the  film. 
A  large  portion  has  been  removed  whilst 
the  print  was  soaking  ;  and  now  that  the 
gelatinous  compounil  is  px|ioscd,  the  salt 
b  rapidly  difl'iised  in  the  wafer.  The 
process  of  clearing  may  be  accelerated  liy 
allowing  a  gentle  stream  of  warm  wati'r 
to  fall  on  the  surface  of  the  print,  but  if 
Ihe  print  is  left  face  down  in  the  warm 


water,  in  from  five  minutes  to  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  it  will  have  parted  with  nearly 
all  the  superfluous  gelatine  and  colour, 
presenting  the  image  in  its  proj)er  gra- 
dations, and  only  requiring  a  little  fur- 
ther washing  to  comjilete  the  operation. 
If,  from  over-exposure,  the  picture  ap- 
l)ears  too  dark,  or  the  image  appears 
slowly,  the  temperature  may  be  raised, 
when  necessary,  to  loO°  Fahr. ;  but  high 
tem])erature  must  not  be  used  until  all 
the  development  has  been  effected  that 
can  be  clfected  by  water  of  a  lower  tem- 
perature. The  development  is  best  com- 
menced at  as  low  a  temparature  as  pos- 
sible; and,  as  soon  as  the  imige  is  fully 
made  out,  the  print  should  be  removed 
to  cold  water,  in  which  the  residue  of 
bichromate  will  be  washed  away  without 
injury  to  the  delicate  half-tones,  which 
would,  with  an  under-exposed  print,  dis- 
ajipear  in  hot  water.  After  2  or  3  hours' 
immersion  in  cold  water,  the  prints  are 
one  by  one  re-immersod  in  water  at  80°  or 
9U°.  Those  which  show  signs  of  under- 
exposure are  very  carefully  rinsed  in 
merely  tepid  water,  say  80°,  to  clear 
away  the  soluble  gelatine  and  adherent 
colour;  after  whicii  they  are  suspended 
to  dry.  The  more  fully-exposed  prints 
remain  in  the  warm  water  until  they 
become  light  enough.  Any  that  are 
over-exposed  are  put  into  hot  water,  and 
ai-e  allowe<l  to  remain  until  the  dejith  is 
sullicicntly  reduced.  By  usmg  merely 
to]iid  water  at  the  commencement  of  the 
operation,  any  unil('r-e.\]>osed  jirints  are 
discovered  and  saved.  Then,  by  the  use 
of  hot  water  to  the  more  t'ully-oxposed 
prints,  these  are  speedily  lightened  to  the 
requireil  degree,  and  very  few  prints  are 
lost  from  under  or  over  exposure.  When 
sudicieut  gelatine  an<l  colourmg  matter 
have  been  removed,  .and  the  printfi  are 
fully  develojHMl,  they  ai'e  hung  up  to  dry. 
It  is  most  important  to  )ircserve  uni- 
formity of  action.  It  is  desirable  to  keep 
the  face  downwards  until  the  develop, 
ment  is  comjdeted,  and  to  remove  air- 
bubbles  whenever  thc^y  form.  It  should 
111!  remembered,  in  observing  the  depth 
of  t lie  picture,  that  it  is  seen  on  a  groulul 
covered  by  the  coating  of  india-rubber, 
which    gives  the  paper   a    biowii  tint, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


277 


and  that  when  transferred  to  pure  white 
papei',  it  will  possess  much  greater  bril- 
liancy. The  picture  up  to  the  present 
time  presents  an  image  in  which  right 
and  left  are  reversed.  It  is  now  neces- 
sary to  transfer  it  from  the  paper  which 
has  supported  it  temj)orarily  for  mani- 
pulation, to  its  final  resting  place,  m 
which  operation  right  and  left  will  re- 
sume their  proper  relations.  The  image 
may  be  transferred  to  a  sheet  of  card- 
board, so  as  to  i-equireno  further  mount- 
ing, or  to  pa]jer  ;  in  the  latter  case,  it  is 
simply  in  the  ]>osition  of  an  ordinary 
print,  and  v/ill  require  subsequent 
mounting. 

Transferring  to  Cardboard. — The  face 
of  the  dried  print  is  very  evenly  coated, 
by  floating,  or  by  means  of  a  flat  camel- 
hair  brush,  with  the  following  jirepara- 
tion; — Gelatine,  2  oz. ;  glycerine,^  oz.; 
water,  1  pint.  The  gelatine  should  be 
melted  and  carefully  cleared  of  air  by 
long  heating,  and  skimming  the  froth  ; 
after  which  the  glycerine  is  added.  It 
will  always  require  melting  by  heat,  and 
straining  through  wet  flannel  or  muslin 
before  use ;  it  is  then  applied  evenly  to 
the  surface,  by  floating,  and  hung  up  to 
dry.  When  dry  the  print  is  trimmed 
to  the  required  shape.  A  piece  of  stout 
cardboard  of  the  required  size,  pure  in 
colour  and  fine  in  surface,  is  passed 
through  clean  water,  and  drained.  Upon 
the  moistened  surface  the  print  is  laid, 
face  downwards,  exactly  in  the  position 
it  is  to  occupy,  and  the  card  is  taken  to 
the  rolling  press  and  placed  on  the  po- 
lished steel  plate,  print  side  downwards, 
the  side  on  which  the  print  is  placed 
being  in  contact  with  the  plate,  and  a  felt 
blanket  on  the  back  of  the  card  ;  it  is 
submitted  to  a  heavy  rolling  pressure, 
and  put  aside  to  dry.  The  cardboard 
must  be  perfectly  moistened  all  over,  as, 
if  any  point  is  omitted,  the  adhesion  of 
the  print  in  that  j)lace  would  not  be  se- 
cured. As  each  part  is  submitted  to  the 
rolling  pressure,  a  wave,  infinitely  small 
hiiwever,  is  driven  before  the  pressure, 
eJl'ectually  displacii  g  air,  and  securing 
perfect  contact.  There  should  be  no  de- 
lay m  apjiiying  the  pressure  after  the 
pnqt  hasbeon  placed  in  contact  with  the 


moistened  surface,  as  the  image,  by  ab- 
sorbing moisture,  might,  under  the  heavy 
pressure,  lose  something  in  sharpness. 
As  each  print  is  passed  through  the  roll- 
ing press,  it  is  placed  upon  the  last,  and 
when  the  pile  is  completed,  a  weight  is 
placed  upon  the  whole  heap,  the  prints 
then  dry  without  warping ;  and  at  the 
exjiiration  of  about  24  hours  they  are 
ready  for  the  final  operation.  This  is, 
removing  the  paper  which  has  supported 
the  image  during  the  operations  of  de- 
velojiing  and  washing.  The  picture  must 
be  quite  dry  before  the  operation  is  at- 
tempted. A  piece  of  clean  cotton  wool 
is  saturated  with  pure  benzole,  and  the 
india-rubber  coated  paper  which  covers 
the  print  is  rubbed  pretty  hard  with  it. 
An  edge  of  the  paper  is  then  gently 
raised  with  the  point  of  a  blunt  knife, 
care  being  taken  to  commence  at  a  black 
part  of  the  picture  where  the  film  of  the 
image  is  thickest.  The  raised  edge  is 
then  taken  hold  of,  and  pulled  so  as  to 
tear  it  gently  and  steadily  off  the  print. 
Instead  of  removing  the  paper  with  an 
upward  or  lifting  motion,  it  is  better  to 
turn  it  backwards,  as  there  is  less  danger 
to  the  surface  of  the  print  at  any  point 
in  which  the  adhesion  in  mounting  is 
imperfect.  As  a  general  rule,  especially 
when  the  benzole  is  used  sparingly,  the 
paper  brings  away  with  it  all  the  india- 
rubber  coating  ;  but  any  traces  remaining 
may  be  rubbed  away  with  india-rubber. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  pic- 
ture is  now  finished.  If  required  for 
colouring,  the  print  may  be  coated  with 
plain  collodion,  or  a  suitable  sizing  prepa- 
ration. The  manipulations  in  transferring 
to  paper  are  very  similar  to  those  just 
described,  but  are  a  little  more  easy.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  trim  the  print  to 
its  proper  size  or  shape,  as  this  will  be 
done  in  the  final  mounting.  The  mount- 
ing papers  are  carefully  immersed  in 
water,  air-bubbles  being  brushed  away, 
and  then  laid  one  upon  another  while  in 
the  water ;  they  are  then  drawn  out  in 
a  pack,  and  suspended  to  drain  for  some 
hours,  or  pressed  to  remove  the  superflu- 
ous water  ;  a  perfectly  even  film  of  mois- 
ture is  thus  secured.  Place  the  print,  face 
upwards,  on  the  steel  plate  of  the  press, 


278 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


and  over  the  print  is  laid  the  moistened 
paper,  and  on  that  a  felt  blanket.  The 
press  is  then  pulled.  The  print  is  next 
immersed  for  an  hour  in  a  bath,  contain- 
ing 5  per  cent,  of  alum,  and  is  afterwards 
well  washed  in  water  and  dried,  after 
which  it  is  uncovered  as  when  mounted 
on  cardboard.  By  transferring  to  paper 
it  will  be  observed  that  facility  is  af- 
forded for  performing  the  last-mentioned 
operation,  by  which  an  additional  source 
of  stability  is  secured.  A  solution  of  com- 
mon alum  has,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
power  of  waterproofing  the  prints,  and 
generally  fixture  with  alum  is  quite 
sufficient.  Where,  however,  more  tho- 
rough waterproofing  is  required,  the 
prints,  after  transfer,  should  be  treated 
with  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  chrome 
alum.  Prints  intended  for  colouring  in 
water  colour  should  be  chrome-fixed. 

Sensitive  Collodio-Gelatine  Tissue. — 
To  prepare  the  sensitive  collodio-gela- 
tine  tissue,  take  a  sheet  of  plate  glass, 
free  from  blemishes  or  scratches,  and 
clean  it  perfectly,  finally  rubbing  the 
surface  with  a  saturated  solution  of 
beeswax  in  ether.  This  is  wiped  off 
with  a  clean  cloth,  leaving  a  scarcely 
perceptible  coating  of  the  wax.  This 
roating  tends  to  facilitate  the  future 
removal  of  the  tissue  from  the  glass. 
Now  coat  the  glass  with  plain  collodion, 
giving  a  thick,  tough,  transparent  film. 
The  pyroxyline  should  be  of  the  kind 
which  yields  a  film  {ree  from  opacity. 
About  ten  grains  in  an  ounce  of  solvent, 
consisting  of  equal  parts  of  ether  and 
alcohol,  will  answer  the  purjjo^e.  This 
Him  must  be  dry  before  applying  the 
tissue  compound.  Make  a  solution  of 
pure  gelatine  2  oz.,  white  sugar  ^  oz., 
water  8  oz.  The  kind  of  jiigment  to  be 
employed,  and  the  proportion  in  which 
it  is  to  be  added,  will  di.']it'iid  on  circuin- 
stances,  but  it  is  especially  iinj>urtant  in 
the  preparation  of  this  tissue,  that  the 
pigment  employed  should  be  so  finely 
divided  that  no  subsidence  will  take 
place  during  the  period  the  tissue  com- 
pound remaias  in  the  fluid  state  upon 
the  gla.Hs.  The  pre|>aration  in  this  state 
may  be  kept  ready  for  use.  It  should 
be  kept  in  a  well-corked,  wide-mouthed 


bottle ;  in  hot  weather  it  is  apt  to 
decompose  if  kept  long.  It  may  be 
poured  into  a  flat  dish  to  the  depth  of 
about  half  an  inch,  and  when  nearly  dry 
cut  into  shreds,  and  thoroughly  dri*\l ; 
in  which  st/ite  it  may  be  kept  without 
risk  of  in_;'|L'ry.  When  required  for  use 
it  must  be  soaked  again  in  eight  parts 
of  water.  The  proportion  of  gelatine 
and  of  sugar  will  be  influenced  by  the 
quality  of  the  gelatine,  the  temperature, 
and  other  conditions,  in  which  experi- 
ence must  be  the  guide.  In  very  dry 
weather  the  proportion  of  sugar  may  be 
increased.  To  prepare  the  tissue  com- 
pound for  use,  heat  must  be  applied 
until  it  is  quite  fluid,  when  one  i)art  of 
a  saturated  solution  of  bichromate  of 
ammonia  must  be  added  to  every  tea 
parts  of  the  gelatinous  compound,  after 
wnich  the  whole  should  be  strained 
through  flannel.  It  is  desirable,  aftei 
the  chromic  salt  has  been  added  to  the 
gelatine,  to  avoid  applying  a  greater 
heat  than  is  necessary  to  preserve  fluid- 
ity, as  excess  of  heat  tends  to  produce 
insolubility.  About  100°  Fahr.  will 
generally  answer  the  purpose.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  frequent  applica- 
tion of  heat  to  gelatine  destroys  its 
setting  powers,  and  renders  the  prepara- 
tion useless.  If  the  tissue  is  too  thiu 
the  finished  picture  will  not  possess  its 
proper  depth  of  shade  in  its  darkest 
parts,  unless  it  has  had  an  unusually 
large  proportion  of  colouring  matter.  If 
too  thick,  drying  is  retarded,  and  it  is 
intractable  in  manipulation;  it  will  also 
require  a  longer  time  in  development. 
As  a  general  rule,  about  2  oz.  will  be 
required  for  each  superficial  foot.  Im- 
mediately previous  to  the  preparation  of 
a  sheet  of  tissue,  the  piece  of  jjatent 
jilate  glass  should  be  placed  in  a  jier- 
tectly  horizontal  jiosition,  a  spirit-level 
being  used  in  the  adjustment.  The 
tissue  compound,  warmed  to  100°, 
should  be  strained  through  a  piece  of 
moist  flannel  or  muslin,  and  when  ready 
the  plate  should  be  warmed  until  it  is 
of  the  same  t^mjierature  as  the  coin- 
j)ound.  The  proper  amount  is  then 
poured  on  the  cullodionized  ]iiate,  and 
caused  to  flow  over  its  surface,  a  gla."« 


V/OKKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


279 


•^d  being  used  to  spread  the  solution. 
The  coated  plate  is  then  left  on  the 
stand  until  it  is  q  lite  set.  When  once 
thoroughly  set,  the  plates  may  be  placed 
away  in  an  upright  position  to  dry.  The 
more  quickly  the  drying  is  etl'ected, 
provided  heat  is  no^.  aji]ilied,  the  better. 
The  temperature  should  not  exceed  60° 
or  70°  Fahr.,  as  a  higher  temperature 
may  cause  the  gelatine  to  run  and  form 
uneven  waves.  In  a  dry,  well-ventilated 
dark  room,  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
about  60°  Fahr.,  drying  will  generally 
take  place  within  twelve  hours,  and 
without  any  danger  to  the  solubility  of 
the  tissue.  It  is  desirable  in  iamp 
weather  to  use  a  drying  box,  containing 
chloride  of  calcium,  or  other  substance 
having  great  atliuity  for  water.  When 
the  tissue  is  dry  it  is  ready  for  printing, 
it  is  removed  from  the  glass  and  placed 
in  the  pressure  frame,  with  the  collodion 
surface  in  contact  with  the  negative. 
The  proper  exposure  is  ascertained  by 
the  actinometer.  Before  development, 
the  tissue  is  coated  with  india-rubber 
solution  in  the  same  manner  as  the  paper 
tissue,  and  is  mounted  on  paper  coated 
with  india-rubber.  It  is  then  developed, 
washed,  dried,  and  transferred  as  already 
described  ;  the  film  of  collodion  in  this 
instance  forming  the  surface  of  the 
finished  print.  Instead  of  coating  the 
glass  plate  with  collodion,  it  may  be 
rubbed  with  ox-gall,  or  with  the  solu- 
tion of  wax  before  mentioned,  and  coated 
with  the  sensitive  tissue  compound. 
When  this  is  dry  it  may  be  coated  with 
collodion,  removed  from  the  glass,  and 
treated  in  the  manner  already  described. 
Or  it  may,  instead  of  being  coated  with 
collodion,  have  a  sheet  of  wet  paper 
applied  to  it,  and  pressed  in  contact  so 
as  to  adhere.  It  is  then  sulfered  to  dry, 
and  treated  as  the  paper  tissue  in  all 
lespects,  its  only  difference  consisting  in 
the  fine  surface  communicated  by  the 
plate  glass,  which  becomes  finally  the 
surface  of  the  transferred  picture,  and 
possesses  moi'e  delicacy  of  effect  than  that 
produced  by  the  ordinary  jiajier  tissue. 

The  Pigment  employed. — Where  effects 
resembling  artists'  dr  iwings  are  required, 
which,   in  reproductions  will   often   be 


valuable,  it  is  quite  possible  to  produce 
them.  The  effect  of  a  drawing  in  lead 
pencil  may  be  imitated  by  using  graphite 
as  the  pigment ;  red  chalk  may  be  imi- 
tated by  \'enetian  red  ;  for  sepia  and 
bistre  effects  these  pigments  tJiemselves 
may  be  used.  For  most  purposi;s,  how- 
ever, a  fine  black,  either  neutral,  or 
inclining  to  brown  or  purple,  will  be 
preferred.  Fine  lamp-black,  or  good 
Indian  ink,  in  such  case  will  generally 
form  the  basis  of  the  colouring  matter. 
If  the  colour  required  is  a  pure  neutral 
black,  the  addition  of  a  blue  pigment  is 
necessary,  to  neutralize  the  brown  tint 
of  Indian  ink  ;  and,  where  necessary, 
coldness  is  corrected  by  the  addition  of 
some  warm  colour.  The  selection  of 
this  colour  will  be  governed  by  the  tint 
desired,  and  by  the  permanency.  Many 
of  the  most  beautiful  tints  are  most 
fugitive.  Carmine,  for  instance,  is  un- 
stable. Crimson  lake  is  a  valuable 
colour,  but  it  is  not  strictly  permanent. 
Indian  red  is  a  very  powerful  and  very 
permanent  colour.  Venetian  red  is  also 
permanent.  Ultra-marme  blue  is  satis- 
factory as  regards  permanence.  In  judg- 
ing coloui's  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  actual  effect  of  colour  employed  is 
chiefly  seen  in  middle  tint.  It  is  dilli- 
cult  to  distinguish  much  difference  be- 
tween a  blue-black,  a  brown-black,  or  a 
jiurjile-black,  in  the  extreme  darks  of  a 
l)icture;  but  the  tone  is  easily  distin- 
guished in  middle  tint,  and,  as  a  rule, 
warm  half-tones  are  the  most  pleasing. 
By  the  addition  of  a  large  proportion 
of  colour  to  the  gelatine,  a  vigorous 
print  may  be  obtained  fi-om  a  feeble 
negative,  and  by  the  use  of  a  small  pro- 
port  iun  of  colour  a  hard  and  intense 
negative  may  be  made  to  yield  soft 
prints.  As  a  normal  proi)ortion  for  good 
negatives  2  per  cent,  of  carbon  is  sutfi- 
cient.  The  proportion  of  pigment  re- 
quired varies  with  different  pigments, 
and  depends  upon  the  power  of  the 
colour  employed. 

Colouring  Carbon  Prints.  —  Caibou 
photographs  admit  of  colouring  in  oil, 
water,  or  powder  colours,  without  risk 
of  damage  ;  the  manipulation  is  easiei 
than  that  upon  albumenized  silver  prints. 


280 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


Powder  colours  adhere  very  readily  to 
the  surface  of  these  prints.  By  breath- 
ing on  the  picture  a  still  more  adherent 
surface  is  obtained. 

Water  Colours. — The  water  colours 
take  kindly  without  any  preparation, 
washing  well,  and  permitting  tint  to  be 
worked  over  tint  without  ditiiculty,  and 
the  surface  may  be  made  more  pleasant 
for  working  on  by  the  ajiplication  of  a 
coating  of  sizing  jjreparation.  The  plain 
carbon  print  so  treated  acquires  an  even, 
clear  surface,  losing  all  gloss  without 
any  loss  of  depth  or  ti-ansparency. 

Oil  Colours. — Tlie  best  n>.de  of  ]ire- 
paring  a  carbon  print  for  the  recejition 
of  oil  colours  is  by  sizing  it  with  isin- 
glass. A  solution  of  about  2  per  cent, 
of  isinglass  in  equal  parts  of  hot  water 
and  spirits  of  wine,  carel'uliy  ajiplied, 
not  too  hot,  to  the  surface  of  the  carbon 
print,  with  a  flat  camul-hair  brush, 
yields  a  surface  ui)nn  which  oil  colours 
work  admirably. 

Ji'e-touchinj  Carbon  Prints. — In  the 
oi'dinary  process  of  re-touching  carbon 
prints,  to  remove  small  imperfections, 
it  IS  only  necessary  to  use  the  jiroper 
colour  iu  the  usual  way ;  if  a  little 
gelatine,  with  a  trace  of  a  chromic  salt, 
is  employed  with  the  colour,  it  will, 
when  dry,  become  insoluble  like  the  rest 
of  the  picture.  If  the  re-touching  is 
effected  with  the  same  materials  before 
transferring  the  print,  it  will,  when  the 
picture  is  (iuished,  be  under  tlie  image, 
and  no  ino<)uality  of  surface,  usually 
ajipareut  after  touching,  will  be  seen. 

Failures,  lutults,  and  licmcdics. — Spon- 
tnneoHS  Insolubility  of  the  Tissue. — This 
arises  chiefly  from  slow  drying,  or  long 
kecj)ing  in  a  d.inip  place,  'i'he  addition 
of  substances  to  give  elasticity,  such  as 
glycerine,  which  retanl  the  di'ying  of 
the  gelatine  film,  also  tend  to  produce 
s])Outaneous  insolubility.  Heat  in  con- 
junction with  the  moisture  increases  the 
tendency.  The  use  of  too  much  bichro- 
m.'itc  of  potash,  or  too  prolongoil  immer- 
Kiou  in  the  solution  of  birliroinate,  will 
firoduce  si)ontanoou8  insolubility.  Im- 
iinrrsion  in  vity  hot  water,  j)rior  to 
development,  Vi  nt  times  conducive  to 
insolubility,  alst  drying  the  tissue  in  an 


impure  atmosphere,  and  cspcciiily  one 
vitiated  by  the  burning  of  gas. 

Tardti  Solution  of  the  Superfluous 
Gelatine  Development. — The  same  causes 
which  produce  spontaneous  insolubility 
when  present  in  less  degree,  cause  tardy 
solution  of  the  unaltered  gelatine,  and 
slow  development.  The  more  rapidly  the 
tissue  has  dried,  and  tho  more  horny  it 
appears,  the  more  readily,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  superfluous  gelatine  and  pig- 
ment are  removed  by  warm  water,  and 
complete  development  is  effected.  When 
the  develojiment  is  slow,  hotter  water 
may  be  employed  ;  but  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  free  soluble  bichromate 
has  first  been  removed  by  tejiid  water. 

Bichromate  of  Potash  Crystallizing  on 
the  Tissue  in  Drying. — If  the  tissue  is 
allowed  to  remain  too  long  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  bichromate  of  ]iotash,  the 
salt  will  crystallize  on  the  surface  dur- 
ing drying,  and  the  tissue  will  be  useless. 
The  remedy  of  course  is  the  emjiloyment 
of  a  weaker  solution,  or  a  shorter  im- 
mersion in  the  full-strength  solution. 

Uneven  Development. — If  the  jirint  is 
allowed  to  float  to  tlie  surface  of  the  warm 
water,  allowing  ]iorti<iiis  to  become  dry; 
or  if  some  jiortioiis  of  the  jjajier  forming 
the  original  basis  of  the  gelatine  are  al- 
lowed to  become  detached  long  in  advance 
of  the  remainder,  so  that  the  warm  water 
acts  directly  on  the  soluble  matter  in 
]>atches,  the  result  will  be  uneven  develop- 
ment, the  ]iortions  last  uncovered  remain- 
ing darker  than  the  rest  of  the  print; 
and  it  will  lie  dillicult  to  equalize  the  tint, 
even  by  long-continued  dcvulojiment. 

Blisters  during  Development.  —  If,  iu 
mounting  the  tissue  with  the  india- 
rubber  solution,  perfect  contact  in  all 
j>arts  is  not  secured,  blisters  will  arise 
in  the  course  of  development,  which  will 
show  as  marks  or  defects  in  the  finished 
])rint.  Passing  the  combined  sheets  of 
tissue  and  india-rubber  coated  paper 
through  a  powerful  rolling  press  pre- 
vents this. 

Over  -  Exposure.  —  An  over-exposed 
jirint  will  develoj)  tai-dily,  and  continue, 
uncler  ordinary  treatment,  too  dark. 
After  all  the  soluble  chromic  salts  are 
removed,  the  temperature  of  the  water 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


281 


may  be  raised,  and  by  long  soaking  in 
hot  water  the  depth  may  be  reduced  con- 
siderably. Immersion  for  a  short  time 
in  a  very  weak  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime,  or  of  hypochlorite  of  soda,  or  in 
chlorine  water,  or  peroxide  of  hydro- 
gen, rapidly  reduces  a  print,  by  decom- 
posing a  portion  of  the  insoluble  chromo- 
gelatine  compound,  aud  restoring  it  to  its 
original  condition  of  solubility.  Pro- 
tracted immersion  in  hot  water  is  the 
best  remedy. 

Uiuler-Kxposure. — An  under-exjiosed 
print  develojis  rapidly,  the  lighter  half- 
tones quickly  disappearing.  When  this 
IS  seen,  quickly  remove  the  print  to  cold 
water,  and  by  skilful  manipulation  and 
attention,  and  the  after-use  of  almost 
cold  water,  say  under  80°,  a  brilliant 
print  may  be  secured. 

Weak  and  Flat  Prints. — When  a 
feeble  print  is  obtained  from  a  good 
negative,  it  may  arise  from  the  use  of  a 
tissue  containing  too  small  a  proportion 
of  colour,  or  from  the  tissue  being  old 
and  partially  decomposed  by  slow  diy- 
ing.  If  the  negative  is  weak,  the  use  of 
a  tissue  containing  a  large  proportion  of 
colour  will  yield  a  vigorous  image.  In- 
creased vigour  may  be  obtained  from  an 
ordinary  sample  of  tissue,  by  sensitizing 
it  on  the  paper  side  of  the  tissue  only, 
instead  of  immersing  the  whole.  Print- 
ing in  direct  sunshine  aids  in  obtaining 
a  vigorous  print. 

Hardness  and  Excessive  Contrast. — 
This  may  arise  from  an  unsuitable  nega- 
tive, or  from  the  injudicious  use  of  too 
hot  water  on  a  lightly  exposed  print,  or 
from  the  use  of  tissue  containing  an  ex- 
cessive proportion  of  colour,  especiaJly 
in  conjunction  with  under-exposure. 
Sensitizing  the  tissue  on  the  prepared 
side  will  tend  to  produce  softness,  even 
with  a  dense  negative. 

An  Uneven  Texture  in  the  Finished 
Print  arises  from  unequa'l  and  insuffi- 
cient pressure  in  transferring.  This  ul- 
equal  pressure  may  arise  from  the  coat- 
ing of  india-rubber  being  uneven,  or, 
more  probably,  from  the  coating  of 
clear  gelatine  being  applied  in  unaven 
streaks,  or  from  uneven  texturj  of 
blanket,  or  uneven  pressure. 


Portions  of  the  Image  tearing  off  in 
Transferring  arises  from  the  face  of  the 
print  being  imperfectly  coated  with 
gelatine,  or  from  the  paper  or  board  to 
which  the  print  is  transferred  having 
an  imperfectly  moistened  surface,  or 
from  not  being  dry  when  the  paper  is 
removed,  or  soiled  by  fingering  or  dust. 

A  Green  Tint  pervading  the  Blacks 
is  caused  by  imperfect  washing  of  the 
print,  by  which  traces  of  soluble  chromic 
salt  are  left  in  the  image. 

Unequal  Sensitiveness.  — This  arises 
from  the  tissue  having  imbibed  the 
bichromate  solution  unequally.  If,  in 
immersing  the  tissue,  one  portion  re- 
mains dry  while  the  rest  is  wet,  that 
portion  will  be  least  sensitive,  and  will 
form  a  light  patch  in  the  picture.  If 
the  tissue  is  raised  out  of  the  bichro- 
mate in  such  a  manner  that  streams  of 
the  solution  run  down  the  sheet,  there 
will  be  in  the  print  patches  or  streaks 
of  a  darker  colour. 

The  Gclatinuus  Coating  will  Pun  in 
Sensitizing,  if  the  bichromate  solution  is 
too  warm,  and  the  tissue  kept  too  long 
immersed.  During  summer  it  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  bichromate  solution  as 
cool  as  possible,  and  to  sensitize  in  the 
coolest  j)lace  that  can  be  procured. 

P>ark  Sjiots. — If  a  piece  of  tissue  is 
printed  under  too  heavy  a  pressure- 
dark  sj)ots  or  patches  appear  in  the 
half-tones.  This  is  most  apt  to  occui 
if  the  tissue  is  limp,  and  the  pressure 
of  the  back  of  the  printing  frame  not 
only  strong,  but  uneven  from  coarse 
padding. 

A  Sparkling  Appearance  in  the  Print 
after  final  Transfer. — This  arises  from 
the  transfer  process  being  imperfectly 
performed,  the  paper  being  either  too 
wet,  or  too  slight  pressure  used,  or  the 
blanket  not  sulHciently  yielding  to  dif- 
fuse the  pressure  equally  over  ail  the 
surface  of  the  print. 

Dry  Collodion  Process. — The  wei 
collodion  process  is  found  very  incon- 
venient for  photographs  of  scenery,  and 
buildings,  when  the  operator  is  away 
from  his  base  of  operations.  He  musr 
either  carry  a  tent,  to  use  as  a  dark 
room,  an  awkward  addition  to  his  lug- 


282 


WOUKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


gage,  or  he  must  treat  his  coUodiouized 
plates  so  as  to  preserve  their  seusibilitj' 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period.  There 
are  mauy  well-known  processes  in  use, 
by  which  the  plates  are  prepared  and 
sensitized  before  starting  on  a  journey, 
exposed  at  the  desired  situation,  and 
developed  on  return  home.  In  all  the 
processes  the  plates  are  coated  with 
iodized  collodion,  washed,  and  sensitized 
in  the  nitrate  of  silver  bath,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  wet  collodion 
process,  but  the  means  taken  to  pre- 
serve the  sensitiveness  of  the  jJlates 
vary  greatly.  If  an  ordinary  negative 
lilate,  when  removed  from  the  nitrate 
of  silver  bath,  be  allowed  to  dry,  it 
loses  nearly  all  sensibility,  and  cannot 
be  develo[ied,  as  the  nitrate  of  silver 
crystallizes  on  the  glass.  The  dried 
collodion  film,  when  wetted,  does  not 
return  to  its  former  soft  porous  con- 
dition, but  is  apt  to  peel  off.  It  has 
been  found  that  dilute  spii-its  of  wine 
poured  over  the  dried  plate  prior  to 
developing,  will  to  a  certain  e.xtent 
i-estore  the  collodion  to  its  proper  con- 
dition. When  the  alcohol  has  well 
soaked  in,  wash  the  plate,  and  develop 
IS  with  wet  collodion  plates.  This 
simply  washed  and  dried  plate  is  the 
easiest  form  of  dry  collodion  process, 
but  is  unreliable.  l>y  tiie  addition  of 
half  per  cent,  of  resin  to  the  collodion, 
or  a  few  drops  of  amber  varuisli,  the 
chances  of  failure  are  lessened,  as  the 
film  is  more  likely  to  adhere  to  the 
glass.  Treat  the  plates  as  with  ordi- 
nary collodion  ;  when  taken  out  of  the 
nitrate  of  silver  bath,  wash  and  jijace 
to  dry  in  the  dark.  Varnish  the  edges 
of  the  film,  autl  v/hen  al)out  to  use  the 
plate  di[i  it  in  a  nitrate  of  silver  bath. 
These  plates  must  be  used  the  day  after 
projiaration.  The  time  of  exposure  in 
the  camera  must  be  about  three  times 
as  long  as  for  the  wet  process;  develop 
with  a  solution  of  gallic  aci<l.  Anoilier 
simple  opei-ation  is  to  coat  an  ordinary 
wet  |>lat(!  with  a  solution  of  ilc.xtriiie. 
Di.s3olve  one  part  by  weij;iit  of  iloxtrine 
in  ten  parts  water,  allow  to  settle,  pour 
off  the  clear  portion.  Remove  jilafe 
from  nitrate  of  silver  bath,  wash,  pour 


some  of  the  dextrine  evenly  over  the 
plate,  drain  and  dry  m  the  dark.  Thus 
prepaied,  plates  may  be  preserved  seve- 
ral days ;  exposure  three  times  as  long 
as  for  wet  collodion.  Before  develop- 
ing, wash  in  clean  water,  develop  with 
pyrogailic  acid. 

Prcscrv<itive  Solution  for  Serisitive 
Plates. — Honey,  3  oz. ;  distilled  water, 
5  oz.  This  mixture  is  to  be  poured 
over  the  sensitive  plate  after  it  has  been 
removed  from  the  silver  bath  and  well 
drained  upon  blotting  paper.  The  solu- 
tion should  be  liltered  before  use  and 
poured  over  the  plate  several  times ; 
it  should  be  then  drained  for  a  few 
minutes  and  kept  in  the  slide  or  dark 
box  ;  it  will  keep  sensitive  for  several 
days.  The  following  dry  processes, 
though  less  simple,  are  far  more  elfi- 
cient  and  trustworthy  than  the  washed 
plates.  For  open-air  views,  a  careful 
consideration  of  the  size  of  diaphragm 
to  be  used  is  necessary ;  the  smaller  the 
opening  the  more  brilliant  will  be  the 
jiicture,  but  a  longer  exposure  will  be 
necessary  than  with  a  diaphragm  having 
a  large  opening. 

Coi,i-oi)iO-ALiiUMi:N  Prockss. — Coat 
the  plate  with  ordinary  bromo-iodized 
collodion,  pour  it  on  as  usual,  let  it  set 
well  before  jdacing  the  plate  in  the 
nitrate  of  silver  bath,  and  use  a  pneu- 
matic hoKIei',  so  that  the  collodion  may 
comjdetely  coat  the  plate.  Place  the 
plate  in  the  nitrate  of  silver  bath,  re- 
move and  wash  with  several  waters, 
pl.'ice  it  in  a  })an  half  filled  with  a  solu- 
ti/in  of  3  grains  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium to  an  ounce  of  water,  lu  which  let 
it  remain  wnilst  jireiiariiig  the  next 
])latc.  Then  remove,  wash  well,  and 
|)oiir  over  the  collodion  surface  some  of 
the  iodized  albumen  solution,  letting  it 
ticat  backwards  and  forwards  on  the 
p!  ite  so  as  to  saturate  ihe  film  ;  pour  oil 
the  solution,  and  repeat  the  o])eratioii 
with  a  iVesh  quantity  of  the  iodized 
aibiinieii;  pour  oil',  and  set  the  plate  to 
drain  on  blotting  paper.  The  (inal  dry- 
int;  may  be  done  by  artificial  heal. 
Plates  thus  prepared  must  be  kept  dry  ; 
liiey  are  almost  insensitive  to  light,  and 
will  remain  ^ood   for  a  long  time.     To 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


283 


sensitize,  heat  the  plate  over  a  spirit 
lamp  or  before  a  fire ;  when  cool,  im- 
merse it  in  the  aceto-nitrate  bath  for 
one  minute,  using  only  a  yellow  light, 
then  wash  thoroughly,  and  stand  to  dry 
in  the  dark.  The  plates  should  not  be 
sensitized  the  second  time  too  long  be- 
fore they  are  to  be  used,  although  they 
will  keep  for  a  few  weeks  in  warm 
weather,  and  even  longer  in  cold  wea- 
ther. Exposure  about  six  times  as  long 
as  ordinary  wet  collodion.  A  little 
over-exposure  is  better  than  undei'-ex- 
posure,  as  the  great  point  is  to  bring 
out  all  the  details,  even  in  tlie  darkest 
shadows.  Develop  with  plain  pyro- 
gallic  acid,  and  intensify  with  acid 
silver  solution.  After  developing,  fix 
with  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  solution 
as  used  for  wet  collodion  plates. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  Bath. — 1  oz.  recr3's- 
tallized  nitrate  oi'  silver,  12  oz.  distilled 
water,  |  oz.  glacial  acetic  acid,  and  2 
grains  iodide  of  potassium.  Dissolve 
and  filter. 

Iodized  Albumen,  —  2^  oz.  distilled 
water,  10  oz.  albumen,  50  grains  iodide 
of  potassium,  10  grains  bromide  of  am- 
monium, 120  minims  strong  liquor  am- 
monia;. Beat  to  a  froth,  allow  to  settle. 
Filter  before  use.  This  mixture  will 
keop  good  a  considerable  time. 

Aceto-Nitrate  Bath.  —  30  grains  ni- 
trate of  silver,  J  dram  glacial  acetic 
acid,  1  oz.  distilled  water.  After  using 
this  bath  fur  sensitizing  the  plates,  it 
will  be  discoloured  ;  pour  it  into  a  bottle 
containing  about  2  oz.  of  kaolin,  shake, 
and  stand  to  settle;  the  kaolin  in  sub- 
siding will  carry  down  the  colouring 
matter. 

Plain  Pyrogallic  Developer.  —  Two 
grains  pyrogallic  acid  to  every  ounce  of 
water.  Let  the  film  on  the  dry  plate  be 
well  wetted  with  clean  water,  then  pour 
on  the  solution ;  as  soon  as  all  the 
details  of  the  picture  have  come  out, 
add  a  few  drops  of  the  following  solu- 
tion to  that  on  the  plate ; — 

Intensifying  Solution. — 15  grams  ni- 
trate of  silver,  10  grains  citric  acid, 
1  oz.  water. 

Alkaline  Pyrogallic  Developer. — Make 
the  following  mixtures,   and  keep  in  3 


separate  bottles ; — 1.  96  grains  pyro- 
gallic acid,  and  1  oz.  alcohol.  2.  96 
grains  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  1  oz. 
water.  3.  10  grains  bromide  of  potas- 
sium in  1  oz.  water.  When  about  to 
use,  mix  10  minims  of  No.  1,  5  minims 
No.  3,  with  1  oz.  water  ;  pour  over  the 
wetted  plate,  let  it  remain  on  a  few 
seconds,  pour  the  solution  back  into  the 
cup,  and  add  to  it  5  minims  of  No.  2. 
pour  on  to  the  plate  again.  More  of 
No.  2  may  be  added,  if  the  details  do  not 
come  out  well ;  but  if  too  much  is  used, 
fogging  may  occur  before  the  develop- 
ment is  completed.  Tlie  solution  of 
bromide  of  potassium  is  to  check  fogging ; 
but  as  it  also  checks  development,  the 
less  of  it  that  is  used  the  better.  Pour 
off  the  developer,  wash  and  intensify 
with  pyrogallic  acid  and  the  acid  silver 
solution. 

Collodio-Albumen  Process,  adapted 
for  preparing  a  large  number  of  plates, 
and  especially  for  obtaining  stereoscopic 
positives.  Glasses  having  all  been 
cleaned  beforehand,  by  the  following 
method  a  hundred  plates,  not  exceeding 
9  in.  by  7  in.,  may  be  prepared  in  a  few 
hours.  A  gutta-percha  or  porcelain 
dish  must  be  placed  in  the  dark  room, 
containing  a  bath  composed  of  1050 
grains  fused  nitrate  of  silver  in  35  oz. 
water.  Use  a  mixture  of  -f  ordinary 
negative  collodion,  and  \  of  ether  and 
alcohol,  in  the  proportion  of  2  parts  ether 
to  1  of  alcohol.  Have  a  large  tub  of 
distilled  water  in  the  dark  room — near 
the  nitrate  of  silver  bath.  Coat  a  plate 
with  the  collodion,  and  place  it  in  the 
nitrate  of  silver  bath ;  as  soon  as  it  is 
sensitized  remove  it  to  the  water  trough, 
then  coat  another  plate,  and  follow  the 
same  process,  taking  care  that  the  plates 
have  sulficient  water  to  remove  the 
nitrate  of  silver.  The  plates  should 
remain  in  the  water  about  10  minutes, 
and  should  be  placed  upright,  and  not 
touching  each  other.  If  the  tub  is 
small,  change  the  water  frequently, 
throwing  li  into  a  waste-liquor  vessel. 
When  all  the  plates  have  been  well 
washed,  pour  a  solution  of  common  salt 
into  the  waste  ;  this  will  cause  a  precipi- 
tate of  chloride  of  silver,  which  can  be 


284 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


reduced  to  metallic  silver  by  fusion  with 
some  carbonate  of  soda,  in  a  crucible. 
By  having  two  nitrate  of  silver  baths, 
and  two  washing  trougns,  mucn  greater 
rapidity  can  be  obtained,  as  whilst  the 
plate  in  one  bath  is  being  sensitized, 
iuothor  can  be  collodionized  and  placed 
in  rhe  other  bath  ;  then  remove  tlie  sen- 
sitized plate  to  the  water  trough,  and 
proceed  with  another  plate.  When 
sulficiently  washed,  drain  the  jdates, 
and  stand  them  on  blotting  paper,  col- 
lodion side  to  the  wall.  Before  they 
are  quite  dry,  pour  a  small  quantity  of 
albumen  over  the  collodion,  to  remove 
the  remaining  water,  drain  this  albumen 
into  a  separate  bottle;  then  [lour  a  fresh 
quantity  of  albumen  on  the  plate,  letting 
it  flow  over  every  part  of  the  collodion 
film,  return  the  surplus  albumen  to  the 
bottle,  stand  the  ))late  to  dry,  coated 
side  to  the  wall  to  avoid  dust,  and  rest- 
ing on  blotting  pajjer  as  before.  Avoid 
letting  the  albumen  run  round  to  the 
back  of  the  plate;  if  a  little  should  acci- 
dentally do  so,  let  it  dry,  and  then 
remove  with  damp  bibulous  paper. 
Keep  the  dark  room  as  free  as  possible 
from  floating  dust  whilst  the  plates 
are  drying,  which  will  take  about  12 
hours.  When  dry,  pack  the  jjlates  in  a 
grooved  box ;  and,  if  protected  from 
damp  or  direct  light,  they  can  be  pre- 
served a  considerable  time. 

Alhuincn. — To  the  white  of  each  egg 
add  7 J  grams  iodide  of  potassium  dis- 
solved in  7J  grains  water.  Beat  to  a 
froth,  stand  to  settle,  pour  the  clear 
portion  into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and 
keep  in  a  cool  place. 

ficnsilizinj  the  Plates  for  Use. — This 
operation  must  only  be  performed  the 
day  before  the  plates  are  required,  and 
in  tiie  dark  room. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  Solution. — 16  oi. 
distilled  water,  1  oz.  glacial  acetic  acid, 
li  oz.  lused  nitrate  ol  MJver.  Filter. 
When  discolonieil  by  use,  shake  up  with 
knolin  and  allow  to  settle.  I'^ace  the 
jrlate  in  a  l)ntli  of  the  above  lor  a  'out 
Hj  seconds,  wash  well,  stand  to  dry. 
When  dry  it  is  ready  for  exposure  in  the 
camera;  time  twice  or  thrice  tbat  re- 
quired for   ordinary   collodion    platea. 


After  exposure,  a  few  days  may  elapss 
before  developing,  but  the  shorter  the 
period  the  better  will  be  the  result. 

Developing. — To  15  grains  gallic  acid 
in  a  porcelain  cajisule,  add  3  oz.  hot 
water,  mix  well.  When  the  gallic  acid 
is  dissolved,  add  13  oz.  cold  water,  (ilter 
for  use.  Then  make  a  solution  com- 
posed of  230  grains  fused  nitrate  o. 
silver,  and  9  minims  glacial  acetic  acid 
dissolved  in  35  oz.  water.  Add  \  of  a 
dram  of  the  latter  solution  to  every 
3  oz.  of  the  former;  the  whole  must  be 
thoroughly  .ncorporated ;  pour  into  a 
porcelain  disn,  a  little  larger  than  the 
l)lates,  about  an  inch  of  de])th  of  the 
mixture.  Immerse  the  plate  in  the  bath, 
and  agitate  it  a  little  at  first.  The  time 
necessary  for  development  varies  with 
the  temperature,  which  should  be  about 
70°  Fahr. ;  a  little  more  nitrate  of  silver 
solution  will  hasten  it,  but  if  too  much 
is  added  fogging  will  take  i>lace.  With 
proper  solutions  about  4  hours  is 
usually  suflicient.  If  the  gallic  acid 
bath  turns  muddy,  remove  and  wash 
the  plate,  and  place  in  a  fresh  solution 
of  gallic  acid,  containing  less  of  the 
nitrate  of  silver  mixture  than  was  pre- 
viously added.  When  well  developed, 
wash  the  plate,  and  fix  with  hyposul- 
phite of  soda,  as  described  in  the  wet 
process,  then  wash  and  dry. 

Causes  of  Failures. — Under-exjiosure 
of  a  plate  is  fatal.  If,  after  long  stand- 
ing in  the  develo])ing  solution,  only  the 
sky  is  well  marked,  the  plate  is  useless. 
An  over-exjiosed  jdate  develops  rapidly, 
and  if  removed  from  the  bath  before  the 
whole  picture  turns  grey,  a  passable 
result  may  be  obtained.  If  the  sky 
begins  to  show  about  an  hour  after  the 
plate  is  jilaced  to  develop,  and  gradu- 
ally turns  to  an  intense  black,  and  the 
ilark  shadows  remain  perfectly  trans- 
parent, the  |>late  is  successful. 

To  Prevent  Film  Splittin/. — In  all 
dry  processes  the  liiin  when  wetteil  has  a 
tendency  to  loosen  fr<im  I  he  glass  ami  split ; 
tiiis  may  be  avoided  either  by  I'aintiug  fur 
about  J  inch  round  the  edge  of  the  jdate 
with  a  solution  of  indi.i-rubber  2  grains, 
benzole  1  oz.,  or  by  api>lying  to  the 
whole  of  the  plate  a  substratum  of  nlbu- 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


5285 


ftjea  1  oz.,  water  20  oz,,  liquid  ammonia 
^  dram,  to  be  well  shaken  together 
and  alluwed  to  st;ind  until  clear.  These 
also  prevent  water  getting  under  the 
film  during  iireparatiou.  It  is  essential 
that  the  collodion  should  be  allowed  to 
set  well  before  mimersion  in  the  silver 
bath. 

The  Honey  Process. — Clean,  coat, 
and  sensitize  the  plate  in  the  usual  man- 
ner;  then  place  it  in  a  bath  of  distilled 
water,  washing  more  or  less  as  it  may 
be  requiied  to  be  kept  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  time.  Pour  on  the  plate  a  solu- 
tion made  of  equal  parts  of  honey  and 
distilled  water,  and  applied  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  collodi'vu;  throw  away 
the  first  portion,  and  repeat  the  opera- 
tion, letting  the  solution  soak  in  for  one 
or  two  minutes ;  jiour  back  the  hoTiey 
solution  to  its  bottle,  drain  the  plate  on 
blotting  paper,  keep  it  in  the  dark  and 
free  from  dust.  Exposure  about  double 
for  the  ordinary  wet  process.  Previous 
to  developing,  soak  the  plate  in  distilled 
water,  to  soften  or  remove  the  film  of 
honey;  the  older  the  plate,  the  more 
soaking  will  be  required  ;  then  dip  the 
plate  into  the  silver  bath  and  devel-op 
in  the  usual  way. 

Tjie  Tanxix  Process. — Clean  the 
glasses  with  a  mixture  of  tripoli  pow- 
der, spirits  of  wine,  and  solution  of 
ammonia,  applied  by  a  tuft  of  cotton. 
Wash  in  clean  water,  and  dry  with  a 
soft  cloth,  previously  warmed.  Coat 
one  side  of  the  plate  with  the  following 
gelatine  solution,  applied  in  the  same 
manner  as  collodion. 

Gelatine  Solution. — 20  grains  Nelson's 
patent  gelatine,  dissolved  in  10  oz.  of 
Water,  and  ^  oz.  s]iirits  of  wine.  Filter. 
After  coating  tke  plate,  pour  back 
the  superfluous  gelatine  into  the  bottla, 
stand  the  plate  to  dram  on  a  [liece  of 
blotting  paper,  when  dry,  warm  slightly, 
and  pack  in  a  grooved  bos.  A  number 
of  plates  may  be  thus  coated  at  one 
time,  as  if  they  are  carefully  packed 
they  will  keep  any  length  of  time.  Do 
not  let  any  of  the  gelatine  solution  get 
no  the  back  of  the  plate.  Coat  the  plate 
with  old  iodized  collodion  in  the  usual 
way,  and  place  in  a  similar  nitrate  of 


silver  bath  to  that  used  in  the  wet  col- 
lodion  process,  in  which  it  must  remair 
4  or  5  minutes.  Then  wash  with  plenty 
of  water. 

Tannin  Prcscriuig  Bath. — To  ever) 
ounce  distilled  water  requii-ed  in  the 
bath,  add  15  grains  tannin.  Filter.  Pout 
out  two  separate  portions  of  about  4 
drams  each,  one  to  be  used  for  the  first 
coating  of  the  plate,  which  removes  the 
water  remaining  on  it  after  washing ; 
the  second  portion  is  then  poured  on  and 
oil'  the  sensitized  side  of  the  plate  several 
times.  Stand  the  plate  in  a  warm  dark 
room  resting  on  blotting  paper;  when 
dry,  it  is  ready  for  use  in  the  camera. 
The  necessary  time  for  exposure  varies 
from  one  minute  on  a  very  favourable 
da)',  to  eight  minutes  in  dull  weatlier. 

Dcvelopinij  Solutions. — 1.  72  grams 
pyrogaUic  acid  in  1  oz.  spirits  of  wine; 
keep  in  a  stoppered  bottle.  2.  20  grains 
each  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  citric  acid, 
dissolved  in  1  oz.  distilled  water.  Filter. 
Add  J  drani  of  No.  1  to  3  oz.  dis- 
tilled water,  then  take  say  3  drams 
of  this  diluted  pyrogallic  solution,  and 
add  to  it  from  10  to  15  minims  of  the 
nitrate  of  silver  and  acid  solution, 
moisten  the  exposed  plate  with  water, 
quickly  and  evenly  applied,  then  }>our 
on  the  developing  solution,  and  let  it 
flow  gently  to  and  fro  over  the  j)late.  If 
tlie  sky  comes  out  quickly  and  strongly, 
but  the  details  do  not,  it  is  a  proof  of 
under-exposure,  which  a  little  more 
pyrogallic  acid  added  to  the  developer 
will  remedy.  If,  however,  the  jiicture 
appears  to  come  out  at  once,  a  proof  of 
over-exposure,  add  a  few  drops  of  No.  2 
solution  to  the  developer.  When  deve- 
loped fix  with  hyposulphite  of  soda, 
wash  and  varnish,  as  described  for  wet 
collodion. 

Enlargement  of  Negatives.—  ''lie 
negative  to  be  enlarged  must  be  absolutely 
perfect  as  regards  definition,  slightly 
dense,  and  full  of  detail,  possessing  as 
little  granularity  as  possible.  From  the 
negative,  either  by  contact  printing  on  a 
dry  plate,  or  copisd  by  the  wet  process 
in  camera,  a  transparency  should  be  ob- 
tained, the  development  to  be  etfected  by 
the   application  of  a  weak   solution  ci 


286 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


pyrogallic  acid,  to  whiih  a  few  drops  of 
an  acid  solutioB  of  nitrate  of  silver,  10 
grains  to  the  oz.,  has  been  added.  Th* 
contrasts  should  not  be  too  decided,  nor 
the  shadows  too  dense.  From  such 
transparency  the  enlargement  may  be 
produced  by  the  usual  studio  process  up 
to  six  or  eight  diameters  without  any 
visible  diminution  in  the  excellency  of 
its  definition ;  or  the  transparency  may 
be  enlarged  to  the  required  size  at  once, 
and  a  negative  obtained  from  it  on  a  dry 
plate  as  before,  or  upon  carbon  tissue, 
each  of  which  possesses  its  advantages. 

Stereoscopic  Views. — The  appeai-- 
ance  of  high  relief  given  by  the  stereo- 
scope, is  obtained  by  placing  side  by  side 
two  prints  representing  the  same  object, 
but  jihotographed  from  slightly  ditfereut 
positions,  whilst  the  glass  prisms  of  the 
stereoscope  so  direct  the  visual  rays  as 
to  superpose  the  views,  and  but  one 
picture  is  seen,  although  it  is  in  reality 
a  combination  of  both  ;  thus  the  same 
object  is  seen  from  two  diflerent  points 
of  view  at  tiie  same  time,  as  is  always 
the  case  when  both  eyes  arc  looking  at 
one  thing,  as  they,  with  the  object  seen, 
of  course  form  a  kind  of  triangle.  Views 
for  tiie  stereoscope  are  frequently  taken 
simultaneously  by  two  cameras,  placed 
at  certain  angles  and  distances  from 
each  other,  varying  with  the  size  and 
distance  of  the  object  to  be  photo- 
graphed ;  but  for  portraits  less  trouble 
is  involved  by  the  use  of  a  properl}~con- 
structed  twin  camera.  For  views,  or 
groups,  situated  some  distance  from  the 
operator,  two  distinct  cameras  must  be 
used  (or  one  camera  moved  from  place 
to  place);  the  distance  they  must  be 
placed  ajiart,  and  the  relative  angle  in 
which  they  slioulil  stami  to  each  other, 
require  careful  consideration.  For  por- 
traits or  other  olijects,  to  wliirh  the 
camerjis  can  be  brouglit  r.ather  close,  the 
angle  should  not  be  too  great,  otherwise 
the  effect  of  relief  will  be  distorted.  In 
such  cases  an  angle  of  about  2°  must  be 
used.  For  landsca|)es,  as  large  an  angle 
jw  4'^  may  generally  be  safely  emjiloycd. 
To  reckon  the  angles,  suiqiose  the 
nearest  point  of  the  view  to  be  taken  to 
Tepre.seut  the  aj>»'  "f  a  trianglf*,  from 


each  camera  produce  an  imaginary 
straight  line  to  the  apex,  these  lines 
must  represent  the  desired  angle.  As 
lines  diverging  from  a  centre  may  be 
indefinitely  produced  without  altering 
their  relative  angle  to  each  other,  so 
the  distance  between  the  cameras  will 
not  affect  the  angles  they  should  stand 
in,  exce.[)t  that,  for  pictorial  effect,  dis- 
tant objects  may  be  a  little  distorted 
with  good  results,  as  will  be  the  case 
when  a  large  angle  is  used  ;  whereas 
for  subjects  close  to  the  camera,  such 
distortion  does  not  give  a  pleasing  pic- 
ture. Supposing  an  angle  of  2°  to  be 
used,  the  distance  required  between  the 
cameras  will  be  about  IJ  in.  for  1  yard, 
2^  in.  for  2  yards,  oj  in.  for  3  yards, 
5  in.  for  4  yards,  G  in.  for  5  yards,  7^  in. 
for  6  yards,  9  in.  for  7  yards,  10  in.  for 
8  yards,  11-^  in.  for  9  yards,  12J  in.  for 
10  yards,  19  in.  for  15  yards,  25  in.  for 
20  yards.  These  remarks  apply  equally 
wliether  two  cameras  are  used  simul- 
taneously, or  whether  only  one  camera 
is  used,  being  moved  from  one  position  to 
the  other  as  required. 

Twin  Lens  Camera. — Tiiis  is  a  camera 
having  two  double  achromatic  combina- 
tions of  the  same  focal  length,  in  other 
respects  like  an  ordinary  camera,  except 
that  it  has  two  folding  shutters  at  the 
back.  Before  focussing  the  object  to  be 
photographed,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain 
that  the  two  lenses  are  in  focus  with 
each  other.  For  this  purpose,  focus  a 
statuette,  or  other  convenient  article, 
and  when  a  perfectly  sharp  image  is 
ol)tained  with  each  of  the  lenses,  upon 
the  ground-glass  slide,  do  not  again  alter 
the  rack  and  i>inion  which  adjust  the 
lenses;  any  further  adjustment  neces- 
sary for  ]iortraits  to  be  taken  subse- 
quently must  be  obtained  by  drawing 
ill  or  out  the  cx|>anding  body  of  tlie 
camera,  as  when  once  the  glasses  are  of 
the  exact  focal  length,  their  relative 
positions  to  each  other  will  not  roquire 
any  alteration,  although  the  body  of  the 
camera  will.  As  the  two  lenses  are  ne- 
cessarily rather  close  to  each  other,  the 
twin  camera  will  only  answer  for  photo- 
giaphs  taken  at  a  very  short  distance, 
otherwise  the  effect  of  relief  will  not  be 


WOHKSHOr    RECEIPTS. 


287 


obtained.  The  glasses  used  are  longer 
than  they  are  wide,  as  two  negatives 
are  taken  at  the  same  time.  All  the 
operations  are  the  same  as  before  de- 
.scribed  lor  negatives  ;  when  the  posi- 
tive prints  are  obtained,  their  position 
must  be  reversed  in  mounting,  the  left- 
hand  half  of  the  pi'int  being  pasted  on 
the  right-hand  side  of  the  card,  and  the 
right  side  of  the  print  on  the  left  side 
of  the  card. 

Stereoscopic  Views  with  One  Ordinary 
Camera. — The  camera  must  be  placed 
on  a  board,  having  a  movable  slip  of 
wood  at  each  side  which  can  be  adjusted 
to  the  desired  angle,  against  which  the 
camera  must  be  jihu'ed,  first  ou  one  side 
to  take  one  view,  and  tlieu  on  the  other 
side  to  take  the  other  view.  Mark  cross 
lines  on  the  ground-glass  ]>late,  to  inter- 
sect a  central  point  of  the  view  from 
whichever  side  of  the  board  the  camera 
is  standing;  this  is  to  ensure  correct 
centres  for  the  proofs.  Two  separate 
negatives  are  then  taken  ;  when  mount- 
ing the  prints,  transpose  their  position 
from  right  to  left.  Dark  slides  are 
made  for  this  process,  to  hold  a  glass 
sufficiently  long  to  contain  both  views, 
and  fitted  with  two  shutters,  by  which 
each  half  of  the  glass  can  be  exposed 
alternately.  Having  exposed  the  right- 
hand  half,  close  its  shutter,  move  the 
camera  the  required  distance  to  the 
left,  and  expose  the  left-hand  half  of 
the  glass. 

Stereoscopic  Vines  with  Two  Ordinary 
Cameras.  —  For  instantaneous  views  of 
any  landscape  containmg  animate  figures, 
it  IS  necessary  to  use  two  quarter-plate 
cameras,  with  lenses  of  exactly  equal 
focal  length ;  they  must  be  placed  on  a 
board  provided  with  movable  stops  to 
regulate  angle  and  distance.  Great  care 
is  necessary  in  manipulation ;  the  two 
shutters  must  be  opened  and  closed  at 
the  same  time,  otherwise  the  two  proofs 
will  develop  unequally.  Tlie  plates 
should  be  collodionized  and  sensitized 
in  the  same  baths,  and  to  the  same 
extent.  For  the  developing  bath,  em- 
ploy a  vessel  into  which  the  two  plates 
can  be  placed  side  by  side,  so  that  the 
Bume    ]iyrogallic    acid    may   effect    both 


simultaneously.  When  mounting  the 
positives,  transpose  the  two  views,  lelt 
to  right,  as  before  described. 

P)IOTOGRAPHY  BY  ARTIFICIAL  LiGHT. 

— Negatives  may  be  obtained  by  the  aid 
of  light  given  by  burning  magnesium 
wire,  care  being  taken  that  the  direct 
light  does  not  fall  on  the  lens,  and  that 
the  object  is  well  illuminated.  Trans- 
parent positives  on  glass  may  be  ju'inted 
by  the  light  of  a  gas-burner,  or  of  an 
argand  oil  lamp. 

Transparent  Positives. — These  are 
taken  from  negatives,  and  may  be  od- 
tained  of  the  same  size,  or  larger,  or 
smaller  than  the  original,  as  desired. 
P'or  copies  of  the  same  size  as  t!ie  nega- 
tive, the  operation  can  be  effected  by 
placing  the  negative  in  a  printing 
frame,  in  contact  with  an  ordinary  dry 
collodion  plate.  The  negative  used 
should  be  very  clear  in  the  lights,  and 
have  transparent  shades.  To  obtaiu  a 
good  negative  for  this  process  use  a 
more  acid  nitrate  of  silver  bath  than 
for  ordinary  negatives,  and  do  not  con- 
tinue the  development  so  long.  By  day- 
light the  exposure  required  will  be  a 
few  seconds,  but  gaslight  may  also  be 
used,  when  the  exposure  must  be  ex- 
tended over  several  minutes.  In  de- 
veloping, jjyrogallic  and  citric  acid  give 
a  blue-black  tint;  pyrogallic  and  acetic 
acid  a  brown-black  tint.  If  intended  to 
be  hung  up  as  a  transjiarency,  varnish 
and  protect  the  collodion  side  with  a 
ground-glass  backing,  bind  round  the 
edges  to  keep  out  dust.  If  the  trans- 
l)arency  is  required  of  a  different  size  to 
the  negative,  the  camera  and  lens  must 
be  used.  One  means  of  doing  this  is  to 
work  in  a  dark  room,  allow  the  light  to 
enter  through  the  negative  only,  and 
proceed  as  usual  with  the  exposure  and 
developing. 

Copying  Camera. — This  is  a  kind  of 
double-bodied  camera,  one  part  of  which 
IS  provided  with  holders  for  the  nega- 
tives, and  has  no  lens ;  the  other  por- 
tion has  a  lens  which  can  be  moved  so 
as  to  approach  or  recede  from  the  nega- 
tive, and  has  the  usual  ground-glass 
plate.  The  negative  must  be  placed  in 
its  holder,  screw  on  the  lens,  and  adjiist 


'2SB 


Workshop  heceipts. 


the  lens  to  its  proper  distance  from  the 
negative.  If  the  copy  is  wished  to  be 
larger  than  the  negative,  approach  the 
lens  to  it,  and  farther  from  the  ground 
glass ;  if  it  is  required  to  be  smaller, 
remove  the  negative  farther  from  the 
lens.  The  light  passing  through  the 
negative  will  show  its  image  on  the 
ground  glass  in  the  usual  way.  When 
ihe  desired  size  is  obtained,  remove  the 
ground  glass,  and  replace  by  a  frame 
having  an  ordinary  wet  sensitized  plate. 
Use  a  diaphragm,  with  a  small  stop, 
and  proceed  as  if  for  an  ordinary  nega- 
tive. It  is  necessary  sometimes,  when 
considerable  enlargements  are  required, 
to  use  a  camera  with  a  long  body  open- 
mg  out  like  an  accordion  ;  the  opera- 
tions are  smiilar  when  once  the  proper 
focal  distances  have  been  adjusted.  The 
jiower  of  a  lens  is  determined  by  its 
shape  and  diameter.  The  larger  it  is 
in  diameter,  the  more  light  it  will 
admit ;  whilst  the  degree  of  curvature 
it  has  regulates  its  focal  length,  ami 
determines  the  size  of  the  image  it  will 
p:3duce.  It  is  the  focal  length  of  a 
lens,  and  not  its  diameter,  which  regu- 
lates the  size  of  the  image,  and  the  dis- 
tance it  has  to  be  from  the  ground-glass 
screen  determines  the  length  of  body 
required  in  the  copying  camera. 

To  calculate  Lcwjth  of  Ca>nera  re- 
quired.—  Calculate  the  distance  the 
ground  glass  must  be  from  the  back 
lens  thus ;  multiply  the  focal  length 
of  the  lens  used  by  the  number  of 
times  of  enlargement  requircil,  add  the 
focil  length  to  the  product.  The  focus 
of  a  quarter-plate  lens  is  generally  (5  in. 
Say  the  negative  is  to  be  cnl.nged  li 
times,  0  X  -i  =  18  -t-  6  in.  focal  length 
=  24  in.,  the  distance  required  between 
the  ground  gl;i.ss  and  the  lens.  The  dis- 
tance the  negative  is  to  be  in  front  of 
the  lens  is  always  more  than  the  focal 
length,  but  less  than  twice  the  focal 
length. 

Magic -Lanti;i:n  Si.inra.  —  If  the 
transparent  positives  obtained  are  in- 
tended for  the  magic  lantern,  they  need 
"."it  be  varnished  ;  if  varnish  is  useil,  the 
crvstal  varnish  is  bettor  adaptecl  for  the 
}>u.poso  'ban  spirit  varnish,  which  would 


probably  show  streaks  wheii  magnified 
on  the  screen.  Mount  on  another  piece 
of  glass  of  the  same  size  to  protect  the 
collodion  film,  and  bind  round  the  edges 
like  a  passe-partout. 

T7ie  Solar  Camera. — This  is  a  copying 
camera  with  a  condensing  lens  to  con- 
centrate the  sun's  light  on  the  negative, 
so  as  to  allow  the  focus  of  the  lens  to 
be  at  a  considerable  distance,  to  obtain 
an  enlargement  of  a  picture.  The  mag- 
nified image  of  the  transparent  nega- 
tive may  be  received  upon  either  sensi- 
tized glass  or  paper.  For  use  with 
ordinary  albumenized  paper,  sensitize 
it  in  the  usual  way;  the  development 
required  will  however  be  longer.  Or 
thin  Saxony  paper  maj'  be  used,  after 
being  floated  for  one  minute  on  the  fol- 
lowing solution  ; — chloride  of  ammonium 
and  citric  acid,  4  di-ams  each  ;  25  oz. 
of  distilled  water,  .saturated  with  sesqui- 
carbooate  of  soda.  To  prepare  this  bath, 
dissolve  the  citric  acid  in  part  of  the 
water,  and  add  the  soda  until  the  acid 
is  neutralized  ;  add  the  resulting  citrate 
of  soda  to  the  solution  of  chloride  of 
ammonium;  add  a  little  citric  acid  in 
solution,  with  a  small  quantity  of  boiled 
arrowroot.  Remove  the  paper  from  this 
bath,  and  hang  to  dry. 

SensitiziTig  Bath. — Nitrate  of  silver, 
1  oz.,  in  18  oz.  distilled  water;  add  a 
few  drops  of  citric  acid  to  dissolve  the 
first  precipitate.  Lay  the  jiapor  on  this 
solution,  prcpareil  side  downwards,  for 
half  a  minute,  dry  in  a  dark  room. 
Kxpose  the  pa]ier  until  it  takes  a  pale 
lilac  tinge,  which  will  occur  in  a  few 
minutes,  remove  and  immerse  in  the 
following. 

Developing  Bath. — Dissolve  1")  grains 
gallic  acid  in  1  dram  alcohol  ;  and 
7^  grains  acetate  of  lead  in  1-J-  oz. 
water.  Pour  these  solutions  into  5  pints 
of  water,  adding  a  few  drojis  of  glacial 
acetic  acid  to  roilissolve  the  slight  pro- 
cijiitate  which  will  form.  Several  prints 
may  be  developed  at  once ;  when  deve- 
Idped,  remove  and  wash  in  clean  water. 

Fixing. —  6  oz.  of  hydrosulphite  of 
soila  dissolved  in  1  pint  water.  Leave 
the  juints  in  the  bath  for  about  four 
minutes,  then  wa.sh  very  thoroughly  in 


WORKSHOP   RRcSlPTSi 


289 


ruaning  wate:-,  ami  dry.  The  negative 
to  be  copied  should  be  a  weak  glass 
picture,  with  plenty  of  detail  in  the 
shadows,  and  not  too  dense  in  the 
bright  lights.  An  ordinary  negative  is 
too  opaque  to  produce  a  good  result. 
Choose  a  sunny  day,  and  turn  the 
mirror  of  the  camera  so  that  it  reflects 
the  sun's  light  on  the  condensing  lens. 

Photo-lithography.  —  To  pro- 
duce a  photo-lithographic  impression  of 
a  negative  proceed  as  follows  ; — Procure 
a  solution  of  gelatine  to  which  is  added 
a  small  quantity  of  albumen  in  combina- 
tion with  a  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potash,  and  in  a  warm  state  spread  it  on 
a  sheet  of  fine-textured  paper  with  a  flat 
brush  in  a  room  partially  darkened,  and 
hang  it  up  to  dry,  excluding  it  from 
light.  The  negative  or  glass  picture 
having  been  placed  in  a  photographic 
copying  frame,  place  over  the  negative 
the  prepared  paper,  over  that  a  piece  of 
fine  woollen  cloth,  and  screw  all  in  the 
frame  together,  and  expose  the  copying 
frame  and  negative  to  ditfused  light  for 
10  or  15  minutes;  the  light  passes 
through  the  transparent  parts  of  the 
negative  on  to  the  paper,  which,  by  the 
chemical  action  of  the  light  on  the 
chromatized  paper,  will  aflect  it,  turn- 
ing it  from  a  yellow  colour  to  a  deep 
brown,  while  the  part  of  the  negative 
which  intercepts  the  light  is  not  chemi- 
cally acted  upon  in  consequence  of  the 
absence  of  light,  and  remains  light  yel- 
low. When  removed  into  a  darkened 
chamber,  and  the  chromatized  gelati- 
nized paper  examined,  a  perfect  brown 
impression  will  be  seen  impressed  there- 
on. The  next  operation  is  to  cover  the 
whole  surface  of  the  page  with  litho- 
graphic transfer  ink,  evenly,  and  reduce 
in  quantity  by  wiping  it  oft"  with  a  fine 
rag,  then  lay  by  for  an  hour  or  so. 
The  principle  involved  by  the  action  of 
light  is  to  render  the  chromatized  gela- 
tine, when  acted  on  by  it,  insoluble  in 
warm  water  :  therefore,  if  the  prepared 
paper  be  placed  therein,  it  will  not 
affect  the  brown  shade  of  the  impression, 
which  is  now  covered  with  transfer  ink, 
but  all  the  rest  will  immediately  wash 
away,  leaving  a  perfect  impression  of 


the  picture  on  the  paper  in  transfer  ink  ; 
a  suitably  prepared  lithograjJiic  stone 
or  plate  of  zinc  is  put  into  a  lithographic 
press,  the  stone  or  plate  partially 
warmed,  and  the  transfer,  dry,  is  placed 
face  on  stone  or  plate  and  passed  through 
the  press  slowly  and  with  a  good  pres- 
sure, only  once  through,  when  on  the 
removal,  it  will  be  found  etfectually 
transferred  to  stone  or  plate,  and  any 
reasonable  number  of  copies  can  be 
struck  otT  in  printers'  ink. 

Nature  Printing'.  —  There  are 
two  methods  employed  for  obtaining 
facsimiles  of  ferns,  leaves,  sea-weeds, 
one  suited  to  the  amateur,  the  other  for 
commercial  purposes.  1.  For  the  former 
the  rcijuisites  are  small  quantities  of 
coloured  printing  inks,  black  may  be 
used,  but  the  natural  colours  look  much 
better,  a  little  cotton  wool,  and  some 
pieces  of  very  soft  wash-leather.  Either 
fresh  or  dried  leaves  may  be  used  ;  the 
former  require  no  preparation,  the  latter 
should  be  dipped  in  water,  and  then 
left  between  damp  blotting  paper  for 
some  time  to  become  tough,  or  they 
sometimes  crumble  to  pieces  during  the 
manipulation.  A  dabber  about  the  size 
of  a  marble  is  made  of  cotton  and  soft 
leather  tied  up,  a  small  quantity  of  ink 
of  the  desired  colour  put  on  a  piece  of 
glass,  and  the  dabber  covered  with  it, 
using  as  little  as  possibl'e.  The  side  of 
the  leaf  from  which  the  impression  is  to 
be  taken  is  then  laid,  face  upwards,  on  a 
piece  of  clean  paper,  and  the  dabber  em- 
ployed lightly  to  coat  all  the  prominent 
parts  of  the  leaf  with  the  ink.  The 
leaf  is  then  laid,  ink  side  downwards,  on 
a  piece  of  moistened  paper,  covered  with 
another  similar  piece,  which  may  be 
kept  in  place  by  lead  weights  if  neces- 
sary. The  part  under  which  the  leaf 
remains  should  then  be  carefully  press';d 
with  a  dabber,  similar  to  that  used  for 
the  ink,  taking  care  to  go  steadily  and 
evenly  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
leaf.  Of  course  it  is  necessary  to  take 
great  care  to  prevent  the  leaf  or  paper 
from  shifting.  Any  number  of  impres- 
sions may  be  taken  from  one  leaf.  Inks 
may  be  mixed  with  a  small  palette  knifo 
to  obtain  any  shade  of  colour,  and  two 


290 


WORKSHOP   UECKlPi'S. 


or  more  colours  may  be  used  on  one 
specimen.  2.  In  the  commercial  pro- 
cess, the  leaf,  or  other  object,  is  placed 
on  a  steel  plate,  and  covei-ed  with  a  lead 
piate  seraped  bright ;  it  is  then  sub- 
jected to  great  pressure,  which  leaves  a 
beautiful  impression  on  the  lead.  From 
this  a  copper  matrix  is  taken  by  the 
electrotype,  which  in  turn  serves  to  pro- 
duce an  intaglio  plate  in  copper,  from 
which  impressions  may  be  taken  in  the 
usual  manner.  3.  A  piece  of  writing 
paper  is  moistened  with  olive  oil  and 
thoroughly  smoked  over  the  flame  of  a 
tallow  candle,  the  leaf,  which  should  be 
dry,  is  laid  upon  it  covered  with  a  piece 
of  jiaper,  and  well  dabbed  all  over,  then 
transferred  to  a  piece  of  clean  jtajjcr  and 
the  dabbing  repeated,  when  it  will  leave 
an  ini])ression  much  like  a  very  delicate 
pencil  drawing. 

Photography  on  Silk.  —  Pour 
20  oz.  of  boiling  water  on  100  grains  of 
chloride  of  ammonium  and  60  grains  of 
Iceland  moss.  When  nearly  cold,  filter, 
and  immerse  the  silk  iu  it  for  15  minutes. 
To  sensitize,  immerse  the  silk  in  a  20- 
grain  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  for 
16  mmutes.  Let  the  nitrate  bath  be 
rather  acid.  When  liry,  prejiare  for 
jirinting  by  attaching  the  silk  to  a  ])iece 
of  cardboard  a  little  smaller  than  itself, 
by  turning  the  edges  over  and  fastening 
with  small  pieces  of  gummed  paper. 
Slightly  over-print.  Wash  in  two  or 
three  changes  of  water,  and  tone  in  a 
gold  bath  made  thus  ; — 29  oz.  of  water, 
'J  drams  acetate  of  sod  i,  4  grains  chlo- 
ride of  gold,  anil  a  few  grains  of  common 
w))itiug.  Filler  and  keep  for  24  hours 
before  using.  Let  the  prints  be  toned 
slightly  bluer  than  tliey  are  reijuired  to 
he  when  finished.  Rinse  tliem  in  water, 
and  fix  in  a  solution  of  hyjio.,  4  oz.  to 
tlie  [lint  of  water  ;  20  minutes  is  ample 
time  for  fixing.      Wasli  welL 

I'lUmxillWHY     FOIl     WCXJD-KNGHAV- 

INO. — It  is  easy  to  obtain  a  photogra|)h 
on  the  wood;  but  the  nitrate  of  silver 
disorganizcH  it,  an<l  renders  it  unfit  for 
the  purpose  inteuded.  Ifvaiiiisli  is  used 
to  protect  the  wood,  the  engraver  c;in 
Bcarcely  operate  ujnm  it.  These  dilli- 
culties  appear  to  be  obviated  '>y  t'.ij  m-i 


of  the  Worthleytype  process — uranium 
collodion  containing  so  little  nitrate  of 
sHver  as  to  produce  no  injurious  etlect. 
If  desired,  when  the  picture  is  printed  on 
the  block,  the  collodion  may  be  removed 
by  means  of  cotton  moistened  with  ether, 
and  an  excellent  image  will  be  seen  on 
tlie  surface  of  the  wood,  which  is  then 
in  as  fit  a  state  for  engraving  as  if  the 
drawing  had  been  made  in  the  usual 
way.  Ivoiy  may  be  treated  in  a  similar 
manner. 

To  Reduce  Old  Baths  and  Nitrate 
OP  SiLVKR  Solutions.— Filter  the  solu- 
tion of  silver  proposed  to  be  operated 
upon  until  it  is  clear,  and  place  the 
filtrate  into  a  clet.n  white  bottle  of  suit- 
able capacity.  To  each  pint  of  the  liquid 
add  4  oz.  or  more  of  mercury,  and  allow 
the  mixture  to  remain  at  perfect  rest 
for  a  few  days.  In  a  very  few  hours  a 
beautit'iil  s])ai-ldiiig  coruscation  will  be 
found  forming  ui)on  the  surface  of  the 
mercury  by  what  is  known  as  double 
elective  allinity,  and  for  each  atom  of 
the  silver  so  deposited,  a  corresponding 
amount  of  mercury  is  acted  upon  by  the 
nitric  acid  of  the  silver,  and  passes  into 
solution  as  nitrate  of  mercury.  The 
deposition  continues  until  all  the  silver 
has  been  thrown  down,  when  we  find 
over  it  a  strong  solution  of  the  nitrate 
of  mercury,  which  may  be  obtained  in 
the  solid  crystalline  form  by  evapora- 
tion. In  a  few  days  the  deposition  will 
be  com|)leted,  which  can  be  readily  seen 
if  the  true  ceases  to  grow.  Shake  the 
bottle  thoroughly,  so  that  the  branches 
of  the  tree  are  dctucheil  and  broken, 
and  brought  in  thorough  contact  with 
tlie  nu'rcury,  whoi-e  the  spangles  of  silver 
arecjuickly  dissolved.  The  watery  part 
of  the  mixture  can  now  be  drawn  or 
decanted  oif  from  the  mercury,  and  tlie 
latter  jdaced  iu  a  bag,  or,  better,  iu  a 
large  piece  of  fine  tough  liuckskin,  and 
pri'ssed  with  force  between  the  hands. 
When  no  more  mercury  can  be  squeezed 
through,  the  bag  may  be  o])encd  and  the 
lumj)  of  brittle  amalgam  removed,  and 
[preserved  in  ii  wrll-cicMni'd  and  stop- 
jpured  bottle  until  more  has  been  accumu- 
hited.  In  case  all  tlie  mercury  should 
disajipear  at  the  end  of  the  process,  a 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


291 


little  more  may  be  added  to  the  watei-y 
solution  to  ascertain  whether  it  still 
contains  silver. 

Background. — Wet  the  canvas  you 
intend  for  background  and  wring  out 
well,  then  tack  tightly  as  possible  on  to 
a  frame,  say  7  ft.  6  in.  by  5  ft.  When 
dry,  paint  over  with  the  following  ; — 
white  lead,  1  lb. ;  driers,  2  oz. ;  black 
paint,  sullicieut  to  give  it  the  desired 
shade ;  turpentine,  half  pint.  Mix 
thoroughly,  and  allow  to  stand  a  day, 
when  the  lead  will  settle  down.  Pour 
otT  turps  carefully,  which  will  rid  it  of 
the  oil ;  bring  to  proper  consistency  by 
adding  fresh  turps.  Then  add  1  oz. 
scraped  yellow  soap,  strain  through 
calico,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  The 
quicker  it  is  brushed  over  the  canvas 
the  better.  If  done  over  again  it  will 
be  improved. 

Cleaning  Old  Varnished  Nega- 
tives.— These  can  be  cleaned  by  boiling 
them  a  few  minutes  m  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  soda,  wash  thoroughly  in  several 
changes  of  water,  and  wipe  dry.  Or, 
when  few  in  number,  add  to  10  oz.  old 
collodion,  1  dram  lulphuric  acid,  pour 
over  the  varnished  side,  drain  slightly, 
and  place  another  plate  face  downwards 
upon  it ;  let  them  remain  in  contact 
about  20  minutes,  soak  an  hour  m 
water,  wash  well,  and  wipe  dry  fur  use. 

Blue  Pictures,  or  the  Cyano- 
type  Process. — Ammonia-citrate  of 
iron,  40  grains ;  distilled  water,  1  oz. 
Spread  evenly  over  the  paper,  by  means 
of  a  flat  brush  or  a  glass  rod,  the  above 
solution.  Allow  to  dry.  Expose  to  light 
under  the  negative  for  a  few  minutes 
in  the  sun,  or  from  half  an  hour  to  one 
hour  in  the  shade,  depending  on  the  in- 
tensity of  the  light.  Spread  over  the 
paper,  in  the  same  manner  as  above,  the 
following  ; — ferro-cyanide  of  potassium, 
1  dram  ;  water,  1  oz.,  which  immedi- 
ately on  being  applied  becomes  of  a  blue 
colour.  Allow  to  remain  a  few  minutes, 
then  wash  in  water,  and  a  blue  positive 
picture  will  be  the  result.  To  prevent 
the  picture  fixding,  apply  a  solution  of 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  turns  the 
picture  of  a  lavender  colour  ;  then  wash 
iu  water  and  dry,  when  the  blue  colour 


will  be  restored.  If  the  picture  has  not 
been  exposed  long  enough,  it  will  be 
very  faint. 

Magic  Photographic  Pic- 
tures.— In  the  rirst  place  an  ordinary 
[iriut  must  be  taken  on  albumen  paper 
from  a  negative  in  the  usual  manner 
When  it  is  sulHciently  pnuted  it  must 
be  carefully  washed  in  the  dark  room,  so 
as  to  remove  all  free  nitrate  of  silver. 
Now  take  it  into  the  dark  room  and  im- 
merse it  in  the  following  solution; — satu- 
rated solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury, 
1  oz. ;  hydrocliloric  acid,  1  dram.  The 
saturated  solution  of  bichloride  of  mer- 
cury is  best  prepai'ed  by  di'ssolviug  the 
solid  bichloride  in  hot  water,  as  much  as 
it  will  dissolve,  then  allowiug  the  solu- 
tion to  cool,  and  pouring  oil  the  clear 
portion  for  use.  The  salt  that  crys- 
tallizes out  can  be  preserved  for  future 
use.  Bichloride  of  mercury  is  a  violent 
poison.  The  print  will  bleach  in  this 
liquid  and  disaiipear,  from  the  formation 
of  new  and  colourless  compounds.  When 
the  paper  appears  quite  white  and  colour- 
less it  is  removed  from  the  bath  of 
bichloride  solution,  and  well  washed  and 
dried  in  the  dark  room. 

Development  of  the  Magic  Picture. — 
Make  a  saturated  solution  of  hyposul- 
phite of  soda,  and  steep  pieces  of  blotting 
paper  of  the  same  size  as  the  prints 
which  are  to  be  developed  in  the  solu- 
tion, and  dry  them  for  use.  Place  the 
whitened  picture  on  a  piece  of  glass, 
albumen  side  upward,  lay  a  piece  of  the 
blotting  paper  on  this,  and  moisten  it 
tlioroughly  with  water,  and  place  an- 
other piece  of  glass  upon  the  blotting 
paper,  press  closely  together  by  means 
of  a  weight  or  press ;  in  a  very  short 
time  the  picture  is  restored  in  all  its 
original  detail,  and  now  of  a  sepia 
colour. 

To  Obtain  the  Gold  from  an  Old 
Toning  Bath. — Add  sulphate  of  iron, 
either  in  crystals  or  solution,  to  the 
toning  bath.  The  sulphate  of  iron  will 
precipitate  the  gold  iu  a  black  powder, 
which  can  be  dried  after  well  washing  in 
several  waters,  and  dissolved  in  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  when  a  solution  of  chloride 
of  gold  will  be  obtained,  which  can  be 

U  2 


292 


WoiiKsitop  r.EcEiprs. 


evaporated  to  dryness,  after  which  it 
snould  be  dissolved  in  distilled  water, 
and  again  evaporated  so  as  to  get  rid  of 
the  acid.  Another  way  is  to  reduce 
the  black  powder  in  a  crucible,  but  an 
enormous  heat  would  be  required.  As 
an  alternative  to  either  of  the  above 
methods,  the  residue  or  black  powder 
may  be  sent  to  the  smelters,  who  would 
undertake  to  reduce  it  and  allow  cash 
for  the  same. 

Silver  from  Trimmings  of  Untoned 
Prints,  —  Procure  an  old  iron  bucket 
or  put,  and  place  the  cuttings  in  a  few 
handfuls  at  a  time,  and  ajjply  a  light  to 
them,  when  they  will  quickly  burn  to 
ashes.  As  they  burn  down  keep  adding 
the  cuttings,  which  must  be  stirred  up 
frequently  with  an  iron  rod,  so  as  to 
completely  reduce  all  the  mass  to  fine 
ashes.  Of  course  the  burning  must  be 
done  out  of  doors,  owing  to  tlie  dense 
smoke  and  disagreeable  fumes.  If  in 
windy  weather,  place  a  piece  of  sheet 
iron  partly  over  the  bucket  to  prevent 
the  ashes  from  blowing  away.  The  (ire 
will  be  a  long  time  dying  out.  After 
the  trimmings  are  reduced  to  a.shes,  the 
ashes  can  then  be  reduced  to  metallic 
silver  in  a  crucible  with  equal  quanti- 
ties of  carbonate  of  soda  and  borax,  or 
sent  away  to  be  reduced. 

Chloride  of  Silver  from  Washing  of 
Prints. — This  can  be  reduced  to  metallic 
silver  in  the  same  way  as  the  ashes  from 
the  trimmings. 

7ci  llcduce  Nitrate  of  Silver  Bath. — 
Throw  the  old  baths  into  the  washing 
waters  and  convert  into  chloride  of  silver, 
adding  common  salt  till  the  water  ceases 
to  look  milky.  Or  evaporate  to  dryness, 
rcdissolve,  and  use  for  ]irinting  b.itli. 

To  Intrnsifti  Nrgativcs  after  they  arc 
Varni.^hcd. — Wiicn  a  ncg.itivo  has  been 
varnished,  it  sometimes  becomes  so 
weakened  jis  to  cau.se  great  disap])oint- 
meat.  Uut  a  negative  need  not  be  given 
up  as  hojtele.ss  under  these  circum- 
utances.  Make  a  ui-gative  intt'iisifying 
varnish  by  adding  tincture  of  iodine — 
alcohol,  1  07..  ;  iodine,  10  grains — to 
any  good  negative  spirit  varnish,  until 
of  a  very  deej»  sherry  colour.  Label 
the    bottle,   and    keep    for    !ij>ecia!    use. 


When  a  negative  prints  weak  and  with- 
out sutlicient  contrast,  revarni.--ii  with 
this  varnish ;  pour  on  in  the  usual 
manner,  allowing  a  few  seconds  for  the 
yellow  varnish  to  jienetrate  the  film, 
and  dry  by  heat  in  the  usual  manner  of 
varnishing  the  plate.  The  negative  will 
be  found  to  be  changed  to  a  more  non- 
actinic  colour  that  will  take  longer  to 
print,  and  will  produce  a  more  brilliant 
imj)ression  on  paper.  Many  weak,  thin, 
foggy  negatives  may  thus  be  made  to 
jiruduce  passable  prints.  It  is  well  to 
keep  two  varieties  of  this  yellow  var- 
nish ;  one  of  an  ordinary  sherry  colour 
for  negatives  that  only  want  a  little 
iutensil'yiiig ;  and  another  with  a  very 
deep  port-wine  colour— made  by  adding 
a  greater  quantity  of  tincture  of  iodine — 
and  using  this  latter  for  negatives  that 
are  very  weak  and  grey.  A  varnish  of 
this  character  may  also  be  used  with 
advantage  for  varnishing  the  plate  in 
tlie  first  instance,  if  the  negative  is 
found  to  be  not  quite  intense  enough, 
as  the  iodine  in  the  varnish  unites  with 
(he  silver  deposit,  thus  inci easing  the 
intensity  of  the  negative.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  say  that  these  e.xiiedients, 
thu'jgh  useful  in  cases  of  extremity, 
should  never  be  used  as  a  regular  ju-ac- 
tice. 

On  Ii'educinj  the  fntcnsit;/  of  N^^ga- 
tives. — When  a  negative  is  too  dense, 
and  it  is  wished  to  reduce  the  intensity, 
the  usual  recommendation  is  to  emjiloy 
;i  strong  solution  of  cyanide  of  ])otas- 
s'um  to  dissolve  away  the  e.vcess  of 
density.  This  method  is  etTectual  when 
there  is  an  excess  of  deposit  all  over  the 
plate,  and  where  the  deep  sh.idows  will 
bear  reducing,  as  well  ;is  the  high  lights. 
Wiicn,  hdwever,  the  density  is  in  t^xiess 
only  on  the  high  lights,  and  the  deep 
shades  are  already  too  bare,  this  method 
is  not  only  not  useful,  but  is  mis- 
chievous. By  the  use  of  perchloride 
of  iron  such  negatives  may  be  mate- 
rially iiiijiripvi'd  and  rciidoicd  callable 
of  |iio<luciug  satisfactiiry  ]iriiits.  Make 
a  stock  scdution  of  liu  giains  of  j)er- 
chloriile  of  iron  to  the  ounce  of  water. 
When  a  negative  h.is  been  fixed  ind 
•n-aslied,  and   is  found  too  dense  m  th« 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


298 


nigli  lights,  take  a  few  drops  of  the 
solution  and  dilute  until  it  has  only  a 
pale  golden  tint.  Flow  over  the  nega- 
ti  fe,  or  pour  on  to  any  part  where  the 
intensity  is  wished  to  be  reduced.  The 
solution  acts  immediately,  according  to 
the  strength,  making  the  deposit  rather 
duller  in  colour.  Wash  well ;  no  differ- 
ence will  be  perceived  except  the  slight 
duluess.  The  ordinary  fixing  soL-ation, 
hypo,  or  cyanide,  has  now  to  be  poured 
over  the  plate,  and  according  to  the 
action  of  the  perchloride,  so  will  be  the 
reduction  of  the  density.  Where  the 
silver  is  most  abundant  on  the  negative, 
there  the  perchloride  most  readily  acts, 
and  this  constitutes  its  most  useful 
peculiarity.  It  requires  most  carefully 
using,  or  the  greater  part  of  the  deposit 
will  be  changed  into  chloride  of  silver, 
and  be  soluble  in  the  fixing  bath.  It  is 
best  to  experiment  on  a  waste  plate  or 
two  before  trying  it  on  a  valuable  nega- 
tive. If  the  negative  is  not  enough 
reduced  by  the  first  application  of  the 
perchloride  and  fixing  solutions,  the 
action  may  be  repeated  again  and  again, 
until  just  the  desired  amount  of  deposit 
is  lel't.  The  perchloride  solution  should 
be  used  very  dilute,  scarcel}' coloured ; 
it  has  no  tendency  to  stain,  nor  eat 
away  the  weakest  half-tones.  The  fix- 
ing solution  acts  immediately.  All  that 
it  dissolves  it  does  at  once,  so  that  but 
I'ttle  time  is  lost.  A  good  washing  is 
required  after  the  hypo,  or  cyanide,  but 
the  perchloride  is  rapidly  washed  away. 
Everything  may  be  done  in  open  day- 
light. 

To  Remove  Silver  Stains  from  the 
Hands. — 1.  Wash  the  hands  well  in  hot 
water  with  soap,  then  rub  the  stain  with 
a  flat  piece  of  pumice-stone  ;  the  greater 
part  of  the  stain  may  thus  be  removed. 
Finish  with  a  piece  of  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium, by  rubbing  the  hand,  while  still 
wet,  on  the  stained  part,  and  the  stain 
will  disappear.  2.  Wash  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  kept 
lor  the  purpose.  Tlien  wash  with  plain 
soap  and  water,  and  a  little  powdered 
pumice-stone.  3.  Keep  a  saturated  so- 
Jntion  of  cyanide  of  potassium  in  one 
bottle,  r.nd  a  solution,  10  grains  to  the 


ounce,  of  iodide  of  potassium,  to  which 
has  been  added  as  much  iodine  as  it  will 
dissolve,  in  another  bottle.  Touch  the 
stain  first  with  the  iodide  solution, 
wash,  and  then  use  the  cyanide,  rubbing 
it  on  the  yellow  stams.  Cyanide  must 
never  be  used  to  the  hands  when  the 
skin  is  cut,  or  in  any  way  injured,  as 
pain  and  danger  may  result  from  the 
absorption  of  the  poison. 

Removing  Silver  Stains  from  Linen. — 
Stains  should  always  be  removed  from 
linen  before  it  is  sent  to  be  washed. 
Wet  the  part  stained,  and  put  on  a  few 
drojis  of  a  saturated  solution  of  cyanide, 
or  rub  it  with  a  solid  lump ;  if  the 
mark  does  not  quickly  disappear,  wash, 
and  put  on  a  drop  or  two  of  the  iodine 
solution  mentioned  m  the  preceding 
paragraph;  the  stain  will  change  colour, 
and  a  little  cyanide  will  dissolve  it 
When  the  linen  is  double,  and  the  s-tain 
goes  through,  the  solutions  must  be 
applied  to  each  side. 

Removing  Yellow  Iron  Stains  from 
Linen. — Yellow  stains,  commonly  called 
ironmould,  are  removed  by  hydrochloric 
acid,  or  hot  solution  of  oxalic  acid, 
washing  well  in  warm  water  after- 
wards. 

Iro7i  Developer  to  Produce  Dense  Kega- 
tivcs.--\\'hen  nearly  the  right  amount 
of  intensity  is  supplied  by  the  iron  in 
the  first  instance,  the  plan  of  giving  a 
little  increased  density  to  the  high 
lights  of  a  negative  by  pyrogallic  and 
silver  is  a  very  satisfactory  mode  of 
working  ;  but  when  the  original  deposit 
is  thin,  grey,  and  metallic,  then  is  felt 
the  shortcomings  of  the  iron  developer; 
for  not  only  does  the  image  require  a 
great  addition  of  strength,  but  it  also 
unwillingly  takes  the  intensity.  Under 
these  conditions  the  picture  requires 
several  applications  of  the  pyro.  and 
silver;  and  when  the  reiiuired  density 
is  produced,  there  is  usually  found  a 
considerable  loss  of  delicacy.  The  more 
forcing  the  image  requires  to  become 
dense,  the  less  satisfactory  is  the  result. 
This  defect,  the  absence  of  primary  in- 
tensity, is  chiefly  found  in  working  m 
the  open  air,  where  the  sky  forms  a 
large    poj-tion    cf    the    picture ;    or    in 


294 


WORKSHOP    RECEIPTS. 


using  samples  of  collodion  containing  a 
large  degree  of  bromide ;  in  copj-ing 
some  kinds  of  pictures;  in  using  a  col- 
lodion giving  only  a  thin  and  blue  film  • 
and  in  using  weak  niti'ate  baths.  Gela- 
tine added  to  the  iron  developer  appears 
to  act  beneficially  by  the  increased 
glutinous  properties  it  gives  to  the 
solution,  it  seems  to  flow  more  steadily 
and  certainly  over  the  collodion  sur- 
face, so  that,  not  hesitating  or  running 
into  irregular  lines,  it  does  not  cause 
the  stains  and  markings  that  it  other- 
wise is  prone  to.  By  this  means  the 
developer  may  be  poured  on  more  deli- 
berately, and  less  solution  will  be  re- 
quired for  the  plate;  the  quantity  of 
nitrate  of  silver  thus  becomes  less  di- 
luted ;  an(l  from  this  cause  it  tends 
to  produce  a  more  dense  picture.  There 
are  several  ways  in  which  gelatine  may 
be  added  to  the  iron  developer.  1.  Mix 
1  07..,  by  measure,  of  ordinary  suljihuric 
acid  with  1  oz.  of  water ;  let  them  cool. 
Then  add  120  grains  of  gelatine;  when 
dissolved,  add  say  5  oz.  of  water,  and 
neutralize  with  ordinary  ammonia.  Add 
1  oz.  of  glacial  acetic  acid,  and  make  up 
the  total  quantity  to  20  oz.  of  solution. 
To  form  a  developer,  prepare  a  20-grain 
solution  of  protosulphate  of  iron,  and 
add  to  each  ounce  from  10  minims  to  1 
or  even  2  drams  of  the  above  sulpiiuro- 
gelatiue  mixture,  acconling  to  the  in- 
tensity desired,  remembering  that  the 
intensity  will  be  just  in  projiortiou  to 
the  quantity  of  the  mixture  adiled. 
2.  Glacial  acetic  acid,  2  oz.  ;  distilled 
water,  8  oz. ;  Nelson'.s  gelatine,  120 
grains.  Mix  these  together,  and  in  a 
short  time  the  gelatine  will  dissolve. 
Then  add  to  it — illslilled  water,  7<)  oz. ; 
protosulphate  of  iron,  2.  This  develop- 
ing solution  does  not  keep  very  well, 
and  should  not  be  m:idc  in  l:irge  quan- 
tities, lu  cold  we.atluM-  it  is  a]it  to 
gi.'latinize,  but  a  littlf  warmth  sets  it 
all  right.  This  solution  (lows  like  oil 
on  the  plate,  readily  mixing  with  the 
free  nitrate,  and  h;is  little  teuili;ncy  to 
form  stams  and  streaks.  The  image 
comes  out  slowly  and  steadily,  and  not 
with  a  flash.  The  high  lights,  if  the 
ex])osnre  be  rightly  timed,  will  be  found 


to  have  nearly  or  quite  the  right  density 
by  the  time  the  detail  is  out.  If  not 
sufficiently  dense  when  fully  developed, 
the  solution  may  be  poured  on  and  oil", 
and  the  density  will  increase;  or  a  little 
fresh  solution  may  be  taken,  to  which  a 
few  drops  of  silver  have  been  added,  and 
any  amount  of  intensity  may  be  ob- 
tained. The  images  dry  intense,  and  are 
not  much  reduced  iu  varnishing. 

Varieties  of  the  Iron  Developer. — The 
amount  of  alcohol  necessary  in  the  de- 
veloper depends  on  the  condition  of  the 
nitrate  bath.  The  more  acetic  acid 
present,  or  the  newer  the  nitrate  bath, 
the  less  the  need  of  alcohol,  but  for 
general  use  half  a  dram  of  alcohol  to 
each  ounce  of  developer  is  a  useful  pro- 
portion. 1.  Iron,  20  grains ;  acetate 
of  soda,  6  grains ;  glacial  acetic  acid,  20 
minims ;  water,  1  oz.  2.  Iron,  2  oz. ; 
formic  acid,  IJ  oz. ;  sulphuric  acid,  5 
minims;  water,  16J  oz.  3.  Iron,  15  to 
20  grains;  loaf  sugar,  50  grains;  glacial 
acetic  acid,  10  minims;  water,  1  oz. 
4.  Iron,  J  oz. ;  Epsom  salts,  1  oz. ; 
glacial  acetic  acid,  \  oz. ;   water,  16  oz, 

Opalotype  Pictures. — Any  me- 
tnod  for  producing  glass  transparencies 
will  also  serve  for  these  pictures,  only 
the  printing  should  not  be  carried  so  far. 

Opalotypes  h;i  the  Wet  Process. — It  is 
only  necessary  to  use  opal  glass  instead 
of  j)atent  jdate,  and  all  the  directions 
given  for  transparencies  for  windows 
exactly  apply.  Should  the  colour  ol 
the  i)itture  not  be  agreeable,  it  may  be 
toned  with  gold  by  any  of  the  usual  pro- 
cesses, taking  care  to  use  the  solution 
about  one(|uaiter  the  ordinary  strength. 

Opaliili/]/es  by  the  Dry  .Method. — Any 
of  the  dry  processes  may  be  employed, 
and  the  plate  may  be  used,  either  iu  the 
camera,  or  by  direct  contact  in  the 
l)rinting  frame.  The  development  may 
be  conducted  the  same  as  for  a  trans- 
jiarency,  and,  after  fixing,  may  be  toned 
the  same  as  by  the  wet  ju-ocess. 

0/xilotyjie  by  Collodio-Chlori'lc. — The 
ordinary  method  of  [iroducing  o]j}'.!  pic- 
tures is  by  collodio-chloride,  whicr.  n 
sold  with  full  iustructiitfis  for  use.  Thr 
plate,  when  coated  with  this  prepara- 
tion and  dried,  is  a'eady  iu  be  used  in  the 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


295 


printing  frame,  and  may  be  printed, 
fixed,  and  toned,  just  as  a  paper  print, 
except  that  no  more  washing  will  be 
required  than  for  a  ordinary  negative. 
The  use  of  opal  glass  as  a  material  to 
print  upon  is  recommended,  as  pictures 
of  greater  beauty  are  yielded  than  can 
be  produced  on  paper. 

Cabinet  Portraits. — The  same  treat- 
ment should  be  useu  in  producing  these 
pictures  as  in  cartes  ;  but  a  different 
lens  will  be  necessary,  as  those  used  for 
the  cartes  are  too  short  in  focus.  A 
half  or  whole  plate  lens,  or  one  made 
expressly,  will  answer  best.  The  adopted 
size  of  the  cabinet  portraits  is  as  fol- 
lows , — Size  of  mounted  picture,  5|  in. 
by  4  in. ;  mountmg  card,  6 j  in.  by  4J  in. ; 
opening  in  album,  b\  in.  by  3|  in. 

Effects  of  Weather  aiul  Temperature. 
— During  an  easterly  wind,  double  or 
treble  the  exposure  is  necessary  in  out- 
door work.  The  window  of  the  dark 
room  will  require  to  be  re-yellowed  in 
the  spring  ;  chemical  darkness  sufficient 
in  the  winter  sun,  will  be  insufficient  in 
spring  and  summer.  An  even  tem- 
perature should  be  kept  in  the  studio 
all  the  year  round  ;  in  cold  weather  all 
the  operations  are  tediously  prolonged, 
unless  the  rooms  are  artificially  warmed. 

Photographic  News-letters. — To 
procure  these  minute  photographs,  an 
ordinary  negative  must  be  taken,  great 
care  being  necessary  to  obtain  a  negative 
that  is  perfectly  clear  at  the  edges,  as  well 
as  in  the  centre.  This  operation  will  pro- 
duce a  photograph  as  much  smaller  than 
the  origi  lal  as  the  power  of  the  lens  and 
length  of  focus  will  allow.  From  a  print 
taken  off  the  negative  thus  obtained, 
another  negative  still  more  reduced  must 
be  taken,  and  this  operation  repeated  if 
necessary  until  the  final  photograph  is 
obtained  of  the  desired  size.  The  last 
positive  must  be  printed  on  very  fine 
transparent  paper,  and  all  the  usual 
operations  for  toning  and  fixing  carefully 
performed.  On  arriving  at  its  destina- 
tion the  letter  must  be  carefully  unrolled 
and  mounted  on  glass,  then  by  the  aid  of 
a  gas  microscope  attached  to  a  powerful 
phantasmagoria  lantern  the  image  can 
be  reflected  on  to  a  screen,  and  will  be 


so  much  magnified  as  to  be  easily  read 
and  transcribed.  If  rapidity  of  copying 
is  desired,  the  image  on  the  screen  may 
be  divided  into  portions  by  lines,  and 
several  persons  set  to  copy  at  the  same 
time. 

Photo-micrographs,  or  Photographs  for 
Microscopic  Slides. — The  lens  being  re- 
moved from  an  ordinary  |-plate  camera, 
a  mahogany  cone,  blackened  inside,  and 
about  2  in.  in  depth,  is  substituted, 
made  to  fit  tightly  into  the  flange  of 
the  camera,  and  having  an  opening  at  the 
apex  through  which  the  tube  of  the  mi- 
croscope can  just  pass  freely,  and  only 
just,  and  to  which  an  india-rubber  band 
very  slightly  smaller  than  the  tube  of 
the  microscope  should  be  glued,  to  pre- 
vent light  entering  between  the  micro- 
scope and  the  cone.  The  microscope  is 
then  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  and 
the  eye-piece  having  been  taken  out,  the 
tube  is  passed  through  the  cone  and  the 
eye-piece  replaced.  The  object  to  be 
photographed,  which  should  be  as  trans- 
parent as  possible,  is  then  secured  on  the 
stage  of  the  microscope,  the  manner  of 
doing  which,  when  the  stage  is  vertical, 
varies  with  the  construction  of  the  mi- 
croscope. This  may  be  done  with  two 
small  slips  of  wood  3^  in.  by  \  in.  under 
the  stage,  one  on  each  side  of  th  open- 
ing, and  two  small  india-rubber  bands 
slipped  over  the  ends  of  both  wood  and 
slide.  The  object  can  then  be  focussed 
on  the  ground-glass  screen,  but  as  the 
microscope  is  not  specially  constructea 
for  the  purpose,  the  chemical  and  visual 
foci  do  not  coincide,  and  the  chemical 
focus  must  be  found  by  experiment.  A 
few  trials,  using  the  fine  adjustment, 
will  give  the  requisite  difference  between 
the  two  foci,  which,  once  found,  is  con- 
stant. A  strong  light  must  be  em- 
ployed, but  not  direct  sunlight.  The 
light  from  a  white  cloud  on  a  bright  day 
is  the  best  illuminator.  No  special  collo- 
dion or  developer  need  be  used,  beyond 
being  of  the  best,  a  necessary  point  in 
every  photographic  operation.  The  ex- 
posure will,  of  course,  vary  with  the 
intensity  of  the  light,  quality  of  the 
lenses  of  the  microscope,  sensitiveness  of 
the  riftte,  &c.      It  should,  however,  be 


296 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


short,  as  the  image  is  very  bright  with 
a  good  microscope.  If  there  are  many 
to  do,  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to 
contrive  an  arrangement  of  both  micro- 
scope and  camera  on  a  board  which  can 
be  screwed  to  the  camera  stand.  Some 
operators  prefer  to  work  without  the 
eye-piece  of  the  microscope,  but  there  is 
then  sometmies  an  objectionable  flare  in 
the  centre  of  the  picture.  The  eye-piece 
occasions  some  little  loss  of  light,  and 
therefore  it  would  be  preferable  to  work 
without  it  if  possible. 

Gilding.  —  Wood,  leather,  paper, 
and  similar  substances,  are  gilt  by  fas- 
tening on  leaves  of  gold  by  means  of 
some  cement ;  metals  are  gilt  chiefly  by 
amalgamation,  or  by  the  action  of  gal- 
vanism. The  necessary  materials  are  a 
cushion,  knife,  and  tip,  a  large,  short 
and  thick  camel-hair  brush,  cotton-wool, 
and  oil  and  japanners'  size.  Gold  leaf  is 
sold  in  books  of  25  leaves,  each  about 
3  in.  square.  It  is  reckoned  by  the 
hundred,  that  is,  the  contents  ef  four 
books,  and  gilders  calculate  a  work  to 
require  so  many  hundreds,  not  so  many 
books.  There  are  13  varieties  of  tint, 
ranging  from  a  deep  orange  red  down 
to  a  white  approximating  silver.  The 
cushion  is  a  jjicce  of  wood  about  8  in. 
by  5,  covered  first  with  baize,  and  then 
with  buff  leather  tightly  stitched.  At 
one  en  1  there  is  a  niised  edge  or  screen 
of  parchment,  which  turns  partly  round 
the  siles.  This  is  to  prevent  the  leaves 
being  blown  away  by  any  chance  wind. 
Underneath,  the  cushion  has  two,  and 
sometimes  fhi-ee  small  loo])s  of  h-ather, 
one  for  inserting  tlie  thumb  to  hold  it 
by,  the  others  for  sticking  the  knife  and 
camel-hair  brush  in.  The  knife  for 
cutting  the  gold  leaf  has  a  long  tlexiijle 
blade,  which  shouM  not  be  too  sharp, 
set  in  a  light  hanille  like  a  palette  knife. 
The  knife  must  be  always  kept  clean 
and  bright.  The  tip  is  a  large  flat 
brush  ,01  taking  up  and  jdaciiig  the  gold 
leaf.  It  18  made  of  very  long  squirrel's 
hair,  set  thinly  between  the  flat  i)iece8 
of  card.  Cotton-wool  and  the  thick 
camel-hair  brush  are  used  for  dabbing 
down  the  gold  and  removing  sui)erfluous 
pieces.     Tliere   arc  two   kinds  of  gold 


size,  fat  oil  and  japanners'  size.  The 
foi'mer  is  the  more  durable  and  brilliant, 
so  that  japanners'  size  should  never  be 
employed  except  for  mending  small 
places  and  imperfections,  or  where  time 
IS  of  great  importance.  The  gold  from 
which  gold  leaf  is  made  must  be  very 
pure ;  it  is  hammered  out,  after  it  has 
been  rolled  as  thin  as  pai>er,  by  being 
put  between  the  leaves  of  a  book  of 
parchment  and  extremely  thin  skins, 
called  gold-beaters'  skin;  the  book  is 
then  laid  upon  a  block  of  marble,  and 
beat  with  a  heavy  hammer.  When  the 
leaves  of  gold  are  extended  to  the  full 
size  of  the  book,  they  are  divided,  and 
each  portion  is  placed  between  the  leaves 
of  another  book,  which  is  hammered  as 
before.  This  process  is  continued  till 
the  requisite  thinness  is  acquired.  Pale 
leaf  gold  has  a  greenish  yellow  colour, 
and  is  an  alloy  of  gold  with  silver.  Dutch 
gold  is  copper  leaf  coloured  yellow  by  the 
fumes  of  zinc.  It  is  much  cheaper  than 
true  gold  leaf,  and  is  very  useful  where 
large  quantities  of  gilding  are  wanted  in 
places  where  it  can  be  defended  from 
the  weather,  by  being  covered  with  var- 
nish ;  it  changes  colour  if  exposed  to 
moisture.  Silver  leaf  is  prepared  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  gold,  but  is  liable 
to  tarnish,  except  it  is  well  secured  by 
varnish.  If  covered  with  a  transparent 
yellow  varnish,  it  lias  much  the  appear- 
ance of  gold. 

Oil  Gilding  on  Wood. — The  gild- 
ing on  wood,  called  oil  gold,  cannot  b^ 
burnished,  and  is  always  of  the  natural 
colour  of  unwrought  gold.  It  has  the 
advantage  that  it  may  be  washed  anu 
cleaned  with  water,  which  burnished 
gold  never  can.  It  is  ol'ten  used  for 
jiicture  frames,  ]iarts  of  furniture,  and 
mouldings  of  ajiarfments;  as  it  stands 
the  weatlicr,  it  is  also  employed  for  out- 
door work.  The  surface  to  be  gilded 
shonM  first  of  all  lie  rubbed  smooth, 
if  stone  with  pumice,  if  wood  with 
Dutch  rushes,  if  a  very  bright  level 
effect  is  desired.  After  this  it  should 
have  its  priming  of  glue  size,  aad 
two  cents  of  oil  jiaint  and  one  of 
flatting.  To  enrich  the  colour  of  the 
gold,  these  last  may  be  laid  down  in  rod 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


297 


or  7ello\v.  White,  however,  is  usually 
preferred,  as  the  darker  colour  renders 
iny  imperfection  in  the  gold-siziag  more 
JilHcult  to  detect.  When  the  last  coat 
of  paint  is  thoroughly  dry,  rub  it  over 
with  wash  leatlier,  to  render  it  smooth 
and  free  from  dust  or  grit.  If  there 
ara  any  patterns  or  figures  which  are  to 
be  lelt  uugilded,  they  should  be  lightly 
pounced  over  with  white  to  prevent  the 
gold  leaf  adhering  to  them.  Another  way 
IS  to  paint  them  over  with  the  wh'te  of 
egg  diluted  with  water.  If  any  gold 
sticks  to  this,  it  can  be  easily  washed 
or  wiped  off  with  a  moistened  handker- 
chief. When  all  is  ready  for  sizing, 
strain  sufficient  size  through  muslin, 
and  put  some  out  on  the  palette,  adding 
to  it  enough  ochre  or  vermilion,  mixed 
with  oil  alone,  to  colour.  Then  with  a 
stitf  hog-hair  tool  commence  painting  it 
on  the  surface,  taKmg  care  to  lay  it  on 
smoothly,  and  not  too  thick.  If  put  on 
too  thickly  it  runs,  and  leaves  wrinkles 
in  the  gilding.  Size  always  from  left  to 
right,  beginning  at  the  top  of  the  sur- 
face, and  workmg  downwards.  Jlove 
the  brush  lightly  and  firmly,  mapping 
out  the  surface  to  be  sized  into  several 
squares,  and  finishing  and  cross  hatch- 
ing each  before  proceeding  onwards.  If 
there  are  patterns  to  be  left  ungilded, 
carefully  trace  round  their  o-tline  first 
with  a  sable  pencil,  and  then  fill  in  the 
interstices.  When  the  whole  surface  is 
covered  with  size,  give  it  a  thorough 
inspection  to  make  sure  there  is  no 
faulty  portion,  and  if  there  is,  delicately 
touch  in  the  size  with  a  small  pencil. 
When  very  perfect  gilding  is  required, 
it  should  be  sized  twice,  the  first  coat 
being  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly  before 
the  second  is  applied.  In  carved  work, 
be  careful  to  dip  the  brush  down  into 
the  hollows  of  the  carving.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  size  over-night,  so  as  to 
gild  in  the  morning.  But  all  size  does 
not  dry  alike,  sometimes  taking  12  to 
24  or  30  hours  before  it  is  ready 
for  the  gold  leaf;  in  damp  weather 
or  positions,  always  more  than  in  dry. 
The  readiness  of  the  size  can  only 
be  ascertained  by  the  touch.  If  on 
being  touched  by  the  finger  the  surface 


daubs  or  comes  off,  it  is  not  ready,  and 
must  be  left ;  if  it  feels  clammy  and 
sticky,  it  is  sufiiciently  matured.  If 
too  dry  it  must  be  sized  again.  The 
books  of  gold  leaf  should  always  be 
placed  before  a  fire  half  an  hour  pre- 
vious to  use,  m  order  to  thoroughly  dry 
the  gold  and  make  it  more  manageable. 
When  all  is  ready,  shake  out  several 
leaves  upon  the  gold  cushion,  and  blow 
them  towards  the  parchment  screen. 
Then  carefully  raise  one  leaf  with  the 
blade  of  the  knife,  and  place  it  on  the 
cushion,  gently  breathing  on  it  to  flatten 
it  out.  If  it  cockles  up,  work  it  about 
with  the  knife-blade  until  it  lies  flat. 
Then  replace  the  knife  in  its  loop  under 
the  cushion,  and  taking  the  tip,  pass  it 
lightly  over  your  hair,  thus  acquiring 
sufficient  greasiness  to  enable  the  gold 
to  stick  to  it.  I,ay  the  hairy  portion  of 
the  tip  upon  the  gold  leaf,  and  then 
raising  it,  apply  it  to  the  sized  surface. 
As  in  sizing  work  from  left  to  right  be 
specially  careful  to  let  each  leaf  overlap 
slightly,  so  as  to  avoid  gaps  and  spaces. 
Lay  on  whole  leaves  as  far  as  the  space 
allows,  and  then  proceed  to  gild  the 
curves  and  corners  which  need  smaller 
pieces.  Place  a  leaf  flat  and  smooth  on 
the  cushion,  and  then  taking  the  knife 
in  the  right  hand,  draw  the  edge  easily 
and  evenly  along  it  with  a  gentle  pres- 
sure. Divide  the  leaf  into  as  many 
pieces  as  required,  and  lay  on  as  before. 
When  all  the  ground  is  complete,  give  a 
very  careful  inspection  to  make  sure 
there  are  no  portions  ungilt,  however 
small,  and  mend  them  at  once.  Next 
take  a  piece  of  cotton-wool,  and  gentl) 
dab  or  press  the  gold  down  all  over, 
finally  brushing  off  the  superfluous 
pieces  either  with  cotton-wool  or  the 
camel-hair  brush.  It  is  a  good  p4an 
to  stipple  the  gold  with  a  large  stifl 
hog-hair  tool,  quite  dry  and  clean,  as 
this  gradually  softens  and  removes  the 
marks  of  joining  and  other  little  imper- 
fections. Finally  smooth  the  gold  with 
a  clean  piece  of  wash-leather,  and  it  is 
completed.  With  regard  to  gilding 
with  japanners'  size,  the  same  instruc- 
tions apply,  e.xcept  as  to  the  time  neces- 
sary :o  Wiiit  between  sizing  and  gilding. 


298 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


If  japanners'  size  is  cjii  pure,  it  will  be 
ready  in  from  20  to  SO  minutes,  but 
better  gilding  can  be  made  by  mix- 
ing one-third  oil  size  with  two-thirds 
of  japanners'  size.  This  will  be  ready 
in  about  2  or  4  hours  from  the 
time  of  putting  on.  When  all  the  gild- 
ing is  finished,  dilute  one-third  very 
clean  and  pure  parchment  size  m  two- 
thirds  water,  and  brush  it  all  over  the 
surface  of  the  gold  to  enrich  and  pre- 
serve it.  If  it  is  necessary  to  gild  in  a 
pobition  much  exposed  to  touch,  as  the 
base  of  a  pillar,  or  string-courses,  it  is 
as  well  to  give  the  gold  a  coat  of  mastic 
varnish  thinned  with  turpentine.  There 
are  various  processes  which  tend  to 
enrich  and  vary  the  effect  of  gilding. 
Glazings  of  transparent  colour  are  some- 
times applied  for  the  purpose  of  deaden- 
ing its  lustre.  Raw  sienna  passed  thinly 
over  a  sheet  of  gold  gives  it  a  leathery 
appearance.  A  good  effect  may  be  pro- 
duced by  steucilliug  a  small  diaper  in 
umber,  sienna,  or  Indian  red,  over  gold, 
especially  if  there  is  foliage  or  arabesque 
work  upon  the  gilding,  as  the  small 
diaper  atfords  an  agreeable  relief.  This  is 
the  easiest  mode  of  gilding ;  any  other 
metallic  leaves  may  be  applied  in  a 
similar  manner. 

jAi'ANNEris'  Gilding  is  where  orna- 
ments are  drawn  in  gold  upon  japanned 
work,  and  is  often  seen  in  folding 
screens  and  cabinets.  The  ornaments 
are  formed  by  a  camel-hair  ]>encil,  with 
jajiauuers'  gold  size,  made  by  boiling 
linseed  oil  with  gum  animi,  and  a  little 
vermilion.  When  the  size  is  nearly  diy, 
gold  powder  or  gold  leaf  is  apjilied.  In 
all  cases  where  gold  has  been  fixed  on  l^y 
means  of  linseed  oil,  it  will  bear  being 
washed  witlioiit  coming  off. 

buR.Nisiii;i>,  OK  WatkkGikdino,  will 
not  baar  being  wetted,  aud  is  only  lit 
for  work  to  be  always  kept  within 
doors.  For  this  gilding  the  wood  is  first 
coverc<l  with  4  or  b  coats  of  whrtiiig  anil 
size;  and  ihat  the  gilding  should  bo 
perfect,  it  is  necessary  that  there  sliouM 
be  a  KuHicient  body  of  whiting.  When 
these  are  dry,  they  are  laid  over  with  a 
coat  of  gold  size,  made  of  Armenian  bole, 
a  little  wax,  and  some  parchment  size. 


When  the  size  is  dry,  a  portion  of  the 
surface  is  wetted  plentifully  with  clear 
water  and  a  soft  brush,  and  a  leaf  oi 
gold  is  applied,  so  as  almost  to  float  on 
the  water,  when  it  instantly  settles 
down  and  adheres  to  the  size.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  suffer  any  of 
the  water  to  come  over  the  gold,  or  a 
stain  will  be  produced.  When  the  whole 
is  covered  with  gold  leaf,  the  ell'ect  is 
what  is  called  matt,  or  dead  gold,  and  is 
the  natural  colour  of  gold  not  burnished. 
S-uch  parts  as  are  required  to  be  bur- 
nished are  rubbed  over  with  a  burnish- 
ing tool  of  agate.  Ornaments  executed 
partly  matt,  and  partly  burnished,  have 
a  very  rich  effect,  which  is  seen  in  most 
picture  frames.  As  already  stated,  bur- 
nished gilding  cannot  be  cleaned  with 
water,  though  oil  gold  may ,  but  the 
matt  portion  of  water  gilding  is  so  like 
oil  gold,  as  not  to  be  distinguisheil  by  an 
inexperienced  eye;  and  it  may  be  very 
desirable  to  know,  in  that  case,  by 
which  of  the  two  processes  it  has  been 
executed,  with  a  view  to  cleaning  it 
when  soiled  by  flies  or  otherwise.  This 
may  be  ascertained  by  observing  in  some 
crack  or  crevice  whether  the  gold  is 
laid  on  a  coat  of  whiting  ;  and  if  there 
IS  no  other  method,  a  small  scratch  with 
a  knife  may  be  made  in  some  unimpor- 
tant part  to  ascertain  the  fact.  On 
account  of  the  impossibility  of  w.ishing 
water  gihling  without  injury,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  take  great  care  to  protect  it 
from  Hies,  or  other  causes  of  soiling  it, 
by  covering  it  over  with  very  fine  net. 
Frames  executed  in  water  gilding  are 
sometimes  recjuired  to  be  regilt ;  this 
cannot  be  done  without  taking  off  the 
whole  of  the  whiting,  and  commencing 
the  jirocess  again,  which  is  ex]icnsive. 
When  this  is  done,  the  frames  may  lie 
eitiier  regilt  in  the  water  or  in  the  oil 
manner ;  and  as  the  last  is  much  the 
cheapest,  it  is  sometimes  preferred,  al- 
though it  cannot  be  burnished. 

Gildimj  Siijns  or  Letters. — The  follow- 
ing m(!thod  is  aclajited  fi>r  working  in 
the  open  air,  when  the  ordinary  jiroress 
with  the  cushion  is  rendeifd  dillicult  if 
there  is  much  wind  to  blow  the  gold 
lea/  about.      Take    a   sheet    of    tissufl 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


299 


paper  and  rub  it  over  on  one  side  only 
with  a  piece  of  white  wax.  This  should 
be  rubbed  rather  briskly  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  tissue  paper,  which  should  be 
placed  on  something  flat,  so  that  the 
wax  is  spread  evenly  throughout.  The 
pa})er  which  has  thus  been  rubbed  will 
possess  a  certain  sticlvy  quality,  scarcely 
perceptible  to  the  touch,  but  sutricient 
to  cause  the  gold-leaf  to  adhere  to  it. 
After  a  whole  sheet  of  paper  has  been 
waxed  as  described,  it  should  be  cut  into 
squares  a  little  larger  than  the  leaves  of 
the  book  of  gold.  The  gold-leaf  book 
must  be  opened  and  the  waxed  side  of 
the  tissue  paper  gently  pressed  upon  the 
gold  leaf  with  tlie  hand.  On  removing 
the  paper  the  gold  leaf  will  be  found 
attached  to  it.  The  gold  leaf  being  thus 
secured  upon  the  tissue  paper,  is  ready 
for  use.  It  is  evident  that  the  difficulty 
experienced  through  the  thinness  of  the 
gold  is  by  this  means  to  a  gi  eat  extent 
overcome.  The  tissue  paper  may  be 
used  over  and  over  again.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  letters  to  be  gilded  have 
been  written  in  the  most  suitable 
material,  and  that  they  are  ready  to 
receive  the  gold  leaf.  Take  up  the 
tissue  paper  and  place  it  with  the  gilded 
side  to  the  letters,  and  having  rubbed 
the  back  lightly  with  the  hand,  the  old 
will  come  off  the  paper  and  adhere 
firmly  to  the  mordant  with  which  the 
lettering  has  been  written.  By  this 
method  very  little  gold  is  wasted,  as  the 
tissue  paper  being  semi-transparent,  the 
gold  leaf  shows  through  it,  and  the 
operator  can  see  where  any  portion  of 
the  gold  adheres  to  the  paper,  and  can 
accordingly  place  it  on  such  portions  of 
the  work  as  it  will  best  fit  without  an 
undue  number  of  joinings,  though  by 
this  process,  if  the  gold  leaf  is  good,  not 
the  slightest  trace  of  joining  is  discern- 
ible. The  gold  leaf  should  be  gently 
dabbed  over  with  a  pad  of  cotton-wool, 
which  will  smooth  the  surface  of  the 
gilt,  and  remove  all  superfluous  pieces 
of  gold  leaf.  As  a  newly-painted  sur- 
face is  sticky,  if  the  gold  leaf  were  to 
be  applied  to  it,  it  would  adhere  to 
parts  of  the  ground  colour  where  the 
mordant  had  not  touched  and  where  the 


gold  was  not  required.  It  is  needful, 
therefore,  before  the  letters  or  pafts  to 
be  gilded  are  marked  out,  that  the 
newly-painted  surface  should  be  dabbed 
over  lightly  with  dry  whiting ;  but 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  loose 
particles  are  dusted  off  by  the  gentle 
application  of  a  silk  hiinclkerchief.  If 
the  ground  is  a  dark  one,  this  pouncing 
will  so  far  lighten  it,  that  the  gilder 
will  be  able  to  distinguish  any  lines  he 
may  make  with  size,  as  the  size  will  re- 
store the  ground  to  its  original  colour. 
But  if  the  ground  is  a  light  one,  the 
pouncing  will  not  have  this  effect,  and 
it  becomes  necessary  to  mix  some  kind 
of  colour  with  the  size  to  enable  the 
gilder  to  make  certain  that  he  has 
thoroughly  covered  the  portion  to  be 
gilded.  For  pouncing,  put  some  pow- 
dered whiting  in  a  small  linen  bag,  tie 
it  up  tightly,  and  gently  dab  it  over 
the  parts  to  be  pounced.  The  whiting 
is  removed  from  the  ground  after  the 
gold  leaf  is  applied,  by  means  of  a  damp 
chamois  leathei".  The  mordants  for 
gilding  are  of  different  kinds.  Picture- 
frame  gilders  generally  use  gilders'  size, 
made  of  fat  oil,  in  which  yellow  ochre 
has  been  ground.  This  is  a  good  ma- 
terial for  the  sign-writer,  but  it  is  too 
thick  for  general  adoption,  especial  y  in 
cold  weather,  when  it  is  unmanageable 
with  the  sable  pencil.  In  hot  weather, 
however,  it  is  not  so  thick,  and  may 
often  be  used  with  advantage.  The 
gold  leaf  must  not  be  applied  to  this  size 
for  at  least  24  hours  after  its  application, 
and  it  will  remain  tacky  for  2  or  '6 
days.  When  the  gilding  has  to  be 
finished  more  rapidly,  japanners'  gold 
size  is  generally  employed.  The  gold 
leaf  may  be  laid  on  this  in  about  half  an 
hour  after  its  application,  as  it  dries 
very  rapidly.  Sometimes  the  gilder  is 
compelled  to  prepare  his  work  and  put 
on  the  gold  leaf  a  few  minutes  after- 
wards ;  in  this  case,  gold  size  alone  is 
used.  But  if  an  interval  of  a  few  hours 
IS  no  object,  it  is  customary  to  add  oil 
varnish  to  the  gold  size,  regulating  the 
quantity  according  to  the  time  at  dis- 
posal. Linseed  oil  should  not  be  mixed 
with  gold  size  to  retard  its  drying  pro 


300 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


perties,  because  it  is  apt  not  only  to 
destroy  the  adhesiveness  of  the  size,  but 
to  sweat  through  and  discolour  the 
metallic  leaf.  A  few  drops  of  boiled  oil 
may  be  added  to  the  size  occasionally, 
but  as  a  general  rule,  varnish  will  be 
iound  preferable  to  the  oils. 

Burnished  Gilding  on  Glass. — The 
gold  used  is  the  ordinary  gold  leaf. 
Procure  some  fine  isinglass,  and  place 
about  as  much  in  a  tea-cup  as  will  cover 
a  sixpenny  piece,  and  then  pour  on  it 
about  half  a  cupful  of  boiling  water, 
which  will  dissolve  the  isinglass.  Be- 
fore the  water  is  cold  add  about  as  much 
spirits  of  wine  as  there  is  water  in  the 
cup;  then  strain  the  whole  through  a 
clean  silk  handkerchief,  and  the  mordant 
is  ready  for  use.  The  addition  of  the 
spirits  of  wine  is  most  material,  as 
without  it  the  gilding  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily accomjilished.  Whatever  may 
be  the  design  or  lettering  has  to  be  exe- 
cuted on  the  glass ;  it  must  first  be  set 
out  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  and 
painted  with  Brunswick  black,  so  that 
it  can  be  seen  on  the  reverse  side.  This 
paper  with  the  writing  reversed  should 
be  fixed  at  the  edges  or  corners  to  the 
glass,  the  writing,  of  course,  appearing 
backwards.  The  glass  having  been 
thorouglily  cleansed  and  rubbed  with  a 
silk  handkerchief,  the  gilding  may  be 
commenced,  the  gold  leaf  being  laid  on 
"the  reverse  side  to  that  to  which  the 
paper  is  attached.  It  is  usual  to  jilace 
the  glass  in  a  .slanting  position  on  an 
easel,  the  lines  of  lettering  not  being 
horizontal,  or  reading  from  left  to  right, 
but  perpendicular,  reading  from  top  to 
bottom.  The  mordant  is  juit  on  with  a 
large  soft  camel-h.iir  pencil,  and  the 
gold  leaf  is  lifted  from  the  cushion  and 
placed  on  the  moril.int  with  a  tip,  after 
having  been  cut  to  the  reqiiirecl  dimen- 
sions. If  the  line  of  writing  is  less  than 
3  in.  in  height.  It  is  advisable  to  gild 
the  wlwde  line,  without  paying  any 
regard  to  the  sha|>es  of  the  letters,  .so 
that  when  the  line  is  finished  it  will  be 
a  Holid  i)iece  of  gilding  about  the  same 
height  and  length  as  the  letters.  The 
hrst  piece  of  gold  leaf  should  be  placed 
at  the  bcgitiniiij  of  the  line,  which  is 


the  top  of  the  glass,  and  each  succeeding 
piece  below  it,  the  different  pieces  just 
overlajiping  each  other.  It  is  necessary 
to  be  particular  in  this,  foi  if  the  pieces 
of  gold  do  not  meet,  the  interstices  will 
probably  show  when  the  work  is  com- 
pleted, and  will  jjrevent  the  uniformity 
of  burnish.  For  letters  larger  than  13  in. 
in  height,  the  gilding  may  be  made  to 
cover  each  letter,  leaving  the  spaces 
between  untouched.  As  soon  as  this 
part  of  the  gilding  has  been  completed 
it  should  be  left  to  dry  in  a  warm  room, 
or  placed  before  the  fire,  in  which  case 
it  will  be  dry  in  a  few  minutes.  When 
the  gilding  is  perfectly  dry  and  bright, 
it  should  be  rubbed  over  very  gently 
with  a  piece  of  cotton-wool.  This  will 
heighten  the  burnish  of  the  gold,  and 
remove  the  loose  pieces  which  do  not 
adhere  to  the  glass.  After  the  gilding 
has  been  treated  as  described,  a  tlat  sol"t 
camel-hair  brush  charged  with  the 
isinglass  size  should  be  passed  lightly 
over  the  woidc ;  but  not  worked  to  and 
fro,  or  it  will  remove  the  gold  leaf.  The 
size  should  be  flowed  on  freely  and 
rapidly,  and  if  any  small  pieces  have 
been  omitted,  no  attempt  should  be 
made  to  retouch  them  while  the  size  is 
wet.  Wiion  it  is  dry  the  gilding  will 
resume  its  brightness.  In  order  to 
complete  the  burnish  of  the  gold,  some- 
times hot  water  is  poured  over  the 
gilding,  and  this  not  only  washes  out 
any  little  specks  which  may  appear  on 
the  front  of  the  gold,  but  enhances  its 
brilliancy  considerably.  The  hotter  the 
water  jioured  over  the  work,  the  brighter 
does  the  gilding  become,  but  care  must 
be  taken,  as  beyond  certain  degrees  of 
heat  the  water  will  break  the  glass. 
This  was  very  common,  but  the  hot- 
water  bath  now  is  often  dis])ensed  with, 
and  the  size  coated  over  the  gilding  is 
ajiplicd  hot.  This  metiiod  is  not  quite 
so  cll'ective  but  it  is  much  safer.  The 
whole  of  the  gilding  has  now  to  be  rfl- 
peated.  A  second  layer  of  gold  leal 
over  the  first  is  necessary  to  ensure  a 
satisfactory  result.  The  second  coat  of 
goM  is  put  on  with  the  isiiiglass  size, 
the  s:ime  as  the  (irst;  and  as  it  dries, 
the  gildiii'.;  viewed  fnun  the  front  of  the 


WOUKSMOP   lvECl!;il'TS> 


yui 


glass  will  present  a  rich  and  finished 
appearance.  The  loose  pieces  of  gold 
should  be  removed  as  after  the  first 
coat,  by  means  of  cotton-wool  gently 
rubbed  over  the  work.  Another  coat 
of  size  made  hot  may  now  be  applied, 
and  the  gilding  is  ready  to  be  written 
upon.  It  is  better  to  leave  the  gilding 
on  for  a  day  or  two  before  writing  upon 
it,  because  the  isinglass  does  not  get 
thoroughly  hard,  though  to  all  appear- 
ance it  is  perfectly  dry  in  an  hour  or 
two.  If  the  gilding  is  left  untouched 
for  two  or  three  months,  the  action  of 
the  spirits  of  wine  will  cause  the  gold 
leaf  to  adhere  so  firmly  to  the  glass  that 
it  will  be  dilficult  to  remove  it  by  any 
amount  of  washing  with  water  ;  where- 
as in  the  course  of  a  few  days  after  it  is 
laid  ou,  it  may  be  readily  removed  by  a 
damp  sponge.  There  are  several  ways 
of  transferring  the  outline  of  the  writing 
to  the  gold.  The  most  expeditious 
method  is  to  rub  some  dry  whiting  over 
the  front  side  of  the  writing,  on  the 
paper,  place  this  over  the  gilding,  face 
downwards,  then  go  over  the  outline  of 
the  letters  with  a  pointed  stick  or  hard 
pencil.  On  removing  the  paper,  it  will 
be  found  that  where  the  letters  have 
been  traced,  the  whitiug  his  marked  the 
gold.  Having  an  outline  of  the  writing 
or  design,  next  paint  the  letters  with  a 
sable  writing  pencil,  and  the  ordinary 
japan  black  used  by  coach  painters.  If 
an  turning  the  glass  round  it  should  be 
seen  that  the  japan  black  deadens  the 
gilding,  or  is  perceptible  in  any  way  on 
the  front  of  the  glass,  another  coat  of 
size  should  be  passed  over  the  gold  to 
prevent  the  black  from  coming  through 
the  gold  leal'.  When  the  japan  black  is 
hard,  the  superfluous  gold  must  be 
washed  off  with  a  sponge  and  warm 
water.  When  the  japan  is  dry,  the 
edges  of  the  letters  may  be  cut  sharp 
and  true  by  passing  a  small  chisel  along 
a  straight  edge,  so  as  to  trim  the  writing 
and  make  the  tops  and  bottoms  perfectly 
regular.  All  the  straight  lines  of  the 
letters  may  be  thus  trimmed,  but  the 
curved  ones  must  be  perfected  with  a 
wiitiup:  pencil.  The  softened  coloured 
th.cii.0Ksses   added    to   the    letters   are 


painted  with  the  ordinary  oil  colours 
thinned  with  boiled  oil  and  turpentine, 
the  latter  being  used  sparingly.  Three 
or  more  tints  are  generally  mixed  on  the 
palette,  with  a  separate  pencil  to  each, 
and  these  are  softened  with  a  larger 
sable  pencil,  and  the  outer  edges  are  cut 
up  with  a  pointed  stick  guided  by  a 
straight-edge,  whilst  the  colour  is  wet, 
and  the  superfluous  colour  is  wiped  oJf 
with  a  piece  of  rag.  By  this  means  a 
sharpness  of  outline  is  obtained  which 
the  most  skilful  writer  would  fail  to  get 
by  the  mere  use  of  the  pencil.  The  sha- 
dow is  put  on  as  soon  as  the  thickness  is 
dry,  and  not  being  softened  down,  quick 
drying  colours  may  be  employed. 

Preparation  and  Gilding  of  Pic- 
ture Frames. — Suppose  that  we  have  a 
plain  picture  frame  ;  it  is  made  by  the 
joiner  into  a  12-feet  length  of  moulding, 
and  in  that  state  it  passes  into  the  hands 
of  the  gilder.  He  first  gives  it  a  prim- 
ing of  hot  size  and  whiting,  called  thin 
white.  The  whiting  employed  by  the 
gilder  is  not  the  same  as  that  used  for 
domestic  purposes,  but  is  finer  and  more 
free  from  grit.  The  size  employed  is 
prepared  by  the  gilder  from  parchment 
cuttings,  or  glove  cuttings.  The  cut- 
tings are  well  washed  in  water,  and  then 
boiled  in  a  certain  quantity  of  clean 
water,  until  the  latter  has  a  particular 
degree  of  adhesiveness,  which  can  only 
be  determined  by  experience  ;  this  is 
then  poured  off  into  a  clean  dry  vessel, 
and  allowed  to  cool.  When  about  to  be 
used,  the  grease  at  the  top  and  the  sedi- 
ment at  the  bottom  are  cut  off  with  a 
knife,  the  size  is  melted  in  an  earthen 
pipkin,  and  a  small  quantity  of  finely- 
powdered  whiting  is  mixed  up  with  it. 
When  the  thin  white  is  dry,  all  holes  and 
irregularities  in  the  moulding  are  filled 
up  with  putty.  This  putty  is  not  the 
same  as  that  employed  by  the  glazier, 
but  consist^!  of  whiting  and  size  mixed 
to  the  consistence  of  putty.  When  the 
puttying  is  dry,  a  coating  of  thick  white 
is  laid  on  with  a  brush.  This  thick  white 
differs  from  the  thin  white  only  in  hav- 
ing a  larger  proportion  of  dry  whiting 
mixed  with  a  given  amount  of  size,  the 
consistence  attained  being  rather  thicker 


302 


WORKSHOP  KECEJPtS, 


than  that  of  oil  paint.  When  the  first 
thick  white  is  dry,  another  is  laid  on  in 
the  same  manner,  and,  smiilarly,  a  third, 
a  fourth,  and  a  fifth,  are  laid  on,  all 
about  equal  in  thickness,  and  each  one 
being  perfectly  dry  before  the  next  is 
an)lied.  As  in  laying  on  tiiis  large  body 
of  thick  white,  the  fine  squares,  hollows, 
and  fillets  would  be  liable  to  be  stopped 
up  and  lose  all  their  clearness  and  sharp- 
ness, opening  tools,  consisting  of  crooks, 
chisels,  and  gougos,  are  drawn  along  the 
fine  parts  of  the  moulding,  while  the 
thick  white  .s  still  wet ;  by  which  means 
the  forms  of  the  various  mouldings  are 
retained.  This  is  still  better  eflected  by 
the  double  opening  white,  which  consists 
of  two  thick  whites;  the  one  laid  on 
almost  immediately  after  the  otlier,  Ijy 
which  a  thick  soft  coating  covers  the 
moulding.  Hard  stones,  sliaped  to  the 
forms  of  the  mouldings,  together  with 
the  opening  tools  before  described,  are  to 
be  worked  over  every  part  of  the  mould- 
ing, by  which  asperities  are  smoothed 
down,  depressions  filled  up,  and  edges 
brought  up  nearly  to  their  required 
sharpness.  In  this  state  tlie  whiting  on 
the  moulding  is  from  one-sixteenth  to 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  It  is 
now  trimmeil  at  the  back  and  edges  by 
cutting  ort'  the  whiting  which  had  fiowed 
over  from  the  front,  which  prepares  it 
for  the  process  of  smoothing.  This  is 
done  by  means  of  ]iieces  of  pumice  ami 
other  stones,  shaped  so  as  to  fit  the 
various  parts  of  the  moulding.  A  sponge 
or  soft  brush  is  used  to  wet  the  mould- 
ing, and  the  stone  which  is  to  be  used, 
being  likewise  wetted,  is  rubbed  or 
worked  to  and  fro  along  the  moulding 
until  that  part  is  perfectly  smooth.  An- 
other stone,  fitting  a  dilleront  ]>art,  is 
then  used  in  the  same  way  ;  anil  so  on, 
imtil  every  part  of  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  moulding  has  been  worked 
over  by  the  stones.  The  moulding,  if 
the  smoothing  has  been  jirojjerly  ])er- 
formcd,  now  prcKent.s  a  smoothness  of 
surface  exceeding,  and  a  keenness  of  the 
edge  nearly  equalling,  that  which  tiic 
moulcling  presented  when  it  \ri'l  the 
hands  of  the  joiner;  but  tliis  must  be 
attained  without  rubbing  olT  too  much 


of  the  whiting,  since  the  whole  beauty 
of  the  frame  mainly  depends  on  having 
a  sufficient  body  or  foundation  of  whit- 
ing. The  brilliant  burnishing  on  frames 
is,  in  a  peculiar  degree,  dependent  on  the 
whiting  which  is  first  laid  on  the  wood, 
and  which,  if  deficient  in  quantity,  cannot 
be  adequately  replaced  by  other  means. 
The  moulding  being  thoroughly  dried 
from  the  etVects  of  the  smoothing,  is 
rubbed  down  with  glass-paper  or  sand- 
paper, to  take  off  any  little  asperities 
that  may  remain,  and  to  make  the  whole 
perfectly  smooth.  It  is  now  ready  for 
the  process  of  gold-sizing.  The  bui'iiish 
gold-size  used  in  this  jn'ocess  is  composed 
of  ingredients  exceeiliiigly  opposite  in 
their  nature,  such  as  pi]ie-clay,  red  chalk, 
black-lead,  suet,  and  bullock's  blood. 
This  diversity  of  ingredients  is  intended 
to  produce  ditfercnt  effects ;  one  sub- 
stance helps  to  give  a  brilliancy  to  the 
burnish,  another  to  the  mellowness  and 
smoothness,  ami  so  on.  The  form  in 
which  the  gihler  purchases  his  burnish 
gold-size  is  that  of  a  solid  rather  softer 
than  butter.  He  first  takes  some  very 
clear  size,  boiled  purposely  to  a  smaller 
d(!gree  of  strengtli  than  the  size  for  thick 
white,  or,  if  already  boiled,  weakencil  by 
water.  This  size  he  melts  in  an  earthen 
jjipkin,  but  without  making  it  very  hot, 
and  then  mixes  the  gold  size  with  the 
melted  size  by  means  of  a  clean  brush, 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  a  ])aiiiter 
mixes  his  oil  paint ;  liie  consistence  to 
be  about  equal  to  tliat  of  cream.  It  is 
a  source  of  some  confusion  that  the  same 
term,  burnish  gold-size,  is  applied  to  this 
creamy  liquid,  as  to  the  thicker  sub- 
stance from  which  it  is  prejiared  ;  it  is 
necessary  to  say  mixed  gold-size,  or  un- 
mixed gold-size,  in  order  to  indicate 
which  IS  meant.  This  gold  size  is  laid 
on  the  moulding  either  with  a  very  soft 
hog-liair  brush,  or  by  a  large  camel- 
hair  pencil,  fixed  iu  a  swan's  quill.  The 
gold  size  must  be  barely  warm,  and  must 
be  laid  on  with  great  cire  so  as  to  leave 
it  equally  thick  in  every  part,  and  ob- 
literate the  marks  of  tiie  hnisli  ;  upon 
the  due  observance  of  a  iii('(lium  bttween 
hot  and  cold,  strong  and  weak,  and  thick 
nut  thiD,  iu  the  gold  size  laid  ou,  de* 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


303 


pends  much  of  the  beauty  of  the  mould- 
ing when  gilt.  From  4  to  8  coats  of 
this  gold  size  are  laid  on  the  mould- 
ing, each  one  being  perfectly  dried  befoi-e 
the  next  is  applied.  A  soft,  partially- 
worn  piece  of  glass-paper  is  occasionally 
used,  to  take  off  any  little  roughness 
that  may  exist.  When  a  sufficient  body 
of  gold  size  is  laid  on,  it  is  carefully 
washed  with  clean  water,  a  soft  sponge, 
and  a  piece  of  linen  rag.  This  must  be 
done  with  attention  to  the  soft  edges, 
which  are  very  likely  to  lose  the  whole 
of  their  gold  size,  if  care  is  not  used  ; 
the  object  is  to  produce  a  perfectly 
smooth  surface,  especially  in  those  parts 
which  are  to  be  matt  gold.  The  test  of 
good  work  is  to  produce  the  smoothest 
surflice  with  the  least  loss  of  gold  size. 
When  the  moulding  is  partially  dry  from 
this  process,  the  matt  parts  are  polished 
with  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth,  and  the 
parts  to  be  burnished  receive  another 
coating  of  gold  size,  laid  on  as  smoothly 
as  possible.  The  piece  of  moulding  which 
is  to  be  gilt  is  laid  along  the  bench 
with  one  end'  higher  than  the  other;  and 
as  the  width  of  the  moulding  is  broken 
up  into  several  divisions,  such  as  hollows 
and  squares,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
make  a  leaf  of  gold  bend  into  all  the 
various  parts  without  breaking.  The 
gilder  learns  by  experience  how  many 
separate  lays,  as  they  are  called,  of  gold 
will  be  required  to  cover  the  width  of 
the  moulding  without  the  breaking  of 
the  gold  into  irregular  fractures  called 
spider-legs.  In  general,  a  deep  hollow, 
or  a  depressed  square,  cannot  be  gilt  at 
one  lay,  but  must  be  covered  with  two 
strips  of  gold  laid  side  by  side  and  meet- 
ing at  the  centre  of  the  dejtression. 
When  the  gilder  has  made  his  decision 
as  to  the  number  of  lays  that  will  be 
required,  he  selects  one  lay,  and  ))ro- 
ceeds  with  it  through  the  whole  length 
of  tho  moulding  before  he  begins  another 
portion  of  the  width.  If  the  necessary 
lay  be  about  f  or  ^  of  an  inch  in  width,  he 
cuts  the  leaf  which  is  spread  out  on  his 
cushicn  into  four  strips  ;  if  it  be  about 
1  in.  in  width,  he  cuts  the  leaf  into  three, 
regulating  the  division  of  the  leaf  of 
gold  according  to  the  width  of  the  lay. 


It  IS  not  often  that  a  larger  piece  than 
half  a  leaf  is  used  at  once.  The  gilder 
has  at  hand  a  pan  with  clean  water, 
and  two  or  three  camel-hair  pencils  of 
different  sizes.  With  one  of  these  pencils 
he  wets  a  few  in-ihes  of  that  part  of  the 
moulding  which  is  to  form  his  first  lay, 
taking  care  not  to  wet  much  beyond 
t^at  lay.  The  water  is  to  be  allowed  to 
remain  prstty  full  on  the  surface,  after 
some  of  it  has  been  imbibed  by  the  gold 
size.  The  gilder  then  takes  his  tip  in 
his  right  hand,  and  lays  it  on  the  slip  oi 
gold,  which  slightly  adheres  to  the  hairs ; 
whence  he  places  it  on  the  moulding, 
with  particular  attention  to  straightness 
of  direction.  It  frequently  happens  that 
the  hairs  of  the  tip  will  not  take  up  the 
gold  ;  in  such  case  it  is  usual  to  rub  the 
hairs  between  the  cheek  and  the  palm  ot 
the  hand,  by  which  their  power  of  tak- 
ing up  the  gold  is  increased.  When  the 
gold  is  laid  on  it  is  blown  forcibly,  to 
expel  as  much  of  the  water  as  possible 
from  beneath  it,  the  dry  camel-hair 
pencil  being  used  to  press  down  any 
parts  which  fail  to  adhere.  Another 
portion  IS  then  wetted,  and  another  piece 
laid  on,  lapping  about  i  of  an  inch  over 
the  end  of  the  former  piece.  Thus  the 
gilder  proceeds,  piece  after  piece,  until 
th?  one  lay  is  carried  down  the  whole 
length  of  the  moulding,  he  then  proceeds 
with  another  lay  joining  the  former. 
In  doing  this  he  has  to  observe  that  the 
water  must  be  made  to  flow  a  little  over 
the  edge  of  the  former  lay,  but  not  so  as 
to  wash  it  up,  or  break  away  the  edge  ; 
the  second  lay  must  lap  a  little  over  the 
first,  and  thej-efore  the  water  must  like- 
wise extend  over  the  first  lay.  Thus  he 
proceeds  with  all  the  lays  into  which  he 
has  found  it  necessary  to  divide  the 
width  of  the  moulding ;  every  piece, 
lengthwise,  lapping  over  the  piece  pre- 
viously put  on,  and  every  lay  lapping 
over  the  previous  lay.  The  moulding  is 
then  set  aside  to  dry.  There  is  a  par- 
ticular state  or  degree  of  dryness,  known 
only  by  experience,  in  which  the  mould- 
ing is  in  a  fit  state  for  burnishing.  The 
burnishers  used  by  the  gilder  are  either 
of  flint  or  agate,  generally  the  former  ; 
the   steel    buruishfrs  employed   by   the 


SOI 


WORKStlOP   ntCElPTS, 


jeweller  would  not  do  for  the  gilder. 
Burnishers  of  dilVerent  forms  and  sizes 
must  be  employed,  in  order  to  adapt 
them  to  the  part  of  the  work  which  is 
being  burnished;  they  are  generally 
crooked  or  curved  near  the  end.  When 
the  burnishing  is  done,  those  parts  which 
have  not  been  burnished  are  weak  sized, 
that  is,  they  are  wetted  with  water  in 
which  a  very  little  clear  piece  of  size 
has  been  melted;  this  helps  to  secure 
the  gold.  When  dry,  the  gold  is  wiped 
carefully  with  a  piece  of  soft  cotton- 
wool, to  remove  rough  or  ragged  edges 
of  gold  ;  and  there  are  now  visible  a 
number  of  little  breaks,  holes,  and  faulty 
places  in  the  gilding,  arising  from  the 
impossibility  of  laying  on  the  gold  quite 
soundly  and  perfectly.  These  defective 
parts  are  repaired  by  the  process  of 
faulting,  which  consists  of  cutting  uj)  a 
leaf  of  gold  into  small  pieces  and  laying 
them  on  the  faulty  places,  previously 
wetted,  with  a  camel-hair  pencil.  If 
the  defective  part  is  on  the  burnish,  it 
is  necessary  to  be  careiul  not  to  wet  any 
part  but  what  is  to  be  covered  by  the 
gold,  as  it  will  stain  the  burnished  gold. 
When  the  faulting  is  dry,  the  gold  is 
again  carefully  wiped,  and  liually  wetted 
with  finishing  size.  Tliis  is  clear  size 
of  a  certain  degree  of  strength,  laid  on 
the  matt  parts  with  a  jiencil,  and  coin- 
j)letes  the  process  of  gilding.  When  a 
glass  frame  is  to  be  gilt,  the  joiner's 
work  is  generally  quite  completed  before 
tlie  gilder  begins,  and  great  care  is  re- 
quireil  in  wliiting  such  frames,  to  ])re- 
vcnt  (illiiig  up  tli'r  corners  with  whiting, 
and  giving  thorn  a  clumsy  a|ipearance. 
Fur  this  piii-])ose,  moik-lliug  tools,  such 
as  chisels,  gouges,  and  crooks,  are  used 
to  clear  out  the  corners  fi'oin  time  to 
time,  and  jireserve  the  origiii;il  sharp- 
ness and  clearness  of  the  several  parts. 

Cmnposition  fur  Mouldinij. — The  fol- 
Jowing  is  used  by  gilders; — Mix  14  lbs. 
of  glue,  7  lbs.  resin,  J-  lb.  pitch,  2i  )>ints 
linsce<l  oil,  '}  pints  of  watrr,  more  or 
/ess  according  to  the  quantity  required, 
lioil  the  whole  together,  well  stirring 
until  dissolved,  add  as  much  whiting  as 
will  render  it  of  a  hard  consistency,  then 
press  it  into  mould,  which  has  been  pre- 


viously oiled  with  sweet  oil.  No  morO 
should  be  mixed  than  can  be  used  before 
it  becomes  sensibly  hard,  as  it  will  re- 
quire steaming  before  it  can  be  used 
again.  Another  receipt ; — JIake  a  very 
clear  glue  with  3  parts  of  Flanders  glue 
and  1  part  of  isinglass,  by  dissolving  the 
two  kinds  separately  in  a  large  quantity 
of  water,  and  mix  them  together,  after 
they  have  been  strained  through  a  piece 
of  line  linen  to  separate  the  parts  which 
could  not  be  dissolved.  The  quantity  of 
water  cannot  be  fixed,  because  all  kiud.i 
of  glue  are  not  homogeneous,  so  that 
some  require  more  than  others.  The 
propter  strength  may  be  found  by  sutler 
ing  the  glue  to  become  perfectly  cold ; 
it  must  then  barely  form  a  jelly.  The 
glue  is  to  be  gently  heated,  then  mixed 
with  saw-dust  sifted  through  a  fine  sieve. 
The  moulds  are  then  to  be  oiled  with  nut 
oil,  and  the  glue  jiressed  into  the  mould, 
covered  with  weighted  board,  and  then 
set  to  dry  near  a  stove.  When  the  cast- 
ing is  dry  it  is  to  be  trimmed. 

ISurnisJicd  Gilt  Frames. — When  new 
burnished  gilding  requires  varnishing, 
white  hard  spirit-varnish  is  used,  or 
yellow  gold  lacquer.  Old  burnished 
work  must  be  cleaned  with  great  c;ire. 
First  remove  the  dust  with  a  badger- 
hair  brush  ;  al'terwards  clean  the  gild- 
ing by  passing  a  clean  sponge  dipjied  in 
gin  and  water,  lightly  over  the  surl'ace, 
wiping  olT  fJie  inoisture  with  a  very  soft 
dry  sjionge  or  silk  handkerchief;  then 
ajijily  the  varnish,  and  finish. 

Clcaninij  Gilt  Frames. — Gilt  frames 
may  be  cleaned  by  sim]ily  washing  them 
with  a  small  s]ionge,  wet  with  urine,  hot 
spirits  of  wine,  or  oil  of  turpentine,  not 
too  wet,  but  sulFiciently  to  take  oil"  the 
dirt  and  fly  marks.  They  should  not  be 
afterwards  wiped,  but  left  to  dry  of 
themselves. 

Re-ijilding  Frames. — Take  a  sjionge 
and  some  clean  water  an<l  wash  the 
frame  Avell,  then  let  it  dry,  procure 
some  water  gold-size;  make  .some  thin 
size  from  ilry  hide  or  parchment,  mix 
enough  warm  with  the  gold  size  to 
enable  you  to  wnrk  it  on  the  frame 
with  a  camel-hair  brush,  give  it  two 
coats ;  when   dry,  rub    it   over   with   a 


WORKSHOP   KECEIPTS. 


8C5 


pice«  of  fine  sand-paper ;  it  will  then  be 
ready  for  gilJicg.  When  the  frame  is 
covered,  rest  it  on  its  edge  to  drain ; 
when  perfectly  dry  dip  a  pencil  into 
water,  and  wijyj  the  goM  over  with  it; 
it  will  take  tlie  particles  of  gold  olf  and 
make  it  a]>pear  solid.  For  anj'  j)arts 
not  covered,  take  bits  of  leaf  with  a  dry 
pencil,  and  lay  on  as  before,  then  give 
the  whole  a  coat  of  clear  parchment 
size,  brush  the  back  edges  over  with 
ochre,  and  the  frame  is  then  ready. 

Gilding  Poftery. — An  air-tight  kiln  is 
required,  which  must  be  lime-washed 
every  time  it  is  used.  On  a  small  scale 
a  retort  would  do  well,  made  of  Stour- 
bridge clay,  and  fixed  in  brickwork,  with 
access  for  drawing  trials,  bits  of  pitcher 
with  a  little  gold  on,  drawn  with  tongs. 
Take  \  oz.  brown  gold,  \  oz.  quicksilver, 
10  grains  tin,  10  grains  white-lead,  well 
pound  together  m  Wedgwood  mortar 
and  pestle.  Then  gnna  on  glass  slab 
and  muUer,  with  a  few  drops  of  water, 
for  several  hours ;  add  a  drop  of  water 
as  it  dries,  then  repeat  in  turpentine, 
leaving  it  about  the  consistency  of  cream. 
It  is  then  ready  for  use,  or  if  kejt  for  a 
day  or  two  it  will  work  better  ;  it  is 
laid  on  with  a  camel-hair  pencil.  Thin 
it  with  turpentine,  as  it  soon  dries,  and 
should  be  kept  covered  when  not  in  use. 
A  little  fat  oil  is  added  to  make  it  work 
better.  To  make  fat  oil,  evaporate  tur- 
pentine to  the  consistency  of  treacle. 

Gilding  on  Faint. — The  paint  must 
first  be  thoroughly  dry.  'The  letters 
must  be  written  on  the  paint  with  gold 
size,  and  allowed  to  get  a  little  dry,  or 
else  the  writing  will  appear  dull.  Now 
press  the  gold  leaf  on  the  size,  and  rub 
it  down  with  a  piece  of  cotton-wool.  If 
by  accident  there  is  more  than  one  thick- 
ness of  gold  it  will  appear  dull. 

Gilding  Zinc. — First  coat  the  zinc 
with  copper  by  the  electrotype  process, 
using  an  alkaline  copper  bath,  and  then 
gild  on  the  copper,  as  that  takes  gold 
very  readily.  Organ  pi[)es  should  be 
lirst  coated  with  ma?tic  varnish,  and 
then  oil-gilded  in  the  usual  manner. 

Gold  Size.  —  Yellow  ochre,  1  part ; 
copal  varnish,  2 ;  linseed  oil,  3 ;  tur- 
pentine,  4 ;    boiled    oil,   5.     Mix.     The 

1 


ochre  must  be  reduced  to  the  finest 
powder,  and  gi  ound  with  a  little  of  the 
oil  before  mixing. 

Fat-oil  Gold-Size  is  made  by  grinding 
good  stone  or  Oxford  ochre  very  fine  in 
old  fat  linseed  oil  •  when  ground  as  stifl 
as  possible,  it  ought  to  be  kept  for  seve- 
ral years  before  it  is  used  ;  the  longer  it 
is  kept  the  better  it  becomes,  as  it  ac- 
quires a  rich  mellow  fatness.  When 
this  size  is  to  be  applied  to  work,  take 
as  much  as  is  necessary,  and  mix  it  up 
with  a  little  good  fat  boiled  oil  to  a 
pro2)er  consistence,  neither  too  stiff  nor 
too  fluid ;  then  apply  the  size  to  the 
ground,  laying  it  very  regularly  and 
rather  fully,  yet  not  so  as  to  run  or  fall 
into  wrinkles.  Gilding  with  oil  size  is 
suitable  for  large  picture  or  looking- 
glass  frames,  figured  or  lettered  sign- 
boards, clock  faces,  and  various  articles 
exj)Osed  to  the  weather,  where  a  great 
breadth  of  gilt  surface  is  required,  as  i\ 
possesses  more  durability  and  boldness 
than  any  other  kind  of  gilding,  particu- 
larly when  the  gilding  is  varnished  be- 
fore it  becomes  foul.  When  it  is  neces- 
sary to  revarnish  old  gilding  in  oil,  such 
work  ought  always  to  be  well  cleaned 
from  dust,  grease,  or  any  incrustation 
which  covers  the  surface,  otherwise  the 
varnish  will  not  dry  off  hard,  but  will 
remain  cloudy  and  tacky,  so  as  readily 
to  retain  dust  and  flies.  Various  me- 
thods are  emi>loyed  by  painters  and 
gilders  to  clean  old  gilt  work.  Some 
wash  the  work  well  with  a  brush  or 
sponge,  which  is  suflicient  in  cases  where 
the  ground  is  firm,  hard,  and  of  a  me- 
tallic colour ;  but  where  the  grounds 
are  absorbent,  with  gold  letters,  simply 
washing  with  water  is  in  general  insuf- 
ficient. In  such  cases,  emjiloy  an  alka- 
line ley,  made  by  dissolving  '2  oz.  of 
pearlash  in  3  pints  of  water;  then  wet 
the  work  over  with  a  brush  or  sponge 
dipi)cd  in  the  ley ;  let  it  remain  some 
time,  afterwards,  with  the  sponge  and 
clean  water,  wash  ort  a  part  to  see  if 
the  surface  or  gilding  is  properly  clean, 
when  it  must  be  thoroughly  washed 
with  plenty  of  pure  water,  and  wijied 
dry  with  a  soft  cloth  or  a  silk  hand- 
kerchief.     Oil    of    vitriol    and    w.iter, 


30G 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


mixed  until  its  acidity  is  equal  to  that 
of  vinegar,  is  very  cleansing,  but  re- 
quires considerable  pi'actice  to  apjiiy  it 
equally  to  the  work,  and  it  must  not 
remain  on  too  long,  otherwise  it  will 
not  only  remove  the  dirt,  but  also  the 
l)aiut  and  gilding;  it  recjuires  to  be  used 
with  caution,  frequently  aiii)lying  the 
sjionge  and  clear  water,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover whether  the  surface  is  clean. 
When  it  is  well  washed  and  wiped  dry, 
let  the  work  stand  to  dry,  and  after- 
wards ai)ply  one  or  two  coats  of  copal 
Tarnish,  la  revaruishing  old  work  ex- 
posed to  the  weather,  it  is  best  to  clean 
it  over-night,  and  if  the  weather  is  fine 
next  morning,  and  no  appearance  of 
rain,  high  wind,  or  dust,  apply  the 
varnish  about  sunrise,  when  the  warmth 
of  the  sun  will  cause  it  to  How,  set,  and 
dry  quickly  and  hard. 

Flock  Gold-Size.— Vui  12  galls,  of 
linseed  oil  into  the  iron  set-jiot ;  as  soon 
as  it  has  boiled  2  hours,  gradually  in- 
troduce 12  lbs.  of  litharge.  Continue 
the  boiling  very  moderately  for  6  hours; 
let  it  remain  until  next  morning,  then 
bring  it  to  simmer,  and  run  10  lbs.  of 
gum  animi  and  2  galls,  of  oil.  When 
these  two  runs  of  gum  are  ])oured  into 
the  iron  jiot,  put  in  7  lbs.  of  Burgundy 
pitch,  which  soon  melt,  continue  the 
boiling,  and  keep  ladling  it  down,  as 
directed  for  the  best  gold  size,  boil  it 
moderately  strong,  but  not  over-strong, 
and  wiicn  right,  mix  it  with  .'iO  galls,  of 
tur])eutiae,  or  more  if  re(iuiied;  this 
should  he  left  a  little  thicker  and 
stronger  than  japauner.s'  gold  size,  as  it  is 
used  for  paper-stainers  to  lay  their  Hock 
on,  and  ouglit  to  dry  slowly  in  1  hour. 

liionzihij  Gold-Size  is  japauuers'  gold 
Jize  kept  till  ve)-y  blight  and  tough 
from  age,  ami  then  iiealed  u|)  and 
mixed  with  1  g;ill.  of  very  old  carriage 
varnish  to  9  galls,  of  gojij  size.  This  is 
used  for  laying  on  bronze  and  also  gold, 
by  writers,  grainers,  japanners,  and 
gilders.  The  greater  the  projiortion  of 
carriage  varnish,  the  Hlower  it  will  dry. 
Soiiii'  pap('l•-.^talllers  like  it  to  dry  (|iii(:kei' 
than  others,  ami  wj'itcis  and  graiiieis 
like  it  to  diy  quicker  than  gilders  and 
japanners. 


Gold  Powder  for  Gildiwj. —  Gold 
powder  may  be  prepared  in  tliree  ways; 
— 1st.  Put  into  an  earthen  mortar  some 
gold  leaf,  with  a  little  honey,  or  thick 
gum-water,  and  grind  the  mixture  till 
the  gold  leaf  is  reduced  to  extremely 
minute  particles.  When  this  is  done  a 
little  warm  water  will  wash  out  the 
honey  or  gum,  leaving  the  gold  l)ohind 
in  a  powdered  state.  2nd.  Dissolve  the 
pure  gold,  or  the  leaf,  in  nitro-muriatic 
acid,  and  then  precipitate  it  by  a  piece 
of  coi)per,  or  by  a  solution  of  sul))hate 
of  iron.  The  jjrecipitate,  if  by  co]ipcr, 
must  be  digested  in  distilled  vinegar, 
and  then  washed,  by  pouring  water 
over  it  repeatedly,  and  dried.  'I'liis  ]irc- 
cipitate  will  be  in  the  form  of  very  due 
powder ;  it  works  better  and  is  more 
easily  burnished  than  gold  leaf  ground 
with  honey  as  above,  3rd.  And  the  best 
method  ol'  preparing  gold  jiowder  is  by 
beating  a  prepared  amalgam  of  gold,  in 
an  open  clean  crucible,  and  continuing 
thp  strong  heat,  until  the  wliole  of  the 
mercury  is  evai)orated ;  at  the  same 
time  constantly  stirring  the  amalgam 
with  a  glass  rod.  When  the  mercury 
lias  comiiletely  left  the  gold,  the  re- 
inaiiiing  powder  is  to  be  ground  in  a 
Wedgwood's  mortar,  with  a  little 
water,  and  afterwards  dried.  It  is  then 
fit  for  u.se.  Although  the  last  mode 
of  0])erating  has  been  here  given,  the 
operator  cannot  1)0  too  much  reminded 
ol'  the  danger  attending  the  sublimation 
of  mercury.  In  the  small  way  here  cle- 
siribed,  it  is  impossible  to  operate  with- 
out d.inger ;  it  is  therefore  lietter  to 
juejiare  it  according  to  the  former  direc- 
tion? than  to  risk  the  heal'h  by  the 
latter. 

To  Cover  liars  of  Opper  with  Gold, 
so  as  to  be  rolled  out  into  Sheets. — 
First  pre|>are  iiig(;ts  or  pieces  of  copper 
or  brass,  in  convenient  lengths  and  sizes. 
Then  cleanse  them  from  im|iurity,  and 
make  their  surfaces  level.  I'repare 
plates  of  pure  gold,  or  gold  mixed  with 
a  portion  of  alloy,  of  the  same  size  as 
the  ingots  of  metal,  and  of  suitalle 
thickness.  Having  placed  a  jiiece  ol 
gold  upon  an  ingot  intended  to  be 
plated,    hammer    and    compress    them 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


307 


both  together,  so  that  they  may  have 
their  surfaces  as  nearly  equal  to  each 
other  as  possible ;  then  bind  together 
with  wire,  in  order  to  keep  them  in  the 
same  position  during  the  process  re- 
quired to  attach  them.  Afterwards 
mix  silver  filings  with  boras,  to  assist 
the  fusion  of  the  silver.  Lay  this  mix- 
ture upon  the  edge  of  the  plate,  and 
next  to  the  ingot  of  metal.  Having 
prepared  the  two  bodies,  place  them  on 
a  fire  in  a  stove  or  furnace,  where  they 
must  remain  until  the  silver  and  borax 
placed  along  the  edges  of  the  metals 
melt,  and  until  the  adhesion  of  the  gold 
with  the  metal  is  perfect.  Remove  the 
ingot  carefully  from  the  stove.  By  this 
process  the  ingot  is  plated  with  gold, 
and  prepared  ready  for  rolling  into 
sheets. 

To  Gild  in  Colours. — The  principal 
colours  of  gold  for  gilding  are  red, 
green,  and  yellow.  These  should  be 
kept  in  different  amalgams.  The  part 
which  is  to  remain  of  the  first  colour, 
is  to  be  stopped  off  with  a  composition 
of  chalk  and  glue ;  the  variety  required 
is  produced  by  gilding  the  unstopped 
parts  with  the  proper  amalgam,  accord- 
ing to  the  usual  mode  of  gilding.  Some- 
times the  amalgam  is  applied  to  the 
surface  to  be  gilt,  without  any  quick- 
ing,  by  spreading  it  with  aquafortis ; 
but  this  depends  on  the  same  principle 
as  a  previous  quicking. 

Grecian  Gilding. — Equal  parts  of  sal- 
ammoniac  and  corrosive  sublimate  are 
dissolved  in  spirit  of  nitre,  and  a  solu- 
tion of  gold  made  with  this  menstruum. 
The  silver  brushed  over  with  it  turns 
black,  but  on  exposure  to  a  red  heat  it 
assumes  the  colour  of  gold. 

To  Dissolve  Gold  in  Aqua-Eegia. — 
Take  aqua-regia,  composed  of  2  parts 
6f  nitrous  acid,  and  1  of  marine  acid  ; 
or  of  1  part  of  sal  ammoniac,  and  4 
parts  of  aquafortis ;  let  the  gold  be 
granulated,  put  into  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  this  menstruum,  and  exposed  to 
a  moderate  degree  of  heat.  During  the 
solution,  an  eifervescence  takes  place, 
and  it  acquires  a  beautiful  yellow 
colour  which  becomes  more  and  more 
ipiensB;     till    it    has  a  dark    golden   or 


orange  colour.  When  the  menstruum 
is  saturated,  it  is  very  clear  and  trans- 
parent. 

To  Gild  Iron  or  Steel  with  a  Solution 
of  Gold. — Make  a  solution  of  8  oz.  ot 
nitre  and  common  salt,  with  5  oz.  of 
crude  alum  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water;  dissolve  1  oz.  of  gold  thinly 
plated  and  cut ;  and  alterwards  evapo- 
rate to  dryness.  Digest  the  residuum 
in  rectified  spirit  of  wine  or  ether, 
which  will  perfectly  abstract  the  gold. 
The  iron  is  to  be  brushed  over  with 
this  solution,  and  becomes  immediately 
gilt. 

To  Gild  by  Gold  dissolved  in  Aqua- 
liegia. — Fine  linen  rags  are  soaked  in  a 
saturated  solution  of  gold  in  aqua-regia, 
gently  dried,  and  afterwaris  burnt  tc 
tinder.  The  substance  to  be  gilt  must 
be  well  polished ;  a  piece  of  cork  is  first 
dipped  into  a  solution  of  common  salt  in 
water,  and  afterwards  into  the  tinder, 
which  is  well  rubbed  on  the  surface  of 
the  metal  to  be  gilt,  and  the  gold  appears 
in  all  its  metallic  lustre. 

Amalgam  of  Gold  in  the  Large  Way.— 
A  quantity  of  quicksilver  is  put  into  a 
crucible  or  iron  ladle,  which  is  lined 
with  clay,  and  exposed  to  heat  till  it 
begins  to  smoke.  The  gold  to  be  mixed 
should  be  previously  granulated,  and 
heated  red  hot,  when  it  should  be  added 
to  the  quicksilver,  and  stirred  about 
with  an  iron  rod  till  it  is  perfectly  dis- 
solved. If  there  should  be  any  super- 
fluous mercury,  it  may  be  separated  by 
passing  it  through  clean  soft  leather ; 
and  the  remaining  amalgam  will  have 
the  consistence  of  butter,  and  contain 
about  3  parts  of  mercury  to  1  of  gold. 

To  Gild  by  Amah jamat ion. — The  metal 
to  be  gilt  is  previously  well  cleaned  ou 
its  surface,  by  boiling  in  a  weak  pickle 
of  very  dilute  nitrous  acid.  A  quantity 
of  aquafortis  is  poured  into  an  earthen 
vessel,  and  quicksilver  put  therein  ; 
when  a  sufficient  quantity  of  mercury 
is  dissolved,  the  articles  to  be  gilt  are 
put  into  the  solution,  and  stirred  aboui 
with  a  brush  till  they  become  white. 
This  is  called  quicking.  But  as  during 
quicking  by  this  mode  a  noxious  vapour 
continually   arises,  which    proves   very 

X  2 


308 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


injurious  to  the  health  of  the  workmen, 
they  have  adopted  another  method,  by 
which  they,  in  a  great  measure,  avoid 
that  danger.  They  now  dissolve  the 
quicksilver  in  a  bottle  containing  aqua- 
fortis, and  leave  it  in  the  open  air 
during  the  solution,  so  that  the  noxious 
vapour  escapes  into  the  air.  Tlien  a 
little  of  this  solution  is  poured  into  a 
basin,  and  with  a  brush  dipped  therein 
they  stroke  over  the  surface  of  the 
metal  to  be  gilt,  which  immediately 
becomes  quicked.  The  amalgam  is  now 
applied  by  one  of  the  following  me- 
thods ; — 1st.  By  proportioning  it  to  the 
number  of  articles  to  be  gilt,  and  put- 
ting them  into  a  vessel  together,  work- 
ing them  about  with  a  soft  brush,  till 
the  amalgam  is  uniformly  s])read.  Or, 
2ndly.  By  api)lyiug  a  jiortion  of  the 
amalgam  upon  one  part,  and  spreading 
it  on  the  surface,  if  Art,  l.y  working  it 
about  with  a  harcler  bru.-iii.  The  work 
thus  managed  is  put  into  a  pan,  and  e.\- 
posed  to  a  gentle  degree  of  heat ;  when 
it  becomes  hot,  it  is  frequently  put  into 
a  pan,  and  worked  about  with  a  painter's 
large  brush,  to  jirevent  an  irregular  dis- 
sipatidn  of  the  mercury,  till  at  last  the 
quicksilver  is  entirely  dissipated  by  the 
rejietition  of  heat,  and  the  gold  is 
attached  to  the  surface  of  the  mental. 
This  gilt  surface  is  well  cleaned  by  a 
wire  brush,  and  tluMi  artists  heighten 
the  colour  of  the  gold  by  the  api>litati()n 
of  various  compositions;  this  jiart  of  tiie 
process  is  (railed  colouring. 

To  (lild  Ultiss  and  J'urcelitin. — No.  1. 
— Drinking  and  other  glasses  are  somo 
times  gilt  "a  their  edges.  This  is  done 
either  by  an  aillie^ive  varnisii  or  by  heat. 
The  vnrni>h  is  preji.ired  by  dissolving  in 
boiled  linM'c<l  oil  an  equal  weight  either 
of  copal  or  amber.  This  is  diluted  by  a 
j.rojier  ijuantity  of  oil  of  turpentine,  so  as 
til  be  a|>|iliecl  a.s  thin  us  possible  to  the 
t'iirts  of  the  glas.s  intended  to  be  gilt. 
Vhen  this  is  done,  which  will  be  in 
alioul  'J4  hour*,  the  glass  is  to  be  placed 
III  a  stove,  lill  it  is  so  warm  as  almost  to 
burn  the  (ingi-i'N  when  )iaiidl<.-d.  At  this 
ti'inpiTature  the  varnish  will  betonic  ad- 
hesive, and  a  piece  of  leaf  gold,  apjtlied  in 
the  UHual  way,  will  iinmediately  stirk. 


Sweep  off  the  superfluous  portions  of  the 
leaf,  and  when  quite  cold  it  may  be 
burnished,  taking  care  to  interpose  a 
piece  of  very  thin  India  paper  between 
the  gold  and  the  burnisher.  If  the  var- 
nish is  very  good,  this  is  tne  best  method 
of  gilding  glass,  as  the  gold  is  thus  fixed 
on  more  evenly  than  in  any  other  way. 
No.  2. — It  often  liappens,  when  the  var- 
nish is  but  inditl'eient,  that  by  repeated 
washing  the  gold  wears  oft';  on  this  ac- 
count the  practice  of  burning  it  in  is 
sometimes  had  recourse  to.  For  this 
purpose,  some  gold  powder  is  ground 
with  borax,  and  in  this  state  applied  to 
the  clean  surface  of  the  glass  by  a 
camel-hair  pencil ;  when  quite  dry,  the 
glass  is  put  into  a  stove  heated  to  about 
the  temjierature  of  an  annealing  oven; 
the  gum  burns  off,  and  the  borax,  by 
vitrifying,  cements  the  gold  with  great 
(irmucss  to  the  glass;  after  which  it 
may  be  burnished.  Tlie  gilding  ujion 
porcelain  is  in  like  manner  fixed  by  heat 
and  the  use  of  borax. 

Gildiiuf  on  Glass. — The  glass  must  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  polished.  A  size 
must  be  prejiared  as  follows; — Isinglass 
1  oz.,  dissolve  in  just  siillicient  water  to 
cover  it;  when  dissolved,  add  a  jiiiit  of 
rectified  spirit  of  wine,  then  increase  the 
quantity  to  a  quart  with  water  ;  keep 
tightly  corked.  Or,  take  best  rum  j  pint, 
isinglass,  J  oz.  L)issolve  the  isinglass  in 
the  rum  at  a  low  temperature,  then  add 
i  pint  of  distilled  water,  an<i  filter 
through  a  piece  of  old  linen.  Place  the 
glass  Hat  on  a  ]>erl'fctly  level  table,  then 
with  a  clean  brusli  Hood  the  glass  with 
the  size  to  the  doi)th  of  I  of  an  inch, 
raise  the  gold  leaf  with  a  tij)  and  lay  it 
fiat  on  the  size  ;  it  will  almost  instantly 
adhere  to  the  glass;  in  T)  iiiiiniles  after- 
wards jdace  tlie  glass  endways  at  a  slight 
angle  against  a  wail  that  the  surjiliis  size 
may  drain  off.  Allow  the  glass  to  re- 
main ill  that  ])osition  for  24  hours,  by 
that  time  it  will  be  perfectly  dry.  Dnw 
the  patti'rn  or  letter  on  a  piece  of  pajier, 
and  with  a  thick  needle  pierce  holes  on 
the  lines  at  the  distance  of  ^'^  oi  an  inch 
apart;  place  the  jiounced  paper  on  the 
gold  surface,  then  dust  some  powdered 
whiting  well  on  the  paper  that  it  may 


WORKSKOP   RECElPtS. 


309 


penetrate  tlie  jules;  remove  the  paper 
carefully,  ami  there  will  remain  a  cor- 
rect copy  of  the  design  on  the  gold. 
Now  fill  up  the  outlines  of  the  design 
with  oil  gold-size  in  which  has  been 
ground  some  orange  chrome,  thin  it 
with  a  little  boiled  oil  and  turpentine. 
When  thoroughly  dry,  wash  off  the  sur- 
plus gold  with  water  and  a  piece  of 
cotton-wool.  Back  the  glass  with  any 
suitable  colour. 

To  Gild  Leather. — In  order  to  impress 
gilt  figures,    letters,    and  other    marks 
upon  leather,  as  on  the  covers  of  books 
and  edgings  for  doors,  the  leather  must 
first  be  dusted  over   with   very  finely- 
powdered   dried   white  of  eggs,   yellow 
resin,  or  mastic  gum,  upon  which    lay 
a  leaf  of  gold.     The  iron  tools  or  stamps 
are  now   arranged  on  a  rack    before  a 
clear    fire,    so    as    to    be    well    heated, 
without  becoming  red  hot.     If  the  tools 
are  letters,   they  have    an  alphabetical 
arrangement  on  the   rack.     Each  letter 
or  stamp  must  be  tried  as  to  its  heat, 
by    imprinting    its   mark   on    the   raw 
side   of  a   piece    of  waste   leather.     A 
little  practice  will  enable  one  to  judge 
of  the  heat.  The  tool  is  now  to  be  pressed 
downwards  on  the  gold  leaf,  which  will, 
of  course,  be   indented,  and   show   the 
figure  imprinted  on  it.     The  next  letter 
or  stamp  is  now  to  be  taken  and  stamped 
in  like  manner,  and  so  on  with  the  others ; 
taking  care  to  keep  the  letters  in  an  even 
Ime  with  each  other,  like  those  in  a  book. 
By  this  operation  the  resin  is  melted; 
consequently,  the   gold   adheres   to  the 
leather;  the  superfluous  gold  may  then 
be    rubbed  off   by  a    cloth,   the    gilded 
impressions  remaining  on    the    leather. 
The  cloth  alluded  to  should  be  slightly 
greasy,  to  retain  the  gold  wiped  off;  the 
cloth  will  thus  be  soon  completely  loaded 
with  the  gold.     When  this  is  the  case, 
these   cloths  are  generally  sold  to  the 
refiners,   who   burn   them   and    recover 
■  :he  gold. 

To  Gild,  or  Finish,  Boohs. — The  work, 
if  leather,  must  be  compassed  olT  and 
marked  with  a  folding  stick  wherever  it 
IS  intended  to  run  a  straight  line.  This 
serves  as  a  guide  when  the  gold  is  laid 
on.    For  good  work  the  pattern  must  be 


worked  in  blind,  and,  after  being  washed 
with  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid  or  a  thin 
paste- wash,   carefully  pencilled  in  with 
the  glaire-pencil.    For  morocco  bindings, 
the   glaire   is   sometimes   diluted    witti 
water.      In   preparing  glaire   from   the 
egg  for  immediate  use,  a  few  drops  of 
oxalic  acid  will  be  found  of  service.  The 
gilding  is  commenced  by  oiling  slightly, 
with  a  small  piece  of  cotton,  the  whulj 
of  the  work,  and   arranging   the   hand- 
stamps  and  rolls  so  as  to  be  conveniently 
accessible.     To   lay  on  the  gold,  take  a 
book  of  the  metal,  open  the  outside  leaf, 
and  pass  a   knife  underneath  the  gold; 
with  this  raise  it,  carry  it  steadily  on  to 
the   cushion,  and   spread   it   even,   by  a 
light  breath  on  the  middle  of  the  leaf. 
Afterwards  the  gold  must  be  cut  with 
the  gold  knife  to  the  breadth  and  length 
of  the   places   to   be  covered,  by  laying 
the  edge  upon  it  and  moving  the  knife 
slightly  backwards  and  forwards.    Then 
rub  upon  the  work  a  little  sweet  oil,  and 
apply   the  gold    upon   the  places  to   be 
ornamented  with  a  cotton  or  tip,  rubbed 
on  the  forehead    or   hair  to  give    it    a 
slight  humidity  and  cause  the  gold  to 
adhere.     The  tools,  which  must  be  pre- 
viously heated,  are  then  applied.     Calf 
will  require  them  hotter  than  morocco 
and  roan,  and  these  warmer  than  russia 
and  vellum.     To  ascertain  their  proper 
heat,  they  are  applied  on  a  damp  sponge, 
or  rubbed  with  the  finger  wetted.     The 
gold  which   has  not  been  impressed  by 
the  gilding   tools  must  be  well    rubbed 
off  with  the  gold  rag,  and  cleared  with 
a  piece  of  fine  flannel  or  india-rubber,  so 
as  to  display  the  delicate  lines  of  the 
ornaments  as  perfectly  and    clearly  as 
possible.     Attention  should  be  paid  to 
this    particular;    for    let    a    book    be 
finished    in    the   most   tasteful   manner 
possible,  unless  well  cleared  off  the  effect 
is  entirely  lost.     For  gilding  publishers' 
work,  or  where  a  quantity  of  gilding  is 
desired    at    little  expense,   a  stamping- 
press  is  brought  into  requisition,  and  by 
means  ol  tools  cut  for  the  purjiose,  called 
blocks  or  stamps,  the  design  is  impressed 
on    the  side.      The  stamps  are  fixed  to 
an  iron  plate,  called  a  back  oi    founda- 
tion-plate, upon  which  a  piece  of  stout 


310 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


paper  has  been  glued.  Let  the  paper  be 
glued  equally  over  the  surface,  and  pro- 
ceed to  form  the  pattern  by  arranging 
the  stamps  upon  the  plate  so  as  to  ex- 
liiliit  the  design  ;  then  take  a  little  paste 
anl  touch  the  under  side  of  each  stamp, 
ani  place  them  in  exact  iiositicn.  After 
this  is  done  and  the  paste  has  become 
hard,  lay  the  stamp  or  pattern  thus 
formed  upon  the  side  of  the  volume, 
taking  care  to  have  the  same  margin  on 
the  front,  back,  and  ends.  Then  i)lace 
the  board  or  side  ujion  which  the  stamp 
IS  placed,  upon  the  platen  of  the  stamp- 
.ag  press,  leaving  the  volume  hanging 
iown  in  front  of  the  platen,  which  is 
then  moved  to  the  centre  of  the  ujiper 
I)laten,  so  that  the  clamps  will  touch 
the  plate  on  both  edges  at  the  same 
moment ;  then  pull  the  lever  so  as  to 
put  a  slight  pressure  upon  the  plate  in 
order  to  keep  both  it  and  the  side  m 
their  proper  place;  adjust  the  guides  to 
the  fore-edge  and  head  or  left-hand  side, 
and  screw  them  fast ;  throw  back  the 
lever,  take  out  the  book;  examine  and 
correct  any  irregularity  in  the  margin 
of  tlie  pattern  by  moving  the  guides. 
VVhfn  [lerfectly  square,  place  a  soft 
pasteboard  under  the  stamp,  pull  down 
the  press,  and  a]>|)iy  heat.  This  will  set 
the  stamps  or  harden  the  paste  and  glue 
in  a  short  time,  so  tliat  tlioy  will  not 
fall  otf  in  stam])iug.  Work  for  staniiijug 
does  not  reipiire  so  much  body  or  prejia- 
ration  as  work  gilt  by  hand.  Morocco 
can  be  worked  by  merely  being  washed 
with  urine  ;  but  it  is  safer  to  use  a  coat 
of  size,  or  glaire  and  water  mixed  in 
pro|)oi'tiiin8  of  1  of  the  foi'mer  to  3  of 
the  latter.  Grained  sheep,  or,  as  it  is 
railed,  imitation  morocco,  recpiires  more 
body  to  gild  well.  The  books  are  re.idy 
for  laying  on  aAer  an  oiled  iMg  has  been 
lightly  paused  over  the  surface  of  the 
leather,  to  cause  the  gold  to  adhere 
until  it  IS  put  under  the  j)ress.  The  gold 
leaf  is  cut  u[ion  the  cushion  to  the  re- 
quire<i  size,  or,  if  the  volume  is  large 
ind  the  stamjis  will  cover  its  sn|](Mli- 
cial  extent,  the  leaf  may  be  lifted  from 
the  gold  book  by  means  of  a  block  co- 
vered with  wadiiiug  or  cotton  lap,  and 
i-iid   immediately    upon    the  aide.     Ex- 


amine the  press  to  see  if  suiliciently 
heated  for  the  purpose.  A  little  expe- 
rience will  soon  determine  the  requisite 
amount  of  heat.  Leather  work  does  not 
require  as  hot  a  tool  for  stamping  as  for 
hand-work,  while  cloth  or  muslin-work 
requires  a  short,  quick  stroke,  and  the 
press  to  be  hotter  than  for  leather.  The 
stamping  press  is  heated  by  introducing 
steam  or  gas  through  ttibes  perforated 
for  the  purpose.  After  the  press  is 
properly  heated,  throw  back  the  lever  , 
take  out  the  pasteboard  from  under  the 
stamj) ;  regulate  the  degree  of  pressure 
required  for  the  stamp;  then  place  the 
side  to  be  stamjied  upon  the  bed-plate, 
holding  it  firmly  against  the  guides 
with  the  left  hand,  while  with  the  right 
the  lever  is  quickly  drawn  to  the  front. 
This  straightens  the  toggles,  and  causes 
a  sharp  impresssion  of  the  stamp  upon 
the  leather;  immediately  throw  back 
the  lever;  take  out  the  side,  and  rub 
otF  with  a  rag  the  superfiuous  gold. 

To  Gild  Writings  and  Drawings  on 
Paper  or  Parchment. — Letters  written  od 
vellum  or  paper  are  gilded  in  three  ways. 
In  the  first,  a  little  size  is  mixed  with 
the  ink,  and  the  letters  are  written  as 
usual  ;  when  they  are  dry,  a  slight  de- 
gree of  stickiness  is  j)roduced  by  breath- 
ing on  them,  ujion  which  the  gold  leaf 
is  immediately  apjilied,  and  by  a  little 
pressure  may  be  made  to  adhere  with 
suHicient  firmness.  In  the  second  me- 
thod, some  white-lead  or  chalk  is  ground 
up  with  strong  size,  and  the  letters  are 
made  with  this  by  means  of  a  brush; 
when  the  mixture  is  almost  dry,  the 
gold  leaf  may  be  laid  on,  and  afterwards 
burnished.  The  last  method  is  to  mix 
u|)  some  gold  powder  with  size,  and  to 
tbrm  the  letters  of  this  by  means  if  a 
brush. 

To  and  the  Edges  of  Paper.— The 
edges  of  the  leaves  of  books  and  letter* 
pajicr  are  gilded  whilst  in  a  horizontal 
position  in  the  bookbinder's  jiress,  by 
first  ajijilyiiig  a  com|)osition  formed  of 
four  parts  of  Armenian  bole,  and  one  of 
candied  sugar,  ground  together  with 
water  to  a  proper  consistence,  and  laid 
on  by  a  brush  with  the  white  of  an 
egg.     Tins  coating,  when  nearly  dry,  is 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


311 


Bmoothed  by  the  burnisher.  It  is  then 
slightly  moistened  by  a  sponge  dipped  in 
clean  water,  and  squeezed  in  the  hand. 
The  go'ji  leaf  is  now  taljen  up  on  a  piece 
of  cotton,  from  the  leathern  cushion,  and 
applied  on  the  moistened  surface.  When 
dry,  it  is  to  be  burnished  by  rubbing  the 
agate  over  it  repeatedly  from  end  to  end, 
taking  care  not  to  wound  the  surface  by 
the  point  of  the  burnislier.  A  piece  of 
silk  or  India  paper  is  usually  interposed 
between  the  gold  and  the  burnisher.  Cot- 
ton-wool is  generally  used  by  bookbinders 
to  take  the  leaf  up  from  the  cushion ; 
being  the  best  adapted  for  the  purpose 
on  account  of  its  pliability,  softness,  and 
slight  moistness.  2.  Screw  the  book  upas 
tightly  as  possible  between  boards  placed 
even  with  the  edges,  scrape  he  edges 
perfectly  smooth  with  a  steel  scraper, 
burnish  with  an  agate,  then  colour  over 
with  red  bole,  or  chalk  ground  in  soap, 
rub  immediately  dry  with  tine  clean 
paper  shavings  and  burnish  again.  The 
size,  pi'epared  by  well  beating  up  the 
white  of  an  egg,  with  three  times  the 
quantity  of  water,  must  then  be  applied 
evenly  with  a  large  camel-hair  pencil, 
and  the  gold  laid  on  with  a  tip.  When 
dry  burnish  carefully,  to  avoid  rubbing 
olf  the  gold.  If  it  is  desired  that  the 
edges  should  show  red  under  the  gold, 
first  colour  the  edges  with  vermilion 
mixed  with  glaire,  and  a  little  liquor 
ammoniae ;  when  dry,  moisten  with  a 
little  gold  size,  and  while  the  edge  is 
damp  lay  on  the  gold. 

To  Gild  Copper  by  Amalgam. — Im- 
merse a  very  clean  bright  piece  of  co]ijier 
in  a  diluted  solution  of  nitrate  of  mer- 
cury. By  the  affinity  of  copper  for  nitric 
acid,  the  mercury  will  be  precipitated; 
now  spread  the  amalgam  of  gold  rather 
thinly  over  the  coat  of  mercury  just 
given  to  the  copper.  This  coat  unites 
with  the  amalgam,  and  will  of  course 
remain  on  the  copper.  Now  place  the 
piece  operated  on  in  a  clear  oven  or  fur- 
nace, where  there  is  no  smoke.  If  the 
heat  is  a  little  greater  than  66  degrees, 
the  mercury  of  the  amalgam  will  be 
volatilized,  and  the  copper  will  be  beau- 
tifully gilt. 

Tq  Heighten  the  Colour  of  Yellow  Gold. 


— Six  oz.  saltpetre,  2  oz.  copperas,  1  oz. 
white  vitriol,  and  1  oz.  alum.  If  it  be 
wanted  redder,  a  small  portion  of  blue 
vitriol  must  be  added.  These  are  to  be 
well  mixed,  and  dissolved  in  water  as 
the  colour  is  wanted. 

To  Heighten  the  Colour  of  Green  Gold. — 
One  oz.  10  dwts.  saltpetre ;  1  oz.  4  dwts. 
sal  ammoniac ;  1  oz.  4  dwts.  Roman 
vitriol;  and  18  dwts.  verdigris.  Mix 
them  well  together,  and  dissolve  a  portion 
in  water  as  occasion  requires.  The  work 
must  be  dipped  in  these  comjiositions, 
applied  to  a  proper  heat  to  burn  them  off, 
and  then  quenched  in  water  or  vinegar. 

To  Heighten  the  Colour  of  Red  Gold. — ■ 
To  4  oz.  melted  yellow  wax,  add  1^  oz. 
red  ochre  in  fine  powder;  IJ  oz.  verdi» 
gris,  calcined  till  it  yields  no  fumes ; 
and  I  oz.  calcined  borax.  It  is  necessary 
to  calcine  the  verdigris,  or  elte,  by  the 
heat  applied  in  burning  the  wax,  the 
vinegar  becomes  so  concentrated  as  to 
corrode  the  surface,  and  make  it  appear 
speckled. 

To  Separate  Gold  from  Gilt  Copper  and 
Silver. — Apply  a  solution  of  borax,  in 
water,  to  the  gilt  surface,  with  a  tine 
brush,  and  sprinkle  over  it  some  fine 
powdered  sulphur.  Make  the  piece  red 
hot,  and  quench  it  in  water.  The  gold 
may  be  easily  wiped  off  with  a  scratch- 
brush,  an<l  recovered  by  testing  it  with 
lead.  Gold  is  taken  from  the  surface  of 
silver  by  spreading  over  it  a  paste,  made 
of  powdered  sal  ammoniac,  with  aqua- 
fortis, and  heating  it  till  the  matter 
smokes,  and  is  nearly  dry,  when  the  gold 
may  be  separated  by  rubbing  it  with  a 
scratch-brush. 

Gilding  on  Steel. — Dissolve  any  quan- 
tity of  gold  or  platina  in  nitro-muriatic 
acid,  until  no  etl'ervescence  is  occasioned 
by  the  application  of  heat.  Evapor:.te 
the  solution  of  gold  or  platina  thus 
formed  to  dryness  in  a  gentle  heat ;  and 
redissolve  the  dry  mass  in  as  little  water 
as  possible;  next  take  an  instrument 
which  is  used  by  chemists  fcr  dropping 
liquids,  known  by  the  name  of  a  sepa- 
rating funnel,  having  a  pear-shaped 
body,  tapering  to  a  fine  point,  and  a 
neck  capable  of  being  stopped  with  the 
finger  or  a  cork;    fill  it  with  tiie  liquid 


312 


WORKSHOP   RECEIpra. 


about  one  quarter  part;  and  tlie  other 
three  parts  most  be  filled  with  the  very 
best  sulphuric  ether.  If  this  is  rightly- 
managed,  the  two  liquids  will  not  mix. 
Then  place  the  tube  in  a  horizontal  po- 
sition, and  gently  turn  it  round  with  the 
finger  and  thumb.  The  ether  will  very 
soon  be  impregnated  with  the  platina  or 
gold,  which  may  be  known  by  its  change 
of  colour.  lieplace  it  m  a  perpendicular 
position,  and  let  it  rest  for  24-  iiours  ; 
having  first  stopped  the  upper  orifice 
with  a  small  cork.  The  liquid  will  then 
be  diyided  into  two  parts;  the  darkest 
coloured  being  underneath.  To  sei)arate 
them,  take  out  tlie  cork,  and  let  the  dark 
liquid  flow  out ;  when  it  has  disappeared, 
stop  the  tube  immediately  with  the  cork  ; 
and  what  remains  in  the  tube  is  the  gild- 
ing liquid.  Let  it  be  j)>it  into  a  buttle, 
and  tightly  corked.  \Vliea  an  article  is 
to  be  gilded,  a  vessel  of  glass  or  uuglazed 
ware  must  be  provided,  of  just  suUicient 
size  to  aduiit  the  article;  it  must  tiicn 
be  filled  with  the  gilding  liquid,  nearly 
to  the  top.  The  steel  must  be  very  highly 
poiished,  and  entirely  free  from  rust  or 
grease.  A  basin,  full  of  clean  water, 
must  be  ready  at  hand  ;  the  article  must 
be  immersed  into  the  gilding  li(iiiiii,  and 
quickly  removed  ;  then  quickly  plunged 
into  the  water,  and  well  rinsed  ;  it  must 
next  be  dried  with  blotting  paper,  and 
be  |ilaced  in  a  temperatui-e  of  1;">0°  Falir. 
till  it  be  completely  heated  throughout  ; 
it  may  then  be  p(dished  with  rouge  and 
a  soft  leather,  or  lie  burnished.  I'ure 
gold  must  be  employed.  The  ethereal 
solution  may  also  be  concentrated  by 
gentle  evaporation.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  wipe  the  steel  until  the  heat  has 
been  applied.  This  gibling  is  an  ell'cctual 
protection  agains-t  rust,  and  is  very  orna- 
mental. 

Gold  Leaf  for  Illumination. — For  illu- 
mination on  a  large  scale  ordinary  gild- 
ers' size  ciin  be  used  on  stout  ])aper. 
For  fine  work  or  wafer-matt,  gold  size  is 
usefisi,  but  not  easy  to  bring  to  a  smooth 
surface.  (Jlear  gum  arable,  used  as 
thickly  as  is  convenient  f<ir  tlw;  jiaint- 
bru-sh,  makes  a  good  ground  for  the  gold 
leaf.  The  ordinary  gilding  size  must 
be  left  till   it  is   tacky,  that   is,  all  but 


dry.  Having  seen  that  the  size  is  pro- 
perly tacky,  or  having  breathed  ou 
the  water  size  or  gum,  lay  the  gold  leaf 
on  the  work,  pressing  a  piece  of  slightly- 
greased  paper  gently  ou  with  the  fingtrs. 
In  a  few  minutes  take  up  the  paper 
rather  briskly  from  the  work,  and  it 
should  bring  away  all  superfluous  gold. 

Gold  Paper  -  hangings.  —  The  part 
which  is  to  show  the  gilt,  is  first  jirintea 
in  common  size  mixed  with  a  little 
water ;  when  dry,  rolled  up  and  reprinted 
in  gold  size,  and  as  it  is  being  printed 
the  piece  is  drawn  out  from  the  table 
into  a  trough,  techuically  called  a  drum, 
and  then  the  metal,  which  is  Chinese 
bronze,  is  slightly  laid  over  the  surface, 
and  the  drum  tapped  underneath  with  a 
common  cane,  which  causes  the  metal  to 
adhere  to  the  gold  size  ;  it  is  then  care- 
fully drawn  out  of  the  drum  and  hung 
up  till  dry,  tlien  rolled  up;  to  improve 
the  a])pearance,  the  hangings  are  [jassed 
between  two  embossing  rollers,  which 
give  the  tinishing  touch. 

Silvering  Looking--glasses. — 
Tiie  metal  used  is  quicksilver.  The 
substance  employed  to  make  the  mer- 
cury or  quicksilver  adliere  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  glass  is  tin-toil,  as  thin  as 
paper,  and  which  has  a  strong  attrac- 
tion for  mercury.  A  iliup  of  mercury 
combines  with  the  tin-foil,  and  they 
become  one  substance,  which  adheres 
pretty  firmly  to  glass.  The  glass  to  be 
silvered  is  made  perfectly  clean  ou  both 
sides,  particularly  ou  that  which  is  to 
be  silvered.  Jf  the  slightest  speck  ot 
dirt  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  sur- 
face, it  will  appear  very  conspicuous 
when  the  glass  is  silvered.  The  tin-foil 
is  generally  made  in  sheets  about  (j  ft» 
long  and  of  various  widths,  varying  from 
10  in.  uji  to  40,  tiie  diversity  of  widths 
being  to  enable  the  silverer  to  cut  out 
small  pieces  suitable  to  various-sized 
glasses.  For  larger  sizes,  the  foil  is 
generally  made  to  order,  and  of  a  greater 
thickness  than  for  smaller  glasses.  A 
sheet  of  tin-foil  being  unrolled,  is  laid 
down  Hat,  and  cut  to  tlie  same  shape  as 
the  glass,  but  an  inch  lajger  each  way. 
It  is  then  laid  down  as  smoothly  ns  po.n- 
sible  on  the  silvering  stone,  wiiich  is  a 


WOnKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


313 


?ery  large  and  carefully-prepared  slab 
of  slate,  porphyry,  or  marble,  perfectly 
flat  aud  smooth.  The  foil  is  worked  out 
level  and  smooth  on  the  silvering  stone 
by  means  of  a  smooth  wooden  roller, 
which  js  worked  over  it  in  every  di- 
rection. The  silverer  pours  some  mer- 
cury into  a  wooden  bowl,  and  then,  by 
means  of  an  iron  ladle,  pours  the  mer- 
cury over  the  whole  surface  of  the  foil 
til!  every  part  is  covered.  The  glass 
jilate  is  then  laid  upon  the  liquid  mer- 
cury; but  it  is  not  laid  at  once  flat 
down  on  it,  being  made  to  slide  on  the 
edge  of  the  glass  first  coming  in  contact 
with  the  mercury.  As  it  is  slid  along, 
it  pushes  before  it  the  greater  part  of 
the  mercury,  because  the  edge  of  the 
glass  almost  scrapes  along  the  foil  as  it 
passes,  that  all  air-bubbles  and  impuri- 
ties may  be  pushed  off,  allowing  only  a 
thin  film  of  very  pure  mercury  to  i-e- 
main  between  the  glass  and  the  foil. 
In  this  much  care  and  delicacy  are  re- 
quired. It  is  a  matter  of  some  ditficulty 
to  clean  the  glass  so  perfectly  as  not  to 
show  any  marks  or  streaks  after  it  is 
silvered.  It  is  often  necessaiy  to  re- 
move it  from  the  foil  two  or  three 
times  after  it  has  been  laid  down,  to 
wipe  off  specks  of  dirt  which  are  visible 
when  the  glass  is  silvered,  however 
difficult  of  detection  they  may  pre- 
viously be;  this  is  especially  the  case 
in  damp  weather.  This  renders  it  ne- 
cessary that  the  foils  for  large  glass, 
which  necessarily  require  a  longer  time 
than  small  ones  to  perform  the  different 
processes,  should  be  thicker  than  those 
for  smaller;  for  such  is  the  attraction 
between  the  mercury  and  the  foil,  that 
if  a  glass,  after  having  been  removed  for 
further  cleaning,  is  not  speedily  re- 
placed on  tne  mercury,  the  latter  will 
v?ombine  with  the  foil,  aud  give  it  a  rot- 
tenness which  will  prevent  its  adhesion 
to  the  glass;  the  thicker  the  foil,  the 
less  this  is  likely  to  occur.  When  the 
glass  is  properly  placed  on  the  tin-foil, 
and  it  is  ascertained  that  all  specks  and 
air-bubbles  are  removed,  it  is  covered 
almost  in  every  part  by  heavy  iron  or 
leaden  weights ;  so  that  a  large  glass 
'^•lll  have  severa'  hundredweight  press- 


ing upon  it.  This  pressure  is  to  force 
out  from  between  the  glass  and  the  foil 
as  much  mercury  as  possible,  so  that 
the  thinnest  film  only  shall  remain  be- 
tween them.  To  effect  this  more  com- 
pletely, the  silvering  stone  is  made  to  rest 
on  a  swivel  underneath,  by  which  it  can 
be  made  either  perfectly  horizontal,  or 
thrown  into  an  inclined  position.  While 
the  glass  is  being  laid  on  the  foil,  the 
silvering  stone  is  horizontal,  to  prevent 
the  mercury  from  flowing  olF;  but  when 
the  superfluous  mercury  is  to  be  drained 
off,  the  stone  is  made  to  assume  an 
inchned  position,  so  as  to  ensure  one 
general  direction  for  the  flow  of  the 
mercury.  A  hollow  groove  runs  round 
the  sides  of  the  stone,  into  which  the 
mercury  flows  as  it  is  forced  out  from 
between  the  glass  and  the  foil.  A 
pipe,  descending  from  one  corner  of 
this  trough,  conveys  the  mercury  into  .\ 
bottle  placed  beneath  to  receive  it.  Al- 
though an  immense  weight  of  mercury 
must  be  poured  on  the  foil  for  the  silver- 
ing of  a  large  glass,  yet  the  quantity 
wliich  actually  remains  between  the  glass 
and  the  foil  is  extremely  small.  The 
glass,  with  the  weights  upon  it,  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  inclined  position  for 
several  hours,  or,  if  the  glass  is  large,  it 
is  allowed  to  remain  until  the  nest  day, 
in  order  that  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
mercury  may  be  pressed  out  before  the 
weights  are  removed.  On  the  removal 
of  the  weights,  one  end  of  the  glass  is 
tilted  up  and  supported  by  blocks,  the 
other  end  still  remaining  on  the  stone. 
A  piece  of  foil  is  then  laid  on  the  lowest 
corner,  to  draw  off  the  mercury  which 
collects  in  a  little  pool  at  the  bottom  of 
the  glass.  In  this  state  the  glass  re- 
mains from  a  few  hours  to  3  or  4  days, 
according  to  its  size.  When  as  much  of 
the  mercury  as  possible  has  drained  from 
the  glass  in  this  way,  the  glass  is  taken 
up,  when  it  is  found  that  the  two 
metals  have  combined  together,  aud  in 
the  combined  state  adhere  to  the  glass, 
which  neither  the  one  nor  the  other 
would  have  done  separately.  The  re- 
moval of  the  glass  from  the  stone  is  ef- 
fected in  different  ways,  according  to  its 
size.     If  it  is  not  too  wide  for  the  arm- 


314 


WORKSHOP   UECKIWS. 


A]Mn  of  the  silverer,  he  takes  it  by  the 
two  edges,  lifts  it  from  the  stone,  and 
places  it  edgeways  on  a  shelf  or  on  the 
door  of  the  silvering  room,  resting  its 
upper  edge  against  the  wail,  and  allow- 
ing one  corner  to  be  lower  than  the  rest, 
so  as  to  facilitate  the  draining  towards 
that  corner.  If  the  glass  is  long  and 
narrow,  two  men  take  it  u  instead  of 
one,  but  in  the  same  manner.  If,  how- 
ever, the  glass  is  very  large,  the  follow- 
ing mode  is  sometimes  adopted.  The 
draining  room  is  situated  beneath  the 
silvering  room,  and  an  opening  in  the 
floor  of  the  latter  is  so  arranged  that  a 
portion  of  the  silvering  table  can  be  let 
down  through  it,  on  account  of  its  faci- 
lity of  motion  round  the  swivel.  By  a 
gradual  turning  of  the  silvering  table, 
the  stone  and  tlie  glass  upon  it  can  be 
brought  into  a  nearly  perpendicular  posi- 
tion. In  this  position  of  the  glass,  seve- 
ral men  in  the  lower  room  grasp  it  by 
the  edges,  and  place  it  against  the  wall 
of  the  room,  where  it  is  letl  to  drain. 
When  the  plate  is  thus  placed  agamst  the 
wall  of  the  room,  it  is  left  to  drain  for  a 
time,  varying  from  one  day  to  several 
days,  according  to  its  size,  in  order  that 
any  remaining  superfluous  mercury  may 
leave  it,  and  that  the  foil  may  become 
still  better  attached  to  the  surface  of  the 
glass.  When  the  draining  appears  to  be 
complete,  the  glass  is  ready  to  be  apjilied 
to  its  intended  purpose.  The  above  is 
the  process  for  silvering  plate  glass.  But 
there  is  an  imjiortant  reason  why  com- 
mon glass,  used  for  cheaper  ])urposes, 
such  as  the  inferior  sort  of  dressing- 
glasses,  cannot  be  silvered  in  this  way  ; 
for  any  heavy  pressm^e  on  such  glass 
breaks  it  at  once,  on  account  of  its  thin- 
ness and  crookedness.  These  common 
glasses,  which  are  always  small  in  size, 
are  not  silvered  on  a  stone,  but  on  a 
board  or  flat  box.  The  foil  is  cut  to  the 
requisite  size,  and  laid  on  the  bonrd  and 
covered  with  mi'rcury,  as  in  the  former 
instance.  But  iitstead  of  slimng  the  glass 
on  to  the  mercury,  a  piece  of  clean  pajier 
in  laid  ou  the  mercury,  and  the  gbiss  is 
Iniil  on  the  paper.  The  silvcn-r  nnw, 
laying  one  hand  pretty  firmly  on  the 
gl  iss,  takes  hold  of  the  edge  of  the  paper 


with  the  other,  and  by  a  quick  motion, 
draws  out  the  paper  from  between  the 
glass  and  the  foil,  and  with  it  the  greater 
ji.irt  of  the  mercury,  together  with  air- 
bubbles  and  inii)urities, — leaving  the 
glass  resting  on  a  thin  but  brilliant  rilm 
of  mercury ;  this  is  a  process  requiring 
much  manual  dexterity.  The  common 
glass  enij)loyed  for  these  purposes  is 
always  irregularly  bent  at  its  surfaces  ; 
it  is  a  general  rule  to  silver  the  concave 
side,  when  one  side  is  more  concave  than 
the  other.  The  crown  glass  now  made 
is  better  than  that  which  was  produced 
a  few  years  ago,  and  although  it  is  al- 
ways curved,  yet  the  curvature  is  pretty 
nearly  the  same  in  dilferent  tables  from 
the  same  crate.  This  circumstance  as- 
sists the  silverer,  for  each  silvered  glass 
acts  as  a  weight  to  another  of  the  same 
size.  It  is  usual  to  silver  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  same  size  at  the  same  time  ; 
and  as  each  one  is  silvered,  it  is  placed 
flat  down  on  a  shelf,  or  in  a  shallow  box  ; 
and  on  it  the  others  are  successively  laid 
as  they  are  silvered.  The  concave  side 
of  each  is  silvered,  aud  as  the  coucjivi^y 
is  nearly  equal  in  all,  each  one  helps  to 
press  out  the  superfluous  mercury  iVom 
the  one  beneath  it.  The  silvering  in 
common  glasses  is  seldom  foun<I  to  be  so 
perfect  as  on  plate  glass,  from  the  im- 
possibility of  giving  equal  pressure  in 
every  part. 

Silvering  Cheap  Looking  -  glasses.  — 
Place  a  sheet  of  glass,  previously  washed 
clean  with  water,  on  a  talile, aud  rub  th« 
whole  surface  with  a  rubber  of  cotton, 
wetted  with  ilistilled  water,  and  after- 
wards with  a  solution  of  Kochelle  salts  in 
ilistilled  water,  1  of  salt  to  'JOO  of  water. 
Then  take  r.  solution,  previously  pre- 
jiared  by  adding  nitrate  of  silver  to  am- 
monia of  commerce ;  the  silver  being 
gradually  ailded  until  a  brown  precipi- 
tate commences  to  be  proilucud ;  the 
solution  is  then  filtered.  For  each  square 
yard  of  glass  take  as  much  of  the  above 
solution  as  contains  20  grammes,  about 
.'(09  grains,  of  silver,  and  to  this  add  as 
much  of  a  solution  of  f{ii(-li<-lle  salt  as 
contains  14  grammes  of  salt,  ami  the 
strength  of  the  latter  solution  should  he 
so  adjusted  to  that  of  the  silver  vulution 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


815 


that  the  total  sseight  of  the  mixture 
above  mentioned  may  be  60  grammes. 
In  a  minute  or  two  after  the  mixture  is 
made  it  becomes  turbid,  and  it  is  then 
Immediately  to  be  poured  over  the  sur- 
face cf  the  glass,  which  has  previously 
been  placed  on  a  perfectly  horizontal 
table,  but  the  plate  is  blocked  up  at  ooe 
end,  to  give  it  an  inclination  about  1 
in  40 ;  the  liquid  is  then  poured  on  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  distribute  it  over 
the  whole  surface  without  allowing  it  to 
escape  at  the  edges.  \Vhen  this  is  etlected, 
the  plate  is  placed  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion at  a  temperature  of  about  68°  Fahr. 
The  silver  will  begin  to  appear  in  about 
2  minutes,  and  in  about  20  or  30  minutes 
sufficient  silver  will  be  deposited.  The 
mixture  is  then  poured  off  the  plate,  and 
the  silver  it  contains  afterwards  reco- 
vered. The  surface  is  then  washed  four 
or  five  times,  and  the  plate  set  up  to  dry. 
When  dry,  the  plate  is  varnished,  by 
pouring  over  it  a  varnish  composed  of 
gum  dammar,  20  parts  ;  asphalt  or  bitu- 
men, 5  ;  gutta-percha,  5 ;  and  benzme, 
75.  This  varnish  will  set  hard  on  the 
glass,  and  the  plate  is  then  ready  for  use. 

Partially  Resilcering  Pier  Glass.  — 
Remove  the  silvering  from  the  injured 
part,  clean  the  glass,  form  a  wall  of 
beeswax  round  the  spot,  pour  on  it  some 
nitrate  of  silver,  and  precipitate  the 
silver  by  sugar,  or  oil  of  cloves  and 
spirits  of  wine.  This  does  not  leave  a 
white  mark  round  the  prepared  place. 

Silver inq  Curved  Glass. — This  is  a 
French  process,  used  not  only  for  flat 
turfaces,  but  also  for  those  which  are 
curved,  or  cut  into  patterns.  Dissolve 
000  grains  of  neutral  nitrate  of  silver  in 
1200  grains  of  distilled  water,  add  73 
drops  of  a  solution  composed  of  25  parts 
of  distilled  water,  10  of  sesquicarbonate 
i)f  ammonia,  and  10  of  ammonia,  sp. 
l^T  ,  980 ;  add  also  30  grains  of  ammonia, 
s.ime  sp.  gr.,  and  1800  grains  of  alcohol 
sp.  gr.  *85.  When  clear,  the  liquor  is 
decanted  or  filtered,  and  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  alcohol  and  oil  of  cassia  added 
to  the  silver  solution  in  the  pi-opor- 
Vioa  of  1  of  the  essence  of  cassia  to  15 
of  the  silver  solution ;  the  mixture  is 
agitated  and  left  to  settle,  then  filtered. 


Before  pouring  upon  the  glass  sixrface  of 
into  the  glass  vessel  to  be  silvered,  the 
solution  is  mixed  with  l-78th  its  bulk  of 
essence  of  cloves,  1  part  oil  of  cloves, 
3  parts  alcohol.  The  glass  is  thoroughly 
cleaned,  and  the  silver  solution  applied 
and  warmed  to  100°  Fahr.  for  about 
3  hours ;  the  liquid  is  poured  off,  and 
the  silver  deposit  washed,  dried,  and 
varnished. 

Silvering  Glass,  Drayton's  Process. — 
A  mixture  is  made  of  1  oz.  of  coarsely 
pulverized  nitrate  of  silver,  J  oz.  spirits 
of  hartshorn,  and  2  oz.  of  water ;  which, 
after  standing  for  24-  hours,  is  filtered, 
the  deposit  upon  the  filter,  which  is 
silver,  being  preseinred,  and  an  addition 
is  made  thereto  of  3  oz.  of  spirits  of  wine, 
at  60°  above  pi'oof,  or  naphtha  ;  from  20 
to  30  drops  of  oil  of  cassia  are  then  added  ; 
and,  after  remaining  for  about  6  houis 
longer,  the  solution  is  ready  for  use. 
The  glass  to  be  silvered  with  this  sohi 
tion  must  have  a  clean  and  polished  sur- 
face ;  it  is  to  be  placed  in  a  horizontal 
position,  and  a  wall  of  putty  or  other 
suitable  material  formed  around  it,  so 
that  the  solution  may  cover  the  surface 
of  the  glass  to  the  depth  of  from  i 
to  i  of  an  inch.  After  the  solution  has 
been  poured  on  the  glass,  from  6  to  12 
drops  of  a  mixture  of  oil  of  cloves  and 
spirits  of  wine,  in  the  proportion  of  1 
part,  by  measure,  of  oil  of  cloves  to  3 
of  spirits  of  wine,  are  dropped  into  it  at 
different  places ;  or  the  diluted  oil  of 
cloves  may  be  mixed  with  the  solution 
before  it  is  poured  upon  the  glass  ;  the 
more  oil  of  cloves  used,  the  more  rapid 
will  be  the  deposition  of  the  silver  ;  but 
the  operation  should  occupy  about  2 
hours.  When  the  required  deposit  has 
been  obtained,  the  solution  is  poured  off; 
and  as  soon  as  the  silver  on  the  glass  is 
perfectly  dry,  it  is  varnished  with  a  com- 
position formed  by  melting  together 
equal  quantities  of  beeswax  and  tallow. 
The  solution,  after  being  poured  off,  is 
allowed  to  stand  for  3  or  4  days,  in  a 
close  vessel,  as  it  still  contains  silver,  and 
may  be  again  employed  after  filtration, 
and  the  addition  of  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  fresh  ingredients  to  supply  the  place 
of  those  which  have  been  used.  AlxMt  1 8 


316 


WORKSHOP   RECEIITS. 


grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  are  used  for 
each  square  foot  of  glass ;  but  the 
quantity  of  spirit  varies  somewhat,  as 
its  evaporation  depends  upon  the  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
duration  of  the  process.  By  the  addition 
of  a  small  quantity  of  oil  of  carraway  or 
thyme,  the  colour  of  the  silver  may  be 
varied.  The  oil  of  cassia  purchased  of 
different  manufacturers  varies  in  quality  ; 
therefore  on  being  mixed  with  tlie  solu- 
tion it  must  be  filtered  previous  to 
use. 

Silvering  Large  Mirrors  for  Photogra- 
phy.—  Dissolve  150  grains  of  nitrate 
of  silver  in  6  oz.  of  distilled  water, 
and  to  this  add  ammonia,  drop  by  drop, 
until  the  precipitate  at  first  thrown 
down  is  redi.ssolved.  Now,  having  made 
a  solution  of  caustic  potasii,  in  the  pro- 
jiortion  of  2  J  oz.  of  the  potash  to  5U  oz. 
of  water,  add  15  oz.  of  this  to  the  above 
solution  of  silver;  and  add  ammonia  as 
before,  until  the  deep-brown  precipitate 
again  tlirown  down  is  reJissolved.  Now 
add  29  oz.  of  distilled  water,  after  which 
allow  some  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
to  be  drop])ed  in,  gently  stirring  all  the 
while  with  a  glass  rod,  until  a  precijii- 
tate  begins  to  be  formed.  Previous  to 
the  immersion  of  the  glass  to  be  silvered, 
dissolve  1  oz.  of  sugar  of  milk  in  10  oz. 
of  water.  This  must  be  filtered  and 
kept  in  a  separate  bottle.  Have  ready  a 
clean  glass  vessel  of  a  size  sufficient  to 
contain  the  glass  plate  to  be  silvered ; 
when  everything  is  ready,  mi.\  together 
the  silver  solution  with  that  of  the  sugar 
of  milk,  in  the  proportion  of  10  of  the 
former  to  1  of  the  latter.  Lower  the 
glass  down  in  the  solution  until  it  is  a 
little  distance  from  the  bottom,  and  allow 
it  to  remain  there  for  a  period  of  time, 
varying  from  15  minutes  to  4  hours, 
according  to  the  thickness  of  the  coating 
of  silver  desired.  After  removing  it 
from  the  bath,  wash  with  distilled  water, 
and,  when  dry,  polish  by  means  of  a  soft 
pad  of  cotton-velTB.*,  cliargi-d  with  rouge. 
An  intensely  brilliant  surface  may  be 
thus  obtained  on  both  sides  of  the  glass 
plate.  Make  a  3-grain  solution  of  am- 
nionio  -  nitrate  of  silver.  Kcn<ler  it 
•lightly  turbid   by  excess  of  nitrate  of 


silver,  and  then  filter  it.  Just  before 
using  it  add  to  each  ounce  of  the  fore- 
going solution  2J  grains  of  Rochelle  salt, 
immerse  the  glass  as  before,  and  eipose 
to  a  subdued  light  while  it  remains  in 
the  bath.  In  about  2  hours  the  deposit 
of  silver  will  be  sufficiently  thick. 

Silvering  Mirrors. — Ten  grains  nf 
pure  nitrate  of  silver  to  1  oz.  of  distilled 
water;  add  carefully,  drop  by  dro]), 
strong  ammonia,  until  the  brown  preci- 
pitate is  redissolved.  When  adding  the 
ammonia  keep  stirring  with  a  glass  rod. 
In  another  bottle  make  a  solution  of  10 
grains  of  pure  crystallized  Rochelle  salt 
to  1  oz.  of  distilled  water;  then,  when 
you  have  all  ready,  pour  on  sufficient  to 
cover  all  the  glass,  using  two-thirds  of 
tlie  silver  solution,  and  one-third  of  the 
liuthelle  salt.  The  mirror  can  be  pre- 
pared well  by  cleaning  it  with  a  little 
wet  rouge,  and  polished  dry  with  a 
wash-leather;  then  warm  the  glass  before 
the  fire,  or  by  letting  it  lie  in  tlie  sun, 
to  about  70  or  80°.  Pour  on  the  solution 
as  described  above,  and  let  it  stand  in  the 
warm  sunshine  half  an  hour  or  an  hour. 
Wlien  silvered,  pour  on  it  some  clean  soft 
or  distilled  water,  and  while  still  wet 
wipe  it  very  gently  all  over  with  a  little 
soft  wadding,  wet;  this  will  take  off  all 
the  roughness,  so  that  it  will  fake  but 
little  rubbing  with  the  rouge  leather  to 
polish  it.  When  iioifectly  dry  it  is  easily 
rubbed  up  to  any  exquisite  polish. 

To  Silver  Glass  Si'ECL'LA. — Prepare 
three  standard  solutions.  Solution  A — 
Crystals  of  nitrate  of  silver,  90  grains; 
distilled  water,  4  oz. ;  dissolve.  Solu- 
tion L5 — Potassa,  pure  by  alcohol,  1  oz. ; 
distilled  water,  25  oz. ;  dissolve.  Solu- 
tion C — Milk-sugar,  in  jiowder,  J  oz.  ; 
distilled  water,  5  oz.  Solutions  A  and  B 
will  keep  in  stoppered  bottles  for  any 
length  of  time;  solution  C  must  be 
fresh. 

The  Silvering  Fluid. — To  jirepare  suf- 
ficient for  silvering  an  8-in.  speculum, 
jiour  2  oz.  of  solution  A  into  a  glass  ves- 
sel capable  of  holding  35  oz.  Add,  drop 
by  drop,  stirring  all  the  time  with  a  glass 
rod,  as  much  liquid  ammonia  as  is  just 
necessary  to  olttain  a  clear  solution  of  the 
grey  precipitate  first  thrown  down.  Add 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


317 


4  oz.  of  solution  B.  The  brown-black 
precipitate  formed  must  be  just  redis- 
solved  by  the  addition  of  more  ammonia, 
as  before.  Add  distilled  water,  until  the 
bulk  reaches  15  oz.,  and  add,  drop  by 
drop,  some  of  solution  A,  until  a  grey 
precipitate,  which  does  not  redissolve 
after  stirring  for  three  minutes,  is  ob- 
tained ;  then  add  15  oz.  more  of  distilled 
water.  Set  this  solution  aside  to  settle. 
Do  not  filter.  When  all  is  ready  for  im- 
mersing the  mirror,  add  to  the  silvering 
solution  2  oz.  of  solution  C,  and  stir 
gently  and  thoroughly.  Solution  C  may 
be  filtered. 

To  Prepare  the  Speculum. — Procure  a 
circular  block  of  wood,  2  inches  thick, 
and  2  inches  less  in  diameter  than  the 
speculum.  Into  this  should  be  screwed 
three  eye-pins,  at  equal  distances.  To 
these  pins  fasten  stout  whipcord,  making 
a  secure  loop  at  the  top.  Melt  some  pitch 
in  any  convenient  vessel,  and,  having 
placed  the  wooden  block,  face  upwards, 
on  a  level  table,  pour  on  it  the  fluid  pitch, 
and  on  the  pitch  place  the  back  of  the 
speculum,  having  previously  moistened 
it  with  a  little  spirits  of  turpentine,  to 
secure  adhesion.  Let  the  whole  rest  until 
the  pitch  is  cold. 

To  Clean  the  Speculum. — Place  the 
speculum,  cemented  to  the  circular  block, 
face  upwards,  on  a  level  table  ;  pour  on 
it  a  small  quantity  of  strong  nitric  acid, 
and  rub  it  gently  all  over  the  surface 
with  a  brush  made  by  pluggmg  a  glass 
tube  with  pure  cotton-wool.  Having 
perfectly  cleaned  the  surface  and  sides, 
wash  well  with  common  water,  and 
finally  with  distilled  water.  Place  the 
speculum,  face  downwards,  in  a  dish  con- 
taining a  little  rectified  spirits  of  wine, 
until  the  silvering  fluid  is  ready. 

Silvering  Glass  Globes. — 1.  Take 
ij  oz.  of  clean  lead,  and  melt  it  with  an 
equal  weight  of  pure  tin ;  then  imme- 
diately add  5  oz.  of  bismuth,  and  carefully 
skim  off  the  dross  ;  remove  the  alloy  from 
the  fire,  and  before  it  grows  cold  add  5  oz. 
of  mercury,  and  stir  the  whole  well  to- 
gether ;  then  put  the  fluid  amalgam  into 
E  clean  glass,  and  it  is  fit  for  use.  When 
this  amalgam  is  used  for  silvering,  let  it 
im  P.rst  sfniined   through  a  linen   rag; 


then  gently  pour  some  ounces  thereof 
into  the  globe  intended  to  be  silvered : 
the  alloy  should  be  poured  into  the  globe 
by  means  of  a  paper  or  glass  funnel 
reaching  almost  to  the  bottom  of  tiie 
globe,  to  prevent  its  splashing  the  sides ; 
the  globe  should  be  turned  every  way  verj 
slowly,  to  fasten  the  silvering.  2.  Make 
an  alloy  of  3  oz.  of  lead,  2  oz.  of  tin.  and 
5  oz.  of  bismuth  ;  put  a  portion  of  this 
alloy  into  the  globe,  and  expose  it  to  a 
gentle  heat  until  the  compound  is  melted ; 
it  melts  at  197°  Fahr. ;  then  by  turning 
the  globe  slowly  round  an  equal  coating 
may  be  laid  on,  which,  when  cold,  hardens 
and  firmly  adheres.  This  is  one  of  the 
cheapest  and  most  durable  methods  of 
silvering  glass  globes  internally.  3.  Ni- 
trate of  silver,  1  oz. ;  distilled  water,  1 
pint ;  strong  liquor  ammonia,  sulficient 
quantity,  added  very  gradually,  to  first 
precipitate  and  then  redissolve  the  sil- 
ver; then  add  honey,  |  oz.  Put  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  this  solution  in  the 
globe,  and  then  place  the  globe  in  a 
saucepan  of  water ;  boil  it  for  10  to 
30  minutes,  occasionally  removing  it 
to  see  the  effect. 

Silvering  Brass. — 1.  Take  J  lb.  of  cy- 
anide of  potassium  and  J  oz.  of  nitrate  oi 
silver;  dissolve  all  the  cyanide  in  16  oz. 
of  distilled  or  boiled  water,  and  the  silver 
in  a  similar  quantity  in  another  vessel. 
Into  the  vessel  containing  the  silver 
throw  a  spoonful  of  common  salt ;  stir 
this  up  well  with  a  clean  piece  of  wood 
and  let  it  settle ;  dissolve  some  salt  in 
water,  and  after  the  silver  solution  is 
settled  mix  a  few  drops  of  the  salt  water 
in  it.  If  there  is  any  cloudiness  formed 
it  proves  that  all  the  silver  is  not  thrown 
down,  and  more  salt  must  be  added,  and 
then  stir  and  allow  to  settle.  If  the  addi- 
tion of  salt  water  has  no  effect,  the  water 
may  be  decanted  off",  carefully  preserving 
the  white  deposit.  Now  pour  some  boil- 
ing water  on  this  deposit;  let  it  settle, 
and  pour  oft'  as  before.  Do  this  at  least 
three  times  ;  pour  off  as  dry  as  possible, 
and  add  about  a  pint  of  clean  water,  and 
then,  by  J  oz.  at  a  time,  the  cyanide  so- 
lution, till  all  the  white  precipitate  is 
dissolved;  add  enough  water  to  make 
half  a    ('allon.       Stir   well    after    each 


818 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


addition  of  cyanide  solution.  If  on 
dipping  the  article,  which  must  be  well 
cleaned  with  brick-dust  and  water,  into 
this  solution  the  silver  deposits  on  im- 
mediately and  in  a  dark  powder,  it  must 
be  weakened  by  adding  more  water;  if 
it  coats  slowly,  more  white  precipitate 
must  be  prepared,  washed,  and  added  to 
it.  This  must  also  be  done  when  the 
solution  is  getting  short  of  silvej-.  It 
works  best  at  about  60  or  70  degrees  of 
heat ;  a  dry,  warm  room  suits  the  opera- 
tion. Brass  and  copper  only  can  be  sil- 
vered ;  other  metals  require  a  battery. 
This  method  gives  a  beautit'ul  result 
when  the  work  is  polished  and  burnished. 
2.  Clean  the  articles  thoroughly,  aud 
then  immerse  them  for  a  few  seconds  in 
a  solution  of  cyanide  of  silver,  which  will 
plate  them  without  any  further  trouble. 

Silvering  for  Barometkr  and 
Thermomkter  Scales. — Take  ^  oz.  of 
nitrate  of  silver;  dissolve  in  half  a  tea- 
cupful  of  cold  water;  add  J  lb.  of  cream 
of  tartar,  with  IJ  lb.  of  common  salt, 
beaten  or  ground  fine.  Mix  and  stir  well 
together,  adding  water  until  it  attains 
the  consistence  of  a  thick  paste.  Now  lay 
the  sciile  on  a  board,  the  brass  or  cojjper 
being  previously  well  cleaned  and  cast 
ofl'  from  tine  saud-paper;  rub  the  silver- 
ing on  with  your  hand  until  it  attains 
the  appearance  of  silver,  which  will  be 
a  minute  or  so;  now  take  the  work 
ofl'  the  board  and  rub  a  little  wet  whit- 
ing over  it,  wash  out  in  clean  cold  water, 
aud  dry  iu  saw-dust.  If  varnished  with 
a  thiu  co.il  of  white  hard  varnish,  re- 
duced in  spirits  of  wine,  this  will  last 
for  years.  The  above  quantity  of  sil- 
vering used  with  care  will  silver  si.x 
dozen  breweru'  thennonieters,  14  in. 
'ong. 

Oxidizimj  Silver  Articles.  —  Oxidize 
silver-plated  articles  by  dissolving  sul- 
phate of  copjier,  2  dwts. ;  nitrate  of  pot- 
ash, 1  dwt. ;  and  muriate  of  ammonia,  2 
dwts.;  in  a  little  acetic  acid.  Aj>|ily 
with  a  camel-hair  pencil ;  but  warm  the 
article  first,  and  ex])ose  the  article  to  the 
fumes  of  sulj.^ur  in  a  closed  box  ;  the 
parts  not  to  be  coloured  must  be  coated 
vifh  wax. 

Silvering  PowcUr. — Take  40  grams  of 


silver  dust ;  cream  of  tartar,  3  drams ; 
common  salt,  2;  and  40  grains  of  powder 
of  alum.  Polish  any  silver  articles  with 
this  powder  and  a  soft  leather. 

Silvering  Powder  for  Coating  Copper. — 
Nitrate  of  silver,  30  grains ;  common 
salt,  30 ;  cream  of  tartar,  3J  drams. 
Jlix,  moisten  with  water,  and  apply. 

Silvering  by  Heat. — Dissolve  1  oz.  oi 
silver  in  nitric  acid ;  add  a  small  quan- 
tity of  salt ;  then  wash  it  and  add  sal 
ammoniac,  or  6  oz.  of  salt  and  white 
vitriol ;  also  J  of  an  ounce  of  corrosive 
sublimate;  rub  them  together  till  they 
form  a  paste.  Kub  the  piece  whic^h  is 
to  be  silvered  with  the  paste,  heat  it  till 
the  silver  runs,  after  which  dip  it  in  a 
weak  vitriol  pickle  to  clean  it. 

Mixture  for  Silvering. — Dissolve  2  oz. 
of  silver  with  3  grains  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate ;  add  tartaric  acid,  4  lb. ;  salt,  8 
quarts. 

Platcnizing  Silver. — Place  some  plati- 
num in  a  small  quantity  of  aqua-rogia 
or  nitro-muriatic  acid,  and  keep  it  in  a 
warm  place  a  few  days,  it  will  dissolve. 
As  soon  as  it  has  dissolved,  evaporate  t-he 
liquid  at  a  gentle  heat  until  it  is  as  thick 
as  honey,  so  as  to  get  rid  of  the  excess  of 
the  nitric  and  muriatic  acids.  Add  a 
little  water,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  A 
dozen  drops  of  this  solution  goes  a  long 
way  in  platenizing  silver.  The  opera- 
tion is  performed  in  a  small  glass  or 
beaker,  covered  with  a  watch-glass  to 
keep  in  the  fumes,  and  placed  in  a  little 
sand  in  a  saucer,  to  ei|ualize  tlie  heat. 

Varnished  Silver  Leaf. —  Use  first,  pre- 
pared ox-gall;  next,  isinglass;  then, 
alum,  to  kill  the  former;  finish  with 
hard  white  lac. 

Nitrate  of  Silver. — 1.  Add  silver  to 
nitric  acid,  jueviouslj  diluted  witii  twice 
its  weight  of  water,  in  a  flask,  aihl  ajiply 
a  gentle  heat  until  the  metal  is  dissolved; 
the  clear  liquor  is  then  separated  from 
any  black  powder  whi<'h  may  be  present, 
evaporated,  and  cry  stall  izeil.  The  crys- 
tals are  dried  by  exjiosure  to  the  air, 
taking  care  that  they  do  not  come  in 
contact  with  any  organic  substance.  2. 
Dissolve  the  silver  in  pure  nitric  ftcid 
anil  evaporate.  The  nitrate  is  yielded 
in   square   anhydrous   tables.       Dissolve 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


319 


this  in  distilled  water,  filter,  and  evapo- 
rate again,  and  the  nitrate  is  obtained 
pure. 

To  Separate  Silver  from  Copper. — Mis 
sulphuric  acid,  1  part ;  nitric  acid,  1  ; 
water,  1 ;  boil  the  metal  in  the  mixture 
till  it  is  dissolved,  and  throw  in  a  little 
salt  to  cause  the  silver  to  subside. 

Silvering  Cast  Iron. — Fifteen  grammes 
of  nitrate  of  silver  are  dissolved  in  250 
grammes  of  water,  and  30  grammes  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  are  added  ;  when 
the  solution  is  complete,  the  liquid  is 
poured  into  750  grammes  of  water,  in 
which  15  grammes  of  common  salt  have 
been  previously  dissolved.  The  cast  iron 
intended  to  be  silvered  by  this  solution 
should,  after  having  been  well  cleaned, 
be  placed  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  bath  of 
nitric  acid  of  1'2  sp.  gr.,  just  previous 
io  beiug  placed  in  the  silvering  fluid. 

To  Brighten  Tarnished  Jewellery. — 
First  wash  the  articles  in  this  cleansing 
solution; — Liquoi  potafsae,  1  fluid  oz.; 
water,  20  fluid  oz. ;  mix.  Rinse  them 
in  cold  or  warm  water,  and  then  im- 
merse them  in  the  following  gilders' 
pickle ; — Common  salt,  I  part ;  alum,  1 ; 
saltpetre,  2  ;  water,  3  or  4 ;  mix.  Let 
them  remain,  stivnng  them  now  and 
then,  until  the  surfaces  assume  a  bright 
golden  aj)pearance.  Five  minutes  at 
most  will  suffice,  less  time  is  generally 
required.  Wash  them  again  in  cold  or 
warm  water,  and  dry  them  with  chamois 
leather  or  in  hot  boxwood  saw-dust. 

Plating. — 1.  Nitrate  of  silver,  1  part ; 
common  salt,  1  ;  cream  of  tartar,  7  ; 
powder  and  mix.  2.  Nitrate  of  silver, 
1  part ;  cyanide  of  potassium,  3.  Both 
are  applied  oy  wetting  with  a  little 
water  and  rubbing  on  the  article  to  be 
plated,  which  must  be  quite  clean. 
Plating  done  \\  the  above  will  be  very 
thin,  but  it  will  be  silver.  3.  Get  a 
glazed  earthen  vessel,  put  in  1  oz.  of 
nitric  acid,  place  it  on  a  slow  fire,  it 
will  boil  instantly,  and  then  throw 
in  some  pieces  of  real  silver  ;  this 
will  be  dissolved  at  once.  As  soon  as 
dissolved  throw  in  a  good  handful  of 
common  salt  to  kill  the  acid,  then  make 
into  a  paste  with  common  whiting.  The 
article   required   to  be   silvered   to  be 


cleaned  from  grease  and  dirt,  and  the 
paste  to  be  applied  with  a  little  water 
and  wash-leather.  This  will  keep  for 
years. 

Frosted  Silver. — Dip  the  article  in  a 
solution  of  nitric  acid  and  water,  half 
and  half,  for  a  few  minutes,  then  wash 
well  in  clean  water  and  dry  in  hot  saw- 
dust. When  thoroughly  dry  brush  the 
saw-dust  away  with  a  soft  brush,  and 
burnish  the  parts  required  to  be  bright. 
Silvering  Clock  Dials. — Rub  the  dial 
with  a  mixture  of  muriate  of  silver, 
tartar,  and  sea-salt,  and  afterwards  rub 
off  the  saline  matter  with  water.  This 
silvering  is  not  durable,  but  it  may  be 
improved  by  heating  the  article,  and  re- 
peating the  operation,  once,  or  oftener  if 
thought  necessary. 

Desilvering. — The  following  is  a  liquid 
which  will  dissolve  silver  without  at- 
tacking copper,  brass,  or  German  silver, 
so  as  to  remove  the  silver  from  silvered 
objects,  plated  ware,  &c.  It  is  a  mix- 
ture of  1  part  of  nitric  acid  with  6  parts 
sulphuric,  heated  in  a  water-bath  to 
160°  Fahr.,  at  which  temperature  it 
operates  best. 

Scouring  Articles  of  Dress. — 
Among  the  spots  which  alter  the  colour 
fixed  upon  stuffs,  some  are  caused  by  a 
substance  which  may  be  described  as 
simple,  and  others  by  a  substance  which 
results  from  the  combination  of  two  or 
more  bodies,  that  may  act  separately  or 
together  upon  the  stuff,  and  which  may 
therefore  be  called  compound. 

Simple  Stains. — Oils  and  fats  are  the 
substances  which  form  the  greater  part 
of  simple  stains.  They  give  a  deep 
shade  to  the  ground  of  the  cloth ;  they 
continue  to  spread  for  several  days  ;  they 
attract  the  dust,  and  retain  it  so  strongly 
that  it  is  not  removable  by  tlie  brush ; 
and  they  eventually  render  the  stain 
lighter  coloured  u{X)n  a  dark  ground 
and  of  a  disagreeaole  grey  tint  upon  a 
pale  or  light  ground.  The  general  prin- 
ciple of  cleaning  all  spots  consists  in 
applying  to  them  a  substance  with  a 
stronger  affinity  for  the  matter  com- 
posing them  than  this  has  for  the  cloth, 
and  which  shall  render  them  soluble  in 
some  liquid  menstruum,  such  as  water 


320 


WOnKSUOP   RECEIPTS. 


spirits,  naphtha,  or  oil  of  turpentine.  I 
Alkalies  are  the  most  powerful  solvents  I 
of  grease  ;  but  they  act  too  strongl}'  upon 
Eilk  and  wool,  as  well  as  change  too 
powerfury  the  colours  of  dyed  stuffs,  to 
life  safely  applicable  in  removing  stains. 
'I'Le  best  substances  for  this  purpose  are; 
—1.  Soap.  2.  Chalk,  fullers'  earth, 
soap-stone,  or  French  chilk.  These 
sLouid  be  mixed  with  a  little  water  into 
a  tiiin  paste,  spread  ui)on  the  stain,  and 
allowed  to  dry.  The  spot  requires  now 
to  be  merely  brushed.  3.  Ox-gall  and 
volk  of  egg  liave  the  property  of  dis- 
solving fatty  bodies  without  perceptibly 
affecting  the  texture  or  colours  of  cloth, 
and  may  therefore  be  employed  with  ad- 
vantage. The  ox-gall  should  be  puritied, 
to  prevent  its  greenish  tint  from  degrad- 
ing the  brilliancy  of  dyed  stuff's,  or  the 
purity  of  whites.  Tims  j)rej>ared  't  is 
the  most  precious  of  all  substances 
known  for  removing  these  kinds  of 
stains.  4.  The  volatile  oil  of  turpentine 
will  take  out  only  recent  stains ;  for 
which  purpose  it  ought  to  be  previously 
purified  by  distillation  over  quicklime. 
Wax,  resin,  turpentine,  pitch,  and  all 
resinv/us  bodies  in  general,  form  stains 
of  greater  or  less  adhesion,  which  may 
be  dissolved  out  by  pure  alcohol.  Tlie 
juices  of  fruits,  and  the  coloured  juices 
of  all  vegetables  in  general,  deposit  upon 
clothes  marks  in  their  jicculiar  luies. 
.Stains  of  wine,  mulberries,  black  cur- 
rants, morellos,  iifjuors,  and  weld,  yield 
only  to  soaping  with  the  hand,  followed 
liv  fumigation  with  suljihuious  acid; 
l/ut  the  latter  jirocess  is  inadmissible 
with  certain  coloured  stulFs.  Ironmould 
or  rust  !-tains  may  be  taken  out  almost 
i'lstautaneously  with  a  strong  solution 
(if  oxalic  acid.  If  the  stain  is  recent, 
r:ean:  of  tartar  will  remove  it. 

Compound  S/iots. — A  mixture  of  rust 
of  iron  and  grease  is  an  example  of  this 
kind,  and  requiix's  two  distinct  opera- 
tions; first,  tlie  removal  of  tlie  grease, 
ai)ii  then  of  the  rust,  by  flic  means  ai)()ve 
indiaitcd.  Mud,  es]>ccially  that  of  cities, 
is  a  compound  of  vegetable  remains,  and 
of  iron  in  a  state  of  black  oiide.  Wash- 
in^'  with  puie  water,  followed,  if  Dcces- 
bury,  vith  «>apiup,  will  take  awav  tlie 


vegetable  juices ;  and  then  the  iron  may 
be  removed  with  cream  of  tartar,  which 
itself  must,  however,  be  well  washed 
out.  Ink  stains,  when  recent,  may  be 
taken  out  by  washing,  first  with  pure 
water,  next  with  soajiy  water,  and  lastly 
with  lemon  juice;  but  if  old,  they  must 
be  treated  with  oxalic  acid.  Stains  oc- 
casioned by  smoke,  or  by  sauces  browned 
in  a  frying-pan,  may  bo  supposed  to  con- 
sist of  a  mixture  of  pitch,  black  oxide  of 
iron,  empyreumatic  oil,  and  some  saline 
matters  dissolved  in  pyroligneous  ncid. 
In  this  case  several  reagents  must  be 
employed  to  remove  the  stains.  Water 
and  soap  perfectly  well  dissolve  the  ve- 
getable matters,  the  salts,  the  pyrolig- 
neous  acid,  and  even  the  emiiyreumatic 
oils  in  a  great  measure;  the  essence  of 
turi)entiue  will  remove  the  rest  of  the 
oils  and  all  the  pitchy  matter;  then 
oxalic  acid  may  be  used  to  discharge  the 
iron.  Colfee  stains  require  a  washing 
with  water,  with  a  careful  soaping,  at 
the  teni])erature  of  120°  I'ahr.,  followed 
by  suljihuration.  The  two  latter  pro- 
cesses may  be  repeated  twice  or  thrice. 
Chocolate  stains  may  be  removed  by  the 
same  means,  and  more  easily.  Stains 
which  change  the  colour  of  the  stulT, 
must  be  corrected  by  ap])ropriate  che- 
mical reagents  or  dyes.  When  black  or 
brown  cloth  is  reddened  by  an  acid,  the 
stain  is  best  counteracted  by  flie  ajipli- 
cation  of  water  of  ammonia.  If  delicate 
colours  are  injured  by  soapy  or  alkaline 
matters,  the  stains  must  be  treated  with 
colourless  vinegar  of  moderate  force.  An 
earthy  compound  for  removing  grease 
sjiots  is  made  as  follows: — Take  fullers' 
earth,  freed  from  all  gritty  matter  by 
settling  in  water;  mix  with  J  a  pound 
of  the  earth  so  jirepared,  ^  a  pound  ot 
soda,  as  much  soaji,  and  8  yolks  of  eggs 
well  beaten  up  with  ^  a  pound  of  puri- 
fied ox-gall.  The  whole  must  be  care- 
fully triturated  upon  a  porjiliyiy  slab; 
the  soda  wi'h  the  soap  in  the  same 
manner  as  colours  are  ground,  mixing 
in  gradually  tlie  eggs  and  the  ox-gall 
previously  beat  together.  Incorporate 
next  the  soft  earth  by  slow  degrees,  till 
a  uniform  thick  paste  is  formed,  which 
should  be  made  into  b.alls  or  cakes  of  a 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


321 


convenient  size,  and  laid  out  to  dry.  A 
little  of  this  detergent  being  scraped  off 
with  a  knife,  made  into  a  paste  with 
water,  and  applied  to  the  stain,  will 
remove  it.  Purified  ox-gall  is  to  be 
mixed  with  its  own  bulk  of  water,  ap- 
plied to  the  spots,  rubbed  well  into  them 
with  the  hands  till  they  disappear,  after 
wiuch  the  stutf  is  to  be  washed  with  soft 
water.  It  is  the  best  substance  for  re- 
moving stains  on  woollen  clothes.  The 
i-edistilled  oil  of  turpentine  may  also  be 
ruDbed  upon  dry  clothes  with  a  sponge 
or  a  tuft  of  cotton,  till  the  spot  dis- 
appears ;  but  it  must  be  immediately 
afterwards  covered  with  some  plastic 
clay  reduced  to  powder.  Without  this 
precaution,  a  cloud  would  be  formed 
round  tlie  stain  as  large  as  the  part 
moistened  with  the  turpentine.  Oxalic 
acid  may  be  applied  in  powder  upon  the 
spot  previously  moistened  mth  water, 
well  rubbed  on,  and  then  washed  off  with 
pure  water.  Sulphurous  acid  is  best 
generated  at  the  moment  of  using  it. 
If  the  clothes  be  much  stained,  they 
should  be  suspended  in  an  ordinary  fu- 
migating chamber.  For  trifling  stains, 
the  sulphur  may  be  burned  under  the 
wide  end  of  a  small  card  or  paper  funnel, 
whose  upper  orifice  is  applied  near  the 
cloth. 

Manipulations.  —  These  consist,  first. 
In  washing  the  clothes  in  clean  soft 
water,  or  in  soap-water.  The  cloth  must 
next  be  stretched  on  a  sloping  board,  and 
rubbed  with  the  appropriate  reagent  as 
above  described,  either  by  a  sponge  or  a 
small  hard  brush.  The  application  of  a 
red-hot  iron  a  little  way  above  a  moist- 
ened spot  often  volatilizes  the  greasy 
matter  out  of  it.  Stains  of  pitch,  var- 
nish, or  oil  paint,  which  have  become 
dry,  must  first  be  softened  with  a  little 
fresh  butter  or  lard,  and  then  treated 
with  the  powder  of  the  scouring  ball. 
When  the  gloss  has  been  taken  from 
silk,  it  may  be  restored  by  applying  the 
filtered  mucilage  of  gum  tragacanth ; 
stretching  it  upon  a  frame  to  dry. 
Ribbons  are  glossed  with  isinglass.  Le- 
mon juice  is  used  to  brighten  scarlet 
spots  after  they  have  been  cleaned. 

Scouring  Shatcls. — Scrape  1  lb.  of  soap, 
1 


and  boil  it  down  in  sufficient  water  to 
make  it  a  thin  jelly.  When  cold,  beat 
it  with  the  hand,  and  add  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  spirits  of  turpentine  and  one 
of  spirits  of  hartshorn.  Wash  the  shawl 
thoroughly  in  this  mixture,  then  rinse 
in  cold  water  until  all  the  soap  is  taken 
off.  Next  rinse  it  in  salt  and  water,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  colours  striking. 
Wring  the  water  out,  fold  between  two 
sheets,  taking  care  not  to  allow  two 
folds  of  the  article  washed  to  lie  to- 
gether ;  mangle,  and  iron  with  a  cool 
iron. 

To  Scour  Point  Lace. — Fix  the  lace 
in  a  prepared  tent,  draw  it  tight  and 
straight,  make  a  warm  lather  of  Castile 
soap,  and  with  a  fine  brush  dipped  in, 
rub  over  the  lace  gently,  and  when  clean 
on  one  side,  do  the  same  to  the  other, 
then  throw  some  clean  water  on  it,  in 
which  a  little  alum  has  been  dissolved, 
to  take  oft'  the  suds ;  and  having  some 
thin  starch,  go  over  with  it  on  the 
wrong  side,  and  iron  it  on  the  same  side 
when  dry,  then  open  with  a  bodkin,  and 
set  it  in  order.  To  clean  the  same,  if 
not  very  dirty,  without  washing,  fix  it 
as  before  and  go  over  with  fine  bread, 
the  crust  being  pared  off,  and  when  done 
dust  out  the  crumbs. 

To  Scour  Lace  of  all  kinds. — Get  any- 
thing round,  of  convenient  size,  say  a 
wine  bottle,  as  that  will  not  stain.  Wind 
round  smoothly  and  carefully  with  a 
piece  of  soft  material ;  gently  sponge 
the  dirt  away  in  tepid  soapy  water,  no 
soda  to  be  used ;  and  when  clean,  and 
before  dry,  pass  through  weak  gum 
v/ater.  Pick  out,  and  lay  m  the  sun  to 
dry.  If  it  IS  wished  to  bleach  it,  rinse 
it  in  some  weak  chloride  of  lime  water, 
and  expose  it  to  the  air.  It  must  be 
very  weak,  or  it  will  seriously  damage 
the  lace.  Starch  it  and  expose  it ;  then 
boil  and  starch,  and  expose  again  if  not 
white  enough. 

Reviving  Sable  and  other  Furs. — Tho- 
roughly sprinkle  every  part  with  hot 
flour  and  sand,  and  well  brush  with  a 
hard  brush.  Then  beat  with  a  cane; 
comb  it  smooth  with  a  wel  comb,  and 
press  carefully  with  a  waim  iron.  For 
ermine   use  plaster  of  Pari?  Instead  oi 


322 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


flour  and  sand,  and  treat  in  the  same 
way. 

Tanning". — The  skin  of  an  animal 
must  be  carefully  cleansed  of  hair,  fat, 
and  dirt,  washed  with  lime  water,  and 
then  with  water  containing  a  small  quan- 
tity of  oil  of  vitriol ;  it  is  then  immersed 
ia  an  infusion  of  oak  bark,  or  other 
astringent  vegetable  matter  containing 
tannic  acid.  The  process  is  a  slow  one  ; 
thick  hides  require  12  to  18  months' 
preparation  for  the  market;  whilst  thin 
leather,  to  be  dressed  for  such  purposes 
as  the  uppers  of  boots,  take  3  or  4  weeks. 

Tanning  by  the  Decoction  of  Bark. — 
Fill  a  boiler  of  copper,  or  any  other  metal 
that  does  not  stain  or  colour  the  liquor, 
half  full  with  ground  oak  bark,  and  pour 
water  ujwn  it,  up  to  the  brim.  The 
whole  is  then  to  be  boiled  for  3  hours, 
till  the  tanning  principle  is  completely 
extracted.  The  liquor  is  then  to  run  oif 
by  a  cock  into  pits,  where  it  stands  to 
cool.  The  hides  are  put  into  the  liquor, 
and  handled  frequently,  by  taking  them 
out  and  putting  them  in  again,  because 
the  liquor  is  too  powerful  for  them  to 
remain  long  at  a  time  in  the  first  stages 
of  tanning.  They  are  then  to  be  removed 
to  fresh  liquors  from  time  to  time  as  the 
old  is  weakened,  until  the  operation  is 
complete.  If  leather  is  required  with  a 
lighter  colour  or  bloom,  a  small  quantity 
of  the  dust  of  bark  is  mixed  with  the 
liquor.  Besides  bark,  oak  chips  and  oak 
saw-dust  may  be  used  ;  and  the  barks  of 
most  trees  that  produce  hard  wood  have 
a  tanning  jirinciple  in  them.  The  young 
Rlinots  fi-om  the  roots  of  oaks,  and  the 
sujierflnous  twigs  or  branches,  may  be 
lopj)ed  off,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  trees. 
These,  when  cut  in  proper  season,  may 
be  chopped  and  ground,  and  boiled  with 
bark,  and  will  produce  a  strong  tanning 
liquor.  The  trunk,  roots,  limbs,  branches, 
and  leaves  of  the  oak,  whether  tree,  pol- 
lard, cop])ice,  or  underwood,  possess  tan- 
ning properties  in  a  sullicicnt  quantity 
to  be  cmjiloyed  with  advantage  for  tan- 
ning, by  reducing  them  to  chijis  or  saw- 
dust, and  then  boiling  and  using  them  ia 
the  following,'  way; — 

To  Tan  ddf  or  other  Thin  Skins,  put 
1  cwt.  of  the  limbs  or  branches,  chopped 


as  above  mentioned,  into  a  copper  con- 
taining about  60  galls,  of  water,  and  boil 
till  the  water  be  reduced  ^o  from  35  to 
40  galls. ;  draw  off  the  drcoction.  Now 
add  to  the  same  limbs  or  branches  40 
galls,  of  water,  and  again  boil  till  the 
water  be  reduced  to  about  25  galls.  The 
liquor  thus  produced  by  the  second  boil- 
ing is  use!  as  a  weak  ooze,  in  the  first 
process  of  immersing  the  calf-skins  after 
they  come  from  the  scouring  beam.  The 
decoction  first  produced  is  ne.xt  to  be 
used  in  the  same  way. 

To  Tan  Hides,  take  1  cwt.  of  the 
limbs  or  branches,  and  f  of  a  cwt.  of  oak 
saw-dust — the  sooner  the  latter  is  used 
after  being  made  the  better — and  J  of  a 
cwt.  of  the  root ;  boil  in  80  galls,  of 
water,  till  reduced  to  from  50  to  60  galls. 
Draw  off  the  decoction,  and  put  it  aside 
for  use.  To  the  materials  left  in  the 
copper  add  60  galls,  of  water,  and  again 
boil  till  reduced  to  from  30  to  35  galis. 
The  liquor  produced  by  this  second  boil- 
ing is  to  be  employed  in  the  first  stage 
of  tanning  hides  after  they  come  from 
the  beam  ;  and  afterwards  *he  decoction 
first  produced  is  to  be  employed.  The 
skins  and  hides  having  undergone  the 
before-mentioned  processes,  add  as  much 
oak  bark  or  tan  liquor,  or  both,  to  the 
respective  decoctions  as  is  necessary  to 
complete  the  tanning.  The  quantity  of 
each  will  vary  according  to  the  strength 
of  such  decoctions;  which  strength  will 
depend  on  the  age  and  size  of  the  tree, 
and  other  circumstances. 

Sheep-skins.  —  Sheep-skins  used  for 
purposes  such  as  gloves  and  book- 
covers,  and  which,  when  dyed,  are  con- 
verted into  mock-morocco  leather,  are 
dressed  as  follows; — They  are  first  to  be 
soaked  in  water  and  handled,  to  separate 
all  impurities,  whi(;h  may  be  scraped  off 
by  a  blunt  knife  on  a  beam.  They  are 
then  to  be  hung  up  in  a  close  warm  room 
to  ]iutrefy.  This  ))utrefaction  loosens 
the  wool,  and  causes  the  exudation  of  an 
oily  and  slimy  matter,  all  which  are 
to  be  removed  by  the  knife.  The  skins 
are  now  to  be  steeped  in  milk  of  lime,  to 
harden  ami  tliicken;  here  they  remain 
for  a  month  or  six  weeks,  accordmg  , 
to  circumstances,  and,  when  taken  out, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


323 


they  are  to  be  smoothed  on  the  fleshy 
side  by  a  sharp  knife.  They  are  now  to 
be  steeped  in  a  bath  of  bran  and  water, 
where  they  undergo  a  partial  fermenta- 
tion, and  become  thinner  in  their  sub- 
stance. The  sliins,  now  called  pelts,  are 
to  be  immersed  in  a  solution  of  alum  and 
common  salt  in  water,  in  the  proportion 
of  120  skins  to  3  lbs.  of  alum  and  5  lbs. 
of  salt.  They  are  to  be  much  agitated 
m  this  compound  saline  bath,  in  order  to 
become  firm  and  tough.  From  this  bath 
they  are  to  be  removed  to  another,  com- 
posed of  bran  and  water,  where  they  re- 
main until  they  become  quite  pliant,  by 
a  slight  fermentation.  To  give  their 
upper  surfaces  a  gloss,  they  are  to  be 
trodden  in  a  wooden  tub,  with  a  solution 
of  yolks  of  eggs  in  water,  previously  well 
beaten  up.  When  this  solution  becomes 
transparent,  it  is  a  proof  that  the  skins 
have  absorbed  the  glazing  matter.  The 
pelt  may  now  be  said  to  be  converted 
into  leather,  which  is  to  be  drained  from 
moisture,  hung  upon  hooks  in  a  warm 
apartment  to  dry,  and  smoothed  over 
with  warm  hand-irons.  To  prepare  sheep 
leather  for  various  elegant  jiurjioses,  by 
drying  ;  the  skins,  after  being  taken  from 
the  lime  bath,  are  to  be  immersed  in  an- 
other, composed  of  dog  and  pigeon  dung 
dissolved  by  agitation  in  water ;  here 
they  remain  until  the  lime  is  separated, 
and  until  the  skins  have  attained  the 
state  of  soft  pliable  pelt.  To  dye  this 
pelt  red,  the  skins  are  to  be  washed  and 
sewed  into  bags,  and  stuffed  with  clip- 
pings and  shavingsof  leather,  or  any  other 
convenient  substance,  and  immersed  with 
the  grain  side  outwards  in  a  bath  of 
alum  and  cochineal  of  the  temperature 
of  170°  or  180°  Fahr.,  where  they  are  to 
be  agitated  until  they  are  suliioiently 
dyed.  Each  bag  is  now  to  be  transferred 
to  a  sumach  bath,  where  they  receive 
consistency  and  tenacity.  From  this 
bath  it  is  customary  to  remove  the  skins, 
and  to  plunge  them  into  a  saffron  one,  to 
improve  their  colour.  To  dye  these  skins 
black,  the  washed  pelt  is  first  immersed 
in  the  sumach  bath,  and  then  to  be 
rubbed  over  on  the  grained  side  by  a  stiff 
brush  dipped  in  a  solution  of  acetate,  or 
pyrolignite  of  iron.     lo  give  these  skins 


the  grain  and  polish  of  morocco  leather, 
they  are  first  oiled  and  then  rubbed  on  a 
firm  board  by  a  convex  piece  of  solid 
glass,  to  which  a  handle  is  attached.  The 
leather  being  now  rendered  aiore  com- 
pact, is  rubbed  or  pressed  hard  by  a 
sharply- grooved  boxwood  instrument, 
shaped  like  the  glass  one  just  described. 
Lamb  and  kid  skins  are  dressed,  tanned, 
and  dyed  in  a  similar  manner. 

Morocco  Leather.  —  Goat  or  sheep 
skins  are  to  be  cleansed,  have  their  hair 
removed,  and  to  be  limed  as  in  the  be- 
fore-mentioned processes.  They  are  then 
to  un<leigo  a  partial  fermentation  by  a 
bath  of  bran  and  water,  and  afterwards 
to  be  immersed  in  another  bath  of  white 
figs  and  water,  where  they  are  to  remain 
for  five  or  six  days.  It  is  now  necessary 
to  dip  them  in  a  solution  of  salt  and 
water,  to  fit  them  for  dyeing.  To  com- 
municate a  red  colour,  the  alum  and 
cochineal  bath  is  to  be  used  for  sheep- 
skins ;  for  black,  sumach  and  iron  liquor, 
as  before ;  and  for  yellow,  the  bath  is  to 
be  composed  of  alum  and  the  pomegra- 
nate bark.  The  tanning,  dressing,  and 
graining  are  the  same  as  for  sheep-skins. 

Russia  Leather.  —  Calf-skins  being 
steeped  in  a  weak  bath  of  carbonate  ol 
potass  and  water,  are  well  cleaned  and 
scraped,  to  have  the  hair  and  dirt  re- 
moved. They  are  now  immersed  in  an- 
other bath,  containing  dog  and  pigeon's 
dung  in  water.  Being  thus  freed  from 
the  alkali,  they  are  thrown  into  a  mix- 
ture of  oatmeal  and  water,  to  undergo  a 
slight  fermentation.  To  tan  these  hides 
it  is  necessary  to  use  birch  bark  instead 
of  oak  bark;  and  during;  *he  oi)eration 
they  are  to  be  frequently  handled  or 
agitated.  When  tanned  and  perfectly 
dry,  they  are  made  pliable  by  oil  and 
much  friction ;  they  are  then  rubbed 
over  genliy  with  birch  tar,  which  gives 
them  that  agreeable  odour  peculiar  to 
this  kind  of  leather,  and  which  secures 
them  against  the  attacks  of  moths  and 
worms.  This  odour  the  leather  will  pre- 
serve for  many  years  ;  and  on  account  of 
it  Russia  leather  is  much  used  in  binding 
books.  The  marKs  or  intersecting  lines 
on  this  leather  are  given  to  it  by  passing 
o\ti    Us   grained  surface  a  heavy  iron 

y  » 


S24 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


cvlinder,  bound  roucd  by  Trires.  To  dye 
this  leather  of  a  black  colour,  it  is  to  be 
rubbed  over,  after  tanning,  with  a  solu- 
tion of  acetate,  or  pyrolignite  of  iron; 
to  dye  it  red,  alum  and  Brazil  wood  are 
used. 

Another  Russia  Leather.  —  Deer  and 
goat  skins  are  cleaned  and  dressed  in  the 
same  manner  as  sheep-skins,  and  then 
put  into  a  bath  of  bran  in  a  state  of  fer- 
mentation with  water,  for  three  days. 
Each  skin  is  then  put  into  a  wooden  tray, 
where,  being  spread  out,  it  receives  a 
portion  of  a  liquor  composed  of  honey  and 
water.  When  the  skin  has  comlsined 
with  this  liquid,  it  is  immersed  in  very 
salt  brine  for  a  short  time,  and  is  then 
dried.  To  dye  it  i-ed,  it  is  to  be  made  up 
in  bags,  and  dipped  in  a  bath  of  cochineal 
water  and  alkali;  it  is  now  to  be  im- 
mersed in  a  solution  of  alum,  and  then 
tanned  with  sumach.  To  give  this  leather 
a  brilliant  and  more  lasting  red,  it  is 
(lij)ped  in  an  infusion  or  decoction  of 
galls,  instead  of  sumach.  When  to  be 
dyed  yellow,  the  berries  of  buckthorn  or 
tlie  flowers  of  wild  camomile  are  used. 
The  graining  of  this  leather  is  given  by 
an  iron  instrument  of  great  weight,  hav- 
ing a  number  of  blunt  pomts. 

Tannitig  Nets. — Put  1  cwt.  of  oak 
branches,  and  1  cwt.  of  spent  bark,  from 
any  tannery,  into  100  galls,  of  water, 
and  so  in  proportion  for  a  greater  or 
less  quantity.  After  boiling  the  same 
till  reduced  to  about  80  galls.,  take  the 
branches  and  sjient  bark  from  the  cop- 
per, and  then  immerse  as  many  nets, 
sails,  or  other  articles,  as  are  required, 
into  the  liquor  left  in  the  co]iper,  taking 
care  that  they  are  comj)letely  covered. 
Boil  the  whole  together  for  about  three 
hours,  then  remove  the  fire,  and  allow 
the  liquor  to  get  cool  ;  after  which  re- 
move tlie  nets,  sails,  or  other  articles 
from  the  furnace,  and  hang  them  to  dry. 

Tanninij  Sheep  or  other  Shins  u-ith  the 
Wool  on. — All  fragment.?  of  flesh  must 
be  sci'upulously  removed  with  a  knife, 
taking  care  not  to  cut  or  bruise  the  inner 
skin;  then  <lry  with  towels,  and  lay  the 
skin  on  a  flat  board  or  slab.  With  hot 
water,  soft-soa]>,  and  a  hanl  brush,  tho- 
roughly scrub  the  inside  of  the  skin. 


Crush  and  mix  together  2  oz.  of  salts  of 
tartar  and  1  oz.  of  ammonia,  which 
sprinkle  on  the  skin  while  yea  scrub  it. 
This  will  free  it  from  grease.  After 
well  scrubbing  the  skin,  riib  it  well  with 
dry  saw-dust,  and  in  a  few  hours  it  will 
be  ready  for  the  tanning  pickle.  This 
preparation  consists  of  1  lb.  of  fine  oat- 
meal, 8  oz.  of  corrosive  sublimate,  4  oz. 
of  saltpetre,  and  1  gall,  of  vinegar.  Boil 
the  vinegar,  and  pour  it  over  the  solid 
ingredients,  stirrmg  the  whole  briskly 
while  in  the  act  of  pouring.  Let  the  so- 
lution get  quite  cold,  and  then  immerse 
the  skin,  which  may  be  allowed  to  remain 
and  soak  for  at  least  two  days.  Tlien 
take  it  out,  and  strain  it  tightly  over  a 
stretcher  till  it  is  quite  dry.  During 
the  process  of  drying,  comb  and  smooth 
the  wool  or  hair.  In  the  course  of  a 
week  the  skin  will  be  ready  for  use. 

Preservimj  Small  Shins. — They  are 
first  cleaned  and  scraped  ;  they  are  then 
rubbed  over  with  arsenical  soap,  pre- 
pared thus; — To  4  lbs.  of  white  curd 
soap  add  1  lb.  of  arsenic  and  1  oz.  cf 
camphor ;  cut  the  soap  into  thin  slices, 
and  dissolve  it  in  1  pint  of  water. 
When  melted,  add  the  arsenic  and  cam- 
phor, stirring  them  well  together,  and 
boil  again  until  a  thick  paste  is  attained, 
and  pour  it  into  jars  while  hot.  When 
cold,  tie  it  up  carefully  with  bladder, 
and  it  will  retain  its  qualities  for  years. 

Discolouration  of  Leather.  —  In  the 
process  of  tanning,  leather  is  made  to 
take  up  tannic  and  gallic  acids;  these 
combine  with  iron,  derived  from  the 
metallic  surfaces  of  the  press,  and  form 
taimate  and  galiate  of  iron,  both  of  them 
black,  hence  the  stained  leather.  This 
discolouration  may  be  prevented  by  not 
allowing  the  iron  surfaces  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  wet  leather.  Brass 
moulds  would  not  be  open  to  the  same 
objection. 

Tnnninr]  Sole  Leather. — Wash  the  hide 
in  running  water  to  cleanse  from  lilood 
and  dirt.  Then  immerse  in  milk  of  lime 
for  about  a  week,  removing  the  hide  gra- 
dually from  a  weak  to  a  strong  solution. 
The  lime  kills  the  grease,  and  loosens  the 
hair  and  ei)idormis.  Place  the  hide  on  a 
convex  beam,  and  scrape  off  the  hair  with 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


525 


a  blunt  two-hanJled  concave  knife.  Next 
remove  all  flesh  that  may  be  left  on  the 
hide  in  flaying,  by  cutting  off  with  a 
sharp  two-handled  convex  knife.  Wash 
the  hide  in  clean  water,  and  it  is  ready 
for  tanning.  The  bellies  and  head  are 
mostly  trimmed  olT,  and  tanned  for  in- 
sole, the  butt  only  being  fit  for  sole  lea- 
ther. The  tanning  liquor  is  made  by 
pumping  water  ujion  ground  bark,  iu 
large  piles  and  letting  it  stand  until  it 
has  dissolved  the  tannic  acid  out  of  these 
materials.  The  hide  is  then  immersed  in 
this  liquor,  and  gradually  removed  to 
pits  containing  stronger  and  stronger 
liqiiors,  until  the  tanijic  acid  has  pene- 
trated through  it.  It  is  then  removed  to 
other  pits  called  layers,  where  the  hides 
are  placed  flat  on  each  other,  with  layers 
of  ground  bark  between,  and  the  pit  filled 
up  with  strong  liquor.  After  they  have 
been  there  some  months  tlie  process  of 
tanning  is  finished.  It  is  then  struck  or 
smoothed  on  the  grain  side  with  a  blunt 
three-cornered  knife,  rolled  with  a  heavy 
roller,  and  dried. 

Preparing  Shins. — Any  skin  can  be 
made  white  and  the  coat  preserved  by 
taking  a  blunt  knife  and  scraping  the 
skin  on  a  piece  of  circular  wood,  so  as  to 
get  off  as  much  of  the  flesh  and  fat  as 
possible ;  then  make  a  solution  of  alum, 
salt,  and  water,  4  salt  to  1  of  alum,  as 
much  as  the  water  will  contain.  Dissolve 
the  alum  in  hot  water,  when  cold 
immerse  the  skin  in  it,  and  in  about  48 
hours  the  skins  will  be  cured.  Wash  in 
a  weak  solution  of  soda  and  water,  to 
carry  off  any  fat  that  may  remain.  If 
for  sheep,  or  other  skins  that  are  thicker, 
a  longer  time  will  be  required. 

Dyeing  Leather. — Blue. — 1.  Steep 
the  leather  for  a  day  in  urine  and  indigo, 
then  boil  it  with  alum  ;  or  it  may  be 
given  by  tempering  the  indigo  with  red 
wine,  and  washing  the  skins  therewith. 
'J.  Boil  elder-berrie.s,  or  dwarf  elder, 
then  smear  and  wash  the  skins  there- 
with, and  wring  them  out ;  then  boil 
the  berries  as  before  in  a  solution  of  alum 
water,  and  wet  the  skins  in  the  same 
manner,  once  or  twice ;  dry  them,  and 
they  will  be  very  blue. 

Hed. — Wash  tlie  skins,  ani  lay  them 


2  hours  in  galls ;  then  wring  them  out, 
and  dip  them  in  a  liquor  made  with  pri- 
vet-berries, alum,  and  verdigris  in  water: 
and  lastly  in  a  dye  made  of  Brazil  wood 
boiled  with  ley. 

Purple. — Wet  the  skins  with  a  solu- 
tion of  roche  alum  in  warm  water,  and 
when  dry  agam  rub  them,  with  the  hand, 
with  a  decoction  of  logwood  in  cold 
water. 

Green. — Smear  the  skin  v.'ith  sap- 
green  and  alum  water  boiled. 

Dark  Green.  —  Steel  filings  and  sal 
ammoniac,  steejjed  in  urine  till  soft,  then 
smeared  over  the  skin,  which  is  to  be 
dried  in  the  shade. 

Yellow. — Smear  the  skin  over  with 
aloes  and  linseed  oil,  dissolved  and 
strained,  or  infuse  it  in  weld. 

Light  Orange. — Smear  with  fustic- 
berries,  boiled  in  alum  water ;  or,  for  a 
deep  orange,  with  turmeric. 

Sky-colour. — Indigo  steeped  in  boiling 
water,  and  the  next  morning  warmed  and 
smeared  over  the  skin. 

Chamois  Leather.  —  Generally  made 
from  sheep  or  doe  skin.  After  dressing 
and  liming,  oil  well  on  the  grain  side, 
beat  for  several  hours  in  a  fulling  mill, 
air,  oil,  and  full  twice  again,  or  oftener 
if  necessary.  Ferment  or  heat  in  a 
warm  room,  and  scour  in  a  weak  alkaline 
ley  to  remove  superfluous  oil.  Rinse  in 
clean  water,  wTing,  and  finish  with  a 
stretcher  iron. 

Taiced  Leather. — Soak  and  scrape  the 
skins,  and  hang  in  a  warm  room  until 
the  odour  of  ammonia  is  given  off,  when 
the  air  or  wool  may  be  readily  removed. 
Soak  for  several  weeks  in  water  and 
quicklime,  which  must  be  changed 
several  times  during  that  period.  Beam, 
smooth,  and  trim  the  skins  again,  wash 
and  soak  in  a  vat  containing  bran  and 
water,  where  they  must  gently  ferment 
for  some  weeks.  Remove,  and  place  in 
a  warm  solution  of  alum  and  salt,  in 
which  they  must  be  well  worked  about. 
Again  ferment  in  bran  and  water,  then 
remove,  drain,  stretch  on  hooks,  and 
hang  to  dry  in  a  warmed  room.  Place 
in  water  to  so  ik  again,  and  then  tho- 
roughly work  about  in  a  mixture  of 
the  yolks  of  c;^gs  beaten  to  a  froth   m 


326 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


water ;  stretch  and  hang  to  dry,  smooth 
wii.h  a  warm  iron.  To  shorten  this 
process,  after  the  first  soaking  in  brin 
and  water,  the  skins  may  be  soaked  in 
part  of  the  following  mixture  largely 
diluted  with  water; — Dissolve  8  lbs. 
alum,  and  3J  Idb.  common  salt,  in  suffi- 
cient boiling  water,  add  21  lbs.  wheat 
flour,  and  yolks  of  100  eggs,  make  the 
whole  into  a  paste. 

Tannic  Acid.  —  Make  an  infusion  of 
galls,  precipitate  with  a  concentrated 
solution  of  carbonate  of  potassa,  avoid 
adding  an  excess  of  this  solution.  Wash 
the  precipitate  in  very  cold  water,  dis- 
solve it  with  dilute  acetic  acid,  filter  the 
solution,  precipitate  with  acetate  of  lead, 
wash  the  precipitate  with  water ;  sus- 
pend it  in  water,  and  decompose  by  a 
stream  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  ;  eva- 
porate the  filtered  liquid  in  vacuo,  or 
over  suljjhuric  acid. 

Dressing  Furs  and  Skins. — If  the  skin 
has  been  already  dried,  soak  it  in  clean, 
and  if  possible  running,  water  for  24 
hours,  working  it  with  the  hands  re- 
peatedly during  that  time,  until  it  be- 
comes quite  soft.  Remove  any  small 
pieces  of  fiesh  or  fat  which  may  have 
adhered  to  the  skin,  and  in  the  case  of 
full-sized  tiger-skins,  which  are  very 
thick  and  stilf  behind  the  neck,  pare  or 
scrape  them  down  until  reasonably  thin, 
but  with  smaller  skins  this  is  unneces- 
sary. If  the  skin  is  fresh,  and  has  not 
been  dried,  it  need  only  be  w;i.shed  to 
remove  any  dust  or  dirt.  Skins  which 
have  been  tanned  without  being  pre- 
viously dried  always  turn  out  the 
softest.  Now  pre|)are  the  following 
mixture,  the  quantities  given  are  suffi- 
cient for  a  small  tiger-skin,  and  must  be 
proportionately  increased  or  diminished 
tor  dillerent  sized  skins; — Alum,  very 
finely  powilerol,  5  lbs.;  salt,  well  ]if)W- 
dercd,  2  lbs.;  coarse  wheat  meal,  2  lbs. 
Mix  the  above  in  a  large  stoneware 
basin  or  wooden  bucket,  and  adil  gra- 
dually sufficient  sour  milk  or  sour  but- 
termilk to  bring  it  to  the  consistency  of 
cream.  Il.iviug  previously  allowed  the 
B')ake<l  skin  to  drain  until  most  of  the 
moisture  h.as  evaporated,  lay  it  on  a  firm 
table,  with   the   hair   underneath,   and 


taking  some  of  the  above  :jixture,  rub 
it  thoroughly  into  every  part  of  the 
flesh  side  of  the  sk^n,  using  as  much 
force  with  the  hands  as  possible,  so  as  to 
drive  the  mixture  into  the  poros  of  the 
skin.  Much  of  the  success  of  the  oi>era 
tion  depends  upon  giving  the  skin  as. 
much  rubbing  and  handling  as  possible. 
When  it  will  absorb  no  more,  cover  it 
with  a  layer  of  the  composition  about 
^th  of  an  inch  thick,  fold  it  up  with  the 
fiesh  surfaces  together,  and  the  hair 
outside,  and  lay  it  aside  in  a  cool  place. 
The  mixture  is  only  to  be  put  on  the 
flesh  side,  not  on  the  hair.  Next  day 
open  out  the  skin,  add  more  of  the  mix- 
ture, rub  thoroughly,  and  fold  up  as 
before.  Repeat  daily  tor  two  days  more. 
Now  wash  the  skin  thoroughly  in  clean 
water,  removing  all  the  composition, 
hang  up  to  drain,  and  when  half  dry 
rub  in  a  fresh  sup])ly  of  the  mixture, 
and  repeat  the  rubbing  daily,  adding 
more  of  the  comjwsition  when  necessary. 
In  5  days  from  the  first  washing  wash 
again,  apply  fresh  mixture,  and  rub 
once  daily  for  7  or  8  days  more,  making 
in  all  about  17  days.  This  should  be 
ample  for  a  full-sized  tiger-skin,  if  the 
rubbing  has  been  well  performed,  and, 
indeed,  the  greater  part  of  the  skiu 
would  l>e  found  to  be  tanned  by  the 
12th  or  14th  day,  but  the  .skin  of  the 
neck  and  head,  even  when  it  has  been 
pared  down,  is  still  very  hard  and 
tough,  and  is  but  slowly  acted  upon  by 
the  tanning  mixture.  For  smaller  skins 
8  or  10  days  will  be  found  sullicient, 
according  to  the  amount  of  rubbing. 
When  tanqed  sufficiently,  wash  tho- 
roughly in  clean  water  repeatedly 
changed,  or,  what  is  preferable,  in  a 
running  stream.  This  washii>g  must  be 
thoroughly  done,  because  if  any  of  the 
salt  of  the  mixture  is  left  in  the  skin  it 
will  absorb  the  damp  on  every  w'oomy 
day.  Now  take  a  strong  solution  of 
plain  alum  without  salt,  ana  after  the 
skin  has  drained  lay  it  out  on  a  flat  sur- 
face, exposed  to  the  sun  if  p«jsible. 
Ai)]ily  the  alum  solution  to  the  flesh 
side,  an'l  let  it  dry.  The  skin  will  now 
be  found  as  hard  £ji  a  bo.ird.  Hid!  it  up 
into  a  tight  rcll,  fur  outside;  take  a 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


327 


mallet  and  beat  it  thoroughly  until  it 
is  less  stifif.  Open  it  out,  and  stretch  it 
as  follows ; — Get  any  blunt  insti-ument 
with  a  rounded  edge,  a  lai'ge  shoe- 
maker's rasp  does  excellently,  and,  lay- 
ing the  skin  on  the  floor,  proceed  to 
work  it  from  the  centre  to  the  sides 
with  the  blunt  end  of  the  tool,  steady- 
ing the  skin  by  placing  the  foot  on  it, 
using  the  tool  with  the  right  hand,  and 
holding  the  skin  with  the  left.  When 
thoroughly  worked  all  over,  smooth 
with  pumice-stone,  and  it  is  finished. 
The  more  the  skin  is  worked  the  softer 
it  will  be. 

Preservation  of  Leather.  —  The 
extreme  heat  to  which  most  people  ex- 
pose boots  and  shoes  during  winter  de- 
prives leather  of  its  vitality,  rendering 
it  liable  to  break  and    crack.      Patent 
leather  particularly  is  often  destroyed  in 
this  manner.     When  leather  becomes  so 
warm  as  to  give  off  the  smell  of  leather, 
it  is  singed.    Nest  to  the  singeing  caused 
by  fire  heat,  is  the  heat  and  dampness 
caused  by  the  covering  of  rubber.    Close 
rubber  shoes  destroy  the  life  of  leather. 
The  practice  of  washing  harness  in  warm 
water  and  with  soap  is  very  damaging.  If 
a  coat  of  oil  is  put  on  immediately  after 
washing,  the  damage   is  repaired.      No 
harness  is  ever  so  soiled  that  a  damp 
sponge  will  not  remove  the  dirt ;  even 
when  the  sponge  is  applied,  it  is  useful 
to  add  a  slight  coat  of  oil  by  the  use  of 
another  sponge.     All  varnishes  and  all 
blacking    containing   the   prcperties   of 
varnish  should  be  avoided.     When  hai-- 
ness  loses  its  lustre  and  tui-ns  brown, 
which  almost  any  leather  will  do  after 
long  exposure  to    the    air,   the  harness 
should  be  given   a   new  coat   of  grain 
black.      Before  using  this  grain  black, 
the  grain  surface  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  with  potash  water  until  all  the 
grease  is  killed,  and  after  the  application 
of  the  grain  black,  oil  and  tallow  should 
be  applied  to  the  surface.     This  will  not 
only  fasten  the   colour,   but  make  the 
leather  flexible.  Harness  which  is  grained 
can  be  cleaned  with  kerosene  or  spirits 
of  turpentine,  and  no  harm  will  result  if 
the  parts  affected  ai"e  washed  and  oiled 
Immediately  afterward.     Vitriol  black- 


ing for  boots  is  generally  used  until 
every  particle  of  the  oil  in  the  leather  is 
destroyed.  To  remedy  this,  the  leather 
should  be  washed  once  a  month  with 
warm  water,  and  when  about  half  dry, 
a  coat  of  oil  and  tallow,  or,  best  of 
all,  castor  oil,  should  be  applied,  and 
the  boots  set  aside  for  a  day  or  two. 
This  will  renew  the  elasticity  and  life  in 
the  leather,  and  when  thus  used  upper 
leather  will  seldom  crack  or  break. 
When  oil  is  applied  to  belting  dry,  it 
does  not  spread  uniformly,  and  does  not 
incorporate  itself  with  the  fibre,  as  when 
partly  damped  with  water.  The  best 
way  to  oil  a  belt  is  to  take  it  from  the 
pulleys,  and  immerse  it  in  a  warm  solu- 
tion of  tallow  and  oil.  After  allo^-ing  it 
to  remain  a  few  moments,  the  belt  should 
be  immersed  in  water  heated  to  100°, 
and  instantly  removed.  This  will  drive 
the  oil  and  tallow  all  in,  and  at  the  same 
time  properly  temper  the  leather. 

Harness  Polish. — 4  oz.  glue,  I2  pint 
vinegar,  2  oz.  gum  arable,  5  pint  black 
ink,  2  drams  isinglass.     Break  the  glue 
in  pieces,  put  it  in  a  basin,  and  pour  over 
it  about  a  pint  of  the  vinegar ;    let  it 
stand  until  it  becomes  soft.      Put  the 
gum  in  another  vessel,  wit-h  the  ink,  till  it 
is  perfectly  dissolved ;  melt  the  isinglass 
in  as  much  water  as  will  cover  it,  which 
may  be  easily  done  by  placing  the  cup 
containing  it  near  the  fire  about  an  hour 
befbre  you  want  to  use  it.   To  mix  them, 
pour  the   remaining  vinegar  with    the 
softened  glue    into  a  saucepan  upon  a 
gentle  fire,  stirring  it  till  it  is  perfectly 
dissolved,  that  it  may  not  burn  to  the  bot- 
tom, being  careful  not  to  let  it  reach  the 
boiling  point — about  180°  Fahr.  is  the 
best  heat.  Next  add  the  gum,  let  it  arrive 
at  about  the  same  heat  again ;  add  the 
isinglass.     Take  from  the  fire,  and  pour 
it  off  for  use.     To  use  it,  put  as  much  as 
is  required  in  a  saucer ;  heat  it  suffi- 
ciently to  make  it  fluid,  and  apply  a  thin 
coat  with  a  piece  of  dry  sponge ;  if  the 
article  is  dried  quickly,  either  in  the  sun 
or  by  the  fire,  it  will  have  the  better 
polish.     This  answer's  equally  well  for 
boots  or  shoes. 

Waterproof  Harness  Paste. — Put  into 
a  glazed  pipkin  2  oz,  of  black   resin ; 


828 


WORKSrtOP   RECEIPTS. 


place  it  Dn  a  gentle  fire.  When  melted, 
add  3  oz.  of  beeswax  ;  when  this  is  melted 
take  it  from  the  fire — add  §  oz.  of  fine 
lamp  black,  and  J  a  dram  of  Prussian 
blue  in  fine  powder.  Stir  them  so  as  to 
be  perfectly  mixed,  then  add  sufficient 
spirits  of  turpentine  to  form  a  thin 
paste ;  let  it  cool.  To  use  it,  apply  a 
coat,  with  a  piece  of  linen  rag,  pretty 
evenly  all  over  the  harness ;  then  take  a 
soft  polishing  brush,  and  just  brush  it 
over,  so  as  to  obtain  a  bright  surface. 

Boot-top  Liquid.  —  1.  Dissolve  in  a 
quart  of  water  1  oz.  of  oxalic  acid,  and 
the  same  of  white  vitriol,  with  which 
sponge  the  leather,  previously  washed 
■with  water,  then  wash  off  the  composi- 
tion with  water,  and  dry.  This  is  for 
white  tops.  For  brown  mix  1  oz.  of 
oxalic  acid,  1  oz.  of  spirits  of  salts,  a 
scruple  vf  cochineal  bruised,  and  a  pint 
of  boiling  water,  and  use  as  before. 
These  mixtures  should  be  labelled  poison. 
Also,  for  brown  tops,  mix  with  a  ])int  of 
skimmed  milk,  ^  oz.  of  spirits  of  salts, 
i  oz.  spirits  of  red  lavender,  1  oz.  of 
gum  arable  dissolved  in  water,  and  the 
juice  of  two  lemons.  Keep  the  mixture 
closely  corked,  sponge  the  tops  when  dry, 
and  polish  with  a  brush.  2.  White — 
Alum,  cream  of  tartar,  magnesia,  and 
oxalic  acid,  of  each  1  oz. ;  salt  of  sorrel 
and  sugar  of  lead,  of  each  |  oz. ;  water, 
1  quart.  Jlix.  Brown — Alum,  annate, 
and  oxalic  acid,  of  each  1  oz. ;  isinglass 
and  sugar  of  lead,  of  each  J  oz. ;  salt  of 
sorrel,  J  oz. ;  water,  1  quart.  Boil  for 
10  minutes. 

Driving  Belts. — Fat  should  be  apj)]ied 
to  belts  once  every  three  months.  They 
should  be  first  washed  with  lukewarm 
water,  and  then  have  leather-grease  well 
rubl>ed  in.  A  good  leather-grea.se  may 
be  made  from  (ish-oil,  4  parts ;  lard  or 
tallow,  1 ;  colophoniiim,  1  ;  wood-tar,  1. 

Varnish  for  Boots  and  Shoes. — 1.  Take 
a  pint  of  linseed  oil,  with  J  lb.  of  mutton 
BU2t,  the  same  quantity  of  beeswax,  and 
a  small  piece  of  resin.  Boil  all  this 
in  a  pi])kia  together,  and  use  it  when 
milk-warm  with  a  hair  bru.^h  ;  two  np- 
Dlications  will  make  the  articles  water- 
pi  oof.  2.  Cominon  tar  made  warm,  and 
brushed  over  the  soles  of  boots  or  shoes ; 


these  are  to  be  put  near  the  fire,  that  the 
tar  may  be  absorbed.  When  this  is  the 
case,  a  second,  and  afterwards  a  third 
may  be  used  with  advantage.  This  is  not 
applicable  to  the  upper  leathers,  though 
it  makes  the  soles  very  much  more  dur- 
able, and  impervioQs  to  moisture.  3. 
India-rubber  varnifih  is  a  valual  le  article 
to  anoint  the  uj'per  leather  of  boots  and 
shoes.  It  covers  them  with  a  resisting 
varnish  ;  but  the  lower  parts  subject  to 
wear  from  contact  with  the  ground  are 
little  benefited  by  its  application. 

Cleanimj  Harness,  or  Saddles  and 
Bridles, — If  harness,  wash  it  perfectly 
clean  with  warm  water  and  soft-soap, 
and  when  dry,  apply  neat's-foot  oil  and 
black  dye,  mixed ;  mix  them  by  adding 
a  small  quantity  of  salts  of  wormwood, 
when  they  will  be  well  blacked  and 
pliable.  Then  apjily  on  the  top  of  the 
straps  Wrigloy's  composition.  At  the 
same  time,  by  applying  the  oil  and  dye 
to  the  bottom  or  under  parts  of  the 
straps,  and  composition  to  the  top,  they 
will  always  be  pliable,  and  have  a  good 
polish  on  the  top.  If  a  riding  saddle, 
wash  in  cold  water  and  stft-soap  until 
free  from  dirt ;  then  apply  soft-soap 
with  a  woollen  cloth — about  two  table- 
spoonfuls  would  be  enough  for  a  saddle — 
which  will  dry  in.  If  the  saddle  is  to  have 
a  yellow  ajipearance,  infuse  a  penny- 
worth of  hay  saffron  in  about  four  or 
five  table-spoonfuls  of  water,  and  aj'ply 
before  the  soft-soap;  then  rub  on  to  a 
l)iece  of  woollen  cloth,  or  a  brush,  a  piece 
of  beeswax,  and  ilaish  the  saddle  olf  with 
it,  rubbing  till  a  good  jwlish  is  obtained. 

Blic/;inij  for  /farncss. —  1.  Treacle, 
J  lb.,  lamjiblack,  1  oz. ;  yeast,  a  s])oon- 
ful;  sugar-candy,  olive  oil,  gum  traga- 
canlh,  and  isinglass,  each  1  oz. ;  and  a 
cow's  gall.  Mix  with  two  j)ints  of  stale 
beer,  and  let  it  stand  before  the  fire  for 
an  hour.  2.  Treacle,  8  parts;  lamp- 
black, 1;  sweet  oil,  1;  gum  arable,  1; 
isingl.'uss,  1  ;  water,  32,  Apply  heat  to 
the  whole;  when  cold,  add  1  oz.  spirits 
of  wine,  and  apply  with  sponge.  If  it 
should  get  liard,  place  the  bottle  in  warm 
water  a  short  time. 

Harness  Composition.  —  Put  into  a 
glazed  pipkin  2  oz,  of  bla;;k  resin  ;  placo 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


829 


it  on  a  gentle  fire ;  when  melted,  add 
3  cz.  of  beeswax.  When  this  is  melted, 
take  it  from  the  fire,  add  §  oz.  of  fine 
lampblack,  and  |  dr.  of  Prussian  blue  in 
fine  powder  ;  stir  them  so  as  to"  be  per- 
fectly mixed,  and  add  sufficient  spirits  of 
turpentine  to  form  a  thin  paste ;  let  it 
cool.  To  use  it,  apply  a  coat  with  a 
piece  of  linen  rag  pretty  evenly  all  over 
the  harness ;  then  take  a  soft  polishing 
brush  and  brush  it  over,  so  as  to  obtain 
a  bright  surface. 

To  Preserve  Leather  Driving-bands  and 
Leather  Water-hose. — Old  leather  can 
be  partially  renovated  by  being  impreg- 
nated with  castor  oil,  and  new  leather 
can  be  preserved  by  the  same  means  for 
a  very  much  longer  time  than  by  any 
process  heretofore  in  use.  Old  boots 
can  be  rendered  soft  and  pliable  by  its 
application,  and,  unlike  other  oily  ap- 
plications, castor  oil  does  not  prevent 
the  polish  from  blackening.  Leather 
hose  and  driving  belts  for  machinery 
treated  with  castor  oil  have  been  found 
to  last  years  longer  than  ordinarily. 
Belts  impregnated  with  castor  oil  will 
not  slip,  and  a  belt  3  inches  wide, 
treated  with  castor  oil,  will  perform  the 
part  of  a  belt  4J  inches  wide  on  which 
the  oil  has  not  been  used,  and  where 
the  latter  would  last  only  from  3  to  5 
years  the  former  would  last  10.  Old 
fire-hose  may  be  treated  with  castor  oil, 
and  rendered  as  soft  as  new.  An  addi- 
tional recommendation  to  castor  oil  as  a 
preservative  of  leather  is  that  rats  dis- 
like it  exceedingly. 

Piecing  Leather  Straps  without  Laces. 
— Dissolve  best  gutta-percha  in  bisul- 
phide of  carbon  till  it  attains  the  con- 
sistency of  thick  glue  ;  it  will  give  a 
cement  that  will  do  excellently  for 
straps,  provided  they  are  not  subjected 
to  such  friction  as  will  make  them 
warm.  The  piecing  must  be  nicely 
spliced,  and  made  so  thin  at  the  ends 
that  it  will  not  catch  in  workmg ;  then 
spread  as  much  of  the  cement  on  as  will 
cover ;  allow  it  to  stand  2  or  3  minutes, 
then  warm  the  splicing  over  a  fire,  lay 
them  together,  and  hammer  or  other- 
wise press  them  well.  In  a  few  minutes 
the  piecing  will  be  so  firm  as  to  with- 


stand the  efforts  cf  two  or  three  men  to 
pull  it  asunder. 

Softening  Leather.  —  Mix  1  pint  of 
boiled  linseed  oil,  2  oz.  of  beeswax,  1  oz. 
of  Burgundy  pitch,  2  oz.  of  turpentine, 
and  melt  them  together  over  a  slow  fire. 
The  mixture  should  be  well  rubbed  into 
the  leather  on  both  sides,  but  principally 
on  the  flesh  side. 

Fastening  Emery  to  Leather.  —  Boil 
glue  very  thin,  add  a  little  milk,  raise 
the  pile  of  the  leather,  and  put  on  the 
glue  with  a  brush,  afterwards  sprinkle 
on  the  emery,  and  let  it  cool. 

Cleaning  Buff-coloured  Leather. — One 
oz.  oxalic  acid  dissolved  in  1  pint  water. 
Wash  well,  and  then  rub  in  a  little  clean 
tallow. 

Boot  and  Shoe  Making. — First  get 
patterns.  Some  leather-sellers  will  cut 
the  shoe  or  boot  out  if  you  take  a  last ; 
but  the  surest  way  is  to  take  an  old 
shoe  or  boot  to  pieces.  Get  one  the  pat- 
tern and  size  required,  put  the  pieces  in 
water  to  soften  them,  open  them  out, 
and  lay  them  on  thick  paper,  and  cut 
pieces  of  paper  the  size  of  the  leather, 
tack  these-  pieces  of  leather  together 
with  small  steel  tacks,  or  fasten  them 
with  paste,  that  made  with  rye  flour  is 
best ;  then  close  or  stitch  them  together, 
holding  them  between  the  knees  with 
clamps.  Next  get  the  last  the  size  of 
the  shoe.  Procure  some  insole  leather, 
soak  in  water,  place  the  last  on  the 
smooth  side,  mark  the  leather  round  the 
size  of  the  last ;  then  cut  the  pieces  off 
exactly  by  the  mark,  place  the  smooth 
side  on  the  last,  tack  on  with  3  or  4 
tacks,  press  it  close  to  the  last,  and 
while  wet  trim  the  insole  close  to  the 
last  all  round.  The  shape  of  the  snoe 
depends  on  this.  Trim  the  rough  off  the 
bottom  of  the  insole.  Some  shoemakers 
make  two  slight  nicks  round  the  insole, 
one  about  \  of  an  inch  from  the  edge, 
the  other  about  |  an  inch.  Putting  the 
awl  in  at  one  and  out  at  the  other  of  these 
nicks,  it  will  sew  more  level,  and  the 
stitches  are  not  so  liable  to  break  their 
hold  of  the  leather.  Is'ext  jdace  the  top 
level  and  straight  on  the  last,  get  the 
pliers,  and  pull  tight  over  the  toe  ; 
drive  a  tack   in  the  centre  of  the  toe, 


330 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


and  one  in  the  heel.  Shoemakers  gene- 
rally push  some  bits  of  leather  betwixt 
the  hist  and  the  top  leather  on  the  in- 
step, according  to  the  size  of  the  foot 
round  the  instep.  Next,  tack  the  top 
all  round,  then  get  a  piece  of  top  leather 
about  an  inch  broad  that  will  reach 
round  the  heel.  Then  place  the  heel  of 
the  shoe  towards  you,  holding  it  on  the 
knee  with  a  strap,  which  goes  under 
your  foot  and  over  the  shoe.  Sew  round 
the  heel  first,  put  the  awl  in  at  the 
insole,  but  not  too  deep  ;  sew  the  narrow 
piece  round  the  heel,  leaving  enough  to 
turn  over  ;  this  done,  take  a  bit  off  the 
edge  of  the  welt,  and  sew  round  the 
shoe,  putting  from  4  to  5  stitches  to  the 
inch ;  keep  the  welt  level  while  sewing. 
Get  a  stick,  make  it  flat  at  one  end, 
work  it  round  the  shoe  between  the  top 
and  the  welt ;  trim  the  welt  round  level, 
cut  the  leather  level  round  the  heel, 
turn  the  narrow  piece  of  top  leather 
over,  and  fasten  down  with  a  few 
stitches.  Place  the  shoe  on  the  rough 
side  of  the  bottom  leather,  mark  round, 
and  cut  off.  Then  put  a  piece  of  infe- 
rior leather  to  finish  up  the  heel, 
hammer  the  bottom  soles,  fill  up  the 
middle  with  small  bits,  put  on  the  sole, 
and  tack  down.  Next  stitch  the  sole 
on ;  place  the  awl  through  the  welt, 
holding  the  shoe  so  as  to  stitch  towards 
you ;  place  the  heel  on,  put  the  awl  be- 
tween the  top  and  the  narrow  piece  that 
is  turned  over  and  through  the  heel 
pieces ;  these  being  sewn  on,  get  the 
sharj)  end  of  the  hammer,  and  liammer 
round  the  edge  of  the  sole,  and  welt 
while  they  are  wet  ;  this  will  make  the 
edge  better  to  finish.  Trim  the  edges 
round  when  dry,  being  careful  not  to 
leather ;  scra|)e  round  and 
let  the  ink  dry,  put  the 
and  boat  the  iron  hot 
the  ball,  but  not  to 
rub  up  with  a  bit  of 


cut   the   top 
put  ink  on, 
heei-liall    on 
enough  to   melt 
burn  the  leather 


old  cloth.  If  required  to  make  the 
bottom  smooth,  and  |)ut  a  polish  on,  cut 
a  nick  in  the  bottom  sole  to  let  the 
Ktitches  in,  then  scrape  tlie  bottom,  and 
file  It  and  rub  with  sand-pa]i(.'r. 

To    Skin  and    Stuff  Birds.— 
1.  Suspend  the  body  by  a  hook,  so  that 


both  hands  are  at  liberty.  For  small 
kinds  a  common  fish-hook  will  answer, 
with  the  barb  broken  off,  and  a  cord  at- 
tached a  foot  or  two  in  length.  This 
may  be  inserted  among  the  bones  near 
the  tail  after  the  skin  has  been  partly 
detached.  Other  implements  required 
are  the  following ; — A  sharp  knife,  of 
almost  any  shape  ;  but  a  surgeon's  scalpel 
without  a  jointed  handle  is  the  best  for 
small  kinds,  and  the  common  butcher's 
knife  which  is  of  similar  shape,  for  large 
ones.  Strong,  sharp-pointed  scissors, 
and  for  large  skins  a  pair  of  shears  is 
often  useful.  Triangular  glovers'  needles 
for  sewing  up  skins ;  two  or  three  sizes, 
A  pair  of  spring  forceps,  such  as  ar« 
used  by  surgeons,  though  not  essential, 
are  very  useful.  A  tape  measure,  3 
to  6  feet  long.  A  fine  saw,  or  coarse 
flat  file,  to  notch  small  bones  before 
breaking  them,  so  as  to  make  them 
bi'eak  evenly,  or  sharp-edged  nippers. 
Large  bones  may  be  broken  roughly,  and 
the  ends  smoothed  off.  When  a  bird  is 
shot  all  large  holes  must  be  plugged  with 
cotton  or  paper,  and  this  also  inserted  in 
the  mouth  and  throat,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  flow  of  blood  or  other  fluids.  Blood 
on  the  feathers  may  be  absorbed  by 
sprinkling  with  plaster  of  Paris,  ashes, 
dust,  or  sand,  shaking  off  all  that  does 
not  stick  ;  then  make  a  cone  of  paper, 
large  enough  to  put  the  bird  in,  head 
down,  and  to  twist  uji  the  other  end  over 
it,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  tail 
fuathers.  This  will  secure  smoothness 
of  the  feathurs  when  tlie  body  stiffens. 
In  cool  weather  it  is  best  to  postpone 
skmning  for  12  to  24  hours,  in  order  to 
allow  tlie  blood  to  coagulate,  so  that  it 
will  not  flow  so  freely,  and  the  fat  hanl- 
eiiing  also  gives  less  trouble.  Obtain 
its  exact  girth,  so  that  it  can  be  stuffed 
out  to  the  same  dimensions  afterwards. 
IJefore  skinning,  put  fresh  plugs  in  the 
mouth,  nostrils,  and  large  sliot-holes. 
Take  the  measurements  and  notes  re- 
quired. Then  make  an  incision  from  tlie 
brettst-bone  down  to  the  tail,  nrt  so  deep 
as  to  ojx'n  the  intestinal  cavity,  and  care- 
fully snjiarate  the  skin  on  each  side, 
plugging  or  sewing  up  any  holes  acci- 
dentally cut  too  deeji.     If  blood  or  fluiLi 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


381 


run  too  freely,  absorb  them  by  some  dry 
ashes,  plaster,  or  paper,  ami  use  them  so 
as  to  protect  the  feathers ;  if  necessary 
keep  the  fingei's  well  powdei-ed.  Sepa- 
rating the  skin  from  one  side,  the  leg  is 
soon  reached ;  this  must  be  drawn  out 
by  the  knee-joint  as  fai  as  it  can  be,  and 
the  tendons  cut  where  they  go  towards 
the  foot.  Break  off  the  bone  within  the 
skin,  and  having  freed  that  leg  treat  the 
other  in  the  same  way.  It  is  most  con- 
venient in  small  birds  to  break  these 
bones,  and  also  those  of  the  upper  wing- 
joint,  before  beginning  to  skin,  thus  hav- 
ing the  limbs  less  in  the  way.  After  the 
legs  are  freed,  cut  down  to  the  tail,  and 
separate  from  the  body,  leaving  some  of 
the  vertebrjE  attached  to  support  the 
feathers.  Remove  the  oil-glands  above 
the  tail  carefully  from  the  skin,  then 
insert  the  hook  in  tlie  body  and  hang  it  up, 
head  downwards.  The  skin  is  then  easily 
peeled  off  until  the  wings  are  reached, 
when  it  mu.-t  be  drawn  to  one  side  until 
the  broken  end  of  the  shoulder-bones  are 
reached,  which  may  be  slipped  through 
the  muscles,  and  pulled  out  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. The  muscles  must  then  be  cut  off, 
and  this  wing  being  freed,  the  same  pro- 
cess is  used  for  the  other.  The  skin  then 
tjlips  off  easily  so  far  as  the  head,  which 
if  large  must  be  supported,  so  that  its 
weight  may  not  stretch  the  neck.  In 
drawing  the  skin  over  the  head  be  care- 
ful not  to  tear  it,  and  use  the  finger- 
nails more  than  the  knife.  The  ear 
membranes  are  easily  drawn  out  with  it, 
and  on  reaching  the  eyes  the  attachment 
of  the  lids  must  be  carefully  separated 
from  the  eyeball,  cutting  so  as  to  injure 
neither  the  lids  nor  the  eyeball,  as  the 
fluids  escaping  give  trouble.  Then  cut 
off  the  back  part  of  the  skull,  remove  the 
brains  and  the  eyes,  clean  away  all  re- 
mains from  the  skull,  and  sprinkle  or 
smear  the  skin  with  arsenic,  fill  the  eye- 
sockets  and  other  cavities  about  the 
head  with  cotton  or  other  stuffing,  and 
draw  the  skin  back  to  its  original  shape. 
If  the  neck  has  dried  during  the  opera- 
tion, it  will  need  moistening  before  re- 
traction. The  second  joints  of  the  wings 
now  require  cleaning.  This  may  be  done 
ic  small  birds  by  carefully  drawing  the 


skin  down  over  the  bones,  loosening  it 
with  the  finger-nails.  Large  birds,  how- 
ever, need  an  incision  under  the  wing, 
reaching  the  whole  length  of  the  joint, 
which  may  be  sewed  uj)  af'terwards  by  a 
few  stitches.  Arsenic  must  be  applied 
freely  to  all  these  parts.  The  wing-bones 
must  now  be  connected  by  a  string  passed 
through  the  space  between  the  bones,  or 
a  thread  sewed  through  the  ligaments  so 
that  it  cannot  slip.  Do  not  draw  the 
wings  too  close  together,  but  leave  as 
nearly  the  natural  distance  between  them 
as  is  practicable.  Cotton  or  tow  may  be 
now  wound  round  the  broken  ends  of  the 
wing  and  leg  bones,  a  roll  of  it  inserted 
in  the  neck,  and  enough  put  in  the  body 
to  fill  it  out  to  its  natural  shape.  When 
the  legs  are  tied  together  no  stitches  aro 
generally  necessary  to  sew  up  the  cut. 
It  there  are  large  holes  in  the  skin  they 
should  be  sewed  up  from  the  inside  before 
putting  in  the  stuffing.  In  large  birds 
it  is  well  to  sew  on  wide  strips  of  rag 
along  the  inner  edges  of  the  cut  made  in 
the  skin,  to  protect  the  feathers  during 
the  operation  of  skinning,  removing  the 
I'ags  afterwards.  Very  badly-soiled  skins 
can,  however,  be  cleaned,  and,  provided 
they  have  not  lost  any  feathers,  are  still 
useful.  The  bill  should  generally  be  tied 
shut  by  a  string  passed  through  the 
nostrils,  and  the  label  may  be  put  there 
or  on  the  legs.  Very  long  necks  are  best 
stuffed  by  rolling  up  a  long  cylinder  ol 
paper  and  passing  it  down  the  throat  or 
from  the  inside.  The  neck  may  then  be 
bent  down  along  the  side  of  the  body,  and 
the  legs  bent  up  so  as  to  make  as  compact 
a  specimen  as  possible.  Having  smoothed 
dow'n  the  feathers,  the  bird  must  now  be 
pushed  carefully  inside  a  cylinder  of  stifl 
paper  of  the  proper  size,  and  laid  on  its 
back  to  dry.  Hanging  it  up  by  the  bill 
or  feet  stretches  it  too  much.  If  care- 
fully dried  it  retains  a  good  shape,  and 
may  be  freely  handled  afterwards.  Some 
birds,  especially  ducks  and  woodpeckers, 
have  the  neck  so  slender  that  the  head 
cannot  be  drawn  through  it  by  skinning 
in  the  usual  manner.  In  these  an  incision 
must  be  made  on  the  most  injured  side, 
from  the  ear  down  far  enough  to  allow 
the  head  to  be  cleaned  throuo-h  it.    The 


332 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


body  may  thet  be  skinned  as  usual,  or 
the  incision  may  1>3  continued  down  the 
neck  to  the  bare  space  under  the  wing, 
and  the  skin  taken  off  without  cutting  it 
elsewhere.  To  sew  this  up  requires  care 
in  order  to  adjust  the  feathers  nicely, 
and  the  stitches  must  be  taken  from 
within  outwards.  There  is  much  differ- 
ence in  the  ease  with  whicli  a  bird  may 
be  skinned,  according  to  tlie  relative 
toughness  of  skm,  and  adhesion  of  fea- 
thers. A  humming-bird  is  more  easily 
skinned  than  a  jiigeon,  and  those  of  the 
size  of  a  robin  take  much  less  time  than 
an  eagle.  To  practise  on,  the  best  are 
blackbirds  and  jays,^  tliose  not  too  fat 
being  preferable. 

2.  A  very  small  proportion  of  the 
skull-bone,  say  from  the  fore  part  of  tlie 
eye  to  the  bill,  is  to  be  left  in,  as  well  as 
part  of  the  wing-bones,  the  jaw-bones, 
and  half  of  the  thigh-bones.  Everything 
else,  flesh,  fat,  eyes,  bones,  brains,  and 
tendons,  are  all  to  be  taken  away.  In 
taking  off  the  skin  from  the  body  it  will 
be  well  to  try  to  shove  in  lieu  of  pulling 
it,  to  avoid  stretching  it.  Throughout 
the  whole  operation,  as  fast  as  you  de- 
tach tlie  skin  from  the  body,  put  cotton 
immediately  betwixt  the  body  and  it  ; 
tills  will  prevent  the  plumage  getting 
dirty.  Have  close  by  a  little  bottle  of 
corrosive  sublimate,  also  a  little  stick 
and  a  handful  or  two  of  cotton.  Now 
fill  the  mouth  and  nostrils  with  cotton, 
and  place  it  on  your  knee  on  its  back, 
with  its  head  ])ointed  to  your  h'ft 
shoulder.  Take  hold  of  tlie  liuife  wilii 
the  two  first  fingers  and  thumb,  the 
edge  u]iward  ;  do  not  keep  tlie  jioiut  of 
the  knife  perpendicular  to  the  body  of 
tlie  bird,  because  it  would  cut  the  inner 
skiu  of"  tlie  belly,  and  let  the  bowels  out. 
To  avoid  this  let  the  knife  be  ])arallel  to 
the  body,  llegin  on  tlie  belly  below  the 
brca.st-bjne  and  cu.*,  down  the  middle, 
quite  to  the  vent.  This  done,  put  the 
bird  in  any  convenient  jiositiou,  and  se- 
parate the  skin  from  the  body,  till  you 
pet  at  the  middle  joint  of  the  thigh. 
Cut  it  through,  and  introduce  cotton  all 
ihe  way  on  that  side,  from  the  vent  to 
the  brea-st-bouc.  Do  ctacfly  the  same 
on  the  opposite   Hide.      Now  place   tht; 


bird  perpendicular,  its  breast  resting  en 
your  knee,  with  its  back  towards  you. 
Separate  the  skin  from  the  body  on  each 
side  of  the  vent,  and  never  mind  at  pre- 
sent the  part  at  the  vent  to  the  root  of 
the  tail.  Bend  the  tail  gently  down  to 
the  back,  and  while  your  finger  and 
thumb  are  keeping  down  the  detached 
parts  of  the  skin  on  each  side  of  the 
vent,  cut  quite  across  and  deep,  until 
you  see  the  bM^k  bone  near  the  oil-gland 
at  the  root  of  the  tail.  Sever  the  back- 
bone at  the  jo:ct,  and  then  you  have  all 
the  root  of  the  tail,  together  with  the 
oil-gland,  dissected  from  the  body. 
Apply  plenty  of  cotton.  Get  the  skin 
pushed  uji  until  you  come  to  where  the 
wing-joiuts  join  the  body.  Apply  cot- 
ton, and  then  cut  this  joint  through, 
and  do  the  same  at  the  other  wing ;  add 
cotton,  and  gently  push  the  skin  over 
the  head,  cut  out  the  roots  of  the  ears, 
and  continue  skinning  till  you  reach  the 
mid<lle  of  the  eye  ;  cut  the  membrane 
quite  through,  otherwise  you  would  tear 
the  orbit  of  the  eye.  After  this  nothing 
difficult  intervenes  before  arriving  at 
the  root  of  the  bill;  when  this  isellected 
cut  away  the  body,  leaving  just  a  little 
bit  of  the  skull  ;  clean  well  the  jaw- 
bones, and  touch  the  skull  and  corre- 
s))oiiding  parts  with  the  solution.  Now 
all  that  remains  to  be  removed  is  the  flesh 
on  the  middle  joints  of  the  wings,  one 
bone  of  the  thighs,  and  the  fleshy  root 
of  the  tail.  Fasten  thread  to  the  joints 
of  each  wing,  and  then  tie  them  to- 
gether, leaving  exactly  the  same  space 
betwixt  them  as  existed  there  when  the 
bird  was  entire  ;  hold  the  skiu  o])en  with 
your  finger  and  thumb,  and  apjdy  the 
solution  to  every  jiart  of  the  inside. 
Neglect  the  head  and  neck  at  present.  Kill 
the  body  moderately  with  wool  to  pre- 
vent the  feathers  on  the  Ijelly  from  being 
injureil.  Half  of  the  thigh,  or  in  other 
words  one  joint  of  the  thigh-bone,  has 
been  cut  away.  As  this  bone  never 
moved  perjicndicularly  to  the  body,  but 
in  an  obli<iue  direction,  of  course  as  soon 
as  it  is  cut  oil',  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
thigh  and  leg,  having  nothing  to  sup- 
port them  obliquely,  must  naturally  fall 
to  their  perpemliculir.     Ilmre  the  leg« 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


333 


ipiear  considerably  too  long.  To  cor- 
rect this  take  a  needle  and  thread, 
fasten  the  ends  round  the  bone  inside, 
push  the  skin  just  opposite  to  it,  and 
then  tack  up  the  thigh  under  the  wings 
with  several  strong  stitches.  This  will 
shorten  the  thigh,  and  render  it  quite 
capable  of  supporting  the  body  without 
the  aid  of  wire.  Now  put  in  the  cotton 
for  an  artificial  body,  by  means  of  the 
little  stick,  and  then  sew  up  the  orifice 
you  originally  made  in  the  oelly,  begin- 
ning at  the  vent.  Lastly,  dip  your 
stick  into  the  solution,  and  put  it  down 
the  throat  three  or  four  times,  in  order 
that  every  part  may  receive  it.  When 
the  head  and  neck  are  filled  with  cotton 
close  the  bill  as  in  nature.  Bring  the 
feet  together  by  a  pin,  and  then  run  a 
thread  through  the  knees,  by  which 
draw  them  to  each  other  as  near  as  may 
be  thought  proper.  Add  the  eyes ; 
adjust  the  orbit  to  them  as  in  nature, 
and  that  requires  no  other  f;istener. 
After  this,  touch  the  bill,  orbit,  feet,  and 
former  oil-gland  at  the  root  of  the  tail, 
with  the  solution.  Procure  a  common 
box,  fill  one  end  of  it,  about  three-fourths 
up  to  the  top,  with  cotton,  forming  a 
sloping  plane.  JIake  a  moderate  hollow, 
and  place  the  bird  in  its  right  position. 
If  it  is  wished  to  elevate  the  wings,  do 
so,  and  support  them  with  cotton.  If 
desired  to  have  the  tail  expanded,  re- 
verse the  order  of  the  featners,  begin- 
ning from  the  two  middle  ones,  and 
when  dry  place  them  in  their  true  order, 
and  the  tail  will  preserve  the  expansion 
{jiven  to  it.  In  three  or  four  days  the 
feet  lose  their  natural  elasticity,  and  the 
knees  begin  to  stil^en.  This  is  the  time 
to  give  the  legs  any  desired  angle,  and 
to  arrange  the  toes.  When  the  bird  is 
quite  dry,  pull  the  thread  out  of  the 
knees,  and  take  away  the  needle,  and  all 
IS  done. 

.3.  Previous  to  skinning  take  a  piece  of 
wire  of  suitable  thickness,  and  measure 
from  the  centre  of  bill  to  tip  of  toes;  have 
the  wire  twice  that  length,  and  double  it 
in  two,  and  point  the  double  end  with  a 
hammer ;  do  not  separate  them ;  point 
the  other  ends  with  a  file.  Having  put 
in  the  eyes,  and  twisted  some  cotton  on 


leg-bones,  and  filled  up  the  aperture  in 
skull  with  a  piece  of  cork,  thrust  the 
double  end  of  the  wire  through  the 
cork,  and  let  it  enter  the  base  of  the 
beak  ;  twist  some  cotton  or  tew  round 
the  wire  to  the  same  thickness  and 
length  as  neck  ;  then  separate  and  form 
a  shoulder  on  each  wire,  roll  up  soma 
tow  same  size  and  shape  as  the  bird's 
body,  and  twist  some  throa  1  round  it ; 
thrust  the  wires  through  the  tow  body, 
one  at  each  side ;  carefully  turn  the 
skin  over  your  artificial  body,  in  doing 
so  place  the  wing-bones  in  their  right 
place  ;  pass  the  wires  through  the  back 
of  the  legs,  but  inside  the  skin,  add  a 
little  tow  if  required,  sew  up  the  aper- 
ture, and  fix  on  stand  by  the  wires ; 
form  a  iiiece  of  wire  into  same  shape  as 
a  hairpin,  and  pass  under  and  through 
tail  into  the  body  to  keep  tail  up;  tie 
the  bill  with  a  piece  of  thread  till  it 
sets ;  give  the  bird  the  natural  set, 
fix  the  wings  in  the  right  position,  and 
pass  a  thread  with  a  long  needle  through 
the  body  and  last  joints  of  wings  and 
tie,  not  too  tight,  and  tie  tips  of  same  at 
tail.  Pay  particular  attention  to  the 
eyes,  replace  stray  feathers  with  a 
needle,  and  brush  down  with  a  camel- 
hair  brush. 

Preservative  for  Bird-skhis. — Ground 
alum,  4  parts  ;  pepper  and  saltpetre,  1. 

Lubricants. — The  friction  of  the 
parts  in  machinery  frequently  absorbs  a 
large  percentage  of  the  power  em- 
ployed. Various  lubricating  materials 
are  used  to  reduce  this  source  of  waste. 
When  polished  steel  moves  on  steel,  or 
pewter  properly  oiled,  the  friction  is 
about  one-fourth  of  its  weight ;  on  copper 
or  lead,  one-fifth  ;  on  brass,  one-sixth. 
Metals  have  more  friction  when  they 
move  on  metals  of  the  same  kind  than 
when  on  different  metals.  In  wood  rub- 
bing upon  wood,  oil,  grease,  or  black- 
lead,  proi)erly  applied,  reduces  the  fric- 
tion two-thirds.  Lard,  oil,  tallow,  soap, 
black-lead,  French  chalk,  and  combina- 
tions of  these  substances,  are  used  in 
different  trades. 

Antifriction  Grease. — 1.  One  part  oi 
fine  black-lead,  ground  perfectly  smooth, 
with  4  parts  of  lard.     2.  Dissolve  about 


334 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


50  lb;-,  of  soda  in  3  or  4  gallons  of  boil- 
ing water,  then  melt  in  a  copper  about 
IJ  cwt  of  tallow  or  palm  oil  ;  after  it 
has  cooled  a  little  pour  in  gradually  the 
Boda,  stirring  it  all  the  while  till  it  cools. 
3.  For  cooling  necks  of  shafts,  which  may 
occasionally  be  found  useful  where  the 
shafts  are  not  of  a  proper  length,  or  the 
bearings  faulty ;  16  lbs.  tallow,  dissolved 
in  a  vessel ;  2J  lbs.  while  sugar  of  lead. 
When  the  tallow  is  melted,  but  not  boil- 
ing, put  in  the  sugar  of  lead  and  let  it 
dissolve.  Then  put  in  3  lbs.  of  black 
antimony.  Keep  stirring  the  whole  mass 
till  cold. 

Lubricating  Composition  for  Railway 
Axles. — In  a  small  boiler  dissolve  from 
56  lbs.  to  60  lbs.  of  soda  in  about  3  galls. 
of  water.  In  a  60-gallon  boiler,  melt 
tallow,  and  to  it  add  palm  oil,  each  in 
quantity,  according  to  season.  In  sum- 
mer weather,  tallow  1  cwt.  Sqrs. ;  palm 
oil,  1  cwt.  1  qr.  In  winter,  tallow  1  cwt. 
1  qr. ;  palm  oil,  1  cwt.  3  qrs.  In  .spring 
or  autumn,  tallow,  1  cwt.  2  qrs. ;  palm 
oil,  1  cwt.  2  qrs.  As  soon  as  the  mix- 
ture boils,  put  out  the  fire,  and  let  the 
mixture  cool  down  gradually,  frequently 
stirring  it  while  cooling.  When  roiluced 
to  blood  heat,  run  it  off  through  a  sieve 
mto  the  solution  of  soda,  stirring  it  well, 
to  ensure  a  perfect  mixture  of  the  in- 
gredients. 

Anti-attrition  Paste. — Lard,  2J  lbs. ; 
cftrophor,  1  oz. ;  black-lead,  i  lb. ;  rub 
the  camphor  in  a  mortar  down  into 
a  paste,  with  a  little  of  the  lard  ;  then 
add  the  rest  of  the  lard,  and  the  black- 
lead,  and  mix  thoroughly. 

A  gofjd  Lubricating  Oil  that  will  not 
thicken. — T;ike  olive  oil,  and  dissolve  it 
in  boiling  alcohol,  add  it  drop  by  drop 
to  the  hot  alcohol,  until  it  is  no  longer 
taken  into  tiolution.  Upon  cooling,  it 
will  let  fall  crystals,  and  leave  a  consi- 
derable portion  still  lluid  ;  the  fluid  part 
is  to  be  |irurcd  off,  (iltored  through  a 
piece  of  white  blottiiu^  paper,  and  either 
used  is  this  form,  or  the  alcohol  may  be 
distitl"*!  off  for  fresh  processes,  and  the 
pure  iunricating  oil  which  will  remain 
can  be  obtain«i  for  jiling  watclu's  anil 
deliaits  mu:hinery.  This  will  not 
oxidize   or   gum    u\>,  ainJ    will    ri'iuiiri 


perfectly  fluid   even   when   exposed   to 
great  cold. 

Watchnmhers'  Oil— I.  Take  neat's-foot 
oil,  and  put  into  it  some  lead  shavings  in 
order  to  neutralize  the  acid  contamed  in 
the  oil ;  let  this  stand  for  a  considerable 
time,  the  longer  the  better.  Oil  thus 
prepared  never  corrodes,  or  thickens. 
2.  Got  the  best  olive  oil,  stir  it  up  for 
some  time  with  water  kept  at  the  boil, 
then,  after  separation,  shake  it  up  in  a 
bottle  with  a  little  fresh  lime,  and  allow 
them  to  stand  for  some  weeks  in  a  bottle 
exposed  to  the  sunlight  and  air,  but  pro- 
tected from  wet  and  dirt.  When  filtered 
otTit  will  be  nearly  colourless,  perfectly 
limpid,  and  will  never  thicken  or  become 
rancid.  3.  Procure  1  quart  of  olive  oil, 
l)ut  it  into  a  cast-iron  vessel  capable  of 
holding  2  quarts,  place  it  over  a  slow, 
clear  fire,  kee])ing  a  thermometer  sus- 
pended in  it,  and  when  the  temperature 
rises  to  220°,  check  the  heat,  never  allow- 
ing it  to  exceed  230°,  nor  descend  below 
212°  for  one  hour,  by  which  time  the 
whole  of  the  water  i\i\\  acetic  acid  will  be 
evaporated  ;  the  oil  is  then  exj)osed  to  a 
temperature  of  30°  to  36°  for  2  or  3 
days  •  then  pour  the  oi'  on  a  muslin  filter 
to  allow  the  lluid  portion  to  run  through  ; 
lastly,  tlie  lluid  portion  must  be  filtered 
once  or  more  tiirough  newly-]ire])ared 
animal  charcoal,  coai'sely  ])owdered,  and 
placed  on  bibulous  ])aper  m  a  wire  frame 
within  a  funnel,  by  which  operation  ran- 
cidity is  entirely  removed,  and  the  oil  is 
rendered  perfectly  bright  and  colourless. 

Belgian  Antifriction  Metal.  —  For 
parts  exj>osed  to  much  friction,  20  parts 
copi)er,  4-  of  tin,  O".')  of  antimony,  0'25 
lead.  For  parts  subjected  to  great  con- 
cussions, 20  jiarts  cop])er,  6  zinc,  1  tin. 
P'or  surfaces  exposed  to  heat,  17  parts 
copjier,  1  zinc,  U'5  tin,  0*2r)  lead.  In 
making  these  alloys,  mix  all  the  oth°r 
ingriidients  before  adding  the  copper. 

Jyard  Oil  Refining. — Agitate  the  lard 
oil  with  a  ley  of  caustic  potash  of  spe- 
cific gravity  1  "2.  A  sudicicnt  ([uantity 
is  known  to  have  been  added  when,  after 
re])ose,  a  portion  begins  to  settle  down 
cl«ar  at  the  bottom  ;  about  4  to  8  per 
cent,  is  usually  required.  After  24 
hours'  rejiose,  the  clear  bupernatant  ojl 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


335 


is  decanted  from  the  soapy  sediment  and 
filtered  ;  it  may  be  thoroughly  bleached 
by  a  mixture  of  bichromate  of  potassa, 
and  sufficient  hydrochloric  acid  to  seize 
on  all  the  alkali  and  liberate  the 
chromic  acid. 

Galvanizing  Iron. — Sheet  iron, 
iron    castings,  and    the    like,   are    first 
cleaned  and  scoured  by  immersion  in  a 
bath  of  water,  acidulated  with  sulphuric 
acid,  heated   in  a  leaden  vessel,  or  used 
cold  in  a  wooden  one,  to  remove  the  oxide. 
The  pieces  are   then   thrown   into   cold 
water,  and  taken  out  one  at  a  time  to  be 
scoured   with  sand    and   water  with    a 
piece  of  cork  or  the  husk  of  the  cocoa- 
nut,  the  ends  of  the  fibres  serving  as  a 
brush.     The  pieces  are  then  returned  to 
cold  water.     Pure  zinc,  covered  with  a 
thick    layer   of  sal   ammoniac    is    then 
melted  in  a  bath,   and   the  iron,   if  in 
sheets,  is  dipped  several  sheets  at  a  time 
in  a  cradle  or  grating.     The  sheets  are 
raised  slowly  to  allow  of  draining,  are 
then    immediately    thrown     into    cold 
water ;  on  removal,  the  work  is  finished 
by  wiping  dry.     Thick  pieces  are  heated 
in  a  reverberatory  furnace  before  being 
placed  in  the  bath,  to  prevent  cooling 
the  zinc.     Chains  are  similarly  treated, 
and  on  removal  from  the  zinc  are  shaken 
until  cold  to  avoid  soldering  of  the  links 
together.     Nails  and  small  articles  are 
dipped  in  muriatic  acid,  and  dried  in  a 
reverberatory    furnace ;    next,    thrown 
into    zinc    covered  with  sal  ammoniac, 
left  for  a  minute,  and  taken  out  slowly 
with  an  iron  skimmer ;   they  come  out 
in  a  mass  soldered  together,  and  to  sepa- 
rate them  are  placed  in  a  crucible  sur- 
rounded   with    charcoal    powder,    then 
heated    to   redness    and    shaken    about 
until  cold  for  separation.    Wire  is  reeled 
through  the  zinc,  into  which  it  is  forced 
to  dip  by  a  fork  or  other  contrivance. 
The  zinc  is  melted  in  a  crucible  just  a 
little  beyond  the  point  of  fusion,  and  is 
always  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  sal 
ammoniac,  for  the  purposes  of  prevent- 
ing waste   of  zinc   and    preparing   the 
metal    to    be    covered.     Wrought-iron 
baths   welded    at    the   angles    succeed 
much  better  than  cast-iron,  lined  with 
clay.     By  another  system  the  sheets  of 


ii'on  are  pickled,  scoured,  and  cleaned 
just  as  for  ordinary  tinning.  A  large 
wooden  bath  is  then  half  filled  with  a 
dilute  solution  of  muriate  of  tin,  pre- 
pared by  dissolving  metallic  tin  in  con- 
centrated muriatic  acid,  which  takes 
2  or  3  days,  and  2  quarts  of  the  satu- 
rated solution  are  added  to  300  or  400 
gallons  of  the  wfAer  contained  in  the 
bath.  Over  the  bottom  of  the  bath  is 
spread  a  thin  layer  of  finely-granulated 
zinc,  then  a  cleaned  iron  plate,  and  so 
on — a  layer  of  finely-granulated  zinc 
and  a  cleaned  iron  plate  alternately, 
until  the  bath  is  full ;  the  zinc  and  iron, 
together  with  the  fluid,  constitute  a 
weak  galvanic  battery,  and  the  tin  is 
deposited  from  the  solution,  so  as  to 
coat  the  iron  with  a  dull  uniform 
layer  of  metallic  tin  in  about  2  hours. 
Whilst  this  is  being  done,  a  wrought- 
iron  bath,  containing  fluid  zinc,  is  being 
prepared,  the  melted  metal  is  covered 
with  sal  ammoniac,  mixed  with  earthy 
matter,  to  lessen  the  volatilization  of 
the  sal  ammoniac,  which  becomes  ap- 
fluid  as  treacle.  Two  iron  rollers,  im- 
mersed below  the  surface  of  the  zinc, 
are  fixed  to  the  bath,  and  are  driven  by 
machinery  to  carry  the  plates  through 
tlie  fluid  metal  at  a  determined  velocity. 
The  plates  are  now  received  one  by  one 
from  the  tinning  bath,  drained  for  a 
short  time,  and  passed  at  once,  still  wet, 
through  the  zinc,  by  means  of  rollers 
the  plates  thus  take  a  regular  and 
smooth  layer  of  zinc,  which,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  tin  beneath,  assumes  the 
natural  crystalline  character,  giving  the 
plates  the  well-known  moire  appear- 
ance. 

Cleaning  Galvanized  Vessels. — The 
simplest  plan  is  to  scour  them  with  a 
strong  solution  of  hot  water  and  com- 
mon washing  soda ;  but  if  used  for 
hot  water  and  soap,  use  best  tinned 
vessels,  or  have  them  painted,  as  gal- 
vanized iron  attracts  soap  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  cause  a  deposit  which  is 
disagreeable  and  unsightlv. 

Silvering  and  Tinning. —  To 
Silver  by  Heat. — 1.  Dissolve  1  oz.  of  pure 
silver  in  aquafortis,  and  precip  tate  it 
with  common  salt ;  to  which  add  J  lb.  c  f 


336 


"WOKKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


sal  ammoniac,  the  same  of  white  vitriol,  | 
imi  I  oz.  of  corrosive  sublimate.  2.  Dis-  j 
solve  1  oz.  of  pure  silver  m  aquafortis ; 
precipitate  it  with  common  salt,  and 
;iid,  after  washing,  6  oz.  of  common  salt, 
3  oz.  each  of  sandiver  and  white  vitriol, 
aad  I  oz.  of  sublimate.  These  are  to 
be  ground  into  a  paste  upon  a  fine  stone 
with  a  muller;  the  substance  to  be  sil- 
vered must  be  rubbed  over  with  a  sulfi- 
cient  quantity  of  the  paste,  and  heated. 
When  the  silver  runs,  it  is  taken  from 
the  fire,  and  dipped  into  weak  spirit  of 
salt  to  clean  it. 

To  Silver  in  the  Cold  Woy.—\.  2  dr. 
tartar,  2  dr.  common  salt,  ^  dr.  of  alum, 
and  20  grs.  of  silver,  precipitated  from 
the  nitrous  acid  by  copper.  Make  into  a 
l>a.ste  with  a  little  water.  This  is  to  be 
rubbed  on  the  surface  to  be  silvered 
with  a  cork.  2.  Dissolve  pure  silver  in 
aquafortis,  and  precipitate  the  silver 
with  common  salt;  make  this  precipi- 
tate into  a  i)aste  by  adding  a  little  more 
salt  and  cream  of  tartar.  It  is  applied 
as  in  the  former  method. 

To  Silver  Copper  Ingots. — The  princi- 
jial  difficulties  in  plating  copper  ingots 
are,  to  bring  the  surfaces  of  the  copper 
and  silver  into  fusion  at  the  same  time, 
and  to  ])i'event  the  copper  from  scaling; 
for  which  purposes  flu.xes  are  used.  The 
surface  of  the  copper  on  which  the  silver 
is  to  be  fi.\ed  must  be  made  flat  by  filing, 
and  should  be  left  rough.  The  silver  is 
hict  annealed,  and  afterwards  pickled  in 
weak  sjiirit  of  .salt ;  it  is  planislied,  and 
then  sci'aped  on  the  surface  to  be  fitted 
on  the  cojiper.  Tliese  prepared  surfaces 
are  anointed  with  a  solution  of  borax,  or 
strewed  witli  (ine  powdered  borax  itself, 
and  tiieu  confined  in  contact  with  each 
other  by  binding  wire.  When  they  are 
expo.se<l  to  a  suliicient  degree  of  heat,  the 
(lux  causes  the  surfaces  to  fuse  at  the 
>ame  time,  and  when  cold  they  are  firmly 
united.  (Joj)per  iiuiy  likewise  be  jilated 
by  heiiting  it,  and  burnishing  leaf-silver 
ujioD  it;  HO  may  iron  and  brass. 

To  Plate  Iron. — 1.  Polish  the  surface 
very  clean  anrl  level  with  a  burnisher; 
then  exjiose  it  to  .•»  blueing  heat;  a  leaf 
of  silver  is  to  be  properly  jilaced  and 
carefully  burnished  down.     This  is  re- 


peated until  sufficient  leaves  are  applied 
to  give  the  silver  a  proper  body.  2.  By 
solder ;  slips  of  thin  solder  are  placeo 
between  the  iron  and  silver,  with  a  littlt 
flux,  and  secured  together  by  binding 
wire.  Then  place  in  a  clear  fire  until 
the  solder  melts ;  when  it  is  taken  out, 
on  cooling,  it  will  adhere  firmly.  3.  By 
tinning  the  iron  first,  and  uniting  the 
silver  by  means  of  slips  of  rolled  tin, 
brought  into  fusion  in  a  gentle  heat. 

To  Tin  Copper  and  Brass. — Boil  (3  lbs. 
of  cream  of  tartar,  4  galls,  of  water,  and 
8  lbs.  of  grain  tin  or  tin  shavings.  After 
the  materials  have  boiled  a  sulHcient 
time,  the  substance  to  be  tinned  is  put 
therein,  and  the  boiling  continued,  when 
the  tin  is  precipitated  in  its  metallic 
form. 

To  Tin  Iron  and  Copper  Vessels. — 
Iron  which  is  to  be  tinned  must  be  pre- 
viously steeped  in  aciil  materials,  such 
as  sour  whey  or  distillers'  wash  ;  then 
scoured  and  mpped  in  melted  tin,  having 
been  first  rubbed  over  with  a  solution  cf 
sal  ammoniac.  The  surface  of  the  tin  is 
prevented  from  calcining  by  covering  it 
with  a  coat  of  fat.  Copper  vessels  must 
be  well  cleansed;  and  then  a  suilicient 
quantity  of  tin  with  sal  ammoniac  is  put 
tlierein  and  brought  into  fusion,  and  the 
copper  vessel  moved  about.  A  little 
i-esin  is  sometimes  added.  The  .sal  am- 
moniac prevents  the  copper  from  scaling, 
and  causes  the  tin  to  be  fi.ved  wherever 
it  touches. 

To  Tin  Brass  or  Copper. — 1.  Plates 
or  vessels  of  brass  or  copper,  boiled  with 
a  solution  of  stannate  of  potassa  mixed 
with  turnmgs  of  tin,  become,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  minutes,  covered  with  a 
firmly-attached  layer  of  pure  tin.  2.  A 
similar  eflect  is  produced  by  boiling  the 
articles  with  tin  filings  and  caustic 
alkali,  or  cream  of  tartar.  In  the  above 
way  chemical  vessels  made  of  copper  or 
brass  may  be  easily  and  perfectly  tinned. 

Tinnmj  Inn  Saucepan:'. — If  the  sauce- 
pan is  an  old  one  it  must  be  put  on  the 
lire  and  allowed  to  get  nearly  red  hot, 
whicli  will  get  rid  of  all  the  grease; 
then  make  a  pickle  of  the  followinc  pro- 
jiortions  ; — Oil  of  vitriol,  h  lb. ;  muriatic 
acid,  J  lb. ;  water,  1  gall.     If  the  sauce- 


WORKSnOP  RECEIPTS. 


387 


pan  cin  be  filled  so  mucli  the  better,  if 
not  l;eep  the  pickle  flowing  over  it  for 
say  5  minutes,  pour  out,  rinse  with 
water,  and  scour  well  with  sand  or  coke 
dust  with  a  wisp  of  tow,  rinse  well  with 
water;  if  the  pan  is  clean  it  will  be  of 
an  uniform  grey  colour,  but  if  there  are 
any  red  or  black  spots  it  must  be  jiickled 
and  scoured  again  till  thoroughly  clean. 
Have  ready  chloride  of  zinc,  that  is, 
muriatic  acid  in  which  some  slieet  zinc 
has  been  dissolved,  some  powdered  sal 
ammoniac,  some  tow,  about  18  inches 
of  iron  rod  of  about  J  or  ^  inch  thick, 
one  end  flattened  out  and  bent  up  a 
little  and  tiled  clean,  and  some  bar  tin  ; 
dip  a  wisp  of  tow  in  the  chloride  of  zinc, 
then  into  the  powdered  sal  amr.:oni><', 
taking  up  a  good  quantity,  and  rub  \\A\ 
all  over  the  inside.  This  must  be  done 
directly  after  the  scouring,  for  if  al- 
lowed to  stand  it  will  oxidize;  put  on 
the  fire  till  hot  enough  to  melt  the  tin, 
the  end  of  the  bar  of  tin  being  brushed 
over  the  heated  part  till  melted  ;  run 
down  about  half  the  bar,  and  with  the 
flatttened  end  of  the  iron  rod  rub  the 
tin  well  over  the  surface,  taking  care 
not  to  heat  too  large  a  surface  at  once, 
nor  to  let  it  get  too  hot,  which  may  be 
known  by  the  tin  getting  discoloured, 
when  some  dry  sal  ammoniac  must  be 
thrown  in.  Having  gone  all  over  it, 
wipe  lightly  with  a  wisp  of  tow,  just 
made  warm  enough  that  the  tin  does 
not  stick  to  it ;  when  cold  scour  well 
with  sand  and  tow,  rinsing  with  plenty 
of  water. 

Tinning  Brass  Wire. — Have  two  baths, 
one  containing  the  molten  tin,  kept  at  a 
proper  temperature,  the  other  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  chloride  of  zinc.  Im- 
merse the  coil  of  brass  wire  in  a  boiling 
solution  of  caustic  potash,  and  remove  it 
to  a  bobbin,  having  a  fixed  spindle  and 
on  movable  end.  Pass  the  wire  by 
means  of  suitable  hard  wood  or  brass 
deeply-grooved  pulleys,  so  that  it  shall 
pass  through  the  chloride  of  zinc  bath 
into  thj  molten  tin,  and  after  immersion 
cause  it  to  pass  between  the  grooves  of 
two  pulleys,  revolving  in  contact  with 
cich  other,  so  that  the  grooves  form 
a  hole  equal  in  size  to  the  tinned  wire; 


these  will  scjueeze  ofl'  any  superfluous 
metal  that  may  be  carried  up  from  the 
bath  ;  carry  forwai'd  the  end  and  attach 
to  it  a  fresh  bobbin,  and  wind  ofl^  at  a 
speed  that  must  be  regulated  by  expe- 
rience. The  wire  must  be  raised  suffi- 
ciently in  temperature  before  it  will  take 
the  tm,  and  it  must  be  properly  cooled 
again  before  it  reaches  the  final  bobbin, 
which  can  be  effected  by  placing  it  at  a 
proper  distance  from  the  tin  bath. 

Cold  Tinning. — Block  tin  dissolved  in 
muriatic  acid  with  a  little  mercury 
forms  a  very  good  amalgam  for  cold 
tinning  ;  or,  1  part  of  tin,  2  of  zinc,  <3 
of  quicksilver.  Mix  tin  and  mercury 
together  until  they  form  a  soft  paste. 
Clean  the  metal  to  be  tinned,  taking  care 
to  free  it  from  greasiness  ;  then  rub  it 
with  a  piece  of  cloth  moistened  with 
muriatic  acid,  and  immediately  apply  a 
little  of  the  amalgam  to  the  surface, 
rubbing  it  in  with  tiie  same  rag.  The 
amalgam  will  adhere  to  the  surface  and 
thoroughly  tin  it.  Cast  iron,  wrought 
iron,  steel,  and  copper  may  be  tinned  this 
way.  Those  who  find  it  dillicult  to  make 
soft  solder  adhere  to  iron  with  sal  am- 
moniac, will  find  no  difficulty  if  they  first . 
tin  the  surfaces  in  this  manner,  and  then 
proceed  as  with  ordinary  tin  plate. 

Tinning  Cast  and  Wroui/ht  Iron  Pipes. 
— File  bright  the  piece  of  iron  required 
to  be  tinned,  and  mix  up  the  following 
solution  ; — In  a  pennyworth  of  spirits  of 
salts,  put  a  piece  of  zinc  the  size  of  a 
shilling,  the  spirits  of  salts  will  eat  it 
away ;  wet  the  places  required  to  be 
tinned  with  the  solution,  then  while  wet 
use  a  cop])er-bit  with  fine  solder,  and  it 
will  immediately  tin. 

Crystallized  Tin-Plate  is  a  variegated 
primrose  appearance,  produced  upon  the 
surface  of  tin-plate,  by  applying  to  it  in 
a  heated  state  some  dilute  nitro-muriatic 
acid  for  a  ftw  seconds,  then  wasliing  it 
with  water,  drying,  and  coating  it  with 
lacquer.  The  figures  are  more  or  less  di- 
versified, according  to  the  degree  of  heat, 
and  relative  dilution  of  the  acid.  Place 
the  tin-plate,  slightly  heated,  over  a  tub 
of  water,  and  rub  its  surface  with  a 
sponge  dipped  in  a  liquor  composed  of 
4  parts  of  aquafortis,  and  2  of  distilled 


•6'68 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


water,  holding  1  part  of  common  salt  or 
Bal  ammoniac  in  solution.  When  the  crys- 
talline sj)angles  seem  to  be  thoroughly 
brought  out,  the  plate  must  be  immersed 
in  water,  washed  either  with  a  feather 
or  a  little  cotton,  taking  care  not  to  rub 
olT  the  tiim  of  tin  that  forms  the  feather- 
ing, forthwith  dried  with  a  low  heat, 
anvl  coated  with  a  lacquer  varnish,  other- 
wise it  loses  its  lustre  in  the  air.  If  the 
whole  surface  is  not  plunged  at  once  in 
cold  water,  but  is  partially  cooled  by 
sprinkling  water  on  it,  the  crystalliza- 
tion will  be  finely  variegated  with  large 
and  snnll  figures.  Similar  results  will 
be  obtained  by  blowing  cold  air  through  a 
pipe  on  the  tinned  surface,  while  it  is  just 
passing  from  the  fused  to  the  solid  state. 

Clcaninij  Timcare. — Acids  should  never 
be  employed  to  clean  tinware,  because 
they  attack  the  metal,  aud  remove  it 
from  the  iron  of  which  it  forms  a  thin 
coat.  We  refer  to  articles  made  of  tin- 
plate,  which  consists  of  iron  covered  with 
tin.  Uub  the  article  first  with  rotten- 
stone  and  sweet  oil,  the  same  as  recom- 
mended for  brass,  then  finish  with 
whitening  and  a  piece  of  soft  leather. 
Articles  made  wholly  of  tin  should  be 
cleaned  in  the  same  manner.  Jn  a  dry 
atmosphere  planished  tinware  will  re- 
main bright  for  a  long  period,  but  it 
soon  becomes  tarnished  iu  moist  air. 

Tinning  Small  Article!'. — Place  them 
.in  wai-m  water,  with  a  little  sulphuric 
acid  added  to  it,  which  will  clean  them  ; 
then  [lowder  some  sal  ammoniac  and  mix 
it  in  the  water,  stirring  well  until  all  is 
dissolved.  After  washing  the  articles  in 
clean  water,  place  them  iu  the  solution 
for  a  few  minutes;  then  lay  them  by  the 
(ire  to  dry.  I'rocure  a  jian  rt'sembiing  a 
frying  pan  in  shape,  the  bottom  of  which 
must  be  full  of  small  holes.  The  j)0t  for 
melting  t>.»  tin  must  be  large  enough  to 
.vlniit  the  i>an  for  holding  the  articles. 
(,'over  the  bottom  of  the  pan  with  the 
nrlicles  to  be  tinned,  anil,  after  tprink- 
liug  a  little  powclei'iMJ  sal  ainiiioiiiac  over 
the  surface  of  the  molten  tin  to  clear  it 
from  dross,  dip  the  f)an  containing  the 
goods  into  it  ;  after  all  smoke  has  disap- 
[)eared,  lift  it  out  and  shake  well  over 
the  pot,  Hprinkling  a  little  bul  ammoniac 


over  the  goods  to  prevent  them  from 
having  too  thick  a  coat,  then  cool  quickly 
in  cold  water  to  keep  them  bright. 

Annealing  Steel. — Make  the  steel  red 
hot,  then  put  it  in  a  heaji  of  dry  saw-dust 
till  cold,  when  it  will  be  found  to  be 
quite  soft. 

Mother  -  of  -  Pearl.  —  Mother-of 
pearl  is  the  inner  coat  of  several  kinds  of 
oyster-shells,  some  of  which  secrete  this 
layer  of  sutlicient  thickness  to  render  the 
shell  an  object  of  manufacture.  The 
beautiful  tints  of  the  layer  depend  u])on 
its  structure,  the  surface  being  covered 
with  a  multitude  of  minute  grooves, 
which  decompose  and  reflect  the  light. 
The  structure  of  the  pearl  shell  admits 
of  its  being  sjilit  into  lamiu;e,  aud  it  caxi 
then  be  used  for  the  handles  of  kuives,  for 
inlaying,  or  iu  the  manufacture  of  Init- 
tons  ;  but  as  s))litting  is  liable  to  injure 
or  spoil  the  shell,  this  method  of  dividing 
it  is  seldom  resorted  to.  In  manufacture 
the  diiferent  parts  are  selected  of  a  thick- 
ness as  nearly  as  possible  to  suit  the  re- 
quired ])uri)ose ;  excess  of  thickness  is 
got  rid  of  by  means  of  saws,  filing,  or  by 
grinding  upon  the  commou  griudst<ine. 
In  pre])aring  the  rough  shell,  if  square  or 
angular  ]iieces  are  neecled,  they  are  cut 
with  saws,  as  the  circular  saw  or  the  or- 
dinary back  saw ;  in  the  one  case,  the  shell 
is  fed  u))  as  the  saw  divides  it,  and  in  the 
other  the  shell  is  hold  in  a  vice,  and  the 
saw  operated  by  hand.  If  circular  pieces 
of  the  shell  are  wanted,  such  as  those  for 
buttons,  they  are  cut  with  an  annu- 
lar or  crown  saw,  which  is  fixed  upon  .i 
mandrel.  It  is  necessary  in  sawing  that 
water  is  ]ileiitifully  supplied  to  the  in- 
strimieut,  or  the  heat  generated  by 
dividing  the  sliell  will  lu-at  the  saw,  and 
its  temjier  will  be  destroyed.  The  pieces 
of  shell  are  next  groimij  flat  ujion  n 
grindstone,  the  edge  of  which  is  turned 
with  a  number  of  grooves  or  ridges,  as 
being  less  liable  to  become  clogged  than 
the  entire  surface,  and  hence  grind 
luori!  quickly.  It  is  necessary  to  suppiy 
water,  or  soa]i  ami  water,  to  the  stone, 
as  it  is  then  less  liable  to  become 
clogged.  The  flat  side  of  the  stone, 
similarly  prejKired  with  ridges,  may  be 
used  iustead  of  the  face,  if  it  is  desirol  to 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


339 


have  the  pieces  of  shell  ground  flat,  and 
when  of  the  requisite  thinness  they  are 
ready  for  operation  in  the  lathe,  or  for 
inlaying.  After  the  pieces  of  pearl  shell 
are  cut,  ground,  or  turned  to  the  proper 
form,  they  are  finished  with  pumice- 
stone  and  water  ;  this  may  be  done  with 
pieces  of  the  stone  properly  shaped,  and 
rubbed  over  the  work  as  it  is  held  fast  in 
Bome  form  of  clamp,  or  held  upon  the 
work  as  it  is  revolved  in  the  lathe.  This 
process  may  be  followed  by  an  applica- 
tion of  ground  pumice-stone,  which  has 
been  carefully  sifted  to  extract  all  ex- 
cept the  minutely  powdered  portion,  and 
applied  with  a  piece  of  cork  or  a  cloth 
moistened  with  water.  The  polishing  is 
accomplished  with  rotten-stone,  moist- 
ened with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which 
may  be  applied  upon  a  piece  of  cork  or  a 
bit  of  soft  wood.  In  some  turned  works 
fine  emery  paper  may  be  used,  and  fol- 
lowed with  rotten-stone  moistened  with 
the  acid  or  oil.  The  pearl  handles  used 
for  razors  or  knives  are  first  roughed 
out,  then  drilled  where  the  rivets  are 
to  be  inserted,  and  lightly  riveted  to- 
gether in  pairs.  They  are  ground 
to  the  proper  size  and  thickness,  and 
finished  by  the  means  mentioned,  the  last 
finishing  touch,  to  produce  a  fine  polish, 
often  being  done  by  the  friction  of  the 
hand  of  the  workman.  Sometimes  it  is 
advantageous  to  apply  the  polishing  ma- 
terial to  the  surface  of  a  wheel,  and  this 
wheel  may  be  covered  with  cloth  and 
moistened  with  water,  which  will  cause 
enough  of  the  powder  to  adhere.  Sepa- 
rate wheels  may  be  used  for  the  pumice- 
stone  and  the  rotten-stone.  Sometimes 
dry  powdered  chalk  or  Spanish  whiting 
is  used  in  place  of  the  rotten-stone.  One 
process  of  working  pearl  is  by  the  aid  of 
cori'osive  acids  and  the  etching  point. 
The  shell  is  first  divided  as  may  be  neces- 
sary, and  the  designs  or  patterns  drawn 
upon  it  with  an  opaque  varnish  ;  strong 
nitric  acid  is  then  brushed  over  the 
plates  repeatedly,  until  the  parts  unde- 
fended by  the  varnish  are  sufliciently 
corroded  or  eaten  away  by  the  acid.  The 
varnish  now  being  washed  off,  the  de- 
vice, which  the  acid  had  not  touched,  is 
found  to  be  nicely  executed.     If  the  de- 


sign is  to  be  after  the  manner  of  common 
etching  on  copper,  the  process  upon  the 
shell  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  process 
upon  metal.  When  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  pieces  of  thin  shell  are  required  to 
be  of  the  same  size  and  pattern,  the  re- 
quisite number  of  plates  are  cemented 
together  with  glue,  and  the  device  or 
figure  drawn  upon  the  outer  plate.  They 
may  then  be  held  in  a  vice  or  clamp,  and 
cut  out  as  one  plate  with  a  fine  saw,  or 
wrought  into  the  desired  form  with  files ; 
drilling  tools  may  be  employed  to  assist 
in  the  operation.  To  separate  the  pieces, 
the  cemented  shells  are  thrown  into 
warm  water,  which  softens  the  glue  and 
separates  the  pieces. 

Artificial  Mother-of -Pearl  Buttons. — 
White  horn  buttons  may  be  made  to 
imitate  mothei'-of-pearl  by  being  boiled 
in  a  saturated  solution  of  sugar  of  lead, 
and  then  laid  in  very  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid.  Combs,  to  which  the  boiling  pro- 
cess is  not  applicable,  as  it  distorts  the 
teeth,  may  be  treated  by  being  kept  over- 
night in  a  moderately  concentrated  cold 
solution  of  nitrate  of  lead,  then  laid  for 
a  quarter  to  half  an  hour  in  a  bath  con- 
taining 3  per  cent,  of  nitric  acid,  and 
finally  being  rinsed  in  water.  The  use 
of  sugar  of  lead  is,  however,  prejudicial, 
and  should  be  avoided. 

Inlaying  with  Mother-of -Pearl.  —  1. 
Tortoiseshell  is  softened  by  soaking  it  in 
hot  water — the  design  arranged,  and 
placed  between  flat  dies,  under  a  heavy 
press,  to  remain  till  the  shell  is  cold  and 
dry.  It  is  thus  embedded  in  the  shell. 
Those  vivid  colours  on  paper  trays  are 
fragments  of  the  Aurora  shell,  pressed  in 
the  same  way,  while  the  paper  is  damp; 
when  dry  the  design  is  painted,  var- 
nished, baked,  and  polished. 

2.  Thin  scaJes  of  the  shell  are  to  be 
selected  for  their  colour,  or  shade,  and 
cemented  to  the  surface  of  the  material. 
The  rest  of  the  surface  is  covered  with 
successive  coats  of  japan  varnish,  gene- 
rally black,  being  subjected  to  a  baking 
process  after  each  application.  When 
the  varnish  is  as  thick  as  the  shell  it 
is  polished,  the  gilding  and  painting 
added,  and  a  flowing  coat  of  varnish  put 
over  the  whole. 

z  2 


310 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


To  Imitate  Tortoiscshell  with  Horn. — 
1.  Slix  up  an  equ;rl  quantity  of  quick 
lime  and  red  lead  with  soap  lees  ;  lay  it 
on  the  horn  with  a  small  brush,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  mottle  of  tortoiseshell ; 
when  it  is  dry,  repeat  it  two  or  three 
times.  2.  Grind  1  oz.  of  litharge  and 
^  o<s.  of  quick  lime,  together  with  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  liquid  salts  of  tartar 
to  make  it  of  the  consistence  of  jiaint. 
Put  it  on  tlie  horn  with  a  brush,  in  imi- 
tation of  tortoiseshell,  and  in  three  or 
four  hours  it  will  have  produced  the  de- 
sired efi'ect ;  it  may  then  be  washed  off 
with  clean  water  ;  if  not  deep  enough  it 
may  be  repeated.  '•^.  Take  a  piece  of 
lunar  caustic  about  the  size  of  a  pea; 
gi-ind  with  it  water  on  a  stone,  and  mix 
with  it  a  sullicient  portion  of  gum  arabic 
to  make  it  of  a  proper  consistence;  then 
apply  it  with  a  brush  to  the  horn  in 
imitation  of  the  veins  of  tortoiseshell. 
A  little  red  lead,  or  sjme  other  powder 
mixed  with  it,  to  give  it  a  body,  is  of 
advantage.  It  will  then  stain  the  horn 
quite  througli,  without  hurting  its  tex- 
ture and  quality.  In  this  case,  however, 
you  must  be  careful,  when  the  horn  is 
sullicicntly  stamed,  to  let  it  be  soaked 
for  some  hours  in  plain  water,  previous 
to  fmishiug  and  j>()lishing  it.  I'leces  of 
horn  are  united  together  to  form  one 
large  piece  by  bemg  softened  at  tlie  edge 
by  boiling  water,  and  then  pressing  them 
together  jiowerfuliy  while  surrounded  by 
boiling  water. 

I'rcp  ir  ition  of  Horn. — The  horn  is 
first  roasted  over  a  fire  made  of  the  stalks 
of  furze.  Wlioii  rendered  soft,  it  is  slit 
on  one  side,  an'l  ke|it  expamlcd  fiat  be- 
tween a  pair  of  tongs;  it  is  Ihen  jilaccd 
in  a  jircss  between  iron  ])latos  which  are 
greased.  The  lioriis  are  sulTcrcd  to  re- 
main till  they  are  cooled  ;  they  are  then 
soaked  m  water  till  soft  enough  to  be 
pared  down  to  the  required  thinn<'ss, 
with  a  large  knife  worked  horizontally 
on  a  block.  Tneir  trans]iarcncy  is  thus 
acquired;  and  after  being  immersed  in 
le/,  they  arc  poli.sheil  with  wliiteuing 
ac'J  tlie  coal  of  burnt  willow. 

Gum. — Mu'.-it'Kjo  for  I.aMs. — Jlace- 
rate  b  j)art8  of  good  glue  in  20  ))arts 
of  water  fjr  21  hours,  adding  20  parts 


of  rock    candy,    and   3   parts   of  gum 
arabic. 

To  Preserve  Gum-Arabic  Solutions. — 
A  few  drops  of  oil  of  cloves,  or  of  alcohol, 
or  any  essential  oil,  will  preserve  a  quart 
of  the  mucilage  of  gum  arabic  or  gum 
tragacanth  iVom  turning  sour.  A  small 
quantity  of  dissolved  alum  will  preserve 
flour  paste. 

Artificial  or  British  Gum.  —  Malt, 
crushed  small,  1  lb. ;  warm  water,  2 
galls.  Mis,  heat  the  whole  to  Ub° 
l'"ahr. ;  add  of  potato  starch  5  lbs. ;  raisij 
the  heat  to  1G0°  Fahr.,  and  mash  for 
about  25  minutes,  or  until  the  liquid 
becomes  thin  and  clear;  it  must  then  be 
instantly  run  olf,  and  raised  to  the  boil- 
ing point  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
sugar;  after  boiling  for  3  or  4  minutes, 
the  whole  must  be  filtered  and  evapo- 
rated to  dryness  by  a  steam  heat. 

Wax  Impressions  from  Seals. 
— Warm  the  seal  a  little,  and  rub  over  it 
the  end  of  a  wax  caudle  ;  then  sprinkle  it 
with  the  best  vermilion.  Melt  the  sealing 
wax  by  holding  it  over  a  candle,  so  that 
it  does  not  catch  fire — suffering  it  to 
drop  upon  the  paper;  impress  the  pre- 
pared seal  upon  it,  and  if  done  carefully 
a  fine  impression  will  be  made.  If  seve- 
ral seals  are  to  be  made  at  once,  or  even 
one  of  a  large  size,  it  is  customary  to 
melt  the  sealing  wax  in  a  small  ladle  or 
crucible,  from  which  it  may  be  poured 
as  wanted.  Seals  of  ditferent  colours  are 
made  by  dusting  the  seal  with  a  powder 
of  one  colour,  and  stamjiing  it  upon  wax 
ofanotlier;  thus  dust  the  seal  with  lamj)- 
black,  and  impress  it  upon  red  wax — the 
impression  will  have  a  black  centre  and 
red  edge. 

To  make  Glass  Seals. — First, 
])rocure  a  mould  ina<le  of  jdaster  of  Pans, 
the  counterpart  of  the  seal  wisheii  for, 
and  this  may  b<,'  made  by  pouring  a  mix- 
ture of  plaster  of  I'aris  and  water,  of  the 
consistency  of  cream,  upon  any  engraved 
seal,  previously  slightly  oiled  ;  when  '>et, 
remove  the  cast  and  let  it  thoroughly 
dry,  when  it  will  be  fit  for  use;  then 
jilacc  in  the  centre  of  a  clear  fire  a  ]>iece 
of  llin«,  y,\a!i>^,  holding  it  with  '  pair  of 
iron  j)iucers,  being  careful  to  hold  it  .so 
as  not  to  touch  any  of  the  black  coaU. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


3dl 


Wliea  of  a  red,  or  still  better  of  a  white 
heat,  take  it  from  the  tire,  lay  it  upon 
the  mould,  and  press  upon  the  back  of  it 
so  as  to  force  it  into  all  the  depressions. 
To  finish  it,  it  requires  to  be  ground 
round  the  edge  into  shape.  If  it  be  de- 
sired to  imitate  a  seahng-wax  impression, 
it  is  necessary  to  oil  it,  pour  common 
was  upon  it,  and  take  the  plaster  cast 
from  this.  The  makers  of  composition 
seals  usually  melt  the  glass  in  a  crucible, 
taking  out  a  sufficient  quantity  with  an 
iron  rod.  Their  moulds  have  a  ridge  or 
frame  of  plaster  round  them,  to  ensure 
the  proper  shape  at  once,  without  after 
grinding. 

Gum  Seals  are  made  by  pouring  a 
little  strong  gum  water  over  the  im- 
pression, after  being  oiled  slightly,  and 
keep  adding  more  as  it  dries.  When 
about  the  consistence  of  india-rubber,  it 
can  be  taken  olT  with  an  open  penknife. 

Manufacture  of  Glue ;  from 
Bones. — The  first  process  is  to  cleanse 
the  bones  by  immersing  them  in  a  pit  or 
cistern  of  water,  where  they  remain 
about  12  hours;  the  water  is  then  to 
be  drawn  oil,  and  fresh  water  added 
to  tliem ;  this  operation  is  sometimes 
repeated  to  remove  any  dirt.  The 
water  being  withdrawn  from  the  bones, 
a  solution  of  lime,  in  the  proportion  of 
1  bushel  of  lime  to  500  gallons  of  water, 
is  to  be  poured  into  the  cistern  for  the 
moi-e  jierfect  cleansing  of  the  bones  and 
the  removal  of  any  superfluous  matter. 
After  3  or  4  days'  saturation  the  lime 
solution  should  be  drawn  oft'  and  fresh 
water  added  to  get  rid  of  the  lime. 
Thus  prepared,  the  bones  are  placed  in  a 
hollow  globular  vessel  of  wrought  iron, 
called  an  extractor,  which  is  filled  with 
them  by  removing  the  interior  plate 
which  covers  the  manhole;  this  aper- 
ture is  of  an  elliptical  form,  and  allows 
the  plate  to  be  slipped  round  and  re- 
fixed  in  its  place  by  turning  a  nut, 
which  draws  it  up  tight  against  the  in- 
terior surface  of  the  extractor,  and  the 
junctures  are  made  air-tight  by  luting. 
The  extractor  turns  upon  a  horizontal 
cylindrical  shaft ;  one  half  of  this  shaft 
IS  made  hollow,  or  consists  of  a  strong 
tube,    which  tube  also   proceeds  down- 


wards towards  the  centre  of  the  vessel 
to  conduct  the  steam  beneath  the  grating 
upon  which  the  bones  are  laid.  The 
steam,  of  about  15  lbs.  pressure,  is  ad- 
mitted by  the  cylindrical  shaft,  pro- 
ceeds first  to  the  bottom  ol'the  extractor, 
then  rises  up  through  the  grating  and 
amongst  the  bones,  until  the  vessel  is 
completely  charged ;  previous  to  this, 
however,  the  air  in  the  extractor  is  got 
rid  of  by  opening  a  cock  at  the  top  oi 
the  extractor,  and  closing  it  after  the 
admission  of  steam.  While  the  steam  is 
acting  upon  the  bones  tlie  extractor  is 
occasionally  turned  round  by  means  of  a 
hand-winch.  When  at  rest,  a  quantity 
of  fluid  gelatine  is  collected  at  the 
bottom  of  the  extractor,  from  whence  it 
is  discharged  by  means  of  a  cock  into  a 
tub  beneath,  after  opening  the  air-cock 
to  enable  it  to  run  otf.  Tliis  done, 
steam  is  again  admitted  from  the  boiler 
into  the  extractor  to  act  upon  the  bones 
for  another  hour,  when  the  second  por- 
tion of  condensed  liquor  is  drawn  oiT. 
When  fhe  products  thus  obtained  have 
become  cold,  the  fat  which  has  formed 
upon  the  surface  is  to  be  carefully  re- 
moved by  skimming,  and  the  gelatinous 
portion  only  is  to  be  returned  into  the 
extractor  by  means  of  a  funnel  through 
the  cock  ou  the  top.  The  steam  is 
then  admitted  to  the  extractor  for  au 
hour,  after  which  it  is  finally  drawn  oft 
into  another  vessel  to  undergo  a  simple 
evaporating  process  until  it  arrives  at  a 
proper  consistency  to  solidify  when  cold, 
previous  to  which  some  alum  is  added  to 
clarify  it.  When  cold  this  gelatinous 
mass  IS  cut  out  into  square  cakes,  and 
dried  as  usual  in  the  open  air. 

Common  Glue. — 1.  Common  glue  is 
extracted  from  h-oofs,  horns,  and  cut- 
tings of  the  hides  of  various  animals. 
For  this  process  the  materials  are  first 
steeped  in  water  for  2  or  3  days, 
well  washed,  and  afterwards  boiled  to 
the  consistency  of  a  thick  jelly,  which 
is  pk^ssed  while  hot  through  osier  baskets 
to  separate  the  grosser  particles  of  dirt 
or  bones  from  it,  and  allowed  to 
stand  some  time  to  purify  further. 
When  the.  remaining  impurities  have 
settled    to    the   bottom,   it    is    melted 


S42 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


and  boiled  a  second  time.  It  is  next 
poured  into  flat  frames  or  moulds,  from 
which  it  is  taken  out  hard  and  solid, 
and  cut  into  square  pieces  or  cakes,  and 
afterwards  dried  in  the  wind  in  a  coarse 
kind  of  net.  2.  Substances  intended  for 
the  glue-maker  are  macerated  with  milk 
of  lime  for  14  days,  and  dried  by  expo- 
sure to  the  air  ;  they  can  then  be  trans- 
poi'ted  to  any  distance  without  under- 
going decomposition.  The  manufacturer 
generally  treats  the  materials  again 
with  dilute  milk  of  lime ;  afterwards 
they  are  carefully  washed  and  exposed 
to  the  air  for  about  20  or  30  hours. 
They  are  then  placed  in  a  copper  boiler 
having  a  perforated  false  bottom,  which 
supports  the  materials  and  preveuts 
their  being  burnt ;  the  boiler  is  filled 
about  two-thirds  with  water,  and  is 
piled  up  with  the  animal  substances 
until  they  are  level  with  the  brim  ;  a 
gentle  but  steady  boil  should  be  main- 
tained, and  the  substances  should  be 
stirred  from  time  to  time,  \yhen  the 
liquor  on  cooling  forms  a  firm  gelatinous 
mass,  the  clear  portion  is  run  oif  into 
another  vesssel,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
dissolved  alum  is  added.  It  is  kept 
warm  by  means  of  hot  water,  and  al- 
lowed to  remain  undisturbed  for  some 
hours  to  deposit  its  impurities ;  it  is 
next  run  into  the  congealing  boxes, 
and  left  to  cool.  When  cold  the 
masses  are  turned  out  upon  boards 
wetted  with  water,  cut  into  small  cakes, 
and  these  cakes  are  placed  upon  nettings 
to  dry.  The  dry  cakes  are  then  dipped 
into  hot  water,  and  lightly  rubbed  with 
a  brush  to  give  them  a  gloss,  and  lastly 
stove-drieil  for  sale.  This  furnishes  tlic 
best  and  palest  glue.  After  the  first 
liquor  is  drawn  from  the  copper,  the 
remnants  left  in  the  boiler  are  treated 
with  fresh  water,  again  and  again,  until 
no  gelatinous  matter  can  be  extracted. 

Gelatine. — Gelatine  is  made  by  steep- 
ing the  stomach  and  intestines  of  fish  in 
cold  water,  anil  then  gently  boiling 
them  into  a  jelly;  this  is  spreail  into 
nheetii  and  allowed  to  dry.  The  air- 
bladder  of  the  sturgeon  makes  the  true 
isinglass. 

Bleacliing'  Wax. — The  process  of 


bleaching  wax  consists  in  first  melting 
it  at  a  low  temperature  in  a  caldron, 
from  whence  it  is  allowed  to  run  out  by 
a  pipe  at  the  bottom  into  a  capacious 
vessel  filled  with  cold  water,  in  which 
is  fitted  a  large  wooden  cylinder  that  is 
made  to  turn  on  its  axis,  upon  which 
the  melted  wax  falls.  The  surface  of 
the  cylinder  being  constantly  wet,  the 
was  does  not  adhere  to  it,  but  lays  solid 
in  the  form  of  ribbons  as  fast  as  they 
are  formed,  and  distributed  through  the 
tub.  The  wax  is  then  put  upon  large 
frames  covered  with  linen  cloth,  which 
are  supported  about  18  in.  above  the 
ground,  in  a  situation  exposed  to  the 
air,  dew,  and  sun.  The  thickness  of 
the  several  ribbons  thus  placed  on  the 
frame  should  not  exceed  1§  in.,  and 
they  ought  to  be  moved  from  time  to 
time  that  each  part  may  be  equally  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  the  air.  If  the 
weather  is  favourable  it  will  become 
white  in  a  few  days.  It  is  then  re- 
melted,  formed  into  ribbons,  and  ex- 
posed to  the  air  as  before.  These 
operations  are  repeated  until  the  wax 
is  rendered  perfectly  white;  after  which 
it  can  be  melted  and  run  into  cakes. 
Sometimes  it  is  bleached  by  the  follow- 
ing chemical  process  ; — The  wax  is 
heated  to  about  212°  Fahr.  in  an  iron 
vessel  lined  with  lead,  when  either 
chloride  of  lime  or  magnesia  is  added, 
either  in  solution  with  water  or  in  a 
dry  state,  and  then  intimately  mixed 
and  btirred  up  with  a  wooden  spatula. 
When  these  materials  have  acted  on 
each  other  for  a  sullicieut  length  of 
time  to  discharge  the  colour  from  the 
wax,  the  lime  or  magnesia  is  removed 
by  the  addition  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  which  possesses  a  greater  aliinity 
for  those  alkalies  than  chlorine.  The 
whole  is  then  to  be  boiled  until  all 
the  alkalies  employed  are  separated. 
The  solution  of  the  chloride  is  to  he  in 
the  proportion  of  fiom  14  lbs.  to  28  lbs. 
of  the  salt  to  112  lbs.  of  water,  and 
an  equal  quantity  by  weight  of  the 
melted  wax.  The  sulphuric  acid  should 
be  of  the  specific  gravity  1*8,  anu  oc 
diluted  with  twenty  tiroes  its  weight  of 
water. 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


343 


Inks. — The  composition  of  ink  varies 
according  to  the  purposes  for  which  it 
IS  intended,  and  the  large  number  of 
uses  to  which  it  is  now  applied,  such  as 
for  writing,  printing,  lithography,  and 
engraving,  necessitate  very  great  nicety 
in  its  proportions,  and  care  in  its  pre- 
paration. A  good  ink  ought  to  be  so 
thin  as  to  flow  freely  from  the  pen;  it 
should  be  so  thick  as  not  to  spread  or 
blur  on  the  paper,  and  it  should  possess 
sufficient  dejith  of  colour  to  retain  its 
blackness  for  many  years.  Much  of  the 
permanency  of  ink  depends  on  the 
material  u])on  which  it  is  written,  for 
if  we  write  on  pajier  which  has  been 
bleached  with  chlorine,  and  the  gas  has 
been  imperfectly  removed,  it  has  a 
deleterious  effect  on  the  beauty  and 
durability  of  the  writing.  Concerning 
the  composition  of  ink,  galls  are  used 
in  the  process,  not  because  they  are  rich 
in  gallic  acid,  but  because  they  contain 
a  high  percentage  of  tannic  acid. 

Black  Writing  Inks. — The  proportions 
which  appear  most  suitable,  and  upon 
which  most  dependence  can  be  placed, 
are — 1.  bruised  galls,  1  lb.;  to  this  add 
1  gallon  of  boiling  water,  and  one-third 
of  the  weight  of  the  galls,  namely, 
5\  oz.  of  sulphate  of  iron  in  solution  ; 
also  3  oz.  of  gum  ai-abic  previously  dis- 
solved, and  a  few  bruised  cloves  or  a 
few  drops  of  creosote  or  carbolic  acid 
aissolved  in  methylated  spirit.  It  is 
better  to  allow  the  galls  to  macerate 
for  24  hours,  then  strain  the  infusion, 
and  add  the  other  ingredients.  2.  Take 
of  bruised  galls  12  oz.,  macerate  for  a 
week  in  1  gallon  of  cold  water,  thee 
add  6  oz.  of  sulphate  of  iron  in  solution, 
also  6  oz.  of  mucilage  of  gum  arabic, 
and  5  or  6  drops  of  creosote.  3.  12  lbs. 
Aleppo  galls  bruised,  boiled  in  6  gallons 
soft  water  for  an  hour,  adding  water  to 
replace  that  evaporated ;  strain,  and 
again  boil  the  galls  in  4  gallons  more 
water  for  about  half  an  hour;  strain 
and  boil  with  2J  gallons  more  water ; 
strain,  and  mix  the  liquors.  Add  4^  lbs. 
coarsely-powdered  green  copperas,  4  lbs. 
gum  arabic  in  small  pieces,  agitate 
until  the  ingredients  are  dissolved, 
filter    through     a     hair    sieve.       This 


will  yield  about  12  gallons  of  very  fine 
durable  ink. 

Copying  Ink. — 1.  Add  1  oz.  of  lump 
sugar,  or  of  sugar-candy,  to  1|  pint 
good  black  ink,  dissolve.  The  follow- 
ing requires  no  press,  but  may  be 
copied  by  placing  a  damp  sheet  of 
copying  paper  on  the  writing  intended 
to  be  copied ;  above  this  sheet  of  copy- 
ing paper  a  sheet  of  ordinary  writing 
paper  must  be  placed,  and  then  rubbed 
over  with  a  paper  knile.  2.  Mix  30 
grains  of  extract  of  logwood  ;  7  grains 
of  crystal  soda ;  J  oz.  of  water.  Boil 
till  dissolved  ;  then,  while  stirring  well, 
add  30  grains  of  glycerine,  1  grain 
of  chromate  of  potash,  previously  dis- 
solved, and  4  grains  of  powdered  gum 
arabic.  3.  A  transfer  ink,  for  copying 
without  any  press,  and  without  pre- 
viously moistening  the  copying  paper, 
consists  of  a  decoction  of  Brazil  wood 
and  glycerine.  When  paper  is  written 
upon  with  the  ink,  and  laid  on  tissue 
paper,  rubbing  with  the  finger  trans- 
fers it. 

Blue-black  Writing  and  Copying  Ink. — 
Blue  Aleppo  galls,  free  from  insect  per- 
foration, 4§  oz. ;  bruised  cloves,  1  dram  ; 
cold  water,  40  oz. ;  purified  sulphate 
of  iron,  IJ  oz. ;  pure  sulphuric  acid, 
by  measiire,  35  minims ;  sulphate  of  in- 
digo, in  the  form  of  a  thin  paste,  and 
which  should  be  neutral,  or  nearly  so, 
\  oz.  Place  the  galls,  when  bruised, 
with  the  cloves,  in  a  50-oz.  bottle,  pour 
upon  them  the  water,  and  digest,  shak- 
ing daily  for  a  fortnight.  Then  filter 
through  paper  into  another  50-oz.  bottle. 
Get  out  the  refuse  of  the  galls,  and 
wring  out  of  it  the  remaining  liquor 
througii  a  strong  clean  linen  or  cotton 
cloth  into  the  filter,  in  order  that  as 
little  as  possible  may  be  lost.  Next  put 
in  the  iron,  dissolve  completely,  and 
filter  through  paper.  Then  the  acid, 
and  agitate  briskly.  Lastly,  the  indigo, 
and  thoroughly  mix  by  shaking.  Pass 
the  whole  through  paper.  Filter  out  of 
one  bottle  into  the  other  till  the  opera- 
tion has  been  completed.  When  in- 
tended for  copying,  5J  oz.  galls  is  the 
quantity.  The  water  should  be  as  .soft 
as  possible — that  is,  it  should    contain 


314 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


no  lime  or  other  earthy  matter  ;  rain 
water,  or  distilled  water,  sliould  be 
used  in  making  ink. 

Black  Ink,  Non-corrosive. — Digest  in 
an  open  vessel,  42  oz.  of  coarsely- 
powdered  nut-galls,  15  oz.  of  gum 
Senegal,  18  oz.  of  sulphate  of  iron,  free 
from  cojti-.er ;  3  drams  of  aqua  ammonia ; 
24  oz.  of  alcohol ;  and  18  quarts  of  dis- 
tilled or  rain  water.  Continue  the 
digestion  until  the  fluid  has  assumed  a 
deep  black  colour.  For  cheap  inks 
other  ingredients  may  be  substituted 
instead  of  part  cf  the  galls  ;  logwood, 
catechu,  sumach,  and  oak  bark  may  be 
used  for  the  same  purpose.  Many  other 
substances,  such  as  elm  wood,  elder, 
chestuut,  beech,  willow,  plum,  cherry, 
and  ]io))lar,  all  contain  a  certain  amount 
of  astiingent  projorties,  but  none  of 
them  are  to  be  couipared  to  galls,  and 
are  not  likely  to  supersede  them  in  the 
manufacture  of  mk  so  long  as  galls  can 
be  had  for  a  fair  price.  The  cheapest 
mk  is  one  comi)osed  of  a  saturated 
solution  of  logwood  obtained  by  boiling 
22  lbs.  of  logwood  in  sufficieat  water  to 
produce,  after  being  strained,  14  gallons 
of  liquor  ;  to  this  decoction  add  1  lb., 
avoirdupois,  of  yellow  chromate  of 
pota.sh,  not  bichromate,  in  solution;  the 
])roi)ortions  are  one  thousand  j)arts  of 
solution  tu  one  of  chromate  ;  the  change 
of  colour  is  not  immeiliate,  but  it  gradu- 
ally becomes  darker.  This  can  be  made 
on  a  small  scale,  by  using  logwood,  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  boiled  in  water 
to  ]iroduce  two  pints,  to  which,  wiicn 
strained,  add  20  grains  of  chromate  of 
potash  in  solution. 

To  prevent  M<iuldincss  in  Ink. — Add 
a  few  bruised  cloves,  a  little  oil  of 
cloves,  or  a  few  drops  of  creosote.  If 
either  of  the  latter  is  used,  first  mix 
with  a  small  quantity  of  strong  vinegar. 

Subslilute  for  a  Copi/iiu/  Machine. — 
Write  with  common  wi-itiiig  ink  in 
which  lum|i  sugar  has  been  dissolved,  in 
the  projioition  of  4  K(;ruples,  or  1} 
drain,  of  sugar  to  1  oz.  of  ink. 
Moisten  copying  paper.  Put  the  pajier 
so  moistened  upon  the  writing,  and 
cover  «vith  a  soft  fiad  of  blotting  jiaper, 
place  tte  wiole  on  the  carj)ct  or  hearth- 


rug, one  end  of  which  is  to  be  fohled 
ov:,-.  Cy  treading  ujjon  this,  an  im- 
prtasion  will  be  taken,  equal  to  what 
would  have  been  taken  b''  a  copying 
machine. 

Indestructible  Inks. —  1.  Dissolve  25 
grains  of  powder  gum  copal  m  200 
grains  of  lavender  oil,  by  the  aid  of  a 
gentle  heat ;  then  add  2i  grains  of  lamp- 
black, and  I  grain  of  powdered  indigo. 
2.  In  18  oz.  of  water,  boil  shellac,  2  oz., 
and  borax,  1  oz. ;  when  cold,  lilter  and 
mix  with  1  oz.  of  gum  arable  dissolved 
in  2  oz.  of  water,  to  which  add  ])owdered 
iudigo  and  lamjiblack  as  much  as  may 
be  required.  3.  Two  solutions  are 
necessary. — No.  1  consisting  of  crystals 
lized  chloride  of  copjjer,  8*5  j)arts; 
chloride  of  soda,  10 "G  parts;  and  sal 
ammoniac,  5"3  parts,  to  be  together  dis- 
solveii  in  (30  parts  of  distilled  water. 
No.  2  solution,  consisting  of  20  jiarts  of 
hydrochlorate  of  aniline,  to  be  dissolved 
in  30  parts  of  water,  to  which  has  to  be 
added  20  parts  of  a  solution  of  gum 
made  by  dissolving  1  part,  by  weight,  of 
gum  in  2  jKirts  of  water;  and  lastly,  10 
])arts  of  glycerine.  These  solutions  are 
kept  in  separate  bottles.  When  it  is 
required  to  write  anything  ruth  the 
fluids,  1  part,  by  bulk,  of  solution  No.  1 
is  mixed  with  4  ])arts,  by  bulk,  of  No.  2. 
The  ink  must  be  applied  to  paper,  linen, 
cotton,  wool,  or  silk,  with  a  quill  pen, 
or  small  hair  brush  ;  at  first  the  writing 
appears  greenish ;  but  it  soon  becomes 
black,  especially  if  it  is  e.xpojsed  to  a 
higher  temperature.  4.  20  grains  of 
sugar  dissolved  in  30  grains  of  water, 
aud  the  addition  to  the  solution  of  a  lew 
drops  of  conceutrated  sulphuric  acid  ;  the 
mixture  is  then  heated,  when  the  sugar 
is  carbonized  by  the  action  of  the  acid. 

Ink  Powder. —  1.  Mix  powdered  galls, 
4  oz. ;  powdered  suljiliate  of  iron,  1  oz.; 
powdered  gum  arabii^,  1  oz. ;  powdei'cd 
white  sugar,  J  oz. ;  |iowdered  cloves,  1 
(liam.  To  these  add  1  ([uart  of  water, 
and  macerate  for  an  hour  or  two.  2. 
Aleppo  galls,  3  lbs. ;  coj)peras,  1  lb.  ; 
gum  arable,  ^  lb, ;  white  sugar,  J  lb. ; 
I>ow<ler  anil  mix.  2  oz.  of  this  powder 
dissolved  in  1  pint  boiling  water  gives 
a  very  ;{ood  ink. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


345 


Invisible  Inks. — 1.  Write  with  dilute 
nitrate  of  silver,  which,  when  dry,  will 
fle  entirely  invisible  ;  hold  the  paper  over 
a  vessel  containing  sulphate  ol' ammonia, 
and  the  writing  will  appear  very  dis- 
tinct. The  letters  will  shine  with  the 
metallic  brilliancy  of  silver.  2.  Write 
with  a  solution  of  muriate  of  cobalt, 
and  the  writing,  while  dry,  will  not  be 
perceptible,  but  if  held  towards  the  fire, 
it  will  then  gradually  become  visible, 
and  if  the  muriate  of  cobalt  be  made  iu 
the  usual  way,  the  letters  will  appear  of 
an  elegxnt  green  colour.  3.  Write  with 
acetate  of  cobalt  ])reviously  purified 
from  the  iron  which  it  generally  con- 
tains. When  the  writing  is  dry,  these 
letters  will  be  invisible.  Warm  the 
paper  a  little,  and  the  writing  will  be 
restored  to  a  beautiful  blue.  4.  Equal 
parts  sulphate  of  copper  and  sal  am- 
moniac dissolved  in  water.  Writing 
colourless  until  warmed,  then  turns 
yellow.     5.   Onion   juice,    same    colour. 

6.  Solution  of  chloride,  or  nitro-muriate 
of  cobalt;  writing  turns  green  when 
heated,  but  disappears  again  on  cooliuo'. 

7.  A  weak  solution  of  the  mixed  chlorides 
of  cobalt  and  nicl<el.  Tliis  writing  also 
turns  green  when  heated. 

A  Cheap  Invisible  Ink. — Dissolve  1 
fluid  oz.  of  common  oil  of  vitriol  in  a 
pint  of  soft  water.  Stir  well  and  allow 
it  to  cool.  Write  witli  a  clean  pen. 
When  dry  it  will  be  invisible,  held  to 
the  fire  it  turns  an  indelible  black. 

Coloured  Inks. — Bed  Ink. — 1,  Take 
4  oz.  of  ground  Brazil  wood  and  3  pints  of 
vinegar.  Boil  till  reduced  to  a  pint  and 
a  half,  and  add  3  oz.  of  powdered  rock 
alum.  2.  Tincture  of  red  Sanders,  with 
a  solution  of  rock  alum.  3.  Take  a  |  lb. 
of  raspings  of  Brazil  wood,  and  in- 
fuse it  2  or  3  days  in  vinegar.  Boil  the 
infusion  for  1  hour  over  a  gentle  fire, 
and  filter  while  hot.  Put  it  again  over 
the  fire,  and  dissolve  in  it,  first,  J  oz. 
j)f  gum  arable,  and  then  of  alum  and 
white  sugar  J  oz.  4.  Boil  2  oz.  Brazil 
wood  in  32  oz.  of  water,  to  which  add, 
after  the  decoction  has  been  strained, 
i  oz.  of  chloride  of  tin,  and  1  dram  of 
powdered  gum  arabic;  then  evaporate 
to  16  fluid   oz       />.  Dissolve    carmine, 


1  dram  in  J  dram  of  strong  liquid  am- 
monia, sp.  gr,  880,  then  dissolve  20 
grains  of  jiowdered  gum  arahic  in  3  oz. 
of  water,  which  add  to  the  dissolved 
carmine.  6.  Brazil  wood,  200  parts ; 
salt  of  tin,  3  ;  gum,  (3 ;  water,  3200. 
Reduce  to  one-half  by  boiling.  Filter 
7.  Brazil  wood,  2  parts  ;  alum,  ^  ;  cream 
of  tartar,  J  ;  water,  16.  Boil  down  to 
half,  and  filter ;  add  h  part  of  gum.  S. 
Add  to  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  cochi- 
neal a  mixture  of  alum  and  cream  of 
tartar,  till  the  required  tint  is  obtained, 
y.  When  a  very  fine  colour  is  desired, 
digest  1  oz.  powdered  cochineal  in  |  pint 
hot  water ;  when  it  is  quite  cold,  add 
J  pint  spirit  of  hartshorn,  macerate  for  a 
few  days,  then  decant  the  clear  portion. 
Or  dissolve  20  grains  pure  carmine  in 
3  fluid  ounces  of  liquid  ammonia;  add 
18  grains  powdered  gum. 

Green-Black  Ink. — Take  15  parts 
bruised  gall-nuts,  and  200  parts  ot 
water,  boil  for  about  an  hour,  strain, 
and  then  add  to  the  liquor  5  parts  sul- 
l)liate  of  iron,  4  parts  fine  iron  shavings, 
and  a  solution  of  J  pint  of  powdered 
indigo  in  3  parts  of  sulpluiric  acid. 
This  ink  writes  green,  but  turns  black 
after  a  few  days ;  it  flows  very  well 
from  the  pen. 

Gixen  Ink. — 1.  Calcine  aceto-nitrate 
of  chrome ;  dilute  the  green  powder 
with  sufficient  water.  2.  'M'w  good 
clear  blue  and  yellow  inks  iu  the  pro- 
portions necessary  to  give  the  desired 
tint.  3.  Sap  green  dissolved  in  very 
weak  alum  water.  4.  Verdigris,  2  oz. ; 
cream  of  tartar,  1  oz. ;  water,  j  pint ; 
reduce  one-half  by  boiling,  and  filter. 

Blue  Ink. — 1.  Dissolve  2  or  3  oz.  of 
suljihate  of  indigo  in  a  gallon  of  water; 
or  by  rubbing  together  1  oz.  of  oxalic 
acid  and  2  oz.  of  fine  Prussian  blue,  to 
which  add  1  quart  of  boiling  water. 
The  excess  of  iron  in  the  Prussian  blue 
must  be  first  removed  by  a  strong 
mineral  acid,  then  wash  in  rain  water. 
2.  Chinese  blue,  2  oz.  ;  boiling  water, 
1  quart;  oxalic  acid,  1  oz.  Dissolve  the 
blue  in  the  water,  then  add  the  acid,  and 
it  is  ready  at  once. 

Purple  Ink. — 1.  Add  to  a  decoction  of 
12  parts  Campeachy  wood   in   120  parts 


B46 


WORKSHO?   RECEIPTS. 


of  water,  1  part  subacetate  of  copper, 
14  parts  alum,  aud  4  parts  gum  arabic. 
Let  stanii  for  4  or  5  days.  2.  Add  a 
little  alum,  or  chloride  of  tin,  to  a 
strong  decoction  of  logwood. 

Violet  Ink. — 1.  Boil  8  oz.  of  logwood 
in  3  pints  of  water  till  reduced  to  1^ 
pint.  Strain,  and  add  1|  oz.  of  gum, 
and  2i  oz.  of  alum.  2.  Cudbear,  1  oz. ; 
jiearlash,  1^  oz. ;  hot  water,  1  pint. 
Allow  to  stand  for  12  hours;  strain,  and 
add  about  2  oz.  gum.  if  required  to 
keep,  add  1  oz.  spirits  of  wine. 

Marking  Inks. — 1,  Twenty-two  parts 
of  carbonate  of  soda  are  dissolved  in  25 
parts  of  distilled  water;  also  17  parts  of 
crystal  nitrate  of  silver  m  24  parts  of 
ammonia ;  20  parts  of  gum  are  then 
Jiquilied  in  60  parts  of  water,  and  mi.\ed 
with  the  soda  solution  ;  afterwards  with 
the  niti-ate  of  silver,  and,  lastly,  33 
parts  of  sulphate  of  copper  are  added. 
This  writes  a  rich  blue.  2.  Dissolve 
1  dram  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or  lunar 
caustic,  in  f  oz.  of  water.  Add  to  the 
solution  as  much  liquid  ammonia  as  will 
redissolve  the  precii)itated  o.xide,  with 
sap  green  to  colour  it,  and  gum  water 
to  make  the  volume  amount  to  1  oz. 
Marks  written  with  this  liquid  shouUl 
be  first  heated  before  the  fire,  aud  tiien 
exposed  in  the  sun  to  blacken.  The 
linen  marked  on  requires  no  jirevious 
preparation.  3.  Damji  the  linen  first 
with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda. 
Dry  the  s])f)t,  and  write  upon  it  with  a 
solution  of  the  nitrate  of  silver  thickened 
witli  gum,  and  tinted  with  sa]>  green. 
4.  Dissolve  separately,  nitrate  of  silver, 
1  oz.  ;  crystal  carbonate  of  soda,  1  J  oz.  ; 
mix  tlie  solution,  and  collect  the  preci- 
I)itate  on  a  filter;  wash  well,  then  in- 
troduce the  moist  preci|)itate  into  a 
mortar,  and  add  8  scruples  of  tartaric 
acid  ;  tiiturate  till  ellervesceuce  ceases; 
then  add  strong  li(iii(»-  ammonia  a  sulli- 
cienl  quantity  to  dissolve  the  tartrate 
of  silver,  to  which  add  4  IJuid  <lrams  of 
archil,  4  drams  of  powilereil  white  sugar, 
and  12  drains  of  |iowdered  gum  arabic, 
and  make  u|)  to  f)  lluid  ounces,  if  re- 
((uired,  with  ili.stilled  water. 

Crimson  Mnrldn<i  Ink  is  prepared  by 
aiding  'J  grains  of  carmine  to  the  liquor 


ammonia  of  the  above  receipt,  hurt  it  soon 
loses  its  crimson  colour,  and  becomes, 
like  other  marking  inks,  a  black  colour. 

Indian  Ink. — Dissolve  horn  strip  with 
caustic  ktli  root  till  it  is  melted.  The 
brown  liquid  is  to  be  boiled  in  an  iron 
kettle  until  it  is  thick.  Then  pour  on 
it  boiling  water,  double  its  weight,  and 
precipitate  it  with  dissolved  alum. 
Dry,  grind,  and  mix  it  with  gum 
water,  and  jiour  it  in  a  mould.  A  few 
droj)s  of  essence  of  musk,  or  of  am- 
bergris, may  be  added  as  jjerfume,  2. 
Horse-beans  or  the  kernels  of  the  stones 
of  apricots.  Must  be  burnt  in  an  oven 
till  perfectly  black,  ground  to  a  fine 
powder,  aud  made  into  a  jiaste  wifn 
a  solution  of  gum  arabic,  aud  then 
formed  into  cakes.  3.  Mix  the  finest 
lampblack  with  a  solution  of  100  grains 
of  lac,  with  20  grains  of  borax,  and  4  oz. 
of  water.  4.  Pure  larai)black,  mixed 
with  asses'  skin  glue,  and  scented  with 
musk. 

Tkinting  Ink.  —  Linseed  Oil. —  The 
linseed  oil,  however  long  boiled,  unless 
set  fire  to,  cannot  be  brought  into  a 
proper  state  for  forming  jiriuting  ink ; 
the  flame  may  be  most  readily  extin- 
guished by  the  application  of  a  jiretty 
tight  cover  to  the  top  of  the  boiler, 
wiiich  should  never  be  more  than  half 
full.  The  Frouch  prefer  nut  oil  to 
linseed;  but  if  the  latter  is  old,  it  is 
fully  as  good. 

Illack  liosin  is  an  im])()rtaiit  article 
in  the  composition  of  good  ink;  as  by 
melting  it  in  the  oil,  when  that  in- 
gredient is*  sullicicntly  boiled  and  burnt, 
the  two  coiiiiiiiie,  and  I'urm  a  cniiipoiiud 
approximating  to  a  natural  balsam,  like 
that  of  Canada,  which  is  one  of  the  best 
varnishes  that  can  be  used  for  printing 
ink. 

L^Vx/). — Tliis  is  a  most  imjiortant  in- 
gri'diciit  in  |irintcrs'  ink,  lor  the  want 
of  wliich  ink  accumulates  upon  (iC  face 
of  the  tyjics,  .so  as  completely  to  clog 
them  up  after  comparatively  few  im- 
])ressious  have  been  taken  ;  it  will  not 
wash  oir  without  alkaline  leys,  nnil  it 
skins  over  very  soon  in  tin;  |)ot.  Yellow 
rosin  soM[i  is  the  best  for  black  inks; 
for   those  of  light  au<l   delicate  shadcsi 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


347 


whi;e  curd  soap  is  preferable.  Too 
much  soap  is  apt  to  render  the  im- 
pression irregular,  and  to  prevent  the 
ink  from  drying  quickly.  The  proper 
proportion  is  when  the  ink  works  clean, 
without  clogging  the  surface  of  the 
types. 

Lampblack,  —  The  vegetable  lamp- 
black, sold  in  firkins,  takes  the  most 
varnish,  and  answers  for  making  the 
best  ink. 

Ivory  Black  is  too  heavy  to  be  used 
alone  as  a  pigment  for  printing  ink ; 
but  it  may  be  added  with  advantage  by 
grinding  a  little  of  it  upon  a  muller 
with  the  lampblack,  for  certain  pur- 
poses ;  for  instance,  if  an  engraving  on 
wood  is  required  to  be  printed  so  as  to 
produce  the  best  possible  effect. 

Indigo  alone,  or  with  an  equal  weight 
of  Prussian  blue,  added  in  small  propor- 
tion, takes  off  the  brown  tone  of  certain 
lampblack  inks,  or  a  little  Indian  red 
may  be  ground  in  with  the  indigo  and 
Prussian  blue,  to  give  a  rich  tone  to  the 
black  ink. 

Balsam  of  Capivi,  mixed,  by  a  stone 
and  a  muller,  with  a  due  propor- 
tion of  soap  and  pigment,  forms  an 
extemporaneous  ink,  which  the  printer 
may  employ  when  he  wishes  to  execute 
a  piece  of  work  in  a  peculiarly  neat 
manner.  Canada  balsam  does  not 
answer  quite  so  well.  After  the  smoke 
begins  to  rise  from  the  boiling  oil,  a  bit 
of  burning  paper  stuck  in  the  cleft  end 
of  a  long  stick,  should  be  applied  to  the 
surface,  to  set  it  on  fire,  as  soon  as  the 
vapour  will  burn ;  and  the  flame  should 
be  allowed  to  continue,  the  pot  being 
meanwhile  removed  from  over  the  fire, 
or  the  fire  taken  from  under  the  pot, 
till  a  sample  of  the  varnish,  cooled  upon 
a  palette  knife,  draws  out  into  strings  of 
about  half  an  inch  long  between  the 
fingers.  It  is  necessary  to  have  two 
kinds  of  this  varnish — a  thicker  and  a 
thinner,  from  the  greater  or  less  boil- 
ing— which  are  mixed  together  to  suit 
different  purposes  ;  that  which  answers 
well  in  hot  weather  becomes  too  thick 
in  cold,  and  large  characters  or  type  do 
not  require  such  stiff  ink  as  the  small. 
To  six  quarts  of  liuseej  oil  thus  treated, 


6  lbs.  of  rosin  should  be  gradually 
added,  as  soon  as  the  froth  of  the  boiling 
has  subsided.  As  soon  as  the  rosin  is 
dissolved.  If  lb.  of  dry  brown  soap,  ot 
the  best  quality,  cut  into  slices,  is  to  be 
introduced  cautiously,  for  its  water  of 
combination  causes  a  violent  commotion. 
Both  the  rosin  and  soap  should  be  well 
stirred  with  the  spatula.  The  pot  is  to 
be  now  set  upon  the  fire,  in  order  to 
complete  the  combination  of  all  the 
constituents.  Put  next  of  well-ground 
indigo  and  Prussian  blue,  each  2^  oz. 
into  an  earthen  pan,  sulficiently  large  to 
hold  all  the  ink,  along  with  4  lbs.  of 
the  best  mineral  lampblack,  and  3J  lbs. 
of  good  vegetable  lampblack  ;  then 
add  the  warm  varnish  by  slow  degrees, 
carefully  stirring,  to  produce  a  perfect 
incorporation  of  all  the  ingredients. 
Tliis  mixture  is  nest  to  be  subjected  to 
a  mill,  or  slab  and  muller,  till  it  is 
levigated  into  a  smooth  uniform  paste. 
1  lb.  of  superfine  printing  ink  may  be 
made  by  the  following  recipe  : — Balsam 
of  capivi,  9  oz. ;  lampblack,  3  oz. ; 
indigo  and  Prussian  blue,  together, 
\\  oz. ;  Indian  red,  f  oz. ;  yellow  tur- 
pentine soaj),  dry,  3  oz.  This  mixture 
is  to  be  ground  upon  a  slab,  with  a 
muller,  to  an  impalpable  smoothness. 
Red  or  other  coloured  printing  inks 
are  made  from  linseed  oil,  boiled  as 
described  above,  with  the  addition  of 
dry  pigment  of  the  required  colour, 
which  is  ground  up  with  the  varnish 
with  a  stone  and  muller.  The  pig- 
ments used  for  coloured  printing  inks 
are  carmine,  lakes,  vermilion,  red- 
lead,  Indian  red,  Venetian  red,  chrome 
yellow,  chrome  red  or  orange,  burnt 
sienna,  gall-stone,  Roman  ochre,  yellow 
ochre,  verdigris,  blues  and  ^'ellows 
mixed  for  greens,  indigo,  Prussian  blue, 
Antwerp  blue,  lustre,  umber,  sepia,  and 
browns  mixed  with  Venetian  red. 

Transfer  Ink. — For  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  following  inks  an  iron  pot 
and  lid  must  be  procured.  Then  take 
as  follows ; — 

Stone  Writing  Ink. — Virgin  wax,  4 
parts ;  tallow,  3 ;  soap,  13  ;  shellac,  6  ; 
lampblack,  3. 

Irans/er  Writing  Ink-— Vivgia  wax. 


318 


WOEIISHOP   nECElPTS. 


2  parts  ;  white  soap,  1 ;  shellac,  1  ;  lamp- 
black, i. 

Chalks. — Virgin  was,  16  parts;  tal- 
low, 2  ;  white  soap,  12 ;  lampblack,  oh- 

Maiiipulation  of  Writing  Ink  and 
Ch'd/:s. — Melt  the  wax  and  tallow,  ami 
mix  with  an  iron  spoon ;  then  add  the 
soap,  which  must  be  previously  cut  into 
strips,  and  when  melted  apply  a  light, 
and  allow  to  burn  until  the  whole  is 
decreased  to  the  same  bulk  as  existed 
before  the  addition  of  the  soap.  The 
shellac  is  now  to  be  carefully  added,  bit 
by  bit,  stirring  the  wliole  time  to  effect 
perfect  amalgamation.  Tlie  black  is 
next  to  be  added,  and  the  wliole  well 
mixed  while  in  a  liquid  state ;  then 
poured  into  a  mould,  or  on  a  slab,  and 
cut  to  the  required  size  while  warm. 
The  same  method  of  proceeding  is  alike 
ap|)licable  to  the  manufacture  of  transfer 
writing  ink,  ])roceeding  with  the  wax 
only,  there  being  no  tallow. 

lie-transfer  Inks. — Stone  Ite-transfcr 
Ink. — Litho.  printing  ink,  2  parts; 
writing  ink,  2  ;  thin  varnish,  2 ;  tal- 
low,  1. 

Copper-plate  Transfer  Ink.  —  Litho. 
writing  ink,  4-  parts;  thin  varnish,  1; 
wax,  1 ;  tallow,  J  ;  soap,  1.  Carefully 
melt  the  ingredients,  and  when  in  a 
liquid  state  pour  into  moulds,  or  cut  to 
the  required  size. 

LiTiio.  Pi'.iNTiXG  Ink. — For  making 
litho.  printing  ink,  a  copper  or  iron  pot 
with  a  lid  is  provided.  In  this  linseed 
oil  of  the  best  quality  is  boiled  until  it 
will  ignite  readily  u])on  the  a]>plicatiou 
of  a  light.  It  is  then  allowed  to  burn 
until  the  require<l  consistency  for  tlie 
vainish  is  obtained,  which  is  known  by 
t;iking  a  small  (juantity  out  with  a 
knifi',  and  permitting  it  to  cool.  The 
lid  of  the  pot  is  then  ])Ut  on,  which  ex- 
tinguishcs  the  flames.  It  is  obvious  that 
this  is  a  somewhat  dangerous  process  to 
conduct  under  an  ordinary  chimney. 
With  this  varnish,  which  mii.-.t  not  be 
too  thick,  as  much  best  calcined  Paris 
black  is  ground  u]i  as  pos.sible.  The 
moie  black  that  can  be  ground  in,  the 
richer  will  the  colour  be. 

Ink  '--  Writing  on  l.itnojnijthic 
Stones, — Mastic  iu  tear.s,  8  oz. ;  shellac, 


12  oz. ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz.  Jleit 
together,  add  1  lb.  wax,  6  oz.  tallow  ; 
when  they  are  dissolved  add  6  oz.  hard 
tallow  soap  shavings  and  mix.  Then 
add  4  oz.  lampblack.  Mix  all  well  to- 
gether, let  cool  slightly,  then  pour  into 
moulds,  and  cut  into  convenient-shaped 
cakes. 

Writing  and  Drawing  on  Transfei 
Paper. — To  dissolve  solid  lithograph  ink, 
warm  the  pot  at  the  lire  or  gas,  using 
rain  or. distilled  water  to  rub  it  down 
with,  as  it  is  softer  than  other  water. 
The  jien  will  be  found  to  work  better 
at  first  if  it  is  dipped  in  oil,  and  then 
wiped  previous  to  writing. 

CorPKR-PLATE  Printing  Inks. — Take 
linseed  oil  1  pint,  put  into  a  dry  iron 
saucepan  and  boil  until  it  will  readily 
ignite  by  a]>plying  lighted  paper ;  let  it 
burn  10  minutes,  now  put  the  lid  on  and 
it  will  cease  to  burn,  add  nearly  J  oz.  ot 
litharge,  and  stir  well ;  when  cool  ready 
for  use  mix  a  little  of  this  oil  with  lamp- 
black, forming  a  thick  paste;  grind  this 
very  fine  with  a  muller.  The  grinding 
is  most  important,  lioil  the  oil  out  of 
doors. 

Black.  —  Frankfort  black,  finely 
ground  with  boiled  linseed  oil,  or,  for 
very  fine  work,  fat  oil. 

Jied. — Mineral  orange  red,  5  oz. ; 
Chinese  red,  2  oz. 

lilue. — Celestial  blue,  2  oz. ;  marine 
blue,  3  oz. 

Green. — Mineral  green,  2  oz. ;  chrome 
green,  3  oz. 

Brown. — Burnt  umber,  2  oz. ;  rose 
pink,  1  oz. 

Lilac. — Prussian  blue,  1  oz.  ;  Chinese 
red,  2  oz. 

Pink. — Mineral  pink,  2  oz. ;  satii 
white,  1  oz. 

Oratigc. — Orange  red,  2  oz.  ;  flake 
white,  1  oz.  The  above  to  be  ground 
and  mixed  with  Canada  balsam.     Or, 

Ji'cd. — Verm  i  1  ion. 

Yellou). — King's  yellow. 

Blue. — Smalts. 

Greer,. —  lung's  ytllow — gioen. 

Blue. — Piushlan  blue,  and  flake  white. 

Brown. — Burnt  umber. 

Dark  Bivwn. —  Iluint  umber  and 
Frankfort  black. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


349 


Puce. — Frankfort  black  and  ver- 
milion. 

Brown. — Frankfort  black,  and  drop 
lake.  These  to  be  ground  and  mixed 
with  nut  or  linseed  oil. 

Gold. — Gold  bronze  mixed  with  dark 
oak  and  mahogany  varnish. 

Silver,  Ccppcr,  Huby. — The  same  as  for 
gold,  merely  substituting  the  different 
bronzes.  Cards  printed  in  gold,  silver, 
or  colours,  should,  when  dry,  be  placed 
on  a  very  smooth  copper  or  steel  plate, 
not  engraved,  and  passed  through  a 
copper-plate  press  with  rather  a  tight 
pressure  ;  this  would  also  improve  the 
appearance  of  cards  printed  in  like 
manner  with  letterpress. 

To  Clean  Copper-plates.  —  Copper- 
plates are  cleaned  by  laying  them  on 
the  hob  near  the  fire,  and  pouring  on 
them  some  spirits  of  tar,  and  then  rub- 
bing them  with  a  small  soft  brush. 

Painting  on  Vellum. — The  illuminated 
missals,  or  coats  of  arms,  on  vellum 
may  be  best  done  by  the  above  colours, 
rather  than  by  water  colours  with  gall 
in  them,  as  is  often  practised  —  the 
colours  being  applied  with  a  brush  as  in 
ordinary  painting ;  also,  if  more  bril- 
liancy is  required  for  gold  and  silver, 
those  metals  may  be  used  in  leaf,  a 
coat  being  first  put  on  with  gold  size. 
Gold  is  best  shaded  with  a  bright  trans- 
parent brown,  silver  with  green. 

IxK  FOR  Stone,  or  JIarble. — Trini- 
dad asphaltum  and  oil  of  turpentine,  equal 
parts.  This  is  used  in  a  melted  state 
for  filling  in  letters  cut  on  tombstones, 
marble  slabs,  and  monuments,  and  is 
very  durable. 

Writing  ox  Zinc. — 1.  Jlix  verdigris, 
1  part ;  sal  ammoniac,  1 ;  chimney-black, 
or  any  mineral  colour,  J  ;  water,  10; 
stir  well  or  shake  the  bottle  before  cm- 
ploying,  and  use  a  quill,  not  a  steel,  pen, 
for  writing.  This  ink  is  a  poison.  2. 
Get  a  lemon,  squeeze  the  juice  out  of  it 
mto  a  pot,  and  put  into  it  an  old  copper 
halfpenny  or  farthing,  not  the  present 
bronze  coin.  Let  it  stand  for  a  day  or 
twc.  Write  with  a  quill  pen.  3.  Dis- 
solve 100  grains  of  chloride  of  platinum 
m  a  pint  of  water.  A  little  mucilage 
and  lampblack  may  be  added. 


Zinc  Garden  Labels. — For  zinc  plates 
use  the  following,  with  quill  pens  only ; 
— 1.  Dissolve  muriate  of  ammonia  and 
crude  sal  ammoniac  in  strong  vinegar. 
2.  For  large  labels,  dip  your  i)en  in  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid,  and  wi-ite  on 
the  zinc,  previously  greased  ;  a  sharp 
point  of  copper  wire  is  better  than  the 
pen  ;  quench  in  water;  wash  thoroughly 
from  fluid  when  your  writing  is  plain 
enough.  3.  Dissolve  about  half-a- 
crown's  worth  of  chloride  of  platinum 
in  hot  distilled  water,  adding  a  very  few 
drops  of  aqua  regia.  The  liquid  should 
be  of  a  pale  amber  colour.  Enough  for 
hundreds  of  labels. 

Gold  Ink. — 1.  Gold,  24  leaves  ;  bronze 
gold,  ^  oz. ;  spirits  of  wine,  30  drops ; 
best  honey,  30  grains ;  gum  arable, 
4  drams  ;  rain  water,  4  oz.  Rub  the 
gold  with  the  honey  and  gum,  and 
having  mixed  it  with  the  water,  add  the 
spirit.  2.  Take  gold  1  part,  uitro-hydro- 
chloric  acid  3  parts,  mix  and  evaporate 
until  chlorine  in  vapour  is  given  off,  cool 
and  mix  with  ether  by  shaking  well  to- 
gether, thicken  with  naphtha  or  any 
essential  oil.  Gold  and  silver  inks,  for 
illumination,  are  simply  the  metals  very 
finely  powdered  and  suspended  in  weak 
gum  water.  Gold  leaf  ground  up  with 
honey,  washed  and  mixed  with  a  thin 
solution  of  gum,  is  excellent  for  illumi- 
nation. 

Fluxes. — In  metallurgical  opera- 
tions the  following  articles  are  used  as 
fluxes; — Crude  tartar,  if  on  a  small 
scale,  commercial  cream  of  tartar, 
borax,  nitre,  sal  ammoniac,  common 
salt,  limestone,  glass,  and  fluor  spar. 
These  articles  being  easy  to  fuse,  are 
added  to  substances  which  are  more 
refractory,  to  promote  their  fusion. 

Black  Flux. — Nitre,  1  part  ;  cream 
of  tartar,  2  ;  mix  and  burn  in  small 
quantities  in  a  red-hot  crucible;  mix 
the  product  with  finely-powdered  char- 
coal. Keep  in  a  dry  corked  bottle. 
This  is  used  in  smelting  metallic  ores. 

Flux  for  Bcducinj  Arsenic. — Car- 
bonate of  soda  in  crystals,  8  parts ; 
finely -powdered  charcoal,  1;  heat 
gradually  to  a  red  heat. 

Cornish  Reducing  Flux. — Crude  tartar. 


850 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


10  parts;  nitre,  4  ;  borax,  S.      Powder 
together. 

Refining  Flux. — Crude  tartar  and 
nitre  equal  parts,  burnt  together. 

Crude  Flux. — Same  as  the  bhick  flux, 
omitting  the  burning  in  the  crucible. 

Flux  for  Arsenical  Compounds. — 1. 
Dry  carbonate  of  potassa,  3  parts; 
cyanide  of  potassium,  1.  2.  Dry  car- 
bonate of  soda  and  cyanide  of  potassium, 
equal  parts. 

Morreauh  Reducing  Flux. — Powdered 
glass,  free  from  lead,  8  parts ;  and  1 
part  each  of  calcined  borax  and  charcoal. 
Powder  well,  and  mix  together. 

Candles. — In  its  natural  state,  fat 
of  animals  is  always  associated  with 
cellular  tissue  and  other  foreign  matters, 
which  must  be  separated  before  it  can 
be  used  as  candle  stock.  In  dry  melt- 
ing, the  rough  suet  is  cut  into  coarse 
pieces  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  a 
moderate  heat.  By  more  recent  pro- 
cesses the  fat  is  not  exposed  to  heat  till 
it  has  been  subjected  to  mechanical  and 
chemical  appliances,  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  the  tissues.  The  first  method 
possesses  the  decided  advantage,  that  the 
residue  can  be  profitably  used  as  food 
for  hogs  and  fowls.  There  is  also  an 
economy  in  fuel,  and  the  simplicity  of 
the  process  commends  itself  to  inex- 
perienced manufacturers.  The  disad- 
vantages are  an  obnoxious  smell,  from 
the  heating  of  rough  tallow  which  has 
been  collected  and  sutl'ered  to  remain 
till  it  has  become  rancid,  and  the 
cellular  tissues,  blood,  or  other  portions 
advanced  towards  putrefaction,  and  the 
small  amount  of  fat  obtained,  as  por- 
tions always  remain  with  the  residue 
when  heated  in  this  manner.  The  fat 
for  tallow  ought  to  be  freed  from  the 
membranous  and  muscular  parts,  then 
cut  into  thin  slices  and  hung  u|)  in  a 
cool  j>lace,  not  heaped  up  while  yet 
warm.  liy  operating  thus,  the  dis- 
agreeable odour  can  be  delayed  for 
eeveral  days. 

Tallow  Jioiling. —  First,  the  fit  is 
cho|>pc(i ;  cutting  machines  are  often 
used  sim'lar  to  the  Ktraw-cutting  table; 
»ometimp>«  a  thin,  sharji-cdged,  mince- 
hatched    's   emj)loyed,  about    'JJ    11.   in 


Ungth.  This  IS  held  with  both  hands, 
and  the  fat,  spread  out  on  a  beech 
block,  is  chopped  into  small  pieces  in 
all  directions.  A  third  insti-ument  is  a 
kind  of  stamp  trough  with  muller, 
having  a  sharp  blade  in  the  form  of  an 
S,  a  contrivance  frequantly  adopted  for 
cutting  beets.  A  more  desirable  in- 
strument, however,  is  the  ordinary 
rotary  sausage-cutter.  The  fat  is  then 
placed  in  melting  caldrons,  hemispheri- 
cal in  form,  and  made  of  cast  iron, 
which  are  heated  by  open  fire.  These 
caldrons  are  covered  with  movable  tin- 
plate  hoods,  so  adjusted  that,  by  means 
of  pulleys,  rojtes,  and  counter-weights, 
they  can  be  easily  raised  or  lowered, 
whilst,  at  the  same  time,  they  serve  to 
carry  off  the  offensive  vapours  arising 
from  the  heated  lat.  Water  is  some- 
times mixed  with  the  fat  in  the  caldrons, 
and  this  addition  is  specially  beneficial 
wlien  the  fat  has  been  long  kept  during 
the  summer  months,  and  has  thereby 
lost  it  natural  moisture  by  evapora- 
tion. By  gradually  raising  the  tem- 
perature in  the  pan  the  fat  runs  from 
the  cells,  and  the  whole  is  kejit  boiling 
from  1  to  IJ  hour.  During  the  whole 
operation  of  melting  and  boiling,  the 
ingredients  must  be  constantly  stirred 
in  order  to  keep  the  fat  and  cracklings 
in  incessant  agitation,  otherwise  pieces 
of  unmelted  suet,  coming  lu  contact 
with  the  sides  or  bottom,  would  become 
scorched  and  acquire  a  brownish  tint, 
of  which  the  whole  melting  would 
necessarily  partake.  Scorched  tallow 
is  not  readily  whitened.  P'or  separating 
the  melted  fat  from  the  cracklings,  it  is 
ladled  off  from  the  caldron  into  a  fine 
willow  basket,  or  a  copper  box  per- 
forated at  the  bottom  with  inniiiiu'ralile 
small  holes,  set  over  large  copper 
coolers,  and  allowed  to  remain  undis- 
turbed till  all  foreign  matters  have 
s»'ttled  down.  Before  it  congeals,  it 
itiiould  be  transferred  into  small  wooden 
pails.  This  oi)eration  is  continued  so 
long  as  the  cracklings  yield  any  fat; 
and  during  the  process  the  heat  must 
be  maintained  at  a  moderate  tempera- 
ture, to  avoi<l  scorching  the  materials. 
When    the   era  klings   begin   to  harden 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


351 


ihey  acquire  a  darkish  tint,  and  hence 
are  said  to  be  browning.  They  are 
then  jiressed,  ard  the  fat  thus  obtained 
possesses  somewhat  of  the  brown  colour 
of  the  cracklings,  but  not  so  much  as 
to  render  it  unlit  for  use  as  soap  stock ; 
it  mar,  consequently,  be  mixed  with 
that  which  has  spontaneously  separated 
while  heating. 

New  Methods  of  Rendering. — UArcefs 
Apparatus. — This  consists  in  conducting 
the  rising  vapours,  consisting  chiefly  of 
hydrogen  and  carbon,  through  channels 
under  the  grate  of  the  rendering  pan, 
and  using  them  as  fuel.  The  pan  is 
also  covered  with  a  strong  iron  plate, 
the  front  third  of  which  can  be  lifted 
by  means  of  a  knuckle  whenever  it  is 
necessary  for  stirring,  filling,  or  empty- 
mg  the  kettle.  D'Arcet  was  the  first 
who  employed  chemicals  for  the  pur- 
pose of  neutralizing  or  destroying  the 
noisome  effluvia  arising  from  the  pans. 

To  Neutralize  Effluvia  from  Tallow 
Pans. — Take  50  parts,  by  weight,  of 
diluted  oil  of  vitriol,  put  into  the 
kettle,  then  1000  parts,  in  weight,  of 
chopped  fat  are  gradually  added  in  four 
equal  portions  ;  and  lastly,  150  parts  of 
water,  to  which  5  parts,  in  weight,  of 
.sulphuric  acid  of  6G°  B.  have  been  pre- 
viously added.  The  whole  is  then 
heated.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
acid,  which  partly  destroys,  partly 
solves  the  membranes,  the  rendering 
of  even  greater  amounts  of  fit  is 
effected  in  1^  to  2J  hours;  2  hours, 
however,  are  seldom  required.  The 
inventor's  proposition  of  using  acids 
was  made  when  pans  were  heated  by 
the  direct  action  of  the  fire;  but  now 
steam  is  more  generally  employed. 
Th.s,  however,  does  not  prevent  the 
gases  arising  from  the  pans  being 
thrown  into  the  furnace  and  thereby 
aiding  combustion.  It  is  obvious  that 
in  the  boiler  of  d'Arcet,  stirring,  as 
well  as  filling  or  emptying  the  contents 
of  the  pan  cannot  be  accomplished  so 
readily  as  in  an  open  pan ;  nor  can 
these  processes  be  performed  without 
opening  the  covers.  To  obviate  this,  a 
contrivance  similar  to  that  used  by 
distillers  in  the  mashing  process  could 


be  introduced  w^ith  decided  advantage 
for  keeping  up  the  necessary  motion,  to 
prevent  adhesions  to  the  sides  or  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  and  consequent  scorching. 

^YilsorCs  Process. — The  chief  feature 
of  this  process  is  to  steam  the  rough 
suet  for  ten  or  fifteen  hours  in  a  per- 
fectly tight  tank,  under  a  pressure  of 
50  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  or  more 
when  laid  is  being  rendered.  A  higher 
pressure  is  not  profitable,  for,  though 
expediting  the  jiroccss,  it  produces  an 
inferior  quality  of  fat.  No  chemicals 
are  used.  The  apparatus  consists  of 
an  upright  cylindrical  vessel,  made  of 
strong  boiler-plates,  tightly  riveted 
together.  Its  diameter  is  about  two 
and  a  half  times  less  than  its  height, 
and  its  capacity  amounts  to  1200  to 
1500  gallons.  It  has  a  false  bottom  or 
diaphragm ;  below  this  a  pipe  enters, 
which  is  connected  with  an  ordinary 
steam-boiler.  There  is  a  manliole  at 
the  top,  through  which  the  vessel  is 
filled  with  the  rough  suet  or  lard  to 
within  about  2J  ft.  of  the  top.  By  a 
safety-valve  the  pressure  can  be  regu- 
lated. There  are  also  some  try-cocks^ 
by  which  the  state  of  the  contents  can 
be  examined  ;  if  the  quantity  of  con- 
densed steam  in  the  tank  be  too  great, 
it  will  be  indicated  by  the  ejection  of 
the  fatty  contents  at  the  top  one. 
There  is  a  regulating  cock  at  the 
bottom  for  drawing  olf  the  condensed 
steam,  as  well  as  cocks  in  the  side  of 
the  digester,  by  which  the  fatty 
materials  can  be  drawn  off.  Through  a 
hole  made  in  the  diaphragm,  which  can 
be  shut  and  opened  at  will,  the  residual 
matters  can  be  let  out. 

Fouche's  Process.  —  Fig.  59  repre- 
sents a  vertical,  and  Fig.  60  a  hori- 
zontal section  of  the  apparatus,  after 
the  line  1—2  in  Fig.  59.  Fig.  61  is 
a  transverse  section  after  the  line  3 — 4 
in  the  same  figure.  The  vessel  has  a 
copper  dome  B,  fastened  by  nvets. 
In  this  dome  is  a  hole  C  for  introducing 
fat,  having  a  cover,  which  may  be 
lifted  by  a  chain  going  over  a  pulley, 
and  the  margin  of  the  cover  may  be 
fastened  tc  the  vessel  by  clamps.  This 
cover    has    a    hole    for    observing    the 


852 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


—  -■  '  ■----'  ...r^ 


Fio.  59 


3 


Hin.  60. 


Kio.  61. 


inKi.le,  which  can  be  sliut  by  a  valve 
fastened  to  the  lever  I).  K  is  ii  cap  ou 
the  dome  with  the  e<luction-jii|)e  for 
vajinurs,  and  P  I'  is  a  safety-valve, 
v.ith  a  C')tinter-wci£;ht  IJ.  There  is, 
moreover,  ^2  outer  valve   Cm-   tlie  pas- 


sape  of  air,  either  v\hcn  filliDg  or 
enipfyinj  the  vessel,  ns  well  as  a  bo3 
for  a  therinoinetcr.  The  vapoui'i 
escaping?  tlirouijh  P,  wliich  may  ha 
fipened  by  tlie  faurpt  O,  pass  into  IJ  for 
llie   purjMise  of  liejng  condensed    there, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


363 


or,  when  not  condensed,  for  escaping 
through  X.  F  is  a  worm,  which, 
fastened  to  the  stays  G,  Fig.  60,  lies 
on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Through 
L  L  steam  is  introduced  from  a  boiler, 
and  through  M  passes  back  into  the 
same  boiler.  H  H  is  a  small  pipe 
entering  into  the  vessel  A,  through 
which  steam  also  passes  into  the  vessel, 
mainly  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
melted  fat  in  agitation.  J  is  a  tube, 
having  a  sieve  at  its  upper  end,  and  a 
movable  crank  below,  by  which  it  is 
fastened  to  the  faucet  Y.  If  the  vessel 
is  being  emptied,  the  tube  J  is  gradually 
let  down  until  its  upper  part,  with  the 
sieve,  reaches  the  bottom.  The  f;xt  is 
then  passed  through  J  and  Y,  and 
through  a  fine  sieve  outside  the  vessel, 
which  acts  as  a  filter.  In  this,  1000  lbs. 
are  first  introduced  with  80  lbs.  of 
water ;  2^  lbs.  of  sulphuric  acid  of 
66°,  previously  mixed  with  16  lbs,  of 
water,  are  then  added.  Steam  is  next 
turned  on,  which,  as  described,  passes 
from  the  generator  through  the  worm, 
and  must  have  a  tension  of  three 
atmospheres,  or  a  temperature  of  255°  F. 
In  the  vessel,  however,  a  tension  of 
IJ  atmosphere  is  sufficient,  and  when 
this  is  reached,  the  safety-valve  is  no 
longer  charged  with  weights.  The 
vapours  formed  in  the  vessel  are  con- 
ducted through  X  into  the  hearth  of 
the  steam-boiler  furnace,  so  that  all  the 
noxious  odours  which,  by  the  action  of 
the  sulphuric  acid,  are  diminished,  but 
not  destroyed,  are  thus  conveyed  from 
the  working  rooms. 

Evrard's  Process,  —  The  apparatus 
used  very  much  resembles  that  of 
Wilson.  The  process  is  based  on  the 
ap]ilication  of  caustic  ley,  in  the  pro- 
Y'ortion  of  25  gallons,  each  containing 
Jjj  to  \  lb.  of  solid  caustic  soda,  to 
every  250  to  350  lbs.  of  rough  tallow. 
It  is  the  object  of  the  application  of 
tt.3  ley  to  dissolve  the  membranous 
parts,  so  that  no  preliminary  mincing 
is  necessary.  For  boiling  the  fat,  steam 
lb  employed.  As  the  alkaline  ley  is 
heavier  than  water,  it  will,  after  the 
bulling  is  completed,  more  easily  sub 
tide.     It  is  then  drawn  off,  and  the  fat 


left  in  the  tank  is  again  boiled  with 
successive  portiocs  of  fresh  water,  for 
the  better  separation  of  which  this 
compound  is  left  for  24  hours  in  a 
warm  liquid  state  before  being  drawn 
oil"  into  the  coolers. 

Stein's  Process. — A  mixture  of  slacked 
lime  and  small  pieces  of  fresh-burnt 
charcoal  is  prepared,  and  spread  upon  a 
coarse  cloth  stretched  over  a  hoop,  of 
2  in.  in  depth,  and  the  circumference 
corresponding  with  the  size  of  the  pan. 
During  the  process  of  rendering,  it  is 
securely  adjusted  by  suitable  catches 
above  the  pan.  The  rising  vapours 
from  the  latter,  in  necessarily  passing 
this  chemico-mechanical  arrangement, 
are  said  to  be  entirely  absorbed,  so  that 
thus  all  cause  of  complaint  against 
tallow  factories  as  healtk-destroying 
nuisances  would  be  effectually  removed. 

Clarifying  Tallow. — By  mere  melting 
and  straining  we  do  not  obtain  a  fat 
entirely  free  from  admixture  of  fine, 
undissolved  substances.  For  separating 
these  substances,  it  must  be  clarified, 
by  remelting  it  in  water,  either  on  free 
fire  or  by  steam.  Generally,  no  more 
water  than  5  per  cent,  is  taken,  and 
stirred  well  with  the  fat  till  the 
mixture  becomes  emulsive.  The  whole 
is  then  allowed  to  rest,  without  further 
heating,  till  the  water  has  separated, 
when  the  fat  may  be  drawn  off,  or 
dipped  off.  Sometiines,  to  conceal  the 
yellowish  tint,  a  very  little  blue  colour 
is  added,  consisting  of  indigo  rubbed 
finely  with  some  oil,  of  which  a  few 
drops  are  sufTicient  for  large  quantities 
of  tallow.  The  process  of  clarifying  is 
occasionally  repeated.  At  the  line  of 
demarcation  between  the  water  and  fat, 
a  grey  slimy  substance  is  often  per- 
ceptible, and  the  liquid  itself  is  turbid. 
Instead  of  pure  water,  some  tallow- 
melters  take  brine  or  solutions  of  alum, 
saltpetre,  chloride  of  ammonium,  or 
other  salts.  These  agents  have  no 
chemical  action  upon  the  fats,  but 
simply  induce  a  more  rapid  settling  of 
the  impurities  and  water,  principally 
when  strong  agitation  is  used. 

Ozoherit.  —  This  mineral  is  used  in 
the  production  of  illuminating  oils  of  a 

2  A 


354 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


high  firing  point,  and  of  solid  hydro- 
carbons, more  particularly  adapted  to 
the  manufacture  of  candles  of  a  high 
melting  point;  the  inventors  distil  the 
raw- material  by  heat,  thereby  obtaining 
an  oily  distillate,  the  solid  and  liquid 
constituent  parts  of  which  are  then 
separated  by  pressure.  The  pressed 
so'id  material  is  purified  by  mixing  and 
stirring  with  suljAuric  acid  whea 
melted.  After  standing  for  some  time, 
in  order  to  eifect  the  complete  separa- 
tion from  the  acid,  the  supernatant 
melted  material  is  carefully  decanted 
off,  and  thoroughly  washed  with  hot 
water.  The  water  having  been  re- 
moved, the  material  is  repeatedly  fil- 
tered through  animal  charcoal  until  the 
requisite  degree  of  whiteness  is  attained. 

Hardening  of  Tallow  by  Capaccioni's 
Process. —  In  1000  parts  of  melted 
tallow,  7  parts  of  sugar  lead,  previously 
dissolved  in  water,  are  stirred,  during 
which  process  the  mass  must  be  con- 
stantly agitated.  After  a  few  minutes 
the  heat  is  diminished,  and  15  parts  of 
powdered  incense,  with  one  part  of 
turpentine  added,  under  constant  stir- 
ring of  the  mixture.  It  is  then  left 
warm  for  several  hours,  or  until  the 
insoluble  substances  of  the  incense 
settle  to  the  bottom.  The  hardening  is 
j)roduced  by  the  sugar  of  lead,  yielding 
a  material  similar  to  the  stearic  acid, 
while  the  incense  is  improving  its 
odour;  it  is  said  that  by  this  treatment 
the  guttering  of  the  candles  is  eatirely 
prevented. 

Cussijrand's  Process  for  Bleaching 
Wax. — First  melt  the  wax  with  steam, 
which  pass  together  through  long  pii)es, 
so  that  a  large  surface  becomes  exposed 
to  the  steam.  After  traversing  the 
pipes,  it  is  received  into  a  pan  with  a 
double  bottom,  heated  by  steam ;  it  "e 
therein  treated  by  water,  left  quiet  for 
some  time  until  its  impurities  are 
settled.  It  is  then  forced  anew  through 
the  pipe  together  with  the  steam, 
washed  a  second  time,  and,  if  necessary, 
this  process  is  repeated  a  third  time. 
Probably  water  is  absorbed  by  the  wax, 
thus  rendering  it  more  easily  bleached. 

Arrangement  of  a  Dleacking-house, — 


Stakes  or  posts  are  driven  into  the  ground, 
and  2  ft.  from  the  ground  bag  clothes 
are  sti-etched  over  them,  or  table-like 
frames  are  made  from  strips  of  cloth 
stretched  over  the  frames  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  sacking-bottom  is  stretched 
over  a  bedstead,  care  being  taken  to 
fasten  the  ends  of  the  cords  to  the  posts 
sutBciently  firm  to  prevent  them  loosen- 
ing by  the  wind.  This  done,  the  wax 
ribbons  are  spread  upon  the  cloth  in  a 
thin  layer.  It  is  important  that  the  place 
selected  for  this  process  should  be  so 
arranged  that  the  sun's  rays  may  have 
full  play  upon  the  exposed  wax,  but  at 
the  same  time  protected  from  the  preva- 
lent winds.  The  ribboned  wax  is  daily 
turned  over,  in  order  that  fresh  poi'- 
lions  of  it  may  be  atfected  by  the  sun ; 
and  should  it  not  be  sufficiently  moist- 
ened by  the  dew  or  rain,  soft  wate;  i« 
poured  over  it.  When  it  is  no*, 
gradually  becoming  whiter,  but  jtil. 
continues  yellow  upon  tlie  fracture,  it  is 
remelted,  ribboned,  and  again  bleached, 
The  continuance  of  the  bleaching  pro- 
cess varies,  depending  upon  the  weather ; 
often  one  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air 
suffices  to  bleach  it,  and  no  remeltiag  is 
requisite.  Four  weeks  are  generally 
sufficient.  The  bleached  wax  is  finally 
fused  into  cakes  or  square  blocks,  pre- 
viously moistening  the  moulds.  As  fast 
as  the  wax  congeals,  the  cakes  are 
thrown  into  a  tub  of  clean,  cold  water, 
and  then  taken  out  and  spread  upon  a 
pack-thread  sieve  tor  draining.  Kvent- 
ually,  they  are  dried  and  packed  in 
boxes  for  the  mai'ket,  the  loss  being 
from  2  to  8  per  cent. 

Wichs. — Wicks  are  twisted  or  plaited  ; 
the  former,  loosely  twisted,  present  the 
appearance  of  a  spiral  similar  to  the 
sei)arate  strands  of  a  rope;  the  latter, 
now  generally  adopted  foi-  most  kinds  or 
candles,  is  made  by  interlacing  and  cross- 
ing the  strands  of  the  wicks  the  same 
manner  as  plaiting  straw  of  bonnets. 
Common  wicks  are  simply  an  aggrega- 
tion of  several  loosely-twisteil  threads 
forming  one  general  cord  of  many  fil)res. 
'I'his  is  effected  by  the  ball  wimling  ma- 
chine, a  very  simple  apparatus.  For 
I  cutting  wicks,  Sykes's  apparatus  is   ia 


WORK-SHOP  RECEIPTS. 


855 


general  use,  especially  for  tallow-candle 
wicks,  which  niust  be  soaked  with  tallow 
at  oue  end.  Fig.  62  represents  a  vertical, 
and  Fig.  63  a  horizontal  view  of  it.     c  c 

Fig.  62. 


the  side.  It  consists  of  two  wooden 
frames,  which  are  made  ta]]ering  from 
the  middle  towards  the  end.  On  each 
side  there  is  a  feather  of  steel  attached, 
for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  frames, 
with  a  space  between  them,  which  may 
be  diminished  by  sliding  the  feathered 
clamps  e  e  towards  the  middle,  or  in- 
creased by  drawing  them  towards  the 
eid.  Immediately  behind  the  clamp 
there  is  a  cutting  apparatus,  consisting  of 
an  immovable  /'  and  a  movable  blade/, 
with  a  handle,  gf  is  a  small  vessel  filled 
with  liquid  fat,  which  may  be  kept  from 
solidifying  by  steam,  and  a  board  i  lying 
on  the  lathe  h.  The  use  of  the  appara- 
tus is  as  follows ; — The  ends  of  the 
wicks,  wound  upon  the  spools  c  c  c,  are 
passed  through  the  fr.ime  d,  propei'lv 
tightened  by  the  ciamjis  e  c,  so  that  all 
the  wicks  are  kejit  firm.  The  knife/ 
of  the  cutting  apparatus  is  then  lifted 
out  of  the  way  ;  the  frame,  with  the 
wicks  enclosed,  is  drawn  backwards  to 
t?he  vessel  g,  and  the  ends  of  the  wicks 
dipped  in  the  melted  fat  ;  this  done,  the 
fat-soaked  ends  are  drawn  farther  back 
and  placed  under  the  weight  I,  which 
holds  them  firmly  while'  the  clamps  are 
loosened  on  the  frame,  and  this  returned 
to  its  first-described  position  and  again 
tightened.  The  knife  is  ne.xt  used,  cut- 
ting all  the  wicks  off  at  a  stroke,  then 
elevated,  and  the  process  repeated  till 
a  sufficient  number  of  wicks  are  cut. 
The  thickness  of  the  wicks  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  diameter  of  the  candles  and 
the  material  of  which  they  are  made. 
The  number  of  the  cotton  threads  re- 
quisite to  form  a  wick  also  varies  ac- 
cording to  their  firmness.  The  yarn 
is  composed  of  a  slack-twisted  cnttoa 
thread;.  No.  16   generally  for  plaited, 


Fig.  61. 


are  spools  on  which  the  wicks  are  wound. 
6  is  a  I'oUer  with  grooves  cut  around  it, 
by  means  of  which  the  wicks  are  con- 
veyed into  the  clamp  d,  represented  in 
Fig.  64:  on  a  larger  scale,  and  as  seen  from 


and  smaller,  such  as  8-12,  for  common 
wicks. 

Index  to  the  Thickness  of  Wicks.— 
The  yarn  employed  is  No.  16.  For 
tallow  candies,  8  to   the  lb.,  tiie  wick 

•Z  £.  2 


356 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


contains  42  threads ;  7  to  tlie  lb.,  45 
threads ;  6  to  the  lb.,  50  threads  ;  5  to 
the  lb.,  53  threads,  4  to  the  lb.,  60  threads. 
These  wicks,  composed  of  10,  12,  or  even 
16  cords,  are  very  loosely  twisted,  and 
form  a  kind  of  hollow  tube.  For  stearic 
candles,  three-corded  plaited  wicks  are 
c;enerally  used,  smaller  in  size  and  of 
finer  yarn.  Stearic  candles,  4  to  the  lb., 
the  wicks  consist  of  108  threads  ;  5  to 
the  lb.,  96  threads;  6  to  the  lb.,  87 
threads  ;  8  to  the  lb.,  63  threads. 

Preparing  Wicks. — This  is  done  by 
wick-mordants,  by  means  of  which  they 
are  rendered  less  combustible,  especially 
those  for  stearic  acid,  and  composite 
candles.  Compounds  composed  of  solu- 
tions of  ammoniac  salts,  of  bismuth,  of 
borates,  or  boracic  acid,  are  used.  A 
simple  and  cheap  mordant  for  wicks  is  a 
sal  ammoniac  solution  of  2°  to  o°  B. 
This  concentration  is  strong  enough,  and 
if  a  weaker  one  be  used,  a  spark  will 
remain  on  the  wick  after  the  candle  has 
been  blown  out,  and  burning  down  to 
the  fat,  make  relighting  more  difficult. 
Before  moulding  is  performed,  the  wicks, 
having  been  saturated,  are  thoroughly 
dried  in  a  tin  box,  surrounded  by  a 
jacket,  in  which  steam  is  introduced. 
Instead  of  the  sal  ammoniac,  phos])hate 
of  ammonia  is  used  in  some  factories. 
A  very  good  mordant  is  also  a  solution 
of  2.j*5  oz.  boracic  acid  in  10  lbs.  of 
water,  with  .^  of  an  ounce  of  strong 
alcohol,  and  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric 
acid.  Some  mordants  have  become  un- 
popular, the  fault  is  in  the  crude  cotton, 
which  does  not  always  readily  become 
ir.oistcncd  ;  conse(jueutIy,  from  not  hav- 
ing completely  imbibed  the  mordant, 
portions  of  the  thread  remain  unsatu- 
rated, and  are  not  equally  combustible 
with  the  others.  An  admixture  of  alco- 
hol will  remedy  this  defect,  as  cotton  is 
more  e.xsily  moistened  in  diluted  sjiirit 
than  in  pure  water. 

Dips. — These  canilles  arc  made  by 
ktringing  a  ccrt.-iin  number  of  wicks 
upon  a  roii,  aucl  "lippin;;  them  in  melted 
tallow  repeatedly.  The  process  is  very 
i>iiii|<le;  the  clarified  and  romelted  tal- 
'iw  iit  poured  into  a  tightly-joined  wal- 


nut or  cherry  trough,  3  ft.  long  by  2  fl. 
wide,  and  10  to  12  in.  wide  at  the  top, 
gradually  diminishing  to  3  or  4  in.  at 
the  bottom.  A  handle  is  fixed  on  each 
end  for  its  easy  removal,  and  when  not 
in  use  it  is  closed  with  a  cover.  The 
operator  commences  by  stringing  16  to 
18  wicks  at  equal  intervals  on  a  thin 
wooden  rod,  about  2j  ft.  long,  and 
sharpened  at  the  ends.  He  then  takes 
10  or  12  such  rods  and  dips  the  wicks 
rapidly  into  the  fluid  tallow  in  a  verti- 
cal direction.  This  tallow  should  be 
very  liquid,  in  order  that  the  wicks  be 
soaked  as  uniformly  as  possible,  after 
which  the  several  rods  are  rested  on  the 
ledges  of  the  trough,  when,  if  any  of  the 
wicks  be  matted  together,  they  are 
separated,  and  the  rods  so  placed  on  a 
frame,  having  several  cross-pieces,  that 
the  uucongealed  tallow  from  the  wicks 
may  drop  down,  and  while  this  is  going 
on,  which  continues  till  the  tallow  is 
cooled  and  solidilied,  the  operator  is  en- 
gaged in  preparing  another  batch  oi 
rods.  The  fat  in  the  trough,  mean- 
while, is  so  far  cooled  that  in  immersing 
the  first  dip  again  a  thicker  layer  will 
adhere  to  tne  wicks.  It  is  considered, 
that  when  the  tallow  solidifies  at  the 
sides  of  the  vessel,  the  temperature  is 
the  most  convenient  for  the  object  in 
view.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  stir 
the  ingredients  to  jjroduce  a  uniform 
admixture,  and  in  such  cases  much  care 
should  be  taken  so  that  no  settlings  be 
mingled  with  the  mass,  whilst  by  the 
adilition  of  hot  tallow  any  desired  tem- 
perature may  be  obtained.  The  tallow 
on  the  wicks  between  each  di|)pmg 
becomes  so  gradually  hardened,  that  at 
the  third  or  fourth  immersion  new  layers 
necessarily  solidify  ;  as  a  natural  conse- 
quence of  the  method  of  dipping,  the 
lower  ends  of  the  wicks  become  thicker 
than  the  u])]ier,  to  remedy  which  the 
lower  ends  arc  again  put  into  the  melted 
fat  for  a  few  minutes,  when  the  heat,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  diminishes  their 
dimensions.  The  jirocess  of  dipping  is 
continued  until  the  ci.ndles  aniuirc  the 
requisite  thickness.  The  conical  spire 
at  the  ujijicr  end  is  formed  by  immersing 


WOKSSHOP   UECKII'TS. 


si'^ 


iOl 


deeper  at  the  last  dip,  and  if,  eventually, 
the  candles  are  too  thick  at  the  lower 
end,  they  are  held  over  a  slightly-heated 
folded  copper  sheet,  so  that  the  fat  may 
melt,  but  not  be  wasted. 

Moulds. — For  moulding,  besides  the 
common  metal  moulds,  a  mixture  of  tin 
and  lead,  moulds  of  glass  are  sometimes 
used.  The  former  are  slightly  tapering 
tubes,  varing  in  length  and  dimensions 
according  to  the  size  of  the  candle  to  be 
manufactured,  and,  when  required,  are 
arranged  in  regularly-perforated  wooden 
frames  or  stands,  with  the  smaller  end 
downwards,  forming  the  upper  or  pointed 
part  of  the  candle.  At  this  smaller  end, 
the  wick,  previously  saturated  in  melted 
fat,  is  inserted,  filling  the  aperture,  and, 
passing  up  the  centre,  is  fastened  per- 
pendicularly at  the  upper  end  of  the 
tube,  to  which  is  attached  a  movable 
cover.  The  melted  fat  is  then  poured 
in,  generally  with  a  small  can,  but  a 
tinned  iron  siphon  is  better.  It  is  re- 
quisite that  the  tallow  should  completely 
fill  the  mould,  that  it  should  remain 
UDcracked  on  cooling,  and  should  be 
easily  removable  from  the  moulds.  This 
can,  however,  only  be  obtained  when 
the  fat  at  the  sides  cools  more  quickly 
than  that  in  the  interior,  and  when  the 
whole  candle  is  rapidly  cooled.  A  cool 
season  is,  for  this  reason,  far  better;  but 
a  certain  condition  of  the  tallow,  namely, 
that  which  it  possesses  at  a  temperature 
very  near  its  melting  point,  is  absolutely 
necessary.  Candle-makers  recognize  the 
proper  consistence  of  the  tallow  for 
moulding  by  the  appearance  of  a  scum 
upon  the  surface,  which  forms  in  hot 
weather  between  111°  and  119°  Fahr., 
in  mild  weather  at  108°,  and  in  cold 
about  104°.  The  tallow  is  usually 
melted  by  itself,  sometimes,  however, 
over  a  solution  of  alum.  The  candlos 
are  most  easily  removed  from  the  mould 
the  day  after  casting,  to  be  cut  and 
trimmed  at  the  base.  Jloulding  by  hand 
is  a  very  tedious  operation,  and  only 
pi-actised  in  the  smaller  factories;  in 
more  extensive  establishments,  where 
econom.y  of  time  and  labour  is  a  con- 
BJacration,  machinery  is  employtJ. 


Kauldl's  JHonnf-inr,   Apparatus.  —  Fig. 
65  represents  a  verticil  transverse  sec- 

ViQ.  65. 


tion  through  one  of  the  mould-frames, 
exhibiting  the  candles  drawn  from  the 
moulds.  Fig.  66  represents  a  top  view 
of  a  row  of  moulds,  showing  the  clamp 
in  place  ready  to  centre  the  wicks.  The 
moulds  are  mounted  upon  cars,  for  being 
carried  from  place  to  place  as  required, 
each  cajiable  of  conveying  several  dozens, 
which  are  heated  to  about  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  melted  fat  by  running  the 
car  into  an  oven.  The  moulds  thus 
heated  are  carried  by  cars  to  a  caldron 
containing  the  melted  fat,  with  which 
they  are  tilled.  The  car  is  then  attached 
to  one  of  the  empty  trucks  and  allowed 
to  remain  till  the  Ciindles  are  cooled, 
when  It  IS  moved  to  an  apparatus,  by 
i  means  of  which  the  caudles  are  drawu 


858 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


and  the  moulds  re-wicked,  and  again 
ready  to  be  heated  and  tilled.  In  Fit;. 
65,  in  m  represents  moulds  mounte<l  on 
two  horizontal  boards  a  and  6,  in  which 
round  holes  are  cut,  and  tightly  screwed 
at  the  upper  end,  around  which  a  thin 
wooden  frame  is  attached,  f  of  which  is 
firmly  fastened,  whilst  the  other  J  foi-ms 
a  slide.  The  lower  end  of  the  moulds 
rests  on  pieces  of  vulcanized  india-rubber 
0,  let  into  the  cross-bar  e  ;  each  piece  of 
india-rubber  being  pierced  with  a  hole 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  wick,  and  as 
the  wick  is  passed  through  this  hole, 
the  latter  compresses  it  so  tightly  as  to 
prevent  the  fat  from  leaking  out.  In 
like  manner,  the  leakage  is  prevented 
between  the  bottom  or  tip  n  by  the 
pressure  of  the  mould  ui)on  the  india- 
rubber.  The  spools  K  hold  the  wicks 
firmly  and  ceutrically  secured  by 
clamps.  On  the  ledge  c  of  the  bottom 
a  there  are  four  pins  i,  which  tighten 
the    clamps  _;',    Fig.    66,    by    means    of 


wicks  are  next  cut  off  abovi  the  loweT 
clamp,  the  candles  with  the  clamjis  re- 
moved when,  by  sliding  olf  the  s])ring 
catch  K,  the  spring  S,  between  the  jaws 
t  t,  causes  the  arm  j  F  to  separate  and 
release  the  wicks. 

Composite  Candles. — ]\Ielt  together, 
over  a  water  bath,  100  parts  of  stearic 
acid,  and  10  to  11  parts  of  bleached 
beeswax ;  but,  to  ensure  success,  the 
mixture  must  remain  over  the  bath 
from  20  to  30  minutes,  without  being 
stirred  or  agitated.  At  the  end  of  tiiat 
time  the  fire  is  to  be  extinguished,  and 
the  fluid  allowed  to  cool  until  a  slight 
pellicle  is  formod  on  the  surface,  whoa 
it  is  cast  direct  into  the  moulds,  pre- 
viously heated  to  the  same  temperature, 
with  the  precaution  of  avoiding  stirring 
the  mixture,  which  would  cause  opaque- 
ness. 

Transparent  Bougie. — For  100  lbs.  ot 
stock  take  90  lbs.  of  spermaceti,  5  lbs, 
purified  suet  of  mutton,  and  5  lbs.  wax 


Fia.  66. 


small  holes  gh.  On  one  side  F  of  the 
clamp  there  are  also  toothed  jaws,  in 
which  the  wicks  lit  exactl)',  that  is, 
they  are  thus  ko])t  vertical  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  moulds.  The  construction 
of  the  clamp,  Fig.  G6,  is  sucii  that  the 
arm  working  upon  a  joint  at  o,  and 
being  brought  against  the  arm  F,  falls 
into  a  groove  made  in  its  length,  so  as 
to  press  ami  kink  the  wicks  in  the 
groove,  ;ind  fasten  them  firmly  tli(;ro  by 
means  of  the  s]!riiig  atch  K'.  The  object 
of  this  is,  that  in  raising  the  candles 
from  the  moulds  by  this  clamji  they 
shall  not  slip  nor  move.  As  the  candles 
are  liftrMj  out  of  the  moulds,  as  in  Fig. 
6.'>,  the  wicks  are  drawn  after  tliein  | 
from  the  sjiools  K,  and  are  then  clamped 
>■  position  in  the  manner  describeil.    The 


melt  each  separately  over  a  water  bath, 
and  to  the  whole,  when  mixed  together, 
add  2  oz.  of  alum  and  2  oz.  of  liitartrate 
of  ]iotassa  in  line  jjowder ;  and,  while 
stirring  constantly,  raise  the  heat  to 
176°  Kahr. ;  then  withdraw  the  fire  and 
allow  the  mixture  to  cool  to  the  tempe- 
rature of  140°Fahr.  When  thi  impuri- 
ties sul)siik',  the  clear  li(iuiil  must  I)e 
drawn  olf  into  clean  pans.  For  quality 
and  good  a|ipcaranco,  candles  made  of 
this  cooleil  block  are  more  than  projior- 
tional  to  its  oost.  Substitute  plaited 
wicks  for  the  foregoing  mixture  to  the 
wicks  generally  used  for  composite 
candl«!s,  and  i)r<'parf  thorn  by  ])Voviously 
soaking  in  a  solution  of  4  oz.  borax, 
1  oz.  chlorate  of  potassa,  1  oz.  nitrate 
of   jiotassa,    anil    1  oz.    sal    ammoniac, 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


359 


in  3  quarts  of  water.  After  being 
thoroughly  dried,  they  are  ready  for 
moulding. 

Diaphane. — It  is  made  by  melting  to- 
gether, in  a  steam-jacket,  from  2|  to 
17§  lbs.  of  vegetable  wax,  1^  to  10|  of 
pressed  mutton  tallow,  and  22  to  46  lbs. 
of  steai-ic  acid.  Both  the  latter  and  the 
vegetable  wax  are  the  hardening  ingre- 
dients. By  changing  the  proportions 
between  the  above  limits,  a  more  or  less 
consistent  mixture  may  be  formed.  The 
moulding  is  performed  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  stearic-acid  candles. 

Parlour  Bougies. —  1.  Melt  slowly, 
over  a  moderate  fire,  in  a  well-tinned 
copper  kettle,  70  lbs.  of  pure  spermaceti, 
and  to  it  add  piecemeal,  and  during  con- 
stant stirring,  30  lbs.  of  best  white  wax. 
By  increasing  the  proportion  of  wax  to 
50  lbs.,  the  resulting  product  is  much 
more  diaphanous  ;  however,  the  bougies 
moulded  of  this  mixture  are  not  as  dur- 
able as  candles  made  exclusively  of  wax. 
They  are  tinted  in  different  colours. 
For  red,  carmine  or  Brazil  wood,  to- 
gether with  alum,  are  used.  Yellow  is 
given  with  gamboge,  blue  with  indigo, 
and  green  with  a  mixture  of  yellow  and 
blue.  Sometimes  the  bougies  are  per- 
fumed with  essences,  so  that  in  burning 
.they  may  give  off  an  agreeable  odour. 
2.  Add  6^  lbs.  of  wax  to  100  lbs.  of 
pure  dry  sperm,  candles  made  from  this 
mixture  very  much  resemble  Judd's 
Patent  Candles. 

Composite  Candles.  —  The  block  for 
these  candles  is  made  by  adding  a  por- 
tion of  hot-pressed  cocoa  stearine  to 
stearic  acid  of  tallow.  This  is  a  good 
and  economical  mixture. 

Belmont  Sperm  is  a  mixed  stock  of 
hot-pressed  stearic  acid  from  palm  and 
cocoa  butters. 

Belmont  Wax  is  palmitic  acid  coloured 
by  gamboge. 

Candles  with  Snuffless  Wicks.  —  The 
great  objection  to  tallow  candles  is  the 
frequent  necessity  for  removing  the 
snuff,  or  charred  wick,  which  rises  into 
the  body  of  the  flame  and  obscures  the 
light.  If  the  wtck  can  be  exposed  to 
the  air  it  will  be  entirely  consumed. 
1.  This  is  done  in  composite  candles  by 


plaiting  the  ccrttco  mto  a  flat  wick, 
which  as  it  burns  curves  over.  Some- 
times a  very  fine  wire  is  included  in  the 
wick,  which  is  usually  dipped  in  a  solu- 
tion of  borax.  2.  Twist  the  wick  with 
one  strand  shorter  than  the  others,  which 
will  bend  the  wick  slightly  when  the 
fat  melts. 

Fire  Lute.  —  1.  Mix  thoroughly 
2  parts  good  clay,  8  parts  sharp  washed 
sand,  1  part  horse-dung,  then  temper 
like  mortar.  2.  Linseed  or  almond  meal 
mixed  to  a  paste  with  milk,  lime-water, 
or  starch-paste.  This  lute  stands  to 
500°. 

Fat  Lute. — 1.  Mix  dry  clay  in  powder 
with  drying  oil  into  a  thick  paste.  The 
part  to  which  this  is  applied  must  be 
clean  and  dry.  2.  Plaster  of  Paris 
mixed  with  water,  milk,  or  weak  glue. 
Both  these  lutes  stand  a  dull  red 
heat. 

Rust. — To  x)revent  Rusting.  —  1. 
Boiled  linseed  oil  will  keep  polished  tools 
from  rusting  if  it  is  allowed  to  dry  on 
them.  Common  sperm  oil  will  prevent 
them  from  rusting  for  a  short  period. 
A  coat  of  copal  varnish  is  frequently 
applied  to  polished  tools  exposed  to  the 
weather.  Woollen  materials  are  the 
best  for  wrappers  for  metals.  2.  Iron 
and  steel  goods  of  all  descriptions  are 
kept  free  from  rust  by  the  following ; — 
Dissolve  J  oz.  of  camphor  in  1  lb.  of  hog's 
lard,  take  off  the  scum,  and  mix  as  much 
black-lead  as  will  give  the  mixture  an 
iron  colour.  Iron  and  steel  and  ma- 
chinery of  all  kinds,  rubbed  over  with 
this  mixture,  and  left  with  it  on  foi 
24-  hours,  and  then  rubbed  with  a  linen 
cloth,  will  keep  clean  for  months.  If 
the  machinery  is  for  exportation  it 
should  be  kept  thickly  coated  with  this 
during  the  voyage. 

Anti-rust  Varnish.  —  Take  the  first 
three  ingredients  in  a  pounded  condi- 
tion, and  digest  them  by  a  regular  heat 
till  melted,  then  add  the  turpentine 
very  gradually,  stirrmg  all  the  while : 
Rosin,  120  parts;  sandarac,  180;  gum 
lac,  60 ;  essence  of  turpentine,  120.  The 
mixture  should  be  digested  until  dis- 
solution, then  add  rectified  alcohol,  180 
parts.      Filter    through    fine   cloth    ox 


860 


WORKSHOP   RECEll'TS. 


thick  bibulous  papers,  and  presei've  in 
well-stoppereJ  bottles  or  cases. 

Extracting  Rust  from  Steel. — Im- 
merse the  article  to  be  cleaned  for  a  few 
minutes  until  all  dirt  and  rust  is  taken 
otT,  in  a  strong  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potassium,  say  about  J  oz.  in  a  wine- 
glassful  of  water ;  take  out  and  clean 
it  with  a  toothbrush,  with  some  paste 
composed  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  Castile 
soap,  whitening,  and  water ;  these  last 
are  mixed  in  a  paste  about  the  consist- 
ence of  thick  cream. 

India-rubber.  —  Solvents.  —  Ben- 
zme  is  an  excellent  solvent  for  caoutchouc 
and  gutta-percha.  Caoutchouc,  or  in- 
dia-rubber, may  also  be  dissolved  in 
ether,  sulphide  of  carbon,  naphtha,  or 
spirit  of  turpentine,  and  in  chloroform. 

India-rubber  Solution. — 1.  A  mixture 
of  0  parts  absolute  alcohol  with  100  of 
sulphate  of  carbon  ;  the  latter  is  the 
real  solvent,  the  alcohol  has  an  indirect 
action.  The  quantity  of  solvent  re- 
quired depends  on  the  consistency  of 
solution  required  ;  if  moderate  heat  is 
used,  and  the  mixture  shaken,  the  whole 
dissolves,  but  a  better  solution  is  ob- 
tained for  adhesive  properties  by  using 
a  large  quantity  of  solvent,  not  shaking, 
but  drawing  off  the  clear  glazy  liquid. 
2.  For  a  small  quantity,  place  1  iiui<l 
dram  sulphuric  acid  and  the  same 
quantity  of  water  into  a  phial  bottle, 
and  well  shake  together.  Great  heat  is 
evolved.  Allow  to  stand  till  cool ;  then 
add  2  fluid  oz.  of  spirits  of  turpentine, 
and  shake  well.  Great  heat  will  again 
be  evolved,  and  the  colour  changed  to 
deep  cinnamf)n.  Allow  to  stand  for  2-1 
hours,  afti.T  which  a  strong  diirk  sedi- 
ment will  have  settled  at  the  bottom  of 
the  bottle.  I'our  off  the  clear  li(juor 
into  another  bottle,  and  add  IJ  dram 
apothecaries'  weight  of  common  india- 
rubber  cut  u])  into  fine  shreds,  and  then 
place  it  uncorked  over  a  very  gentle 
heat,  and  allow  to  boil  slowly  for  5 
hours.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the 
india-iul)ber  should  be  jierfcctly  dis- 
solved. It  can  be  concentrated  by 
longer  boiling,  or  thinned  by  the  addi- 
tion of  more  turpentine. 

I'iecinf/  India-rubber. — Make  a  long 


bevel  on  the  ends  to  be  joined  with  a 
sharp  rough-edged  knife  and  water, 
scrape  the  bevels  rough  with  the  edge 
of  the  knife,  and  when  quite  dry,  give 
each  a  coat  of  india-rubber  solution. 
Say  1  oz.  of  rubber  not  vulcanized  to 
5  oz.  of  turpentine.  When  tlie  first 
coat  is  dry,  give  it  another,  and  when 
that  is  dry,  put  the  two  ends  together. 

Ebonite  and  Vulcanite. — The  only 
dilference  between  these  two  articles  is 
in  the  colouring  materials  used.  These 
terms  are  applied  to  a  compound  of 
india-rubber  and  sulphur,  exactly  the 
same  as  the  common  elastic  bands,  the 
only  difference  being  in  the  time  and 
heat  required  to  vulcanize  or  harden 
the  compound.  To  prepare  it  as  sold  in 
the  form  of  combs,  the  india-rubber  is 
put  into  a  masticator  along  with  a 
proper  jiroportion  of  sulphur,  and  when 
thoroughly  mixed  a  sullicient  quantity 
is  put  into  a  mould  of  the  right  shape 
made  of  plaster  of  Paris,  or  other  ma- 
terial whicli  will  not  combine  with  sul- 
jihur,  and  exposed  in  a  steam  boiler  to  a 
heat  of  315°,  and  a  pressure  of  about 
12  lbs.  to  the  inch  for  2  hours.  It  is 
then  removed  from  the  mould,  and 
finished,  and  polished  exactly  in  the 
same  manner  as  ivory.  The  application 
of  heat  as  above  witliout  a  steam  pres- 
sure is  sullicient  to  vulcanize  or  harden 
the  comjiound,  but  the  result  is  not 
always  so  satisfactory,  as  the  material 
is  liable  to  be  j-orous  if  not  com- 
pressed whilst  hardening.  Gutta-percha 
may  be  treated  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  india-rubber,  and  cannot  be 
distinguishe<l  from  it,  but  is  rather 
more  troublesome  to  work.  The  vul- 
canite may  be  turned  or  carved  in  the 
same  way  as  ivory,  with  the  advantage 
that  it  may  be  moulded  to  the  required 
form  without  the  great  waste  wliiih 
attends  ivory  carving.  It  is  also  much 
less  liable  to  fractui-e.  The  smaller  the 
proportions  of  sulphur  in  the  rubber, 
an<l  the  lower  the  tem|iorature  used,  tiie 
softer  and  more  elastic  will  be  the 
india-rubber.  About  10  or  15  percent, 
of  sul])hur,  and  a  temperature  of  270" 
or  275°  for  4  Iiour.s,  will  make  an  elastic 
rubber;  30  per  cent,  of  sulphur  and  » 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


3G1 


temjierature  of  315°  for  two  hours  will 
m;ike  a  hard  vulcanite-like  ivory. 

Welding-  Cast  Steel.— 1.  Heat 
the  steel  carefully,  watching  it,  in  a 
gentle  fire  kept  free  from  dirt,  and  use 
the  following  composition  ; — Ten  parts 
of  borax  and  1  of  sal  ammoniac ;  grind 
them  together  roughly,  and  then  fuse 
them  in  a  metal  pot  over  a  clear  fire, 
taking  care  to  continue  the  heat  until 
all  spume  has  disappeared  from  the  sur- 
face. When  the  liquid  appears  clear 
the  composition  is  ready  to  be  poured 
out  to  cool  and  concrete,  afterwards  to 
be  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  This  may 
be  best  done  by  running  it  into  a  strong 
iron  vessel,  or,  if  in  a  smith's  shop,  into 
a  hole  in  the  swage ;  put  in  a  piston,  and 
use  the  sledge-hammer.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  this  composition  will  be  sufficient 
sprinkled  on  the  parts  to  be  welded 
while  in  the  fire.  Care  should  be  ex- 
ercised in  hammering  the  splice.  To 
use  this  composition,  the  steel  to  be 
wielded  is  raised  to  a  heat  which  may  be 
expressed  by  bright  yellow  ;  it  is  then 
dipped  into  the  welding  powder,  and 
again  placed  in  the  fire  until  it  attains 
the  same  degree  of  heat  as  before,  it  is 
then  ready  to  be  placed  under  the 
hammer.  2.  Borax,  10  ])arts;  sal  am- 
moniac, 2  ;  flour  of  sulphur,  1  ;  grind  or 
pound  them  roughly  together ;  fuse 
them  in  a  metal  pot  over  a  clear  fire, 
taking  care  to  continue  the  heat  until 
all  scum  has  disappeared  from  the  sur- 
face.    Use  in  the  same  manner  as  No.  1. 

Lead  Burning'. — The  apparatus 
required  is  a  cast-iron  furnace,  two  or 
three  ladles,  and  some  moulding  sand. 
Burning  is  resorted  to  by  plumbers  ge- 
nerally for  purposes  where  soldering 
will  not  stand,  such  as  retorts  used  in 
bleaching  works  where  the  acid  destroys 
soldering.  Cast  a  sheet  of  lead  of  the 
proper  thickness,  and  cut  the  proper 
length  and  width,  turn  it  up  round  like 
a  hoop,  bringing  the  two  ends  well 
together  to  form  a  good  joint  on  the 
outside,  and  firmly  tack  them  tcgetlier 
on  the  inside ;  roll  it  over  to  see  that  the 
joint  is  close  on  the  outside,  and  paste  a 
j'lece  of  stout  brown  paper  about  4  inches 
vride  over  the  whole  length  of  the  joint. 


The  sand  must  be  well  tempered  not  to 
have  any  wet  lumps  in  it ;  make  a  level 
bed  with  the  sand  about  5  or  6  inches 
thick ;  roll  the  hoop  on  the  sand  so  that 
the  joint  will  come  under,  be  careful  not 
to  shift  it  backwards  or  forwards,  but 
well  ram  up  under  both  sides.  Have  a 
strip  of  wood  rather  longer  than  the 
joint,  about  g  inch  thick,  to  form  the 
runner  with,  place  it  along  on  edge  on 
the  top  of  the  joint ;  now  place  some 
sand  both  sides  and  well  ram  it  together, 
adding  sand  until  there  is  a  good  bank 
on  the  top  of  the  work ;  smooth  it  off 
with  a  trowel,  cut  it  down  towards  the 
strip,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  funnel, 
leaving  about  2  inches  of  the  strip 
buried  ;  draw  out  the  strip  endways,  be 
careful  not  to  break  the  sand,  leaving 
one  end  stopped  up,  the  other  end  stop 
up  about  1  in.  high.  At  this  end  make 
a  bay  or  pond  for  the  overflow  metal  to 
run  into.  Have  the  metal  red  hot,  be 
careful  that  the  runner  is  free  from 
loose  sand,  shake  a  little  pounded  rosin 
along  in  the  runner,  have  a  trying  stick 
that  can  be  drawn  easily  along  the 
runner.  Now  begin  to  pour  the  metal, 
of  which  have  plenty,  holding  the  ladle  at 
least  1  ft.  above  the  runner  so  as  to  give 
weight  and  force  to  the  burning  metal ; 
pour  plenty,  not  minding  what  is  run- 
ning off,  as  the  metal  that  is  pouring  in 
has  to  melt  the  part  which  is  in  the  cold 
sand.  When  the  joint  is  burnt  through 
try  it  by  drawing  the  trying  stick  along 
in  the  runner  ;  if  it  feels  smooth  along 
the  bottom  it  is  burned,  if  not  pour  some 
more  until  it  is,  then  stop  up  the  end 
where  the  metal  has  been  running  off, 
and  fill  up  about  2  inches  high,  and 
watch  for  shrinkage,  having  some  hot 
metal  ready  to  fill  up  as  it  shrinks  down 
in  cooling,  or  else  the  joint  will  not  be 
round.  When  set  remove  it  from  the 
sand,  and  cut  off  the  runner  with  a 
mallet  and  chisel,  finishing  off  with  a 
piece  of  cardwire,  the  paper  on  the  out- 
side will  strip  off,  leaving  it  clean, 
whereas  if  the  paper  was  not  used  the 
sand  would  adhere  to  the  metal,  which 
would  look  bad.  Having  now  completetl 
this  part  and  set  it  up,  round  in  shape, 
proceed  with   burning  in    the    bottott  ; 


362 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


having  a  hole  or  pit  in  the  floor  deep 
enough  for  the  hoop  to  go  down  level 
with  the  floor,  place  it  in  perfectly  level. 
Having  placed  the  hoop  level,  fill  up 
with  sand  inside  and  out  rather  slack. 
When  filled  up  within  about  4  or 
5  inches  from  the  top,  ram  it  down 
for  the  other  part  quite  hard  on 
the  outside,  leaving  the  sand  rather 
nigher  than  the  edge ;  then  with  a 
straight-edge  scrape  otF  level  with  the 
edge  of  the  lead.  N»iw  with  a  scribe 
take  out  the  sand  the  thickness  of  the 
required  bottom,  plane  the  sand  off  with 
a  trowel,  and  the  work  will  turn  out 
clean.  The  sand  on  the  outside  being 
up  level  with  the  edge,  smooth  off,  and 
cut  a  bay  all  round  to  take  the  over- 
flow, shake  a  little  pounded  rosin  round 
the  edge;  having  the  metal  red  hot, 
begin  to  pour  as  before,  only  this  is  a 
work  for  two  or  three  persons  if  it  is 
any  size,  as  it  must  be  done  quickly, 
pouring  the  hot  metal  along  the  edge 
until  it  is  properly  burned  down ;  when 
it  is  burned  deep  enough,  pour  a  few 
ladlefuls  all  over  tlie  bottom,  so  as 
to  get  it  in  a  thoroughly  fluid  state ; 
then  with  the  edge  of  the  trowel 
clean  off  the  dross,  leaving  a  perfectly 
bright  surface ;  let  it  remain  to  set. 
This  will  not  require  any  filling  up.  as 
it  IS  open  to  the  air  and  shrinks ;  wnen 
set  it  may  be  removed,  and  if  well  burned 
it  will  be  perfectly  solid. 

Whalebone. — Whalebone  is  the 
substitute  for  teeth  in  the  Greenland 
whale,  and  in  the  black  southern  whale  ; 
The  surface  of  tlie  blaije  is  compact, 
and  susceptible  of  a  high  polinh  by 
mere  friction.  Its  texture  is  lamellar 
in  the  direction  of  its  breadth,  so  that  it 
easily  8[>lits  and  divides  in  this  direc- 
tion, but  not  in  that  of  the  thickness 
of  the  blade  ;  the  middle  of  the  blade 
is  of  a  looser  texture  than  the  rest, 
and  is  called  the  grain,  being  com[)nsed 
of  coarse,  bristly  hairs.  The  general 
colour  of  whalebone  is  a  dusky  greyish 
black,  intermixed  with  thin  strips  or 
layers  of  a  paler  colour,  which  are  often 
almost  white — very  rarely  the  entire 
flake  is  milk-white.  To  prepare  the 
whalebone  for  use,  it  is  boiled  in  water 


for  several  hours,  by  which  it  becomns 
soft  enough  to  be  cut  up,  while  hot,  in 
lengths,  according  to  the  use  to  which 
it  is  to  be  applied ;  or,  by  means  of  a 
compound  guarded  knife,  is  cut  into 
fibres  for  brushes,  which  are  exten- 
sively used  in  stables  for  the  first 
process  in  cleaning  a  horse.  Whale- 
bone that  has  been  boiled,  and  has 
become  cold  again,  is  harder  and  of  a 
deeper  colour  than  at  first ;  but  the  jet- 
black  whalebone  has  been  dyed.  The 
principal  consumption  of  whalebone  ij 
for  stretchers  to  umbrellas  and  parasols, 
also  for  women's  stays,  and  whips  are 
made  of  plaited  whalebone.  White 
whalebone  has  been  made  into  bonnets, 
and  likewise  into  artificial  flowers,  as  its 
texture  is  well  adapted  to  this  purpose ; 
and  it  will,  by  the  usual  dyeing  pro- 
cesses, take  very  bright  and  durable 
colours. 

Silk. — Solcents. — Several  substances 
dissolve  silk,  such  as  the  ammoniacai 
solution  of  oxide  of  nickel  ;  that  of 
co])per  dissolves  cotton  as  well  ivs  silk, 
the  silk  is  precipitated  by  acids.  Chlo- 
ride of  zinc  saturated  with  zinc  oxide 
also  dissolves  silk,  but  in  no  case  can 
silk  thread  be  dissolved  without  the 
thread  being  decomposed. 

To  Renovate  Silk. — Potato-water  is 
good  to  clean  all  colours  and  kinds; 
grate  the  potatoes  into  cold  spring 
water,  say  a  large  potato  to  every  quart 
of  water,  of  which  five  or  six  will  do 
for  a  couple  of  dresses.  If  for  very 
light  silk,  pare  the  potatoes ;  if  for 
dark,  merely  wash  them  clean.  The 
j)an  of  water  must  not  be  stirred  in  the 
least  for  48  hours;  then,  very  slowly 
and  steadily  pour  off  the  clear  li(iuor, 
but  not  a  particle  of  the  sediment,  into 
a  large  open  vessel,  diji  the  ])ieces  of  silk 
into  this  liquid  up  and  down  a  few 
times,  without  creasing  them ;  then 
wijie  them  on  a  flat  table  with  a  clea^ 
towel,  first  one  side,  then  the  other. 
It  is  as  well  to  hang  each  one  as  dipped 
uj>on  a  line  to  allow  the  drops  to  drain 
olla  little  before  wiping.  Have  a  damp 
cloth  to  cover  them  in  till  all  is  done; 
then  iron  one  way,  on  the  soiled  side. 

Freezing. — In   the  production    of 


WORKSHCf    RECEIPTS. 


8fi3 


ice,  or  an  extrpine  de'9'vee  of  cold,  by 
saline  mixtures,  the  salts  should  be  in 
crystals,  and  as  rich  as  possible  in 
water,  but  not  in  the  least  damp. 
Coarsely  pulverize  when  about  to  use 
them,  and  do  not  mix  until  just  before 
throwing  them  in  the  liquid  ingredients. 
The  mixture  should  be  made  in  a  thick 
vessel,  well  covered  with  non-ccnducting 
material,  to  prevent  the  access  of  ex- 
ternal heat ;  the  substance  to  be  frozen 
must  be  contained  in  a  very  thin  vessel, 
so  as  to  expose  it  more  fully  to  the 
action  of  the  mixture.  Thus  the  ices 
used  in  confectionery  are  made  by 
placing  the  cream,  or  sweetened  water, 
in  a  tin,  which  is  immersed  in  a  bucket 
containing  a  mixture  of  powdered  ice 
and  half  its  weight  of  common  salt — 
move  the  tin  about  in  the  freezing 
mixture  until  the  cream  has  sufficiently 
solidified. 

Freezing  Mixtures. —  1.  Snow  or 
pounded  ice,  2  parts  ;  chloride  of 
sodium,  1.  2.  Snow  or  pounded  ice, 
5  parts ;  chloride  of  sodium,  2  ;  sal 
ammoniac,  1.  3.  Snow  or  pounded  ice, 
12  parts ;  chloride  of  sodium  and 
nitrate  of  ammonia,  5  of  each.  4.  Snow, 
8  parts,  concentrated  hj-drochloric 
acid,  5. 

Freezing  Poicdcrs. — 1.  4  lbs.  of  sul- 
phate of  soda,  2  J  lbs.  each  of  muriate  of 
ammonia  and  nitrate  of  potash  ;  when 
about  to  use  add  double  the  weight  of 
all  the  mgredients  of  water.  2.  Equal 
parts  of  muriate  of  ammonia  and  nitrate 
of  potash  ;  when  required  for  i;se  add 
more  than  double  the  weight  of  water. 
3.  Nitrate  of  ammonia  and  water  in 
equal  proportions.  4.  Carbonate  of 
soda  and  nitrate  of  ammonia  equal 
parts,  and  one  equivalent  of  water. 

Carre''s  Ice-making  Machine. — It  con- 
sists of  an  upright  boiler  partly  fiUud 
with  very  strong  ammoniacal  solution, 
80  strong  that  a  glass  bottle  of  it  held 
in  the  hand  at  once  gives  otf  bubbles  or 
gas.  From  the  top  of  this  rises  a  tube 
to  about  the  same  height  as  the  boiler. 
This  tube  ends  in  a  smaller  one,  which 
bends  down  to  level  of  top  of  the  boiler, 
and  is  inserted  into  a  cylindrical  vessel 
Jte-^i  at  a  distance  of  about  a  foot  and  a 


half  from  the  boiler.  This  ovlinder  has 
a  smaller  one  riveted  into  it,  in  which 
the  tin  containing  the  water  to  be  frozen 
is  to  be  inserted.  The  whole  of  the 
machine  is  hermetically  closed,  so  as  to 
allow  no  escape  of  the  gas.  The  boiler 
is  put  on  a  charcoal  fire,  and  when  a 
thermometer  shows  the  temperature  to 
have  risen  to  the  proper  point  the 
solution  is  converted  into  gas  at  a  great 
pressure.  The  boiler  is  removed  from 
the  fire,  and  placed  in  a  tub  of  cold 
water ;  the  tin  of  liquid  to  be  frozen  is 
placed  in  the  cylinder,  and  the  gas 
begins  to  condense.  In  a  certain  time, 
according  to  the  coolness  of  the  water  in 
the  tub,  such  a  great  degree  of  cold  is 
produced  by  the  condensation  that  the 
contents  of  the  tin  are  frozen  solid.  In 
hot  countries  the  water  in  the  tub  must 
be  changed  two  or  three  times  as  it  gets 
warm.  Instead  of  water,  cream,  or 
bottles  of  beer  or  wine  may  be  placed  in 
the  cylinder.  The  wine,  not  requiring 
to  be  frozen,  may  remain  only  a  short 
time,  and  then  be  replaced  by  a  second 
or  third  edition,  till  the  gas  is  com- 
pletely condensed.  The  solution  lasts 
many  years.  The  boiler  can  be  filled 
again,  but  it  is  a  very  troublesome 
operation,  as  the  moment  a  soldering 
iron  is  brought  near  the  aperture,  the 
gas  begins  to  escape ;  still  it  has  been 
done. 

To  Preserve  Ice. — 1.  Put  the  ice  on  a 
dish  and  cover  it  with  a  napkin,  then 
set  tiie  dish  upon  a  feather  bed  or 
pillow,  and  place  another  bed  or  pillow 
on  the  top  of  it.  In  this  way  a  few 
pounds  of  ice  may  be  kept  for  a  week 
or  more.  2.  Wrap  the  ice  in  a  piece  of 
old  fiannel,  and  if  not  required  imme- 
diately bury  it  in  the  ground. 

Ice  House. — If  possible,  choose  for  the 
site  of  an  ice  house  the  north-east  side 
of  a  hill  or  plantation,  or  the  inside  of 
a  plantation  v/here  it  would  be  perfectly 
shaded  with  trees ;  then  have  the  earth 
excavated  to  the  required  size,  and,  in 
addition,  sulficient  to  allow  of  a  double 
wall  being  built  with  from  6  in.  to  1  ft. 
space  between  each  wall.  The  shape 
may  be  either  an  inverted  cone  or  a 
square ;  whicherer  form  is  used,  there 


361 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


must  be  iierfect  drainage  insured  from 
the  bottom  of  the  well,  so  that  the  ice 
will  be  kept  dry.  It  can  be  arched 
over  at  top  and  covered  with  earth,  or 
roofed  with  timber  and  well  thatched 
with  straw.  The  entrance  should  be 
by  double  doors,  with  the  space  between 
filled  with  straw  ;  the  inner  door  should 
be  perfectly  air-tight.  In  storing  see 
that  the  ice  is  well  smashed  and  pounded 
into  the  well,  as  upon  this  will  depend 
a  great  deal  its  keepmg  properties. 

Solders. — Solder  for  Jewellers. — 
Melt  together  in  a  crucible  19  parts 
fine  silver ;  copper,  1  part ;  and  brass, 
10  parts. 

Silver  Solder  for  Fluting. — Melt  to- 
gether 10  dwts.  of  brass,  and  1  oz.  of  pure 
silver. 

Gold  Solder.  —  Melt  together  pure 
gold,  12  parts  ;  pui-e  silver,  li  parts ;  and 
copper,  4  j)arts.  Fuse  together  3  parts 
gold,  2  parts  silver,  1^  cojiper,  then  add 
J  part  zinc,  for  a  solder  tJiat  will  How 
at  a  dull  red  heat,  suitable  for  gold 
brooches,  guards,  &c. 

Hard  holders. — 1.  2  parts  of  good 
silver  and  1  of  ordinary  brass  pins,  well 
melted,  is  a  good,  useful,  jewellers'  hard 
solder  ;  but  it  must  not  be  melted  more 
than  once.  2.  Hard  silver  solder  com- 
posed of  4  parts,  of  fine  silver  and  1  of 
copper,  made  into  an  alloy  and  rolled 
into  sheets,  is  very  diirunilt  of  fusion. 
These  alloys  are  run  into  convenient 
bars  or  strips  for  use.  Silver  solders 
are  used  for  soldering  silver-work,  gold, 
steel,  and  gun-motal.  A  neater  seam  is 
produced  with  the  hard  silver  solders 
than  with  soft  soldei-s. 

Soldering  Jeu-cllerg.  —  1.  .Jewellers 
solder  with  gold  of  a  lower  title  than  the 
article  to  be  soldiMcd — boj-ax,  llu.\,  and 
blow]iipe,  eDvelo|)iiig  the  other  i)art 
with  tissue-j>aper  and  whitening.  2. 
CJiidiug  by  sinijue  immersion,  1  dwt.  fine 
gold,  very  small ;  put  into  a  saucer,  add 
)  oz.  muriatic  ;iciil,  ^  oz.  nitric  acid  ; 
kec[i  tiie  saucer  over  a  slow  /ire  till  the 
gold  is  dissolved,  move  the  saucer  till 
the  acid  evaporates  and  leaves  the  gold 
dry  la  dark  red  crystals  around  the 
jaucer  ;  then  add  1  oz.  cyanide  of  potas- 
Kium,  diistilvc  in  |j  plot  of  boiliog  water ; 


pour  this  over  the  crystals  in  the  saucer 
to  wash  them  off,  let  it  all  run  into  a 
basin,  stir,  and  it  is  fit  for  use ;  lay  the 
object  to  be  gilt  on  a  small  bit  of  clean 
zinc?.  Put  in  bath,  remove  in  a  minute, 
scratch  -  brush,  immerse  again  for  a 
minute,  scratch-brush,  wash  in  boiling 
water,  dry  out  with  boxwood  dust. 

Soldering  Silver.  —  Solder.  —  Fine 
silver,  2  parts;  brass  wire,  1  part ;  melt 
the  silver  first  in  a  crucible,  when  it  is 
melted  put  the  brass  wire  in  the  crucible, 
it  will  soon  melt  and  mis  with  the 
silver;  put  a  little  bora-^j  with  it,  and 
give  it  a  good  heat  for  about  10  minutes, 
then  pour  it  in  the  skillet  and  pass  it 
through  the  flattening  mills  until  it 
becomes  the  thickness  of  a  threepenny 
piece,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Solders  of  varioiis  Ifardness.  —  1. 
Hardest;  silver,  4  parts;  copper,  1 
part;  fuse  together.  2.  Hard;  sterling 
silver,  3  parts;  melt,  add  brass  wire,  1 
part.  3.  Soft;  silver,  2  parts,  melt; 
add  brass  wire,  1  part,  this  is  generally 
used  ;  some  add  a  little  arsenic,  to  make 
it  whiter  and  more  fusible,  but  it  be- 
comes less  malleable  and  more  injurious. 

4.  Pure  tin,  or  tin  solder,  2  parts  lead 
to  1  part  tin,  used    for    inferior  work. 

5.  Fine  brass,  6  parts  ;  silver,  5  ;  zinc,  2. 
Soldering  German  Silver. — Clean  the 

places  where  you  want  the  solder  to  run 
by  scraping,  then  paint  it  with  spirits 
of  salts,  to  which  add,  before  using,  a 
small  piece  of  zinc;  put  a  ]iiece  of  i)ewter 
solder  on,  and  direct  the  llaine  of  the 
gas  or  lam]>  on  the  article.  The  solder 
will  run  into  the  places  which  ha^e 
been  touched  by  the  spirits  of  salts. 

Solder. — 5  jiarts  Gorman  silver,  4 
parts  zinc.  Melt,  run  into  thin  cakes, 
and  powder. 

Silver  Solder  for  Plated  Metal.— 'SMt 
together  10  dwts.  of  brass  and  1  oz.  of 
pure  silver. 

Beat  Soft  Solder  for  Cast  Britannia 
]r«r«.— Tin,  8  lbs. ;  lead,  5  lbs. 

White  Solder  for  Silver. — Silver,  1  oz. 
tin,  1  oz. 

Pewter  and  Britannia  Metal. — 10 
parts  tin,  5  parts  lead)  bismuth,  1  to  3 
parts. 

Soldering   Ziiic.  —  The    parts   to   lic 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS, 


365 


soldered  must  be  well  cleaned  and 
bright ;  tin  the  copper  soldering  iron  by 
rubbing  it  while  hot  in  dry  hydrochlo- 
rate  of  ammonia  with  a  globule  of  solder. 
First  wet  the  parts  to  be  soldered  with 
a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc.  For  zinc 
plates  use  the  acid  alone  ;  next  apply  the 
solder,  rubbing  it  with  the  iron  till  it 
unites  with  the  metal.  The  solder  for 
zinc  is  composed  of  2  parts  tm  and  1  of 
lead. 

Solder  for  Tin  Plates. — Tin,  2  parts  ; 
lead,  1  part.  Add  1  part  bismuth  if 
desired  to  use  for  pewter. 

Soft  Solders. — Soft  Gold  Solder  is 
composed  of  4  parts  gold,  1  of  silver, 
and  1  of  copper.  It  can  be  made  softer 
by  adding  brass,  but  the  solder  becomes 
more  liable  to  oxidize. 

Soft  Silver  Solder. — A  strong,  easy- 
flowing  and  white  solder  for  jewellers' 
use  is  composed  of  lead,  1  part ;  and  tin, 
2  parts.  When  the  lead  is  melted  put 
in  the  tin,  and  then  throw  in  a  small 
piece  of  rosin  as  a  flux.  In  soldering 
fine  .work  wet  the  parts  to  be  joined 
with  muriatic  acid  in  which  as  much 
zinc  has  been  dissolved  as  the  acid  will 
take  up.  It  is  cleaner  than  the  old 
method  of  using  Venice  turpentine  or 
rosin. 

Soft  Soldering  Copper,  or  Pewter. — 
Copper,  pewter,  tin,  lead,  and  brass,  can 
be  soldered  with  spirits  of  salts,  which 
has  been  killed  with  zinc,  for  a  flux. 
This  will  solder  anything  but  zinc  itself, 
for  which  free  acid  must  be  used.  The 
killed  spirits  may  remain  open  to  the 
air  for  weeks  without  deterioration. 

Plumbers'  Soft  Solder  is  composed  of 
tin  and  lead  in  equal  parts. 

Hard  Solder. — Copper,  2  parts ;  zinc, 
1  part. 

Chemical  Soldering. — A  neat  mode  of 
soldering  for  small  articles ; — Cut  a 
piece  of  tin-foil  the  size  of  the  surfaces  to 
be  soldered  ;  dip  a  fjather  in  a  solution 
of  sal  ammoniac,  and  paint  over  the  sur- 
faces of  the  metal  ;  then  place  them  in 
their  proper  position,  with  the  tin-foil 
between ;  put  it  so  arranged  on  a  piece 
of  iron  hot  enough  to  melt  the  foil ; 
when  cold  they  will  be  found  firmly  fas- 
tened together. 


Solder  for  StcelJoints. — Take  19  dwts. 
of  fine  silver,  1  ditto  of  copper,  2  ditto 
of  brass  ;  melt  under  a  coat  of  charcoal 
dust.  This  solder  possesses  several  ad- 
vantages over  the  usual  spelter  solder  or 
brass,  as  it  fuses  with  less  heat,  and 
has  a  better  appearance  than  brass. 

Soldering  without  Heat. — Take  1  oz. 
of  ammoniac  and  1  of  common  salt,  an 
equal  quantity  of  calcined  tartar,  and 
3  oz.  of  antimony.  Pound  well  together 
and  sift.  Put  this  in  a  piece  of  linen, 
and  enclose  it  well  round  with  fullers' 
earth  about  an  inch  thick ;  let  it  dry, 
then  put  it  in  one  crucible  covered  by 
another  crucible,  over  a  slow  fire,  to  get 
hot  by  degrees.  Keep  up  the  fire  until 
the  contents  of  the  crucible  get  red 
hot  and  melt.  Then  let  it  cool  gra- 
dually, and,  when  cold,  pound  the  mix- 
ture. When  you  wish  to  solder  any- 
thing, put  the  two  pieces  you  want  to 
join  together  on  a  table  close  to  one 
another.  Make  a  crust  of  fullers'  earth, 
so  that,  passing  under  the  joint  and 
holding  to  each  piece,  it  shall  be  open  at 
the  top.  Then  throw  some  of  the  pow- 
der between  and  over  the  joint.  Dissolve 
some  borax  in  some  hot  wine,  and  with 
a  feather  dipped  in  the  solution  rub  the 
powder  at  the  place  of  joint.  It  will 
immediately  boil  up.  As  soon  as  the 
boiling  stops  the  consolidation  is  made. 
The  calcined  tartar  is  made  by  ])lacing 
crude  tartar  in  a  covered  crucible,  and 
raising  it  to  a  low  red  heat.  Allow  it 
to  cool  gradually. 

Chloride  of  Zinc  Soldering  Fluid. — 1. 
jMuriatic  acid  with  zinc  dissolved  in  it 
till  it  will  take  no  more.  2.  Dissolve 
zinc  in  hydrochloric  acid  until  the  acid 
will  dissolve  no  more. 

Solder  for  Tinware. — The  linmg  of 
tea-chests  makes  a  good  solder  for  tin- 
ware, being  made  of  tin  and  lead  in 
about  the  proper  proportions. 

To  Braze  Steel  and  Iron  without  Heat. 
— Take  \  oz.  fluoric  acid,  2  oz.  of  brass 
filings,  and  1  oz.  of  steel  filings.  Put 
them  all  into  the  fluoric  acid ;  touch 
each  part  of  the  work  with  the  mixtuio, 
and  put  them  together.  Take  care  that 
the  fluoric  acid  is  put  into  an  earthern 
vessel. 


366 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPtS, 


Soldering  Iron  and  Lead  Pipes. — File 
the  end  of  the  iron  pipe  bright,  then  see 
that  the  soldering  iron — which  should 
be  as  large  a  one  as  can  be  got — is  well 
tinned  ;  this  is  important  in  all  soldering 
operations.  Having  the  iron  ready,  and 
as  hot  as  it  will  bear,  wet  the  part  to  be 
*iuned  with  a  little  spirits  of  salt  that 
iias  had  as  much  zinc  chippings  put  in 
it  as  it  will  dissolve,  then  apply  the 
solder  with  the  iron ;  the  pipe  will  have 
to  be  very  hot  with  the  iron  before  it 
will  tin ;  it  would  be  as  well  to  tin  the 
irot  pipe  with  a  little  block  tin  or 
pewter,  if  available.  If  any  difficulty  is 
found  in  tinning  the  iron  pipe,  a  little 
powdered  sal  ammoniac  can  be  sprinkled 
over  it  when  very  hot,  which  would 
assist  the  tinnmg;  this  done,  the  lead 
pipe  must  be  widened  out  so  as  to  form 
a  lip  all  i"ound  the  iron  pij^e,  and  soldered 
round  with  fine  solder,  taking  care  to 
keep  the  heat  of  the  iron  on  the  iron 
pipe  rather  than  the  lead  ;  or  a  ] 'lumber's 
joint  may  be  made  by  pouring  on  a 
quantity  of  plumbers'  solder  from  a 
ladle,  and  wiping  off  the  supei'fluous 
solder  with  a  greased  cloth. 

Erase  Solder  for  Iron. — The  plates  of 
brass  are  to  be  melted  between  the 
pieces  that  are  to  be  joined.  If  the  work 
be  very  fine,  as  when  two  leaves  of  a 
broken  saw  are  to  be  brazed  together, 
cover  it  with  pulverized  borax,  melted 
with  wafer,  that  it  may  incorjiorate 
with  the  brass  powder  which  is  added  to 
it  ;  the  ])icrn  must  then  be  exposed  to 
the  fire,  without  touching  the  coals,  and 
hented  till  the  brass  is  .seen  to  run. 

Soldcrimj  Cast  Iron  to  Brass. — First 
clean  (lie  iron  and  brass  well,  and  then 
tin  them  both  before  jdacing  them  to- 
gether for  soldering.  The  articles  c;in 
be  tinned  by  rubbing  while  hot  with 
rosin,  sal  ammoniac,  or  muriatic  acicl 
with  zinc  dissolved  in  it;  then  rubbing 
them  over  with  solder.  If  done  while 
hot,  wipe  the  soliler  off  with  rag;  sutli- 
cicnl  will  be  left  on  the  articles  for  the 
purposes  required. 

Solder  for  (told. — 1.  Melt  together  in 
a  charcoal  fire,  24  grains  gold,  9  grains 
pure  dilver,  6  grains  copper,  and  3  grains 
gooi\  bruits  ;  this  makcb  a  solder  for  gold 


ranging  from  12  to  16  carats  fine.  For 
finer  gold,  increase  the  proportion  of 
gold  in  the  composition.  To  make  it 
darker  in  colour  lessen  the  proportion  of 
the  silver  and  increase  that  of  the  copper. 
2.  To  1  dwt.  of  gold  add  6  grains  of 
silver,  if  the  alloy  is  dark  ;  if  light,  4J 
grains  silver,  J  grain  coppei.  If  the 
solder  is  not  good,  i  grain  of  either 
silver  or  copper  will  set  it  right. 

A  Good  Solder. — Take  1  lb.  of  pure 
Banca  tin,  and  melt  it,  then  add  J  lb.  of 
clean  lead,  and  when  it  is  melted  stir 
the  mixture  gently  with  a  stick  or  poker, 
and  pour  it  out  into  solder  strips. 

Plumbers'  Solder,  —  Lead,  1  part; 
tin,  1. 

Tinman's  Solder. — Lead,  1  do. ;  tin,  1. 

Pewterers'  Solder. — Tin,  2  parts ;  lead, 
1  part. 

Yellow  Solder  for  Brass  or  Copper, — ■ 
1.  Copper,  1  lb. ;  zinc,  1  lb.  2. 
Stronger ; — copper,  32  lbs.  ;  zinc,  29 
lbs. ;  tin,  1  lb. 

Solder  for  Copper. — Copper,  10  lbs. ; 
zinc,  9  lbs. 

Black  Solder. — Copper,  2  lbs. ;  zinc^ 
3  lbs. ;  tin,  2  oz. 

Black  Solder. — Sheet  brass,  20  lbs,; 
tin,  6  lbs. ;  zinc,  1  ib. 

To  Joint  Lead  Plates. — The  joints  ol 
lead  plates  may  be  made  as  follows; — 
The  edges  are  brought  together,  ham- 
mered down  into  a  channel  cut  out  ot 
wood,  and  secured  with  a  few  tacks. 
The  hollow  is  then  sciMped  clean  with  a 
scraper,  rubbed  over  witli  caniile-grcase, 
and  a  stream  of  hot  lead  is  poured  into 
it,  the  surface  being  at\erwards  smoothed 
with  a  red-hot  ])lumbcrs'  iron. 

Brazing  and  Resetting  Band  Saws. 
— 1,  Get  the  edges  to  lay  flush,  and 
then  braze  them  with  a  blowpipe,  and 
file  otfall  the  sujierfluous  solder.  They 
should  be  sharpened  with  a  three-cor- 
nered file,  and  the  teeth  cut  deep.  The 
saw  should  be  kept  tight  when  in  use, 
and  slacked  out  when  done  with.  2. 
Procure  a  jiiece  of  charcoal,  a  blowpipe, 
some  spelter  and  borax,  file  the  ends  of 
the  saw  even,  then  file  the  sides  so  that 
one  side  laps  over  the  other;  fit  tha 
teeth  opposite  each  other,  bind  it  with 
iron  wire  to  keep  in  place  ;  muisteu  th« 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


3G7 


lap  of  the  saw  with  borax,  first  dissolved 
in  water  ;  place  the  saw  on  the  char- 
coal. The  broken  parts  place  by  side  of 
a  gas  jet,  sprinkle  the  part  previously 
wetted  with  the  spelter,  blow  the  flame 
of  gas  until  the  spelter  runs ;  let  it  get  , 
cool  before  removal ;  when  quite  cold 
file  it  flat  with  the  other  part  of  the 
saw  ;  to  set  the  saw,  drop  one  side  on 
the  ground,  the  other  side  up,  and  set  on 
edge  of  the  vice. 

Solder  for  Copper,  Iron,  and  Dark 
Brass. — Copper  and  zinc,  equal  parts 
melted  together.  For  pale  brass  use 
more  zinc. 

Fine  Solder. — Tin,  2  parts  ;  lead,  1 
jiart ;  used  for  copper  and  tin  plates. 
Glazier. — Three  parts  lead,  1  part  tin. 
Soldering  Small  Pieces. — Such  small 
articles  as  parts  of  the  eye-pieces  of  tele- 
scopes may  be  soldered  by  wetting  them 
with  a  strong  solution  of  sal  ammoniac 
and  putting  a  bit  of  tin-foil  between  the 
pieces  properly  placed,  put  on  a  plate  of 
iron  and  held  over  a  gas-light  till  the 
solder  melts. 

Removing  Soft  Solder  from  Gold. — 
Place  the  articles  in  a  vessel  containing 
muriatic  acid  and  allow  them  to  remain 
in  about  a  couple  of  hours  ;  the  acid 
should  be  slightly  warmed,  say  90°. 
The  articles  would  require  to  be  re- 
coloured  or  gilt  afterwards.  Nitric  acid 
will  dissolve  solder  without  affecting  the 
gold  unless  it  be  of  very  inferior  quality. 
Lute  for  Soldering. — A  lute  for  the 
joints  of  iron  vessels  may  be  composed  of 
60  parts  of  finely-sifted  iron  filings  and 
2  of  sal  ammoniac  in  fine  powder,  well 
mixed  with  1  part  of  flowers  of  sulphur. 
This  powder  is  made  into  a  paste  with 
water,  and  immediately  applisd  ;  in  a 
few'  seconds  it  becomes  hot,  swells,  dis- 
engages ammonia  and  hydric  sulphide, 
and  soon  sets  as  hard  as  the  iron  itself. 

Autogenous  Soldering,  or  Burn- 
ing Together. — The  method  of  burning 
together  only  admits  of  limited  applica- 
tion, but  when  successfully  performed, 
the  work  assumes  the  condition  of 
greatest  strength,  from  all  parts  being 
alike.  There  is  no  dissimilarity  between 
tne  several  parts  as  when  ordinary 
idders  are  used,  which  are  open  to  an 


objection,  that  the  soldeis  expand  and 
contract  by  heat  either  more  or  less 
than  the  metals  to  which  they  are 
attached.  There  is  another  objection  of 
far  greater  moment ;  the  solders  oxidize 
either  more  or  less  freely  than  the 
metals,  and  upon  which  circumstance 
hinge  many  of  the  galvanic  or  electrical 
phenomena ;  and  thence  the  soldered 
joints  constitute  galvanic  circuits,  which 
in  some  cases  cause  the  more  oxidizable 
of  the  two  metals  to  waste  with  the 
greater  rapidity,  especially  when  heat, 
moisture,  or  acids  are  present.  In  che- 
mical works  this  is  a  serious  inconve- 
nience, and  leaden  vessels  and  chambers 
for  sulphuric  acid  must  not  be  soldered 
with  tin  solder,  the  tin  being  so  much 
more  freely  dissolved  than  the  lead. 
Such  works  were  formei-ly  burned  to- 
gether by  pouring  hot  lead  on  the  joint, 
and  fusing  the  parts  into  one  mass,  by 
means  of  a  red-hot  soldering  iron  ;  this 
is  a  troublesome  and  tedious  operation. 

Pewter  is  sometimes  burned  together 
at  the  angles  of  work,  that  no  difference 
of  colour  may  exist ;  one  edge  is  allowed 
to  stand  a  little  above  the  other,  a  strip 
of  the  same  pewter  is  laid  in  the  angle, 
and  the  whole  are  melted  together,  with 
a  large  copper-bit,  heated  almost  to  red- 
ness ;  the  superfluous  metal  is  then  filed 
off",  leaving  a  well-defined  angle  without 
any  visible  joint. 

Brass  is  likewise  burned  together ; 
the  rims  of  the  large  mural  circles  for 
observatories  are  sometimes  cast  in  six 
or  more  segments,  and  attached  by  burn- 
ing. The  ends  of  the  segments  are  filed 
clean,  two  pieces  are  fixed  vertically  in 
a  sand  mould  in  their  relative  positions, 
a  shallow  space  is  left  around  the  joint, 
and  the  entire  charge  of  the  crucible, 
say  30  to  40  lbs.  of  the  melted  brass,  a 
little  hotter  than  usual,  is  then  poured 
on  the  joint  to  heat  it  to  the  melting 
point.  The  metal  overflows  the  shallow 
chamber  or  hole,  and  runs  into  a  pit 
prepared  for  it  in  the  sand  ;  but  the  last 
quantity  of  metal  that  remains  solidi- 
fies with  the  ends  of  the  segments,  and 
forms  a  joint  as  perfect  as  the  general 
substance  of  the  metal ;  the  process  is 
repeated  for  each  joint  of  the  circle. 


3G3 


WORKSHOP  EBCEiPTS, 


Cast  Iron  is  likewise  uDited  by  burn- 
ing. To  add  say  a  flange  to  an  iron 
pipe,  a  sand  mould  is  made  from  a  wood 
pattern,  but  the  gusset,  or  chamfered 
band  between  the  flange  and  tube,  is 
made  rather  fuller  than  usual,  to  aflfbrd 
a  little  extra  base  for  the  flange.  The 
mould  is  furnished  with  an  ingate,  enter- 
ing exactly  on  the  horizontal  parting  of 
the  mould,  at  the  edge  of  the  flange, 
and  with  a  waste  head  or  runner  pro- 
ceeding upwards  from  the  top  of  the 
flange,  and  leading  over  the  edge  of  the 
flask  to  a  hollow  or  pit  sunk  in  the  sand 
of  the  floor.  The  end  of  the  pipe  is 
filed  quite  clean  at  the  place  of  junction, 
and  a  shallow  nick  is  filed  at  the  inner 
edge  to  assist  in  keying  on  the  flange ; 
lastly,  the  pipe  is  plugged  with  the  sand 
and  laid  in  the  mould.  After  the  mould 
is  closed,  about  six  or  eight  times  as 
much  hot  metal  as  the  flange  requires  is 
poured  through  the  mould ;  this  heats 
the  pipe  to  the  temperature  of  the  fluid 
iron,  so  that  on  cooling,  the  flange  is 
attached  suiliciently  firm  to  bear  the 
ordinary  pressure  of  the  screw-bolts  or 
steam.  The  method  of  burning  is  occa- 
sionally employed  in  most  of  the  metals 
and  alloys,  in  making  small  additions  to 
old  castings,  and  also  in  repairing  trifling 
holes  and  defects  in  new  ones  ;  it  is  only 
successful,  however,  when  the  pieces 
are  filed  quite  clean,  and  abundance  of 
•fluid  metal  is  employed,  in  order  to 
'mjiart  sullicient  heat  to  make  a  natural 
soldering. 

Waterproofing. — For  Cloth. — 1. 
Jloisten  the  cloth  on  the  wrong  side 
with  a  weak  solution  of  isinglass,  when 
dry  ajipjy  an  infusion  of  n\it-galis.  2. 
Apjily  a  solution  of  soap  to  the  wrong 
Bide  of  the  cloth,  when  dry  go  over 
again  with  a  solution  of  alum.  3. 
Si''!vier'H  Process; — Aj'j'ly  a  solution  of 
india-rubber  dissolved  in  oil  of  tur]>en- 
tine,  then  lay  on  a  coat  of  another  india- 
rultber  varnish  made  very  di-yiug  by  the 
addition  of  driers.  4.  1  lb.  of  sugar 
of  lead,  1  lb.  of  alum;  jiound  separately, 
and  mix  in  a  basin;  pour  2  ([uarts 
of  boiling  water  on  the  niixturo,  let 
it  stand  ti  hours,  and  then  bottle  ofl 
for   u^e.      Apply  to  the  cloth   with    » 


sponge  or  soft  brush  on  a  table  till  well 
saturated,  and  then  iron  it  over  and 
hang  up  to  dry.  5.  Take  31bs.  of  alum, 
and  dissolve  it  in  water,  and  to  it  add 
1  lb.  of  acetate  of  lead  previously  dis- 
solved. Let  this  stand  till  clear,  then 
pour  off  the  clear  solution  on  to  1  lb. 
of  glue  previously  dissolved  in  water. 
Ileat  up  to  185°,  and  place  the  cloth 
in  for  about  \  of  an  hour ;  take  it  out 
and  place  in  running  water,  afterwards 
dry. 

To  make  Cotton  Waterproof. — To  dc 
this,  without  making  it  sticky,  it  mus'; 
be  dried  at  about  150°  Fahr.  by  artifi- 
cial heat.  The  sun  will  do  it  on  a  hot 
day.  Set  as  much  boiled  oil  as  is  neces- 
sary, mix  enough  lampblack  to  blacken 
it,  if  for  black  work ;  if  yellow,  use 
ground  yellow  ochre  instead.  Then  lay 
the  fabric  on  a  smooth  surface,  and  jiut 
the  oil  on  with  a  brush,  a  shoe-brush  is 
best ;  let  the  first  coat  get  quite  dry  be- 
fore putting  on  another.  A  little  patent 
driers  will  make  it  dry  quicker,  say  J  lb. 
to  a  gallon  of  oil ;  if  the  last  coat  re- 
mains sticky  after  it  is  dry,  take  shelinc 
1  lb.  to  2  quarts  of  water,  simmer  it 
gently,  and  when  near  boiling  add  a 
little  liquor  ammonia  to  dissolve  the 
shellac.  When  this  is  cold  mix  a  little 
lampblack  for  black;  if  yellow  use  it  as 
it  is.  If  tlie  fabric  is  coated  over  with 
this  it  will  make  it  hard  ;  put  it  on  with 
a  sponge.  Lay  the  oil  on  as  thin  as 
possible  or  it  will  not  dry. 

Watcrproofinfj  Rich  Cloths  and  A:cn- 
infjs. — riunge  the  fabric  into  a  solution 
containing  20  ])er  cent,  of  soap,  aud 
afterwards  into  another  solution  con- 
taining the  same  percentage  of  sulphate 
of  copper;  wash,  and  the  ojieration  is 
finished. 

Waterproof  Cart -coverings.  —  The 
sheets  usetl  for  covering  railway  and 
other  wagons  are  rendered  waterproof 
by  coating  them  with  a  comjiositioa 
of  95  galls,  of  linseed  oil,  8  lbs.  of 
litharge,  and  7  lbs.  of  umber,  boiled  to- 
gether for  24  hours.  The  mixture  may 
be  coloured  by  the  addition  of  8  lbs.  of 
vegetable  black. 

To  Itcpair  Oilskins. —  If  tlioy  are  not 
jiaintcd,  give  them  another  coat  of  tbt 


vrORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


369 


original  liquids.  The  best  is  made  by 
dissolving  1  oz.  of  beeswax  in  1  pint  of 
the  best  boiled  linseed  oil  over  a  gentle 
fire,  applying  it  when  cold  with  a  piece 
of  rag,  rubbing  it  well  in,  afterwards 
hanging  it  up  to  dry,  which  will  take 
about  4  days.  If  they  are  painted,  the 
best  plan  is  to  give  them  another  coat  of 
good  black  paint. 

Waterproofing  Fishing  -  lines.  —  T«  o 
parts  boiled  oil,  1  part  gold  size,  put  in 
a  bottle,  shake  well,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use.  Apply  with  a  piece  of  flannel ; 
expose  to  the  air,  and  dry.  After  using 
the  line  two  or  three  times  it  should 
have  another  coat,  the  application  being 
repeated  when  necessary. 

Watervroof  Paper. — Dissolve  8  oz.  of 
alum  and  3j  oz.  of  Castile  soap  in  4  pints 
of  water,  and  2  oz.  of  gum  arable  and 
4  oz.  of  blue,  separately,  in  4  pints  of 
water;  mix  the  solutions,  heat  slightly, 
dip  in  the  single  sheets,  which  hang  up 
until  dry. 

W-.terproof  Solutions.  —  1.  India- 
rubber  in  small  pieces,  1  oz. ;  boiled  oil, 
1  pint ;  dissolve  by  heat,  then  add  1  pint 
hot  boiled  oil  stir  well,  and  cool.  2.  Of 
beeswax  and  yellow  rosin,  2  oz.  each  ; 
melt  in  1  pint  boiled  oil.  3.  Of  white 
wax  and  spermaceti  each  1  oz. ;  4  oz. 
mutton  s'lpt :  melt  in  1  pint  of  olive  oil. 
These  solutions  should  be  applied  to  the 
articles  warm,  and  may  be  used  for 
waterproofing  leather  work  of  all  de- 
scriptions. 

Waterproof  hut  not  Airproof.  —  1. 
Potter's  Process  ; — Cover  the  wrong  side 
of  the  cloth  with  a  solution  of  ismglass, 
alum,  and  soap  ;  when  dry  brush  against 
the  grain,  and  go  over  with  a  brush 
wetted  in  clean  water.  2.  Cooley's 
Pi-ocess ; — Spread  the  cloth  on  a  smooth 
surface,  wrong  side  up,  rub  it  over  with 
pure  beeswax  free  from  grease,  until  an 
even  but  thin  coat  is  applied,  then  pass 
a  hot  iron  over  it,  and  brush  whilst  still 
warm.  Wearing  apparel  thus  coated  is 
waterproof,  and  has  the  advantage  of  not 
being  impervious  to  air,  the  great  draw- 
back of  ordinary  mackintoshes  and 
waterproof  articles. 

Mantifacture  of  Floor-cloth. 

—The  main  part  of  the  manipulation  is 


similar  to  calico-printing,  the  figures 
upon  the  blocks  being  upon  a  much 
larger  scale,  and  the  cloths  which  are 
printed  being  of  much  greater  size.  The 
common  dimensions  of  a  floor-cloth  arc 
210  or  220  square  yards,  and  hence  the 
immense  size  and  often  unseemly  appear- 
ance of  floor-cloth  works.  A  stout  can- 
vas is  chosen  in  the  first  instance.  This 
is  nailed  to  one  extremity  of  a  wooden 
frame,  and  stretched  by  means  of  hooks 
which  are  attached  to  the  other  side. 
It  is  then  washed  with  a  weak  size,  and 
rubbed  over  with  pumice-stone.  No 
other  substance  has  yet  been  found 
which  answers  the  purpose  so  well  as 
this  mineral.  The  next  step  is  laymg 
on  liie  colour,  which  is  performed  by 
placmg  dabs  of  paint  over  the  caiivas 
with  a  brush,  and  then  rubbing  or  polish- 
ing it  with  a  long  peculiar-shaped 
trowel.  Four  coats  of  paint  are  thus 
applied  in  front,  and  three  on  the  back 
of  the  cloth.  To  remove  it  from  the 
frame  when  these  processes  are  finished, 
a  roller  on  the  carriage  is  employed, 
upon  which  it  is  rolled,  and  conveyed  to 
tiie  extremity  of  the  manufactory  for 
the  purpose  of  being  printed.  It  is  then 
gradually  transferred  from  the  roUei 
and  passed  over  a  table  which  is  30  ft. 
long  and  4  ft.  wide,  and  as  it  proceeds 
over  the  table,  the  blocks,  dipped  in  the 
appropriate  colours,  are  applied.  The 
colours  used  are  ochre,  umber,  ver- 
milion, and  diflerent  kinds  of  chrome, 
mixed  up  with  a  little  linseed  oil  and  a 
little  turpentine.  The  number  of  blocks 
applied  to  one  pattern  depends  upon  the 
number  of  colours.  The  first  mode  of 
applying  the  patterns  was  by  stencil 
plates.  Then  a  combmation  of  stencil- 
ling and  hand  printing  was  used,  th« 
former  process  being  first  made  use  of; 
afterwards  a  block  was  applied,  the  sten- 
cilling forming  the  groundwork.  Sten- 
cilling is  now  abandoned.  In  printing, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  cloth  should 
first  be  rubbed  over  with  a  brush,  or 
else  the  colours  will  not  adhere.  Every 
square  yard  of  good  oilcloth  weighs  3J 
to  4J  lbs.,  each  gaining  by  the  applica- 
tion of  the  paint  3  or  4  lbs.  weight,  and 
hence  the  -quality  of  this  manufacture 

2  B 


370 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


IS  judged  of  by  the  weight.  Whiting  is 
often  used  in  spurious  cloths  mixed  with 
oil.  Cloth  prepared  in  this  way  speedily 
cracks  and  becomes  useless.  Good  cloth, 
with  a  very  stout  canvas,  is  used  for 
covering  verandahs,  and  will  last  nine 
or  ten  years,  while  spurious  cloth  will 
become  useless  in  one  year.  Floor-cloth 
is  employed  to  cover  roofs,  and  for 
gutters.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  remarli- 
able  that  water  remaining  in  contact 
with  it  produces  no  injurious  etlect. 
Painted  baize  for  tables  is  usually  manu- 
factured with  a  smooth  side,  and  is 
printed  with  blocks  of  a  fine  structure, 
resembling  calico  blocks.  Fine  canvas 
is  employed  ;  several  coats  of  pamt  are 
laid  on  upon  one  side,  and  the  other 
receives  one  coat,  and  is  then  strewed 
over  with  wool,  or  flocked,  as  it  is 
called. 

Rendering  Wood  Incombus- 
tible.— 1.  Deal  boards  become  almost 
incombustible  when  painted  over  with  a 
diluted  solution  of  waterglass  or  silicate 
of  soda.  The  waterglass  is  usually  sold 
as  a  thick  fluid,  like  honey.  This  may 
be  thinned  out  with  water,  about  six  or 
seven  times  its  own  bulk.  The  water 
must  be  sot'l — boiled  water  will  do — and 
api)ly  the  solution  warm.  In  about  24 
hours  apply  a  second  coat,  and  jierliajis 
a  third.  (Jse  a  new  brush,  and  wash  in 
■  clean  water  after  using,  or  it  will  get 
too  soft.  Avoid  grease  or  fat  on  tiie 
boards  before  painting  them.  2.  Soak 
the  wood  in  a  strong  solution  of  alum 
and  sul]ihate  of  co])per.  About  1  lb.  of 
alum  and  111),  of  sulphate  of  copper  sliou  id 
be  sullicient  for  100  gallons  of  water. 
These  substances  are  dissolved  in  a  small 
quantity  of  hot  water,  then  mixed  with 
the  wa'er  in  the  vessel  in  which  the 
weed  is  to  be  steeped  The  timber  to 
be  rendered  i\rc]>ro(>l'  can  be  kept  under 
the  liquor  by  stones  or  any  other  mode 
of  sinking  it.  All  that  is  roi|uired  is  a 
water-tight  vessel  of  »ulli('ient  dimensions 
to  hold  enough  of  the  liquor  to  cover 
the  timber,  which  should  be  allowed  to 
Htcep  for  alxjut  4  or  .5  days.  After  this 
It  is  taken  out  and  allowed  to  dry 
thoroughly  before  heing  used.  'i.  A 
plan   of   reodeiini;    the   woad    juirtially 


fireproof  is  to  whitewash  it  two  or  thret 
times. 

Glue  to  Resist  Fire. — Mix  a  handful 
of  quicklime  in  4  oz.  of  linseed  oil,  boil 
to  a  good  thickness  ;  then  spread  on  tin 
plates  in  the  shade  and  it  will  become 
exceeilingly  hard,  but  may  be  easily  dis- 
solved over  the  fire,  and  used  as  ordinary 
glue. 

Ivory. — Bleaching  Ivory. — Ivorj  is 
very  apt  to  take  a  yellow-brown  tint  by 
exposure  to  air.  1.  It  may  be  whitened 
or  bleached,  by  rubbing  it  first  with 
pounded  pumice-stone  and  watei',  then 
placing  it  moist  under  a  glass  shade 
luted  to  the  sole  at  tlie  bottom,  and  ex- 
posing it  to  sunshine.  The  sunbeams 
without  the  shade  would  be  apt  to  occa- 
sion fissures  in  the  ivory.  The  moist 
rubbing  and  exposure  may  be  repeated 
several  times.  2.  Immerse  for  a  short 
time  in  water  slightly  mixed  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  chloride  of  lime,  or  chlorine, 
or  it  may  be  exposed  in  the  moist  state 
to  tiie  t'umt's  of  burning  sulphur,  largely 
diluted  with  air.  Ink  stains  may  be 
removed  by  rejieatedly  using  a  solutioD 
of  quadrozalate  of  potassa  in  water. 

Di/cing  Icoi-y  Black. — If  the  ivory  is 
well  washed  in  an  alkaline  ley,  and  is 
then  laid  for  several  hours  in  a  dilute 
solution  of  neutral  nitrate  of  pure  silver, 
with  access  of  light,  it  will  assume  a 
black  colour,  having  a  slightly  green 
cast.  2.  A  still  finer  black  may  be  ob- 
tained by  boiling  the  ivory  for  some 
time  in  a  strained  decoction  of  logwood, 
and  then  stoejiing  it  in  a  solution  of 
red  sulphate  or  red  acetate  of  iion.  3. 
Immerse  fre(iuently  in  common  black 
ink. 

Blue. — When  ivory  is  kept  immersed 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  in  a  dilute 
solution  of  sulphate  of  indigo,  partly 
saturatiMl  with  jiotash,  it  assumes  a  blue 
tint  of  greater  or  less  intensity. 

Green. —  1.  This  is  given  by  dipping 
blued  ivory  for  a  little  wliile  in  solution 
of  nitro-muriate  of  tin,  and  then  in  a  hot 
decoction  of  fustic.  2.  Hoil  in  solii 
tion  of  verdigris  in  vinegar  until  dark 
enough. 

Yellow  is  given  by  imjiregnatirig  the 
ivory  firt>t  with  the  above   tin  mordaDtt 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


871 


and  then  digesting  it  with  heat  in  a 
strained  decoction  of  fustic.  The  colour 
passes  into  orange,  if  some  Brazil  wood 
has  been  mixed  with  the  fustic.  A  very 
fine  unchangeable  yellow  may  be  com- 
municated to  ivory  by  steeping  it  18  or 
24  hours  in  a  strong  solution  of  the  neu- 
tral chromate  of  potash,  and  then  plung- 
ing it  for  some  time  in  a  boiling-hot 
solution  of  acetate  of  lead. 

Med  may  be  given  by  imbuing  the 
ivoiy  first  with  the  tin  mordant,  then 
plunging  it  m  a  bath  of  Brazil  wood, 
cochineal,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two. 
Lac-dye  may  be  used  with  still  more 
advantage  to  produce  a  scarlet  tint.  If 
the  scarlet  ivory  be  plunged  for  a  little 
in  a  solution  of  potash,  it  will  become 
cherry-red. 

Violet  is  given  in  the  logwood  bath 
to  ivory  previously  mordanted  for  a 
short  time  with  solution  of  tin.  When 
the  bath  is  exhausted,  it  imparts  a  lilac 
hue.  Violet  ivory  is  changed  to  purple- 
red  by  steeping  it  a  little  while  in  water 
containing  a  few  drops  of  nitro-muriatic 
acid. 

Brown,  as  for  black,  using  a  weaker 
solution  of  silver. 

Purple.  —  Steep  in  a  weak  neutral 
solution  of  terchloride  of  gold,  and  then 
expose  to  the  light.  With  regard  to 
dyeing  ivory,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
the  colours  penetrate  better  before  the 
surface  is  polished  than  afterwards. 
Should  any  dark  spots  appear,  they  may 
be  cleared  up  by  rubbing  them  with 
chalk  ;  after  which  the  ivory  should  be 
dyed  once  more  to  produce  perfect  uni- 
formity of  shade.  On  taking  it  out  of 
the  boiling-hot  dye  bath,  it  ought  to  be 
immediately  plunged  into  cold  water,  to 
prevent  the  chance  of  fissures  being 
caused  by  the  heat. 

Artificial  Ivory. — Make  isinglass  and 
hj-andy  into  a  paste,  with  powdered  egg- 
shell, very  finely  ground.  Give  it  any 
desired  colour ;  oil  the  mould,  into 
which  the  paste  must  be  poured  warm. 
Leave  the  paste  in  the  mould  until  dry, 
when  its  appearance  strongly  resembles 
ivory. 

Flexible  Ivory. — Immerse  the  ivory 
in  a  solution  of  pure  phosphoric  acid, 


sp.  gr.  1  •  13,  iintil  it  partially  loses  its 
opacity,  then  wash  in  cold  soft  water 
and  dry.  This  renders  ivory  very 
flexible,  but  it  regains  its  hardness  if 
long  exposed  to  dry  air.  Its  pliability 
may,  however,  be  restored  by  immersion 
in  hot  water. 

To  Prepare  Ivory  for  Miniature 
Painting, — It  is  usual  to  paint  minia- 
tures upon  ivory  which  is  sold  pro- 
pared  for  the  purpose  by  the  artists' 
colourman,  after  being  subjected  to  a 
bleaching  process  by  boiling,  or  ex- 
posure to  the  rays  of  the  sun  ;  but  the 
bleaching  can  be  more  expeditiously 
performed  by  placing  the  ivory  before  a 
good  fire,  which  will  dispel  the  wavy 
lines,  if  they  are  not  very  strongly 
marked,  that  frequently  destroy  the 
requisite  uniformity  of  surface.  Ivory 
of  the  best  quality  has  but  few  of  these 
wavy  lines,  but  it  is  frequently  ex- 
pedient to  employ  that  of  inferior 
quality. 

Defective  Ivory.  —  By  holding  the 
ivory  up  to  the  light,  it  will  be  seen 
whether  there  are  any  specks  or  holes 
in  it ;  if  any  exist,  they  will  be  fatal 
to  the  success  of  the  painting.  It  is 
often  necessary  to  remove  the  defects 
found  in  the  ivory  in  the  state  in  which 
it  is  sold.  To  remove  the  marks  of  the 
saw,  scrape  the  surface  equally  in  every 
direction  with  an  eraser,  or  an  old 
razor  with  a  fine  edge,  by  which  the 
marks  of  the  saw  are  removed ;  then, 
with  a  piece  of  fine  cork,  or  a  roll  of 
paper,  dipped  in  finely  pulverized  and 
sifted  pumice,  or  tripoli  powder  and 
water,  rub  the  ivory  with  a  circular 
motion  in  every  direction,  until  the 
surface  presents  one  uniform  tint,  but 
it  must  not  appear  polished ;  finish 
with  a  stump  and  a  little  cuttlefish 
powder  carefully  sifted  ;  then,  with  a 
large  camel  -  hair  pencil  and  water, 
wash  the  surface  of  the  ivory,  and  it 
will  be  ready  to  receive  the  colours. 
To  render  the  ivory  perfectly  flat,  place 
it  between  two  pieces  of  white  paper, 
and  subject  it  to  pressure  by  placing  a 
weight  upon  it. 

Mounting. — The  ivory  should  be  fas- 
teBed  at   the   four  corners  to  a  piece 

2  B  2 


372 


W:'RKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


){  cardboard,  for  the  convenience  of 
painting  on ;  the  back  of  the  ivory 
(Jiould  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  as  any 
application  of  gum  or  glue  to  its  sur- 
face destroys  the  transparent  quality 
upon  which  its  usefulness  depends. 
After  the  surface  to  be  painted  on  is 
propei'ly  cleaned,  it  should  be  on  no 
account  touched  with  the  fmgei's,  as 
the  employment  of  ox-gall  to  remove 
greasiness  must  be  scrupulously  avoided. 
An  ivory  palette  is  best  adapted  for 
miniature  juiinting,  because  the  tints 
appear  on  it  the  same  as  when  worked 
on  the  miniature,  a  matter  of  consider- 
able importance. 

Soaps. — When  fats  or  oils  are 
heated  with  caustic  leys,  a  combination 
of  fatty  acids  with  alkali  is  formed ; 
this  is  designated  saponification.  Soaps 
are  divided  into  hard  and  soft,  the 
former  having  soda,  and  the  latter 
potash,  for  their  bases.  The  former, 
however,  is  the  most  extensively  manu- 
factured, whilst  the  demand  for  the 
latter  is  limited.  Acids  decompose 
soaps,  combining  with  their  base  and 
exjieiling  the  fatty  acids,  for  these 
being  insoluble  m  the  former,  float  on 
the  surface  of  the  liquid.  By  this 
means  soaps  are  easily  analyzed. 

Vegetable  Oils. — Vegetable  oils 
have  been  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
.drying,  and  tlie  fluid  oils.  Of  the  first- 
named  are  oil  of  linseed,  hempseed,  and 
pojijiy  oil.  Of  the  second,  olive  oil, 
palm  oil,  sweet  almonds,  and  cocoanut 
oil.  According  to  the  mode  of  obtain- 
ing oils,  they  are  distinguished  as  oils 
of  the  first  and  second  i)ressure.  Those 
of  the  second  j)ressure  are  more  ser- 
viceable to  the  soap  manufacturer,  for 
though  less  liquid  and  often  mucilagi- 
nous, they  contain  more  sfearine,  and 
the  riclier  the  oils  are  in  stearine,  the 
harder  are  the  soaps  they  yield. 

CoccHinut  Oil. —  Six  fatty  acids  have 
been  discovered  in  the  cocoa  butter, 
most  of  which  being  solids,  accounts 
for  the  great  firmness  of  the  soajis  it 
forms.  This  fit  is  also  remarkable  as 
uniting  with  soda  leys  in  any  i)roi/or- 
tion,  without  fic])aratiug  from  them. 
Owing  to  this  pro^)crty,  this  fat  vb  UHed 


in  large  quantities  for  the  making  of 
filled  soaps.  It  is  very  slow  to  unite 
with  ley  by  itself;  it  is  therefore  usually 
applied  in  combination  with  tallow  or 
palm  oil,  increasing  their  eraollidnt  i)ro- 
perties,  and  also  giving  to  the  tallow 
soaps  a  brilliant  whiteness. 

Palm    Oil. —  .his    is    of    an    oranga 
colour,  and  when  not  rancid,  of  a  violet 
odour.     Palm   oil   is  employed  both  in 
the   bleached   and   in  the  natural  state. 
In  the  bleached  state  it  produces  a  soap 
of  most  beautiful    whiteness,   and  rich 
with  the  characteristic  odour  of  the  oil. 
Bleachiiiij  Palm  Oil. — The   bleaching 
of  1000  lbs.  requires  5  lbs.  red  chromate 
of  potassa,    10  lbs.  strong  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  2J  lbs.  sul])huric  acid.     First, 
the   chromate   of  potassa    is  pulverized 
and  dissolved  in  hot  water.     The  ])alm 
oil    should    then    be    transferred    to   a 
wooden    tank,    and   heated    with    steam 
to   120°    Fahr.      The   steam   is    turned 
off  and  a  portion  of  the  solution  of  the 
chromate  of  potassa   is  added,  agitated, 
and  a    proportional    portion    of  hydro- 
chloric acid  used  ;  at  last  the  sulpliuric 
acid.     After   thoroughly  agitating  this 
mixture    for    a    few   minutes,    tlie    oil 
changes  in  colour,  becoming  first  black, 
then   dark   green,   and  soon  afterwards 
light  green,  when  a  thick  froth  appears 
on  the  surfice,  an  indication  of  the  com- 
pletion  of  the    process.      If  a   sample, 
when  taken  out  and  allowed  to  settle, 
does  not  ap]ic>ar  sullicicntly  lileached,  an 
additional   portion  of  tiie  Uichromate  of 
potassa,    with    muriatic   and    sulphuric 
acids,  should  be  added.     The  whole  ha.s 
to  be  left  quiet  for  1  hour,  so  that  the 
solution    of    the    resulting    salts    may 
settle.     Tlie  clear  oil  is  then  drawn  off 
into   a   wooden   cask,   mixed   with   some 
water,  and   heated   again   by  the   intro- 
duction of  steam.     It  is  again  left  alone 
for  some  time,  and  the  fat  subsequently 
drawn  oil'.     In  making  soa])S  palm  oil  is 
usually    employed    with   tallow,    in    the 
pro])ortion  of  20  to  30  of  the  former  to 
100  ])aits  of  the   latter.     It  is  also  em- 
jdoyed  in  making  rosin  soap,  to  correct 
the  flavour  of  the  rosin  and  biighten  the 
colour. 

Olive   OS.  —  There    are    three    knds, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


373 


namely,  the  virgin  oil,  obtained  by  a 
gentle  pressure  of  the  fruit;  a  second 
kind,  gained  by  submitting  them  to  the 
action  of  hot  water  and  pressing  them 
between  metallic  plates  previously 
heated  ;  and  the  third,  an  inferior  kind, 
is  the  product  of  this  residuum  when 
boiled  in  water.  Only  the  two  latter 
kinds  serve  in  the  manufacture  of  soaps  ; 
they  yield  an  excellent  soap,  esteemed  for 
its  fresh  and  agreeable  odour.  It  is  very 
extensively  used  by  soaji  manufacturers 
in  Marseilles  and  for  Windsor  soap. 

Oil  of  Poppy. — It  is  whitish  yellow, 
of  an  almond  taste,  and  is  especially  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  soft  soaps  ;  and 
in  France  it  is  employed  with  tallow  for 
the  manufacture  of  an  imitation  Mar- 
seilles soap. 

Mafurra  Tallow. — It  has  a  yellow 
colour,  and  an  odour  simiFar  to  cocoa 
butter.  It  IS  less  fusible  than  tallow, 
and  with  the  alkalies  forms  a  brown 
soap.  It  contains  a  large  percentage  of 
solid  fat. 

ANniAL  Fats. — There  is  a  great  dif- 
ference in  the  consistency  of  animal  fats, 
the  richer  they  are  in  solid  constituents 
the  higher  is  their  melting  point.  In 
the  class  of  whale  fishes  the  fats  are 
generally  fluid  ;  in  the  carnivorous  ani- 
mals, soft  and  rank-flavoured  ;  nearly 
scentless  in  the  ruminants ;  usually 
white  and  copious  in  well-fed  young 
animals ;  yellowish  and  more  scanty  in 
the  old.  The  fat  of  the  kidneys  is  gene- 
rally harder  and  more  compact  than 
that  found  in  the  cellular  tissues  and 
in  the  bowels  of  animals.  The  colour 
and  odour  of  the  fats,  of  course,  aU'ect 
the  manufacture  of  soaps. 

Beef  Tallow. — This  is  the  most  used 
of  all  animal  fats  ;  it  has  a  yellow  tint, 
due  to  colouring  matter,  separable  by 
several  washings  in  hot  water,  and  is 
firm,  brittle,  but  not  so  white  as  mutton 
suet.  That  rendered  by  steam  is  gene- 
rally the  whitest. 

Mutton  Suet. — JIutton  fat  is  richer 
m  stearine  than  beef  tallow,  and  is  con- 
sequently much  sought  after  by  tallow 
as  well  as  stearine  candle  manufocturers. 
Saponified  with  soda  ley  it  yields  a  beau- 
tiful white  soap,  but  being  so  rich  in 


stearine  it  is  liable  to  become  too  hard 
and  brittle.  In  order,  therefore,  to  ob- 
tain a  more  unctuous  product  it  is  gene- 
rally mixed  with  about  20  per  cent,  of 
lard  or  cocoanut  oil,  whereby  a  superioi 
soap  is  obtained. 

Lard. — Lard  is  an  excellent  material 
for  soap  manufacturers ;  it  forms  a 
white,  sweet,  and  pure  soap.  For  the 
purpose  of  rendering  it  more  frothing  it 
is  saponified  either  with  tallow  or  cocoa- 
nut  oil. 

Horse  Fat. — The  soap  made  from 
horse  fat,  after  several  successive  boil- 
ings, is  white  and  firm  ;  but  owing  to  its 
peculiar  odour  it  can  only  be  advan- 
tageously employed  in  the  preparation 
of  palm  and  rosm  soap. 

Bone  Fat. — Bones  contain  about  5  per 
cent,  of  fat,  brownish  white  in  colour, 
and  of  an  oily  consistency.  Only  fresh 
bones  are  adajjled  for  the  extraction  of 
fat.  They  are  generally  split  up  length- 
ways by  a  hatchet,  boiled  in  water,  by 
means  of  which  the  fat  is  extracted, 
decantered,  and  filtered.  For  purifying 
bone  fat,  melt  the  fat  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  saltpetre  together,  and  after- 
wards add  sufficient  sulphuric  acid  to 
decompose  the  latter.  The  mass  scums 
very  much,  becomes  of  a  light  yellow 
colour,  loses  its  noxious  smell,  and  fur- 
nishes a  fat  well  adapted  for  soaps. 

Fish  Oil. — Fish  oil  is  used  as  a  burn- 
ing fluid,  for  making  soft  soaps,  and  for 
adulterating  other  oils. 

Sperm  Oil. — Sperm  oil  is  found  in 
commerce  bleached  and  unbleached,  the 
latter  having  a  brownish  appearance 
and  disagreeable  odour.  It  is  easily 
saponified,  and  the  resulting  soap  is  rea- 
dily soluble  in  water. 

Oleic  Acid. — There  are  two  kinds  in 
commerce.  The  one  formed  by  the  pro- 
cess of  distillation  is  only  fit  for  making 
soft  soap,  owing  to  its  disagreeable 
odour,  whilst  the  other,  the  result  of 
simple  pressure,  yields  soaps  of  great 
consistency,  whether  saponified  alone  or 
with  an  admixture  of  tallow  or  other 
fats.  It  often  contains  a  small  amount 
of  sulphuric  acid,  hence  it  ought  to  be 
washed  with  seme  weak  ley  :«fore 
using  it. 


374 


WORKSHOP   RBCBIPTS. 


Elaidic  Acid. — Dy  tne  action  of  hypo- 
mtnc  acid  upon  oleic  acid,  a  pearly 
white  crystalline  substance  is  obtained 
of  the  consistence  of  tallow,  and  termed 
elaidic  acid.  It  has  been  found  equally 
serviceable  to  both  soap  and  candle  ma- 
nufacturers. 

Of  Potassa,  Soda,  and  Caustic 
Soda. — Potassa. — This  is  called  in  com- 
merce vegetable  alkali,  sal  tartar,  pearl- 
ash,  potash,  and  hydrated  protoxide  of 
potassium.  The  sal  tartar  is  simply  pu- 
rified pearlash.  Potash  is  derived  from 
certain  plants,  and  especially  from  forest 
trees.  These  are  cut  down,  converted 
into  ashes,  and  lixiviated.  The  liquor 
thus  obtained  is  evaporated  until  it  is 
brought  to  a  solid  state.  This  residue 
is  subjected  to  the  heat  of  a  reverbera- 
tory  furnace,  for  the  purpose  of  drying 
it  completely  and  freeing  it  from  its  sul- 
phur and  organic  particles.  In  this 
state  it  is  sold  as  pearlash. 

Soda. — Soda  is  of  more  importance  to 
the  manufacturer  of  soap  than  potash, 
because  he  could  not  make  hard  soap 
without  it.  The  amount  of  native  soda 
is  gradually  decreasing,  and  inadequate 
to  supply  the  increasing  demand.  A 
small  quantity  is  produced  from  the  in- 
cineration of  certain  plants,  but  the 
largest  portion  now  used  is  acquired 
from  the  transformation  of  salt.  The 
best  quality  of  native  soda  is  generally 
imported  iVom  Spain  and  the  Levant, 
ami  known  as  barilla.  It  contains  from 
15  to  30  per  cent,  of  carbonate  with  a 
little  sul|)huret,  and  is  mixed  with  sul- 
phate and  muriate  of  soda.  It  is  con- 
sidered  su|)erior  to  the  artificial,  as  the 
hard  soap  made  with  it  is  found  to  be 
less  brittle  and  more  plastic. 

So<Ja  Ash, — The  method  of  manufac- 
turing soda  ash  is  based  upon  the  pre- 
paration of  sulphate  of  soda  from  salt, 
its  transfonnation  into  crude  carbonate 
of  Koda,  designated  black  ash,  and  the 
purification  of  tlie  crude  80<la  by  liiivia- 
tiou,  evaporation,  and  calcination.  The 
[iroduct  thus  obtained  is  white  ash,  or 
soda  a.sh. 

Caustic  Sod'i  can  be  purchased  either 
as  a  solid  or  a  liquid.  In  the  latter 
•tate   it  IS  called  concentrated  ley,  and 


soapmakers  find  it  a  convenient  com- 
modity, as  it  saves  them  the  trouble  of 
preparing  it  themselves.  A  certain 
weight  of  caustic  soda  represents  a 
larger  amount  of  soda  combining  with 
the  fats  than  the  ordinary  soda.  Both 
red  and  white  are  of  equal  value,  for 
when  the  red  caustic  soda  is  dissolved, 
the  colouring  matter  generally  settles 
at  the  bottom,  and  the  liquid  becomes 
entirely  clear. 

Testing  the  Chemicals. — ^To  esti- 
mate the  commercial  value  of  soda  ash 
or  potash,  or  solid  caustic  soda,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  ascertain  the  amount  of  water 
they  contain,  the  amount  of  caustic  and 
carbonated  alkali ;  the  foreign  substances 
in  them. 

To  Estimate  the  Amount  of  Water. — 
One  hundred  grains  of  the  alkali  are 
heated  in  an  iron  capsule  over  suitable 
heating  apparatus,  until  all  the  water 
is  expelled,  which  may  be  tested  by  a 
plate  of  cold  glass  held  for  a  moment 
over  the  capsule,  when  whatever  vapour 
rises  from  the  heated  material  will  be 
condensed  on  its  surface.  After  all  the 
water  is  thus  driven  off,  the  loss  of 
weight  will  indicate  the  amount  of 
water  in  every  100  grains  of  material, 
and  the  absolute  weight  of  the  dried 
sample  will  be  the  percentage  of  alkali 
contained  in  the  crude  material ;  the 
loss  will  indicate  the  percentage  of 
water  contiined  therein. 

To  Estimate  the  Amount  of  Caustic 
and  Carbonated  Alkali. — It  is  very  im- 
portant to  ascertain  if  there  is  only 
caustic  alkali  or  only  carbonated  alkali, 
as  well  as  the  amount  of  each.  For 
example,  if  a  potash  or  soda  is  only  one- 
third  caustic,  and  two-thirds  carbonated 
alkali,  the  latter  must  be  changed  into 
the  caustic  state  before  it  can  be  used  in 
soapmaking.  It  is  best  first  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  caustic  alkali.  Con- 
centrated alcohol  will  only  dissolve 
caustic  soda,  and  not  in  any  way  affect 
the  other  inpredients  always  found  in 
commercial  potash,  soda,  or  caustic  soda. 
Take  100  grains  of  commercial  soda, 
reduce  them  to  powder  in  a  glass  mor- 
tar, put  half  of  it  in  a  flask,  with  the 
addition  ot  1  oz.  of  alcohol  of  95  per 


WORKSHOP   RECKIPTS. 


375 


cent. ;  shake  all  well  together,  and  let  I 
stand  for  a  few  hours,  afterwards  trans- 
fer the  liquid  floating  on  the  top  care- 
fully into  an  evaporating  capsule  of  por- 
selain,  and  let  it  quickly  evaporate  over 
1  lamp,  gradually  increasing  the  tem- 
perature until  nothing  more  evaporates  ; 
when  cooled,  immediately  weigh  the 
lapsule  to  ascertain  the  ^actual  amount 
of  caustic  soda  which  the  sample  con- 
tained. Before  the  evaporating  process 
is  commenced,  in  order  that  nothing  is 
lost,  a  little  alcohol  should  be  mixed  with 
the  deposit  in  the  flask,  and  being  filtered 
added  to  the  liquid  which  had  already 
been  transferred.  In  estimating  the 
amount  of  carbonated  alkali,  it  is  requi- 
site to  determine,  first,  the  actual 
amount  of  alkali  existing  in  the  soda  or 
potash,  and  this  being  ascertained,  the 
quantity  of  carbonated  alkali  is  reduced 
by  calculation.  Fifty  grains  of  the  alka- 
line sample  are  to  be  dissolved  in  a  flask 
containing  2  oz.  of  water.  Next  weigh 
out,  on  a  watch-glass,  100  grains  of 
well-crystallized  oxalic  acid,  reduced  to 
a  fine  powder.  Small  portions  of  this 
powder  are  to  be  added  at  a  time  to  the 
alkaline  solution,  shaking  the  liquid 
between  each  addition,  or  stirring  it 
with  a  glass  rod,  heating  and  testing  it 
with  litmus  paper  till  the  latter  be- 
comes slightly  reddened,  while  the 
liquid  is  hot.  The  residue  of  the  oxalic 
acid  is  tJien  weighed,  and  supposing  it 
is  43  grains,  it  is  obvious  that  to  satu- 
rate the  alkali  in  the  50  grains  of  the 
sample,  57  grains  of  oxalic  acid  were 
consumed  ;  7 "  87  grains  of  9xalic  acid 
are  capable  of  saturating  or  removing 
the  alkaline  reaction  of  5  grams  of 
caustic  soda,  or  7  grains  of  caustic  po- 
tassa. 

To  Determine  the  Nature  of  Foreign 
Ingredients. — ^These  may  be  soluble  or 
insoluble.  As  they  are  not  taken  up  by 
the  ley,  the  soapmaker  need  care  nothing 
about  the  insoluble  substances.  Gene- 
rally the  soluble  ones  are  found  to  be 
chlorides  or  sulphates.  The  former  are 
detected  by  adding  a  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver  to  a  clear  solution  of  the 
substance  to  be  examined,  which  has 
been  previously  slightly  acidulated  with 


chemically  pure  nitric  acid,  and  if  there 

is  chloride  of  potassium  or  fait  present, 
a  white  curdy  precipitate  will  be 
formed,  which,  by  exposure  to  light, 
becomes  first  violet,  and  afterwards 
black.  Sulphates  are  detected  by  first 
neutralizing  the  solution  with  nitric 
acid  and  then  adding  a  solution  of 
chloride  of  barium,  a  fine  heavy  white 
precipitate  is  formed.  To  many  it  is  ot 
importance  to  ascertain  if  there  is  any 
sulphide  of  sodium,  because  a  potash  or 
soda  containing  it  would  be  unfit  for  the 
manufacture  of  white  soap.  It  is  often 
detected  in  the  potash  and  soda,  but 
never  in  the  caustic  soda.  Its  presence 
will  be  indicated  by  the  development  of 
hydrosulphuric  acid,  on  adding  aji  acid 
to  a  solution  of  the  alkali,  a  gas  very 
much  resembling  rotten  eggs  in  its 
smell.  Where  the  odour  of  the  gas 
fails  to  aflbrd  sufficient  proof  of  the 
presence  of  hydrosulphuric  acid,  the 
application  of  the  following  reagent  will 
remove  all  doubt.  The  air  suspected  to 
contain  it  is  tested  by  placing  in  it  a 
small  slip  of  paper,  moistened  with  a 
solution  of  acetate  of  lead  ;  if  the  gas  is 
present,  the  slip  will  be  covered  with  a 
thin,  brownish  black,  shining  film  of 
sulphide  of  lead. 

Preparation  of  the  Leys. —  Water. 
— Only  spring  or  river  water  should 
be  used  in  making  soap.  It  must  also 
be  perfectly  clear,  otherwise  clear  ley 
cannot  be  produced.  It  must  be  free 
from  organic  matters,  for  these  are 
often  dissolved,  and,  though  imper- 
ceptible, soon  cause  the  water  to  become 
putrid.  Nearly  all  waters  contain 
mineral  matters  in  solution.  When 
such  waters  are  used,  though  the  leys 
are  equally  good,  there  will  be  a  loss  of 
material  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  alkali  neutralized.  A  water  contain- 
ing more  than  twelve  grains  of  such 
substances  in  one  gallon,  should  be 
rejected. 

Leys. — Ley  is  an  aqueous  solution  of 
caustic  soda  or  potassa,  by  the  agency 
of  which  the  chemical  decomposition  of 
the  fat  and  its  conversion  to  soap  are 
efl'ected.  Caustic  soda  is  a  commercial 
commodity,  but  it  may  hapj>en  that  ths 


876 


WOUKSHOP    RECKilTS. 


Eoapmaker  will  have  to  prepare  his  own  : 
leys.      1.  Reduce    the   soda   or   potassa 
into  small  pieces,  mix  it  with  slacked 
lime,  let  it  stand   24  hours,  and  then 
leach  it  out  with  water.     For  this  pur- 
pose   large    tanks    are    used,    having    a 
perforated  floor,  placed  from  two  to  four 
inches  above  the  bottom,  and  covered 
vith    a   layer   of   straw,    on    which    is 
poured  the  mixture  of  lime  with   the 
alkali.     A    faucet    is   inserted    between 
this  perforated  floor  and  the  bottom,  by 
means  of  which  the  liquor  can  be  diawn 
otf.     The  leys  prepared  m  this  way  are 
never  perfectly  caustic;  whilst  in  this 
process   more    lime    is    requisite    than 
when  the  following  method  is  adopted, 
which    gives   a   perfectly   caustic  soda. 
2.  The  potash  or  soda,  not  too  concen- 
trated a  solution,  should  be  thoroughly 
brought  together  with   lime-milk,  this 
process  being  assisted  by  heat.    Insoluble 
carbonate   of  lime  forms,  which  settles 
at   the  bottom.      There  should    not   be 
more  than  about  15  per  cent,  of  alkali 
in  the  solution,  otherwise  a  portion  oi 
the  carbonated  alkali  will   remain  un- 
decomposed.      For  the  thorough  decora- 
jiosition  of  the  carbonates  of  the  alkalies, 
the    process    of    boiling    must    be    con- 
tinuous   and    uninterrupted,    and    the 
lime  of  a  milky  consistency.     To  ascer- 
tain whether  the  ley  is  caustic,  take  a 
tost-glass  full,  let  it  stand  till  cool,  then 
lilter,   and  drop    into  the    clear    liquid 
some   nitric  acid;  if  it  eflervcsces,  the 
ley  is  not  caustic;  the  boiling  has  to  be 
continued   till   the  jjortiou    taken  from 
the    kettle    shows,    when    filtered,    no 
escape  of  carbonic  acid,  if  nitric  acid  be 
aiided.      As   soon   as    no    carbonic   acid 
escapes  from  the  ley,  the  lire  should  be 
taken  out,  the  liquor  carefully  covered, 
nnil   suflered  to  remain  undistiirliod  for 
12   or   15   hours,  so  that  the  lime  may 
settle.      After    this,    the    clear    licjuor 
should  be  transferred  by  a  siphon  into 
a   wooden  vat,  liiusd    inside    with  sheet 
lead,    and    having    a    j)erforatK!d     false 
bottom,  and  cock  (itted  ue:ir  the  bottom 
no  that  the  clear  icy  may  be  drawn  oil'. 
The    lime    used    must    not    have    bi'<n 
exposed    to  the  atmosphere ;    only   the 
quantity   actually    required   should    be 


slacked  at  a  time,  because  the  hydrate 
of  lime,  as  well  as  the  leys,  loses  its 
causticity  when  esjiosed  to  the  air. 
For  100  lbs.  of  crystallized  soda  24  lbs. 
of  quick-lime  are  required;  for  100  lbs. 
of  pearlash,  double  that  quantity ;  and 
for  100  lbs.  of  soda  ash,  60  lbs.  will  be 
required.  For  the  transformation  of 
pearlash  or  foda  into  caustic  leys, 
more  or  less  quick-lime  is  necessary, 
according  to  the  amount  of  carbonated 
alkalies  they  contain,  and  an  excess  of 
lime  will  do  no  harm. 

Kkttles. — These  are  made  of  wood, 
wrought  iron,  cast  iron,  or  bricks,  lined 
with  glazed  stone.  Their  dimensions 
vai-y,  but  the  larger  the  kettle  the 
better,  as  much  labour,  fuel,  and  ley  are 
thus  saved.  The  shape  is  cylindrical, 
widest  at  the  top,  having  a  faucet  for 
the  purpose  of  discharging  the  spent 
ley. 

Drich  Kettles  are  best  m  one  res]>ect, 
they  retain  heat  the  longest  during  the 
paste  operation.  The  bottom  of  these 
can  be  composed  of  brick  when  steam 
is  employed,  in  other  cases  a  metallic 
bottom  is  necessary.  If  steam  is  em- 
ployed, the  superheated  is  preferable, 
as  it  can  be  introduced  directly  into  the 
material,  assisting  the  heating  ])rocess, 
and  causing  a  more  forcible  agitation  of 
the  ingredients  than  manual  exertion 
can  accoiii]ilish. 

Ciist-Iron  KclUes  are  used  in  small 
factories.  In  large  establishments  the 
lower  portion  is  made  of  cast  iron,  and 
the  up]K-r  of  wood  or  bi-ick.  In  ]iur- 
chasing  kettles  entirely  of  cast  iron, 
the  thinnest  should  be  selected,  .as  they 
are  always  composed  of  finer  grain, 
and  can  be  more  easily  filed  than  the 
thicker. 

Sheet-Iron  Kettles  will  last  longer 
than  cast  iron.  Those  of  the  best  soft 
sheet  iron  should  fie  selected,  the 
bottom  jiiece  being  from  A  to  J  in. 
in  thickness,  and  the  sides  from  -^  to 
J  in.,  accordmg  to  the  dimensions.  A 
soft  sheet-iron  boiler,  carefully  cleaned 
after  each  operation,  will  bust  5  or  G 
years,  or  longer,  without  requiring  any 
rej'airs. 

Ilcitiitu]  the   Pam  with  Open  Fire. — 


■WOr.KSHOP   RECEirTS. 


377 


In  kettles  for  soap  boiling,  the  heat 
must  be  confined  to  the  bottom,  for  if 
it  is  allowed  to  circulate  round  the 
sides,  the  ingredients  will  be  Ouiut.  In 
order  to  concentrate  the  heat,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  grate  is  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  hearth  and  vertically 
below  the  kettle.  The  inside  of  the 
fireplace  must  be  built  of  refractory 
bricks,  so  that  the  heat  may  be  thrown 
back  below  the  bottom  of  the  kettle. 
The  fuel  employed  must  be  that  which 
produces  the  most  heat  and  the  least 
flame,  hard  coal  should  be  selected. 
The  openings  through  which  the  pro- 
ducts of  combustion  enter  the  chimney 
should  possess  together  the  same  surtace 
as  the  grate  •  this  is  the  best  way  to 
obtain  a  good  draught  and  effect  a  com- 
plete combustion  of  the  fuel. 

Heating  Pans  with  Steam.  —  Both 
ordinary  and  superheated  steam  are 
employed ;  the  latter  is  preferable,  be- 
cause the  heat  can  then  be  introduced 
directly  into  the  material,  whereas 
ordinary  steam  has  to  be  condensed 
through  a  worm,  or  conveyed  inter- 
mediately under  a  kettle  with  a  double 
bottom,  and  a  tub  for  the  discharge  of 
the  condensed  vapour.  By  applying 
superheated  steam  both  time  and  fuel 
are  saved  ;  high-pressure  steam  mingling 
with  the  fat  increases  the  necessary 
agitation  of  all  the  ingredients,  thus  ex- 
pediting saponification.  A  steam-boiler 
8  ft.  long  and  3  ft.  in  diameter,  with 
two  atmospheres  pressure,  will  manu- 
facture weekly  100  cwt.  of  soap. 
Among  other  advantages  of  steam,  not 
only  can  wooden  vessels  be  used,  but 
the  temperature  can  be  regulated  by  stop- 
cocks ;  the  fats  combine  more  readily 
and  rapidly  with  the  alkalies;  the 
boiling  is  uniform  throughout  the  whole 
mass,  and  the  soap  never  burns. 

BoiLiKG  Soap. —  The  Paste.  —  This 
operation  is  to  produce  a  preliminary 
combination  of  fat  and  ley.  Some  soap- 
makers  use  during  the  whole  operation 
a  ley  of  the  same  strength,  while  others 
commence  with  a  weak  ley,  then  use  one 
of  middle  strength,  and  finish  with  a 
strong  one.  In  the  first  case,  a  ley  is 
tmployed  of  10  to  15°  B.    In  the  second, 


of  7  to  10%  15  t3  18%  and  IS  to  25°  B., 
successively.  In  some  cases,  as  for- 
red  oil  soap,  very  strong  leys  are  em 
ployed,  say  of  25  to  30°  B. ;  usually  the 
fat  is  first  put  in  the  pan  and  then  the 
ley  is  added.  For  the  paste  operation, 
no  leys  should  be  used  containing  foieign 
salts,  such  as  are  found  in  inferior  kinds 
of  soda,  lor  it  is  then  very  ditficult  to 
form  a  union  of  the  fats  with  the  ley, 
and  no  good  sud  is  obtained.  But  when 
the  soap  has  been  separated  from  the 
ley  by  salt,  leys  containing  salt  may  be 
used.  In  saponifying  red  oil,  salty  leys 
may  also  be  employed  from  the  beginning. 
It  is  imperative  in  all  operations  that 
the  ley  should  be  caustic,  because  car- 
bonate of  soda  will  not  unite  with  fat. 
For  transforming  100  lbs.  of  fat  into 
soap,  about  14  lbs.  of  caustic  soda  are 
necessary,  but  generally  more  is  em- 
ployed, because  the  soda  used  is  never  a 
pure  hydrate  of  soda.  The  quantity  of 
ley  taken  is  also  differently  regulated  by 
the  manufacturers.  Some  add  the  whole 
amount  of  ley  at  the  commencement, 
ethers  add  it  gradually  in  small  quanti- 
ties. This  last  mode  is  preferable.  From 
time  to  time,  in  order  to  test  it,  a  drop 
of  the  paste  should  be  put  on  the  tip  of 
the  tongue,  when,  if  there  still  is  free 
alkali  in  it,  a  burning  sensation  will  be 
produced,  in  which  case  the  boiling 
must  be  continued  until  the  soap  gives 
a  sweetish  taste.  More  ley  should  then 
be  added,  under  constant  stirring,  until 
the  entire  quantity  is  consumed.  At 
this  stage  the  contents  of  the  kettle  are 
transformed  into  a  homogeneous,  clear 
liquid,  in  which  neither  ley  nor  fat  can 
be  discovered.  If  the  liquid  is  perfectly 
clear,  it  shows  that  the  right  proportion 
of  fat  and  ley  has  been  applied.  Should 
saponification  progress  too  slowly,  a 
weak  ley  of  from  1  to  2°  B.  may  be 
added,  and  soap  scraps  will  facilitate  the 
combination  of  the  fat  with  the  alkali. 
By  heating  with  an  open  fire,  it  some- 
times happens  that  a  portion  of  the 
paste,  when  it  thickens,  sticks  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  and  burns.  This 
is  indicated  by  a  black  smoke  passing 
off  here  and  there  with  the  ■vapour. 
When  this  occurs,  the  fire  should  forth- 


878 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


with  be  reduced,  and  some  gallons  of  the 
strongest  ley  added  to  prevent  further 
mischief.  By  these  means  a  slight  sepa- 
ration of  the  soap  from  the  ley  is  occa- 
sioned, and  the  contact  between  the 
former  and  the  metallic  surface  de- 
stroyed. In  all.  ;ases  the  paste  opera- 
tion is  complete,  when,  on  taking  out 
the  stirring  rod,  the  paste  no  longer 
drops  from  it,  but  slides  down  in  long 
threads. 

Cutting  up  the  Pan. — This  is  done  by 
stirring  into  the  ingredients  of  the  soap- 
kettle  either  soda  ley  containing  salt,  or 
a  solution  of  salt,  or  dry  salt.  The 
separation  is  founded  upon  the  insolu- 
bility of  the  soap  in  brine  or  strong 
caustic  leys,  whereas  weak  leys  would 
dissolve  it.  Of  all  soaps  the  cocoanut 
oil  is  the  most  remarkable,  for,  bemg 
dissolved  by  a  brine  solution,  it  is  pecu- 
liarly serviceable  for  washing  in  salt 
water,  whence  its  name,  marine  soap. 
This  soap  becomes  so  hard,  that  when 
separated  from  the  glycerine,  it  cannot 
be  cut  with  a  kuife,  and  consequently 
the  salting  operation  should  not  be  per- 
formed, but  the  soap  boiled  in  strong 
ley  with  one  water.  The  following  is  the 
method  by  which  the  salting  operation 
is  effected  ; — One  workman  gradually 
adds  the  brine  or  dry  salt,  while  another 
agitates  the  i)aste  with  a  stirring  rod 
from  below  upwards.  This  is  done 
under  gentle  boiling.  It  is  essential  to 
add  thesalt  in  the  right  proportion; 
the  whole  amount  requisite  should  not 
be  stirred  in  at  once,  but  in  portions  of 
about  one-sixth.  After  half  of  it  has 
been  dro]iped  in,  the  soap  should  be 
allowed  to  boil  for  about  10  minutes 
before  any  addition  is  made.  According 
to  concentration,  12  to  IG  lbs.  of  salt 
are  necessary  for  100  lbs.  of  fat,  to 
separate  the  formed  soap  from  the  sur- 
plus of  water.  The  separation  is  jierfect, 
when  the  aqueous  j)ortion  is  observed 
to  run  oil"  from  the  curdy  m.-iss ;  when  a 
sample  is  taken  wii'.h  a  s)iatula,  it  is  not 
of  an  adhesive  character  whilst  hot ; 
and  when,  on  jilaciug  some  in  the  jialni 
of  the  hand,  and  rubbing  it  with  the 
thumb,  it  hardcnH  into  firm  scales.  The 
termination  of  the  process  is  also  indi- 


cated when  the  surface  splits  up  into 
several  fields,  separated  from  each  other 
by  deep  furrows,  in  which  there  is  not 
the  fresh  and  soft  appearance  of  froth, 
but  of  dry  slabs.  The  fire  should  be 
extinguished  when  the  soap,  hitherto 
covered  with  froth  and  bubbles,  suddenly 
sinks,  and  tlie  froth  breaks  up  into 
roundish  massive  grains,  distinctly  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  and  from  the 
saline  solution.  The  salting  being  com- 
pleted, let  the  mass  remain  quiet  for 
several  hours,  and  then  the  under-ley 
may  be  drawn  off  by  the  faucet. 

Clear  Boiling. — This  operation  is  to 
obtain  hardness,  consistency,  and  com- 
plete neutrality  of  the  soap.  Commence 
to  boil  the  paste  gently  with  tolerably 
strong  leys.  Some  manufacturers  pro- 
portion the  quantity  of  ley  to  be  used, 
and  having  put  in  the  first,  boil  for  8 
hours  or  so,  then  draw  otT  the  ley,  put 
in  the  second,  boil  again,  draw  off,  and 
so  on.  Should  the  soap,  during  the 
intervals,  become  too  liquid,  which  may 
happen  if  a  too  weak  ley  has  been  ap- 
plied, some  handfuls  of  salt  must  be 
added,  or  the  soap  boiled  with  a  weak 
ley  containing  salt.  After  each  addition 
of  ley,  there  should  be,  in  taking  up  a 
portion  by  the  spatula,  some  ditliculty 
in  running  off  the  ley.  Should  this  not 
be  the  case,  water  must  be  added,  where- 
upon a  quicker  union  of  the  alkali  with 
the  f\xt  will  be  obtained.  The  process  is 
terminated  when  large,  regular,  and  dry 
s(,'alcs  a]>pear  on  the  surface,  and  when 
these  give  elastic,  brilliant,  white  scales, 
and  are  easily  pulverized  by  rubbing 
them  in  the  palms  of  the  hands.  The 
Soap  should  then  be  covered,  left  for 
some  time,  and  eventually  removed  in 
the  ladles. 

Miirhliiig. — The  formation  of  veins  in 
the  Boaj)  is  produced,  either  as  the  effect 
of  the  ley  itself,  or  by  the  addition  of 
foreign  substances  to  the  soapy  [)aste. 
Some  kinds  of  sodas  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  soaps  contain  both  the 
suljihuret  of  iron  and  sodium.  In  sa])()ni- 
(ication  a  diemical  coinliiiiation  takes 
place  between  these  and  the  fatly  acids. 
These  diffuse  themselves  throughout  the 
mass,  together  with   black  sulplnirot  o/ 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


379 


iron,  and  being  held  in  intimate  suspen- 
sion, form  bluish  veins  in  the  white 
ground,  thus  givmg  to  the  soap  the 
appearance  of  marble.  In  Castile  soap 
these  in  course  of  time,  after  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere,  assume  a  brownish 
coloui',  a  change  caused  by  oxidation. 
If  the  soda  employed  does  not  contain 
ihose  constituents  in  itself,  sulphate  of 
protoxide  of  iron,  or  copperas,  previously 
dissolved,  is  introduced  into  the  soapy 
l^aste,  say  4  oz.  of  the  dry  substance  to 
100  lbs.  of  fat.  By  the  chemical  union 
of  this  oxide  with  the  sulphuret  of 
sodium,  always  existing  in  the  cnide 
soda,  the  colouring  principle  of  marbling 
IS  produced.  Mottled  soap,  made  as 
above,  contams  necessarily  less  water 
than  any  other  soap,  as  a  superabund- 
ance of  water  would  have  precipitated 
the  colouring  matter,  and  rendered  vein- 
iug  impossible.  For  successful  marbling, 
a  thorough  practical  knowledge  is  abso- 
lutely requisite.  The  essential  poiixt  is 
to  run  the  soap  into  the  frames  t.e,  soon 
as  it  presents  the  indications  necessary 
for  obtaining  a  good  marbling.  The 
eye  is  the  best  guide  in  this  respect,  as 
there  are  no  precise  regulations  for  this 
opei-ation.  The  interspersion  of  the  blue 
with  the  red  veins  is  effected  by  stirring 
some  pulverized  colcothar  into  the  soap, 
after  marbling  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Pelouze's  Process. — When  crystallized 
sulphuret  of  sodium  is  brought  together 
with  neutral  fats,  they  are  saponified  at 
ordinary  temperature  and  in  a  very 
short  time.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  crystallized  sulphide  of  sodium,  olive 
oil,  and  water,  produces  after  10,  some- 
times after  5  or  6,  days  a  thoroughly 
saponified  paste,  consisting  of  soap,  gly- 
cerine, sulph-hydrate  of  sodium,  and 
the  surplus  of  monosulphuret  of  sodium. 
When  subjected  to  heat,  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  will  escape,  and  soap  remain. 
In  this  case,  one  equivalent  of  sulphide 
of  sodiunc  produces  the  same  quantity 
of  soap  as  one  equivalent  of  pure  caustic 
soda,  but  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  to 
make  use  of  crystallized  and  chemically 
pure  sulphide  of  sodium,  as  that  which 
is  obtained  by  decomposing  the  sulphate 
of  soda  by  charcoal   can  be   employed. 


It  is  much  cheaper  than  the  caustic 
soda.  The  appearance  of  the  soap  made 
in  this  way  is  exactly  the  same  as  that 
made  in  the  ordinary  way  ;  but  it  retains 
a  disagreeable  smell  not  easily  destroyed. 
For  ordinary  purposes,  however,  such  as 
scouring  woollen  fabrics,  this  kind  of 
soap  may  well  be  used. 

Saponification  by  Agitation. — Hawes. 
— Twenty  gallons  of  ley,  of  1'125  sp. 
gr.,  are  employed  for  every  100  lbs.  of 
tallow.  The  apparatus  consists  of  a 
cylinder  6  feet  in  diameter  and  12  feet 
in  length,  and  is  capable  of  working  2J 
tons  of  tallow.  Through  the  cylinder, 
lengthwise,  a  shaft  extends,  provided 
with  radiating  arms,  to  which  an  oscil- 
lating or  rotatory  motion  is  communi- 
cated. Convenient  doors  are  attached 
for  charging  and  emptying  the  cylinder. 
After  charging  the  vessel  agitation  is 
continued  for  about  3  hours,  when  the 
whole  is  left  undisturbed  for  a  time, 
and  ultimately  removed  into  an  open 
boiler,  and  completed  in  the  ordinary 
way. 

Gossages  Process. — The  boiling  of  the 
paste  is  effected  by  blowing  steam  into 
the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  the  mixture 
is  treated  with  successive  additions  of 
stronger  ley,  undergoing  between  each 
a  thorough  boiling,  until  the  fatty 
matter  has  taken  up  all  the  soda  pos- 
sible, and  has  thus  become  completely 
converted  into  soap ;  the  excess  of  ley 
settles  at  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  is 
drawn  off.  The  charge  of  soap  is  then 
drawn  oft'  from  the  pan  without  hand 
labour,  by  means  of  air  pressure ;  the 
top  of  the  pan  is  closed  by  a  cover,  the 
joint  being  made  air-tight  by  an  india- 
rubber  packing  ring,  and  compressed  air 
is  forced  into  the  top  of  the  pan  by  a 
pump,  whereby  the  entire  liquid  mass 
of  soap,  amounting  to  as  much  as  20 
tons,  is  expelled  from  the  pan,  being 
forced  up  through  a  discharge  pipe 
passing  through  the  cover,  and  flows 
through  a  long  trough  into  the  moulds. 
These  are  45  inches  long,  15  inches 
wide,  and  52  inches  high,  each  contain- 
ing ^  a  ton  of  soap,  and  are  made  simply 
of  4  cast-iron  side-plates  secured  by 
clamps ;  the  soap  takes  3  days  to  ccol 


380 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


and  solidify,  and  the  sides  of  the  mould 
being  then  removed,  the  large  block  of 
soap  is  cut  horizontally  into  slabs,  which 
again  are  divided  into  bars  by  a  wire 
frame.  The  bars  of  the  finer  qualities 
are  cut  into  cakes,  which  are  stamped 
in  a  pi-ess  having  a  heavy  falling  die 
lifted  by  a  cam.  The  ley,  or  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  is  concentrated  to  the 
required  strength  for  the  soap-boiling 
pan  by  waste  heat  of  the  soda  fur- 
naces. 

SiUcated  Soap. — A  solution  of  silicate 
of  soda  is  employed  in  place  of  a  portion 
of  the  tallow  or  oil  used  in  the  soap- 
boiling  pans,  thus  producing  a  much 
cheaper  soap  with  equal  cleansing  power. 
As  ordinary  soap  owes  its  cleansing 
j)0wer  to  the  fact  that  the  soda,  which 
constitutes  the  real  detergent,  is  only 
in  a  state  of  weak  combination  with 
the  tallow  or  other  fatty  substance,  the 
latter  can  be  to  a  considerable  extent 
I'eplaced  by  silicate  of  soda,  in  which 
soda  exists  only  in  weak  combination 
with  silica,  thereby  retaining  its  cleans- 
ing power,  as  in  ordinary  soap.  The 
silicate  of  soda,  known  as  soluble  glass, 
is  made  by  melting  in  a  reverberatory 
furnace  a  mixture  of  fine  white  sand 
and  soda  ash ;  the  melted  charge  is  run 
out  through  a  tap-hole,  and  solidifies  in 
lum])s  of  a  kind  of  gl;i.ss,  which  is 
soluble  in  water. 

Quality  of  Soaps. — A  good  soap  is 
easily  soluble  in  alcohol,  leaving  scarcely 
1  per  cent,  of  solid  residue,  and  forms 
a  gelatinous  liquid  in  boiling  water. 
Hard  or  marblod  soap  should  not 
contain  more  than  25  per  cent,  of 
water,  rosin  soaj)  not  more  than  40, 
and  a  soft  soap  not  more  than  5'2. 
In  cocoanut-oil  soaps  a  larger  amount 
of  water  than  52  per  cent,  may  be 
allowed.  In  yellow  soap  a  part  of  the 
fat  may  be  rejilaced  by  10  to  25  per 
cent,  of  rosin. 

Hot'SKiioLD  SoAi-s. — Ilurd  Soaps. — 
Hard  8oaj)s  are  always  soda  soaps. 
There  are  grained  soaps,  those  in  which 
a  separation  of  the  under-ley  h.as  been 
made  as  described,  and  filled  soaps, 
those  in  which  the  whole  contents  of 
the  boiling  pan  are  kept  together  and 


sold  as  soap.  The  cocoanut  oil  is 
especially  employed  for  the  manu- 
facture of  filled  soaps,  because  it  is 
easily  soluble  in  brine,  requiring  a  very 
large  quantity  to  separate  them,  and 
then  they  become  so  hard  that  they  can 
scarcely  be  cut  with  a  knife.  The  more 
solid  constituents  a  fat  contains,  the 
harder  the  soap  produced ;  the  more 
oleine,  the  softer  the  soap.  By  mixing 
the  fats  in  ditferent  proportions,  soaps 
of  any  consistency  can  be  obtained  ;  this 
also  depends  upon  the  streui^th  of  the 
ley  used  in  the  process.  Weak  and 
middling  strong  leys  will  produce  a 
light  soap,  while  leys  of  25°  to  35°  B, 
will  produce  a  soap  heavier  than  water. 
Sometimes  a  small  admixture  of  sul- 
phate of  soda  is  employed  in  making 
soap,  for  the  pur])0se  of  preventing  its 
too  great  solubility  when  used  in  wash- 
ing. In  the  manufacture  of  soaps,  A  or 
J  of  fat  is  frequently  substituted  by 
rosin.  For  the  transformation  of  100  lbs. 
of  .'j  into  soap,  thei-e  are  generally 
necessary  12J  lbs.  of  solid  caustic  soda  ; 
this  quantity  must  be  more  or  less,  in 
projiortion  to  the  nature  of  the  fat. 

Tallow  Soaps. — To  saponify  1000  lbs. 
of  fat,  commence  by  putting  the  tallow 
into  the  boiler,  and  melt  it  with  a  slow 
heat,  add  70  to  80  galls,  of  ley  of  10°  to 
12°  B.,  stir  well,  and  keep  a  gentle  fire 
for  several  hours.  Should  part  of  the 
fat  separate  from  the  mass,  which  is 
often  the  case,  an  oily  liquid  will  be 
observeil  floating  on  the  top.  Then  add, 
gradually,  35  to  40  galls,  of  ley  of  15° 
to  18°  B.  By  this  addition  the  whole 
contents  will  soon  form  a  homogeneous 
mass  of  a  greyish-white  colour,  la 
order  to  establish  the  necessary  con- 
sistency to  the  paste,  boil  gently  for 
several  hours,  adding  every  hour  6  to  7 
galls,  of  ley  of  20°  B.  The  time  neces- 
sary for  the  first  operation  is  from  10 
to  12  hours  for  lOuO  lbs.  of  fat.  After 
this,  pass  to  the  cutting  process,  and 
operate  as  before  described.  It  is 
essential  that  care  be  taken  to  stir 
the  ingredients  well  while  adding  the 
salt.  When  the  separation  has  taken 
place,  leave  altogether  quiet  for  several 
hours,  and   then  draw  olf  the  coloured 


WCRKSHOP   KECEIPTS. 


381 


nndei-ley  ;  90  galls,  of  ley  of  25°  should 
th.^n  be  added  ;  increase  the  heat,  there 
being  strong  ley  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pan,  which  presei'ves  the  soap  from 
burning.  Boil  this  mass  from  10  to 
12  hours,  adding  every  hour  5  galls,  of 
ley  of  25°.  4  or  5  hours'  boiling  will 
often  be  sulTicient  to  saturate  the  soap, 
this  being  accomplished,  extinguish  the 
fire,  leave  it  quiet  for  an  hour,  and  then 
draw  off  the  under-ley.  It  will  measure 
from  25°  to  30°  B.  To  complete  the 
process,  add  about  50  galls,  of  ley  of  4°B. 
Let  this  boil  gently  for  1^  to  2  hours, 
stirring  from  time  to  time  with  the 
crutch,  and  finally  extinguish  the  fire 
and  cover  the  pan.  The  soap  will  separate 
from  the  ley,  and  rise  to  the  top.  After 
5  to  6  hours,  while  yet  in  a  liquid  state, 
pour  it  in  the  frames,  taking  due  care 
that  no  ley  is  mixed  with  it.  In  the 
frames  it  should  be  well  stirred  for 
some  time.  For  neutralizing  the  dis- 
agreeable tallow  odour,  1  to  2  oz.  of  a 
well-scented  essential  oil  should  be 
added  to  100  lbs.  of  the  soap,  and  after 
7  to  8  days  it  may  be  cut.  100  lbs. 
of  tallow  will  yield  about  170  lbs.  of 
soap. 

Tallow  Rosin  Soaps. — Rosin,  incor- 
porated with  a  soap,  to  a  certain 
amount,  will  make  it  more  soluble  and 
detersive.  The  lighter  the  rosin  the 
more  it  is  valued  ;  15  per  cent,  of  rosin 
with  85  per  cent,  of  tallow  is  allowable, 
but  beyond  that  limit  the  soap  loses  in 
colour,  in  firmness,  and  quality.  Even 
for  the  cheapest  article  the  quantity  of 
rosin  should  not  exceed  33  per  cent., 
otherwise  the  soap  will  be  soft,  and  un- 
profitable to  the  consumer.  The  rosin 
can  be  saponified  with  alkali ;  12  galls. 
of  ley  of  30°  B.  are  needed  for  every 
100  lbs.  of  rosin.  Some  soapmakers  melt 
it  with  the  fat  at  the  commencement  of 
the  boiling  for  soap,  but  a  much  better 
product  is  obtained  by  first  producing  a 
tallow  soap,  and  afterwards  mixing  the 
rosin  soap  with  it,  made  in  the  mean- 
time in  a  special  kettle.  Both  mixtures 
have  to  be  stirred  and  beaten  thoroughly 
for  half  an  hour,  and  the  whole  passed 
through  a  sieve  tefore  they  are  filled 
into  the  frames,  and  therein  well  stirred 


and  crutched.  Some  palm  oil,  when 
saponified  with  the  tallow,  very  much 
improves  the  appearance  of  the  soap. 

Rosin  Soap. — Place  80  galls,  of  ley 
int-c  a  kettle  of  sufficient  capacity,  first 
bo;l  the  contents,  and  then  throw  rosin 
in  at  intervals  of  5  or  6  minutes,  and  in 
portions  of  15  to  20  lbs.,  until  1320  lbs. 
have  been  added.  The  rosin  must  be 
previously  well  pulverized,  and  while 
one  workman  is  occupied  with  throwing 
it  in,  another  should  be  constantly 
engaged  in  stirring  it,  as  the  mixture 
easily  ascends.  The  heat  must  not  be 
too  rapidly  increased,  nor  is  it  necessary 
that  it  should  boil  all  the  time,  but 
keep  the  temperature  near  the  boiling 
point.  It  is  absolutely  requisite  to 
keep  stirring  the  paste  all  the  time. 
Saponification  will  be  finished  in  2  hours, 
and  then  the  mixture,  with  the  fat,  is 
converted  into  soap  as  above  described. 

Cocoanut-oil  Soap.  —  Cocoanut  oil 
acts  differently  from  any  other  fats,  in 
combination  with  which  weak  leys  pro- 
duce a  milky  mixture.  Such  leys  have 
no  effect  upon  cocoanut  oil,  for  it  can  be 
seen  floating  on  the  top,  while  strong 
leys  of  25°  to  30°  very  soon  produce 
saponification  throughout  the  whole 
mass.  This  soap  is  sometimes  called 
marine  soap,  as  it  will  lather  well  with 
sea  water.  A  ley  of  27°,  cold  weighed, 
will  saponify  an  equal  weight  of  cocoa- 
nut  oil,  100  lbs.,  for  instance,  making 
nearly  200  lbs.  of  soap.  The  oil  is  put 
in  the  pan  together  with  the  ley,  and 
then  heat  is  applied.  After  continually 
stirring  it  for  1  or  2  hours,  the  paste 
will  gradually  thicken,  when  the  tem- 
peratui-e  of  the  heat  applied  should  be 
moderated,  but  the  stirring  continued. 
After  a  time  the  paste  turns  into  a  white 
semi-solid  mass,  which  forms  the  soap, 
and  this  has  to  be  filled  immediately 
into  the  frames,  because  solidification 
takes  place  very  quickly.  A  mixture  is 
often  used  of  equal  parts  of  tallow  and 
cocoanut  oil,  or  of  bleached  palm  oil 
and  cocoanut  oil,  which  yields  a  very 
fine  soap.  90  to  95  per  cent,  of  cocoanut 
oil,  with  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  natural 
palm  oil,  yields  also  a  nice  soap ;  and  all 
these  fats,   when  mixed   Tith  cocoanut 


382 


"WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


oil  in  not  too  larg3  proportions,  will  be 
as  easily  saponified  as  if  the  latter  alone 
were  used. 

Palm-oil  Soaps. — Palm  oil  is  rarely 
used  alone  as  a  soap  stock,  but  generally 
employed  with  an  admixture  of  rosin, 
and  itthen  yields  yellow  soap  ;  for  white 
soap,  however,  these  are  employed  in  the 
bleached  state.  For  some  kinds  of  soap, 
palm  oil  is  saponified  with  5  to  10  per 
oent.  of  cocoanut  oil ;  more  is  often  used 
of  the  latter,  and  then  filled  soaps  are 
obtained.  Demi-palm  is  a  soap  con- 
sisting of  equal  parts  of  tallow  and  palm 
butter,  to  which  is  added  a  very  small 
quantity  of  rosin  and  cocoanut  butter. 
1.  Palm  oil,  300  lbs. ;  tallow,  200  lbs.  ; 
rosin,  200  lbs.  2.  Tallow,  500  lbs. ;  palm 
oil,  300  lbs. ;  rosin,  200  lbs.  3.  Palm 
oil,  4o0  lbs. ;  cocoanut  oil,  50  lbs.  4. 
Hog  fat,  550  lbs. ;  palm  oil,  150  lbs. ; 
cocoanut  oil,  50  lbs. ;  clarified  rosin, 
50  lbs.  Palm  oil  may  be  made  into  soap 
exactly  in  the  same  way  as  tallow.  If 
rosin  is  incorporated,  it  is  better  to  pro- 
duce first  the  combination  of  the  rcein 
with  the  ley,  and  mix  the  same  with  the 
finished  palm-oil  soap.  Soap  made  of 
bleached  palm  oil  is  perfectly  white, 
and  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from 
tallow.  Palm  soap  bleaches  when  ex- 
posed to  the  ligh^. 

Soft  Soap. — For  the  manufacture  of 
soft  soaps,  hempseed  oil,  linseed  oil, 
■poppy  oil,  rapeseed,  colza,  whale,  and 
seal  oils  are  used.  Saponification  is 
commenced  with  a  ley  of  9°  to  11°  B., 
and  the  contents  of  the  kettle  kept 
boiling  until  the  paste  becomes  of  sulli- 
cient  consistency  to  draw  threads  out  of 
the  substance.  It  then  undergoes  the 
process  of  clear-boiling,  for  which  pur- 
pose a  ley  of  25''  B,  should  be  used, 
stirring  all  the  time.  When  the  paste 
does  not  sink  any  more — first  it  ascends 
— boils  quietly,  and  shows  the  formation 
of  scales,  it  may  be  considered  finished. 
The  barrels  iu  which  it  i.s  to  be  otl'ercd  to 
the  trade  should  be  immediately  filled. 
The  quality  of  soil  soaps  is  estimated 
according  to  their  consistency.  Green 
Koap  was  formerly  made  of  liii.sce<l  oil. 
It  in  now,  however,  made  priu(i|)ally  of 
whale  oiU,  but  as  they  have  a  yellow 


colour,  manufacturers  mix  the  soaps 
made  of  the  whale  oils  with  finely-pow- 
dered indigo,  or  the  indigo-sulphate  of 
lime,  which  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
indigo  in  sulphuric  acid,  diluting  it  with 
water,  and  saturating  the  whole  with 
lime-milk.  Black  soft  soap  is  made  by 
adding  to  the  soap  a  mixture  of  a  solu- 
tion of  copperas  and  logwood  or  gall- 
nuts. 

Toilet  Soaps. — In  the  manufacture 
of  fancy  soaps  the  same  crude  mate- 
rials are  employed  as  for  the  com- 
mon soaps,  but  they  are  in  a  more 
refined  state,  and  the  superior  fats,  as 
hog's  fat,  cocoanut  oil,  and  olive  oil,  art 
substituted  for  the  inferior.  The  soaps 
obtained  are  generally  coloured  aiid 
scented. 

Making  Soaps  in  the  Cold  Way. — First 
the  fat  is  melted  in  a  well-cleaned  iron 
or  copper  kettle,  at  a  low  temperature , 
it  is  then  filtered  through  fine  linen  or 
muslin  into  another  kettle.  Often  the 
fat  has  to  be  further  purified.  This  is 
done  by  boiling  it  with  one-tliird  of 
water  for  about  10  minutes,  and  strain- 
ing it  off.  Some  add  for  100  lbs. 
of  fat,  6  oz.  of  salt,  3  oz.  of  fine  pul- 
verized alum.  They  then  let  it  remain 
quiet  for  some  hours.  To  the  fat,  which 
must  not  be  warmer  than  104°  Fahr,, 
the  ley  is  gradually  added.  In  soaps 
made  in  the  cold  way,  a  very  strong  ley 
is  used,  generally  one  of  36°  B.,  and 
for  a  certain  quantity  of  fat  just  half  of 
it  emj>loyed ;  say,  for  80  lbs.  of  fat, 
40  lbs.  of  ley,  or  less  when  the  ley  is 
stronger.  The  ley  must  be  clear  and 
colourless,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  heat 
it  previously  when  it  has  been  kejjt  in 
a  warm  room.  For  stirring  it,  a  broad 
paddle  of  boxwood  must  be  used,  having 
sharp  edges  at  its  lower  end,  rounded  at 
its  upper  end,  so  that  it  may  be  easily 
handled.  The  paddling  should  be  con- 
tinued until  a  ring  drawn  with  the 
spatula  may  be  recognized.  At  this 
jioint  the  nccess;iry  colouring  matter  and 
perfume  should  be  added.  The  ]>;istc 
should  then  be  run  into  frames  jire- 
viously  lined  with  linen,  so  carefully 
that  no  folds  are  formed  in  the  edge«  of 
the  box.     Each  frame  should  be  entirely 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


383 


filled,  and  well  closed  with  the  margin 
of  the  linen  and  a  wooden  cover,  and  the 
whole  left  for  12  hours,  by  which  time 
saponification  will  have  been  produced  ; 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  mass,  which  was 
nearly  cold  when  run  into  the  frames, 
has  undergone  a  spontaneous  reaction, 
raismg  the  temperature  sometimes  over 
175°  Fahr.  At  this  temperature  the 
constituents  of  the  materials  are  com- 
bined, and  a  soap  produced  of  a  quality 
almost  resembling  that  of  the  boiled 
soaps.  At  the  expiration  of  12  hours 
the  soap  may  be  taken  out  of  the  frame, 
cut,  and  dried.  Some  add  about  one- 
tenth  of  potassa  ley  to  the  soda  ley,  for 
the  purpose  of  increasing  the  solubility, 
and  consequently  the  quality  of  the 
soap ;  when  no  potassa  is  added  these 
soaps  are  generally  hard.  Of  such  soaps, 
100  lbs.  of  fat  will  yield  about  150  lbs. 

Transparent  Soaps  are  prepared  by 
dissolving  well-dried  soaps  in  alcohol ; 
but  all  kinds  of  soaps  cannot,  with  equal 
facility,  be  thus  transformed.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  work  up  into  a  solid  consistency 
soaps  made  of  olive  oil,  when  treated 
with  alcohol,  and  they  invariably  assume 
the  opaque  form.  A  good  suet  soap 
should  always  be  preferred,  and  rosin 
tallow  soaps  readily  yield  yellow  soaps 
of  a  remarkable  transparency.  The  first 
step  necessaiy  for  making  these  soaps 
transparent  is  to  cut  them  into  very 
thm  ribbons,  which  can  be  done  with  a 
knife,  or  with  a  soap-mill.  The  soap  is 
extended  on  strong  paper,  and  exposed 
to  the  air  and  sun  until  it  is  thoroughly 
dried.  It  is  then  pulverized  in  a  marble 
mortar,  and  passed  through  a  fine  sieve. 
The  powder  thus  obtained  is  directly 
dissolved  in  strong  boiling  alcohol. 
While  the  soap  is  liquid,  the  colours  and 
l>erfumes  are  incorporated  with  it.  Three 
and  a  half  gallons  of  alcohol  of  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  0*849  are  generally  used 
to  50  lbs.  of  soap.  A  still,  heated  by 
steam  or  hot  water,  is  used  for  this 
operation,  as  a  considerable  quantity  of 
alcohol  would  be  lost  in  a  common  heat- 
ing pan,  and  the  direct  application  of 
fii-e  would  destroy  th  beauty  and  trans- 
parency of  the  soap. 

Colouring  Soaps. — For  the  colouring 


of  ordinary  fancy  soaps  mineral  coloora 
are  employed ;  for  superior  icllet  and 
transparent  soaps,  organic  pigments  are 
used.  Generally,  the  red  colouring 
matter  is  derived  from  vermilion  or 
chrome  red,  the  violet  from  fuchsine 
solved  in  glycerine,  the  red-brown  and 
brown  from  camarel  and  the  various 
kinds  of  umber.  For  green,  chrome 
green  is  used ;  a  beautiful  vegetable 
green  is  obtained  by  stirring  in  the  soap, 
saponified  with  7  to  10  per  cent,  of  palm 
oil,  some  smalts  or  ultramarine.  For 
blue,  smalts  or  ultramarine.  Yellow 
is  obtained  by  mixing  palm  butter  with 
the  fat  to  be  saponified.  For  black, 
common  lampblack  is  used.  Fine  toilet 
soaps  and  transparent  soaps  may  be 
coloured  as  follows ; — For  a  red  colour, 
tincture  of  dragon's-blood  or  liquid  car- 
mine. Rose,  tincture  of  carthamine  or 
of  archil.  Yellow  and  orange,  tincture 
of  annatto  or  saffron.  Blue  and  violet, 
tincture  of  litmus,  or  of  alkanet-root,  or 
soluble  Prussian  blue,  basic,  or  a  very 
little  pure  indigo  in  imjialpable  powder. 
Green,  a  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow. 

Perfuming  Soajjs. — Perfuming  is  ge- 
nerally done  when  the  paste  is  in  the 
frame,  as,  if  added  in  the  pan  when  the 
soap  is  hot,  most  of  the  essential  oils 
would  be  volatilized.  It  is  best  to  mix 
the  colours  and  the  perfumes  together 
with  some  alcohol  or  glycerine,  and 
stir  well  in  the  paste. 

Windsor  Soap. — 1.  White.  The  best 
is  a  mixture  of  olive  oil,  1  part ;  ox- 
suet,  or  tallow,  8  or  9,  saponified  with 
a  ley  of  caustic  soda,  and  scented  after 
removal  from  the  boiler.  The  ordinary 
is  curd  soap,  scented,  whilst  semi-liquid, 
with  oil  of  carraway,  supported  with  a 
little  oil  of  bergamot,  lavender,  or 
origanum.  To  the  finer  qualities  a 
little  oil  of  cassia,  or  of  almonds,  or  of 
the  essences  of  musk  and  ambergris,  is 
also  added.  The  usual  proportion  of  the 
mixed  oils  for  good  qualities,  is  IJ  lb. 
per  cwt.,  and  2  lbs.,  at  the  least,  for 
the  finer  ones,  exclusive  of  the  alco- 
holic essences,  if  any  are  employed. 
2.  Brown.  Originally  this  was  the 
white  variety  that  had  become  yellow 
and  brown  by  age.     It  now  only  ditferg 


384 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


from  the  white  in  being  coloured  with 
a  little  caramel,  with  umber,  or  brown 
ochre.  3.  Nine  parts  of  good  ox-tallow 
and  1  of  olive  oil,  scented  with  oil  of 
carraway,  oil  of  lavender,  and  oil  of 
rosemary,  in  the  following  proportions  ; 
— Hard  curd  soap,  100  oz. ;  oil  of  carra- 
way. 1  oz  ;  oil  of  lavender,  J  oz.  ;  oil  of 
rosemary,  |  oz. 

Honey  Soap. — Ordinary  honey  soap  is 
the  finest  bright-coloured  yellow  rosin 
soap,  coloured  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
palm  oil  or  palm-oil  soap,  and  scented 
with  oil  of  rose  geranium,  or  oil  of 
ginger-grass,  or  with  a  little  oil  of  ber- 
gamot  or  verbena.  Some  of  the  finer 
kinds  are  made  of  olive-oil  soap  and 
palm-oil  soap,  of  each  1  part  ;  white 
curd  soap,  3 ;  deepened  in  colour,  whilst 
in  a  liquid  state,  with  a  little  palm  oil, 
or  annatto,  and  scented  with  1  to  IJ  oz. 
of  essential  oils  to  each  J  lb.,  or  1  to 
IJ  lb.  to  each  cwt. 

Musk  Soap. — 1.  The  basis  is  generally 
a  good  ox-suet  or  tallow  soap  ;  the  scent, 
essence  of  musk  or  oil  of  musk,  sup- 
ported with  a  little  of  the  oils  of  berga- 
mot,  cinnamon,  and  cloves.  The  quan- 
tity of  the  essence  used  depends  on  the 
intended  fragrance  of  the  product.  Tlie 
colouring  matter  is  usually  caramel.  2. 
Tallow  and  palm-oil  soap,  to  which  add 
powder  of  cloves,  roses,  and  gillyflowers, 
each  4  oz. ;  essence  of  bergamot  and  of 
musk,  each  3J  oz. ;  colour,  brown  ochre, 
4  oz. 

Glycerine  Soap. — 1.  Any  mild  toilet 
soaj),  with  which  about  ^th  to  •j'jjth  of 
its  weight  of  glycerine  has  been  inti- 
mately mixed  whiLst  in  the  liquid  state. 
It  is  generally  tinged  of  a  red  or  rose 
colour,  or  orange-yellow.  Scent  with 
oil  of  bergamot  or  rose  geranium,  sup- 
ported with  a  little  oil  of  c.issia,  or 
c;uisia  sujijiorted  with  essential  oil  of 
almonds.  2.  40  lbs.  of  tallow,  40  lbs. 
of  lard,  and  20  lbs.  of  cocoanut  oil,  are 
saponitied  with  45  lbs.  of  wxla  ley  and 
."j  lbs.  of  poia*h  ley  of  40°  Daume,  when 
the  soap  is  to  be  made  in  the  col.l 
way.  To  the  paste  then  add,  ]iure  gly- 
cerine, C  lbs. ;  oil  of  Poitugal,  ^  oz.  ;  nil 
of  bcrgainid,  j^  oz.  ;  bitter  almond  oil, 
.'>  oz. ;  oil  of  vilivert,  3  oz.   3.  One  hun- 


dred parts  of  oleine  of  commerce,  pour  .t 
either  in  a  glass  tlask  if  the  quantity  is 
small,  or  for  a  larger  quantity  into  *i>j 
ordinary  boiler,  add  314  parts  of  gly. 
cerine,  sp.  gr.  1"12,  heat  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  yO°  Fahr.,  and  then  add  56  parts 
of  an  aqueous  solution  of  caustic  po- 
tassa,  sp.  gr.  1-34;  stir  the  mixture 
well.     Keep  at  rejt  for  24  houi-w 

Ahywnd  Soap.  ~l.  The  best  qualitvis 
usually  white  curd  soap,  with  an  addi- 
tion of  ith  to  ith  of  its  weight  of  olive- 
oil  soap,  scented  with  essential  oil  of 
almonds  in  the  proportion  of  about  1  oz. 
to  each  4J  to  5  lbs.,  or  IJ  lb.  to  the 
cwt.  ;  very  fine.  The  addition  of  a 
little  oil  of  cassia,  say  4  or  5  oz.  a 
cwt.,  improves  it.  Second  and  inferior 
qualities  are  scented  with  the  artificial 
oil  of  almonds,  instead  of  the  genume  oil. 
2.  Hard  white  soap,  28  lbs.;  essential  oil 
of  almonds,  4J  oz.  ;  reduce  the  soap  to 
small  shavings,  and  melt  with  the  aid 
of  a  little  hot  water,  adding  the  essence 
gradually,  and  with  constant  stirring. 

Violet  Soap. — 1.  Any  white  toilet 
soap  strongly  scented  with  essence  of 
orris-root,  either  coloured,  or  not,  with 
tincture  of  litmus,  or  a  little  levigated 
sm.ilts,  ultramarine,  or  indigo.  2.  VVhittf 
curd  soap,  3  lbs.  ;  olive-oil  soap,  1  lb.  ; 
palm-oil  soap,  3  lbs. ;  melted  together, 
and  further  scented  with  a  little  essence 
of  orris-root,  wnicn  is  best  added  cold  ; 
and  coloured,  or  not,  at  will.  Very 
fragrant,  but  it  does  not  take  colour 
very  well. 

Bouquet  Soap. — 1.  White  curd  soap, 
finest,  17J  lbs.;  olive-oil  soaj),  2J  lbs.; 
oil  of  bergamot,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  cassi.a,  oil 
of  cloves,  oil  of  sassafras,  oil  of  thyme, 
of  each,  IJ^  dram;  oil  of  neroli,  1  dram; 
ochre,  brown,  levigated,  2  oz.;  pro- 
ceed as  fur  almond  scxip.  It  may  be 
varied  by  subhtituting  oil  of  lavender 
for  the  neroli.  2.  White  curd  soajp, 
20  lbs. ;  oil  of  bergamot,  2|}  oz. ;  oil  of 
cloves,  §  dram;  oil  of  neroli,  J  dram; 
oil  of  sa.ssafras,  -J  dram;  oil  of  thyme, 
-j^  dram.  Coloured  with  2J  oz.  brown 
ochre.  3.  Good  tallow  soap,  30  lbs. ; 
essence  of  bergamot,  4  oz. ;  oils  of  cloves^ 
Kassjifins,  and  thyme,  each  1  oz. ;  colour 
brown  ochre,  7  n. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


385 


Rose  Soap  — 1.  Palm-oil  soap,  in  shav- 
ings, 3  lbs. ;  finest  white  curd  soap,  in 
shavings,  2  lbs. ;  soft  water,  \  pint. 
Melt  together  in  a  bright  copper  pan, 
set  in  a  water  bath.  Add  levigated  ver- 
milion, \  oz. ;  and  when  the  mixture 
has  cooled  a  little,  stir  in  finest  otto  of 
roses,  2  drams;  oil  of  bergamot,  H 
dram  ;  oil  of  cinnamon,  oil  of  cloves,  of 
each,  I  dram  ;  oil  of  rose  geranium,  | 
dram.  Mix  well,  and  pour  the  mass 
into  an  open-bottomed  wooden  frame, 
set  on  a  polished  marble  slab.  Some- 
times it  is  coloured  with  tincture  of 
dragon's-blood,  or  of  archil,  instead  of 
with  vermilion.  2.  White  curd  soap, 
20  lbs.;  essence  of  rose,  l-i  oz. ;  oil  of 
cloves,  j  dram ;  oil  of  cinnamon,  A  dram ; 
oil  of  bergamot,  1  dram  ;  oil  of  neroli, 
■1  dram  ;  coloured  with  2  oz.  vermilion. 
3.  Olive-oil  soap,  30  lbs. ;  good  tallow 
soap,  20  lbs. ;  finely-ground  vermilion, 
I5  oz. ;  essence  of  rose,  3  oz. ;  essence 
of  cloves,  1  oz.  ;  essence  of  cinnamon, 
1  oz. ;  essence  of  bergamot,  2\  oz.  The 
hard  soaps  are  to  be  kept  at  212°  Fahr. 
for  an  hour,  with  5  lbs.  of  water  in  an 
untinned  copper  pan,  the  vermilion 
then  added,  and  when  taken  off  the  fire, 
the  essences  mixed  well  with  it,  by 
.stirring  them  together.  This  is  a  very 
perfect  soap,  jiossessing  a  delicious  fra- 
grance, a  beautiful  roseate  hue,  and  the 
softest  detergent  properties,  which  keep- 
ing cannot  impair. 

Cinniimon  Soip. — 1.  U.sually  a  mix- 
ture of  tallow  and  soaps,  coloured  with 
about  I  lb.  of  yellow  ochre,  and  scented 
with  1  oz.  of  oil  of  cinnamon,  supported 
with  a  little  oil  of  bergamot  and  sassa- 
fras, to  each  7  lbs.  2.  Finest  white 
curd  soap,  6  lbs. ;  palm-oil  soap,  3^  lbs. ; 
cocoanut-oil  soap,  1  lb. ;  oil  of  cinnamon, 
H  oz. ;  oil  of  bergamot,  oil  of  sassa- 
fras, of  each,  J  oz. ;  lavender,  1  dram  ; 
levigated  yellow  ochre,  ^  lb.  3.  Good 
tallow  soap,  30  lbs.  ;  palm-oil  soap, 
20  lbs. ;  essence  of  cmnamon,  7  oz. ;  essence 
of  .sassafras,  li  oz. ;  essence  of  bergamot, 
IJ  oz. ;  colour,  yellow  ochre,  1  lb.  Oil 
of  cassia  is  often  used  instead  of  oil  of 
cinnamon,  and  always  in  inferior  quali- 
ties. 

Lavender  Soap. — The  basis  of  Windsor 

I 


soap,  scented  with  oil  of  lavender,  1  to 
IJ  fluid  oz.  per  7  lbs.,  supported  with  a 
little  oil  of  bergamot  and  the  essences  oi 
musk  and  ambergris.  It  is  often  coloured 
with  a  little  tincture  of  litmus,  or  corre- 
sponding mineral  pigments. 

Orange-flower  Soap.  —  1.  Like  rose 
soap,  but  using  pure  neroli,  supported 
with  a  dash  of  the  essences  of  ambergris 
and  Portugal,  instead  of  otto  of  roses,  as 
scent.  The  French  orange-flower  soap 
is  scented  with  equal  parts  of  neroli  and 
gerantura.  2.  Tallow  and  palm-oil  soap, 
to  which  add,  essence  of  orange  flowers, 
7k  oz. ;  ambergris,  7J  oz. ;  colour, 
chrome  yellow,  8  oz. ;  red-lead,  2  oz. 

Eondeletia  Soap. — The  basis  of  cinna- 
mon, rose,  or  Windsor  soap,  scented  with 
1  to  IJ  oz.  of  the  mixed  oils  and  essences 
used  for  essence  of  rondeletia,  to  each 
7  lbs.  The  colours  are  those  used  for 
bouquet,  cinnamon,  honey,  or  brown 
Windsor  soap. 

Flowers  of  Erin. — White  curd  soap, 
scented  with  oil  of  roses,  1  dram  ;  spirits 
of  violet,  J  fluid  oz. ;  spirits  of  jasmine, 
A  fluid  oz. ;  spirits  of  patchouli,  \  fluid 
oz. ;  spirits  of  vanilla,  \  fluid  oz.  Tinged 
green  or  rose. 

Primrose  Soap. — This  has  usually  a 
similar  basis  to  houey  soap,  faintly 
scented  with  mixed  oils  similar  to  those 
used  as  cowslip  perfume,  and  coloured 
pale  yellow,  or  greenish  yellow. 

Iodine  Soap. — Make  a  solution  of  1 
part  of  iodine  of  potassium  in  3  parts  of 
water  ;  to  this  add,  of  pounded  Castile 
soap,  16  parts  ;  melt  in  a  porcelain  vessel 
by  the  aid  of  a  water  bath. 

Mercurial  Soap. — Beat  into  a  homo- 
geneous mass  in  a  Wedgwood  mortar, 
Castile  soap,  1  lb. ;  protochloride  of 
mercury,  ^  oz.  dissolved  in  4  oz.  of 
alcohol. 

Sulphur  Soap. — Cut  into  small  shav- 
ings white  soap,  8  oz. ;  beat  up  in  a 
mortar  with  sublimated  sulphur,  2  oz. ; 
add  1  oz.  of  alcohol,  to  which  may  be 
added  a  few  drops  of  any  of  the  odori- 
ferous essential  oils  ;  beat  the  whole  into 
a  smooth  paste,  and  roll  into  halls. 

Antimonial  Soap. — Prepared  by  dis- 
solving 1  part  of  golden  sulphuret  ol 
antitnonv  in  S  parts  cf  a'saturated  solu 

2  0 


386 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


tion  of  caustic  potash,  to  this  add,  of 
Castile  soap  in  powder,  4  parts,  triturate 
till  the  whole  assumes  a  proper  con- 
sistency. 

Shaving  Soaps. — Shaving  Paste. — 1. 
Wliite  soft  soap,  4  ( z. ;  finest  honey 
soap,  2  oz. ;  olive  oil,  1  oz. ;  water,  1  or 
2  tablespoonfuls ;  carbonate  of  soda,  1 
dram.  Jlelt  together  and  form  a  paste, 
adding  a  little  proof-s])irit  and  scent  at 
will.  Some  melt  with  the  soaj)  about 
1  dram  of  spermaceti.  Produces  a  good 
lather  with  either  hot  or  cold  water, 
which  dries  slowly  on  the  face.  2.  Hard 
soap  in  small  shavings,  2  oz. ;  best  soft 
soap,  6  oz. ;  melt  by  the  aid  of  a  water 
bath ;  add,  on  cooling,  oil  of  cloves, 
1  dram  ;  tincture  of  ambergris,  20  drops. 

Cream  Soap. — Take  white,  soft,  lard 
potash  soap,  recent,  but  moderately 
firm,  and  beat  in  small  portions  at  a 
time,  in  a  marble  mortar,  until  it  forms 
a  white  homogeneous  mass  ;  add  suffi- 
cient essential  oil  of  almonds,  supported 
with  a  little  oil  of  bergamot,  or  of 
cassia,  put  in  during  the  pounding. 

Shaving  Essence  or  Fluid. — 1.  White 
hard  soap,  in  shavings,  \  lb.  ;  rectified 
spirit,  1  pint ;  water,  J  pint ;  perfume 
to  taste.  Put  them  into  a  strong  bottle, 
cork  tightly,  set  it  in  warm  water  for  a 
short  time,  and  occasionally  agitate  it 
briskly  until  solution  is  comj)lete. 
After  standing,  jiour  oil'  the  clean  por- 
tion from  the  dregs  into  clean  bottles 
for  \ise,  and  at  once  closely  cork  them. 
If  the  solution  is  not  sulHciently  trans- 
parent, a  little  rectified  spii-it  should  be 
added  to  it  before  decantation ;  a  little 
proof-spirit  may  be  added  if  it  is  desired 
to  render  it  thinner.  If  mucli  essential 
oil  is  used  to  perfume  it,  the  tran>- 
parency  of  the  jji-oduct  will  be  lessoned. 
2.  White  soft  soaji,  \  lb.  ;  lii|Uor  of 
potassa,  2  fluid  drams;  rectified  spirit, 
1  pint.  Perfume  to  t.xste.  Proceed  as 
before.  The  jH'oduct  of  both  is  excellent. 
By  rubbing  two  or  three  drops  on  the 
skin,  and  applying  the  shaving  brush, 
previously  dipped  in  water,  a  g<iod 
ialluT  is  produced.  The  choice  of  per- 
fume is  a  matter  of  taste,  la  to  20  drops 
of  essence  of  musk  or  ambergris,  1  fluid 
dram   of  any   of  the  ordinary   fragrant 


essences,  or  12  to  15  drops  of  essential 
oil,  simple  or  mixed,  to  a  pint,  are  suiU- 
cient  for  the  purpose. 

Soap  Balls. — These  are  usually  made 
of  one  or  other  of  the  toilette  soaps  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  starch  ;  sometimes 
sand  is  used  in  pJace  of  the  starch. 

Camphor  Savonette. — Spermaceti,  2  oz. ; 
camphor,  powdered  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  spirits,  1  oz. ;  white 
curd  soap,  melted  with  a  little  water, 
24  oz. ;  amalgamate  with  a  gentle  heat 
and  mould  into  balls. 

Sitnd  Ball. — Fine  old  yellow  soap,  2 
parts ;  silver  sand,  1  part  ;  scent  to 
taste ;  melt  the  soap  and  mix  in  the 
sand,  afterwards  adding  the  scent  and 
making  into  balls. 

Marble  Working. — Marbles  are 
generally  cut  up  in  the  same  direction 
in  which  they  are  quarried;  this  is 
known  as  sawing  with  the  grain.  Some- 
times it  is  necessary  to  cut  them  against 
the  grain,  which  renders  them  more  dif- 
ficult to  work.  Some  marbles  can  only 
be  sawn  in  the  direction  in  which  they 
are  cut  up.  The  mai-ble  worker  is  often 
obliged  to  rough  hew  and  work  without 
the  help  of  the  saw,  casings,  columns, 
and  other  articles  with  curved  outlines; 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  he  re-works  with 
the  chisel  b.a<lly-executed  sawings ;  he 
then  squares  each  piece  with  the  saw  or 
chisel  to  the  recjuired  dimensions,  and 
finally  mounts  the  marble  upon  its  stone 
core,  and  sets  U[)  the  work  in  its  jilace. 
The  working  of  mouldings  takes  much 
time  and  trouble  ;  the  first  o)ieratiou  is 
to  saw  the  arris,  then  to  work  with  a 
notched  chisel,  making  several  succes- 
sive groovings,  on  account  of  the  contour 
and  e.\|>ansiou,  in  which  but  very  small 
pieces  of  the  material  are  taken,  for  fear 
of  splintering  it  ;  finish  with  small  com- 
mon chisels,  which  should  be  sharp  and 
well  tempered.  Cylindrical  pieces,  such 
as  round  pedestals,  columns,  urns,  and 
va.ses,  are  worked  with  a  chisel,  and  then, 
if  ])ort.ible,  finished  on  a  turning  lathe, 
When  it  is  impossiitle  to  place  the  |)ieces 
in  a  lathe,  they  are  thickly  grooved, 
bolstered  with  the  puncheon,  ami  the 
desired  contours  obtained  by  means  of 
thick    ^)anels ;    they  are   thcr    worked 


WORKSHOP   RECEll'TS. 


387 


with  a  small  chisel,  which  removes  the 
dust,  and  thus  prepares  the  marble  for 
polishing. 

Polishing.  —  Polishing  includes  five 
operations.  Smoothing  the  roughness 
left  by  the  burin  is  done  by  rubbing 
the  marble  with  a  piece  of  moist  sand- 
stone for  mouldings,  either  wooden  or 
iron  raullers  are  used,  crushed  and  wet 
sandstone,  or  sand,  more  or  less  fine 
according  to  the  degree  of  polish  re- 
quired, being  thrown  under  tham.  The 
second  j)rocess  is  continued  ruhting  with 
j'ieces  of  pottery  without  cn:imel,  which 
have  only  been  baked  once,  also  wet. 
If  a  brilliant  polish  is  desired,  Gothland 
stone  inst-ead  of  pottery  is  used,  and 
potters'  clay  or  fullers'  earth  is  placed 
beneath  the  muller.  This  operation  is 
performed  upon  granites  and  porphyry 
with  emery  and  a  lead  muller,  the  upper 
part  of  which  is  incrusted  with  the 
mixture  until  reduced  by  friction  to 
clay  or  an  impalpable  powder.  As  the 
polish  depends  almost  entirely  on  these 
two  operations,  care  must  be  taken  that 
they  are  performed  with  a  regular  and 
steady  movement.  When  the  marble 
has  received  the  first  polish,  the  flaws, 
Ciivities.  and  sofl  spots  are  sought  out 
and  filled  with  mastic  of  a  suitable 
colour.  This  mastic  is  usually  com])osed 
of  a  mi.xture  of  yellow  wax,  rosin,  and 
Burgundy  pitch,  mixed  with  a  little 
sulphur  and  plaster  passed  through  a 
fine  sieve,  which  gives  it  the  consistency 
of  a  thick  [)aste ;  to  colour  this  paste  to 
a  tone  analogous  to  the  ground  tints  or 
natural  cement  of  the  material  upon 
which  it  is  placed,  lampblack  and  rouge, 
with  a  little  of  the  prevailing  colour  of 
the  material,  are  added.  For  green  or 
red  marbles,  this  mastic  is  sometimes 
made  of  gum  lac,  mixed  with  Spanish 
sealing  wa.?  of  the  colour  of  the  marble; 
it  is  applied  hot  with  pincers,  and  these 
parts  are  })olished  with  the  rest.  Some- 
times crushed  fragments  of  the  marble 
worked  are  introduced  into  this  cement ; 
but  for  fine  marbles,  the  same  colours 
are  employed  which  are  used  in  paint- 
ing, and  which  will  produce  the  same 
tone  as  the  ground ;  the  gum  lac  is 
edded    to  give  it   body  and    brilliancy. 


The  third  operation  of  polishing  consists 
in  rubbing  it  again  with  a  hard  pumice- 
stone,  under  which  water  is  constantly 
poured,  unmixed  with  sand.  For  the 
fourth  process,  called  softening  the 
ground,  lead  filings  are  mixed  with 
the  emery  mud  produced  by  the  polish- 
ing of  mirrors  or  the  working  of  pre- 
cious stones,  and  the  marble  is  rubbed 
with  a  comj)act  linen  cushion,  well 
saturated  with  this  mixture ;  rouge 
is  also  used  for  this  polish.  For  some 
outside  works,  and  for  hearths  and 
jiaving  tiles,  marble  workers  confine 
themselves  to  this  polish.  When  the 
marbles  have  holes  or  grains,  a  lead 
muller  is  substituted  for  the  linen 
cushion.  In  order  to  give  a  perfect 
brilliancy  to  the  polish,  the  gloss  is 
applied.  Well  wash  the  prepared  sur- 
faces, and  leave  them  until  perfectly 
dry ;  then  take  a  linen  cushion,  mois- 
tened only  with  water,  and  a  little 
powder  of  calcined  tin  of  the  first 
quality.  After  rubbing  with  this  for 
some  time,  take  another  cushion  of  dry 
rags,  rub  ^^'tth  it  lightly,  brush  away 
any  foreign  substance  which  might 
scratch  the  marble,  and  a  perfect  polish 
will  be  obtained.  A  little  alum  mixed 
with  the  water  used  penetrates  the 
pores  of  the  marble,  and  gives  it  a 
speedier  polish.  This  polish  spots  very 
easily,  and  is  soon  tarnished  and  de- 
stroyed by  dampness.  It  is  necessary, 
when  purchasing  articles  of  polished 
marbles,  to  subject  them  to  the  test  of 
water;  if  tnere  is  too  much  alum,  the 
marble  absorbs  the  water,  and  a  whitish 
spot  IS  left. 

Mounting. — Marble  workers  mount 
and  fasten  their  works  upon  plaster 
mixed  with  a  third-part  of  dust,  as  pure 
plaster  repels  the  marble,  and  causes  it 
to  swell  out  and  burst.  These  are 
joined  together  by  cramps  and  gudgeons 
of  iron  and  copper,  which  should  be 
carefully  covered,  in  order  that  the 
oxides  may  not  spot  the  casings.  Marble 
chimney-pieces  should  be  lined  with  lias 
stone  or  plaster. 

Selecting  Marble. — Examine  each  piece, 
note  its  beauties,  and  endeavour  to  hide 
its  defects   before  cutting  or  working  ii. 

2  c  2 


338 


WORKSHOP   EECEIPT8. 


When  fine  pieces  are  found,  endeavour 
to  cut  them  into  two  or  three  parts,  in 
order  to  multiply  them,  cutting  them 
in  sue))  a  manner  tliat  these  hajjpy 
accidents  may  be  reproduced  according 
to  taste. 

Venu:erixq  with  marble. —  Veneer- 
ing upon  Wood. — Veneering  upon  wood 
is  preferable,  in  every  respect,  to  that 
on  stone.  For  this  purpose,  as  marble, 
particularly  the  black,  would  break  by 
heating  it  in  the  usual  manner,  place 
the  slabs  of  marble  *in  a  caldron,  tightly 
closed,  in  which  let  them  boil.  Then 
take  them  from  the  caldron,  and  after 
this  preliminary  operation,  subject  the 
marble  to  the  heat  of  the  fire  to  receive 
a  mastic  of  tar.  The  wood  having  been 
pre])ared  in  a  similar  manner,  press  the 
marble,  coated  with  the  mastic,  upon 
the  wood,  and  a  perfect  cohesion  is 
elTected.  The  cases  of  oi'uameutal  clocks 
are  hollow,  for  the  movement  of  the 
pendulum  and  other  works.  This  hol- 
lowing cannot  be  effected  on  stone  with- 
out detriment  to  its  solidity.  When 
wood  is  used,  a  frame  is  made  of  it, 
upon  the  exterior  parts  of  which  marble 
is  to  be  veneered.  The  mixture  of  glue 
with  tar  is  found  an  imjirovement  in 
effecting  this  veneering. 

Veneekixq  on  JIetals. — As  these 
possess  a  smooth  surface,  the  substance 
which  should  fasttn  them  to  the  marble 
cannot  incorporate  itself  with  them 
mtimately  enough  to  join  both  and 
render  them  inse])arable.  It  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  interpose  between  the 
metal  and  the  marble  a  third  body, 
which  shouM  force  them  to  perfectly 
.-idhero  ;  this  is  effected  by  the  use  of 
sand-paper. 

Jlirlilc  on  Ziiic. — Take  a  plate  of 
zinc  of  about  -^-^  of  an  mch  thick  ;  make 
a  fi'ame  of  this  of  the  form  of  whatever 
article  may  be  wished  ;  u|>on  this  form 
j;lue  s.ind-jiapcr,  leaving  the  rough  side 
outermost,  and  u|>on  this  rough  side 
applv  the  maible,  having  first  ]uepan'd 
i»,  by  heating  in  a  water  bath,  and 
|)i:i(:nir  bftwecn  the  marble  and  the 
K.ind-papcr  a  coating  of  mastic  of  tar. 
by  this  moans,  so  j>crfect  an  adhesion 
'between    the   «uarb)-»   nr-\    *it«    z'tuc    is 


effected,  that  the  marble  could  be  easier 
broken  than  removed.  The  application 
of  marble  upon  zinc  can  also  be  effected 
by  grooving  the  metal  in  every  direction 
with  strokes  of  the  file,  but  the  sand- 
pajjcr  produces  the  best  results.  Zinc 
is  jn-eferred  to  other  metals,  because  it 
possesses  resistance  and  cheapness,  and 
causes  no  other  expense  in  the  manu- 
facture than  that  of  cutting  up  to  form 
the  model.  Tin  does  not  possess  the 
same  resistance  or  cheapness ;  sheet  iron 
is  dearer  ;  cast  iron  is  too  heavy  ;  coi)per 
is  expensive ;  by  the  application  of 
marble  ujion  zinc,  articles  can  be  manu- 
factured at  the  same  price  as  those 
veneered  upon  wood.  In  fastening 
marble  to  the  metallic  plating,  the  tar 
which  is  used  in  the  application  of 
marble  to  stone  will  not  be  sullkieut. 
Tiie  parts  must  first  be  heated  in  a 
water  bath,  or  over  a  furnace  ])rei)ared 
for  this  purjiose,  and  then,  by  a  sieve, 
si>rinkled  with  one  of  the  following 
mordants  ; — Crushed  glass,  grains  of 
emery  of  all  sizes,  copper  filings,  cast- 
ings of  any  metal,  finely-rasped  lead,  or 
any  kind  of  powdered  stone,  such  as 
sandstone,  marble,  granite,  or  pumice- 
stone,  and  india-rubber,  can  also  be  used. 
Wiien  the  sheets  of  metal  and  of  marble 
have  received  sufficient  mordant,  join 
with  a  coating  of  tar,  which  fastens 
them  strongly  together.  Any  web  of 
linen  or  cotton  can  be  placed  between 
the  marble  and  the  metal  ;  this  web 
being  covered  with  grainy  substances, 
stuck  on  by  glue. 

JfiiHilc  Vcnccr  an  Poxes. — The  marble 
is  first  sawn  to  thickness  and  form 
required  for  the  dressing  ca.se  or  box  to 
which  it  is  to  be  a])plied.  The  wood, 
usually  white  wocid,  oak  or  fir,  is  cut  a 
little  smaller  than  the  marble  which  is 
to  cover  it.  This  wood  .s  lined  with  a 
shaving  of  beechwood,  to  prevent  warp- 
ing. This  lining  is  only  placed  on  the 
side  which  is  to  receive  the  marble ; 
each  piece  of  marble  is  then  a]i|ilied  to 
the  corresponding  piece  of  wood,  and 
stuck  on  by  glue  or  other  mastic. 
When  the  m\rble  has  been  applied,  the 
ojiposite  side  of  the  wood  is  thinly  lined 
with    rosewoc)-!    or   mahogany,  so    that 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


389 


this  lining  forms  the  inside  of  the  box, 
which  is  thus  prepared  for  receiving 
the  necessary  divisions.  The  four  parts 
are  then  dovetailed  together,  and  the 
top  and  bottom  jiarts  fastec3d  flatwise 
on  the  four  sides  with  glue  or  mastic. 
The  bos  being  finished,  the  outside  is 
pumiced  and  polished,  and  any  applica- 
tions of  gilding  can  be  made. 

Sculpture  of  2Iarble  by  Acids. — Pre- 
pare a  varnish  by  pulverizing  Spanish 
sealing  wax,  and  dissolving  it  in  spirits 
of  wine.  Trace  on  the  white  marble, 
with  a  crayon,  the  design  which  is  to  be 
formed  in  relief,  and  cover  this  delicately 
with  a  brush  dipped  in  the  varnish  ;  in 
about  2  hours  the  varnish  will  be  dry. 
Prepare  a  dissolvent  of  equal  parts  of 
spirits  of  wine,  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
distilled  vinegar;  pour  this  solution 
upon  the  marble,  and  it  will  dissolve 
those  parts  v»"hich  are  not  covered  by 
the  varnish.  When  the  acid  has  ceased 
to  ferment,  and,  consequently,  will  no 
longer  dissolve  the  marble,  pour  on  some 
fresh,  which  continue  until  the  ground 
is  sufficiently  grooved.  When  there  are 
delicate  lines  in  the  design  which  should 
not  be  grooved  so  deeply,  they  should  at 
first  be  covered  with  varnish,  to  prevent 
the  action  of  the  acids  upon  them  ;  then, 
when  the  reliefs  have  been  made,  the 
marble  should  be  well  washed,  and  the 
varnish  removed  from  these  delicate 
lines  with  the  point  of  a  pin  ;  then  pour 
on  new  acid,  which  will  groove  it  as 
deeply  as  desired,  care  being  taken  to 
remove  it  at  the  proper  time.  When 
the  acid  has  acted  upon  the  marble,  it 
corrodes  beneath  the  varnish,  and  en- 
larges the  lines  in  jiroportion  to  its 
depth  ;  therefore  draw  the  lines  m  relief 
a  little  larger  than  it  is  desired  to  leave 
them.  When  the  work  is  completed, 
remove  the  varnish  with  spirits  of  wine, 
and,  as  the  grounds  will  be  very  dilli- 
cult  to  polish,  they  may  be  dotted  with 
ordinary  colours  diluted  with  the  var- 
nish of  gum  lac.  The  marble  being 
thus  grooved,  the  cavities  may  be  filled 
in  inlaid  work  with  gold,  silver,  tin, 
sealing  wax,  sulphur,  crushed  pearl  shell 
reduced  to  powder.  These  designs  can 
le  made  either  in  moulding  or  in  relief, 


without  changing  or  injuring  the  marble  ; 
every  sort  of  writing,  however  delicate 
it  may  be,  can  also  be  thus  traced  ;  and 
the  execution  is  very  rapid,  whether  in 
groovings  inlaid  with  gold  or  silver,  or 
in  relief,  which  can  also  be  gilded  or 
silvered. 

Mastic  for  Eepairs. — Jlastic  for  stop- 
ping up  holes,  leakages,  or  cracks  in 
marbles,  is  made  with  gum  lac.  coloured, 
as  nearlj  as  possible,  to  imitate  the 
marble  upon  which  it  is  used.  Some- 
times the  gum  is  mixed  with  marble 
dust  passed  through  a  silken  sieve ;  in 
other  cases  little  pieces  are  used,  which 
are  cut  and  adjusted  in  the  hole  to  be 
repaired,  and  glued  there  with  the  gum 
mastic — the  precaution  being  first  taken 
to  heat  the  marble  and  the  pieces,  and 
to  take  measures  for  producing  a  perfect 
cohesion. 

Ceinent  Mastic. — 1.  Thick  mastic  is 
composed  of  2  parts  wax,  3  of  Burgundy 
pitch,  and  8  of  rosin  ;  melt  and  throw 
into  spring  water  to  solidify  the  paste, 
then  roll  it  into  sticks,  and,  in  using  it, 
melt  only  so  much  as  is  immediately  re- 
quired, this  will  preserve  its  strength, 
as  it  becomes  more  brittle  by  repealed 
heating.  2.  Corbel  mastic  is  used  in 
seams  of  the  flagging  of  stairways  and 
terraces.  Six  parts  of  the  cement  of 
good  Burgundy  tile  without  any  other 
mixture,  pass  it  through  a  silken  sieve, 
add  1  part  of  pure  white-lead,  and  as 
much  litharge,  steep  the  whole  in  3 
parts  of  linseed  oil  and  1  of  lard  oil,  and 
j)reserve  in  cakes  or  rolls  as  the  preced- 
ing. All  the  materials  used  should  be 
thoroughly  dry,  so  that  they  may  per- 
fectly mix  with  the  oil  which  unites  them. 
3.  Fountain  mastic  is  made  of  the  rub- 
bish of  stoneware  or  of  Burgundy  tile, 
amalgamated  with  thick  mastic  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  form  a  paste  proportioned 
to  the  use  for  which  it  is  required  ;  this 
is  one  of  the  easiest  to  prepare.  4. 
Mastic  of  filings  is  employed  in  places 
which  are  usually  damp,  or  which  con- 
stantly receive  water,  as  curb  stoaes^ 
flaggings  of  kitchens,  bath-rooms  and 
water-closets,  and  stone  troughs  com- 
posed of  several  pieces,  either  separate 
or  clasped.     This  mastic  is  composed  ul 


390 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


26^  lbs.  of  iron  filings,  or  of  iron  and 
copper,  which  must  not  be  rusty,  4^  lbs. 
of  salt,  and  4  garlics  ;  this  is  infused  for 
24  hours  into  3J  pints  of  good  vinegar 
and  urine ;  it  is  then  poured  olf,  and  the 
thick  paste  which  is  found  at  the  bottom  i 
of  the  vessel  is  the  mastic,  whicn  should 
be  immediately  used.  These  mastics 
should  be  used  upon  materials  which  are 
perfectly  dry,  otherwise  tliey  do  not 
incorporate  well.  Choose  dry  weather, 
and  open  the  seams  well  with  a  curved, 
sharp  instrument,  finally  polishing  them 
with  the  chisel.  Before  laying  the 
mastic,  remove  the  dust  from  the  seam 
by  blowing  into  it  with  bellows ;  a  long, 
straiglit,  iron  chafing  dish,  closed  at  the 
bottom,  with  the  grate  elevated  about 
an  inch  to  obtain  a  current  of  air,  is 
then  passed  over  the  seam  ;  this  chafing 
dish  is  filled  with  burning  charcoal,  the 
heat  of  which  draws  out  the  moisture 
from  the  stone  or  marble.  The  slightest 
dust  or  dampness  hinders  the  adherence 
of  mastic. 

Cold  Mastic. — Hydrochlorate  of  am- 
monia, 2  parts;  flour  of  sulpliur,  1  jiart; 
iron  filings,  16  parts.  FJeduce  these  sub- 
stances to  a  powder,  and  preserve  the  mi.T- 
ture  in  closely-stopped  vessels.  When 
the  cement  is  used,  take  20  (tarts  of  very 
fine  iron  filings,  add  1  part  of  the  above 
powcjrr,  mix  them  together,  aiMing  sulli- 
ciont  water  to  form  a  manageable  paste; 
this  paste,  which  is  used  for  cement- 
ing, solidifies  in  15  days  or  3  weeks,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  become  as  hard  as 
iron. 

Jfttsons'  Mastic. —  Pulverized  baked 
bricks,  quick-lime,  wood  ashes,  eipial 
parts,  ftlix  thoroughly,  and  dilute  with 
olive  oil.  This  mastic  hardens  imme- 
diately in  the  air,  and  never  cracks 
beiiiMth  the  water. 

Sri;ccoi-a. — Stucco  is  a  composition  of 
slacked  lime,  chalk,  and  pulverized  white 
marble  tempered  in  water,  designed  to 
imitate  dillerent  marbles  used  in  the 
interior  of  buildings  or  monuments. 
Calcined  plaster  of  Paris  is  aUo  used. 
Although  the  plaster  becomes  very  hard 
when  projierly  calcined,  it  is  too  porous 
to  admit  the  polishing  of  it  as  of  marble. 
To   remedy   thi-,   the   plaster  is  di'-ited  i 


with  glue  or  gum  water,  which,  filling 
the  pores,  allows  a  polish  to  be  given  it. 
Some  mix  the  glue  with  islinglass  or  gum 
arable.  Hot  glue  water  is  used  for  the 
solution  of  the  plaster,  as  the  want  of 
solidity  of  the  plaster  demands  that  a 
certain  thickness  should  be  given  to  the 
works ;  to  lessen  expense,  the  body  or  core 
of  the  work  is  made  of  common  plaster, 
which  is  covered  with  the  composition 
just  described,  giving  it  about  an  inch  in 
thickness.  When  the  work  is  dry,  it  is 
polisheii  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as 
real  marble.  Pumice-stone  may  be 
used.  Tile  work  is  rubbed  by  the  stone 
in  one  hand,  the  other  holding  a  sponge 
filled  with  water,  with  which  the  spot 
which  lias  just  been  rubbed  is  instantly 
cleanseii,  to  remove  what  had  been  left 
on  the  surf  ice  of  the  work  ;  the  sponge 
should  be  frequently  washed  anil  kept 
filled  with  fresh  water.  It  is  then 
rubbed  with  a  linen  cushion,  with  water, 
and  chalk,  or  tripoli  stone.  Willow 
charcoal,  finely  jiulverized  and  sifted,  is 
substituted  for  this  to  penetrate  bettei 
to  the  bottom  of  the  mouldings,  water 
being  always  used  with  the  sponge, 
which  absorbs  it.  The  work  is  finished 
by  rubbing  it  with  a  piece  of  felt  soaked 
with  oil,  and  finely  powdered  with  tri- 
poli stone,  and  afterwards  with  the  I'elt 
moistcneil  with  the  oil  alone.  When  a 
colour  is  wished  in  the  ground,  dilute  it 
in  the  glue  water,  befnre  making  use  of 
it  to  tenijier  the  plaster.  When  any 
particular  marble  is  to  be  imitateil, 
dilute  with  warm  glue  water,  in  dif- 
ferent small  pots,  the  colours  which  are 
fVuind  in  the  marble;  with  each  of  these 
colours  temper  a  little  ])laster,  then 
make  of  each  a  lump  nearly  as  large  as 
the  hand,  place  these  lumps  alternately 
one  above  another,  making  those  of  the 
prevailing  colour  more  numerous,  or 
thicker.  Turn  these  lumps  upon  the 
side,  and  cut  them  in  slices  in  this  ilirec- 
tion,  instantly  spreading  them  upon  the 
core  of  the  work,  or  upon  a  flat  surface. 
By  this  means  the  ilesigu  of  the  various 
colours  with  which  the  marble  is  pene- 
trate<l  will  be  re])resenfc<l.  In  all  these 
operations  the  glue  water  should  be 
warm    without   which  the  pla.ster  will 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS. 


391 


«et  too  quickly,  witiwut  giving  time  to 
work. 

Wax  Varnish  to  Preserve  Statues  and 
^[arhle  exposed  to  the  Air.  —  llelt  2 
•j^arts  of  was  in  8  parts  of  pure  essence 
A  turpentine.  Apply  hot,  and  spread 
Lhinly,  so  as  not  to  destroy  the  lines  of 
the  figures.  This  varnish  may  be  used 
upon  statues  which  have  been  cleansed 
with  water  dashed  with  hydrochloric 
ncid,  but  they  must  be  perfectly  dry 
when  the  application  is  made. 

Colouring  Marble  in  Ijiitatiox  of 
Mosaic  Work. — Colours. — Solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver  penetrates  marble 
deeply,  communicating  to  it  a  deep  red 
colour.  Solution  of  nitro-muriate  of 
gold  produces  a  very  fine  violet  colour. 
Solution  of  verdigris  penetrates  marble 
the  twelfth  of  an  inch,  giving  a  fine 
light  green  colour.  Solutions  of  gum 
dragon  and  of  gamboge  also  penetrate 
it ;  the  first  produces  a  fine  red,  and  the 
second  a  yellow  colour.  To  cause  these 
two  substances  to  penetrate  deeply,  the 
marble  should  first  be  well  polished  with 
pumice-stone,  after  which  the  substances 
should  be  dissolved  in  warm  alcohol, 
and  applied  with  a  small  brush.  All 
the  wood  d_ves  made  with  alcohol  pene- 
trate marble  deejily.  Tincture  of  cochi- 
neal, prepared  in  this  manner,  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  alum,  gives  a  fine 
scarlet  colour  to  the  marble,  penetrating 
it  one-fifth  of  an  inch.  Artificial  orpi- 
nient,  dissolved  in  ammonia  and  laid  on 
marble  with  a  brush,  quickly  produces 
a  yellow  colour,  which  becomes  more 
brilliant  when  exposed  to  the  air.  To 
all  the  substances  employed  add  white 
wax  ;  this,  when  placed  on  the  marble 
in  a  melted  state,  soon  penetrates  it.  li 
the  verdigris  is  boiled  in  wax,  and  then 
laid  melted  upon  the  marble,  it  will  be 
seen  on  its  removal,  when  cold,  that  the 
design  has  penetrated  the  surface  to 
the  depth  of  from  one-third  to  half  an 
inch. 

Application. — When  several  colours 
are  to  be  successively  used  without 
olending  them,  proceed  in  the  following 
manner.  The  dyes  obtained  by  spirits 
»f  wine  and  the  oil  of  turpentine  should 
be  laid  on  the  marble  when  it  is  heated, 


particularly  in  the  execution  of  delicate 
designs,  but  the  dragon's-blood  and  gam- 
boge may  be  used  cold.  For  this  they 
must  be  dissolved  in  alcohol,  and  the 
gamboge  used  first ;  the  solution  of  this 
gum  is  quite  clear,  but  soon  becomes 
troubled  and  gives  a  yellow  precipitate, 
which  is  used  to  obtain  a  brighter  colour. 
The  lines  drawn  by  this  solution  are 
then  heated  by  passing  a  chafing  dish 
filled  with  lighted  charcoal  closely  over 
the  surface  of  the  marble.  It  is  then 
left  to  cool,  after  which  the  lines  which 
have  not  been  penetrated  by  the  colour 
are  heated  in  the  same  manner.  When 
the  yellow  colouring  has  been  applied, 
the  solution  of  dragon's-blood,  which 
should  be  concentrated  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, is  employed  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  gamboge  ;  and  u  hile  the  marble  is 
warm,  the  other  vegetable  tints  which 
do  not  require  so  strong  a  degree  of  heat, 
may  also  be  applied.  The  design  is 
completed  by  the  colours  mixed  with 
wax,  which  should  be  applied  with  the 
utmost  care,  as  the  slightest  excess  of 
heat  will  cause  them  to  spread,  for 
which  reason  they  are  less  suited  to  deli- 
cate designs.  In  colouring  marble,  the 
pieces  should  be  well  polished,  and  free 
from  any  spots  or  veins.  The  harder 
the  marble,  the  better  it  supports  the 
heat  necessary  to  the  operation ;  ala- 
baster and  common  soft  white  marble  are 
not  suitable  for  the  purpose.  Marble 
should  never  be  heated  to  a  red  heat,  as 
the  fire  then  alters  the  texture,  burns 
the  colours,  and  destroys  their  beauty. 
Too  slight  a  degree  of  heat  is  also 
bad  ;  for  though  the  marble  takes  the 
colour,  it  does  not  retain  it  well,  and 
is  not  penetrated  deeply  enough.  There 
are  some  colours  which  ft  will  take 
when  cold,  but  these  never  fix  so  well 
as  when  heat  is  employed.  The  proper 
heat  is  that  which,  without  reddening 
the  marble,  is  intense  enough  to  cause 
the  liquor  which  is  on  its  surface 
to  boil.  The  menstruums  which  are 
used  to  incorporate  the  colours,  should 
be  varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
colour  employed  ;  a  mixture  made  with 
urine  mixed  with  4  parts  of  quick-lime 
and  1  of  potash,  is  excellent  for  certain 


B9? 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


colours,  common  ley  of  wood  ashes  is 
good  for  others ;  fur  some,  spirits  of 
wine,  others  require  oily  liquors,  or 
common  white  wine.  The  colours  which 
succeed  best  with  the  diiferent  men- 
struums  are  the  foliciving;  blue-stone 
dissolved  in  six  times  its  quantity  of 
spirits  of  wine,  or  urine  and  litmus  dis- 
solved in  a  ley  of  pearlash  ;  the  extract 
of  satfron  and  sap  green  succeed  very 
well  when  dissolved  in  urine  or  quick- 
lime, and  tolerably  iu  t'le  spirits  of  wine. 
Vermilion  and  cochineal  dissolve  well  in 
the  same  liquids.  For  dragon's-blo(5d  use 
spirits  of  wine,  which  is  also  used  forCam- 
peaciiy  wood.  For  alkanet-root  the  only 
menstruum  is  turpentine.  Dragon's-blood 
in  tears  gives  a  beautiful  colour  when 
mixed  with  urine  alone.  Besides  these 
mixtures,  certain  colours  can  be  put  on  dry 
and  unmixed;  such  as  the  purest  dragon's- 
bloud  for  the  red,  gamboge  for  the  yel- 
low, green  wax  for  a  kind  of  green, 
common  sulphur,  pitch,  and  turpentine, 
for  a  bi'own  colour.  For  all  these  the 
marble  must  be  considerably  healed,  and 
the  dry  colours  then  rubbed  upon  the 
block.  A  beautiful  golden  colour  is  pro- 
duced by  equal  quantities  of  the  crude 
salts  of  ammonia,  of  vitriol,  and  of  ver- 
digris, the  white  vitriol  is  the  best  for 
this  purpose;  grind  these  together,  and 
reduce  them  all  to  a  very  line  jiowder. 
All  the  shades  of  red  and  yellow  may  be 
given  to  the  marble  with  the  solutions 
of  dragon's-blood  and  gamboge,  by  reduc- 
ing these  gums  to  powder  and  grinding 
them  with  sjiirits  of  wine  in  a  glass 
mortar.  Wlicn  only  a  little  is  r  quired, 
mix  ooe  of  these  {lowders  with  spirits  of 
wine  in  a  silver  sjioon,  and  hold  it  over 
a  heated  brazier;  tliis  extracts  a  fine 
colour,  and,  by  dipjiiiig  a  .small  brush  in 
it,  tiie  (inest  veins  may  be  made  upon 
the  cold  marble.  By  adding  a  little 
pitch  to  the  colouring,  a  black  shade,  or 
all  the  varieties  of  dark  red,  c:.q  be 
given.  Archil  diluted  in  water  and 
applie<i  when  cold  to  the  marble  gives  it 
a  beautiful  blue  colour  ;  by  ]iuttiug  un 
the  colouring  in  jiroportion  .is  it  dries, 
it  becomeg  very  fine  in  less  tiian  'J4 
hours,  and  i)enctrates  deeply.  If  the 
pa.'^te  of  archil  in  use<l,  which  in  a  pre- 


paration of  the  plant  with  lime  and  fer- 
mented urine,  the  colour  obtained  will 
be  moie  of  a  violet  than  blue  ;  to  oltaia 
a  perfect  blue  it  must  be  diluted  in 
lemon  juice  ;  this  acid  will  not  injure 
the  marble,  as  it  has  been  weakened  by 
its  action  ujjon  the  archil.  Large  biue 
veins  may  thus  be  formed  upon  white 
marble ;  but  as  this  colour  is  apt  to 
sjjread,  it  will  not  be  exact  unless  the 
coloured  parts  are  instantly  touched 
with  dragon's-blood,  wax,  or  g;imboge, 
which  checks  it. 

Cleansing  Marble.  —  Scraping 
marble  which  has  been  blackened  or 
turned  green  by  air  and  damp  is  danger- 
ous to  the  liesigu  ;  whatever  precautions 
may  be  taken,  the  work  is  always 
scratched  more  or  less,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  clean  the  carved  parts 
without  breaking  the  sculi)ture,  or 
causing  incongruities  between  the  de- 
signs iu  relief  and  those  which  are 
sculptured.  Soiled  articles,  which  have 
not  been  tarnished  by  exposure  to  the 
o])en  air,  may  be  cleansed  by  potash 
water,  then  wash  them  in  pure  water, 
finish  with  water  containing  a  dash  of 
hydrochloric  acid.  Soap  and  water  is 
often  sulficient,  spread  on  with  a  brush, 
and  introduced  into  the  sculptured 
parts  by  a  somewhat  stilf  pencil. 

To  /Remove  Stains  /n>m  Mivhle. — 
1.  Take  two  parts  of  soda,  on?  of 
pumice-stone,  and  one  of  finely-powdered 
chalk.  Sift  these  through  a  line  sieve, 
and  mix  them  into  a  paste  with  water. 
Hub  this  well  all  over  the  m.iible,  and 
the  stains  will  be  removed;  then  wash 
it  with  soap  and  water,  and  ;v  beautiful 
bright  polish  will  be  produced.  2. 
Clean  with  diluted  muriatic  acid,  or 
warm  soap  and  vinegar;  alUTwards 
heat  a  gallon  of  water,  in  wiiich  ilissolve 
IJ  lb.  of  ])otash  ;  add  1  lb.  of  virgin 
wax,  boiling  the  whole  for  half  an  hour, 
then  allow  it  to  cuol,  when  the  wax  will 
Hoat  on  the  surface.  Put  the  wax  into 
a  mortar  and  triturate  it  with  a  marble 
pestle,  adiling  soft  water  to  it  until  it 
forms  a  soft  |)aste,  which,  laid  on 
marble,  and  rubbed,  when  dry,  with  a 
woollen  rag,  gives  a  good  ]ii)lish. 

liestorinfj  the  Colour  of  Marlde. — Mil 


Workshop  receipts. 


393 


up  a  quantity  of  the  strongest  soap  lees 
with  quick-lime  to  the  consistence  of 
milk,  and  lay  it  on  for  24  hours  ;  clean 
it  afterwards  with  soap  and  water. 

Repairing  Marble. — Heat  the  edges 
of  the  marble  before  a  strong,  clear,  char- 
coal fire,  avoiding  dust  or  smoke,  until 
the  marble  is  sufficiently  hot  to  take 
small  pieces  of  shellac.  Then  choose  a 
sullicient  number  of  thin  pieces,  of  such 
a  size  as  not  to  i)roject  above  the  surface 
of  the  marble,  and  apply  them  along  the 
edge  of  each  piece  to  be  joined  ;  but  in 
such  a  manner,  that  the  bits  of  lac  on 
each  piece  of  marble  will  come  between 
those  on  the  other.  Then  just  before 
applying  them  together,  a  hot  iron  must 
be  passed  along  each  piece  at  a  sufficient 
distance  to  fuse  the  lac,  but  not  to  make 
it  run.  The  pieces  of  marble  must  be 
well  forced  together. 

Marble  Cement. — Plaster  of  Paris, 
soak  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum, 
bake  the  two  in  an  oven,  after  which 
grind  to  powder.     Mis  with  water. 

Polishing  Marble. — If  the  piece  to 
be  polished  is  a  plane  surface,  it  is  first 
rubocJ  by  means  of  another  piece  of 
marble,  or  hard  stone,  with  the  inter- 
vention of  two  sorts  of  sand  and  water ; 
first  with  the  finest  river  or  drift  sand, 
and  then  with  common  house  or  white 
sand,  which  latter  leaves  the  surface 
sufficiently  smooth  for  its  subjection  to 
the  process  of  gritting.  Three  sorts  of 
grit  stone  are  employed ;  first,  New- 
castle grit ;  second,  a  fine  grit  brought 
from  the  neiglibourhood  of  Leeds  ;  and 
lastly,  a  still  finer,  called  snake  grit, 
procured  at  Ayr,  in  Scotland.  These 
are  rubbed  successively  on  the  surface 
with  water  alone;  by  these  means  the 
surface  is  gradually  reduced  to  that 
closeness  of  texture,  fitting  it  for  the 
process  of  glazing,  which  is  performed 
by  means  of  a  wooden  block  having  a 
thick  piece  of  woollen  stuff  wound 
tightly  i-ound  it ;  the  interstices  of  the 
fibres  of  this  are  filled  with  prepared 
putty  powder,  or  peroxide  of  tin,  and 
moistened  with  water ;  this  being  laid 
on  the  marble  and  loaded,  it  is  drawn 
up  and  down  the  marble  by  means  of  a 
handle,  being  occasionally  wetted,  until 


the  desired  gloss  is  produced.  The 
polishing  of  mouldings  is  done  with  the 
same  materials,  but  with  rubbers  varied 
in  shai)e  according  to  that  of  the  mould- 
ing. The  block  is  not  used  in  this  case ; 
in  its  stead  a  piece  cpf  linen  cloth,  folded 
to  make  a  iiandful  ,  this  also  contains 
the  putty  and  water.  Sand  rubbers 
employed  to  polish  a  slab  of  large 
dimensions  should  never  exceed  |  of  its 
length,  nor  A  of  its  width  ;  but  if  the 
piece  of  marble  is  small,  it  maj'  be 
sanded  itself  on  a  larger  piece  of  stone. 
The  grit  rubbers  are  uevor  larger  than 
that  they  may  be  easily  held  in  one 
hand  ;  the  largest  block  is  about  14  in. 
in  length  and  4J  in.  in  breadth. 

Enamelling  Slates. — The  slate 
having  been  reduced  to  a  perfectly 
level  surface,  a  coating  of  colour  is 
applied  according  to  the  stone  it  is 
intended  to  imitate.  For  black,  tar 
varnish  is  used  with  good  effect.  The 
slab  is  then  thoroughly  baked  in  an 
oven  heated  from  130°  to  250°,  from 
12  to  48  hours,  according  to  size.  The 
colours,  say  grey  and  white,  are  then 
floated  on  to  the  surface  of  a  cistern  of 
water  over  which  they  float  naturally 
into  the  shapes  of  the  streaks  of  colour 
seen  in  marble.  The  slate,  with  its 
black  ground  now  burnt  in,  is  dipped 
into  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
receives  from  it  a  thin  coat  of  colour. 
The  slate  again  has  to  go  into  the  oven, 
anil  when  sufficiently  hardened,  a  coat- 
ing of  enamel  is  applied.  Another 
baking  to  harden  the  enamel,  and  the 
slab  is  then  pumiced  to  reduce  it  to  a 
level  surface.  Baked  again,  it  is  once 
more  pumiced,  and  this  time  goes  into 
the  oven  with  the  pumice  wet  on  its 
surface.  If  necess:iry  this  last  operation 
is  repeated.  The  slab  is  then  ready  for 
polishing,  which  is  effected  firstly  by 
woollen  cloths  and  fine  sand,  next  by 
the  finest  and  sof'test  French  merino, 
and  lastly,  by  the  hand  and  powdered 
rotten-stone.  The  dipping  process  is 
not  applicable  to  imitations  of  all 
stones.  Some  granites  are  best  imitated 
by  splashing ;  others  by  splashing  and 
sponging  combined,  while  some  have  to 
be  hand-srained. 


394 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


Bookbinding'. —  Tools. — To  bind  a 
book  well,  certain  tools  are  iudispeDS- 
able  ;  but  very  few  will  go  a  good  way  ; 
and  a  book  may  be  jnil  together  very 
decently  with  the  aid  of  no  other  tools 
than  a  shoemaker's  hammer  and  a  glue- 
pot,  with  the  additiou  of  such  imple- 
ments as  are  usually  to  be  met  with  in 
every  household.  The  necessary  tools 
for  small  work  are:  a  sewing  press;  a 
cutting  press,  the  small  music-paper 
size ;  half-a-dozen  pressing  boards,  as 
large  as  the  press  will  admit,  and  as 
many  of  octavo  size;  as  many  cutting 
and  backing  boards,  a  bookbinder's  ham- 
mer, folder,  knife,  small  shears,  saw, 
paste-bowl,  a  quire  or  two  of  demy  or 
royal  ])rinting  paper,  a  quire  or  two  of 
marbled  paper,  and  some  leather  and 
coloured  cloths  for  covers.  It  is  desir- 
able that  the  book  should  bo  as  thin  as 
possible,  and  not  have  a  swollen  apj)ear- 
ance  when  finished,  the  sheets  ought 
first  to  be  compressed.  The  binder  does 
this  by  beating  the  volume  in  sections 
with  ;i  14-lb.  hammer,  or  ])assing  in  be- 
tween the  rollers  of  a  rolling  machine. 
Instead  of  that  we  may  divide  the  volume 
m  half-a-dozen  sections,  and  placing  one 
of  the  pressing  boards  between  each, 
screw  them  all  together  in  the  press  as 
tight  as  possible,  and  leave  them  there  for 
a  night.  After  being  pressed,  the  sections 
are  taken  from  the  boards;  the  book  is 
then  held  between  the  extended  fingers 
of  each  hand,  anil  the  back  and  head 
knocked  up  square  and  even;  one  side  of 
the  book  is  then  laid  ujion  a  jjressing 
board,  beyond  which  the  back  must  pro- 
ject half  an  inch  or  so;  a  second  pressing 
board  of  tne  same  size  is  placed  on  the 
upper  side,  ])arallel  with  the  first,  ami 
the  boards  being  firmly  grasped  with  the 
left  hand,  the  book  is  lowered  into  the 
cutting  press,  which  is  screwed  u]>  tight, 
and  three  cuts,  not  quite  -jJ,  of  an  inch  in 
depth,  are  made  with  a  saw  in  the  back — 
one  in  the  midille,  and  one  at  about  '_'J  in. 
di>tant  on  each  side  of  it ;  two  additional 
cuts  are  then  made  outsiile  of  the  three, 
and  distant  about  I  J  in.  from  them.  These 
measurements  would,  of  coursr,  be  dif- 
ferent for  a  volume  of  different  size,  but 
the  proportions  will  do  for  any  volume. 


Sewing. — The  book  is  now  takiu  to 
the  sewing  press,  where  the  bindei  sus- 
pends three  cords  from  the  top  rail,  which 
are  fastened  underneath  by  meausof  brass 
keys,  the  cords  may  be  shifted  to  any  posi- 
tion, and  beiug  made  to  correspond  with 
the  three  central  cuts  in  the  back  of  the 
book,  they  are  tightened  and  kept  in  their 
place  by  means  of  the  nuts  and  screws 
on  the  side  pillars.  The  sewing  is  per- 
formed in  the  following  manner  ; — First, 
a  fly-leaf  or  end  paper  is  laid  on  the 
press,  and  sewed  to  the  cords  by  passing 
the  needle  into  the  first  right-hand  cut, 
or  catch-stitch  mark,  with  the  right 
hand ;  the  left  hand,  which  is  inserted 
in  the  middle  of  the  section,  receiving 
the  needle  and  returning  it  outwards  ou 
the  head  side  of  the  cord,  where  it  is 
taken  by  the  right  hand,  and  passed 
through  again  on  the  other  side  of  the 
cord;  thus  with  all  three  of  the  cords, 
until  the  needle  is  brought  out  at  the 
last  left-hand  cord  or  catch-stitch  groove, 
care  being  taken  that  the  needle  never 
penetrates  the  cord  or  twine.  The 
thread  is  now  drawn  to  the  left  gently, 
until  only  2  inches  or  so  are  left  un- 
drawn, at  the  point  where  the  needle 
first  entered.  The  first  sheet  is  then 
laid  ou,  the  title-page  downwards,  and 
sewn  on  in  the  same  way,  as  the  needle 
returns  towards  the  he.ad  of  the  book  ; 
wheu  the  needle  comes  out  at  the  catch- 
stitch  mark  over  the  end  of  thread 
left  undrawn,  the  sewing  thread  is  tied 
to  that  eud  in  a  firm  knot.  Tiuis  all 
the  sheets  are  sewn  in  succession,  care 
being  taken,  on  arriving  at  the  catch- 
stitch,  to  fasten  each  sheet  to  its  jirede- 
cessor  by  passing  the  needle  round  the 
connecting  thread.  After  he  has  sewed 
4  or  5  sheets,  the  binder  will  fin<i  his 
thread  exhausted,  when  he  must  join  on 
a  new  length  with  such  a  kn()t  as  will 
not  be  likely  to  come  undone.  Sereril 
volumes  ni;iy  be  sewn  on  one  set  of 
cords,  but  some  attention  is  necessary 
that  they  be  not  sewn  together,  and 
that  the  cords  be  long  enough  for  thd 
subsequent  purposes. 

Cuttinij. — After  sewing,  the  book  i« 
tUt  from  the  press,  with  about  2  inches 
of  the  cords  protruiling  on  each   side, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


395 


The  back  should  new  receive  a  coat  of 
glue,  and  when  that  is  dry,  the  ends  of 
the    cords    are    untwisted    and    scraped 
with  a  blunt  knife  till  the  fibres  of  the 
tow    are   well    separated.     Now  is    the 
time  to  insert  ornamental  end-papers,  if 
any  are  desired  ;  these  may  be  either  of 
marbled  or   coloured  pajiers ;   the  sheet 
is  folded  with  the  plain  side  outwards, 
one-half  of  it  being  pasted;  it  is  then 
laid   between    the    Hy-leaves,  with    the 
fold  of  which  it  is  closely  worked  ;  the 
other  half  is  then  pasted,  and  the  outside 
fly-leaf    rubbed    down    upon    it.       The 
back   of    the  book   has  to  be  rounded, 
which    is    done    by   laying  the    volume 
with  the  fore-edge  towards  the  oj>erator, 
who,    pressing   the    fingers    of  his   left 
hand  upon  it,  gently  taps  the  back  up 
and  down  with  a  hammer,  changing  the 
sides  alternately  until  the  back  is  beaten 
into   a   shape   somewhat  circular.     The 
book  is  then  placed  between  two  backiHg 
boards,    the   thick    edges  of   which   are 
ranged  parallel  with  each  other,  within 
about  i  of  an  inch  of  the  back.     The 
boards  and  book,  being  tightly  grasped 
with  the  left  hand,  are  lowered  into  the 
cutting  press,  until  the  boards  are  flush 
with   the   cheek   of  the  press,  which  is 
then    screwed    as    tightly    as    possible. 
The  back  is  hammereij  gently  and  uni- 
formly up  and  down   each   side,  and   a 
little  in  the  middle,  which  causes  it  to 
spread  over  the  boards  so  as  to  form  the 
required    projection.      The    book,    thus 
backed,  is  ready   for  the  covers,  which 
are  of    millboard,    and,    being    cut    to 
the    required   size,    either    with   shears 
or  in  the  cutting  press,  are  pierced  with 
holes  pricked  with  a  bodkin,  two  at  each 
cord,  one  about  i  incli  from  the  edge, 
and  the  second  as  much  beyond  it.    The 
frayed  cords  are  then  sodden  with  paste, 
drawn   through   the   outer    side  of  the 
board    or    cover,    and    passed    through 
the  other  hole   to  the  outer  side  again. 
The  book  is  then  held  in  the  left  hand, 
while,  with  the  right,  the  pasted  cords 
are  hammered  on  a  smooth  piece  of  iron, 
a  flat  iron  screwed  into  the  press  will 
do,  into  the  substance  of  the  millboard 
covers.     It  should   now  be  left  to  dry. 
The   next   step    is  that  of  cutting  the 


edges,  which  is  rather  a  difficult  pro- 
cess.    Hold  the  book  in  the  left  hand, 
with  the  fore-edge  upwards,  and  allow 
the  covers  to  hang  down  on  each  side, 
thrust   a  paper  knife  or  a  flat  piece  of 
metal  between  them  and  the  back  of  the 
book.     Then  ]ilaciug  a  cutting  buard  on 
each  side,  and  oi)euing  the  covers  hori- 
zontally,   beat    the    back    of    the    booK 
against   the  press   until   it  is   perfectly 
flattened.    A  wedge-shaped  cutting  board 
is  then  placed  on  the  left-hand  side  of 
the  book,  so  as  to  stand  with  its  thiol 
edge  considerably  higher  than  the  courst 
the   knife   will   take  ;  another   board   is 
then  placed  on  the  right  side,  exactly  on 
the   line   which    the  knife  is  to  follow, 
and    which     line    must    be    previously 
marked  with  the  point  of  a  pair  of  com- 
passes, and  so  measured  that  the  edge 
when  ploughed  may  fall  about  the  sixth 
of  an  inch  within  the  projection  of  tlie 
covers.    When  the  boards  are  thus  placed, 
the  paper  knife  or  flat  piece  of  metal  is 
withdrawn,  the  covers  allowed  to  hang 
down,  and  the  volume  is  thus  carefully 
lowered    into    the  cutting  press,    until 
the  right-hand  board  is  flush  with  the 
cheek,  when  the  press  must  be  screwed 
tight.     The  cutting  press  stands  on   a 
hollow    frame    some    3    feet    in    depth, 
which  allows  of  large  books  being  par- 
tially lowered  into  it,  and  also   receives 
the  paper  shavings  as  they  are  ploughed 
otf.     It  consists  of  two   wooden  cheeks 
connected  by  two  sliding  bars,  and  two 
wooden  screws.     Upon  one  of  the  cheeks 
are  two  guides,  or  small  raised  rails,  for 
the   plough   to  work  in.     The   cutting 
instrument  consists  of  two    sides,    con- 
nected by  a  screw  with  a  handle,  and  by 
two  slide  bars.  A  knife  is  fastened  to  the 
under  side  of  cheek   by  a  strong    bolt, 
which  perforates  the  cheek  perpendicu- 
larly, and  also  the  circumference  of  the 
lateral  screw,  and   is  kept  tightly  in  its 
place  by  screwing  down  its  nut.      The 
knife  is  worked  by  grasping  both  ends 
of  the  lateral  screw,  moving  the  plough 
backw-ards  and  forwards,  and  gradually 
turning  the  screw  with  the  right  hand, 
until  the  whole  of  the  fore-edge  is  cut 
through.     The  book  is  now  taken  out  <\( 
'he    press,    the   covers    fc'ded    in    their 


396 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


pi  ice,  anJ.  the  back  rounded  as  before, 
when  the  front  edge,  if  the  cutting  is 
well  done,  will  be  elegantly  concave, 
corresponding  witli  the  convexity  of  the 
back.  The  boards,  being  kept  in  the 
ledge  or  projection  produced  by  backing, 
are  now  pulled  down  about  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  from  their  central  position,  and 
the  head  is  ploughed  by  the  knife  in 
the  same  way  as  the  fore-edge.  Before 
\iloughing  the  opposite  end,  the  boards 
are  pulled  below  the  head  as  much 
again  as  it  is  intended  they  shall  pro- 
ject ;  and  this  end  also  being  iiloughcd, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  jirojection  of 
the  covers  is  equal  on  the  three  sides,  or, 
better  still,  that  it  is  a  little  in  excess 
on  the  fore-edge. 

Orruimcnting.  —  After  cutting  the 
edges  of  a  book,  the  next  process  is  to 
ornament  them.  This  may  be  done  in  a 
fimple  way  by  sjirinkiing  them  witii  a 
brush  dipped  in  a  thin  solution  of  umber, 
or  any  other  colour,  ground  fine  and 
mixed  with  size.  A  more  elaborate  me- 
thod is  that  of  marbling  the  edges,  for 
which  purpose  a  trough  must  be  pro- 
vided ot' convenient  size  and  depth,  wiiich 
."s  filled  witli  jiuregum  water.  Coloured 
pigments,  spirit-gi-oimd  and  mixed  with 
a  little  ox-gall,  are  then  drip|)ed  on  the 
surface  of  the  fluid  from  a  bunch  of 
quills  dipped  in  them  —  such  colours 
being  used  as  will  float  and  not  sink  to 
the  bottom.  These  are  then  couibed 
with  a  coarse  comb  into  a  neat  pattern, 
and  the  book  being  tied  between  two 
boarils,  the  edges  are  apjilied  to  tiie 
floating  colours,  which  are  thus  trans- 
ferred to  them.  A  dash  of  cold  water 
over  them  fixes  the  colours  and  heightens 
their  brilliancy. 

Ilaid-hnndinj. — There  are  two  kinds, 
stuck  on  and  worked.  Head-bands 
stuck  on  are  formed  by  cutting  a  piece 
of  striped  linen  about  an  inch  deep  and 
as  wide  :is  the  thickness  o(  the  book, 
fobling  it  over  a  |piece  of  twine,  and 
gluing  it  to  the  back  so  that  the  en- 
closed twine  shall  in  a  manner  lap  hvit 
ihe  cut  edge,  the  same  being  repeated  at 
the  o|pj>o.site  end.  In  well-l)oiind  books, 
however,  the  heud-hands  are  worked  on 
ID  the  .'"cllowing  way  ; — A  strip  of  string, 


prepared  by  rolling  it  tight  in  pasted 
pajier,  is  chosen  of  a  size  suited  to  that 
of  the  book  ;  stout  silk  thread  of  one  or 
two  colours  is  then  taken  ;  if  two  colours 
are  used,  they  are  doubled  and  tied 
together  by  the  ends,  one  of  them  being 
pieviously  threaded  in  a  needle.  The 
book  is  placed  in  the  cutting  press  with 
the  back  up]iermost,  the  head  being  ele- 
vated towards  the  workman;  the  needle 
is  jiassed  through  the  middle  of  the 
second  section,  on  the  left-hand  side, 
just  btdow  the  catch-stitch,  and  drawn 
out  far  enough  to  bring  tiie  knot  joining 
the  two  silks  close  into  the  middle  of 
the  section;  the  needle  is  then  brought 
up,  and  passed  again  through  the  same 
place,  and  the  silk  drawn  nearly  close; 
the  round  strip  is  placed  in  the  loop 
thus  formed,  and  the  silk  drawn  tight 
with  the  left  hand  ;  the  other  silk  is 
brought  over  with  the  rigiit,  and  passed 
under  and  over  the  head  -  band,  and 
held  tight  with  the  left  hand ;  the 
other  silk  is  now  put  over  that,  and  also 
under  and  over  the  head-band  ;  they  are 
thus  worked  alternately  over  each  other 
for  about  ten  sheets  or  sections  ;  the 
needle  is  then  passed  below  the  catch- 
stitch  to  keep  the  head-band  in  its  place, 
and  brought  over  it  again,  and  the 
work  is  proceeded  with  ;i»  before  ;  thij 
weaving  and  frequent  fa^tening  to  the 
catch-stitch  goes  on  xs  tar  as  the  last 
sheet  but  one,  when  the  needle  is 
])asscd  through  the  section  and  over  tiie 
iiead-ijaiid  twice,  and  fisteiied  to  the 
back.  The  ends  of  the  head-band  are 
then  cut  olf,  almost  close  to  the  silk  at 
each  end.  The  braiding  produced  by 
working  one  silk  over  the  other  should 
rest  pvcuiy  on  the  leaves  of  the  book, 
lioth  ends  of  the  bmik  being  worked  in 
this  way,  the  glue-brush  is  drawn  across 
the  back  of  the  bands,  which  retains 
tiiem  in  their  proper  places.  After  head- 
bauiling  the  book  should  receive  a  hoU 
low  back,  which  is  formed  by  cutting  a 
hlij)  of  cartridge-jiaiior  twice  the  width 
of  the  back  auil  the  same  length;  t'old 
the  |ia|ier  in  half,  glue  the  back,  aud 
stick  on  one  of  the  folded  sides,  leaviog 
the  other  doubled  ujion  it. 

Casing.  —  The   Tolume    is  now  ready 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


397 


for  covering  with  leather,  cloth,  or 
leather  aad  jinper.  For  whole-bound 
volumes  the  ieather  is  cut  nearly  an 
inch  larp;er  all  round  than  the  open 
book,  and  the  edges  are  pared  thin  with 
a  sharp  knii'e.  The  inner  side  of  the 
leather  is  now  well  soaked  with  strong 
paste,  and  a  small  slice  being  cut  from 
the  corners  of  the  covers  where  they 
touch  the  back,  the  volume  is  laid  on 
the  pasted  leather,  care  being  taken 
that  the  covers  are  in  the  right  position, 
and  the  two  sides  are  first  covered 
smoothly  but  not  too  tightly.  The  fold- 
ing over  of  the  pasted  leather  inside  the 
covers  and  outside  the  back,  so  as  to 
give  a  handsome  appearance  to  the  ends 
of  the  volume,  is  a  matter  of  some  dilfi- 
culty,  which,  however,  a  little  practice 
will  overcome.  It  should  be  done  so 
that  the  leather  in  a  manner  embraces 
the  head-band,  which  lies  half-concealed 
within  it,  and  yet  does  not  project  be- 
yond the  proper  projection  of  the  covers. 
After  the  ends  are  finished,  which  ope- 
ration will  be  materially  assisted  by  a 
paper  knife  having  one  pointed  end,  the 
corners  must  be  atteniled  to  ;  the  super- 
fluous leather  meetmg  at  the  angle  must 
be  cut  off,  the  head  and  foot  must  be 
first  smoothed  down,  and  then  the  fore- 
edge  portion  folded  over  them.  This 
requires  to  be  done  carefully  to  look 
well,  and  before  domg  it  the  binder 
must  see  that  the  covers  are  lifted  over 
the  projecting  ledges  of  the  back  into 
the  position  they  ought  to  occupy. 
While  the  leather  is  soft  and  moist  with 
the  paste,  anything  may  be  done  with  it, 
aud  by  the  help  of  the  folder  it  may  be 
moulded  so  as  to  form  a  good-looking 
head.  The  leather  shouli  be  pressed  in 
at  the  corners  where  the  small  pieces 
were  taken  off  the  boards,  and  the  folder 
passed  once  or  twice  up  and  down  the 
hinges  of  the  cover  to  ensure  their  open- 
ing easily.  Lastly,  a  piece  of  thread 
may  be  tied  round  the  indented  corners 
of  the  back  from  end  to  end,  and  the 
whole  left  to  dry.  For  half-bound 
books,  which  are  more  easily  managed, 
the  back  and  covers  are  put  on  sepa- 
rately, the  leather  being  pared  in  the 
same  way,  and   small   waste  bits  being 


used  for  the  corners.  When  a  vclwme 
has  dried  after  covering,  the  ends  must 
be  pasted  down,  and  it  should  remain  a 
little  time  in  the  press. 

The  Finishing  Process. — For  this  pur- 
pose provide  a  book  or  two  of  gold  leaf, 
a  plain  single  bookbinder's  fillet,  a  few 
ali)habets  of  capital  letters,  a  gold- 
cushion,  which  can  be  made  by  stretch- 
ing a  piece  of  calf  leatlier  rough  side 
upwards  over  a  pad  of  wadding  on  a 
board  10  inches  by  8,  and  some  other 
small  items,  the  use  of  which  will  pre- 
sently appear.  First  wash  the  cover 
with  clear  paste  water,  water  in  which 
a  little  paste  is  dissolved.  Such  partr 
as  arc  to  be  gilded  must  then  be  coate4 
twice  with  glaire  or  albumen,  which  is 
the  white  of  eggs  first  whipped  into 
froth,  and  then  sutlered  to  subside  into  a 
clear  liquid.  Do  not  glaire  the  leather 
all  over,  but  apply  it  with  a  camel-hair 
pencil  and  ruler  only  on  the  parts  where 
the  fillet  of  gold  is  to  appear.  To  gild, 
spread  a  leaf  of  gold  on  the  cushion  with 
a  knife  and  blow  it  flat,  then  cut  it  into 
strips  about  the  sixth  of  an  inch  wide. 
Heat  the  fillet  at  the  fire  until  it  is  just 
hot  enough  to  fizz  under  the  wet  finger; 
if  it  sputters  it  is  too  hot,  and  will  burn 
the  Itather  ;  touch  its  edge  with  a  rag 
slightly  moistened  with  sweet  oil,  and 
with  the  same  rag  rub  over  the  part  of 
the  book  to  be  gilt.  Roll  the  fillet 
softly  on  the  strips  of  gold,  which  will 
adhere  to  it ;  when  enough  is  taken  up, 
roll  it  with  a  heavier  pressure  along  the 
glaired  lines,  and  the  gold  will  be  in- 
delibly transferred  to  the  leather,  what 
is  sujjerfluous  being  easily  wiped  away 
with  a  soft  rag.  When  the  sides  of  the 
book  are  being  filleted  it  may  lie  ou 
clean  paper  on  the  cheeks  of  the  press, 
or  on  a  pressing  board ;  but  when  the 
back  is  being  done  it  must  be  screwed 
in  the  press  in  a  horizontal  position,  the 
back  projecting  an  inch  or  two. 

Substitute  for  Brass  Lettering. — Place 
an  open  vessel  half-full  of  water  on  the 
fire,  and  let  it  boil,  and  set  a  small 
empty  tin  pot  floating  within  it,  load- 
ing the  pot  with  some  weight  that  it 
may  sink  low  m  the  water.  Obtain  some 
ordinary    printing    types   and    arrange 


898 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


them  in  the  required  order  as  a  coiiiiio- 
sitor  would,  in  one  of  those  brass  frames 
with  wooden  handles  used  for  marking 
linen,  and  screw  them  tight  in  their 
place,  taking  care  to  have  them  all  level 
with  each  other  on  the  face.  Lay  the 
face  of  the  types  in  the  tin  pot,  in 
which  some  simple  contrivance  should 
be  placed  Uj  j)revent  their  being  da- 
maged, and  let  them  get  as  hot  as  they 
will,  as  in  this  situation  they  cannot  get 
too  hot.  Cut  a  piece  of  real  morocco 
leather  larger  than  the  size  of  the  label 
wanted,  breathe  on  it,  and  give  it  one 
coat  of  glaire;  wlien  the  glairo  is  dry 
rub  it  slightly  over  with  the  oil-rag, 
and  lay  on  the  centre  enough  leaf  gold 
to  receive  the  impression  of  the  types; 
place  the  label  on  a  rather  hanl  jiad, 
and  stamp  the  types  on  the  gold  witli  a 
sharp  even  pressure.  On  wijiiug  olf  the 
gold  with  the  rag  the  impression  of  the 
type  remain^  clear  and  full,  and  if  well 
done  is  far  more  close  and  distinct  than 
anything  which  can  be  done  by  the  most 
expert  finisher  with  the  brass  letters  of 
the  bookbiniler.  The  label  is  now  cut 
to  the  proper  size,  and  pasted  evenly  in 
its  place  on  the  back  of  the  volume;  to 
look  well  it  should  be  pared  round  the 
edges  with  a  sharp  knife  until  the  ex- 
treme edge  is  as  thin  as  paper.  After 
it  is  dry,  a  gold  fillet  may  be  passed 
over  the  juncture  of  morocco  with  the 
calf  or  other  leather  by  way  of  finish. 
The  above  is  the  easiest  mode  of  letter- 
ing for  the  amateur,  but  it  is  prac- 
ticable only  on  real  morocco,  the  heat 
which  can  be  imparted  to  printers* 
metal  by  hot  water  not  being  sulliciont 
to  burn  the  gold  into  oi-illnary  leather; 
It  is,  however,  a  iierrnanent  method. 

7'o  J'olis/i  the  F.dijcs  of  Vie  Leaves. — 
•Screw  the  book  tight  in  the  press  be- 
tween pressing  boards,  nud  rub  them 
briskly  with  an  agate  or  a  dog's  tooth. 
It  is  imjiortant  that  the  press  should  be 
tightly  screwed,  otherwise  the  leaves 
will  cling  together  when  the  o]>eration 
18  over. 

To  Bind  a  IJook  wituoi:t  Tooijb. — 
All  that  need  be  ]>rovided  is  a  little 
melted  glue,  Mome  psuite,  a  needle  and 
ftout  thread,  some  while  and  some  co- 


lourtd  papers,  and  a  few  other  trifling 
items.  Arrange  the  sheets  to  be  bound 
in  their  proper  order,  and  beat  them 
even  at  the  back  and  head,  subject  them 
to  a  heavy  pressure  between  two  fiat 
surfaces,  by  piling  weights  uj)ou  them. 
If  there  is  a  press  handy,  press  them  )u 
that,  so  as  to  make  them  lie  as  close  as 
possible.  Now  take  two  pieces  of  tape 
i  an  inch  wide,  and  each  2  inches  longer 
than  tlie  width  of  the  back  of  the  book. 
Stitfen  the  tape  by  drawing  it  through 
paste,  and  let  it  dry,  with  as  little  of  tlie 
])aste  adhering  to  it  as  jiossible,  iiefore 
using.  I'Vild  the  i>i(;ces  of  still' ta])e,  and 
place  the  sheets  within  them  in  such  a 
position  that  the  two  tapes  will  divide 
the  length  of  the  back  into  three  equal 
parts,  or  thereabouts.  With  a  lead 
pencil,  while  the  sheets  are  pi-essed 
down  firmly  with  the  left  hand,  draw  a 
line  down  each  side  of  the  ta]ies,  and 
two  other  L'res,  each  one  dividing  that 
part  of  the  back  outside  the  taj)es  into 
equal  portions.  These  lines  mark  the 
l)lace  for  the  entrance  of  the  needle. 
The  sheets  of  the  book  are  to  be  sewu 
on  to  the  tapes  in  the  same  way  ;is 
directed  where  tha  book  is  sewn  on  to 
the  cords;  but  with  lajies  it  is  not 
quite  so  easy,  as  during  the  sewing  of 
the  first  two  or  three  sheets  there  is 
some  dilliciilty  in  keeping  the  tapes  iu 
their  places;  and  as  there  are  no  cuts  or 
grooves  made  with  tiie  saw,  some  I'orce 
is  required  to  got  the  needle  through 
the  paper.  When  the  book  is  sewu, 
the  threads  fastening  each  sheet  are 
seen  outside  the  ta|os.  The  back  must 
now  receive  a  coating  of  glue,  not  too 
thin,  after  which  it  may  lie  left  to 
dry.  Tlie  glue  being  hard  and  set,  the 
book  may  be  cut  on  tli  edges,  with  a 
straight-edge  and  a  sharjt  knife.  With 
a  thin  volume  this  is  easy  enough,  but 
with  anything  ajiproaching  an  inch  in 
thickness  it  will  be  better  to  clij)  any 
j>rojectiug  leaves  with  the  shears,  and 
to  be  content  with  uncut  edges,  if  ii 
cutting  press  is  not  av.'.ijable.  The  back 
must  iii!.\f  be  rounded  with  the  hammer, 
which  may  be  lieljied  by  pulling  gently 
at  the  ta|>eH  while  tapping  with  the 
tool,     p'or  the  covers  use  the  thinncbt 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


399 


millboard,  or  stout  pasteboard  not  thicker 
than  a  shilling.  Cut  two  pieces  of  this 
of  the  proper  size,  so  that  they  shall 
project  about  the  eighth  of  an  inch 
over  the  head,  foot,  and  fore-edge  of 
the  book,  and  glue  them  in  their  pro- 
per position  on  the  projecting  tapes, 
which  will  adhere  to  their  inner  sides. 
Over  the  tapes  glue  strips  of  coarse 
canvas  an  inch  wide  by  six  in  length, 
and  now  glue  on  the  open  back  in  the 
manner  previnusly  directed.  When  this 
glue  is  dry,  the  volume  may  be  covered 
.with  paper,  cloth,  leather,  or  vellum. 
If  vellum  is  used,  that  must  be  lined 
first  with  clean  white  paper  firmly 
pasted  on  it.  A  cheap  covering  is  dark 
roan  leather;  a  still  cheaper  is  coloured 
canvas;  but  preferable  to  that  are  the 
leather  papers  sold  by  stationers.  The 
mode  of  pasting  on  the  covers  has  been 
already  described  ;  but  if  cloth  cover- 
ings are  used,  glue  and  not  paste  will 
be  necessary  to  make  them  adhere. 
2.  Instead  of  gluing  the  tapes  to  tlie 
boards,  cut  a  cloth  cover  lai-ge  enough 
to  allow  for  overlap]iiii,g,  and,  allowing 
for  the  width  of  the  back,  glue  the 
covers  on  the  cloth  parallel  with  each 
other,  and  turn  in  the  cloth  round  the 
edges.  When  this  is  dry,  the  book  may 
be  placed  in  the  cloth  cover,  the  tapes 
glued  to  the  inner  sides,  the  open  back 
to  the  back  of  cloth,  the  strengthening 
canvas  also  being  glued  over  the  tapes; 
and  finally,  the  end-pa]>ers  being  pasted 
down,  the  volume  is  finished.  It  will  look 
but  a  homely  affair  ;  but  it  will  cosl  little 
beyond  the  trouble,  and  will  effectually 
preserve  the  volume.  For  many  volumes 
published  in  numbers,  the  publishers 
sujiply  covers  at  the  end  of  the  year: 
these  may  be  securely  fastened  on  by  this 
sim])le  method. 

MARnLiNG  Paper  and  Book  Edges. 
—  Wooden  Trough.  —  This  is  made  of 
inch  deal,  about  If  in.  in  depth  and 
J  in.  in  length  and  breadth  larger  than 
the  sheets  of  paper  that  are  to  be  mar- 
bled. This  proportion  between  the  size 
of  the  trough  and  paper  should  always 
be  observed,  to  prevent  waste  of  colour ; 
of  coui'se,  troughs  of  various  sizes  will 
be    requir<"d,    wheie    paper    of    various 


sizes  is  to  be  marbled.  The  trough 
must  be  water-tight,  and  the  edges  of 
the  sides  of  it  must  be  sloped  or  bevelled 
oflT  on  the  outside,  to  prevent  any  droi)s 
of  colour  which  may  fall  on  them  from 
running  into  the  trough  and  sullying  its 
contents. 

A  Skimmer,  or  clearing  stick,  must 
be  provided  for  each  trough  ;  this  is  a 
piece  of  wood,  2|  in.  wide,  5  in.  thick, 
and  as  long  as  the  trough  it  belongs  to 
is  wide  inside ;  the  use  of  this  will  be 
explained  hereafter. 

A  Stone  and  Muller  of  marble,  or 
some  other  hard  stone,  the  size  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  colour  required 
to  be  ground.  Also  a  fiexible  knife,  for 
gathering  the  colour  together. 

A  dozen  or  two  of  small  glazed  pip- 
kins to  hold  colours  in.  The  pots  being 
furnished  with 

Brushes  made  as  follows  ; — Take  a 
round  stick  about  as  thick  as  your 
finger,  and  cut  a  notch  all  round  one 
end  of  it ;  next,  take  some  bristles,  4  or 
5  in.  long,  and  place  them  evenly  round 
the  stick,  at  the  notched  end,  letting 
them  j)roject  I5  in.  beyond  the  wood  ; 
fasten  the  bristles  to  the  stick  by  several 
turns  of  stout  thread;  cut  away  the 
ragged  bristles,  and  tie  up  the  brush 
firmly  with  fine  cord.  The.  nse  of  the 
notch  round  the  end  of  the  handle  is 
to  make  the  bristles  spread  out  when 
firmly  tied  up,  so  that  when  used  the 
colour  may  be  scattered  about  more 
abundantly. 

Rods  for  drying  the  paper  on  when 
marbled ;  they  should  be  round,  at  least 
on  the  upper  side,  and  about  1^  in.  in 
breadth  and  thickness.  Twelve  rods 
11  ft.  long  will  hang  3J  quires  of  demy, 
or  4J  quires  of  foolscap. 

Colours. — Red — vermilion,  drop-lake, 
rose-pink,  Venetian  red,  red  ochre.  Blue 
— indigo  blue,  Prussian  blue,  verditoi. 
Orange — orange  lead,  orange  orpiment. 
Black — ivory,  blue  black.  Yellow — 
Dutch  pink,  yellow  ochre,  king's  yellow, 
English  pink.  The  finer  the  colours  ;ire 
ground,  the  better  and  the  cheaper  will 
the  work  be.  First,  the  colours  should 
be  finely  pounded,  then  mixed  w  th 
water  to  the  consistence  of  paste,   ind 


400 


WORKSHOP   RECEII'TS. 


put  in  a  colour  pot  with  the  knife. 
From  the  pot,  the  colour  must  be  taken 
out  a  little  at  a  time,  ami  levigated 
Tery  fine  with  pure  water. 

Compound  Colours  are  made  by  mix- 
ing the  colours  above  mentioned  in  cer- 
tain proportions.  To  make  a  red  colour, 
mix  6  parts  of  rose-pink  with  1  of  ver- 
milion. A  finer  red — 4^  parts  of  rose- 
pink,  2  parts  of  vermilion,  and  1  part 
of  drop-lake ;  for  very  fine  work  use 
drop-lake  alone,  but  use  it  very  spar- 
ingly, for  it  is  a  dear  article.  Yellow — 
2  parts  of  Dutch  pink,  and  1  part  each 
of  king's  yellow  and  English  pink. 
Gj-een — made  by  mixing  blue  and  yel- 
low. Dark  blue — indigo,  which  may 
be  made  lighter  by  the  addition  of  ver- 
diter.  Orange  brown — 2  parts  of  Vene- 
tian red,  and  1  part  of  orange  lead.  A 
fine  oi-ange — put  some  fine  yellow  ochre 
in  a  ladle  over  a  fire,  and  keep  it  there 
till  it  assumes  a  dark-red  colour.  Take 
of  this  red  ochre,  finely  pounded,  and  of 
Venetian  red,  equal  quantities,  and  add 
a  little  orange  orpiinent  or  rose-]iink  ; 
mix  all  well  together.  Umber  colour — 
equal  quantities  of  Venetian  red,  orange 
lead,  and  ivory  black ;  this  can  be  light- 
ened with  orange  lead,  or  darkened  with 
ivory  black.  Cinnamon  colour — Vene- 
tian red  with  a  little  Prussian  blue. 
All  other  colours  which  may  be  wanted 
can  be  made  by  mixing  tugether  those 
already  described.  In  addition  to  the 
articles  already  mentioned,  obtain  a 
bottle  of  ox-gall,  a  bottle  of  good  oil 
of  turjientine,  some  pure  water.  The 
trough  must  be  111  led  to  within  \  of  an 
inch  of  the  top,  with  a  solution  of  gum 
tragMcanth,  wliich  is  to  be  j>r<>parcd  as 
follows; — Gum  of  a  pale  white  semi- 
transjiarent  ajipcaraiicc  is  to  be  soaked  in 
water  for  at  least  48  hours,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  \  lb.  to  IJ  gallon.  P.iss  the 
solution  of  gum  through  a  hair  sieve  or 
linen  cloth, -and  pour  it  into  the  trough. 
In  all  cases,  wlieo  the  trough  is  to  be 
Used,  the  solution  should  be  well  stirred 
up  with  a  few  (juills,  an<i  the  hurfice  of 
it  cleared  from  film  by  the  skimmer 
aliore  described. 

Colours    intended    to    represent   Veins 
tr«  made   by  adding  a  small    quantity 


of  gall  to  the  various  colours,  and  stir- 
ring each  well  up  with  a  brush,  in  order 
that  they  may  be  properly  mixed.  Pre- 
vious to  use,  these  mixtures  of  colour 
and  gall  are  to  be  thinned  with  water 
to  the  consistence  of  cream,  and  are  to 
be  well  stirred  up. 

Colours  for  producing  Spots  like  Lace- 
work. — Take  some  dark  blue,  or  other 
colour,  add  some  gall  to  it,  and  about 
as  much,  or  a  little  less,  oil  of  turpen- 
tine ;  stir  all  well  together,  and  dilute 
with  water.  To  try  the  colours,  throw 
on  the  solution,  by  shaking  the  various 
colour  brushes  over  it,  some  spots  of 
colour.  If  the  spots  spread  out  larger 
than  a  crown-piece  in  size,  the  colours 
have  too  much  gall ;  if  the  spots,  after 
spreading  out  a  little,  contract  again, 
there  is  too  little  gall  in  them.  In  the 
one  case  more  colour  must  be  added,  in 
tlie  other  more  gall.  If  the  colours  are 
in  good  order,  and  paper  is  to  be  mar- 
bled, the  whole  surface  of  the  solution 
in  the  trough  must  be  covered  by 
colours,  in  spots,  streaks,  or  whirls, 
according  to  the  pattern  required,  and 
laid  on  according  to  directions  which 
will  be  given  presently.  The  paper 
should  be  previously  prepared  for  re- 
ceiving the  colours,  by  dipping  it  over- 
night in  water,  and  laying  the  sheets  on 
each  other  with  a  weight  over  them. 
The  sheet  of  iiM|,e:'  must  be  held  by  two 
corners,  and  laid  in  the  most  gentle  and 
even  manner  on  the  solution  covered 
with  the  colours,  and  there  softly 
pressed  with  the  hand  that  it  may 
bear  everywhere  on  the  solution,  taking 
care  not  to  let  the  colours  flow  on  to 
the  back  of  the  paper  any  more  than 
can  be  avoided;  after  which  it  must  be 
raised  and  taken  off  with  the  same  care, 
and  then  hung  to  dry  over  the  rods. 

Patterns. —  I.  Throw  on  red  till  the 
solution  is  nearly  covered,  then  some 
yellow,  black,  and  green ;  add,  if  de- 
sired, a  little  jnirple  with  plenty  of 
gall  and  water  in  it  ;  twist  the  colours 
into  any  shape  by  means  of  a  ouill. 
2.  Throw  on  red,  yellow,  black,  and 
green,  as  before;  but,  for  a  last  colour, 
aild  some  of  the  dark  blue  mixed  with 
turpentine.     3.  Throw  on    red,   yellow, 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


dOl 


black,  and  green,    in    the   desired   pro- 
portion; then  with   a  quill  draw  lines 
tlnough  the  colours ;  after  which  throw 
on  a   greater  or  less  quantity  of  blue, 
green,   pink,  or  purple,   much  diluted, 
and  containing  plenty  of  gall  and  tur- 
pentine.    4.  Throw  on  very  fine  red  for 
veins ;    then    plenty  of  the    turpentine 
blue.     If  the  colours  are  good  this  pro- 
duces  a   handsome  pattern   in  a  short 
time.      5.  Throw   on   some   dark    blue 
mixed  with  turpentine,  and   take    this 
up  with  a  paper  previously  stained  of  a 
yellow,  light  blue,  red,  pink,  or  green 
colour.     To  obtain  a  good  green  for  this 
purpose,   boil   French   berries  in  water, 
add  a  little  spirit  or   liquid  blue,  and 
carefully  brush  over   the  paper,  which 
must  be  good  and  well  sized,  with  this 
mixture.     When  the  colours  become  too 
thick  for  use,  add  fresh  ground  colour 
with  water  and  a   little  gall   to  them, 
and  stir  them  up  well.     Be  particular 
ia  getting  good  turpentine.     When  the 
solution  of  gum  gets  dirtied,  throw  it 
away  and  make  a  fresh  one.  Tlie  neatest 
and  most  convenient  method  of  marbling 
the  edges  of  books,  is  to  dip  one  volume 
at   a    time,    doing    the    ends    first,  and 
throwing   back    the    boards    to   do   the 
fore-edge;    observing  to  hold  the  book 
tight  with  both  hands,  and  not   to  dip 
deeper  than  the  surface,  to  prevent  t.He 
solution  from  sjioiling  the  book.     It  is 
tlie  safest  way  to  tie  the  book   between 
boards  before  dipping;  and,  for  the  sake 
of  convenience  and  economy,  when  only 
a  few  books  are  to  be  marbled,  a  small 
trough  should  be  used.     JIarbled  paper 
is  glazed  by  a  machine  similar  to  that 
with  which  cottons  are  glazed.     But  a 
machine   of    this    kind    would    only    be 
required    by    those    who    marble    very 
largely.      Book   edges    are   polished    by 
the  agate  burnisher,  and  so  might  small 
pieces  of  paper  be  polished,  which  were 
required    for    any    particular    purpose. 
Good  common  pressing,  or  hot-pressing, 
might   serve  as  well    as    glazing.     For 
any   fancy   work  it   would   have   a  fine 
eliect  to  varnish  the  marble  paper  after 
it  had  been  put  to  its  destined  purpose 
&nd    had    become   dry.      Paste  and   all 
moifture  chase  all  the  glaze  awaj.    The  | 


application  of  a  coat  of  varnish  subse- 
quent to  the  application  of  paste  would 
double  the  beauty  of  the  best  marble 
paper,  and  much  improve  the  common 
kind,  at  i  trifling  expense. 

Sprinkling  the  Edges  of  Cooks. — ^Take 
an  old  toothbrush  and  dip  it  into  a 
coloured  ink  ;  shake  oft'  the  superfluous 
ink,  that  the  sparks  formed  may  not  be 
too  large,  and  draw  an  old  comb  through 
it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  ink 
fly  off  in  sjiarks  over  the  edges  of  the 
book.  The  following  are  a  few  coloured 
inks  ; — Red  ;  \  lb.  of  the  best  logwood  is 
boiled  with  1  oz.  of  pounded  alum,  and 
the  same  quantity  of  cream  of  tartar, 
with  half  the  quantity  of  water,  and, 
while  the  preparation  is  still  warm,  1  oz. 
sugar  and  1  oz.  gum  arable  are  dis- 
solved in  it.  Blue  ;  solution  of  indigo 
with  pieces  of  alumina,  and  mixed  with 
gum,  forms  a  blue  ink.  Green  ;  this  iS 
obtained  from  verdigris,  distilled  with 
vinegar,  and  mixed  with  a  little  gum. 
Yellow  ;  saftron,  alum,  and  gum  water, 
foi'm  a  yellow. 

Polishing  Metals.— The  polish- 
ing of  metals  differs  according  to  their 
kind,  but  there  are  some  general  prin- 
ciples common  to  all,  of  which  it  mav 
be  useful  to  have  a  clear  idea.  All 
polishing  is  begun  in  the  first  instance 
by  rubbing  down  the  surface  by  some 
hard  substance  that  will  produce  a  num- 
ber of  scratches  in  all  directions,  the 
level  of  which  is  nearly  the  same,  and 
which  obliterate  the  marks  of  the  file, 
scraper,  or  turning  tool  that  has  been 
first  employed.  For  this  purpose  coarse 
emery  is  used,  or  pumice  and  water,  or 
sand  and  water,  applied  upon  a  piece  of 
soft  wood,  or  of  felt,  skin,  or  similar 
material.  When  the  first  coarse  marks 
have  been  thus  removed,  nest  proceed  to 
remove  the  marks  left  by  the  pumice- 
stone  by  finely-powdered  pumice-stone 
ground  up  with  olive  oil,  or  by  finer 
enrery  and  oil.  In  some  cases  certain 
polishing  stones  aie  employed,  as  a  kind 
of  hard  slate  used  with  water.  To  pro- 
ceed with  the  polishing,  still  finer  pow- 
ders are  used,  such  as  tripoli  and  rotten- 
stone.  Putty  of  tin  and  crocus  martij 
are  also  used  for  high  degrees  of  polish 

2  i> 


i02 


WORKSHOP   llECEIPTS. 


But  the  who  e  pi-ocess  consists  merely 
m  vemovmg  coarse  scratches  by  substi- 
tuting those  which  are  finer  and  finer, 
until  they  are  no  longer  visible  to  the 
naked  eve ;  and  even  long  after  that,  if 
the  surface  is  examined  by  a  microscope, 
it  will  be  seen  that  what  appeared 
without  any  scratches  k  covered  all 
over  with  an  infinity  of  them,  but  so 
minute  that  they  require  a  high  mag- 
nifier to  be  discovered.  It  is  evident 
that  great  care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  last  polishing  material  uniformly 
fine,  for  a  single  grain  or  two  of  any 
coarse  substance  mixed  with  it  will  pro- 
duce some  visible  scratches  instead  of  a 
perfectly  polished  surface. 

Polishing  Bar  Iron  and  Steel. — Take 
an  ordinary  bar  of  malleable  iron  in  its 
usual  merchantable  state,  remove  the 
oxide  from  its  surface  by  the  application 
of  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  after  which 
wash  the  bar  in  an  alkaline  solution, 
then  cover  the  entire  bar  with  oil  or 
petroleum.  The  bar  is  then  ready  for 
the  chief  process.  A  muffle  furnace  is 
so  prepared  that  a  uniform,  or  nearly 
uniform,  heat  can  be  maiutaiucd  within 
it,  nd  in  this  furnace  the  bar  is  jilaced. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  too  great  a 
lieat  is  not  imparted  to  it,  for  on  this 
depends  the  success  of  the  operation. 
Wlien  the  bar  approaches  a  red  heat, 
and  when  the  redness  is  just  perceptible, 
it  is  a  certain  indication  that  tlie  projier 
degree  of  heat  has  been  attained.  The 
bar  IS  then  at  once  to  be  removed,  aud 
passed  through  the  finishing  rolls  five 
or  six  times,  when  it  will  be  found  to 
have  a  dark  polished  uniform  surface, 
nnd  the  a]>])carance  of  Russian  sheet 
iron. 

Friction  Polish. — A  good  polish  for 
iron  or  steel  rotating  in  the  lathe,  is 
made  of  fine  emery  and  oil  ;  which  is 
apjilied  by  lead  or  wood  gi'iuder.s,  screwed 
together.  Three  very  good  oil.s  for  lu- 
brication arc  olive  oil,  sperm,  aud  neat's 
foot. 

Polishing  Steel. — 1.  Use  bell -metal 
polishers  for  arbors,  having  first  brought 
up  the  surface  with  oil.stone  dust  and 
oiJ  aud  soft  steel  polishers ;  for  flat 
plecen  Use  a  j)iccn  of  ^\ai>i  for  the  oil- 


stone dust,  and  a  bell-metal  block  fir 
the  sharp  red  stuff,  and  a  white  metal 
block  for  the  fine  red  stuff.  The  polish- 
ing stutf  must  be  well  mixed  up  and 
kejit  very  clean  ;  the  polishers  and  blocks 
must  be  filed  to  clean  otl"  the  old  stutf, 
and  then  rubbed  over  with  soft  bread  ; 
put  only  a  little  red  stufl'  on  the  block 
and  keep  working  it  until  it  is  quite  drj-, 
the  piece  will  then  leave  the  block  quite 
clean  ;  use  bread  to  clean  olf  the  surplus 
red  stuff  before  using  the  brush.  If 
the  piece  is  scratched,  put  on  some 
more  red  stuff,  which  must  not  be  too 
v.'et,  and  try  again.  2.  The  polish  on 
flat  steel  pieces  in  fine  watchwork  is 
produced  with  oilstone  dust,  burnt 
Turkey  stone,  and  a  steel  polisher,  soft 
steel,  bell-metal,  and  sharp  stutf,  grain 
tin  and  glossing  stuff.  The  metals  are 
squared  with  a  file,  and  vary  in  shape 
according  to  the  work  in  hand.  3.  Got 
an  18-gallou  barrel  aud  put  an  iron 
spindle  tlirough  the  two  ends;  mount 
it  on  trestles  in  the  same  way  as  a  butter 
churn,  with  a  winch  to  turn  it  by  ;  cut 
out  a  hole  iu  the  side  by  which  to  intro- 
duce the  articles  to  bejiolished;  have  a 
tight-fitting  cover  to  the  hole  ;  procure 
some  worn-out  casting  pots  or  crucibles, 
such  as  used  by  casters,  and  pound  them 
m  an  iron  mortar,  until  fine  enough  to 
pass  through  a  sieve  which  will  not 
allow  the  steel  articles  to  pass  through. 
Put  etjual  quantities  of  this  grit  aud  of 
the  articles  iu  the  barrel;  fasten  on  the 
cover,  aud  turn  the  barrel  for  about  an 
hour,  at  the  rate  of  about  50  turns  a 
minute  ;  take  all  out  of  the  barrel  and 
sifl  out  tlic  grit.  If  a  finer  |iolish  than 
this  is  requireil,  put  them  through  an- 
other turning,  substituting  for  tiie  grit 
small  scrajjs  of  leather,  called  mosings, 
which  can  be  procured  from  the  cur- 
rier's, aud  emery  tlour.  Do  not  more 
than  half  fill  the  barrel. 

Brass  Polishing.  —  1.  iJrass  may  be 
polished  without  a  burnisher,  by  usiug 
an  exceedingly  fine  cut  file,  and  fine 
emery  cloth.  2.  Small  articles  to  be 
polished  should  be  shaken  by  them- 
selves  for  a  short  tinie;  thou  some 
grea.sy  ]>aring.s  of  leather  shoiilil  i)e 
put  iu  the  band  with  them.     After  they 


WORKSHOP   UECEIPTS. 


40c 


have  been  shaken  smooth,  the  greasy 
leather  parings  should  be  removed  and 
clean  ores  put  in,  and  the  shaking  con- 
tinued until  the  articles  are  sufficiently 
bright.  3.  When  the  brass  is  made 
smooth  by  turning  or  filing  with  a  very 
fine  file,  it  may  be  rubbed  with  a  smooth 
fine-grained  stone,  or  with  charcoal  and 
water.  When  it  is  made  quite  smooth 
and  free  from  scratches  it  may  be  pol- 
ished with  rotten-stone  and  oil,  alcohol, 
or  spirits  of  turpentine. 

To  Polish  German  Silver. — Take  1  lb. 
peroxide  of  iron,  pure,  and  put  half  of  it 
into  a  wash-basin,  pouring  on  water, 
and  keeping  it  stirred  until  the  basin  is 
nearly  full.  While  the  water  and  crocus 
is  in  slow  motion,  pour  off,  leaving  grit 
at  the  bottom.  Repeat  this  a  second 
time,  pouring  off  witji  another  basin. 
Cleanse  out  grit,  and  do  the  same  with 
the  other  half.  When  the  second  lot  is 
poured  off,  the  crocus  in  the  first  will 
have  settled  to  the  bottom  ;  pour  off  the 
water  gently,  take  out  the  powder,  and 
dry  it,  and  put  both  when  washed  clear 
of  grit,  and  dried,  into  a  box  into  which 
dust  cannot  get.  If  the  silver  work  is 
very  dirty,  rub  the  mixture  of  powder 
and  oil  on  with  the  fingers,  and  then  it 
will  be  l*uown  if  any  grit  is  on  the  work. 
If  the  work  is  not  very  black,  take  a 
piece  of  soft  chamois  leather,  and  rub 
some  dry  crocus  on,  and  when  well 
rubbed,  shake  out  the  leather,  and  let 
the  powder  fall  off  that  is  not  used,  or 
riib  it  off  with  a  brush.  Do  not  put 
down  the  leather  in  the  dust. 

Polishing  Wheels. — Emery  Wheels. 
— 1.  Can  be  made  with  shellac  pow- 
dered fine,  and  a  small  portion  of 
rosin,  a  piece  about  the  size  of  a 
walnut  to  an  ounce  of  shellac,  and  a 
piece  of  old  vulcanized  india-rubber 
about  the  same  size,  which  gives  it 
toughness.  Shellac  about  1  oz.  to  1  lb. 
of  emery,  well  melt,  and  stir  about  in  a 
small  frying  pan  ;  well  mix  the  powders 
before  applying  heat.  Be  careful  not  to 
burn  it,  or  get  grease  in  it ;  have  a  ring 
of  iron  and  a  piece  of  plate  iron  pre- 
pared with  black-lead  and  beer  pretty 
thick ;  place  the  ring  ujion  the  plate 
and  make  a  mould,  turn  the  stuff  into  it, 


and  well  ram  down  evenly ;  put  on  one 
side  to  cool ;  when  cold,  turn  out  and 
chuck  in  lathe,  and  with  a  piece  of  red- 
hot  iron  bore  a  hole  for  spindle ;  after 
spindled  put  between  centres,  and  trice- 
up  with  hot  iron.  Very  good  gr-ind- 
stones  may  be  made  with  silver-sand 
mixed  with  powdered  glass,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  have  some  body  beside.^ 
shellac  for  coarse  emery  to  form  a  body 
to  bed  the  grains  in.  Emery  dust  from 
grinding  glass,  and  Turkey  stone  slips, 
and  slate,  may  be  used  as  a  substitute 
for  the  flour.  2.  The  best  emery 
wheels  are  formed  of  clean  emery  com- 
pounded with  just  a  sufficient  amount 
of  boiled  linseed  oil,  the  mixture  being 
agitated  for  a  sufficient  jieriod  under  ex- 
posui'e  to  a  considerable  temperature 
and  a  free  access  of  atmospheric  air, 
or  some  still  more  powerful  oxidizing 
agent ;  it  assumes  the  necessary  de 
gree  of  tenacity,  and  whilst  warm, 
being  exposed  to  hydraulic  pressure 
in  a  suitable  mould,  and  subsequent 
drying  in  a  stove,  the  emery  wheel  is 
complete. 

Artificial  Grindstone.  —  Washed  sili- 
cious  sand  3  parts,  shellac  1  part ; 
melt  the  lac,  and  mould  in  the  sand, 
while  warm.  Emery  may  be  substituted 
for  sand.  Used  for  razors  and  fine 
cutlery. 

Making  Glaze  Wheels  for  Finishing 
Steel. — For  hollow  finishing  the  follow- 
ing wheels  are  required  ; — A  mahogany 
wheel  for  rough  glazing.  A  mahogany 
wheel  for  smooth  glazing.  A  lead  wheel, 
or  lap.  For  flat  finishing  :  A  buff  wheel 
for  rough.  A  buff  wheel  for  smooth.  A 
buff  wheel  for  finishing.  Lastly,  a  po- 
lisher. To  make  the  glaze  wheels  :  Get 
the  spindles,  and  point  them  on  each 
end ;  then  get  a  block  of  beech  and 
wedge  it  on  the  steel  at  one  end  with 
iron  wedges,  and  turn  it  for  the  pulley 
for  the  band  to  run  on.  Take  two  pieces 
of  flat  mahogany  and  glue  and  screw 
them  together,  so  that  the  grain  of  one 
piece  crosses  the  other,  to  prevent  warj)- 
ing.  Let  it  get  thoroughly  dry,  and 
wedge  it  on  the  spindle  and  turn  it  true. 
The  lead  wheel  is  made  the  same  wav 
but  made  wider,  and  a  groove  turned  ib 

2  D  2 


404 


WOUKSIIOP   RECEIPTS. 


the  edge.  Then  the  wheel  is  put  into 
sand,  and  a  ring  of  lead  run  round  the 
edge;  it  is  then  turned  true.  To  make 
the  bulT  wheels,  proceed  as  with  the 
glaze;  but  to  save  expense,  pine  or  de.ii 
wood  will  do  as  well  as  mahogany,  only 
leave  it  about  double  the  width  ut'  the 
glaze,  which  is  about  J  inch  wide,  by  12 
inches  or  14- inches  across.  The  buti'wheels 
are  covered  with  glue,  and  then  the 
leather  is  tacked  on  with  tacks  driven 
IQ  about  half-way,  so  that  they  may  be 
easily  drawn  out  again.  The  leather  is 
then  turned  true.  The  polisher  is  made 
the  same  way,  but  the  size  of  the  polisher 
must  be  a  little  less  than  any  of  the 
other  wheels,  say,  about  an  inch.  Tlie 
butif  wheels  are  dressed  by  laying  on  a 
fine  thin  coat  of  clear  glue,  and  rolling 
them  round  —  No.  1,  in  superline  corn 
emery  ;  No.  2,  in  smooth  emery  ;  No.  3, 
by  making  a  c;ike  of  equal  parts  of 
mutton  suet,  beeswax,  and  washed  emery; 
then  it  is  held  on  the  wheel  while  it  is 
going  round.  Tlie  glaze  wheels  are 
dressed  while  using,  by  mixing  a  little 
of  the  emery  with  oil,  and  putting  it  on 
the  wheel  with  a  stick  or  the  linger. 
The  leather  of  the  polisher  is  not  co- 
vered with  glue,  but  dressed  with  a  mix- 
ture of  crocus  and  water,  not  oil.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  each  wheel  and 
substance  to  themselves,  and  the  work 
must  be  carefully  wiped  after  each  o]ie- 
ration,  and  cleanliness  must  be  studied 
above  all  thiugs  in  using  the  polisher,  as 
the  slighest  grease  getting  on  it  stops 
the  i)olishing. 

Polish  I  sa  M  ateri  a  ls. — Jiouije. — The 
rouge  used  by  machinists,  watclimakcri;, 
and  jewellers  is  a  mineral  substar.cr.  ]ii 
its  prejiaration  cryNtals  of  sulphate  of 
iron,  commonly  known  as  copper.xs,  pre 
ho;ited  in  iron  jiots,  by  which  the  sul- 
jihuric  acid  is  expelled  and  the  o;(idc  of 
iron  remains.  Those  portions  lea.st  ta!- 
i'ined,  when  ground,  are  used  for  i)otish- 
lug  gold  and  silver.  These  nre  of  a 
bright  crimson  colour.  The  darker  auil 
more  calcined  portions  are  kofiwn  as 
crocus,  and  are  u^ed  for  poli.shiug  bra.^s 
and  steel.  For  the  finishing  process  of 
the  specula  of  telescopes,  u.sually  made 
of  iron  or  of  steel,  crocus  is  invaluable  ; 


it  gives  a  splendid  polish.  Others  prefer 
for  the  production  of  rouge  the  peroxide 
of  iron  precipitated  by  ammonia  from  a 
dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  which 
-s  washed,  compressed  until  dry,  then 
exposed  to  a  low  red  heat  and  grouud  to 
powder. 

Crocus. — Put  tin,  as  pure  as  possible, 
into  a  glass  vessel  —  a  wineglass  does 
very  well  when  making  small  quantities 
— and  pour  in  sullicient  nitric  acid  to 
cover  it.  Great  heat  is  evolved,  and 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  inhale  the 
fumes,  as  they  are  jioisonous.  When 
there  is  nothing  left  but  a  white  powder, 
it  should  be  heated  in  a  Hessian  crucible, 
to  drive  otf  the  nitric  acid.  Crocus, 
mixed  with  a  little  linseed  oil,  makes  a 
hard  and  usel'ul  cement. 

Powders  for  Cleminj  Plate. — 1.  Take 
equal  parts  of  precipitated  subcarbouate 
of  iron,  and  pre[)ared  chalk.  2.  An  im- 
palpable rouge  may  be  prepared  by  cal- 
cinatiug  the  oxalate  of  iron.  3.  Take 
quicksilver  with  chalk,  i  an  oz.,  and 
prepared  chalk  2  oz.,  mix  them.  When 
used,  add  a  small  quantity  of  s|>irit  of 
wine,  ;iiid  rub  witli  chamois  leather;  or, 
jiut  sulphate  of  iron  into  a  l.irge  tobacco 
pipe,  and  place  it  in  a  lire  for  a  tjuarter 
of  an  hour,  mix  with  a  small  quantity 
of  powdered  chalk.  This  powder  should 
be  used  dry. 

Jewellers'  Ro'i'ie. — A  rouge  suitable 
for  fine  work  may  be  made  by  decom- 
posing a  solution  of  sul|)hate  of  iron  with 
oxalic  acid  also  in  solution  ;  a  jtrecipitate 
of  oxalate  of  iron  falls,  which  must  be 
well  washed  and  dried ;  when  gently 
heated,  the  salt  takes  fire,  leaving  an 
imii.il|i.ible  powder  of  oxide  of  iron. 

Puttij  Powder  or  Oxide  of  Tin. — Me- 
tallic tin  is  dissolved  in  nifro-muriatic 
aciil,  and  precijiifated  from  the  filtered 
solution  by  liciuid  ammonia,  bo'h  fluids 
being  largely  diluted  with  water.  The 
peroxide  of  tin  is  then  \va.shod  in  abun- 
dance of  water.  Collect  in  a  clotii  filter, 
and  squeeze  as  dry  as  possible  in  a  piece 
of  new  linen.  The  mass  is  now  sub- 
jected to  ])re.--sure  in  a  screw  jiress,  or 
between  two  ever  boards,  to  make  it  a« 
dry  as  possible.  When  the  lump  thus 
produced  has  been  broken,  it  is  placed  ia 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


d05 


a  crucible,  and  closely  covered  up  to 
prevent  jets  from  entering,  and  is  then 
ex])Osed  and  heated  to  a  white  heat,  and 
ground  for  use  in  the  usual  way  ;  this 
oxide  is  used  specially  for  cements,  and 
polishing  astronomical  object-glasses  for 
astro-telescopes.  The  putty  powder  of 
commerce,  if  of  good  fair  quality,  is  al- 
loyed with  about  equal  parts  of  tin  and 
lead,  which  answers  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses, but  not  for  polishing  lenses,  in 
which  good  work  is  wholly  dependent 
on  the  quality  of  the  powder. 

Razor  Paste. — Mis  fine  emery  inti- 
mately with  fat  and  wax  until  the  pro- 
per consistency  is  obtained  in  the  paste, 
and  then  rub  ii  well  into  the  leather 
strap.  Prepare  the  emery  by  pounding 
thoroughly  in  a  mortar  the  coarse  kind, 
throwing  it  into  a  large  jug  of  water 
and  stirring  well.  Immediately  the 
large  particles  have  sunk,  pour  off  into 
a  shallow  plate  or  basin,  and  let  the 
water  evaporate.  This  emery  is  better 
for  engraving  and  other  purposes  than 
that  prepared  at  the  emery  mills.  2.  The 
grit  from  a  fine  grindstone  is  very  effi- 
cient for  a  razor  paste.  3.  Levigated 
oxide  of  tin,  prepared  putty  powder, 
1  oz. ;  powdered  oxalic  acid,  \  oz. ;  pow- 
dered gum,  20  grains  ;  make  into  a  stiff 
paste  with  water,  and  evenly  and  thinly 
spread  it  over  the  strop  With  very 
little  friction,  this  paste  gives  a  fine 
edge  to  the  razor,  and  its  efficiency  is 
still  further  increased  by  moistening  it. 
4.  Emery  reduced  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  2  parts ;  spermaceti  ointment, 
1  part ;  mix  together,  and  rub  it  over  the 
strop.  5.  Jewellers'  rouge,  black-lead, 
and  suet,  equal  parts;  mix. 

Cutting  Pebbles. — The  lapidary's 
bench  is  fo^-med  with  a  fly-wheel  working 
horizontally,  by  hand -crank,  with  a 
leather  strap  passing  over  and  communi- 
cating motion  to  a  pulley  and  spindle,  on 
which  as  wanted  for  use  are  successively 
fastened  the  following  plates  ; — 1st,  the 
sliding  plate  of  soft  iron,  very  thin, 
turned  up  to  run  quite  true  on  its 
spmdle,  the  edge  dressed  with  diamond 
powdered  m  a  hardened  steel  mortar,  and 
lubricated  with  oil  of  brick  ;  turpentine 
or   paraffin    is    also   occasionally    used. 


The  stone  is  held  in  the  hand.  The 
stone  is  to  be  reversed  after  some  pro- 
gress in  the  cut,  to  avoid  dishing.  The 
cut  being  completed,  the  grinding  is  per- 
formed by  substituting  the  second  plate 
of  pewter,  dressed  with  coarse  emery 
and  water ;  3rd  ditto,  with  fine  emery 
and  water ;  4th,  wooden  plate,  with 
sand  and  water  ;  5th,  pewter  plate,  with 
rotten-stone  and  water  ;  6th,  wood  plate, 
covered  with  leather  dressed  with  putty 
powder  or  tripoli,  and  slightly  watered. 
There  may  be  other  plates  or  discs,  but 
the  object  to  be  attained  is  having  a 
succession  of  grindings,  so  that  each  suc- 
ceeding plate  shall  remove  the  imper- 
fections of  polish  left  by  its  predecessor. 

Polishing  Vulcanite.  —  1.  Re- 
move scratches  with  a  smooth  wet  water 
of  Ayr  stone,  and  then  polish  in  the  lathe 
with  fine  pumice  and  a  stiff  brush.  After 
washing  the  pumice  off,  polish  it  with 
whiting  and  soft  brush.  2.  The  mathe- 
matical instrument  makers  treat  it  as 
bra.ss — that  is,  for  fiat  work  they  first 
use  water  of  Ayr  stone,  and  then  rotten- 
stone  and  oil.  Turned  work  is  polished 
in  the  lathe  with  rotten-stone  and  oil, 
taking  care  not  to  use  too  high  a  speed, 
which  would  heat  the  work.  Some  use 
lampblack  and  oil  to  finish  with  where 
a  very  high  polish  is  wanted,  or  the 
bare  palm  of  the  hand,  as  in  getting 
up  silver  plate.  Chain  and  ornament 
makers  u.se  circular  buffs  for  their  fiat 
work,  made  of  sea-horse  leather,  and 
for  work  of  irregular  forms,  buffs  of 
calico.  A  number  of  pieces,  12  in.  in 
diameter,  are  screwed  together  between 
fianges,  like  a  civcular-saw  spindle,  and 
used  with  rotten-stone,  always  taking 
care  not  to  heat  the  work ;  brushes  are 
not  at  all  suitable  for  it. 

Polishing  Plaster  Casts.  — 
1.  Put  into  4  lbs.  of  clear  water  1  oz.  of 
pure  curd  soap,  grated  and  dissolved  in  a 
well-glazed  earthen  vessel — then  add  1  oz. 
of  white  beeswax,  cut  into  thin  slices; 
when  the  whole  is  incorporated  it  is  fit 
for  use.  Having  well  dried  the  figure 
before  the  fire,  suspend  it  by  a  twine, 
and  dip  it  once  in  the  varnish  ;  upon 
taking  it  out,  the  moisture  will  appear 
to   have   been   absorbed    in   2  minutes' 


406 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


time ;  stir  the  compost,  and  dip  the 
figure  a  second  time ;  this  generally 
suffices.  Cover  it  airefully  from  the 
dust  for  a  week  ;  then,  with  soft  muslin 
rag,  or  cotton  wool,  rub  the  figure 
gently,  when  a  most  brilliant  gloss  will 
be  produced.  2.  Take  skimmed  milk, 
and  with  a  camel-hair  pencil  lay  over 
the  model  till  it  will  imbibe  no  more. 
Shake  or  blow  off  any  that  remains  on 
the  surface,  and  lay  the  figure  in  a  place 
perfectly  free  from  dust ;  when  dry  it 
will  look  like  polished  marble.  If  the 
milk  is  not  carefully  skimmed  it  will 
not  answer  the  purpose.  3.  Fuse  §  oz. 
of  tin,  with  the  same  quantity  of  bis- 
muth, in  a  crucible ;  when  melted,  add 
J  oz.  of  mercury ;  when  perfectly  com- 
bined, take  the  mixture  from  the  fire 
and  cool  it.  This  substance,  mixed  with 
the  white  of  an  egg,  forms  a  beautiful 
varnish  for  plaster-of-Paris  casts.  4.  Of 
stoariue  and  Venetian  soap  each  2  parts ; 
pearlash,  1  ;  the  stearine  and  soap  cut 
small  and  mixed  with  30  parts  of  solu- 
tion of  caustic  potash,  boiled  for  half 
an  hour,  stirring  continually.  Add  the 
pearlash  dissolved  in  a  little  rain  water 
and  boil  a  few  minutes;  stir  until  cold, 
and  mix  with  more  ley  until  it  is  quite 
liquiil;  keep  well  covered  up.  Remove 
all  dust  and  stains  from  the  plaster,  and 
apply  the  wash  as  long  as  it  is  absorbed. 
When  dry,  rub  with  a  soft  leather  or 
brush.  Should  the  surface  not  shine, 
ap|dy  another  coat.  This  composition 
may  be  preserved  for  years.  5.  Coat 
with  melted  white  wax,  and  place  them 
before  a  fire  until  the  wax  is  absorbed; 
a  considerable  polish  can  then  be  ob- 
tained by  friction.  6.  First  make  very 
smooth  and  free  from  grit  with  glass- 
paper  or  otherwise;  oil  with  linseed 
oil  ;  when  dry,  French  polish  in  the 
usual  way.  If  a  bust,  or  anything 
similar,  required  to  be  white,  make 
smooth  size  with  white  size,  and  varnish 
with  white  hani  varnish. 

Polishing  Slate. — Slate  is  faced 
fir.-<t  with  an  iron  plate  with  river  sand 
and  water,  smoothed  with  punnce-sfone  ; 
then  japanned  and  baki-d  to  hanlen  the 
japan,  and  again  smoothed  with  pumicf- 
Ntone  and  jKilished  with  rotten-Htone. 


Polishing  Shells.  —  1.  Marine 
shells  are  cleaned  by  rubbing  with  a  rag 
dijjjied  in  common  hydrochloric  acid 
till  the  outer  dull  skin  is  removed, 
washing  in  warm  watvjr,  drying  in  hot 
saw-dust,  and  polishing  with  chamois 
leather.  Those  shells  which  have  nn 
natural  polished  surface  may  either  be 
varnished  or  rubbed  with  a  little  tripoli 
powder  and  turpentine  on  wash-leather, 
then  fine  trijioli  alone,  and  lastly  with 
a  little  fine  olive  oil,  bringing  up  the 
surface  with  the  chamois  as  before. 
2.  The  shells  are  first  boiled  in  a  strong 
solution  of  potash,  then  ground  on 
wheels,  sometimes  through  one  strata 
to  show  an  underlying  one,  then  polished 
with  hydrochloric  acid  and  putty  pow- 
der. In  this  operation  the  hands  are  in 
great  danger.  Shell  grinders  are  gene- 
rally almost  cripples  in  their  hands. 

Polishing  Mother-of-Pearl. — 
Go  over  it  with  pumice-stone  finely 
powdered,  w.ashed  to  separate  the  im- 
purities and  dirt,  with  which  polish  it 
very  smooth  ;  then  apply  ]iutty  powder 
and  water  by  a  rubber,  which  will  pro- 
duce a  tine  gloss  and  good  colour. 

Polishing  Horn  and  Ivory. — 
Ivory  and  bone  admit  of  being  turned 
very  smooth,  or  when  filed  may  after- 
wards be  scraped  so  as  to  present  a  good 
surface.  They  may  be  polished  by  rub- 
bing first  with  fine  glass-paper,  and  then 
with  a  piece  of  wet  linen  cloth  di])))ed  in 
powdered  pumice-stone.  This  will  give 
a  very  fine  sniface,  and  the  final  polish 
may  be  proiluced  by  washed  chalk  oi 
fine  whiting  applied  by  a  piece  of  cl<th 
wetted  with  soajisuds.  Care  must  be 
taken  in  this,  and  in  every  instance 
where  articles  of  different  finene.ss  aro 
used,  that,  previous  to  ai)plying  a  finer, 
every  j)article  of  the  coarser  material 
is  removed,  and  that  the  rags  are  clean 
and  free  from  grit.  Ornamental  work 
must  be  pol'shed  with  the  same  mate- 
rials as  plain  work,  using  brushes  in- 
stead of  linen,  and  rubbing  as  little 
;is  possible,  otherwise  the  more  pro- 
minent parts  will  be  injured.  The 
[)oliiHing  materi.il  should  \>i'  w;ished  off 
witn  clean  water,  and  whi'U  di-y,  inay  be 
rubbed  with   a  clean   brush.     Horn  and 


WORKSHOP  tMJCElPrS. 


407 


tortoiseshell  are  so  similar  in  their 
nature  and  texture  tha;  they  may  be 
classed  together.  As  rega»*ds  the  general 
mode  of  working  aad  poJshing  them,  a 
very  perfect  surface  is  given  by  scraping. 
The  scraper  m.ty  be  made  of  a  razor- 
blade,  the  edge  of  which  should  be 
rubbed  upon  an  oilstone,  holding  the 
olade  nearly  upright,  so  as  to  form  an 
edge  like  that  of  a  currier's  knife,  which 
may  be  sharpened  by  burnishing.  Work 
when  properly  scraped  is  prepared  for 
polishing.  To  effect  this  it  is  first 
rubbed  with  a  hutf  made  of  woollen 
cloth  perfectly  free  from  grease.  The 
cloth  may  be  fixed  upon  a  stick  to  be 
used  by  hand;  but  a  bob,  which  is  a 
wheel  running  in  the  lathe  and  covered 
with  the  cloth,  is  much  to  be  preferred 
on  account  of  the  rapidity  of  motion. 
The  butf  may  be  covered  either  with 
powdered  charcoal  and  water,  or  fine 
brick-dust  and  water.  After  the  work 
has  been  made  as  smooth  as  possible 
with  this,  it  is  followed  by  another  bob 
on  which  washed  chalk  or  dry  whiting 
is  rubbed.  The  article  to  be  polished  is 
slightly  moistened  with  vinegar,  and  the 
bulf  and  whiting  will  produce  a  fine 
gloss,  which  may  be  completed  by  rub- 
bing with  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  a 
small  portion  of  dry  whiting  or  rotten- 
stone. 

Polishing  Bullocks^  Horns. — 1.  Well 
scrape  with  glass  or  steel  scraper,  after- 
wards with  finest  glass-cloth,  then  with 
powdered  bath  brick  and  oil,  and  finally 
with  rotten-stone  and  flannel,  or  old 
cloth  or  felt  hat.  2.  First  scrape  with 
glass  to  take  off  any  roughness,  then 
grind  some  pumice-stone  to  powder,  and 
with  a  piece  of  cloth  wetted  and  dipped 
in  the  powder,  rub  them  until  a  smooth 
face  is  obtained.  Next  polish  with  rot- 
ten-stone and  linseed  oil,  and  finish  with 
dry  flour  and  a  piece  of  clean  linen  rag. 
The  more  rubbing  with  the  stone  and 
oil,  the  better  the  polish.  Trent  sand 
is  used  in  the  Shefiield  factories.  It  is 
a  very  fine  and  sharp  sand,  and  is  pre- 
pared for  use  by  calcining  and  sifting. 

Polish  for  Leather.  —  ^  lb.  treacle, 
1  01.  lampblack,  a  spoonful  of  yeast, 
X  oi.  sugar-candy,  1  oz.  sweet  oil,  1  oz. 


gum  dragon,  1  oz.  isinglass,  and  a  cow  s 
gall.  Mix  well  in  2  pints  of  stale  beer. 
Warm  the  mixture,  and  apply  with  a 
sponge.  It  will  then  produce  a  softness 
of  the  leather,  and  a  high  brilliancy  of 
polish. 

Burnisliing'. — To  burnish  an  article 
is  to  polish  it,  by  removing  the  small 
roughness  upon  its  surface ;  and  this  is 
performed  by  a  burnisher.  This  mode 
of  polishing  is  the  most  expeditious,  and 
gives  the  greatest  lustre  to  a  polished 
body.  It  removes  the  marks  left  by 
the  emery,  putty  of  tin,  or  other  polish- 
ing materials ;  and  gives  to  the  burnished 
articles  a  black  lustre,  resembling  that 
of  looking-glass.  The  form  and  con- 
strufttion  of  the  burnisher  is  extremely 
variable,  according  to  the  respective 
trades;  and  it  must  be  adapted  to  the 
various  kinds  of  work  in  the  same  art. 
In  general,  as  this  tool  is  only  intendec 
to  eflace  inequalities,  whatever  sub- 
stance the  burnisher  is  made  of  is  of 
little  consequence  to  the  article  bur- 
nished, provided  only  that  it  is  of  a 
harder  substance  than  that  article. 

2o  Burnish  Silver. — Commence  by 
cleaning  off  any  kind  of  dirt  which  the 
surfiices  of  the  silver  articles  had  con- 
tracted whilst  making,  as  that  would 
entirely  spoil  the  burnishing.  For  this 
purpose  take  pumice-stone  powder,  and 
with  a  brush,  made  very  wet  in  strong 
soapsuds,  rub  the  various  parts  of  the 
work,  even  those  parts  which  are  to 
remain  dull,  which,  nevertheless,  re- 
ceive thus  a  beautiful  white  appear- 
ance ;  wipe  with  an  old  linen  cloth,  and 
proceed  to  the  burnishing. 

Burnishers. — The  burnishers  used  are 
of  two  kinds,  of  steel  and  of  hard  stone. 
They  are  either  curved  or  straight, 
rounded  or  pointed,  and  made  so  as  to 
suit  the  projecting  parts,  or  the  hollows 
of  the  piece.  Stone  burnishers  are  made 
of  blood-stone,  cut,  and  either  rounded 
with  the  grindstone,  or  rubbed,  so  that 
they  present,  at  the  bottom,  a  very 
blunt  edge,  or  sometimes  a  rounded  sur- 
face. These  are  polished  with  emery, 
iike  steel  burnishers,  and  are  finished  by 
being  rubbed  upon  a  leatner,  covered 
with  crocus  martis.  The  stone  is  mounted 


408 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


in  a  wooden  handle,  and  firmly  fixed  by 
a  copper  ferrule,  which  encircles  both 
the  stone  and  the  wood.  The  best  blood- 
stones are  those  which  contain  the  most 
iron,  ami  which,  when  polished,  present 
a  steel  colour.  The  o])eration  of  burnish- 
ing is  very  simple  ;  take  hold  of  the  tool 
very  near  to  the  stone,  and  lean  very 
hard  with  it  on  those  j)arts  which  are 
to  be  burnished,  causing  it  to  glide  by 
a  backward  and  forward  movement, 
without  taking  it  otf  the  piece.  When 
it  is  requisite  that  the  hand  should  pass 
over  a  large  surface  at  once,  without 
losing  its  point  of  support  on  the  work- 
bench, in  taking  hold  of  the  burnisher 
be  careful  to  place  it  just  underneatii 
the  little  finger.  By  this  means  the 
work  is  done  quicker,  and  the  tool  is 
more  solidly  fixed  in  tlie  hand.  During 
the  whole  jirocess,  the  tool  must  le  con- 
tinually nioisteni-d  witli  black  soa])suds. 
The  water  with  which  it  is  frequently 
wetted  causes  it  to  glide  more  easily 
over  the  work,  prevents  it  from  heating, 
and  facilitates  its  action.  The  black 
soap,  containing  more  alkali  than  the 
common  soaj),  acts  with  greater  strength 
in  cleansing  oil'  any  ^reasiness  whicli 
migiit  still  remain  on  the  surface;  it 
also  more  readily  detaches  the  spots 
which  would  spoil  the  beauty  of  the 
burnishing.  In  consequence  of  the  fric- 
tiim  the  burnisher  soon  loses  its  bite, 
and  slijis  over  the  surface  of  the  article 
as  if  it  were  oily.  In  order  to  restore  its 
action,  it  must  be  rubbed,  fmm  time  to 
time,  on  tiie  leather.  Tlie  leather  is  fixed 
on  a  ])iece  of  hard  wood,  with  shallow 
furrows  along  it.  There  are  generally 
two  leathers — one  made  of  sole  leather 
and  the  other  of  bull' leather.  The  first 
is  impregnated  with  a  little  oil  and 
crocus  martis,  and  is  partiiiilarly  umvI 
for  the  bloo(l -stone  burnishers;  the 
other  has  only  a  little  putty  of  tin 
scattered  in  the  furrows,  and  is  intended 
exclusively  for  rubbing  steel  burnishci's, 
as  they  are  not  so  hard  as  the  blood- 
stones, hlood-stine  being  very  hard, 
the  workman  iiscs  it  whenever  he  can, 
in  [o-cferi-ncu  to  the  steel  liumishcr.  It 
is  only  in  small  articles,  and  in  dilficult 
plnce.s,  that  Ktccl   burnishers  are   use<l ; 


as  they,  by  their  variety  of  form,  are 
adapted  to  all  kinds  of  work.  In  general, 
the  blood-stone  greatly  reduces  the 
labour.  When  the  articles,  on  account 
of  their  minuteness,  or  from  any  other 
cause,  cannot  be  conveniently  held  in 
the  hand,  they  are  fixed  in  a  convenient 
frame  on  the  bench  ;  but  under  ail  cir- 
cumstances be  very  careful  to  manage 
the  burnisher  so  as  to  leave  untouched 
those  parts  of  the  work  which  are  in- 
tended to  remain  dull.  When,  in  bur- 
nishing an  article  which  is  plated  or 
lined  with  silver,  there  is  any  i)lace 
where  the  layer  of  i)recious  metal  is 
removed,  restore  it  by  silvering  these 
places  with  a  composition  su]i])lied  by 
the  silverer,  which  is  applied  with  a 
brush,  rubbing  the  part  well,  and  wiping 
it  afterwards  with  an  old  linen  cloth. 
Tlie  burnisiiing  being  liiiislied,  remove 
the  soa])suds  vvliiih  still  adhere  to  the 
suifice  of  the  work;  this  is  ell'ected  by 
rubbing  it  with  a  piece  of  old  linen 
cloth.  But  when  there  are  a  great 
number  of  small  pieces  to  finish,  to 
throw  them  into  soajisuds  and  dry  them 
afterwards  with  saw-dust  is  more  ex- 
peditious. The  burnishing  of  gold  leat 
or  silver,  on  wood,  is  performed  with 
burnishers  made  of  wolves'  or  dogs' 
teeth,  or  agates,  mounted  in  iron  or 
woollen  handles.  When  about  to  burnish 
gold,  apiilied  on  other  metals,  di])  the 
blood-stone  burnisher  into  vinegar;  this 
kind  being  exclusively  used  fur  that 
purpose.  But  when  burnishing  leaf- 
gold  on  prepared  surfaces  of  wood,  kee]) 
the  stone,  or  tooth,  perfectly  dry.  The 
burnisher  used  by  leather  gilders  is  a 
hard  jiolished  stone,  mounted  in  a  wooden 
handle — this  is  to  sleek  or  smooth  the 
leather.  The  ordinary  engravers'  bur 
ni>lier  is  ;i  blade  of  steel,  made  tliill  at 
one  end,  to  fit  into  a  small  hamlle  to 
hold  it  by.  The  part  in  the  middle  of 
the  blade  is  rounded  on  the  convex  side, 
and  is  also  a  little  curved.  The  rounde(I 
part  must  be  well  p(disiieil,  and  the  tool 
be  very  hard.  This  burnisher  is  used 
to  give  the  last  jiolish  to  such  parts  of 
cojqicr  and  steed  jdates  as  may  have  been 
accidentally  scratcheil,  or  specked,  where 
false  lines  are  to  be  rcipoved,  and  aljiq 


WORKSHOP   KECEiriS. 


409 


to  lighten  in  a  small  degree  such  parts 
as  have  been  too  deeply  etched  or  graved. 
In  clockmaking,  those  pieces  or  parts 
are  burnished  which,  on  account  of  their 
size  or  form,  cannot  be  conveniently 
polished.  The  burnishers  are  of  various 
forms  and  sizes  ;  they  are  all  made  of 
cast  steel,  very  hard,  and  well  polished  ; 
some  are  formed  like  sage-leaf  files, 
others  like  common  files — the  first  are 
used  to  burnish  screws,  and  pieces  of 
brass ;  the  others  are  used  for  flat  pieces. 
The  clockmakers  have  also  very  small 
ones  of  this  kind,  to  burnish  their  pivots 
— they  are  called  pivot  burnishers. 

Burnishing  Pewter. — The  burnishing 
of  pewter  articles  is  done  after  the  work 
has  been  turned,  or  finished  off  with  a 
scraper — the  buvnishers  are  of  different 
kinds,  for  burnishing  articles  either  by 
hand,  or  in  the  lathe;  they  are  all  of 
steel,  and  while  in  use  are  rubbed  with 
putty  powder  on  leather,  and  moistened 
with  soapsuds. 

Burnishing  Cutlery. — The  burnishing 
of  cutlery  is  executed  by  hand  or  vice 
burnishers ;  they  are  all  made  of  fine 
steel,  hardened,  and  well  polished.  The 
first  kind  have  nothing  particular  in 
their  construction  ;  but  vice  burnishers 
are  formed  and  mounted  in  a  very 
different  manner.  On  a  long  piece  of 
wood,  placed  horizontally  in  the  vice,  is 
fixed  another  piece,  as  long,  but  bent 
in  the  form  of  a  bow,  the  concavity  of 
which  is  turned  downwards.  These  two 
pieces  are  united  at  one  of  their  ex- 
tremities by  a  pin  and  a  hook,  which 
allows  the  upper  piece  to  move  freely 
around  this  point  as  a  centre.  The  bur- 
nisher is  fixed  in  the  middle  of  this  bent 
piece,  and  it  is  made  more  or  less  pro- 
jecting, by  the  greater  or  lesser  length 
wiiich  is  given  to  its  base.  The  movable 
piece  of  wood,  at  the  extremity  opposite 
to  the  hook,  is  furnished  with  a  handle, 
which  serves  the  workman  as  a  lever. 
This  position  allows  the  burnisher  to  rest 
with  greater  force  against  the  article  to 
be  burnished,  which  is  placed  on  the 
fixed  piece  of  wood.  The  burnisher  has 
either  the  form  of  the  face  of  a  round- 
headed  hammer,  well  polished  to  burnish 
those  pieces  which  are  plain  or  convex  ; 


or  the  form  of  two  cones  opposed  at 
their  summits,  with  their  bases  rounded, 
to  burnish  those  pieces  which  are  con- 
cave or  ring-shaped. 

Burnishing  Book  Edges. — This  is  done 
with  a  wolfs  or  dog's  tooth,  or  a  steel 
burnisher ;  for  this  purpose  place  the 
books  in  a  screw  press,  with  boards  on 
each  side  of  them,  and  other  boards  dis- 
tributed between  each  volume ;  first  rub 
the  edges  well  with  the  tooth  to  give 
them  a  lustre.  After  sprinkling  or  stain- 
ing and  when  the  e^lges  are  become  dry, 
burnish  the  front;  then  turning  the 
press,  burnish  the  edges  at  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  volume.  Burnish  the  gilt 
edges  in  the  same  manner,  after  having 
applied  the  gold  ;  but  observe  in  gilding, 
to  lay  the  gold  first  upon  the  front,  and 
allow  it  to  dry  ;  and  on  no  account  to 
commence  burnishing  till  it  is  quite 
dry. 

Black  for  Blackboax'd.  —  1. 
Paint  the  board  with  ordinary  black 
paint  such  as  will  dry  with  a  gloss  ; 
then  apply  a  coat  of  black  paint,  mixed 
with  turps  instead  of  oil,  which  will 
dry  a  dead  black.  2.  Take  J  lb.  of  log- 
wood, and  sufficient  boiling  water  to 
cover  it ;  allow  it  to  stand  for  24-  hours. 
Strain,  and  apply  the  solution,  boiling,  it 
possible,  twice,  allowing  the  board  to 
dry  in  the  interval.  Then  dissolve  J  lb. 
of  copperas  in  about  1  pint  of  boiling 
water,  and  apply  it  boiling,  once  or 
twice,  according  to  the  degree  of  black- 
ness obtained.  Before  using  it,  rub  it 
over  well  with  rushes,  straw,  ferns,  or 
shoemakers'  heel-ball.  It  may  be  a  little 
difficult  to  rub  the  chalk  off  at  first, 
but  after  a  fortnight's  use  that  will  dis- 
appear. Use  unprepared  chalk,  which 
writes  well.  3.  Place  J  lb.  of  lamp- 
black on  a  flat  piece  of  tin  or  iron  on  a 
fire  till  it  becomes  red,  take  it  off  and 
leave  it  until  sufficiently  cool,  when  it 
must  be  crushed  with  the  blade  of  a 
knife  on  a  flat  board  quite  fine;  then 
get  J  pint  of  spirits  of  turj)entine,  mix 
both  together,  and  apply  the  mixture 
with  a  size-brush.  If  the  board  is  new, 
it  would  be  well  to  give  it  one  or  two 
coats  of  lampblack — not  burnt,  but 
mixed  with  boiic-d  oil — adding  J  lb.  of 


110 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


patent  driers.  After  the  board  is  tho- 
roughly dried,  apply  tiie  burnt  lamp- 
black and  turpentine.  The  preparation 
must  be  laid  on  quickly. 

Printers'  Rollers.— 1.  To  8  lbs. 
of  transparent  glue  add  as  much  rain  or 
river  water  as  will  just  cover  it,  and 
occasionally  stir  it  during  7  or  8  hours. 
Atler  standing  for  24  hours,  and  all  the 
water  is  absorbed,  submit  it  to  the  action 
of  heat  in  a  water  bath,  that  is,  sur- 
rounded by  water,  as  glue  is  generally 
neated,  and  the  glue  will  soon  be  dis- 
solved. Remove  it  from  the  fire  as  soon 
as  froth  is  seen  to  rise,  and  mix  with  it 
7  lbs.  of  molasses,  which  has  been  pre- 
viously made  tolerably  hot ;  stir  the 
composition  well  together  in  the  water 
bath  over  the  fire,  but  without  suffering 
it  to  boil.  After  being  thus  exposed  to 
the  heat  for  half  an  hour,  and  frequently 
well  stirred,  it  should  be  withdrawn 
from  over  the  Hre  and  allowed  to  cool 
for  a  short  time,  ]>revious  to  pouring  it 
into  a  cylindrical  mould  made  of  tin, 
tinned  sheet  iron,  or  copper,  having  a 
wooden  cylinder  previously  sup])orted 
in  its  centre  by  means  of  its  end-pivots 
or  gudgeons.  After  remaining  in  the 
mould  at  least  8  or  10  hours  in  winter, 
and  a  longer  time  in  summer,  the  roller 
IS  to  be  taken  out  of  the  mould  by  means 
of  a  cord  fastened  to  one  of  the  gudgeons, 
and  [lassed  over  a  strong  pulley  fixed  to 
the  tx'iling;  but  care  must  always  be 
taken  that  the  cylinder  is  drawn  out 
slowly  from  the  mould.  Old  I'ollers  are 
rei:a>t  in  the  same  manner,  first  taking 
cire  to  wash  them  with  a  strong  alka- 
line ley,  and  <id<ling  a  small  quantity  of 
water  an<l  molasses.  The  best  mode, 
however,  of  making  use  of  the  old  com- 
position, is  by  mixing  it  with  some  new, 
made  of  2  lbs.  of  glue  anil  4  lbs.  of 
molasses.  2.  Composition  for  rollers; — 
Summer  use,  IJ  lb.  best  glue  and  4  lbs. 
treacle;  winter  use,  1  lb.  best  glue  and 
4  lbs.  treacle.  Soak  the  glue  al)out 
IJ  hour  if  thick,  if  thin  1  hour. 
Take  it  out  of  the  water,  lay  it  on  a 
board  until  next  day,  then  melt  down 
in  proper  melting  pot,  oi-  put  it  in  a 
taucepau  and  place  it  in  another  con- 
taiDJDf;   water.     I>o   not   let  the   waf/T 


run  over  into  the  glue ;  one  great  secret 
in  roller  casting  is  to  have  as  little 
water  in  the  glue  as  possible.  Add 
treacle  as  above,  let  boil  once,  then  keep 
it  just  unaer  ooiling-point  until  cooked, 
which  takes  about  2  hours,  more  or  less  ; 
pour  out  into  moulds,  well  cleaned  and 
greased  ;  if  the  composition  is  left  too 
long  on  the  fire  it  will  get  thick  and 
spoil.  The  above  is  sufficient  for  an 
18-in.  roller  ;  other  sizes  in  proportion. 

Hints  about  Screws. — Where 
screws  are  driven  into  soft  wood  and  sub- 
jected to  considerable  strain,  they  are 
very  likely  to  work  loose,  and  it  is  often 
dillicult  to  make  them  hold.  In  such 
cases  the  use  of  glue  is  profitable.  Pre- 
pare the  glue  thick;  immerse  a  stick 
about  half  the  size  of  the  screw  and  put 
it  into  the  hole  ;  then  immerse  the  screw, 
and  drive  it  home  as'quicklyas  ])ossiblej 
When  there  is  an  article  of  furniture  to 
be  hastily  repaired,  and  no  glue  is  at 
hand,  bore  a  hole,  insert  the  stick,  fill 
the  rest  of  the  cavity  with  pulverized 
rosin,  then  heat  the  screw  sufiicieut  to 
melt  the  rosin  as  it  is  driven  in.  Where 
screws  are  driven  into  wood  for  tem- 
porary ])urposes,  they  can  be  more 
easily  removed  by  dipping  them  in  oil 
before  inserting.  When  buying  screws, 
notice  tiiat  the  heads  are  sound  and  well 
cut,  that  there  are  no  Haws  in  the  body 
or  thread  part,  and  that  they  have  gim- 
let points.  A  screw  of  good  make  will 
drive  into  oak  as  easily' as  others  info 
]iino,  and  will  endure  having  twice  the 
force  brought  against  it. 

Silkworm  Gut  for  Fishing. — 
1.  Wash  the  gut  in  a  little  soda,  steep  it 
in  some  alum  water,  take  out  if  wanted 
brown  ;  use  a  strong  decoction  of  tea,  if 
bl.ick,  it  can  be  done  with  the  addition 
of  a  little  j)owdered  nut-gall  in  the  tea, 
and  passing  it  through  a  little  vinegar 
in  which  some  old  nails  have  been;  if 
Kalmon-c(dourecl,  kalVron  decoction;  if 
properly  ilone  it  will  have  very  little 
gloss  upon  it.  2.  Steep  Mome  walnut- 
leaves  in  a  basin  of  water  for  a  day  or 
two,  having  previously  bruised  them. 
Then  soak  the  gut  in  it ;  the  longer  it 
ia  left  in,  the  darker  it  will  be.  This 
w:l!  be  found  quite  dark  enough  for  all 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


41! 


ordinary  purposes.  To  dye  brown,  steep 
in  strong  cotfee. 

Hair  for  Brushes. — In  the  manu- 
facture of  ha.r  pencils  or  brushes,  the 
hairs  are  scoured  in  a  solution  of  alum 
till  they  are  free  from  grease,  and  then 
steeped  24  hours  in  lukewarm  water. 
The  water  is  next  squeezed  out  by 
pressing  them  strongly  from  the  root 
to  the  tip.  They  are  then  dried  by 
pressure  with  linen  cloths,  and  combed 
as  smooth  as  possible.  Bunches  of  hair 
are  then  placed  in  small  flat-bottomed 
tin  pans,  with  the  tips  of  the  hair 
upwards;  on  striking  the  bottom  of  the 
pan  the  hairs  get  arranged  parallel  to 
each  other,  and  the  long  hairs  standing 
higher  than  the  others  may  easily  be 
picked  out. 

Writing  on  Slate. — Draw  in  the 
letters  with  a  black-lead  pencil ;  if 
wanted  very  accurate,  go  over  with  a 
draw-point,  then  taking  a  square  graver, 
cut  a  deep  bold  line  up  the  centres  of 
the  letters ;  this  line,  if  done  with  one 
cut,  will  be  broken  and  jagged  at  the 
edges ;  then  take  a  flat  tool,  a  tool  about 
J  of  an  inch  broad,  and  sharpened  exactly 
the  same  as  a  joiner's  chisel,  but  mounted 
in  a  graver  handle,  aud  with  the  flat 
side  to  the  slate,  cut  from  the  centre 
stroke  to  the  outside  edge  of  the  letter, 
holding  the  tool  so  as  to  cut  the  outside 
of  the  letter  bevelled ;  it  cuts  as  clean 
as  a  bit  of  cheese,  the  letter  when 
finished  being  deep  in  the  centre  and 
bevelled  olTon  both  sides. 

Enlarging  Woodcuts  for  Dia- 
grams.— Trace  the  desired  picture  on 
a  piece  of  ground  glass,  using  a  sharp  and 
well-pointed  lead  pencil.  Hang  up  the 
large  paper  intended  for  the  diagram, 
and  using  the  ground  glass  as  a  slide 
in  a  powerful  magic-lantern,  project  the 
image  on  to  the  paper,  regulating  the 
size  of  the  picture  by  approaching  or 
receding  from  it.  Copy  the  lines  on  the 
paper,  and  if  the  operation  is  carefully 
performed  the  picture  will  be  in  perfect 
proportion,  and  the  most  intricate  figures 
can  thus  be  easily  reproduced. 

Veneering.  —  In  veneering  with 
the  hammer,  cut  the  veneer  a  little 
larger  than  the  surface  to  be  covered, 


as  it  slips  a  little  while  laying;  it  is 
first  roughened  on  both  sides  with  the 
toothing  ]ilane,  or  a  rough  rasp ;  this 
removes  all  grease  and  saw-marks ;  the 
surface  to  be  veneered  is  treated  in  a 
similar  way.  This  roughening  causes 
the  glue  to  adhere.  They  are  then  well 
warmed  at  the  fire.  Now  clear  the 
bench  of  all  encumbrances,  save  glue- 
pot,  hot  water,  sponge,  and  veneering 
hammer.  Wet  both  sides  of  the  veneer, 
and  apply  plenty  of  glue  ;  lay  the  veneer 
down  ou  its  bed,  whilst  an  assistant  holds 
one  end  firm  ;  take  the  veneering  ham- 
mer in  the  right  hand,  press  hard  down 
on  the  head  with  the  left ;  begin  at  the 
middle,  and  work  zigzag  ways  towards 
the  end  and  sides,  pressing  out  all  super- 
fluous glue;  turn  the  work  round,  begin 
at  the  middle  again,  and  work  off  at  the 
other  end,  going  over  it  several  times 
until  it  has  stuck  ;  keep  it  damp  all  the 
time  with  the  sponge  ;  a  slight  tap  with 
the  back  of  the  hammer  will  tell  if  it  is 
firm  by  the  sound  ;  lay  a  weight  on  it, 
and  set  it  to  dry  near  the  fire.  Veneer 
is  laid  in  two  ways,  by  cauls,  and  with 
the  veneering  hammer.  Both  systems 
are  used  to  about  an  equal  extent, 
the  caul  being  better  suited  to  some 
kinds  of  work,  and  the  hammer  to 
others.  An  amateur  will  find  it  much 
better  to  use  the  caul  when  practicable, 
as  all  tha>,  is  necessary  is  to  prepare  the 
surface  of  the  article,  glue  it  with  thick 
glue,  lay  on  the  veneer,  and  on  that  the 
jjreviously  heated  caul.  The  hand- 
screws  are  now  applied,  and  the  whole 
left  until  cold.  In  laying  small  pieces 
with  the  hammer  it  is  merely  necessary 
to  glue  one  side  and  damp  the  other,  to 
keep  it  from  curling,  but  with  large 
surfaces  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  heated 
flat  iron  in  advance  of  the  hammer,  and 
to  do  this  effectively  requires  no  little 
practice.  The  cauls  should  be  either 
soaped  before  use,  or  pieces  of  paper 
should  be  placed  between  them  and  the 
veneer  to  prevent  sticking. 

Cauls. — The  cauls  are  made  of  dry 
pine  wood,  and  should  be  free  from 
knots  and  flaws.  They  must  be  made  in 
shape  the  exact  converse  of  the  surface 
which  is  to  be  veneered.    If  the  veneered 


112 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


surface  is  flat,  the  caul  is  flat  also ;  if 
convex,  the  caul  must  be  concave.  In 
oi-Jer  to  ensure  perfect  contact  between 
the  caul  and  the  veneer  throughout  the 
entire  surface,  it  is  found  advisable  to 
malce  the  cauls  of  such  a  thickness  as 
will  allow  them  to  bend  slightly  under 
the  pressure  of  the  iiandscrews.  They 
are  then  shaped  to  touch  only  in  the 
middle  of  the  woriv,  when,  by  screwing 
the  caul  and  the  worlt  together  at  the 
edges,  a  great  pressure  commences  at  the 
centre  and  spreads  in  all  directions  to- 
wards the  edges,  forcing  the  superfluous 
glue  out  in  advance. 

Veneering  Hammer.  —  Take  an  ordi- 
nary hammer,  place  the  head  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand  witli  the  handle  stick- 
ing out  forward,  place  the  toe  upon  a 
piece  of  veneer  j)reviously  glued  on  the 
under  side,  and  wriggle  the  liandle  back- 
wards and  forwards  from  right  to  left, 
at  the  same  time  pressing  downwards  ; 
the  supeitiuous  glue  will  be  worked  out 
to  the  edges,  and  the  veneer  will  remam 
sticking  to  the  wood  underneath.  As 
the  toe  of  a  common  hammer  is  found 
too  narrow  in  practice,  the  veneering 
hammer  is  substituted,  which  consists 
in  the  simplest  form  of  a  flat  sijuare  of 
hard  wood  or  iron,  with  a  handle  stuck 
in  perjiendicularly,  and  is  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  described  above. 

Removing  Blisters  from  Veneer. — First 
wash  the  e.xterior  of  the  blister  with 
boiling  water,  and  with  a  coarse  cloth 
remove  dirt  and  grease  ;  tiieu  place  it 
before  the  (ire,  or  heat  it  with  a  caul  ; 
oil  its  surface  with  common  linseed  oil  ; 
place  it  again  to  the  (ire,  and  the  heat 
will  make  the  oil  penetrate  quite 
through  the  vonocr  and  soften  the  glue 
underneath,  then  while  hot  raise  the 
edge  gently  with  a  cliisel,  and  it  will 
sejiarate  completely  from  the  ground; 
be  careful  not  to  use  too  great  force  or 
it  wii!  Kjioil  tlic  work  again.  If  it 
should  get  cold  during  the  operation, 
a[«ply  moi-e  oil  and  lieat  it  again  ;  re]ieat 
tiiis  procfss  to  entirely  scitarate  the 
veneer;  then  wash  olfthe  old  glue,  and 
proceed  to  lay  it  again  ns  a  new  veneer. 

I>ri;iNO  W(X)i)  I'oK  Vi:ni:i;ii.s. — Dye- 
ing' won.'  is  mostly  practised  for  veneers, 


while  staining  iy  generally  to  give  the 
desired  colour  to  the  article  after  it  has 
been  manufactured.  In  the  first  case 
the  colour  should  penetrate  throughout, 
while  in  the  latter  a  surface  colour  only 
is  essential.  In  dyeing,  pear-tree,  holly, 
and  beecli  take  the  best  black,  but  for 
most  colours  holly  is  preferable.  It  is 
also  best  to  have  the  wood  as  young 
and  as  newly  cut  as  ])ossible.  After  the 
veneers  are  cut,  they  should  be  allowed 
to  lie  in  a  trough  of  water  for  four  or 
five  days  before  placing  them  into  the 
copper;  the  water,  acting  as  a  purga- 
tive to  the  wood,  brings  out  abundance 
of  slimy  matter.  After  this  imrifying 
process  they  should  be  dried  in  the  open 
air  for  at  least  12  hours;  they  are  then 
ready  for  the  copper.  By  these  simjile 
means  the  colour  will  strike  much 
(juicker,  and  be  of  a  brighter  hue.  It 
would  also  add  to  the  improvement  of  the 
colours,  if,  after  the  veneers  have  boiled 
a  few  hours,  they  are  taken  out,  di'ied 
m  the  air,  and  again  immersed  in  tiie 
colouring  co])i)er.  Always  dry  veneers 
in  the  ojien  air  ;  for  fire  invariably 
injures  the  colours. 

Fine  Bltck.—  \.  Put  6  lbs.  of  chip 
logwood  into  the  co]iper,  with  as  many 
veneers  as  it  will  conveniently  hold, 
without  pressing  too  tight;  fill  it  with 
water,  and  boil  slowly  for  about  three 
hours ;  then  add  J  lb.  of  powdered 
verdigris,  ^  lb.  of  cojiperas,  and  4  oz.  ot 
lu'uised  nut-galls  ;  fill  tiie  copjier  U]i  with 
bniljng  vinegar  as  tlie  water  evaporates  ; 
let  it  boil  gently  two  lioui-s  each  day,  till 
the  wood  is  dyed  through.  2.  Procure 
some  liquor  from  a  tanner's  pit,  or 
make  a  strong  decoction  of  oak  bark, 
and  to  every  gallon  of  the  liquor  add 
\  II).  of  green  copperas,  and  mix  them 
well  together;  put  the  li(iiu)r  into  the 
ciijipcr,  ami  make  it  (piile  hot,  but  not 
to  hdil  ;  iuimersc  the  veneers  in  it,  and 
let  them  remain  for  an  hour;  take  them 
out,  and  exjiose  them  to  the  air  till  it 
has  penetrated  its  substance;  then  add 
some  logwood  to  the  solution,  place  tlif 
veneers  again  m  't,  and  let  it  simmer  for 
two  or  three  hours;  let  the  whole  cool 
gradually,  dry  the  veneers  in  the  shade. 
;i.  A    good    black    stain    fur    iminediata 


WORKSHOP   HECEIPTS. 


dl3 


Ose.  Boil  I  lb.  of  chip  logwood  in  2 
quarts  of  water,  add  1  oz.  of  pearlash, 
and  apply  hot  with  a  brush.  Then  take 
a  similar  decoction  of  loc'"vood,  and  to 
it  add  ^  oz  of  verdigris  and  |  oz.  of 
cojipL-ras  ;  strain  well,  add  |  lb.  of  rusty 
steel  tilings,  and  apjily. 

Blue. —  1.  Into  a  clean  glass  bottle 
put  1  lb.  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and  4  oz.  of 
the  best  indigo  pounded  in  a  mortar ; 
set  the  bottle  in  a  basin  or  earthen 
glazed  pan,  as  it  will  ferment ;  now  put 
the  veneers  into  a  copper,  or  stone 
trough  ;  fill  it  rather  more  than  ird 
with  water,  and  add  as  much  of  the 
vitriol  and  indigo,  stin-ing  it  about,  as 
will  make  a  fiue  blue  ;  let  the  veneers 
remain  till  the  dye  has  struck  through. 
The  colour  will  be  much  improved  if 
the  solution  of  indigo  in  vitriol  is  kept 
a  few  weeks  before  using. 

Yellow. — Reduce  4  lbs.  of  the  root  of 
barberry,  by  sawing,  to  dust,  which  put 
in  a  copjier  or  brass  trough;  add  4  oz. 
of  turmeric,  and  4  gallons  of  water, 
then  put  in  as  many  white  holly  veneers 
as  the  liquor  will  cover;  boil  them  to- 
gether for  .'i  hours,  often  turning  them; 
whuu  codi,  add  2  oz.  of  aquafurtis,  and 
the  dye  will  strike  through  much 
sooner. 

Bright  Yellow. — To  every  gallon  of 
water  necessary  add  1  lb.  of  French 
berries;  boil  the  veneers  till  the  colour 
nas  iienetratcd  through  ;  add  the  follow- 
ing liquid  to  the  infusion  of  the  French 
berries,  and  let  the  veneers  remain  for 
2  or  3  hours,  and  the  colour  will  be 
very  bright. 

Liquid  for  Brightening  and  Setting 
Colours. — To  every  pint  of  strong  aqua- 
fortis add  1  oz.  of  grain  tin,  and  a 
piece  of  sal  ammoniac  of  the  size  of  a 
walnut ;  set  it  by  to  dissolve,  shake  the 
bottle  round  with  the  cork  out,  from 
time  to  time ;  in  the  course  of  2  or  3 
days  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  This  is  an 
admirable  liquid  to  add  to  any  colour, 
as  it  not  only  brightens  it,  but  renders 
it  less  likely  to  fade  from  exposure  to 
the  air. 

Bright  Green. — 1.  Proceed  as  in  either 
of  the  above  receipts  to  produce  a  yel- 
low ;  instead  of  adding  aquafortis  oi  the 


brightening  liquid,  add  as  much  sul- 
phate of  indigo  as  will  produce  the 
desired  colour.  2.  Dissolve  4  oz.  of  the 
best  verdigris,  and  sap-green  and  indigo 

1  oz.  each,  in  3  pints  of  the  best  vin- 
egar ;  put  in  the  veneers,  and  gently 
boil  till  the  colour  has  penetrated  suffi- 
ciently. The  hue  of  the  green  may  be 
varied  by  altering  the  projiortion  of  the 
ingredients ;  and  unless  wanted  for  a 
particular  purpose,  leave  out  the  sap- 
green,  as  it  is  a  vegetable  colour  very 
apt  to  change,  or  turn  brown,  when 
exposed  to  the  air. 

Bright  Bed. — 1.  To  2  lbs.  of  genuine 
Brazil  dust  add  4  gallons  of  water;  put 
in  as  many  veneers  as  the  liquor  will 
cover ;  boil  them  for  3  hours  ;  then  add 

2  oz.  of  alum,  and  2  oz.  of  aquafortis, 
and  keep  it  lukewarm  until  it  has  struck 
through.  2.  To  every  pound  of  logwood 
chips  add  2  gallons  of  water  ;  put  in 
the  veneers,  and  boil  as  in  the  last ; 
then  add  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the 
brightening  liquid  ;  keep  the  whole 
warm  till  the  colour  has  sufficiently 
penetrated.  The  logwood  chips  should 
be  picked  from  all  foreign  substances, 
with  which  it  generally  abounds,  as 
bark  and  dirt ;  it  is  always  best  when 
fresh  cut,  which  may  be  known  by  its 
appearing  of  a  bright-red  colour;  if 
stale  it  will  look  brown,  and  will  not 
yield  so  much  colouring  matter. 

Purple. — 1.  To  2  lbs.  of  chip  logwood 
and  J  lb.  of  Brazil  dust  add  4  gallons 
of  water,  and  after  putting  in  the 
veneers,  boil  them  for  at  least  3  hours ; 
then  add  (3  oz.  of  pearlash  and  2  oz.  of 
alum ;  let  them  boil  for  2  or  3  hours 
every  day,  till  the  colour  has  struck 
through.  The  Brazil  dust  is  to  make 
the  purple  of  a  red  cast ;  it  may,  there- 
fore, be  omitted,  if  a  deep  blueish  purple 
is  required.  2.  Boil  2  lbs.  of  logwood, 
either  in  chips  or  powder,  in  4  gallons 
of  water  with  the  veneers ;  after  boil- 
ing till  the  colour  is  well  struck  in,  add 
by  degrees  sulphate  of  indigo,  till  the 
purple  is  of  the  shade  required,  which 
may  be  known  by  trying  it  with  a  piece 
of  paper;  let  it  then  boil  for  1  hour, 
and  keep  the  liquid  in  a  milk-warm 
state  till  the  colour  has  penetrated  the 


414 


WORKSHOP   RECEllTS. 


veueer.  This  method,  when  properly 
managed,  will  produce  a  brilliant  purple, 
not  so  likely  to  fade  as  the  foregoing. 

Oranje. — Let  the  veneers  be  dyed,  by 
either  of  the  methods  previously  givec, 
of  a  fine  deep  yellow,  and  whilst  they 
are  still  wet  and  saturated  with  the 
dye,  transfer  them  to  the  bright-red 
dye  till  the  colom*  penetrates  equally 
throughout. 

Silver  Grey. — 1.  Expose  to  the  wea- 
ther in  a  cast-iron  pot  of  6  or  8  gallons, 
old  iron  nails,  Iioojjs,  or  other  scraps, 
till  covered  with  rust  ;  add  1  gallon  of 
vinegar  and  2  of  water,  boil  all  well  for 
an  hour;  have  the  veneers  ready,  which 
must  be  air-wood,  not  too  dry  ;  put  them 
in  the  copper  used  to  dye  black,  and 
pour  the  iron  liquor  over  them ;  add 
1  lb.  of  chip  logwood,  and  2  oz.  of 
bruised  nut-galls;  then  boil  up  another 
l)ot  of  the  iron  liquor  to  supply  the 
copper  with,  keejiing  the  veneers  covered, 
and  boiling  two  liours  a  day,  till  of  the 
required  coloui-.  2.  Exi)0se  any  quantity 
of  old  iron  in  any  convenient  vessel, 
and  from  time  to  time  s]UMnkle  them 
with  spirits  of  salt,  diluted  iu  four  times 
its  quantity  of  water,  till  they  are  very 
thickly  covered  with  rust ;  then  to  every 
6  lbs.  add  a  gallon  of  water,  in  which 
has  been  dissolved  2  oz.  of  salts  of  tartar ; 
lay  the  veneers  in  the  cojiper,  and  cover 
them  with  this  liquid ;  let  it  boil  for  two 
or  .3  hours  till  well  soaked,  then  to 
every  gallon  of  liquor  add  \  lb.  of  green 
,0]>penis,  and  keep  the  whole  at  a  mode- 
rate leinjiei-ature  till  the  dye  has  sulFi- 
cieiitly  peuetrated. 

Staining  Woods. — Staining  wood 
is  quite  a  dili'erent  px-ocess  to  dyeing  it, 
and  requires  no  previous  preparation  of 
the  wcxxi.  There  is  little  trouble  in 
pri'paring  the  stain,  and  its  application 
dillers  but  slightly  from  painting.  Stain- 
ing is  divided  into  wa>hing,  matching, 
imitating,  painting,  and  improving. 

WasUinij  consist!)  in  coating  common 
white  deal  or  fir  with  a  dilute  aqueous 
BolutioD  of  clear  glue,  xuitably  tinted 
with  a  proper  combination  of  two  or 
more  colours,  such  as  1  part  red-lead, 
or  Venetian  red,  with  2  parts  yellow- 
U:ad,  chrome  or  ochre,  for  a  mahogany 


colour ;  equal  parts  of  burnt  umber  aad 
brown  ochre  for  the  antique  hues  of  old 
wainscot  oak  ;  Venetian  red,  tinted  with 
lampblack,  for  the  shades  of  rosewood  ; 
ivory  black  for  ebony  ;  whiting,  or  white- 
lead,  tinted  with  orange  chrome,  for  th« 
tones  of , white-yellowish  woods  ;  burnt 
umber,  modified  with  yel-'ow  ochre,  fur 
walnut,  and  so  on.  Wash  colour  should 
always  be  applied  in  a  warm  state  by  a 
flannel,  and  the  coloured  wood  ought  to 
be  evenly  wiped  dry  with  shavings  or 
rags. 

Matching  is  to  bring  different  pieces 
of  timber,  in  an  article  of  furniture,  to  a 
res)ionsive  tciie  of  colour,  so  that  they 
may  represent  the  ap])earance  of  one 
entire  piece.  First  bleach  the  darkest 
parts,  by  carefully  coating  them  with  a 
strong  solution  of  oxalic  acid  in  hot 
water,  to  which  is  added  a  few  dro))s  of 
spirits  of  nitre.  When  the  blanched 
parts  become  dry,  coat  them  two  or 
three  times  with  white  polish  by  means 
ofa  camel-jiencil.  This  process  does  not 
always  prove  satisfactory,  in  which  case 
lay  on  a  delicate  coat  of  white  stain, 
and  another  of  white  varnish  ;  then  give 
the  intermediate  dark  parts  a  coat  of 
common  varnish,  and  proceed  to  oil  all 
the  untouched  white  portions ;  ne.xt 
com])are  the  whole,  and  when  the  white 
pieces  happen  to  be  much  lighter  than 
the  dark  ones,  colour  them  the  exact 
hue  by  coating  them  with  a  darkening 
stain. 

Darhcncrs. — The  ilarkeners  in  general 
use  are  logwooil,  lime,  brown  soft  soap, 
dyed  oil,  aquafortis,  sulphate  of  iron, 
nitrate  of  silver,  with  exposure  to  the 
sun's  ray.s,  carbonate  of  soda,  bichromate 
and  permanganate  of  potash,  and  other 
jiroparatiiins  of  an  acidulous  or  alkaline 
nature.  Of  thesi'  the  latter  three  are 
the  most  preferable.  Procure  1  oz.  of 
one  of  these  alkalies,  jiowder,  and  dis- 
solve in  '2  gills  of  boiling  water;  next 
get  3  bottles,  label  them  1,  2,  .S,  or 
weak,  medium,  and  strong ;  put  J  of 
the  solution  into  No.  3,  and  J  gill  into 
No.  2,  and  the  same  into  No.  1  ;  then 
jiour  HD  additional  gill  of  clean  water 
into  No.  2,  and  2  gills  of  the  same  into 
No.   1.     Uy   separately  dissolving   both 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


415 


alkalies  in  the  manner  described,  six 
liquids  are  obtained  capable  of  staining 
nearly  all  casts  of  wood  of  a  complete 
series  of  brown  and  dark  tints.  The 
solutions  of  carbonate  are  generally  used 
for  dark  materials,  like  rosewood,  and 
those  of  the  bichromate  are  applicable 
to  all  the  intermediate  and  white  woods, 
»ach  as  mahogany,  oak,  and  oeech.  The 
safest  way  to  use  these  alkaline  fluids  is 
to  pour  a  suliicient  quantity  into  a 
saucer,  into  which  dip  a  sponge  or  a 
flannel,  in  order  to  saturate  it  tho- 
roughly, then  with  it  rub  evenly  over 
the  timber,  and  instantly  dry  off  the 
stained  surface  with  a  handful  of  rags 
or  other  soft  waste  ;  to  ensure  success, 
follow  out  this  manipulat.'oQ  with  great 
care  and  the  utmost  disjiatch.  When 
the  dark  and  light  portions  are  neither 
very  black  nor  very  white,  varnish  the 
former,  and  allow  the  latter  to  stand  in 
nil  for  a  time. 

Improvinij. — An  aqueous  decoction  of 
barberry  root,  or  au  alcoholic  solution  of 
gamboge  or  turmeric,  will,  if  properly 
applied,  impart  a  delicate  yellow  hue. 
Oily  decoctions  of  alkanet-root,  and  alco- 
holic solutions  of  dragon's-blood,  yield 
rich  mild  reds.  Rectified  naphtha  that 
has  been  dyed  with  camwood  dust  serves 
for  another  reddening  tincture.  Lightish 
hard  wood,  such  as  birch,  is  frequently 
improved  in  colour  by  being  sponged 
with  oil  that  is  slightly  tinted  with  rose 
madder,  or  Venetian  red.  A  solution  of 
asphaltum  in  spirits  of  turpentine  makes 
a  brown  stain  for  coarse  oaken  work, 
which  is  only  intended  to  be  varnished 
with  boiled  oil.  When  discoloured  ebony 
has  been  sponged  once  or  twice  with  a 
strong  decoction  of  gall-nuts,  to  which  a 
quantity  of  steel  dust  has  been  added,  its 
natural  blackness  becomes  much  more 
intense.  The  naturally  pale  ground  and 
obscure  grain  of  Honduras  mahogany  is 
often  well  brought  out  by  its  being 
coated  first  with  spirit  of  hartshorn  and 
then  with  red  oil.  Greyish  maple  may 
be  whitened  by  the  process  already  de- 
scribed in  matching.  Half  a  gallon  of 
water,  in  which  ^  lb.  of  oak  bark  and 
the  same  quantity  of  walnut  shells  or 
pceis    have     been     thoroughly    boiled, 


makes  an  excellent  improver  of  poor 
rosewood  ;  it  is  also  far  before  any  other 
of  its  kind  for  Iringing  out  to  perfection 
the  veiny  figures  and  ground  shades  of 
walnut.  Raw  oil,  mixed  with  a  little 
sjiirits  of  turpentine,  is  the  most  elfica- 
cious  improver  of  a  great  number  of 
materials.  Beautiful  artificial  graining 
may  be  imparted  to  various  specimens 
of  timber,  by  means  of  a  camel-pencil, 
with  raw  oil  alone  ;  that  is,  certain  por- 
tions may  be  coated  two  or  three  times, 
so  as  to  resemble  the  rich  varying  veins 
which  constitute  the  fibril  figures ; 
while  the  common  ground  shades  may 
only  be  once  coated  with  the  oil  very 
much  diluted  with  spirits  of  turpentine. 

To  Improve  the  Colour  of  any  Stain, 
— llix  in  a  bottle  1  oz.  of  nitric  acid, 
J  teaspoonful  of  muiiatic  acid,  \  oz.  of 
grain  tin,  and  2  oz.  of  rain  water.  Mix 
it  at  least  2  days  before  using,  and  keep 
the  bottle  well  corked. 

Directions  for  Staining. — In  preparing 
any  of  the  tinctures,  it  is  of  importance 
to  powder  or  mash  all  the  dry  stutfs 
previous  to  dissolving  or  macerating 
them,  and  to  purify  all  the  liquids  bv 
filtration  before  use.  Their  colouring 
powers,  which  mainly  depend  on  very 
accurate  combinations  of  the  requisite 
ingredients,  should  always  be  carefully 
tested  before  a  free  use  is  made  of  them, 
and  the  absorbent  jnoj'orties  of  the  ma- 
tei'ials  intended  to  be  stained  should  be 
tested  likewise.  It  will  be  better  foi 
inexperienced  hands  to  coat  twice  or 
three  times  with  a  weak  stain  than  onlv 
once  with  a  very  strong  one,  as  bv 
adopting  the  first  mode  a  particular 
tint  may  be  gradually  effected,  whereas, 
by  pursuing  the  latter  course,  an  irre- 
mediable discolourization  may  be  the 
result.  Coarse  pieces  of  carving,  spongy 
end,  and  cross-grained  woods,  should  be 
previously  prepared  for  the  reception 
of  stain ;  this  is  best  done  by  putting 
on  a  thin  layer  of  varnish,  letting 
it  dry,  and  then  glass-papering  it  com- 
pletely off  again.  Fine  work  merely 
requires  to  t)e  oiled  and  slightly  rubbed 
with  the  finest  glass-paper.  Thus  pre- 
pared, the  woody  fibre  is  enabled  to  take 
on  the  stain  more  regularly,  and  to  retain 


4:16 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPIS* 


a  high  degree  of  smoothness.  When  stain 
is  put  on  with  a  Hat  hog-hair  tool,  it  is 
usually  softened  by  a  skillul  but  moderate 
application  of  a  badger-hair  softener. 
The  steel  comb  is  chiefly  emjiloyed  for 
streaking  artificial  oak,  and  the  mattler 
is  used  for  variegating  and  uniting  the 
shades  and  tints  of  mahogany.  Flannels 
and  sponges  are  often  worked  with  in- 
stead of  brushes,  but  the  implemenis 
most  serviceable  for  veining  or  engram- 
ing  purposes  are  small  badger  sash  tools 
and  sable  pencils.  The  effect  produced 
by  a  coat  of  stain  cannot  be  ascertained 
until  it  has  buen  allowed  a  sullicieiil 
drying  period. 

Worralt's  Process  for  Imitating  Woods. 
•^The  surface  of  the  wood  is  first  made 
perfectly  smooth  and  level,  and  if  close- 
grained  the  surface  is  covered  with 
strong  or  dilute  alkalies,  such  as  potash, 
soda,  and  ammonia,  or  other  alkalies  and 
their  carbonates,  or  with  ethylic,  or 
metliylic  ethers  and  alcohols,  or  spirits 
of  turpentine,  camphine,  benzole,  and 
chlorofoiTH,  or  with  oils  of,  or  solutions 
of,  soaps,  hot  or  c«ld,  so  jis  to  soften  and 
dissolve  out  the  i-esinous  substances  na- 
turally present  in  the  cells  or  pores  of 
the  wood.  If  tlie  wood  is  very  close- 
grained,  the  surface  is  to  be  covered 
with  any  corrosive  acid,  such  as  concen- 
trated sul]>huric,  nitric,  hydrochloric, 
or  chromic  acids,  so  as  to  corrode,  or 
etch  the  soft  parts  of  the  wood,  and  leave 
the  harder  \y.\rli  elevated,  and  to  enlarge 
the  jiores;  this  ])rocess  is  rejicated  until 
the  desired  effect  is  obtaiueil. 

Imitatiw/  Oak  Wamscot.  —  1,  To 
make  American  ash  like  oak  wainscot, 
both  in  vein  and  shade,  commence  by 
sketching  out,  ui)on  cert.iin  parts  of  the 
ashen  exterior,  the  reiiuisite  white  veins 
by  mians  of  a  camel-pencil  with  wintc 
tttain  ;  that  done,  coat  the  veins  with 
thin  varin-h,  and  then  darken  the  gene- 
ral ground,  dealmg  carel"ully  through- 
out the  entire  process  with  the  veined 
portions.  2.  The  best  mode  of  jiroduc- 
ing  a  rc])rcsenlati()n  of  o.ik  wains(ot 
upon  white  materials  like  beach  and  fir, 
is  as  fidlows  ; — A  coat  of  .Sfe{>heiw'  satin- 
wood  stain  is  regularly  laid  on,  then  a 
saft  graining  comb  is  goutly  drawn  along 


the  stained  space,  and  when  the  stieaka 
are  all  correctly  produced,  the  vems  are 
formed  with  white  stain,  made  by  di- 
gesting I  oz.  pearl  white,  subnitrate  of 
bismuth,  and  1  oz.  of  isinglass,  in  2  gills 
of  boiling  water.  The  tone  of  this  slain 
may  be  modified  by  being  diluted  with 
water,  or  tinted  with  otlier  stains. 

To  Imitiite  Various  Woods. — Showy 
elmroot,  after  being  delicately  darkened, 
passes  in  appearance  for  Italian  walnut. 
To  imitate  the  contour  and  rich  ground 
of  rosewood  upon  inferior  white  mate- 
rials, produce  the  ground  sliade  by 
sponging  with  a  decoction  of  Brazil  wood, 
antl  the  fibril  veins  by  brushing  par- 
tially with  black  liquor,  whicli  is  pre- 
pared by  boiling  logwood  chips,  sulphate 
of  iron,  and  steel  tilings,  in  equally  ju-o- 
jiortioned  quantities  of  vinegar  and 
water.  Sometimes  a  graining  comb  is 
passed  over  the  ground  sliade  longitudi- 
nally, and  with  a  slight  vibrating  mo- 
tion, so  as  to  ellect  natural-looking 
streaks,  previous  to  the  pencilling  or 
veining.  The  aspect  of  ebony  may  l>e 
given  to  any  sj)ecies  of  wood  by  the  ap- 
]dication  of  three  distinct  coats  of  black 
liquor;  and  at"ter  being  smootiied,  the 
counterfeit  ebony  may  be  embodied  with 
white  ])oiish;  this  greatly  hel))s  to  pre- 
serve the  transparent  density  of  tiie 
dyed  material. 

There  is  a  method  of  colouring  woods 
not  generally  known  in  the  trade;  the 
surface  to  be  coloured  is  smeared  with 
a  strong  solution  of  permanganate  of 
potash,  which  is  let't  on  for  a  longer  or 
a  shorter  time,  according  to  the  shade 
required ;  in  most  cases  5  minutes  suf- 
fice. Cherry  and  pear  tree  woods  are 
most  easily  attacked,  but  a  few  experi- 
ments will  serve  to  show  the  most 
favourable  circumstances;  the  woody 
fibre  decomjioses  the  permanganate, 
precijiitatiiig  peroxide  of  manganese, 
which  is  fixed  in  the  fibre  by  the  pot- 
ash simultaneously  .set  free.  When  the 
action  is  ended,  the  wood  is  carefully 
washed,  dried,  anil  afterwards  oiled  and 
|)olished  in  the  ordinary  way.  'i'he 
effect  of  this  tre.itnient  on  many  kinds 
of  woo<l  is  surprising,  ])articularly  on 
cherry  woods,  to  which  a  beautiful  red- 


WORKSHOP   RKCF.IPTS. 


417 


Jish  tone  is  communicated.     The  colour 
is  permanent  in  light  and  air. 

Mordants. — The  virtues  of  dye-stuffs 
may  be  much  enhanced  by  the  addition 
of  a  mordant  to  modify  and  fasten  the 
shades  they  impart.  Spirit  of  nitre  for 
the  satinwood  stain  ;  a  powerful  solu- 
tion of  oxalic  acid  for  the  oak ;  and 
dilute  nitrous  acid  for  the  mahogany. 

Imitating  Mahogany. — When  curly- 
veined  birch  and  beech  have  been  regu- 
larly brushed  with  aquafortis  and  dried 
at  the  fire,  they  both  look  remarkably 
like  mahogany.  A  decoction  of  logwood 
and  fustic,  when  put  on  in  a  tepid  state, 
produces  a  similar  effect.  The  French 
mode  consists  in  brushing  the  white 
timber  with  a  dilute  solution  of  nitrous 
acid ;  it  is  then  coated  once  or  twice 
with  finishing  spirit,  in  which  a  quantity 
of  carbonate  of  soda  and  dragon's-blood 
has  been  dissolved,  the  proper  propor- 
tions to  1  gill  of  spirit  being  |  of  an 
ounce  of  the  soda,  and  \  of  an  ounce  of 
the  blood ;  the  wood  is  afterwards 
finished  with  varnish  or  polish  of  a 
reddish-brown  tint.  In  producing  this 
shade  of  colour,  London  stainers  fre- 
quently use  a  rich  brownish-red  kind  of' 
chalk,  the  colour  of  which  is  analogous 
to  that  of  fine  Spanish  mahogany.  It  is 
commonly  applied  in  the  form  of  a  dry 
powder,  by  means  of  a  brush,  and  then 
well  rubbed  with  another  brush  or  coarse 
flannel. 

To  Stain  Beech  a  Mahogany  Colour. — 
Put  2  oz.  of  dragon's-blood,  broken  in 
pieces,  into  a  quart  of  rectified  spirits  of 
wine;  let  the  bottle  stand  in  a  warm 
place,  shake  it  frequently ;  when  dis- 
solved it  is  fit  for  use. 

Imitation  of  Mahogany. — Plane  the 
surface  smooth,  and  rub  with  a  solution 
of  nitrous  acid.  Then  apply  with  a  soft 
brush  1  oz.  of  dragon's-blood  dissolved 
in  about  a  pint  of  alcohol,  and  with 
^  of  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  soda  mix3d 
and  filtered.  When  the  brilliancy  of  the 
polish  diminishes,  it  may  be  restored  by 
the  use  of  a  little  cold-drawn  linseed 
oil. 

Mahogany  Stain. — Dark. — 1.  Boil  |  lb. 
of  madder  and  2  oz.  of  logwood  chips  in 
1  gall,  of  water,  and   brush  well  ever 


the  wood  while  hot  .  when  dry,  go  over 
the  whole  with  peariasn  solution,  2  drami. 
to  the  quart.  Ltght. — 2.  Put  2  oz.  of 
dragon's-blooa,  well  bruised,  into  1  quart 
of  oil  of  turpentine  ;  let  the  bottle  stand 
in  a  warm  place,  shake  frequently,  and 
when  dissolved,  steep  the  work  in  the 
mixture.  3.  Raw  and  burnt  sienna. 
Grind  the  raw  sienna  on  a  painter's 
stone,  mixed  with  beer  ;  this  will  give 
a  very  light  mahogany  stain.  Then 
grind  the  burnt,  and  add  as  much  of 
it  to  the  raw  sienna  as  is  required  to 
make  it  the  necessary  colour  ;  lay  it  on 
moderately  thin  with  a  brush,  and  then 
wipe  it  off  with  a  piece  of  wadding  or 
cotton  wool ;  when  dry,  oil,  size,  var- 
nish, or  polish  it,  whichever  required. 
It  is  very  cheap. 

To  Remove  Stains  from  Mahogany. — 
Mix  6  oz.  of  spirit  of  salt  and  ^  oz.  of 
powdered  salt  of  lemons.  Drop  a  little 
of  this  mixture  on  the  stains,  and  rub 
well  with  a  cork  until  they  disappear, 
then  wash  off  with  cold  water. 

Imitating  Rosewood.  —  1.  A  trans- 
parent liquid  rose-pink,  used  in  imita- 
ting rosewood,  consists  in  mixing  \  lb 
of  potash  in  1  gall,  of  hot  water,  and 
\  lb.  of  red  sanders  wood  is  added  there- 
to ;  when  the  colour  of  the  wood  is 
extracted,  2J  lbs.  of  gum  shellac  are 
added  and  dissolved  over  a  quick  fire ; 
the  mixture  is  then  ready  to  be  used  on 
a  groundwork  made  with  logwood  stain. 

2.  Boil  J  lb.  of  logwood  in  3  pints  of 
water  till  it  is  of  a  very  dark  red,  add 
J  oz.  of  salts  of  tartar.  While  boiling 
hot,  stain  the  wood  with  two  or  three 
coats,  taking  care  that  it  is  nearly  dry 
between  each ;  then  with  a  stiff  fiat 
brush,  such  as  is  used  by  the  painters 
for  graining,  form  streaks  with  black 
stain.  This  imitation  will  very  nearly 
equal  the  appearance  of  dark  rosewood. 

3.  Stain  with  the  black  stain,  and  when 
dry,  with  a  brush  as  above  dipped  in 
the  brightening  liquid,  form  red  veins 
in  imitation  of  the  grain  of  rosewood. 
A  handy  brush  for  the  purpose  may  be 
made  out  of  a  flat  brush,  such  as  is  used 
for  varnishing  ;  cut  the  sharp  points  off, 
and  make  the  edges  irregular  by  cutting 
out  a  few  hairs  here  and  there,  and  you 

2  £ 


418 


WORKSHOP   KICEIPTS. 


wil     have  a  tool   which   will   actually 
imitate  the  grain. 

Bronzing  Inliiid  Work. — A  method 
used  for  decorating  inlaid  work  is  the 
use  of  a  bronzing  liquid,  which  consists 
of  a  fluid  bronze  composition  formed  by 
combining  metallic  powder  of  gilding 
and  bronze  powder  with  collodion,  which 
composition  is  capable  of  being  apjilied 
as  a  bronze  liquid  to  surfaces  of  wood, 
iron,  or  any  solid  material,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  coating  the  same  for  decoration 
or  j)reservation. 

To  fmitate  King  or  Botany  Bay  Wood. 
— Boil  J  lb.  of  French  berries  in  2  quarts 
of  water  till  of  a  deep  yellow,  and  while 
boiling  hot  give  two  or  three  coats ; 
when  nearly  dry,  form  the  grain  with 
T)lack  stain,  which  must  also  be  used  hot. 
For  variety,  to  heighten  the  colour,  after 
giving  it  two  or  three  coats  of  yellow, 
give  one  of  strong  logwood  liquor,  and 
then  use  the  black  stain  as  directed. 

Black  Stain. — Boil  1  lb.  of  logwood  in 
4  quarts  of  water,  add  a  double  handful 
of  walnut  peel  or  shells;  boil  it  up  again, 
take  out  the  chips,  add  a  pint  of  the  best 
vinegar,  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use;  apply 
it  boiling.  This  will  be  imjjroved,  if, 
when  dry,  a  solution  of  green  copperas, 
an  ounce  to  a  ([uart  of  water,  is  aiijilied 
hot  over  the  first  stain. 

Black  Stain  for  fmmcdiate  Use. — Boil 
^  lb.  of  chip  logwood  in  2  quarts  of  water, 
add  1  oz.  of  ])eai'lash,  and  apply  it  hot 
to  the  work  with  a  brush.  Then  take 
i  lb.  of  logwood,  boil  it  as  before  in 
2  quarts  of  water,  and  add  -J  oz.  of 
verdigris  and  J  oz.  of  co]>poras;  strain 
it  of)',  jiut  in  i  lb.  of  rusty  steel  filings  ; 
with  tliis  go  ovei  the  work  a  second 
time. 

Brown  Stain. — Paint  over  the  wood 
with  a  solution  made  by  boiling  1  part 
of  catechu,  ciitch,  or  gambiui-,  with  30 
parts  of  water  and  a  little  soda.  This 
is  allowfyl  to  dry  in  the  air,  and  then 
the  wood  is  painted  over  with  another 
solution  maile  of  1  ])art  of  biclii'oniate 
of  jKitash  and  .'?()  parts  of  water.  By  a 
little  difference  in  the  mode  of  treatment, 
and  by  varying  the  strength  of  the 
Bolutionn,  various  shades  of  colour  may 
be  c'^en    wi  h    these   inaterials,   whirh 


will  be  permanent,  and  tend  to  preserve 
the  wood. 

Bed  Stain.— I.  Take  1  lb.  of  Brazil 
wood  to  1  gall,  of  water,  boil  3  hours 
with  1  oz.  of  pearlash,  brush  it  hot  on 
the  wood,  and  while  hot  brush  the  wood 
with  a  solution  made  with  2  oz.  of  alum 
in  1  quart  of  water.  2.  An  infusion  of 
Brazil  wood  in  stale  urine,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  a  pound  to  a  gallon  for  wood  ; 
to  be  laid  on  when  boiling  hot,  and 
should  be  laid  over  with  alum  water 
before  it  dries.  Or,  a  solution  of  dra- 
gon's-blood in  spirits  of  wine  may  be 
used. 

Bed  Stain  for  Bedsteads  and  Common 
Chairs. — Archil  will  produce  a  very 
good  stain  of  itself  when  used  cold  ;  but 
if,  after  one  or  two  coats  being  applied 
and  suffered  to  get  almost  dry,  it  is 
brushed  over  with  a  hot  solution  of 
pearlash  iu  water,  it  will  improve  tlie 
colour. 

Walnut  Stain.  —  Water,  1  quart; 
washing  soda,  IJ  oz. ;  Vandyke  brown, 
2J  oz. ;  bichromate  of  potash,  J  oz.  Boil 
for  10  minutes,  and  apjily  with  a  brush, 
in  either  a  hot  or  cold  state. 

Oak  Stain. — Equal  parts  of  American 
potash  and  pearlash — 2  oz.  of  each  to 
about  a  quart  of  water.  This  gives  a 
good  stain  ;  it  requires  careful  apjilica- 
tion,  as  the  American  potash  is  a  strong 
solvent,  and  will  blister  the  hands;  it 
softens  a  good  paint-brush  once  using, 
so  use  a  very  common  brush,  and  ap])ly 
the  staining  with  it.  Keep  it  corked  up 
in  a  bottle,  and  it  is  always  ready  for 
use;  if  it  strikes  too  deep  a  colour,  add 
more  water. 

Khonij  Stains. — 1.  Stain  wmk  with 
the  black  stain,  adding  powden^d  nut- 
gall  to  the  logwoo<l  and  cojijieras  solu- 
tion, dry,  rub  down  well,  oil,  then  use 
French  polish  made  tolerably  dark  with 
indigo,  or  finely-]iowdorcd  stone  blue. 
2.  Hold  an  ordinary  slate  over  gas,  lamp, 
or  candle,  until  it  is  well  smoked  at  the 
bottom,  scrape  a  sullicieiit  (luantity  into 
French  ])olish,  and  well  mix  ;  then  polish 
the  article  in  the  ordinary  way.  If  there 
are  any  lumps  gently  rub  them  down 
and  apj)ly  another  coat.  3.  Prepare  a 
decoction  of  logwood  by  adding  a  small 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPtS. 


419 


handful  of  chips  to  a  pint  of  rain  water. 
Allow  this  to  simmer  until  reduced  one- 
fouith,  and  whilst  the  liquor  is  hot  dress 
the  work  to  be  ebonized  two  or  three 
times.  To  the  remainder  of  the  liquor 
add  two  bruised  nut-galls,  a  few  very 
rusty  nails,  bits  of  iron-hooping,  or  a 
piece  of  sulphate  of  iron  the  size  of  a 
walnut,  and  as  much  more  rain  water  rjs 
will  make  about  three-quarters  of  a  pmt 
of  liquor.  Apply  this,  which  will  be  a 
black  stain,  hot  as  before,  giving  two 
coats,  and  when  thoroughly  dry,  polish 
with  ordinary  French  polish,  to  which 
sufficient  powdered  thumb-blue  has  been 
added  to  percej)tibly  colour  the  polish. 
Use  a  glazed  pi])kin  in  which  to  prepare 
the  stain.  Take  care  that  no  oil  or 
grease  comes  in  contact  with  the  brushes 
used  or  the  surface  of  the  wood  until 
ready  for  polishing.  Let  each  coat  of 
stain  dry  before  the  next  is  added,  and 
rub  down  with  well-used,  fine  glass-paper. 
Sycamore,  chestnut,  and  plane-tree,  are 
the  best  woods  for  ebonizing  in  the 
above  manner.  4.  Infuse  gall-nuts  in 
vinegar  in  which  rusty  nails  have  been 
soaked,  rub  the  wood  with  the  infusion, 
dry,  polish,  burnish.  5.  Stain  in  the 
first  place  with  a  hot  saturated  solution 
of  logwood,  cotttaining  a  little  alum; 
and,  when  dry,  brush  it  over  with  com- 
mon writing  ink. 

Graining  "Woods. — Grounds. — 
These  are  gene^'ally  applied  by  the  house 
painter,  ready  for  the  grainer.  When 
the  grounds  arc  finished  to  the  tint  re- 
quired for  the  woods  to  he  imitated, 
they  must  be  left  to  get  quite  dry;  the 
work  is  then  ready  for  the  graining 
opei'ations. 

Mnhnijamj. — Orange  chromo,  Venetian 
red,  and  white-lead  mixed  in  such  pro- 
portions as  will  give  the  desired  tint. 
Vermilion,  raw  and  burnt  sienna,  are 
also  employed  to  modify  the  shades. 

Eosewood. — Vermilion,  Venetian  rod, 
a  little  scarlet  lake,  and  white-lead. 
For  ordinary  work  the  scarlet  lake  may 
be  dispensed  with. 

Bird's-eye  Maple  and  Satin  Wood. — 
White-lead  mixed  with  a  little  yellow 
ochre,  care  being  taken  not  to  make  the 
ground  of  too  dark  a  tint,  as  the  varnish 


to  be  afterwards  applied  will  still  frrther 
darken  it.  All  the  colours  foj-  these  light 
grounds  must  be  rubbed  quUe  smooth, 
and  be  well  strained. 

Dark  Oak. —  1.  Raw  sienna,  burnt 
umber,  white-lead,  and  Venetian  red. 
2.  Yellow  ochre,  Venetian  red,  and 
white-lead. 

Wainscot  Oak. — Dark, — Oxford  ochre, 
white-lead  and  Venetian  red,  or  chrome, 
yellow  ochi'e,  and  white-lead. 

Light. — Yellow  ochre  and  white-lead  ; 
the  desired  tint  is  obtained  by  the  use 
of  more  or  less  of  the  yellow  ochre. 

Oak  Graining  in  Oil.  —  1.  Vandyke 
brown  and  raw  sienna  for  dark  oak,  or 
finely-ground  burnt  umber  and  raw 
sienna  for  a  lighter  tint,  mixed  with 
equal  parts  of  turpentine  and  linseed 
oil.  Add  patent  driers.  Lay  this  co- 
lour on  thinly  and  evenly  with  a  large 
brush  ;  it  does  not  dry  very  rapidly.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  lay  on  too  much 
colour,  or  it  is  liable  to  have  a  dirty 
appearance.  Stipple  with  a  dry  dusting 
brush,  so  as  to  distribute  the  colour 
evenly  over  the  work.  As  in  real  oak 
it  is  invariably  found  that  one  side  of  a 
slab  is  coarser  than  the  other,  this  pe- 
culiarity of  pattern  must  he  imitated  in 
tlie  combing  process.  Take  a  cross-cut 
gutta-percha  comb,  and  draw  it  down 
one  side  of  the  panel,  use  a  finer  comb 
to  complete  it.  This  operation  produces 
straight  lines  of  the  grain  from  top  to 
bottom.  Next  take  a  fine  steel  comb, 
and  go  over  all  the  previous  combing  ; 
in  drawing  the  comb  down,  give  it  a 
short,  quick,  wavy  motion,  or  move  it 
diagonally  across  the  first  lines,  thus 
imitating  the  pores  of  the  real  wood. 
Cork  combs  may  also  be  used,  and  some 
grainers  use  a  coarse  steel  comb,  with  a 
fold  of  thin  rag  placed  over  the  teeth. 
By  a  skilful  combination  of  the  combs, 
hnA  a  tasteful  variation  in  their  use,  the 
different  kinds  of  oak  may  be  most  suc- 
cessfully imitated.  In  graining  joints 
of  the  various  portions'  of  a  piece  of  a 
work,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in 
the  real  wood  some  of  the  grain  would 
necessai-ily  have  a  perpendicular  di- 
rection, and  another  part  would  run 
horizontally,  and  that  one   part  would 

2  £  2 


420 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


appear  lighter  than  another,  owing  to 
th3  a.J*«Tfint  angles  in  which  it  would 
receive  the  rays  of  light.  After  comb- 
ing, the  figure,  or  veining,  must  be 
wiped  out  before  the  colour  is  dry. 
Hold  several  thicknesses  of  fine  rag,  or 
a  piece  of  clean  wash-leather  over  the 
thumb  nail,  wijie  down  a  few  veins,  then 
move  the  rag  or  leather  slightly,  so  as 
to  jiresent  a  clean  surface  for  the  next 
wipe.  A  piece  of  thin  gutta-percha, 
softened  in  wai  m  water,  and  pressed  to 
the  shape  of  the  thumb,  may  be  used  to 
preserve  the  nail,  but  cannot  be  relied 
on  to  remove  tha  colour  so  cleanly  as 
tlie  nail  covered  with  rag  or  leather;  it 
is  useful  for  common  work,  as  it  pro- 
tects the  nail  from  injury  and  wear. 
After  having  wiped  the  figures,  they 
must  be  softened  in  appearance  by  still 
furllier  wiping  the  grain  away  from 
their  edges  with  a  small  roll  of  clean 
rag,  so  as  to  imitate  the  apj)earance  of 
the  wood,  where  the  grain  is  always 
darker  than  the  parts  next  to  it.  When 
the  oil  colour  is  dry  it  must  be  over- 
grained. 

Overtraining. — This  operation  is  ])er- 
fornied  in  the  same  manner  both  upon 
work  which  has  been  oil  grained  or 
jpirit  grained.  In  overgrainiug,  water- 
colours  are  used  ;  and,  in  order  to  make 
them  adhere  to  the  underlying  graining, 
whether  in  sjiirit  or  in  oil,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  prepare  the  work  to  receive 
them,  otherwise  they  would  run  oil'  the 
surface  at  once.  One  method  is  to  rub 
dry  powdered  whiting  quickly  over  the 
surface  with  <a  soft  rag,  removing  su- 
perfluous powder  afterwards,  and  the 
grainor  can  at  once  finish  the  work. 
Another  jdan,  which  is  |>riMcipally  used 
when  a  lar^e  piece  of  wnrli  is  in  haml, 
IS  lo  rub  a  mixture  of  fullers'  eartii  and 
water  over  the  graining,  and  wait  until 
it  is  perfectly  di'y  Ijefore  commencing 
to  overgrain.  Grind  Vandyke  brown,  or 
burnt  umber  ia  water,  and  thin  with 
equal  projiortionH  of  water  anil  table- 
beer.  The  colour  should  be  a  trifle 
darker  than  the  undergraining  ;  a  little 
practice  will  teach  the  tints  that  are 
best  Kuited  to  the  various  wooils  to  be 
imitated.     The   colour  is  applied    by  a 


wide  hog  brush,  drawn  over  the  work, 
generally  in  the  direction  of  the  veins 
formed  by  the  combing.  There  are 
several  descriptions  of  over  graining 
brushes  in  use ;  those  most  generally 
employed  are  thin  and  Hat,  with  occa- 
sional intervals  between  the  tufts  of  hair. 
The  knots  and  figures  must  be  lightly 
touched  up  with  the  overgrainer,  and  the 
whole  gone  over  quickly  with  a  badger 
softening  bmsh.  The  overgraining  dries 
quickly,  and  the  varnish  may  be  then 
applied,  althougii  it  is  well  to  wait 
son:a  hours,  so  as  not  to  run  any  risk 
of  removing  the  graining  colour.  Some- 
times a  tolerably  strong  solution  of 
soda  with  a  little  burnt  sienna  is  used 
for  the  figures,  ap]ilying  the  mixture 
where  these  are  required,  and  then 
washing  over  the  work  with  a  sponge 
and  water.  Wherever  the  soda  has 
been  a]iplied,  the  graining  colour  will 
be  removed.  Go  over  the  whole  with 
a  wash  made  of  equal  parts  of  table- 
beer  and  water,  and  then  overgrain,  as 
above  described.  As  a  general  rule 
avoid  harsh  contrasts  between  the 
graining  colour  and  the  ground.  2.  In 
the  mixing  of  oil  graining  colour  it  is 
necessary  that  the  colour  should  work 
clean  and  free.  Sometimes  the  colour 
will  work  stiff  and  dirty,  and  in  this 
state  will  not  only  produce  dirty  work, 
but  will  occupy  thrice  the  time  in 
rubbing  in,  compared  with  colour  jn'o- 
)ierly  mixed.  Oil  graining  cidour  also 
recjuires  to  be  megil|)ed  —  that  is,  oil 
colour  alone  will  not  stand  when  it  is 
combed ;  the  marks  made  with  the 
comb  will  all  run  one  into  the  other, 
and  will  thus  lie  obliterated.  To  pre- 
vent this  running,  the  colour  I'equires 
to  l)e  nie'jjilped,  so  that  the  c  >mb  marks 
will  retain  the  exact  form  left  by  the 
comb.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  beeswax,  soft  soaji,  h;ird  soap,  lime 
water,  whiting,  and  pure  water.  When 
beeswax  is  used,  the  best  means  of  dis- 
solving it  is  to  cut  the  wax  into  thin 
shavings  or  shreds;  these  are  put  into 
a  suitable  can  half  filled  with  ])Mre  lin- 
seed oil,  into  which  a  red-liot  p(djer  is 
plunged,  and  stirred  well.  Tliis  will 
dissolve   the  wax   thoroughly  and  \n\z 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


421 


it  with  the  oil.  When  the  wax  is  all 
dissolved,  the  vessel  should  be  filled 
with  either  oil  or  turpentine,  which 
further  dilutes  and  mixes  the  wax,  and 
serves  also  to  prevent  it  from  congeal- 
ing, so  that  it  may  mix  with  the  grain- 
ing colour  thoroughly.  This  should  be 
seen  to,  or  else  the  wax  is  apt  to  remain 
in  lumps  ;  and  when  the  colour  is  spread 
upon  the  work,  for  grainmg,  the  wax 
will  be  spread  unequally,  and  will  not 
dry  in  parts,  so  that  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  wax  should  be 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  graining 
colour  to  produce  good  work.  If  soft 
soap  is  used,  it  should  first  be  thoroughly 
worked  up  on  a  palette  or  a  board  with 
either  whiting  or  patent  driers;  this 
breaks  up  the  .soap,  and  amalgamates  it 
with  the  driers,  anil  it  will  then  mix 
properly  with  the  graining  colour. 
Another  method  is  to  break  up  the  soft 
soap  in  water  to  a  thick  froth  or  lather; 
in  this  state  it  may  be  beaten  up  with 
water  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
oil  colour.  When  the  lime  water  is 
used,  about  2  lbs.  of  slaked  lime  should 
be  thoroughly  mixed  in  a  pint  can  full 
of  water,  and  the  lime  allowed  to  settle ; 
a  portion  of  the  water  may  then  be 
added  to  the  graining  colour,  and  the 
two  well  stirred  together  until  they  are 
thoj-oughly  amalgamated.  If  whiting 
is  used,  it  should  be  ground  in  oil,  and 
then  mixed  with  the  graining  colour. 
Pure  water  will  also  answer  the  purpose. 
The  wax  is  the  most  effectual,  but  there 
are  some  objections  to  its  use.  On 
the  whole,  pure  water  is  preferable, 
for  if  it  is  well  mixed  with  the  oil 
colour,  it  megilps  it  sufBcientlv  to  hold 
the  combing  until  it  sets  ;  the  water 
then  evaporates  and  leaves  no  injurious 
effects  behind,  and  the  projection  of  the 
grain  is  less  than  it  is  if  any  other 
medium  is  used.  The  most  useful 
colours  for  mixing  oak-graining  colour 
are  raw  and  burnt  Turkey  umber,  Oxford 
ochre,  Vandyke  brown,  and  burnt  sienna. 
The  first  three,  with  the  addition  of 
ivory  black,  are  all  that  is  required  for 
mixing  any  shade  of  graining  colour. 
For  light  oak  or  wainscot  graining 
colour,  mis  -grds  linseed  oil  with  ird 


turpentine  ;  add  a  little  Oxford  ochre 
and  raw  Turkey  umber  in  sufficient 
quantity,  according  to  the  shade  re- 
quired and  amount  of  stuff"  mixea. 
Terebine  or  liquid  driers  should  be 
added,  the  quantities  being  regulated 
according  to  whether  the  graining 
colour  is  required  to  be  quick  or  slow 
drying.  A  safe  quantity  to  use,  if  the 
liquid  drier  is  of  the  best  quality,  is 
about  J  oz.  to  a  pint  of  colour.  This 
will  cause  the  colour  to  dry  in  about  7 
or  8  hours,  but  twice  the  quantity  may 
be  used  with  safety  if  the  colour  is 
required  to  dry  very  quickly.  Sugar 
of  lead  ground  in  oil  may  be  used  as  a 
drier  for  graining  colours,  but  the  liquid 
drier  is  better.  After  adding  the  liquid 
driers,  beat  or  stir  well  up  together ; 
add  pure  rain  water  in  the  proportion 
of  J  pint  of  water  to  3  pints  of  oil  and 
turps  •  beat  or  stir  up  until  the  whole  b. 
thoroughly  mixed  together,  after  which 
strain  through  a  fine  strainer  or  a 
double  fold  of  fine  muslin.  The  colour 
should  be  thinned  until  it  works  freely 
and  lays  on  well,  so  that  when  the  colour 
is  being  brushed  over  the  work  to  be 
grained,  it  will  lay  on  evenly,  and  be 
easily  spread,  and  will  look  clean  and  of 
one  uniform  shade  of  colour.  Care  and 
cleanliness  of  working  are  necessary  to 
the  successful  carrying  out  of  this  work  ; 
and  it  is  essential  that  the  colour,  the 
brushes,  and  all  working  tools  should  be 
clean  to  begin  with,  and  be  kept  clean. 

Oak  in  Spirit  Colour. — This  is  less 
durable  than  oak  graining  in  oil,  and  is 
not  therefore  so  much  used  for  outside 
work,  but  it  does  not  require  so  long  a 
time  in  its  working,  as  it  dries  rapidly. 
For  the  graining  colour  rub  up  whiting 
m  turpentine,  add  enough  burnt  umber 
and  raw  sienna,  dilute  with  turps,  a 
little  boiled  oil,  and  gold  size.  Strain 
carefully,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  In 
laying  this  on,  cover  only  a  small  part 
of  the  work  at  a  time  before  combing, 
as  it  dries  very  quickly,  and  be  careful 
to  spread  it  evenly  and  thinly  over  the 
work.  The  combs  used  are  made  of 
steel,  horn,  or  leather.  After  combing 
the  veins  and  removing  any  superfluous 
graining  colour  from  corners  or  small 


422 


WORKSHOP   RECEll'TS. 


parts  of  the  work,  let  it  staud  for  a  snort 
time.  The  flower  of  the  wood  has  aext 
to  be  imitated,  by  removing  some  por- 
tions of  tlie  graining  colour  with  a  small 
veiuing  fitch.  The  sjiirit  graining  colour 
when  used  for  this  purpose  must  have  a 
little  turpentine  added  to  it ;  apply  with 
the  fitch  where  the  flower  is  required, 
tlien  rub  the  places  quickly  with  a  piece 
of  old  flannel,  which  will  remove  the 
graining  colour  and  show  the  light 
ground  underneath.  The  light  veins 
and  half-lights  are  also  obtained  by 
similar  means,  either  removing  the 
graining  colour  or  merely  smudging  it 
aside  over  the  veins.  The  overgraiuing 
is  performed  in  the  manner  described  for 
the  oak  graining  in  oil. 

Graining  Oak  in  Distemper.  —  Tliis 
process  is  now  seldom  used,  although 
it  stands  exi)osure  to  the  weather,  with- 
out fading,  for  a  great  length  of  time. 
For  colour,  dissolve  gum  arable  in  hot 
water,  and  make  a  mixture  of  it  with 
whiting,  raw  sienna,  and  Vandyite  brown 
ground  in  beer.  Colour  the  work  evenly, 
brush  it  down  with  a  dry  dusting  brusli, 
comb  while  the  colour  remains  wet, 
then  let  it  get  q\ute  dry.  Put  in  the 
veins  with  a  small  brush  dipped  in  clean 
cold  water.  After  a  few  seconds  run  a 
dry  soft  duster  down  the  work  to  remove 
the  colour  from  the  veins.  Then  lay  on 
a  thin  coat  of  Turkey  umber  ground  in 
table-beer  or  ale,  ]>ut  on  with  an  over- 
graining  brush.  If  too  much  gum  is 
put  in  tlie  colour  it  is  likely  to  crack 
and  blister,  wliiist  if  there  is  not  sulli- 
cient  the  veins  will  not  be  clearly  marked 
by  the  wiping  out. 

Bird' s-cyc  Maple. — 1.  Graining  colour 
— equal  jiarts  of  raw  sienna  and  burnt 
umber  mixed  in  ale,  of  two  thicknesses, 
Kiist  lay  on  an  even  coat  of  the  ihiiiiuM- 
mixture,  then  with  a  smaller  brush  put 
in  the  darker  sh.-idss,  mottle  and  soften 
with  a  badger-hair  brush.  The  eve  is 
imitated  by  dabbing  the  colour  whilst 
still  wet  with  the  tops  of  the  fiiipers. 
When  dry,  put  on  the  top  grain  in  the 
most  promini.'nt  jihures,  and  shade  the 
eyp.s  with  a  little  burnt  sienn.n.  Some 
graiuers  use  small  brushes  called  maple 
uje-dotters,  instead   of  the   (inger>i,  for 


forming  the  eyes.  Various  forms  of 
brushes  are  used  for  the  mottling  ;  some 
consist  of  short  camel  hair  closely  set, 
■whilst  to  give  the  wavy  appearance  hog- 
hair  mottlers  are  used,  with  long  hairs, 
against  which  the  fingers  are  pressed  as 
the  brush  is  drawn  over  the  work,  causing 
it  to  assume  a  variety  of  pleasing  curves. 
Tha  lines  to  imitate  the  heart  of  the 
wood  are  put  in  with  a  small  brush, 
and  the  outer  lines  parallel  to  the  heart 
are  formed  with  the  overgraiuing  brush. 
Overgraining  brushes  for  maple  consist 
of  a  number  of  small  sable  brushes 
mounted  at  a  little  distance  i'rom  each 
other  in  a  frame,  and  resembling  a  comb 
in  its  ajipearauce.  2.  Grind  eijual  parts 
of  raw  and  burnt  sienna  in  a  mixture  of 
water  and  ale.  Coat  the  work  eveiily 
with  this  colour,  then  rub  it  down  with 
a  long  jiiece  of  buffleather,  cut  straight 
at  the  edge  and  pressed  closely  against 
the  work.  Proceed  for  the  imitation  of 
the  eyes  and  heart  of  the  wood  as  before 
directed.  3.  For  outside  work  grind  the 
raw  and  burnt  sienna  with  a  little  of 
the  patent  driers,  and  then  with  boiled 
oil.  Lay  on  an  even  coat,  and  rub  down 
with  a  jiiece  of  bulf  leather.  Soften, 
and  when  dry  put  on  a  top  grain  of 
burnt  umber  and  raw  sienna  ground  in 
ale.  4.  Burnt  umber  or  Vandyke  brown 
laid  ou  unevenly,  darker  in  some  place.* 
than  others,  after  the  character  of  the 
wood  ;  a  coarse  sponge  does  for  this 
])urpose-  very  well.  When  the  colour 
is  dis]iosed  over  Lhe  surface  it  must  be 
softened  down  with  the  badger-hair  tool, 
and  the  knots  put  in  with  the  end  of  a 
hog's-hair  fitch,  by  ludding  the  handle 
between  the  thumb  and  fiugei",  and  twist- 
ing it  round  ;  these  knots  may  be  after- 
wards assisted  by  a  camel-liair  pencil. 
A  few  small  veins  are  frequently  found 
in  maple;  these  may  be  wiped  oil' witli 
a  piece  of  wash-leather.  When  this  m 
dry  the  second  or  u|)]ier  gr.ain  may  be 
put  on;  some  of  the  (irst  colour  diluted 
will  do  for  this  secoml  grain.  To  put 
on  this  grain  use  the  flat  hog's-hair 
brush,  and  the  hairs  combed  out  to 
straighten  or  sejiarate  them.  As  soon 
as  the  grain  is  put  on,  the  softener 
should  lie  jiassed  lightly  across  the  grain 


WORKSHOl'    KECEIPTS. 


423 


in  one  direction  only ;  this  will  make 
one  edge  of  the  grain  soft  and  the  other 
sharp,  as  it  occurs  in  tlie  wood.  After 
the  second  grain  is  dry  it  may  be  var- 
nished. 

Mahogany. — 1.  Vandyke  brown  and  a 
little  crimson  lake  ground  in  ale  laid  on, 
allowed  to  dry  and  then  smoothed,  forms 
the  ground.  Then  lay  on  a  second  thicker 
coat,  soften  with  a  badger-hair  brush, 
take  out  the  lights  whilst  it  is  wet,  and 
imitate  the  feathery  appearance  of  ma- 
hogany heart.  Soften,  and  top  grain  with 
Vandyke  brown  laid  on  with  an  over- 
graining  brush  of  tiat  hog-hair  combed 
into  detached  tufts.  In  softening,  be 
careful  not  to  disturb  the  under  colour. 
2.  Grind  burnt  sienna  and  Vandyke 
brown  in  ale,  lay  on  a  coat,  mottle  with 
a  camel-hair  mottler,  and  soften.  When 
dry,  overgrain  as  above. 

Pollard  Oak  in  Distemper.  —  The 
ground  is  a  mixture  of  vermilion, 
chrome  yellow,  and  white-lead,  to  a 
rich  buif.  The  graining  colours  are 
Vandyke  brown,  a  little  raw  and  burnt 
sienna  and  lake,  ground  in  ale.  Fill  a 
large  tool,  lay  on  an  even  coat,  and 
soften  with  the  badger-hair  brush.  Take 
a  moistened  sponge  and  dapple  round 
and  round  in  circles,  then  soften  lightly, 
and  draw  a  softener  from  one  set  of 
circles  to  the  other  while  wet,  to  form 
a  number  of  grains,  finish  the  knots 
with  a  hair  pencil.  When  dry,  put  the 
top  gram  on  in  a  variety  of  directions, 
and  then  a  coat  of  turpentine  and  gold 
size  mixed.  When  this  is  dry,  glaze  with 
Vandyke  brown  mixed  in  beer. 

Pollard  Oak  in  Oil. — Ground  the  same 
as  for  pollard  oak  in  distemper.  Grain- 
ing colours,  equal  portions  of  Vandyke 
brown  and  raw  sienna,  ground  separately 
m  boiled  oil  very  stiif;  mix  them  to- 
gether, and  thin  the  whole  with  spirit 
of  turpentine.  With  a  large  brush  lay 
on  a  thin  coat,  and,  while  wet,  take  the 
flat  graining  brush  dipped  in  the  colour, 
and  dapple  in  various  directions  ;  then 
dip  the  brush  into  burnt  umber  thinned 
with  spirit  of  turpentine,  and  form  the 
knots.  When  the  colours  are  set,  dip  a 
flat  brush  into  a  thin  glaze  of  burnt 
amber,  and  put  the  grain  on  in  a  curly 


direction.      Have   enough    oil    in    the 

colours  to  bind  them,  and  finish  only 
a  small  part  of  the  surface  at  once,  in 
order  to  keep  it  moist.  For  making  the 
knots  a  cork  should  be  held  on  to  a 
patch  of  the  dark  colour,  and  twisted 
round  between  the  thumb  and  finger. 
The  heart  of  the  wood  should  be  taken 
out  with  a  graining  fitch. 

Satin  Wood. — 1.  Graining  colour. — 
Equal  parts  of  raw  umber  and  raw 
sienna,  a  little  whiting  and  burnt  sienna, 
all  ground  in  ale.  Colour  evenly,  and 
soften,  then  mottle  and  feather  same 
as  for  mahogany.  Soften,  and  allow  to 
dry;  overgrain  with  the  same  cok)ur. 
2.  Grind  raw  sienna  and  whiting  in  ale 
very  thin,  and  colour  the  surface. 
Soften  whilst  wet,  and  take  out  the 
lights  with  a  mottling  brush  ;  when  dry, 
overgi'ain  with  the  same  colour  applied 
with  a  fiat  brush. 

Yew  Tree. — Ground,  reddish  yellow. 
For  graining  colour,  grind  equal  parts 
of  \'aiiilyke  brown  and  burut  sienna  in 
ale,  with  a  little  raw  sieuna.  Lay  this 
colour  on  evenly  when  the  ground  is 
dry,  and  soften.  Cut  a  piece  of  cork  to 
a  tolerably  sharp  edge,  rub  it  across  the 
work,  and  soften  the  same  way  as  the 
grain,  as  in  curled  maple.  When  dry, 
dab  the  work  over  with  the  graining 
colour  on  the  tips  of  the  fingers  to 
form  the  knots ;  shade  them  underneath 
with  a  camel-hair  brush.  When  dry, 
overgrain. 

Rosewood. — Ground,  chrome  yellow, 
vermilion,  and  white -lead.  For  the 
graining  colour  grind  ivory  black  and 
burnt  sienna  very  fine,  mix,  and  lay  on, 
then  soften.  When  dry,  put  on  the  top 
grain  in  a  curly  figure,  with  a  small 
graining  brush  well  filled  with  ivory 
black.  Shade  up  the  knots  with  a 
camel-hair  brush,  and  finish  with  a  glaze 
of  rose-pink. 

Hair-wood. — 1.  First  lay  on  a  coat  of 
light  grey,  of  white-lead  ground  in 
boiled  oil,  add  a  little  Prussian  blue,  and 
mix  with  turpentine.  For  ground  colour 
use  the  same  paint  made  much  thinner 
with  turpentine,  laid  on  as  soon  as  the 
first  coat  is  dry.  The  ground  colour 
must  only  be  applied  on  a  small  piece  at 


424 


WOllKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


a  time,  as  it  must  be  grained  before  it 
dries.  For  the  graiuing;  use  some  of  the 
ground  colour,  to  which  add  a  little 
Piusslan  blue,  apply  this  with  a  feather, 
in  long  veins.  Overgraiu  with  the 
ground  colour.  2.  Mix  white-lead  and 
turjientine,  and  add  a  little  Prussian 
blue,  for  the  ground  colour.  For  the 
graining  colour,  Prussian  blue  and  raw 
sienna  ground  in  ale.  When  the  ground 
is  dry,  lay  on  a  thin  coat  of  the  graining 
colour  and  soften ;  put  on  the  long  grain 
with  a  mottlcr  drawn  across  the  work. 
Sot'ten,  and  overgrain  in  a  perpendicular 
but  wavy  figure. 

Grainintj  Holler. — This  tool  consists  of 
a  roller  of  wood  or  metal  mounted  on  a 
spindle,  to  which  are  attached  a  frame 
and  a  handle.  Around  tiie  wooden  roller 
IS  a  wrap]ier  of  leatiier,  on  wiiich  is  cut 
or  stamjied  an  imitation  of  the  grain  of 
a  certain  wood.  The  leather  used  for 
the  roller  is  of  thick  hide.  The  pattern 
is  sketched  on  one  side,  and  then  the 
ground  is  cut  away  to  a  certain  depth, 
just  as  a  block  cutter  would  do  for 
printing.  In  some  cases  the  strip  of  lea- 
ther is  made  fast  to  the  roller,  and  only 
just  covers  it;  in  other  cases  tlie  leather 
will  be  three  or  four  times  the  circum- 
ference of  the  roller.  The  distemper 
graining  colour  is  brushed  over  the  work 
to  be  grained,  and,  while  it  is  wet,  the 
roller,  which  has  previously  been  damped 
with  a  wet  chamois  leather,  is  ]iassed 
over  it,  and  as  the  roller  passes  along  it 
takes  up  the  colour  in  patches  of  the 
exact  shape  of  the  pattern  on  the  roller 
used.  This  is  then  softened  with  the 
badger-hair  softener,  and  overgrained. 
By  a  judicious  use  of  these  rollers,  using 
only  a  ])art  of  the  circuiiifcreuce,  and 
changing  the  direction,  the  jiatterus  may 
be  oblaineil  in  great  variety.  The 
mottle  of  satinwocxl,  mahogany,  Hunga- 
rian ash,  and  birch  is  well  imitated  by 
these  rollers,  and  also  the  beautiful  fea- 
thers or  curls  in  S])anisli  mahogauy  and 
Batiuwood.  Tlie  mottle  of  these  woods 
hfu*  very  little  variety,  so  th.it  one  or 
two  patterns  suffice  for  all;  and  this 
clas.s  of  woods  is  jieculiarly  suitable  for 
imitation  by  these  rollers.  To  use  the 
rollern  for  the  imitation  of  mahot^any, 


satinwood,  birch,  and  maple,  lay  the 
colour,  mixed  in  beer,  on  the  surface, 
pass  the  roller  over  it  whilst  it  is  wot, 
soften,  and  overgrain  with  a  hog-hair 
overgrainer,  previously  combed  to  sepa- 
rate the  hair.  The  roller  should  occa- 
sionally be  passed  twice  over  the  same 
place,  and  in  some  jKirts  plain  spaces 
left,  so  as  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the 
patterns  ;  put  in  the  maple  eyes  by  hand 
in  the  usual  way.  Before  overgraining 
the  graining  should  be  covered  with  a 
coat  of  turjiontine,  gold  size,  and  a,  little 
varnish  to  bind  it,  so  that  the  colour 
may  not  be  removed  by  the  overgrain- 
ing. For  oak  lay  the  colour  on  as  re- 
gular as  possible,  and  comb  as  in  ordi- 
nary work,  a  little  common  flour  jiaste 
being  added  to  the  water  colour,  to  en- 
able it  to  stand  the  comb.  Then  ])ass  the 
roller  over  it,  and  the  badger,  in  the  same 
direct  ion  as  the  combing.  Overgrain  sam« 
as  mahogany,  after  the  application  of  the 
mixture  of  gold  size,  varnish,  and  tur- 
pentine. The  rollei-smust  be  kejit  quite 
clean,  and  free  from  grease  or  oil.  Be- 
fore commencing  work,  wet  the  rollers 
thoroughly  with  a  sjionge  and  water, 
and  rub  them  with  a  wash-leather  or  dry 
cloth,  so  as  to  remove  any  water  remain- 
ing on  the  surface.  Whilst  using  the 
rollers,  have  a  piece  of  wash-leather  at 
hand,  over  which  they  should  be  fre- 
quently jiassed  to  keep  f  hem  ([uite  clean, 
and  )irevent  the  accumulation  of  coloui 
on  llieir  surfaces,  which  would  clog  up 
the  ]>attern.  After  use,  wash  them  well 
with  a  brush  and  water,  and  let  them 
dry  gradually  ;  do  not  a)ii)ly  heat,  at 
that  is  likely  to  crack  the  surface. 

M.\iuii,i.\'(i  ON  Wood. —  Vcnle  An- 
tiijuc. — If  the  work  is  new,  lay  on  a  coat 
of  dark  lead  oil  colour.  When  dry, 
smooth  with  glass-pai)or,  and  lay  on  a 
coat  of  black  p.iiut.  When  the  ground 
is  dry,  mix  some  white-lead  will>  water 
and  a  little  beer.  Lay  this  on  in  large 
streaks.  Fill  up  the  si)aces  left  with 
veins  of  lam|)bhick,  limdy  ground  iu 
beer,  thus  covering  the  whole  surface  ol 
the  work.  While  still  wet  soften  with 
a  badger-hair  brush,  so  as  to  cause  the 
veins  to  run  into  one  another.  On  the 
darkest  ptirts  of  the  work   lay  dabs  of 


WOEKSHOP   RECEIPIS. 


425 


white,  carelessly  applied,  1 5  imitate  fos- 
sils, and  dab  over  the  light  parts  of  the 
work  with  the  black  colour  for  the  same 
purpose.  With  a  thin  flat  graining 
brush,  or  a  feather,  dipped  in  the  wliite, 
form  small  veins  over  the  black  ;  a  few 
dark  blue  wavy  veins  may  also  be  put 
on.  When  dry,  glaze  with  a  thin  coat 
of  raw  sienna  and  Prussian  blue,  ground 
in  spirit  of  turjientine  and  mixed  in 
copal  varnish.  A  little  emerald  green 
added  here  and  there  heightens  the  efl'ect. 

Oriental  Verde  Antique. — Lay  on  a 
ground  of  black  in  oil.  Mix  white-lead 
m  oil,  thinned  with  turpentine  for  the 
graining  colour.  Lay  this  on  in  broad 
transparent  veins  of  irregular  depth  of 
colour,  and  whilst  wet  dab  it  over  with 
a  piece  of  wash-leather  in  different  parts 
to  imitate  fossils ;  then  with  a  small 
piece  of  cork,  twisted  round  on  the 
work  between  the  finger  and  thumb, 
produce  a  number  of  little  spiral  figures 
of  various  sizes  and  shapes.  Cut  notches 
on  the  top  of  a  feather,  dip  it  in  the 
white,  and  pass  it  over  the  black  ground 
in  zigzag  and  fantastic  veins,  with  occa- 
sional sharp  angles.  Let  all  the  work 
get  quite  dry,  and  then  glaze  with  green, 
in  some  parts  with  Prussian  blue,  in 
others  with  raw  sienna,  leaving  some 
portions  untouched.  When  dry,  wash 
with  beer,  dip  a  feather  into  the  whiting 
ground,  and  draw  fine  veins.  To  finish, 
give  a  coat  of  glaze,  made  of  a  little 
Prussian  blue  and  raw  sienna,  mixed  in 
equal  parts  of  boiled  oil  and  turpentine, 
leaving  some  of  the  white  veins  uu- 
glazed. 

Jasper  Marble. — Mix  the  ground  the 
same  as  for  mahogany,  with  red-lead,  Ve- 
netian red,  and  a  little  chrome  yellow, 
thinned  with  equal  parts  of  oil  and  tur- 
pentine ;  lake  or  vermilion  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  Venetian  red,  if  a  bril- 
liant tint  is  desired.  Whilst  the  ground 
is  wet  dab  on  some  spots  of  white,  soften 
with  a  softening  brush,  and  other  colours 
may  be  applied  in  the  same  manner. 
When  dry,  put  on  the  veins  with  a 
camel-hair  brush. 

Black  and  Gold  Marble.  —  Ground, 
deep  ivory  black.  Put  on  veins  of  white- 
lead,  yellow  ochre,  and  burnt  and  raw 


sienna,  with  a  camel-hair  brush.  The 
spaces  between  the  veins  must  be  glazed 
over  with  a  thin  coat  of  grey  or  white, 
over  which  pass  a  few  white  veins.  The 
veins  may  also  be  put  on  with  gold  leaf. 
Another  method  is  to  have  a  yellow 
ground,  streaked  with  broad  ribbons  of 
black,  in  which  fine  veins  are  obtained 
by  drawing  a  sharp  piece  of  wood  along 
them  whilst  wet,  so  as  to  expose  the 
yellow  beneath. 

Sienna  Marble.  —  1.  Ground,  Oxford 
ochre  and  white-lead.  Use  burnt  and 
raw  sienna,  white,  black,  and  a  little 
lake,  for  marbling.  These  colours  should 
be  laid  on  as  a  transparent  glaze,  and 
marked  and  softened  while  wet.  The 
colours  should  be  properly  softened 
with  a  badger  brush.  2.  Ground,  raw 
sienna  or  yellow  ochre.  When  dry,  mix 
raw  sienna  with  white-lead,  have  ready 
also  some  white  paint,  put  in  broad 
transparent  tints  of  white  and  yellow, 
and  while  wet  blend  them  together 
with  a  softener.  Mix  Venetian  red  and 
a  little  black,  and  j)ut  in  some  broad 
veins  in  the  same  direction  as  the  patchy 
tints  run;  for  the  darker  veins  take  a 
mixture  of  Venetian  red,  lake,  and  black, 
and  draw  them  over  the  first  layer  of 
veins  with  a  feather,  in  fine  threads,  run- 
ning to  a  centre,  and  in  transjiarent  veins 
in  different  directions.  Mix  some  Prussian 
blue  and  lake,  and  put  in  the  darkest  and 
finest  veins  over  those  before  laid  on. 
Put  in  a  few  touches  of  burnt  sienna 
between  the  fine  veins,  which  are  formed 
into  small  masses.  All  the  colours  should 
be  ground  in  spirit  of  turpentine  and 
mixed  with  sufficient  gold  size  to  bind 
them. 

Dove  Marble. — Ground,  lead  colour, 
of  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  two 
or  three  coats.  If  the  work  is  new,  let 
it  dry  hard,  rub  it  smooth  with  fine 
glass-paper  after  each  coat,  and  do 
not  rub  the  paint  off  the  sharp  edges 
of  the  wood.  For  the  marbling,  take 
lead  colour,  such  as  used  for  the  ground, 
thin  it  with  turpentine,  and  rub  a  light 
coat  over  a  small  part  of  the  work  ; 
and  with  a  whitish  colour  form  the  small 
specks  or  fossil  remains.  Proceed,  piece 
by  piece,  till  the  whole  surface  is  covered, 


i2tj 


WOKKSHOI'    RECEIPTS. 


bping  careful  to  paint  but  a  small  part 
of  the  groumi  at  once,  so  that  the  colours 
may  have  sufficient  time  to  blend  to- 
gether while  wet,  otherwise  the  work 
will  appear  harsh.  Then  with  a  small 
sash  tool,  put  in  faint,  broad  veins  of 
the  thin  ground  colour,  and  numerous 
very  tine  veins  over  the  whole  surface  of 
the  work,  crossing  each  other  in  every 
direction.  Then  make  the  colour  a  little 
lighter,  by  adding  white-lead,  and  with 
a  feather  pass  over  the  broad  veins  in 
the  same  direction,  forming  streams  of 
threads.  With  thin  white,  and  with  a 
camel-hair  pencil  go  partly  over  the 
same  vein  with  short  thick  touches,  then 
with  a  fine  striping  ])encil.  When  the 
work  is  hard,  it  should  be  smoothed  with 
very  fine  glass-paper  before  being  var- 
nished. The  first  layer  of  veins  should 
be  very  faint,  so  as  to  be  swircely  per- 
ceptible; for,  as  the  lighter  shades  are 
put  on,  the  former  veins  will  ajipear 
sunk  fioui  the  surface  of  the  work, 
which  will  give  a  good  eflect  where  the 
work  is  exposed  to  close  inspection. 

Blue  and  Gold  Marble. — Ground,  a 
light  bfue  ;  when  dry,  take  blus  with  a 
small  piece  of  white-lead  and  some  Prus- 
sian blue,  and  dab  on  in  patches,  leaving 
portions  of  the  ground  to  show  between. 
Blend  together  with  a  softener ;  next 
put  on  white  veins  iu  every  direction, 
leaving  large  open  spaces  to  be  filled  up 
with  a  pale  yellow  or  gold  paint.  Finish 
with  fine  white  irregular  threads. 

Italian  Marble. — Ground,  a  light  bulT. 
Fur  marbling,  mix  sfitf  in  boiled  oil 
white-lead,  Oxford  ochre,  and  a  little 
vermilion;  grind  burnt  sienna  very  fine 
in  boiled  oil,  and  put  it  into  another 
vessel;  mix  |>ure  white  stiff  in  oil,  and 
keep  this  also  separate.  Thin  these  co- 
lours with  turpentine,  and  have  a  brush 
for  each.  Take  the  bulf  brush  mode- 
rately full  of  colour,  and  dab  it  on  in 
])atches,  varying  Jis  much  as  po.s.sible  ; 
take  another  brush  and  fill  in  the  spaces 
between  with  sienna.  With  a  softener 
blen<l  the  eilges  together,  making  them 
as  soft  as  possible.  Draw  a  few  thiu 
white  vein.s  over  the  work  with  a  hair 
pencil,  run  in  a  few  thin  lines  of  sienna, 
■nd  Mofteu. 


Black  and  White  J/ar6fe.  — White 
ground,  and  with  dark  veins,  put  on 
with  a  marbling  crayon,  and  softened 
while  the  ground  is  wet.  Or,  when  the 
ground  is  dry,  cover  it  with  a  thin  coat 
of  white-lead,  and  put  the  veins  in  with 
a  camel-hair  pencil.     Blend  while  wet. 

Granite.  —  1.  Grey  ground,  with 
white  and  black  spots.  2.  Venetian 
and  white  for  the  ground,  with  white, 
black,  and  vermilion  spots.  The  spota 
are  put  on  in  several  ways  ;  a  sponge 
may  be  charged  with  the  marbling  co- 
lour and  dabbed  on  the  work,  or  a 
common  brush  may  be  struck  against  a 
stick  held  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
work,  so  as  to  throw  off  blots  and  spots 
of  colour. 

Porphyri/. — 1.  Ground,  purple-brown 
and  rose-pink.  Grind  vermilion  and 
white-lead  separately  in  turpentine,  and 
adil  a  little  gold  size  to  each  colour  to 
bind  it.  Jlore  tur]ientine  must  be 
added  before  the  colour  is  applied. 
When  the  ground  is  dry,  fill  a  large 
brush  with  vermilion,  squeeze  out  nearly 
all  the  colour  by  scraping  the  brush 
on  the  edge  of  the  palette  knife ; 
hold  a  rod  in  the  left  hand,  strike  the 
handle  of  the  brush  against  it,  so  as 
to  throw  small  red  sjiots  on  to  the  work 
till  the  surface  is  covered.  Make  the 
colour  lighter  by  adding  white-lead,  and 
use  as  before.  Then  with  clear  thin 
white  throw  on  very  fine  s]>ots,  and 
wlicu  dry  put  in  a  few  white  veins 
across  the  work.  This  marble  may  be 
imitated  in  distemper  in  precisely  the 
same  manner  as  in  oil.  2.  The  ground 
is  V'enetian  red,  with  a  little  vermilion 
and  white.  For  marbling,  add  a  little 
more  white  to  the  ground  colour,  and 
s]>rinkle  over  the  first  coat.  Wlu-n  dry, 
re]>eat  the  s]>lashiug  with  a  mixture  of 
Venetian  red  and  vermilion,  and  then 
with  white  in  very  fine  spots.  Form 
ojiaque  white  veins  acrosa  the  work,  and 
transparent  threads  in  various  directions. 
This  must  be  done  when  the  work  is 
dry  and  hard,  with  a  sal)le  i)encil,  and 
the  threads  drawn  with  a  feather.  For 
e.ich  .separi;te  colour  use  a  dill'ercnt 
brush. 

Paper, — ivory     Paper. — The    '»ro- 


wonKsnop  receipts. 


427 


perties  which  render  ivory  so  desirable 
t'lv  artists  are,  the  evenness  and  fineness 
of  its  grain,  its  allowing  all  water  colours 
laid  on  its  surface  to  be  washed  out  with 
a  soft  wet  brush,  and  the  facility  with 
which  the  artist  may  scrape  off  the 
colour  from  any  particular  part,  by 
means  of  the  point  of  a  knife  or  other 
convenient  instrument,  and  thus  heighten 
the  lights  in  his  painting  more  expedi- 
tiously and  efficaciously  than  can  be  done 
in  any  other  way.  These  advantages  are 
obtained  in  the  paper  made  accoi-ding  to 
the  following  receipt,  without  any  of  the 
disadvantages  of  ivory,  such  as  its  limited 
size  and  changeable  colour.  Tiaces  made 
on  the  surface  of  ivory  paper  by  a  hard 
black-lead  pencil  are  much  easier  effaced 
by  india-rubber  than  from  common  draw- 
ing ])aper,  which,  together  with  the  ex- 
tremely fine  lines  which  its  hard  and 
even  surfoce  is  capable  of  receiving, 
peculiarly  adapts  it  for  the  reception  of 
the  most  delicate  kind  of  pencil-drawing 
and  outlines.  The  colours  laid  upon  it 
have  a  greater  brilliancy  than  upon  ivory, 
owing  to  the  superior  whiteness  of  the 
ground.  Take  J  lb.  of  clean  parchment 
cuttings  and  put  them  into  a  2-quart 
pan,  with  neftrly  as  much  water  as  it 
will  hold  ;  boil  the  mixture  gently  for 
4  or  5  hours,  adding  water  from  time  to 
time  to  supply  the  place  of  that  driven 
olf  by  eriporation ;  then  carefully  strain 
the  liquor  from  the  dregs  through  a 
cloth,  and  when  cold  it  will  form  a 
strong  jelly,  which  may  be  called  size 
No.  1.  Returq  the  dregs  of  the  pre- 
cedmg  process  Into  the  pan,  fill  it  with 
water,  and  again  boil  it  as  before  for 
4  or  5  hours;  then  strain  otT  the  liquor, 
and  call  it  size  No.  2.  Take  three  sheets 
of  drawing  paper — outsides  will  answer 
the  purpose  perfectly  well — wet  thrm 
on  both  sides  with  a  soft  sponge  dipped 
in  water,  and  paste  them  together  with 
the  size  No.  2.  While  thev  are  still  wet 
lay  them  on  a  table,  and  place  them 
upon  a  smooth  slab  of  writing  slate 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  paper,  turn 
tip  the  edges  of  the  paper,  and  paste 
them  on  the  back  of  the  slate,  and  then 
allow  the  paper  to  dry  gradually.  Wet 
%s  belbre  three  mere  sheets  of  the  same 


kind  of  paper,  and  paste  them  on  the 
others,  one  at  a  time  •  cut  off  with  a 
knife  what  projects  beyond  the  edges  of 
the  slate,  and  when  the  whole  is  per- 
fectly dry,  wrap  a  small  piece  of  slate 
in  coarse  sand-paper,  and  with  this 
rubber  make  the  surface  of  the  paper 
quite  even  and  smooth.  Then  paste  ou 
an  inside  sheet,  which  must  be  quite 
free  from  spots  or  dirt  of  any  kind  :  cut 
off  the  projecting  edges  as  before,  and 
when  dry  rub  it  with  fine  glass-paper, 
which  will  produce  a  perfectly  smooth 
surface.  Now  take  J  pint  of  the  size 
No.  1,  melt  it  with  a  gentle  heat,  and 
then  stir  into  it  3  table-spooonfuls  of 
fine  plaster  of  Paris  ;  when  the  mixture 
is  complete  pour  it  out  on  the  paper, 
and  with  a  soft  wet  sponge  distribute  it 
as  evenly  as  possible  over  the  surface. 
Then  allow  the  surface  to  dry  slowly, 
and  rub  it  again  with  fine  glass-paper._ 
Lastly,  take  a  few  spoonfuls  of  the  size* 
No.  1,  and  mix  it  with  three-fourths  its 
quantity  of  water ;  unite  the  two  by  a 
gentle  heat,  and  when  the  mass  has 
cooled,  so  as  to  be  in  a  semi-gelatinous 
state,  pour  one-third  of  it  on  the  surface 
of  the  paper,  and  spread  it  evenly  with 
the  sponge;  when  this  has  dried  pour 
on  another  portion,  and  afterwards  the 
remainder;  when  the  whole  has  again 
become  dry,  rub  it  over  lightly  with 
fine  glass-paper,  and  the  process  is  com- 
pleted ;  it  may  accordingly  be  cut  away 
from  the  slab  of  slate,  and  is  ready  for 
use.  The  quantity  of  ingredients  above 
mentioned  is  sufficient  for  a  piece  of 
paper  17J  by  1.5|  in.  Plaster  of  Paris 
gives  a  perfectly  white  surface ;  oxide 
of  zinc  mixed  with  plaster  of  Paris,  in 
the  proportion  of  4  parts  of  the  former 
to  3  of  the  latter,  gives  a  tint  very 
nearly  resembling  ivory ;  precipitatOii 
carbonate  of  barytes  gives  a  tint  inter- 
mediate between  the  two. 

Manifold  Writing  Papers. — The  white 
paper  is  only  very  fine  thin  writing 
paper.  The  black  is  soft  paper,  pre- 
pared by  being  smeared  with  a  com- 
position of  grease  and  plumbago  or 
lampblack  ;  this  mixture  is  allowed  to 
remain  on  for  12  hours,  and  the  paper 
then  wiped  smooth  with  a  piece  of  wool 


428 


WORKSHOP   RECEll'TS. 


01'  cotton-waste.     Place  white  paper  over 
black,  and  write  with  a  Hunt  point. 

Enamelled  I'apcr.  —  1  lb.  of  ]iarch- 
tnent  cuttings,  \  lb.  of  isinglass,  and 
^Ib.  ol  gum  arable,  in  4  galls,  of  water, 
are  boiled  in  an  iron  kettle  until  the 
solution  is  reduced  to  12  quarts;  it  is 
then  removed  from  the  fire  and  strained. 
The  solution  is  divided  into  three  parts 
of  4  quarts  each;  to  the  first  portion 
is  added  6  lbs.  of  white-lead,  ground 
fine  in  water;  to  the  second  portion  is 
ndded  8  lbs.  of  white-lead,  and  to  the 
third  is  added  6  lbs.  of  white-lead.  The 
sheets  of  paper  are  stretched  out  upon 
flat  boards  and  brushed  over  with  a  thin 
coat  of  the  first  mixture  with  an  ordi- 
nary painter's  brush  ;  the  pajier  is  then 
hung  u])  to  dry  for  24  hours.  After 
this  the  i)aper  is  ready  to  receive  a  coat 
of  the  second  mixture,  and  again  hung 
up  to  dry  for  24  hours;  the  paper  is 
then  treated  in  the  same  way  with  the 
third  mixture,  ami  dried  fur  24  hours. 
After  this  it  receives  a  high  gloss,  which 
is  obtained  by  laying  the  work  with  its 
face  downwards  on  a  highly-]iolished 
steel  plate,  and  then  passing  both  with 
great  pressure  between  a  ])air  of  powei-- 
ful  rollers.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
this  enamelled  surf  ice  is  not  veij 
durable,  as  it  comes  ofi'  after  wetting;. 
To  ]irevent  this,  a  solution  of  some 
resinous  substance  may  be  added  in  the 
last  operation. 

Parchment  Paper. — Dip  ordinary  un- 
sized pajier  for  5  or  6  secomls  info 
dilute  sul|>huric  acid,  and  wash  with 
extremely  weak  ammonia. 

Test  Papers  live  prcpai'cd  by  uniformly 
wetting  sheets  of  unsized  pa])er  in  solu- 
tions of  litmus,  buckthorn  berries,  Bra- 
zil wood,  or  other  particular  coloui'ing 
matter  rc<|uired. 

Lilho<irajihic  Transfer  Paper. — Make 
strong  separate  solutions  in  hot  water  of 
gum  arabic  2  parts,  by  weij,'ht ;  starch,  (> ; 
alum,  1.  Mix,  and  whilst  moclcrately 
hot,  give  the  pa|>er  two  or  three  coals 
with  a  brush,  allowing  each  ooat  to  dry 
before  the  next  is  a|i[ilicd ;  finish  by 
pressing.  Another  plan  is  to  smear  the 
paper  witli  sever.il  cold  coats  of  thin 
«i;c,  and  then  luc  solutious   of  white 


starch  and  gamboge  water,  allowing 
each  coat  to  dry  as  before.  i'ai]er  thus 
prepared  is  written  on  witii  litho.  trans- 
fer ink,  the  back  wetted,  placed  on  a 
clean  stone,  and  run  through  the  jiress, 
when  a  reverse  copy  is  obtained,  which 
can  be  printed  from  in  the  usual  way. 

Wood  Pulp  for  Paper. — I'aiier-makers 
at  the  present  moment   are  sui-rouuded 
with  many  dilliculties,  owing  to  the  high 
price  of  materials  and  the  unremunera- 
tive    price  of  pa]ier.      Wood   pulp    has 
lately  had  a  good  deal  of  attention;  it  is 
now  about  the  cheapest  thing  available, 
but  must  be  worked  with  great  care,  or 
it  will  give  a  great  deal  of  trouble.     It 
requires   to   be  worked  in  an  engine  by 
itself,  unmixed    with    other    materials;, 
the  roll  should  never  under  any  circum- 
stances be  allowed  to  do  anything  but 
clear  the  stuff.     Bleach  is  jmison  to  it, 
and  it  requires  more  tinting  if  for  jirint- 
ing  jiajier  than  otiier  material;   a  good 
dose  of  ultramarine  and  roseine  making 
it   a    delicate    ]iurple-gi'ey  ;    if  used    in 
conjunction  with   straw  it    entirely  de- 
stroys the  harsh  crackling  feel  of  pajier 
made   from   a    large  portion   of  straw  ; 
and,  lastly,  it  absorbs  hardly  any  power, 
and  will    helj)  the  tuin  out   more  than 
anything  else,  waste-papers  net  excejited. 
Tlie  greatest  troulile  to  contend  with  iu 
wood    jiulp   is   the  uncertainty  of  mois- 
ture; this  is  a  constant  source  of  annoy- 
ance, and  leads  to  disjiutes  between  thd 
vendor  and   consumer.     Some   pulj)  in- 
voiced  at  50    per    cent,    moisture   will 
often  be  found   to  contain  70  per  cent., 
or  even    more.     Tliis,  of  course,   upsets 
one's  calculation  of  tiie  cost  of  dry  stud 
or  yield  in  pa]>er.    Makers  of  wood  jmlp 
intended   for  the   open    market  should, 
therefore,  sample  their  bales,  and  having 
dried    the  samples  by   artificial    means, 
carefully    ascertain     the    ]iercentage    of 
moisture    contaiiic(l,    by    deducting    net 
weight  of  dry  pulp  iVoin  gross  weight  of 
pulp   in    bale,  and    invoice    th<'ir   goods 
faithfully   as  j)cr    sample.       Consumers 
must   not    forgot,    however,    that    i>ulp 
stored  iu  a  damp  ))lace  will  absorb  nnis- 
ture    from     the    atiiiospherc,    whilst     if 
stored    ill  a   warm   dry  room   the   bales 
will   lose   weight.     The  invoices  would 


WORKSHOP   KECEIPTS. 


429 


be  thus  all  the  more  reliable  if  the 
vendor  stated  the  percentage  of  mois- 
ture in  the  jnilp  at  a  certain  named 
temperature. 

oTAixiNG  Paper.  —  Yellow.  —  Paper 
may  be  stained  a  beautiful  yellow  by 
the  tincture  of  turmeric  formed  by  in- 
fusing an  ounce  or  more  of  tlie  root, 
powdered,  in  a  pint  of  spirits  of  wine. 
This  may  be  made  to  give  any  tint  of 
yellow,  from  the  lightest  straw  to  the 
full  colour,  called  French  yellow,  and 
will  be  equal  in  brightness  to  the  best 
dyed  silks.  If  yellow  be  wanted  of  a 
warmer  or  redder  cast,  annatto,  or  dra- 
gou's-Lilood,  must  be  added.  The  best 
manner  of  using  tliese,  and  the  following 
tinctui'es,  is  to  s])read  them  even  on  the 
paper,  or  parchment,  by  means  of  a 
broad  brush,  in  the  manner  of  var- 
uibliing. 

Crimson. — A  very  fine  crimson  stain 
may  be  given  to  ]iaper  by  a  tincture  of 
Indian  lake,  which  may  be  made  by  in- 
fusing the  lake  some  days  in  spirits  of 
wine,  and  then  pouring  olf  the  tincture 
from  the  dregs.  It  may  be  stained  red 
by  red  ink.  It  may  also  be  stained  of  a 
scarlet  hue  by  the  tincture  of  dragon's- 
blood  in  spirits  of  wine,  but  this  will  not 
be  bright. 

Gixcn. — Paper  or  parchment  may  be 
stained  green,  by  the  solution  of  verdi- 
gris \:\  vinegar,  or  by  the  crystals  of 
verdigris  dissolved  in  w^ater. 

Orange. — Stain  the  paper  or  parch- 
ment first  of  a  full  yellow  by  means  of 
the  tincture  of  turmeric  ;  then  brush  it 
over  with  a  soluLion  of  fixed  alkaline 
salt,  made  by  dissolving  J  oz.  of  pearl- 
ash,  or  salts  of  tartar,  in  a  quart  of 
water,  and  filtering  the  solution. 

Purple. — Paper  or  parchment  may  be 
stained  purple,  by  archil,  or  by  the 
tincture  of  logwood.  Brush  the  work 
several  times  with  the  following  log- 
wood decoction  ;  —  1  lb.  of  logwood 
chips,  \  lb.  of  Brazil  wood,  boiled  for 
IJ  hour  in  a  gallon  of  water.  Wlien 
dry,  give  a  coat  of  pearlash  solution, 
1  dram  to  a  quart,  taking  care  to  lay  it 
on  evenly.  Thi  juice  of  ripe  privet 
berries  expressed  will  also  give  a  purple 
dve. 


Staining  Parchment. — Blue. — 1.  Dis- 
solve verdigris  in  vinegar,  and  brush  over 
with  the  solution  hot  till  it  becomes  a 
perfect  green,  then  well  brush  over  with 
a  solution  of  pearlash,  2  oz.  to  the  pint, 
until  it  becomes  a  good  blue.  2.  Use  the 
blue  stain  for  wood,  viz.  copper  filings 
dissolved  in  aquafortis ;  the  material 
must  be  well  brushed  over  with  it,  and 
then  brushed  over  with  a  hot  solution 
of  pearlash,  same  strength  as  above, 
until  it  assumes  a  perfectly  blue  colour. 
3.  Boil  1  lb.  of  indigo,  2  lbs.  of  wood, 
and  3  07..  of  alum  in  a  gallon  of  water; 
brush  well  over  until  thoroughly  stained. 

Med. — 1.  Boil  1  lb.  of  Brazil  wood  and 

1  oz.  of  pearlash  in  a  gallon  of  water, 
and  while  hot  brush  over  t'lework  until 
of  a  proper  colour.  Dissolve  2  oz.  of 
alum  in  a  quart  of  water,  and  brush  this 
solution  over  the  above  before  it  dries. 
2.  Use  a  cold  infusion  of  archil,  and 
brush  well  over  witli  a  pearlash  solution, 

2  drams  to  the  quart. 
Incombustible  Paper  may  be  made  by 

mixing  with  the  pulp  a  fluid  obtained 
by  adding  to  an  aqueous  solution  con- 
taining If  oz.  of  pure  tallow  soap,  just 
enough  alum  to  completely  decompose 
the  soap.  The  paper  made  with  this 
requires  no  size. 

Bleaching  Paper.  —  Paper  which  has 
been  very  imperfectly  bleached  may  be 
rendered  thoroughly  white  by  pouring 
upon  it  in  succession,  as  dilute  solutions, 
3^  parts  alum,  1  part  chloride  of  barium, 
a  little  free  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
i  part  calcined  chalk — stirring  well 
during  the  operation.  The  fibres  of  the 
paper  become  firmly  coated  with  the 
brilliant  white  sulphate  of  barytes  which 
is  formed. 

Pollen  Ponder,  or  Paper  Powder. — 
Boil  white  paper,  or  paper  cuttings,  in 
water  for  5  hours.  Pour  off  the  water, 
pound  the  pulp  in  a  Wedgwood  mortar, 
and  pass  through  a  fine  sieve.  This 
powder  is  employed  by  the  bird  stutl'ers 
to  dust  over  the  legs  of  some  birds,  and 
the  bills  of  others,  to  give  them  a  pow- 
dery aj)]iearance ;  also  to  communicate 
the  downy  bloom  to  rrugh-coated  arti- 
ficial fruit,  and  other  purposes  of  a  simi- 
lar nature  ;  it  make£  excellent  pounce. 


430 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


Papier-Mache. — Two  modes  of 
making  articles  of  papier-mache  are 
adopted  ; — oitlier  by  gluing  or  pasting 
different  thicknesses  of  paper  together, 
or  by  mixing  the  substance  of  the  paper 
into  a  pulp,  and  pressing  it  into  moulds. 
1.  The  first  mode  is  adopted  principally 
for  those  articles,  such  as  trays,  in  wiiich 
a  tolerably  plain  and  flat  surface  is  to 
be  produced.  Common  millboard,  such 
as  forms  the  covers  of  books,  may  give 
some  idea  of  this  sort  of  manufacture. 
Sheets  of  strong  pa]>er  are  glued  to- 
gether, and  then  so  powerfully  pressed 
that  the  different  strata  of  paper  become 
as  one.  Slight  curvatures  may  be  given 
to  such  pasteboard  when  damj),  by  the 
use  of  presses  and  moulds.  Articles 
such  as  snuff-boxes  are  made  by  gluing 
pieces  of  paper  cut  to  the  size  of  the 
top,  bottom,  and  sides,  one  on  another, 
round  a  frame  or  mould,  which  is  after- 
wards removed. 

Polish. — Articles  made  of  pasteboard 
have  a  fine  black  ])olish  imparted  to 
them  in  the  following  manner; — After 
being  done  over  with  a  mixture  of  size 
an<l  lampblack,  they  receive  a  coating 
of  a  jieculiar  varnish.  Turjientine  is 
l)oiled  down  until  it  becomes  black; 
and  three  times  as  much  amber  in 
line  powder  is  sprinkled  upon  it,  with 
the  addition  of  s])irit  or  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. When  the  amber  is  melted, 
some  sarcocolla  and  more  tpirit  of  tur- 
]ii'ntinc  are  added,  and  the  whole  well 
htinx'd.  After  being  strained,  this 
Varnish  is  mixed  witii  ivory-black  anil 
a]>plicd  in  a  hot  room,  on  the  jiapier- 
muchd  articles,  which  are  then  jilaced 
in  a  heated  oven.  Two  or  three  coat- 
ings of  the  black  varnish  will  jiroduce 
a  durable  aiwl  glossy  surface,  impervious 
to  water.  '2.  l*a]iier-maclie,  ]iro)iei'ly 
80  called,  is  that  which  is  pressed  into 
moulds  in  the  state  of  a  j)ulp.  This 
pulp  is  generally  made  of  cuttings  of 
coarue  paper  boiled  in  water,  and  beaten 
in  a  mortar  till  they  assume  the  con- 
sistence of  a  paste,  which  is  boiled  in  a 
solution  of  gum  arable  or  of  size,  to 
give  it  tenacity.  The  nuiulds  are  carved 
m  the  usual  way,  and  oiled,  Hud  a  p»lp 
poured    into    them ;    a    roiintcr-moiiid 


being  employed  to  make  the  cast  no- 
thing more  than  a  crust  or  shell,  as  in 
j)laster  casts.  In  some  manufactories, 
instead  of  using  cuttings  of  made  paper, 
the  pulp  emjiloyed  by  the  paper-maser 
is,  after  some  further  treatment,  poured 
into  the  moulds  to  produce  papier- 
mache  ornaments. 

Uses  of  Papicr-mnche. — It  has  now, 
in  some  cases,  superseded  the  carved 
and  composition  ornaments  employed  to 
decorate  picture  and  glass  frames ;  but 
it  is  in  the  ceilings  and  walls  of  rooms 
and  the  interiors  of  public  buildings 
that  papier-mache  is  found  most  valu- 
able. Plaster  and  composition  ornaments 
are  ponderous;  carved  ornaments  ar« 
costly  ;  but  those  of  pajiier-mache'  are 
light  and  of  moderate  price.  Maps  in 
relief  are  also  occasionally  made  of 
j)apier-machc.  Paper  roofs  have  been 
occasionally  used.  Sheets  of  stout  paper 
are  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  tar  and 
pitch,  dried,  nailed  on  in  the  manner 
of  slates,  and  then  tarred  again  ;  this 
roof  is  waterproof,  but  unfortunately 
very  combustible. 

Paper  Casts  from  the  Antique.—  Tiiis 
method  of  obtaining  facsimiles  of  sculji- 
ture  in  basso-relievo  is  very  easy.  Still', 
unsized,  common  white  paper  is  best 
adapted  for  the  purjiose.  It  should  be 
well  damped ;  and,  when  applied  to 
sculpture  still  retaining  its  colour,  not 
to  injure  the  latter,  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  side  of  the  ]ia|)er  placed 
on  till!  figures  be  dry — tiiat  is,  not  the 
side  which  has  been  s|ionged.  The  |ia]icr, 
when  applied  to  the  sculpture,  should 
be  evenly  patted  with  a  na])kin  folded 
rather  stiflly;  and,  if  any  jiart  of  the 
figures  or  hieroglyphics  be  in  intaglio 
or  eliborately  worked,  it  is  better  to 
jiress  the  jiajH'r  over  that  part  with  the 
linger.  Five  minutes  is  unite  sudicient 
time  to  make  a  cast  of  this  descri]il  ion  ; 
when  taken  off  the  wall,  it  should  be 
laid  on  the  ground  or  sand  to  dry. 

CoMi-osii'iON  Ornamionts  for  Pic- 
Tvnv.  FuAMKS.  —  Mixini].  —  The  prin- 
ci|jal  ingredii'uts  aie  glue,  water,  linseed 
oil,  rosin,  and  whiting,  which  are  com- 
bined in  such  pro]iortion8  as  to  make  a 
mixture  soft  eno'igh  for  working,  whili>. 


WORKSHOP   RECEIPTS. 


431 


at  tne  same  time,  it  should  be  so  tough 
as  not  to  crack,  and  should  harden  in  a 
few  hours  if  the  ornament  be  thin,  or  in 
a  day  or  two  if  it  be  more  massive.  The 
state  in  which  it  is  used  by  the  orna- 
ment maker  is  that  of  a  stiff  dough  ;  and 
the  making  of  it  resembles  the  process  by 
which  the  baker  makes  his  dough.  The 
proper  amount  of  glue  is  steeped  in  water, 
which  is  heated  to  dissolve  the  glue ; 
while  the  oil  and  rosin  are  melted  in  a 
separate  vessel,  and  then  poured  into  the 
vessel  containing  the  melted  glue.  The 
whiting  is  pounded,  and  placed  in  a  tub 
or  pan^beiug  previously  warmed  if  the 
weather  be  damp  and  cold — and  the 
hot  melted  glue,  oil,  and  rosin  is 
poured  upon  the  whiting,  and  then  well 
mixed  up  with  it,  and  kneaded,  rolled, 
and  beat,  until  it  becomes  a  smooth, 
tough,  elastic  kind  of  dough  or  putty. 
It  may  then  either  be  used  at  once,  or 
may  be  laid  aside  for  future  use ;  but, 
whenever  it  is  used,  it  must  be  warmed, 
either  before  a  fire  or  by  admitting  steam 
to  act  upon  it,  because,  when  cold,  it  is 
too  hard  and  stilf  for  use. 

Moulding. — The  manner  of  using  this 
composition  is  to  press  it  into  moulds ; 
the  preparation  of  which  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  business :  it  is  gene- 
rally done  by  men  who  are  not  en- 
gaged in  making  the  ornaments  them- 
selves. The  moulds  are  usually  made 
of  boxwood,  which,  by  its  smoothness  of 
grain,  admits  very  fine  figures  to  be  cut 
in  it,  and  is  very  durable.  The  mould 
carver  has  to  proceed  with  his  work  in 
an  opposite  way  to  the  ordinary  carver  ; 
for  he  must  make  depressions  or  hollows 
instead  of  raised  projections,  and  pro- 
jections instead  of  hollows.  The  mould 
carver  makes  his  mould  look,  in  every 
part,  directly  .he  reverse  of  what  he 
wishes  the  ornament  to  appear. 

Carved  Moulds. — The  block  of  wood 
being  planed  and  smoothed,  the  carver 
draws  on  its  surface  a  representation  of 
the  object  which  he  wishes  to  carve,  and 
then  proceeds  to  work  out  the  minute 
details.  The  tools  used  in  this  carving 
are  exceedingly  fine  and  sharp,  some  of 
them  n:';  exceeding  one-twentieth  of  an 
inch  ir.  width.     These  are,  a?  in  com- 


mon carvibg,  mostly  gouges,  with  va- 
rious degrees  of  curvature.  The  sharp- 
ening of  them  is  a  matter  of  great  nicety, 
and  in  some  cases  requires  files  made  oi 
very  fine  wire.  The  block  of  boxwood 
is  moistened  with  oil  during  the  process 
of  cutting,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  pro- 
gress of  the  tool.  The  cuts  are,  in  the 
first  instance,  made  perpendicularly  from 
the  surface  of  the  wood,  and  afterwards 
varied  into  the  necessary  directions  to 
produce  the  pattern.  In  order  to  know 
how  to  vary  the  depth  of  different  parts 
of  the  mould,  the  carver  must  either  be 
guided  by  the  accuracy  of  his  eye  and 
the  correctness  of  his  taste,  or  he  must 
have  another  mould  of  the  same  pattern 
before  him. 

Cast  Alovlds. — Sometimes  moulds  are 
made  by  casting,  the  material  being  brass, 
copper,  pewter,  lead,  or  sulphur.  A 
model,  representing  the  object  which  it 
is  desired  to  produce,  is  made  of  com- 
position or  ))laster,  and  is  placed  on  a  flat 
stone,  and  surrounded  by  a  raised  bord<'r 
or  edging,  so  that  it  lies  in  a  cell  or 
trough.  The  model  is  then  oiled,  and 
the  melted  metal  or  sulphur  is  poured 
on  it,  so  as  to  entirely  cover  it.  When 
cold,  the  raised  border  is  broken  away, 
the  mould  taken  up,  and  the  model  re- 
moved from  within  it.  It  is  then  im- 
bedded in  a  wooden  case  to  preserve  it 
from  injury,  and  to  fit  it  for  the  better 
reception  of  the  composition.  Some- 
times brass  moulds  are  made  in  this  way, 
and  afterwards  chased ;  that  is,  the 
minuter  details  of  ornament  are  cut,  or 
rather  scratched,  by  very  fine  tools. 
When  the  mould,  whether  of  wood, 
metal,  or  sulphur,  is  to  be  employed  to 
cast  ornaments,  it  is  brushed  over  with 
oil,  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the  com- 
position. A  piece  of  composition,  large 
enough  for  the  intended  purpose,  is  then 
taken  up  in  a  warm  soft  state,  and 
pressed  into  the  mould  by  the  hand.  A 
wet  board  is  laid  upon  the  surface  of 
the  composition,  and  the  whole  is  juit 
into  a  powerful  screw-press,  by  which 
the  composition  is  pressed  into  every  part 
of  the  mould,  however  deep  and  minute 
It  may  be  The  same  pressure  makcis 
the   upper   surface  of  the    comfosit.'oo 


432 


WORKSHOP  RECEl±>T3, 


adhere  to  the  wetted  board,  so  that, 
when  it  is  taken  out  of  the  press,  the 
mould  may  be  pulled  off  the  ornament, 
leaving  the  latter  adhering  to  the  board. 
When  the  cast  has  become  a  little  hard- 
ened, it  is  cut,  or  rather  sliced  off,  with 
a  broad  knife,  to  the  required  thickness. 
Fixing. — The  composition  ornament, 
thus  made,  is  exceedingly  pliant  and 
supple,  and  may  be  bent  into  almost  any 
form  without  breaking  or  injuring  it: 
it  is  this  property  which  makes  these 
ornaments  so  convenient;  as  they  may 
be  applied  to  the  round,  the  flat,  or  the 
hollow  parts  of  a  frame,  with  almost 
equal  ease.  They  are  fixed  on  either  with 
glue,  or,  if  quite  soft  and  warm,  with 
hot  water,  which,  by  softening  the  glue 
contained  in  the  com{)osition,  produces  a 
sulficiently  strong  cement;  and,  in  a 
short  time,  they  becunie  sulliciently  firm 
and  hard  to  be  handled  without  injury. 
Jn  modern  frames  which  are  intended 
to  imitate  antique  carved  frames,  the 
manner  of  laying  on  the  various  pieces 
of  ornament  requires  much  care  in  the 
workman.  If  an  antique  frame,  or  a 
drawing  from  it,  is  given  to  the  orna- 
ment maker  to  imitate,  he  must  have 
moulds  carved  of  all  the  various  parts, 
so  that,  when  united  on  the  frame,  tiie 
assemblage  of  composition  casts  may 
present  a  facsimile  of  the  frame.  If  he 
wishes  to  produce  a  frame  which  shall 
possess  a  general  resemblance  to  old 
patterns,  but  without  tying  himself 
down  to  any  im.lividual  pattern,  he  has 
to  depend  on  his  taste  and  judgment, 
both  in  the  cutting  of  moulds  and  in 
the  disposition  of  the  various  pieces  of 
ornament  on  a  frame.  Tins  composi- 
tion, being  a  compact  substance,  is  heavy. 
In  this  point  carved  ornaments  have  a 
great  su])eriority  over  comjjosition  ;  in- 
deed, the  heaviness  of  the  latter  was  one 
reason  which  led  to  the  adojition  of 
papier-machd  ornaments.  Wlicn  papier- 
machd  ornaments  are  used,  they  are  cast 
in  moulds,  resembling  those  just  de- 
scribed. The  paper  is  in  the  state  of  a 
pulji;  b;it  there  is  this  diirpreni;e  be- 
tween the  t'.vo  kinds  of  ornaments.  The 
|iuii'  is  jiiirsied  between  two  moulds,  so 
liiat  the   th  ckuess  of  the  ornaments  is 


seldom  more  than  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  at  any  part ;  thus  the  ornament  is 
of  less  weight,  and  there  is  a  saving  of 
material. 

To  Make  a  Thermometer. — 
Take  a  fine  glass  tube  blown  into  a  bulb 
at  one  end.  The  bulb  is  heated,  the  air 
expands;  it  is  then  placed  under  mer- 
cury, which  rushes  in  as  the  tube  cools, 
and  takes  the  place  of  the  air  which  was 
driven  out  by  the  heat.  It  is  then  ma- 
naged so  that  the  mercury  should  be  at 
a  convenient  spot  at  the  common  tem- 
perature. Apply  heat  to  the  mercui-y 
until  the  column  rises  quite  to  the  top 
of  the  tube ;  then  seal  it  by  applying 
heat,  the  mercury  on  cooling  leaves  a 
vacuum,  which  is  essential  to  the  per- 
fection of  the  instrument.  The  great 
point  is  to  graduate  it.  The  freezing- 
jioint  of  water  or  the  melting-point  of 
ice  is  always  constant ;  the  boiling-point 
of  water  is  also  con  taut.  The  baro- 
metric pressure  being  constant,  dis- 
tilled water  is  made  to  boil,  and  the 
thermometer  surrounded  with  the  steam 
produced;  the  point  to  which  the  mer- 
cury rises  is  marked  off  with  a  file,  and 
the  freezing-point  of  water  is  also 
marked.  It  only  remains  to  divide  the 
interval  into  degrees,  which  is  arbitrary. 
In  England  Fahrenheit  is  used,  the  space 
between  freezing  and  boiling  being  di- 
vided into  180,  32  being  the  freezing, 
and  212  the  boiiing-jtoiut.  Zero  is  32° 
below  freezing  point.  In  the  Centi- 
grade the  interval  is  divided  into  100. 
Zero  is  the  freezing-point,  and  100°  the 
boiling-point.  In  Reaumur's  scale  the 
interval  is  divided  info  80.  Zero  is 
again  the  freezing-point,  whilst  80°  is 
tiie  boiling-point.  To  change  Centi- 
grade into  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  ;>, 
diviile  by  fi,  and  add  32.  To  change 
Kahieuheit  into  Centigrade,  subtract  32, 
multijdy  by  .">,  and  divide  by  1*.  To 
convert  the  degi'ces  of  Reaumur  into 
Fahrenheit,  multiply  those  of  Reaumur 
by  9,  divide  by  4,  and  add  32;  the  sura 
will  be  the  degrees  on  the  scale  of  Fah- 
renheit. Spirit  thermometers  aie  the 
best  where  great  coM  is  required,  inas- 
much as  they  are  dillicult  to  fieeza 
Mercury  is  best  for  high  temperatures. 


PATENTS,  DESIGNS,  AND  TRADE-MARKS. 


The  following  information  on  the 
above  subjects  has  been  supplied  to  us  by 
Mr.  W.  P.  Thompson,  F.C.S.,  M.I.M.E., 
British  and  International  Patent  Agent 
of  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Nottingham, 
and  London. 

The  table  on  next  page  gives  the 
principal  countries  and  colonies  where 
patents  can  be  obtained,  and  designs  and 
trade-marks  registered. 

Explanation  of  Table. 

1.  The  first  column  gives  the  names 
of  the  countries ;  "  T  "  after  many  of 
these  signifies  that  besides  the  first  cost 
a  periodic  tax  (usually  an  annual  one) 
is  levied  on  the  patent  on  pain  of  for- 
feiture of  the  patent  rights. 

2.  The  column  headed  "  Protection  " 
signifies  the  number  of  months  during 
which  the  invention  is  protected  (by 
the  International  Convention  or  other- 
wise) by  the  filing  of  a  provisional 
application  in  Great  Bi-itain. 

3.  The  column  headed  "Working" 
states  the  length  of  time  in  years  after 
the  date  of  the  patent  within  which 
working  within  the  realm  must  be 
commenced,  on  pain  of  forfeiture  of  the 
patent  rights. 

4.  The  next  column,  headed  "  Dura- 
tion," gives  the  maximum  number  of 
years  for  which  patents  are  usually 
granted.  In  some  cases,  as  in  England 
and  Denmark,  this  can  be  extended  in 
the  case  of  very  meritorious  inventions 
which  have  not  sufficiently  paid  their 
inventors. 

5.  The  next  column  gives  the  average 
initial  cost  of  patents,  including  patent 
agent's  fees.     In  complicated  cases  the 


cost  is  greater ;  in  very  simple  cases  it 
is  less. 

6.  The  next  column  gives  the  average 
cost  of  registering  a  design,  usually  fo 
a  period  of  about  five  years. 

7.  And  the  next  that  of  registering 
an  ordinary  trade-mark  in  one  class  of 
goods,  usually  for  about  fourteen  years, 
with  power  to  renew. 

Further  Particulars.  • 

Patents  for  inventions  are  granted  in 
all  civilised  countries  and  colonies 
except  the  Dutch  dominions,  Servia, 
Roumania,  Egypt,  Cyprus,  Persia,  and 
China,  but  only  the  more  important  ones 
are  set  down  in  the  table.  In  nearly  all 
countries  they  are  granted  only  to  the 
original  inventor  or  his  assignees,  and 
only  then  if  he  applies  for  the  patent 
before  the  invention  has  become  publicly 
known  or  worked  in  the  realm. 

Designs  are  protected  in  comparatively 
few  countries,  unless  they  come  under 
the  head  of  inventions,  when  they  can  be 
covered  by  patents.  In  some  countries, 
as  set  forth  in  the  table,  they  can  be 
protected  for  a  few  years  by  registration. 

Trade-marks  are  protected  from  in- 
fringement in  all  civilised  countries  by 
common  law  or  special  registration, 
but  where  registrations  are  granted 
they  are  not  protected  till  the  registra- 
tions are  effected. 

Copyright  in  books  can  be  obtained  in 
nearly  all  countries  by  authors  resident 
in  the  country,  and  by  authors  resident 
in  other  countries  with  which  such 
countries  have  copyright  treaties.  Inter- 
national copyright  law  is,  however, 
still  in  embryo  and  very  defective. 


Patents,  Designs,  and  Trade-marks. 


Protec- 
tion. 

Work- 
ing. 

Dura- 
tion. 

Patents. 

Designs. 

Trade- 
Marks. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£    s.     d. 

£ 

».    d. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

Provisional,  9  months    . 

9 

•  • 

1 

4 

4 

0 

, , 

1 

0     0 

Completing  (T)  . 

•  • 

•  • 

none 

■  • 

14 

11 

11 

0 

15s.  to 

3 

0     0 

Total        .      .      . 

15 

15 

0 

4 

0     0 

31.  3s.     1 

United  States    .... 

7 

none 

17 

20 

0 

0 

51.  to  131.  41.  ( 

31  101. 

Canada  (T) 

12 

2 

15 

18 

0 

0 

5     0     0  i 10 

0    0 

India  (T) 

12 

none 

14 

23 

0 

0 

10     0     08 

0     0 

Victoria  (T)      .      .      .      . 

12 

none 

14 

16 

0 

0 

5     0     0     9 

0     0 

New  South  Wales  .      .      . 

none 

none 

14 

18 

0 

0 

5     0     0      8 

0     0 

Queensland  (T) 

none 

none 

14 

19 

0 

0 

5     0     0      8 

0     0 

South  Australia  (T)     ,      . 

none 

none 

14 

14 

0 

0 

5     0     0    10 

10     0 

New  Zealand  (or  T)     .      . 

12 

none 

14 

18 

0 

0 

4  10     0  17 

0     0 

France  and  Colonics  (T)    . 

6 

2 

15 

14 

0 

0 

4     0     0     6 

0     0 

Belgium  (T)      .... 

6 

1 

20 

8 

10 

0 

4     0     0     6 

0     0 

Holland 

none 

,  , 

,  , 

none 

none        11 

0     0 

Germany (T)     .... 

none 

3 

15 

15 

0 

0 

5     0     0     8 

0     0 

Austria  and  Hungary  (T)  . 

none 

1 

15 

13 

0 

0 

5     0     0  !    6 

0     0 

Italy  (T) 

6 

lto2 

15 

14 

0 

0 

6     0     0|    7 

0     0 

Switzerland  (T) 

7 

3 

15 

12 

0 

0 

6     0     0  '  10 

0     0 

Spain  and  Colonies  (T) 

6 

2 

20 

22 

0 

0 

11     0     0     7 

0     0 

Portugal  (T)     .... 

6 

2 

15 

19 

0 

0 

none      '    5 

10     0 

Denmark  and  Iceland  . 

none 

1 

5 

13 

0 

0 

none        12 

0     0 

Sweden  (T)       .... 

7 

3 

15 

15 

0 

0 

none        10 

0     0 

Norway  (T)      .      .      .      . 

7 

3 

15 

13 

0 

0 

none       ^    8 

0     0 

Russia 

V 

none 
none 

f 

2J 

3 
10 

25 
75 

0 
0 

0/ 

6     0     0      7 

0     0 

Turkey (T)        .... 

none 

<2 

15 

29 

0 

0 

none        12 

0     0 

Brazil' (T) 

7 

3 

15 

36 

0 

0 

none      , 12 

0     0 

Argentine  Republic 

none 

2 

5 

38 

0 

0 

ni.ne|      .^^ 
none/    i  " 

0     0 

»»               11            •      • 

none 

2 

15 

100 

0 

0 

Chili  (T) 

none 

none 

15 

62 

0 

0 

none        16 

0     0 

For  further  information  on  this  sub-  j  Co.,  of  6,  Lord  Street,   Liverpool ;    6, 
ject  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  useful     Bank  Street,  Manchester;  Angel   Row, 
manuals    "Facts    for    Inventors"    and     Nottingham;    and   323,  Iligli   Holborn, 
"All  about  Trade-marks,"  supplied  post  ,  London,  W.C. 
free  by  Messrs.  W.  P.   Thompson  and  | 


INDEX. 


Acetate  of  CorriiE,  235. 

ol  leiul,  236. 

Acetic  acid,  235. 
Acelo-nitrate  batli,  283. 
Acid-proof  cement,  22. 

,  tannic,  326. 

Ageing  liquor,  40. 
Alabaster,  cleaning.  27 
Alcohol  barrels,  16. 
Alkali  testing,  374. 
Albumen,  284. 

Iodized,  2S3. 

Albumenized  paper,  255. 
Alloy  for  bells  of  clucks,  12. 

cymbals  and  gongs,  12. 

journal  boxes,  12. 

tam-tams,  12. 

Alloys,  9-14. 

fusible,  12. 

Almond  soap,  384. 
Aluminium  bronze,  13. 
Alum  white,  pigment,  93. 
Amalgamating  salt,  244. 

gilding  by,  307. 

Amalgam,  gilding  copper  by,  311. 

gold,  238,  307. 

Amber,  to  dye  silk,  32. 

to  dye  woollen,  35. 

to  mend,  14. 

«^^  to  work,  14. 

—  varnish,  67. 
Ammonia,  238. 
Aniline  colours,  33. 
Animal  fats,  373. 
Annealing  glass,  57. 

steel,  338. 

Anodes,  246. 
Antimonial  soap,  385. 
Antimony  deposits,  221. 
Anti-friction  grease,  333. 

metal,  Belgian,  334. 

Anti-rust  varnish,  359. 

Apparatus,  impervious  cement  for,  24. 

Aquafortis,  13. 

Aqua  regia,  14. 

Aquariums,  cement  for,  22. 

Architectural  cement,  25. 

Argentometer,  250. 

Armenian  or  jeweller's  cement,  22. 

Arsenic,  flux  for,  349. 

Artificial  gold,  11. 

grindstone,  403. 

gums,  340. 

—^  ivory,  371 

liglit,  photography  by,  287. 

—  mother-of-pearl  buttons,  339. 


Aslics,  treatment  of  electro  waste  213. 
Ash,  soda,  374. 
Asb  vat,  38. 
Asphalte  varnish,  66. 
Attrillou  metal,  Babbitt's,  9. 
Autogenous  soldering,  367. 
Awnings,  waterprootii:g,  368. 
Axles,  lubricating  composition  for,  33-4. 
Azure  blue,  96. 

Babbitt's  Attrition  Metal,  9. 

Backj,'round  in  photography,  290. 

Backing  positives,  varnish  lor,  72, 

Balsam  of  sulphur,  52. 

Band-saws,  brazing  and  resetting,  366. 

Bark  decoction,  tanning  by,  322. 

Barometer  scales,  silvering  for,  318. 

Baths  and  silver  solutions,  reducing  old,  280 

Baths  for  magic-lantern  slides,  288. 

Bedsteads,  red  stain  for,  418. 

Beech,  to  stain  mahogany  colour,  417. 

Beef  tallow,  373. 

Bell  metal,  12. 

BlIIs  of  clocks,  alloy,  for,  12. 

Belts,  driving,  328. 

Bending  glass  tubes,  60. 

Benzine,  243. 

Best  Britannia,  for  handles,  11. 

for  lamps,  pillars,  and  spouta,  11 

for  spoons,  11. 

for  spouts,  11, 

Best  red  brass,  10. 
Bicarbonate  of  potash,  239. 
Bichloride  of  platinum,  240. 
Bird-skins,  preservative  for,  333. 
Bird's-eye  maple,  graining,  ^2, 

carriage,  graining,  83. 

ground,  419. 

Birds,  to  akin  and  stuff,  330. 
Bishulphide  of  carbon,  246. 
Bisulphite  of  soda,  245. 
Bitartrate  of  potash,  239. 
Black  brasswork  for  Instrunippta     9 

bronze  for  brass,  19. 

cotton,  to  dye,  36. 

enamels,  48. 

flu.x,349. 

Geneva,  to  dye  woollen,  3'.. 

— —  house  painting,  105,  109. 

japan,  67. 

jet,  to  dye  woollen,  33. 

ivory,  97. 

leather  varnish,  69.  , 

liquor,  40. 

marble  on  wood,  425. 

pigments,  97. 


434 


:ni)EX. 


Black  pigment,  blue,  98. 
—^  reviver,  16. 

solder,  366. 

stain  for  wood,  418. 

to  dye  silk,  30. 

Blacking  for  harness,  328. 

liquid,  16. 

paste,  16. 

Blanclied  copper,  10. 
Blackboard,  black  for,  409. 
Bleaching-house,  arrangement  of,  wax,  35 
Bleaching  ivory,  15,  370. 

-  palm-oil,  372. 

paper,  14,  429. 

^-^  powder,  15. 

— ^  prints,  and  printed  books  1 5. 

silk,  14. 

sponge,  16. 

wax,  342,  354. 

wool,  14. 

Blister  removing  from  veneer,  1 ;  2, 
Blisters  in  photography,  280. 
Blue,  azure,  96. 
Blue-black,  16. 

ink,  343. 

pigment,  98. 

calx,  52. 

cobalt,  97. 

enamels,  48. 

-  house  paint,  106. 
ink,  345. 

lake,  pigment,  92. 

to  di'e  cotton,  37. 

silk,  31. 

woollen,  34. 

pictures,  291. 

pigments,  96. 

Prussian,  97. 

»—  royal,  to  dye  silk,  31. 

woollen,  31. 

Saxon,  97. 

soluble,  16. 

royal,  38. 

vat,  39. 

woollen  spirit,  40. 

Bo'.ler  incrustation,  16. 
Boiling  soap,  377. 
Bone  fat,  373. 

polishing,  89. 

Bones,  glue  Irom,  341. 
Buokbiod'-rB'  paste,  41. 

varnish,  71. 

Bookbinding,  39 1-IOI. 

without  tools,  398. 

Book-eUgi'S,  burnishing,  409. 

niarblini;,  :f99-IOI. 

Books,  gil'liiig  and  liulshing,  3u9. 
Boot  and  .-Ikx'  making,  3::9. 
B<j<jl-top  ii<|uid,  32H. 

BooLi,  varnish  for,  328. 
BoUtiiy  liay  woo<l,  to  InilLatc,  418. 
Botile  corka,  ceni'iil  for,  22. 
Bouglen,  parlour,  369. 

trunsparent,  358. 

fioU'iUet  friap,  3M4. 

Bnuta  article.^,  to  brcjnze,  18. 

-  bath,  urruiigi-nient  ol,  186, 

correcting,  185. 

lor  »t<cl,  iron,  and  tin.  185. 


Brass,  bath  for  zinc,  186. 

solutions  for,  184. 

•^—  brightening  and  colouring,  16. 

common,  for  castings,  1 0. 

deposits,  183. 

colour  of,  186. 

for  turning,  10. 

hard,  for  casting,  10. 

lacquer  for,  75. 

melting,  IC. 

plating,  186. 

polishing,  402. 

red,  10. 

roiled,  10. 

silvering,  317. 

solder  for,  366. 

solder  for  iron,  366. 

to  clean,  28. 

to  prepare  for  lacquering,  74. 

to  tin,  336. 

wires,  tinning,  337. 

yellow,  10. 

Brass-work  for  instruments,  black,  10 

re-lacquering,  74. 

Brassing  lead  or  pewter,  186. 

Brazil-wood  lake,  pigment,  92. 

Brazing  saws,  366. 

Bremen  green,  94. 

Brightening  and  colouring  bras'*,  )6 

tarnished  jewellery,  319. 

Britannia  metal,  10. 

for  casting,  10. 

for  registers,  10. 

for  spiiniing,  10. 

hardening  for,  10. 

silver  plating,  214. 

Brit.inuia  ware,  solder  for,  364. 
Bronze,  antique,  235. 

black,  235. 

for  brass,  black,  19. 

for  cutting  instruments,  IT. 

for  medals,  17. 

for  ornaments,  17. 

for  stiituary,  17. 

gold,  51. 

green,  19. 

liquid,  17. 

metal,  11. 

powders,  17 

silver,  18. 

Bronzing  copper  utensils,  IP. 

electrotypes,  20. 

gas  lutings,  18. 

gold  powder  for,  18. 

gold  size,  306. 

inhild  work,  418. 

iron,  19. 

papiT,  18. 

pUwI.r,  18. 

small  brass  articles,  18. 

wo(m1,  18. 

Brown,  cinnamon,  to  <lye  wooUc:!,  34. 

dark,  to  dye  woollCn,  34. 

cotton,  to  dye,  36. 

enamel,  49. 

French,  to  dye  w<x)1Iod,  34. 

Iiard  spirit  varnish,  70. 

bouse  paint,  105. 

—  olive,  to  dye  woollen,  34. 


INDEX. 


435 


Brown,  stain  for  wood,  418. 
■^—  to  dye  cotton,  36. 

to  dye  cotton  madder,  38. 

Browning  gun  barrels,  21. 
Brunswick  black,  67. 
^—  green,  94. 
Brushes,  hair  for,  411. 

varnish,  73. 

Buff-colour  house  paint,  108. 
Buff  leather,  cleaning,  329. 
— ^  to  dye  cotton,  38. 

silk,  32. 

woollen,  35. 

BuUet  metal,  13. 
Bullocks'  horns,  polishing,  407. 
Burning  lead,  361. 
Burnish  gold,  49. 
Burnishing,  216,  407-409. 
Burnishers,  407. 
Burnished  gilding,  298. 
on  glass,  300. 

—  gilt  frames,  304. 

Cabinet  Pobtraiis,  295. 

—  varnish,  64. 

work,  polish  for,  87. 

Calculating  length  of  camera,  288. 
Calf-skins,  to  tan,  322. 
Calx,  blue,  52. 
Camera,  copying,  287. 

solar,  288. 

stereoscopic  views,  287. 

twm  lens,  286. 

Cameos,  to  carve,  21. 
Camphor  savonette,  386. 
Candles,  350. 
Cauls,  veneering,  411. 
Carbon  prints,  colouring,  279. 

oil-colours,  280. 

retouching,  280. 

water-colours  on,  280. 

Cardboard,  transferring  photographs  to,  277. 
Cardwork,  to  varnish,  68. 
Carminated  lake,  92. 
Carmine,  91. 
Carriage  graining,  83. 

bird's-eye  maple,  83. 

— ^  curled  maple,  84. 

pollard  oak,  83. 

Carriage  japan,  79,  83. 

painting,  79. 

colouring,  80. 

green  colours,  82. 

— ^ Ironwork,  80. 

• lake  colours,  82. 

priming,  80. 

rough-stuffing,  80. 

— rubbing  down,  80. 

— second  coat,  80. 

•— to  prepare  raw  oil  for,  81. 

— — varnishing  and  striping,  80. 

— — yellow  colours,  81. 

Carriages,  repainting,  82. 

Carriage  varnish,  64,  65. 

Carved  cabinet  work,  polish  for,  87. 

Carving,  polishing  wood,  85. 

Cart  coverings,  waterproofing,  368. 

Casing  books,  396. 

Casting,  Britannia  metal  for,  10. 


Castings,  softening,  26. 
Cast  iron,  cleaning,  176. 

—  silvering,  319. 
softening,  26. 

soldering  to  brass,  366, 

Casts,  paper,  430. 
Cast  steel,  tempering,  26. 
Catgut,  to  make,  21. 
Caustic,  lunar,  239. 

soda,  374. 

Cement,  acid  proof,  22. 

aquariums,  22. 

architectural,  25. 

Armenian,  22. 

—  bottle  corks,  22, 

builders'  watei-proof  mastic,  123. 

Chinese,  24. 

cracks  in  wood,  24. 

cutlers',  22. 

elastic,  23. 

engineers',  25. 

for  iron  pots  and  pans,  25. 

Indianite,  23. 

iron,  25. 

for  ivory  or  mother-of-pearl,  23. 

for  Jet,  23. 

jewellers',  22. 

for  joining  metals,  glass,  24. 

for  joints,  25. 

for  leather,  24. 

— •  London,  25. 

for  marble,  24,  389. 

for  meerscliaum,  23. 

for  motmting  photographs.  23. 

plumbers',  23. 

■^—  ttimers',  23. 

for  water-tight  wood  vessels,  24. 

Cements,  22-25. 

how  to  use,  22. 

Chairs,  red  stain  for,  418 
Chalks,  348. 
Chamois  leather,  325. 

to  dye  silk,  32. 

Cheap  bronze,  17. 

India-rubber  cement,  33. 

Chemical  cement,  25. 

soldering,  365. 

Chinese  cement,  24. 

lacquer-work,  75. 

silver,  13. 

white,  94. 

Chisels,  tempering,  26. 
Chloride  of  gold,  240. 

of  lime,  15. 

opalotype,  by  collodio,  294. 

of  silver,  240. 

of  silver  from  washing  of  prints,  292. 

of  zinc,  241. 

Chocolate-colour  house  paint,  108. 
Choosing  gums  and  spirite,  73. 
Chrome  green,  95. 

yellow,  95. 

Cinnamon  brown,  to  dye  silk,  30 
Cinnamon  soap,  385. 
Claret,  to  dye  cotton,  36. 

to  dye  silk,  31. 

to  dye  wooUen,  34. 

Clarifying  oil  for  varnish,  62. 

tallow,  363. 

2  F  2 


436 


INDEX. 


Clays,  sllicious  and  argillaceous,  44. 
Cleaning  alabaster,  27. 

buff  leather,  329. 

copper,  170. 

in  old  aqnafortis,  171. 

In  aquafortis  and  soot,  171. 

by  fire  or  alkalies,  170. 

plates,  349. 

galvanized  vessels,  335. 

gilt  frames,  304. 

glass,  59. 

harness,  328. 

and  polishing  mahogany,  87. 

marble,  392. 

oil  paint-brushes,  100. 

the  hands,  27. 

tin  ware,  338. 

pictures,  27. 

the  speculum,  317. 

steel  articles,  28. 

varnished  negatives,  291. 

Clearcole,  108. 
Clock-dials,  silvering,  319. 
I  'loth,  waterproofing,  368,  369. 
C<jachmaker's  varnish,  64. 

black,  66. 

Cobalt  blue,  53,  97. 
t'ochineal  lake,  pigment,  92. 
Cock  metal,  12. 
Cocoanut  oil  soap,  381. 
i:<.ld  tinning,  337. 
CuUodio-albumen  process,  282. 

developing,  2H4. 

Collodio-chloride,  opalotype  by,  294. 
t'ollodion  process,  250. 

dry,  281. 

Coloured  drawings,  varuish  for,  68. 

inks,  345. 

Colouring  carbon  prints,  279. 

marble,  391. 

soaps,  383. 

Colourless  varnish,  71. 
Colours,  cake,  98. 

for  working  drawings,  6. 

glass,  54. 

harmony  of,  103. 

marbling  pajier,  339. 

pignii-nt.-i,  89. 

under  glaze,  46. 

vatu  for  various,  38. 

vehielo  for,  UB. 

Common  brass,  10. 

glue,  341. 

varnish,  66,  71. 

Oimposilc  candles,  368. 

Coiiipositioii  lor  moulding  picture  frames,  304. 

omumenlA,  430. 

Cruicti-H,  123. 
O'pal  polish  87. 

h|)irit  vanilsh,  71. 

varnish,  64.  65. 

Copper  burs  for  hheets,  to  gild,  308. 
—  Iiliick  fiiinniel,  48. 
bl.uiclied,  HI. 

tdMlng.  by  amalgam,  311. 

— —  ileuiihlng,  no. 
•—  Coloured  bronze,  17. 

llepf.Bllfl,  181. 

by  battery,  181. 


Copper  deposits  by  dipping,  181. 

iron  or  steel,  bath  lor,  182. 

to  copper  silver,  183. 

tin,  cast  iron,  or  zinc,  182. 

ingots,  to  sQver,  336. 

plate,  169. 

cleaning,  349. 

printing  inks,  348. 

transfer  ink,  348. 

salts,  extraction  of,  222. 

powder  for  silvering,  318. 

soft,  soldering,  365. 

solder  for,  366. 

to  clean,  28. 

to  tin,  336. 

utensils,  to  bronze,  19. 

Copylnir  camera,  287. 

ink,  343. 

niachiiw,  substitute  for,  344. 

Copperas,  green,  215. 
Cornelian  red  en.imel,  49. 
Cornish  flux,  349. 
Cotton,  dyins,  36-38. 

to  waterproof,  368. 

spirits,  40. 

Cracked  or  scaling  painting,  to  preserve.  Ill 
Crayons,  method  of  making,  28,  29. 

for  drawing  on  glass,  30. 

Cream-colour  house  paint,  108. 

to  dye  Bilk,  32. 

Cream  of  tartar,  239. 
Cream  soap,  386. 
Crimson  marking  ink,  316. 

to  dye  cotton,  37. 

silk,  33. 

woollen,  36. 

vat,  39. 

spirit,  39. 

woollen  spirit,  40. 

Crocus,  404. 

Crown  glass,  54. 

Crude  flux,  350. 

Crystallized  tin-plate,  337. 

Curled  maple  carriage  graining,  8i. 

Curved  glass,  silvering,  315. 

Cutler's  cement,  22. 

Cutlery  burnishing,  409. 

Cutting  gIa.-~8,  57. 

pebbles,  405. 

pencil.s,  1. 

iKjoks,  394,  395. 

Cyanide  of  calcium,  241, 

copper,  241. 

gold,  211. 

potassium,  242. 

potassium,  ordinary,  2iX  ' 

silver,  241. 

zinc,  243. 

Cyanolype  process,  291. 
Cymbals  and  gongs,  alloy  for,  11. 

Dammar  VAiiNisn,  72. 
Damp  walls,  renieily  for,  llT. 
Dark  spots  In  photographs,  381. 
Darkcnc'rs  for  wood  staining,  414 
Defective  Ivory,  371. 
Deposits,  platinum,  219. 

on  silver,  215. 

Dcrbyshlro  white,  9X 


INDEX. 


437 


DesUvering,  319. 
Dense  negatives,  to  produce,  293. 
Developer,  varieties  of  iron,  294. 
Developing  bath  for  magic-lantern  slides,  288. 

,  coUodio-albumen  process,  284. 

,  tannin  process,  2S5. 

Development  of  magic  picture,  291. 

Diaphanie,  varnish  for,  69. 

Dips,  356. 

Dissolved  gold,  gilding  with,  307. 

Dissolving  gold,  307. 

Distemper  for  pliotographic  backgrout.ds,  115. 

Distemper,  pollard  oak,  in,  423. 

Dove  marble  on  wood,  4  25. 

Drab-colour  house  paint,  108. 

Drab,  to  dye  cotton,  37. 

silk,  32. 

woollen,  35. 

Draughtsmen,  receipts  for,  1*8. 
Drawing  board,  1,  2. 

instruments,  2. 

paper,  1. 

Drawing  on  stone,  152. 

on  glass,  58. 

crayons  for,  30. 

Drayton's  process,  silvering  glass,  315. 

Driers,  1 05. 

Drilling  glass,  59. 

Drop-lfie,  pigment,  91. 

Dry  collodion  process,  281. 

Dry  process,  opalotypes  by,  294. 

Drying  oils,  114. 

oil,  resinous,  115. 

photographs,  28D. 

Dyeing,  black  liquor  for,  40. 

cotton,  36. 

ivory,  370. 

leather,  325. 

silk,  30. 

—^  wood  for  veneera,  412. 

woollens,  33. 

Dynamite,  143. 

Earthenware  Body  for  PoriEEr,  43. 

Ebonite,  360. 

Ebony  stain,  418. 

Edges  of  paper,  gilding,  310. 

EfBuvia  from  tallow-pans,  351. 

Elaidic  acid,  374. 

Elastic  glue,  41. 

cement,  23. 

Electric  cement,  25. 
Electro-chromic  rings,  colonred,  221. 

■ deposits,  platinum,  219. 

»»- — metallurgy,  170. 

aquafortis  for  bright  lustre,  172. 

— bright  lustre  for  small  articles,  176. 

compound  acids,  dead  lustre,  173, 

dipping  in  compound  acids,  172. 

—^ dipping  in  nitrate  of  bino.xlde  of  mer- 

cury,  173. 

lathe  for  scratchbrush,  175. 

scratchbrushing,  174. 

whitening  bath,  172. 

Electro-plating,  silver,  211. 

to  prevent  silver  turning  yelloT,  214. 

tinning,  186. 

Electrotypes,  to  bronze,  20. 
Emerald  grtuu,  95. 


Emery,  fastening  on  leather,  ^.ij. 
Enamelled  paper,  428. 
Enamelling  slate,  393. 
Enamels  for  glass,  56. 

for  porcelain,  48. 

for  porcelain  painting,  48. 

Engineers'  cements,  25. 
Engravers'  lamp,  146. 

shade,  155. 

Engraving,  aqua-tint,  164. 

copper-plate,  168,  169. 

—  Hammerton's  brush  proofs,  164, 

negative  process,  165. 

positive  process,  166. 

resin-ground,  164. 

on  silver  or  gold,  169. 

——  on  steel,  152. 

steel  cylinders,  154 

on  stone,  152. 

on  wood,  146. 

chisels  for,  148. 

Engravings,  mounting,  8. 

to  clean,  23. 

•—  to  transfer  on  glass,  57. 
Enlargement  of  negatives,  285. 
Enlarging  woodcuts,  411. 
Essence,  shaving,  386. 
Etching,  154-168. 

aquafortis,  156. 

aqua-tlnta,  engraving,  162. 

— —  dry-point,  159. 

glass,  168. 

in,  for  printing  on  stone,  152. 

-^—  on  cast  iron,  168. 

on  steel,  167,  168. 

re,  160. 

stippling,  167. 

process,  avoiding  stopping-out,  160 

test  for  spirits,  162. 

touching  stuff,  163. 

transferring,  157. 

varnishes,  71,  155. 

Exposure  under  the  negative,  274. 
E.\tract  of  indigo,  40. 

Failures  na  Collodio-albumen  Pp.rycEss  an 
Fat  lute,  359. 

oil  gold  size,  305. 

Fats,  373. 

Fawn-colour  house  paint,  108. 

to  dye  cotton,  37. 

silk,  32. 

woollen,  35. 

Ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  242. 
Files,  renovating,  25. 

softening,  26. 

Film  splitting,  preventing,  384. 
Filter,  cheap,  40. 
Finishing  books,  397. 
Fire-balloons,  138. 

lute,  359. 

showers  o^  139. 

colour^,  139,  140.  " 

Firework  making,  123-140. 
Firewoiks,  brilliant  fire,  133. 

blue  .--tars,  1 2'.). 

Catherine  «  larls.  139. 

Chertier's  copi)er,  129. 

Chinese  lire,  133. 


438 


INDEX. 


Fireworks,  coloured  lights,  135. 

coloured  stars,  128. 

crackers,  139, 144. 

crimson  stars,  129. 

drawing-room,  137. 

golden  stars,  129. 

golden  rain,  130. 

green  lights,  135. 

■ green  stars,  129. 

Japanese  matches,  137 

lances,  133,  134. 

lightening  paper,  137. 

• nitrate  of  strontla,  120. 

portfires,  130. 

purple  lights,  135. 

quickmatch,  131,  138. 

.  red  lights,  136. 

rockets,  124-127. 

roman  candles,  130. 

rose-coloured  stars,  129. 

silver  rain,  130. 

squibs,  138. 

■ tailed  stars,  128. 

touchpaper,  131. 

tourbillons,  135. 

violet  stars,  129. 

white  lights,  136. 

white  stars,  129. 

yellow  lights,  135. 

yellow  stars,  129. 

Fireproof  cement,  24. 

Fireproofing  shingle  roofs,  117. 

Fishing  lines,  waterproofing,  369. 

Fish  oil,  373. 

Fixing  magic-lantern  prints,  288. 

Flatting,  108. 

Fl.-xible  Ivory,  371. 

Flint  glass,  63. 

Flock  gold  size,  306. 

FIcior-cloth,  manufacture  of,  369. 

Fluxes,  349. 

Flux,  for  arsenical  compounds,  350. 

enamel,  48. 

gold,  47. 

Flowers  of  Krfn  soap,  386. 
F'rames,  buriilslicd  gilt,  304. 

cleaning  gilt,  304. 

oniamcnts  for,  430. 

rfgildilig,  304. 

Freezing,  :i62. 

mixtures,  363. 

French  brown,  to  dye  silk,  31 . 

grey,  house  paint,  li)H. 

pulish,  H6. 

piilisli  reviver,  86. 

pollHliIng,  84. 

stopping  for,  86. 

Fresaj  painting,  li)9. 

Fretwork,  polishing  aiKl  varnUbing,  8). 

Frlctlun  polish  for  iron,  4Uii. 

Frosted  silver,  319. 

Frfjstlng  glaiH,  69. 

VxiUnUiiiU*.  1 13. 

mercury,  143. 

silver,  144. 

• gold,  144. 

pUttlniun,  HI. 

Knmltnre  crcnn,  na,  8T. 
olla,  87. 


Pumiture,  oil  for  darkening,  87, 

paste,  86. 

polish,  87. 

reviver,  87. 

to  varnish,  69. 

varnishes,  69. 

Furs  and  skins,  dressing,  326. 

reviving,  321. 

Fusible  alloy,  12. 
metal,  12. 

Gas  Balloons,  Varnish  fou,  7S. 

fittings,  to  bronze,  18. 

Galvanic  batteries,  Bunsen'e  '  ^Z. 

Callaud's,  181. 

charge  of  the,  179. 

Daniell's,  177. 

Greiiet's,  180. 

Grove's,  1 80. 

keeping  in  order,  179, 

Marie-Davy,  180. 

metallic  deposits,  181 

porous  cells,  181. 

Smee's,  180. 

Watt's,  181. 

Galvanic  etching,  233. 
Galvanizing  Iron,  836. 
Galvanoplasm,  223. 
acid  baths,  225. 

—  adhesive  deposits,  226. 

amalgamating  salt,  225. 

apparatus  for  amatcuit;,  224. 

baths,  223,  233. 

batteries,  225. 

•—  dead-lustre  gilding,  226. 

deposits  without  adhesion,  226. 

filling  with  brass  solder,  232. 

finishing  up  the  articles,  232. 

high  relief,  gutta-percha  moidds,  23L 

imitation  mosaic  work,  234. 

large  apparatus,  224. 

metallization  by  wet  way,  228. 

— —  metallization  of  ceramic  articles,  237. 

moulds  and  mouldings,  227,  232. 

rendering  batlis  impirvious,  234. 

non-metallic  substances,  227. 

operations  with  gold  or  silver,  232. 

phosphorous  in  bisulphiilc  of  carbon,  328. 

plumbago,  227. 

porous  cells,  226. 

soparato  batteries,  234. 

tliick  deposits,  223. 

undercut  patterns,  deposltfl  on,  231. 

Gelatine,  213,  312. 

solution  in  tannin  process,  28B. 

Qellarts  green,  95. 
German  silver,  11. 

Frick's,  13. 

soldering,  364. 

to  polish,  4(13. 

Gliding,  1H8,  199,  296. 

I)uniisheil  or  water,  298. 

by  aniulg.iniatlon,  307. 

diliit<<l  bath,  191. 

dipping,  188. 

tin-,  202. 

mercury,  202. 

stirring  and  gold  amalgam,  191, 

colouring  proccs,  189. 


IKDEX. 


439 


QildlDg,  copper  Oy  amalgam,  311. 

dead  lustre,  204. 

— -  for  jewellery,  2-16. 

dipping  bath  with  bicarbonates,  191. 

Dutertre's  process,  191. 

glass  and  porcelain,  308. 

gold  bath,  183. 

gold  powder  for,  306. 

— ^  graining,  198. 

Grecian,  307. 

green  and  white,  190. 

■ — -  hard,  dead  lustre  for  clocks,  246. 

in  colours,  307. 

japanners',  298. 

iron  and  steel  with  gold  eolation,  307. 

leather,  309. 

. of  picture  frames,  301. 

oU  on  wood,  296,  297. 

on  glass,  308. 

glass,  burnished,  300. 

paint,  305. 

porcelain,  glass,  or  crystal,  190. 

steel,  311. 

zinc,  305. 

or  finishing  books,  309. 

ormulu,  190, 246. 

pottery,  305. 

red  lustre,  green  for,  246. 

resists,  199. 

signs  or  letters,  298,  299. 

silver,  190. 

silver  parts,  preparation  of  the,  197. 

silver  powder,  198. 

soft  dead  lustre,  246. 

the  edges  of  paper,  310. 

thin  wires,  200. 

watch  parts,  197. 

wax  for,  246. 

with  dead  lustre,  201. 

dissolved  gold,  307. 

partly  dead  lustre,  203. 

shell-gold,  192. 

the  brush  or  shell-gold,  192. 

the  rag,  cold,  191. 

writings  on  paper  or  parchment,  310. 

zlne  dead  lustre,  203. 

Gilt  articles,  dissolving  gold  from,  205. 

varnish  for,  69. 

copper  and  silver,  gold  from,  311. 

frames,  burnished,  304. 

frames,  cleaning,  304. 

Glass  asd  porcelain  gilding,  305. 

bottle,  54. 

bumisfcefl  gilding  on,  300. 

cements  for  joining,  24. 

cleaning,  59. 

—  -  colours  for,  54. 

common  window,  54. 

crov.'n,  54. 

cutting,  57. 

darkening,  60. 

drilling,  59. 

deadening  colour  on,  67. 

■ enamel  for,  56. 

etching  on,  57. 

flint,  63. 

for  magic  lantern,  painting,  58. 

—  frosting,  59. 
— ■  gilding  on,  808. 


Glass  and  porcelain,  globes,  silvering;,  317. 

hard,  for  colour,  54. 

manufacture  of,  53. 

Glass  or  crystal,  gilding  on,  190. 

painting  and  staining,  55. 

painting  for  magic  lantern.  58. 

plate,  54,  55. 

ribbed  plate,  55. 

seals,  to  make,  340. 

sheet,  54. 

silvering  curved,  316. 

soluble,  54. 

spicule,  silvering,  316. 

stains  and  enamels,  56. 

staining,  black  flux  for,  68. 

stencilling  upon,  58. 

strass,  54. 

to  anneal,  57. 

to  draw  upon,  58. 

to  powder,  60. 

to  transfer  engravings  on,  67 

tubes,  bending,  60. 

varnish,  72. 

writing  upon,  58. 

Glazes,  ceramic  ware,  44-47. 

frit  for,  45. 

Glaze,  blue  and  green  edge,  45. 

blue  printed  flux  under,  47 

Glaze,  porcelain,  44. 

wheels  for  steel,  403. 

white  earthenware,  45. 

yellow,  46. 

Glazing  windows,  54,  66. 

paintings,  102. 

Glaziers'  solder,  367. 

Glue,  manufacture  of  common.  HI 

elastic,  41. 

from  bones,  341. 

liquid,  41. 

manufacture  of,  341. 

marine,  41. 

melting,  41. 

portable,  41. 

rice,  41. 

to  resist  heat,  41. 

to  resist  fire,  370. 

Glycerine  soap,  384. 
Gold,  amalgam  of,  307. 

and  black  marble  on  wood,  425. 

artificial,  11. 

bath,  195,  196. 

burnish  from  green  gold,  40. 

brown  gold,  49. 

colour  house  paint,  108. 

dissolving,  307. 

from  gilt  articles,  205. 

eJectroplating,  192-196. 

engraving  on,  169. 

extraction  of,  221. 

electro-gilding  baths,  192. 

from  copper  and  silver,  separating,  311 

from  old  toning  hath,  291. 

gilding  with  dissolved,  307. 

green  and  white,  196. 

heightening  colour  of,  311. 

ink,  349. 

leaf  for  illumination,  313. 

line  engraving  on,  J  70. 

lustre,  50. 


440 


IS'DEX. 


Gold,  mosaic.  1 7. 

new,  197. 

paper-hangings,  312. 

■ Persian,  lustre,  50. 

pink  or  new,  197. 

powder  fur  bronzing,  18, 

gilding,  306. 

red,  197. 

removing  solder  from,  387, 

size,  18,  305,  3U6. 

japanners',  65. 

solder,  364-366. 

solution  fur  iron  or  steol,  307. 

solution  of,  51. 

varnish,  69. 

(j  olden  Viimish,  73. 
Good  Britannia  metal,  10. 
Graining  oak  in  distemper,  432. 

roller,  424. 

woods,  419-421. 

Granite  on  wood,  4;'.8. 
Grease  antifriction,  333. 
lirecian  gilding,  307. 
Green,  Barth's,  94. 

black  ink,  345. 

Bremen,  94. 

Brighton.  94. 

bronze,  19. 

Brunswick,  94. 

chrome,  95. 

colours  for  carriage  painting,  82. 

common  pale,  to  dye  silk,  31. 

woollen,  34. 

emerald,  95. 

enamel,  blue,  49. 

— —  glass,  54. 

.  Gellari's,  95. 

gold,  heightening  colour  of,  31 1. 

grass,  to  dye  woollen,  34. 

house  paint,  105. 

ink,  345. 

Iris.  95. 

lake,  pigment.  92. 

manganese,  95 

iiiouiilain,  95. 

myrtle,  to  'lye  silk,  31. 

or  bottle  glass,  51. 

olive,  to  dye  silk,  32. 

to  dye  woollen.  34. 

pea,  to  dye  silk.  31. 

to  dye  Woollen,  31. 

pigments,  94. 

('ru.tslun,  95. 

sap,  95. 

Skheele's  green,  95. 

tint  pervading  photographs,  281. 

to  dye  ojltoM,  38. 

fast  chrome,  38. 

Vienna,  or  Schwelnfurt,  95. 

Orey,  Btone-tolour,  bouse  paiot,  108. 

U)  dye  woollen,  35. 

Sriuding  coluurb  for  house  painting,  I  OS. 
3rliidHtoni-,  urlinclal,  403. 
Grouiida  for  graining,  419. 
Uum,  340. 

and  spirits,  choosing.  73. 

arable  8olntlon.s,  to  preserve,  340. 

uitiUclttl  or  Britlhh,  340. 

waU,  311. 


Gun  oarrels,  to  brown,  21. 
Gun  cotton,  141. 
Gun-metal,  13. 
Gunpowder,  144-146. 

saltpetre  from  damaged,  I3i 

Gut,  silkworm,  410. 
Gutta-percha,  glue  for,  41. 
varnish,  73. 

Hair  for  Brushes,  411. 

Hair-wood,  to  Imitate,  413. 

Hamburgh  white,  94. 

Hammer,  veneering,  4'.2. 

Handles,  best  Britannia  for,  11. 

Hands,  removing  silver  stains  from  tiij.  223 

cleansing  the,  27. 

Hard  brass  fur  casting,  10. 

glass,  receiving  colour,  51. 

soaps,  380. 

solders,  364. 

spirit  varnish,  brown  70. 

while,  71. 

woods,  polishing,  88. 

Hardening  for  Biitannia,  10. 

tallow,  354. 

tools  and  metals,  26. 

Hardness  in  photographs,  281. 
llaiTuony  of  colours,  1U3. 
Harness,  cleaning,  328. 

composition,  328. 

polish,  327. 

paste,  327. 

Hats,  to  clean,  28. 

Head-banding  books,  396. 

Heightening  colour  of  yellow  gold,  311. 

Hl<les,  to  tan,  322. 

Honey  process  in  photography,  285. 

soaps,  384. 

Horn  or  tortolseshell,  polishing,  89,  406. 

preparation  of,  340. 

Horse  fat,  373. 

Hose,  leather,  preserving,  329. 

House,  ice,  363. 

paint,  1U5. 

ch  ailing,  109. 

driers  for,  105. 

painters'  tools,  106. 

l)alnting,  1(15-109. 

clearcole  and  finish,  lO^*. 

colours  for,  1(J8. 

grinding  colours  tor,  108. 

mixing  colours  for,  105. 

new  work,  107. 

old  work,  107. 

Household  soaps,  380. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  2.16. 
Hydrocyanic  acid,  236. 
Hydrofluoric  acid,  237. 
Ilydrosulphurlr  acid,  237. 
Hypoiiltric  acid,  236. 

ICK  MAKING,  363. 

to  preserve,  303. 

Illumination,  gold  laf  for,  312. 

linage,  mounting  and   preparing   for  dcrvloj 

nil  lit,  275. 
Imitntlon  mo.sjdc  work,  39!. 

silver,  11. 

tortols'-shell  with  horn.  310. 


INDEX. 


441 


Imitition  woods,  416-424. 
Impasting,  103. 
Impervious  cement,  24. 
Impressions,  metal  for  taking,  13, 
Incombustible  paper,  429. 
Incrustation  on  boilers,  16. 
Indelible  pencil  writing,  8 
Indestructible  inlcs,  344. 
Indianite  cement,  23. 
Indian  ink,  15,  346. 
India-rubber,  240,360. 

cemeut,  clieap,  2X 

varnish,  73. 

Indigo,  to  prepare  extract  of,  31. 
Inks,  343-349. 

■ coloured,  345. 

copper-plate  printing,  348. 

copying,  343. 

gold,  349. 

green,  345. 

indestructible,  344. 

invisible,  345. 

litho  printing,  348. 

marking,  346. 

non-corrosive,  344. 

powder,  344. 

preventing  mouldiness  in,  344. 

purple,  345. 

red,  3i5. 

for  stone  or  marble,  349. 

violet,  346. 

for  writing  on  lithograpbic  stones,  348. 

Inlaid  wood,  bronzing,  418. 

Inlaying  with  mother-of-pearl,  339. 

Instruments,  drawing,  2. 

Intensity  of  negatives,  reducing,  292. 

Invisible  inks,  345. 

Iodine  soap,  385. 

Iodized  albumen,  283. 

Iris  green,  95. 

Iron,  brass  solder  for,  366. 

casehardening,  27. 

cements,  25. 

deposits,  220. 

developer,  293,  294. 

galvanizing,  335. 

gilding,  with  gold  solution,  307. 

malleable,  27. 

pipes,  soldering,  366. 

tinning,  337. 

polishing,  402. 

patterns,  vamlsh  for,  66. 

pots  and  pans,  cement  tor,  25. 

stains  from  linen,  removing,  293. 

to  bronze,  19. 

to  braze  without  heat,  365. 

to  plate,  336. 

to  tin,  336. 

varnish  for,  72. 

Ironstone  body  for  pottery,  43. 
Ironwork,  black,  68. 

painting  and  preserving,  112. 

varnish,  66. 

Isinglass,  243. 
Ivory,  artificial,  371 

cement  for,  23. 

dyeing,  370. 

flexible,  371. 

lor  miniatnr<s  ?71. 


Ivory  paper,  426. 

polishing,  89,  406. 

to  bleach,  15. 

Japan  Gkounds,  76,  77. 
Japan  work,  painting,  77. 

varnishing,  78. 

Japanners'  gold  size,  65. 

gilding,  293. 

Japanning,  76. 

carriages,  79,  83. 

Jasper  marble,  to  imitate  oa  "Jyood,  ii8. 

to  clean,  27. 

Jet  black,  to  dye  silk,  30. 

Jet,  cement  for,  13. 

Jewellers'  or  A'lnienian  cement,  23. 

rouge,  404. 

solder,  364. 

Jewellery,  brightening  tarnished,  319. 

to  clean,  23. 

Joints,  cement  for  making,  25. 
Journal  boxes,  alloy  for,  12. 

Kettles,  Soap,  376. 

King's  yellow,  96. 

Iving  wood,  to  imitate,  418. 

Lac  Lake,  Pigment,  92. 
scarlet  woollen  spirit,  40. 

to  bleach,  74. 

Lac-water  varnish,  74. 
Lace,  to  scour,  321. 

to  whiten,  16. 

Lacquering,  74. 

to  prepare  brass  for,  74. 

Lacquers,  75. 

Lake  colours  for  coach  painting,  82. 

pigments,  91. 

Lampblack,  97. 

Lamps,  pillars,  and  spouts,  best  Britannia  fci 

11. 
Lanteri]  slides,  magic,  283. 
Lard,  373. 

oil  refining,  334. 

Lathe,  polishing  in  the,  87-89. 
Lathing,  121. 

Lathing  and  plastering.  120-123. 
Lavender  silk  spirit,  39. 

soap,  385. 

to  dye  cotton,  37. 

silk,  33. 

—  woollen,  35. 

vat,  39. 

Lead,  brassing,  186. 

burning,  361. 

cleansing,  176. 

colour,  house  paint  103. 

deposits,  221. 

pewter,  tin,  silver-plating,  214 

pipes  soldering,  366. 

plates  to  Joint,  366. 

—~  sulphate  of,  94. 

white,  93. 

Leather  belts,  preserving,  329. 

cement  for,  24. 

discolouration  of,  334. 

dj-cing,  325. 

gilding,  309. 

— —  pres'Tvailon  of.  337 


ii2 


ISLSX. 


Lea/Jier  varnish,  69. 

Lec^h  of  camera,  calsnlatlng,  288. 

Lemon-colour  bouse  paint,  108. 

Lens,  camera,  twin,  286. 

lycttering  books,  substitute  for,  397. 

Letters  or  signs,  gilding,  298,  299. 

Leys,  375. 

Light,  photography  by  artificial,  287. 

woodworlc  varnish,  70. 

Lilac,  to  dye  cotton,  37. 

sillt,  33. 

^■^ woollen,  35. 

Linen,  removing  stains  from,  293. 

transparent  painting  on,  110. 

Lines,  waterproofing  fishing,  369. 
Linseed  oil,  63. 

purifying,  115. 

varnish,  71. 

Liquid  glue,  41. 
Lithographic  chalk,  161. 

ink,  161. 

printing  ink,  348. 

stones,  10  prepare,  151 . 

transfer  paper,  151,  428. 

Lithography,  150. 

photo,  289. 

transferring,  151. 

London  cement,  25. 
IxKjking-glasses,  silvering,  312-314. 
Lubricants,  .^33,  334. 
l^ustre,  gold,  60. 

silver  or  steel,  51. 

Lute,  fire,  359. 

for  soldering,  367. 

Madder,  Lake,  Pigmekt,  92. 
Magic-luntorn  slides,  photographic,  288. 

painting  glas.s  for,  58. 

—^  fixing,  288. 

pigments  for,  58. 

sensitizing  bath  for,  283. 

Magic  photographic  pictures,  291. 
MaUopany,  graining  to  imitate,  421 

clianing  and  polishing,  87. 

ground,  419. 

imitating  417. 

varnish,  65,  70. 

Making  glass,  53. 

Manganese  green,  95. 

MiiMifolrt  writing  papers,  427. 

Manu.scrlpt.s,  to  renew,  9. 

Maple,  graining,  bird's-eye,  83,  422. 

curled,  84. 

— —  ground,  419. 
Maps,  varnish  for,  68. 
M.irbln  cemint.  24,  393. 

to  clean,  27. 

working.  3H6-393. 

Marbling  paper  or  book-cdgos,  399. 

soup.  378. 

on  wood,  424.  I\ 

Marine  gluo,  41. 
Marking  Inks,  346. 
Majions'  mastic,  390. 
MaMlcot,  protoxide  of  lead,  80. 
Miuitic  for  marble,  389. 

varnish,  71. 

Malchofl,  luclfer,  140. 

Mudjiug,  In  staining  woods,  414. 


Medals,  metal  for,  13. 
Megilps,  102. 
Melting  glue,  41. 

brass,  TO. 

Mercurial  soap,  385. 
Meerschaum,  cement  for,  33. 
Metal  for  buUets,  13. 

gun,  13 

hard  white,  13. 

taking  impressions,  1 3. 

Iming  boxes  of  railroAd  cara»  '.  I. 

•—  medals,  13. 

organ  pipes,  13. 

-^—  Queen's,  12. 

rivet,  13. 

—^  statuary,  13. 

speculum,  13. 

type,  13. 

tinning,  13. 

white,  13. 

Metals,  adtieslve  deposits  aiK>n,  226. 

and  tools,  hardening,  26. 

cements  for  joining,  24. 

cleaning,  28. 

polishing,  401. 

Metallic  pamt,  98. 

tempering,  26. 

Microscopic  slides,  photographs  for,  285. 

Mill  picks,  tempering,  26. 

Mlnatures,  ivory  for,  371. 

Mineral  white,  93. 

Minium,  90. 

Mirrors,  silvering,  316. 

Mixing  colours  (or  house  painting,  lOfl. 

Mixtures  for  gilding,  246. 

silvering,  318. 

Mordants,  for  dyeing,  40. 

wood  staining,  417. 

Morreau's  reducing  flux,  350. 
Morocco  leather,  323. 
Mortars,  123. 
Mosaic  gold,  17. 

work,  hnitalion,  391. 

Mothcr-of-poarl,  338. 

buttons,  artificial,  339. 

cement  for,  23. 

Inlaying  with,  339. 

polishing,  406. 

Mouldlness  in  ink,  preventing,  31 1. 
Moulds,  candle,  357. 

for  picture  frames,  431. 
Moulding  apparatus,  Kendall's,  3B7. 

picture  IranicR,  431. 

roniposition  lor,  3ll4.  430. 

Mountain  green,  95. 
Mounting  drawings  on  linen,  1. 

Ivory,  371. 

marble,  387. 

Muclhige  for  labels,  340. 
Muntz  metal,  12. 
Muriate  of  tin,  silk  spirit,  40. 
Musk  soap,  3H4. 

Natlrs  Yrlixjw,  96. 
Nature  printing,  289. 
Negatives  after  varnishing.  Intensifying.  W\ 

cleaning  old  varnished,  291. 

enlargement  of,  2H5. 

eipodure  under,  374, 


INDEX. 


i'iS 


Negatives,  Iron  developer  for  dense,  293. 
^^  reducing  intensity  of,  292. 

weak  and  flat  prints  from,  J81. 

Nets,  tanning,  324. 

Neutralizing  efQuvia  from  tallow -pans,  351. 

Newcastle  white,  93. 

News-letters,  photographic,  295. 

Nickel  deposits,  220. 

plating,  220. 

— —  plating  without  a  batt«ry,  iiO. 
Hielled  silver,  218. 
Nitrate  of  binoxide  of  mercury,  ;39. 
-^  of  Iron,  silk  spirit,  39. 

of  potash,  239. 

of  silver,  239,318. 

of  silver  bath,  283. 

reducing,  292. 

Nitric  acid,  236. 
Nitr>glycerine,  142. 
— —  sulphate  of  iron.  39. 
Nitrous  acid,  236. 
Nottingnam  white,  93. 

Oak  GEOtTNDS,  419. 

in  spirit  colour,  421. 

stain,  418. 

varnish,  70. 

— —  wainscot,  to  imitate,  41b. 

Obtaining  gold  from  old  bath,  291. 

Ochres,  98. 

Oils,  372,  373. 

Oil  colours,  on  carbon  prints,  286. 

painting  in,  99-103. 

Oil  gilding  on  wood,  296,  297. 

lubricating,  334. 

of  lard,  refining,  334. 

pollard  oak  in,  423. 

sketching  paper,  101. 

watchmakers',  334. 

Oiling  or  polishing  planes,  86. 
Oils,  furniture,  87. 
Oilskins,  to  repair,  368. 
Oleic  acid,  373. 
Olive  brown,  to  dye  silk,  31. 

green  house  paint,  103. 

oil,  372. 

to  dye  cotton,  38. 

Opalotype  pictures,  294. 

Opaque  mahogany  house  paint,  109. 

oak  house  paint,  108. 

Orange-colour  house  paint,  108. 
—  enamel,  49. 

flower  soap,  385. 

lake,  pigment,  93. 

to  dye  cotton,  38. 

— silk,  32. 

— ' woollen,  35. 

Organ  pipes,  metal  for,  13L 

Oriental  verd  antique  on  wood,  425. 

Or-molu,  13,  190. 

Ornamented  work,  pobshing,  89. 

Ornamenting  book-edges,  396. 

Ornaments  for  picture  frames,  430. 

Orpiment,  96. 

Over-exposure  of  photographs  280. 

Over-graining,  420. 

Ox  gaU,  purifying,  116. 

Oxide  of  silver,  51. 

011,404. 


Oxidized  silver,  218. 
Oxidizing  silver  articles,  318. 
Ozokerit,  353. 

Paint,  Anti-coreosive,  99 
-^—  bronze,  99. 

economical,  99. 

for  wire  work,  99. 

gliding  on,  305. 

to  destroy,  117. 

Painters'  cream,  91. 

Painting  and  preserving  iron  wot  fe.  Hi. 

Painting,  badger  tools  for,  100. 

brushes  for  oil,  99. 

canvas  for,  101. 

carriage,  79. 

cleaning  oil  brushes,  100. 

easel  for,  99. 

fresco,  109. 

glass  for  magic  lantern,  83. 

— ^  glazing  for,  102. 

gold  size  for,  102. 

-^—grounds,  101. 

hog-hair  tools  for,  100. 

house,  105-109. 

impasting,  103. 

mahl  stick  for,  99. 

megilps,  102. 

new  work,  107. 

oils  for,  101. 

oil  colours,  99-103. 

oil  stretching  paper,  101. 

old  work,  107. 

on  vellum,  349. 

palettes  for,  99. 

sable  brttshes  for,  100. 

scumbling,  103. 

sign  boards,  112. 

to  preserve  cracked  or  scaling,  113, 

vehicles  for  colour,  101. 

water  colours,  104. 

Paintings,  to  line  old,  116. 

varnishing  valuable,  113. 

Palm  oil,  372. 

oil  soap,  382. 

Paper,  426-428. 

— ^  and  parchment,  gilding  writings  on,  3UJI 

bronzing.  18. 

casts,  430. 

drawing,  1. 

gilding  edges  of,  310. 

hanging,  118. 

hangings,  gold,  312. 

powder,  429 

staining,  429. 

to  bleach,  14. 

to  fasten  on  drawing  board,  i. 

transparent  painting  on.  111. 

waterproofing,  369. 

Papier-mache,  430. 
Parallel  rule,  to  use,  3. 
Parchment  paper,  428. 

staining,  429. 

uniting  to  paper  or  woot,  i. 

Paste,  for  razors,  405. 

shaving,  386. 

Pavements,  119,  120. 

concrete,  120, 

tar  120. 


iU 


ISbiX. 


Peach-colour  house  paint,  loa. 

to  dye  woollen,  35. 

Pearl -colour  house  paint,  108. 

white,  93. 

Pearls,  to  clean,  27. 

Pebbles,  cutting,  405. 

Pencils,  for  water-colour  drawings,  104. 

cutting  drawing,  1. 

Perfuming  soaps,  383. 
Permanent  white,  pigment,  93. 
Pewter,  13. 

burnishing,  409. 

solt  soldering,  365. 

solder  for,  364. 

Pewterers'  solder,  366. 

Pharaoh's  serpents,  146. 

Philosophical  instruments,  lacquer  for,  15. 

Phosphate  of  ammonia,  243. 

of  soda,  243. 

Photo-crayon  portraits,  270. 
Photographs,  cement  for  mounting,  23. 
Photographers'  ncgilive  varnish,  69. 
Photographic  camera,  248. 

gla-sscs,  sizes  of,  250. 

lens,  248. 

news-letters,  295. 

pictures,  magic,  291. 

pi  tures,  solt.  ning  of,  255. 

prints,  cement  for,  23. 

Photography,  246-295. 

albumenized  paper,  255. 

argentometer,  250. 

autotype  process,  266. 

background,  291. 

bromide  of  cadmium,  259. 

by  artificial  light,  287. 

•  carbon  printing,  266. 

carles  de  visile,  to  varnish,  253. 

Collodio-albumen  process,  Knglaii  I's,  266. 

coUodio-albumen  process,  llyky's,  265. 

coUodio-bromide  process,  266. 

collodion,  coating  the  plate  with,  252. 

iodized,  259. 

■ negatives,  254,  260. 

positives,  251. 

process,  260.     . 

—^ sensitized,  259. 

spirits  of  wine  for,  250. 

— — Sutton's  wet  prcjccss,  262. 

copying  pictures,  261. 

-^—  crystal,  enamel,  258. 

dark  room,  247. 

developing,  2.)3. 

diaphanotypi'B,  270. 

dry  colliMjiori  process,  281. 

expo^u^c,  252. 

fixing,  253,  257. 

fluid  iiM-asure,  251. 

lf>cii»,  249. 

gliias  |K>sitiTe8,  general  Instmctl  tia  for, 

253. 
gum  and  gallic  acid  process,  269. 

lieliolyp<.,  271. 

honey  proiesi,  285. 

Iniug-,  Iftiiing  In  transferring,  281. 

Intea^iifyiiig,  '.!G0. 

iodide  and  bromide  solution,  2B9. 

—^  Iodide  ol  cadmium,  259. 
Ivjrytyp",  271. 


Photography  mounting,  258. 

negatives,  albumen  varnish  for,  361. 

amber  varnish  for,  261. 

developing  solution  for,  259. 

faults  in,  255. 

negatives,  fixing  solution  for,  260. 

nitrate  of  silver  bath  lor,  259. 

stopping-out,  260. 

nitrate  of  silver  bath,  252. 

on  silk,  290. 

operating  room,  246. 

paper,  albumenized,  255. 

preparing  the,  256. 

prints,  def'Cts  in,  258. 

prints,  fixing  solution  for,  260. 

sensitizing  solutbn  for,  260. 

pigment  employed,  279. 

positives  and  negatives,  250. 

positive  collodion,  252. 

paper,  255. 

prints,  to  quickly  obtain,  261. 

printing  process,  255-257. 

sensitive  coUodlo-gelatine  tissue,  278. 

silvering,  large  mirrors  for,  316. 

solution,  developing,  252. 

fixing,  252. 

Sutton'.s,  converting  negative  into  po« 

tlve,  265. 

Sutton's  process,  organifier,  264. 

Sutton's  process,  varnish  for,  265. 

toning,  257. 

toning  and  fi.xing  in  one  bath,  261 

toning  baths,  260,  261. 

Tannin  process,  235. 

uneven  texture  in  finished  print,  281. 

varnish,  crystal,  253. 

views  and  landscapes,  261. 

washing,  253 

weights  and  measures  used  in,  251 

Photo-lithography,  289. 
Photo-micrographs.  295. 
Picture  canvas,  to  prepare,  113. 
Picture  frames,  conipn.-ition  for,  123,304. 

ornaments  for,  430. 

preparation  and  gilillng  of,  301. 

Pictures,  magic,  lihotographic,  291. 

opalotype,  29 1. 

to  clian,  27. 

Piecing  india-rubber,  360. 

leather  strap-,  329. 

Pier-glass,  partially  resUvcring,  3' 5. 
Pigments,  89. 

alum  white,  93. 

black,  97. 

blue-black,  98. 

ivory  Mack  97. 

lampblack,  97. 

Russian  lampblaik,  98, 

blue,  96. 

azure,  96. 

cobalt,  97. 

lake.  92. 

Prussian,  97. 

.Saxon,  97. 

ultramarine,  90. 

ultramarine  a-li.h,  M. 

— ^  Brazil-wood  lake,  '.i2. 

carmlnat<  cl  lake.  92. 

cochineal  lake,  9'* 


INDEX. 


445 


Pigments,   Derbyshire  white,  93. 

.i employed  in  photopraphy,  279. 

for  magic-lantern  Blides,  68. 

green,  Earth's,  94. 

—— Bremen,  94. 

green,  Brighton,  94. 

Brunswick,  94. 

chrome,  95. 

emerald,  95. 

GeUart's,  95. 

Iris,  95. 

lake,  92. 

manganese,  95. 

mountain,  95. 

J'russlan,  95. 

. wp,  95. 

Scheele's,  95. 

Vienna,  95. 

lac  lake,  92. 

lakes,  91. 

madder  lake,  92. 

massicot  or  protoxide  of  lead,  89. 

—  mineral  white,  93. 

Newcastle  white,  93. 

Nottingham  white,  93. 

orange  lake,  93. 

pearl  white,  93. 

permanent  white,  93. 

photographs  in,  273. 

red,  chalk,  89. 

Indian,  89. 

lake,  93. 

lead,  89. 

light,  89. 

Spanish  white,  93. 

siilp'^ate  of  lead,  94. 

white,  93. 

Chinese,  94. 

Hamburgh,  91. 

. Venetian,  94. 

Wilkinson's,  94. 

. white-lead,  93,  94. 

whiting,  94. 

yellow,  95. 

chrome,  95. 

King's,  96. 

lake,  93. 

Naples,  96. 

Pinchbeck,  11. 

Pir  k  mordant,  40. 

,  to  dye  cotton,  37. 

silk,  32. 

woollen,  French,  35. 

Pipes,  metal  for  organ,  13. 

soldering,  366. 

Plain  pyrogaUic  developer,  283. 

Planes,  oiling  or  polishing,  &8, 

Plasti-r,  bronzing,  18. 

float  and  set,  122. 

cjsts,  polishing,  406. 

,  to  paint,  109. 

Plastering,  121,  122. 
Plate  slass,  54. 

——  p'llished,  55. 

—  powoers,  404. 
t(.  clean.  28. 

Plated  metal,  solder  for,  344 

silver,  207. 

PJjitcnlaiag  Bilver,  318. 


Platlna,  oside  of,  51. 
Platinum  deposits,  219. 

electro-deposita,  219. 

extraction  of,  222. 

Plumbago  or  black-lead,  244. 
Plumbers'  cement,  23. 
Plumbers'  solder,  365,  366. 
Polish  for  carved  cabinet  work,  W. 

furniture,  87. 

harness,  327. 

papier  mache,  430. 

turners'  work,  87. 

Polished  metal,  varnish  for,  1%. 

piate  glass,  65. 

Polishing  hard  woods,  8?. 

horn  and  ivory,  406. 

horn  or  tortoiseshell,  89^ 

in  the  lathe,  87. 

mahogany,  88. 

marble,  387,  393. 

materials,  404. 

metals,  401-405. 

mother-of-pearl,  406. 

or  oiling  planes,  86. 

ornamental  work,  89. 

plaster  casts,  405. 

shells,  4C6. 

slate,  406. 

soft  woods,  88. 

the  edges  of  books,  298. 

vulcanite,  405. 

walnut,  88. 

wheels,  403. 

wood  carving,  85. 

Pollard  oak  graining,  83. 

in  distemper,  423. 

In  oil,  423. 

Pollen  powder,  429. 
Pomona  green  enamel,  49. 
Poppy  oil,  373. 
Porcelain  body  for  potting,  43. 

enamels  for,  48. 

electro-gilding  on,  190. 

Porphyry,  imitating  on  wood,  12*. 

to  clean,  27. 

Portable  glue,  41. 

Portraits,  cabinet,  295. 

Positives,  transparent,  287. 

Potash,  yellow  prussiate  of,  242. 

Potas>a,  374. 

Pottery,  gilding,  49,  50,  305. 

printing  oil  for,  47. 

stains  for,  47. 

Petting,  bodies,  42-44. 

firing,  43. 

Powder  for  cleaning  plate,  404. 

for  gilding,  gold,  306. 

slivering,  318. 

Preparation  and  gilding  of  picture  frameSj  301 

of  horn,  310. 

Preparing:  the  speculum,  317. 

Preservation  of  leather,  327. 

Preservative  solution  for  sensitive  plates,  282, 

Preserving  bath,  tannin,  285. 

leather  belts,  329. 

Priming  for  new  work,  107. 
Primrose  soap,  385. 

to  dye  woollen,  36. 

Printers'  rollers,  410. 


146 


INDKX. 


Printiug  ink,  346. 

nature,  289. 

oil  for  pottery,  47. 

Prints  and  books,  to  bleach,  16. 

and  engravings,  vamisii  for,  68. 

chloride  ol  silver  from  washing  of,  292. 

from  negatives,  weak  and  flat,  281. 

removing  varnish  from,  72. 

silver  from  trimmings  of  uax)ii»d,  292. 

Protochloride  of  tin,  240. 
Prussian  blue,  97. 

green,  95. 

Prussic  acid,  236. 

Pryrogallic  developer,  plain,  283. 

Purple  cotton  spirit,  40. 

distance  enamel,  49. 

enamel,  49. 

ink,  345. 

royal  blue,  to  dye  silk,  33. 

woollen,  34. 

to  dye  cotton,  37. 

silk,  33. 

woollen,  34. 

Purple  vat,  39. 

silk  spirit,  39. 

woollen  spirit,  40. 

Putty,  42. 

glaziers',  116. 

powder,  404. 

soft,  42. 

to  soften,  42. 

Pyrophosphate  of  soda,  244. 
I'yrotechnic  mixtures,  140. 


(jCEEK's  Metal,  12. 


,331. 


Railway  Axles,  CoMPosiTros  fob, 
Raw  oil,  to  prepare,  81. 
Razor  paste,  405. 
Red  brass,  10. 

chalk,  89. 

cotton  spirit  40. 

enamel,  49. 

Rold,  heightening  colour  of,  311. 

- —  house  paint,  106. 

ink,  315. 

lake,  pigment,  93. 

kud,  H9,  90. 

mordant,  40. 

pigments,  89. 

stain  for  wood,  -llS. 

to  dye  cotton,  37. 

Ujiiibac,  11. 

Reducing  iiitetisity  of  negatives,  292; 

old  iMtlia  and  solutions,  221-223,  290,  292. 

Refining  Uiix.  350. 

Urd  oil   334. 

regulus  ol  cobalt,  63. 

rc«uluii  of  zaitre,  52. 

Re-gilding  frames,  304. 
Iti'gisterit,  Britunnia  metal  for,  10. 
RrguliiH  ufcoliuU,  53. 

of  zaffrc,  52. 

Rcinedli'H  and  failures  In  photography,  280. 

RimiovlMK  itains,  293. 

Renovate  hllk,  to,  382. 

Ui-|uiitilliig  uirriagi'k,  H2. 

Itepalriiig  marble,  au3. 

R«'«elting  bund-MWH,  366. 


Resist  varoishes,  218. 

Resists  or  reserves,  217. 

Re-aUvering  pier-glass,  partially,  Zll. 

Restoring  marble,  332. 

Re-transfer  inks,  348. 

Retouching  airbon  prints,  280. 

Reviver,  French  polish,  88. 

Ribbed  plate  glass,  65. 

Rice  glue,  41. 

Rick  cloths,  waterproofing,  368. 

Rivet  metal,  13. 

Rolled  brass,  10. 

Roller  for  graining,  424. 

Rollers,  printers',  410. 

Rondeletia  soap,  385. 

Rose-colour  enamel,  60. 

to  dye  silk,  3X 

woollen,  35. 

Rose  pink  vat,  39. 
Rose  soap,  385. 
Rosewood,  graining,  423. 

imitating.  417. 

ground,  419. 

Rosin  soap,  381. 

Rouge,  404. 

Royal  blue,  woollen  spirits,  40. 

Ruby,  to  dye  cotton,  36. 

woollen,  34. 

Rust  joints,  cement,  25. 
Russia  leather,  323. 
Russian  lampblack,  98.    ' 
Rust  from  steel,  e.xtracting,  360. 
to  prevent,  369. 

Sable,  reviving,  321. 
Saddles,  cleaning,  328. 
Safflower,  to  prepare,  32. 
Sage-green  house  paint,  108. 
Salmon-colour,  to  dye  silk,  32. 
Sail,  spirit  of,  236. 
Saltpetre,  239. 

from  damaged  gunpowder,  138, 

Sand-ball,  386. 
Sap-green,  95. 
Saponification,  379. 
Satin-wood,  graining,  423. 

ground,  119. 

Saucepans,  tlnnitig  iron,  336. 

Savonette,  camphor,  386. 

Siiw,  brazing  and  resetting  band,  3M 

t5axon  blue,  97. 

Scarlet,  silk  spirit,  39. 

woollen  spirit,  40. 

to  dye  cotton,  37. 

silk,  33. 

woollen,  36. 

.Scheclo'b  green,  95. 

iSchwelnlurt  green,  96. 

Scouring  articles  of  dress,  318,  32C. 

iHCC,  321. 

shawls,  321. 

Screws,  hints  about,  410. 
Sculjituro  of  marble  by  acids,  389. 
.Scumbling,  103. 
Sealing-wax,  42. 

vurnlsli,  71. 

Si'iils,  to  mak<'  glass,  340. 

wax  impressions  from,  344k 

Wectlng  marb.c,  387. 


INDEX. 


447 


Sensitive  coUodio-gelatlne  tissue,  278. 

plates,  preservative  solution  for,  282. 

Sensitizing,  274,  281,  284,  288. 
Separating  silver  from  copper,  319. 

gold  from  gilt,  copper,  and  silver,  311. 

Sewing  books,  394. 
Shaving  fluid,  386. 

soap  and  paste,  386. 

Shawls,  scouring,  321. 

Sheep-skins,  or  skivers,  to  dress,  322. 

with  wool  on,  tamring,  324. 

Sheet  glass,  54. 
Shells,  polishing,  406. 
Shingle  roofs,  firep roofing,  117. 
Shoe  and  boot  maldng,  329. 
Shot  silks,  to  dye,  30. 
Sienna  marble  on  wood,  425. 
Sign-boards,  painting,  112. 
Signs  or  letters,  gilding,  298,  299. 
Silicated  soap,  380. 
Silicate  of  soda  paint,  115. 
Silk,  dj-eing,  30-33. 

photography  on,  290. 

solvents  lor,  362. 

epirits,  39. 

to  bleach,  14. 

to  renovate,  362. 

Silkworm  gut,  410. 
Silver,  238. 

articles,  oxidizing,  318. 

bath,  reducing,  292. 

bath  for  amateurs,  214. 

bright  lustre  on,  214. 

bronze,  18. 

Chinese,  13. 

copper  ingots  to,  336. 

cleaning  liquid,  28. 

cleansing,  174. 

deposits  on,  215. 

: dissolved  from  silvered  articles,  217. 

electro-plating,  211. 

engraving  on,  169. 

extraction  of,  221. 

from  trimmings  of  untoned  prints,  292. 

frosted,  319. 

German,  11. 

gilding,  190. 

-—  imitation  of,  11. 

— —  in  the  cold  way,  336. 

leaf,  varnished,  318. 

lustre,  51. 

nielled,  218. 

oxidized,  218. 

plated,  207. 

—  platenizing,  318. 
plating,  319. 

plating  Britannia  metal,  pewter,  lead,  and 

tin,  214. 

solution  and  oxide  of,  51. 

stains  from,  removing,  293. 

solder,  364,  365. 

soldering,  364. 

separating  from  copper,  319. 

to  burn  bh,  407. 

to  copper,  183. 

varnish  for,  72. 

weight  ot  deposited,  ascertained,  215. 

Silvered  articles,  to  dissolve  silver  from,  217. 
Silvering,  !i06-211,  335,  336. 


Silvering  anodes,  215. 

barometer  scales,  318. 

brass,  317. 

bright  lustre,  214. 

bmnishing,  216. 

by  heat,  318. 

cast  Iron,  319. 

cheap  looking-glasses,  314. 

clock  dials,  319. 

curved  glass,  315. 

deposits  on  solder,  215. 

dipping  in  warm  bath,  209. 

electro-plating,  to  prevent  turning  yelloi* 

214. 

for  plated  silver  reflectors,  209. 

fluid,  316. 

glass,  Drayton's  process,  315. 

glass  globes,  317. 

glass  specula,  316. 

large  mirrors  for  photography,  316. 

looking-glasses,  312-314. 

mirrors,  316. 

^—  mbcture,  318. 

old,  218. 

plated  silver,  207. 

rubbing,  cold,  209. 

powder,  318. 

resist  or  reserve  varnishes,  218. 

resists  and  reserves,  217. 

whitening  in  a  pot,  206. 

with  silver  foil,  208. 

Size,  gold,  18. 
Skin  birds,  to,  330. 
Skins,  preparing,  325. 

and  fur  dressing,  326. 

small,  preserving,  324. 

Skivers  or  sheep-skins,  to  dress,  322. 
Sky-blue  house  paint,  108. 
Slate,  enamelling,  393. 

polishing,  406. 

to  dye  silk,  32. 

woollen,  35. 

writing  on,  41 1. 

Slides,  magic-lantern,  288. 

photographs  for  microscopic,  295. 

Smalts,  48. 

SnufiBess  candles,  359. 

Soap  balls,  386. 

boiling,  377. 

Soaps,  372. 

Soda,  374. 

Soft  brilliant  varnish,  71. 

soap,  382. 

solders,  365. 

woods,  polishing  in  lathe,  88. 

Softening  castings,  26. 

cast  iron,  26. 

leather,  329. 

Solar  camera,  288. 

Sole  leather  tanning,  324. 

Soldering  fluid,  365. 

small  pieces,  367. 

without  heat,  365. 

Solders,  364. 

Soluble  glass,  54. 

Solution  of  gold,  51. 

for  coUodio-albumen  process,  intensifyinjj 

283. 

india-rubber,  360. 


448 


IXLEX. 


Solution  for  sensitive  plates,  preservative,  282. 

of  silver,  51. 

Solutions,  reducing  old  baths  and  nitrate  of 
silver,  290. 

waterproof,  369. 

Solvents  for  india-rubber,  360. 

Spanish  white,  pigment,  93. 

Sparkling  appearance  i^  photographs,  281. 

Specula  silvering,  316. 

Speculum  metal,  13. 

cleaning,  317. 

preparing,  317. 

Spenn  oil,  373. 

Spirit  colour,  oak,  421. 

Spirits  for  cotton,  40. 

silk,  39. 

woollen,  40. 

Spinning,  BriUinnia  metal  for,  10. 
Sponge,  to  bleacli,  16. 
Spoons,  best  Britannia  for,  11. 
Spots  on  dress,  scouring,  320. 
Spouts,  best  Britannia  for,  11. 
Springs,  tettpcring,  26. 
Staining  pa|)or,  429. 

parchment,  429. 

woods,  414. 

Stains  for  glass,  56. 

from  mahogany  to  remove,  417 

from  marble,  392. 

on  dress,  scouring,  319. 

pottery,  47. 

Statuary  metal,  13. 
Stearic  acid.  237. 
Steel,  annealing,  338. 

cleansing,  2c(,  176. 

deposits.  220. 

engraving  on,  152. 

gilding  on,  311. 

gilding  with  gold  solution,  307. 

glaze  wheels  for,  4ti3. 

joints,  sijlder  for,  365. 

lustre,  51. 

polishing,  402. 

to  braze  without  heat,  365. 

varnish  for,  72. 

w.  Iding,  361. 

Siencil-plat<-8,  7. 

Stencilling  on  glass,  58. 

StercosC"pic  views,  2«6,  287. 

Stereo-plates,  casting  by  the  paper  praceee,  12. 

.Stereotype  metal,  11. 

Stippling,  167. 

Stirring  rods,  216. 

Sluue-colour  house  paint,  103. 

drawing  on,  152. 

engraving  on,  152. 

etching  in  lor  printing  on,  152. 

Imitate  wo«dcut8  on,  162. 

re-transfer  ink,  348. 

to  dye  cotton,  37. 

bilk  32. 

—~ woollen,  35. 

tranufcrring  from  copper  to,  152. 

writing  ink,  317. 

SUjneuiason:^'  o  inent,  24. 

Stonex,  lithographic,  to  pri'|>arc,  161. 

.'41  raw  h>it8,  va^lJi^h  for,  Ti. 

b'.raw,  to  dye  silk,  32. 

wooUen,  36. 


Stuccos,  390. 

Stuff  birds,  to,  330,  333. 

Substitute  for  copying  machine,  34 1 

Suet,  373. 

Sugar  of  lead,  235. 

Sulphate  of  coppor,  244. 

lead,  94. 

mercury,  245. 

protoxide  of  Iron,  2J5 

zinc,  245. 

Sulphide  of  ammonium,  24  b 

calcium,  245. 

sodium,  245. 

potassium,  245. 

Sulphur,  balsam  of,  52. 

soap,  385. 

Swan's  process  in  photograpLy,  yjS. 

Table  Vaekish,  69. 
Tallow  boiling,  350. 

clarj-fyiug,  353. 

M.ifurra,  373. 

pans,  efJiuvia  from,  351. 

renderii  g,  351. 

soaps,  380,  381. 

Turn- tarns  or  gongs,  alloy  for,  12. 
Tannic  add,  326,  237. 
Tannin  preserving  bath,  285. 

process  in  photography,  285. 

Tanning,  322-327. 

Tarnished  jewellery,  brightening,  319. 

Tawed  leather,  325. 

Temperature  on  photography,  effects  of,  23& 

Tempering  cast  steel,  26. 

chisels  and  mill  picks,  26. 

springs,  26. 

tools  and  metals,  26. 

Terchloride  of  gold,  144. 

Test  papers.  423. 

Testing  alkali,  374.  , 

Thermometer  scales,  silveruig  for,  318. 

to  niak"?,  432. 

Tin,  cleansing,  176. 

deposit,  colour  of,  187. 

lacquer  for,  75. 

oxide  of,  52,  104. 

plate,  crystallized,  337. 

pUtes,  solder  for,  365. 

salt,  240. 

solution  of,  62. 

whitening  by,  188. 

Tinware,  cl'aning,  338. 

solder  for.  365. 

Tinman's  soldir,  366. 
Tinning,  186,  335,  336. 

bath,  by  exchange,  for  Iroa.  18*. 

bra-ss  wires,  337. 

by  double  affinity,  187. 

cold.  337. 

electro,  1H6. 

Iron  pipes,  337. 

iron  s;iui.<pans,  336. 

metal  for,  13. 

small  articlea,  338. 

zinc,  1»8. 

Tissue,     sensitizing     the,     In     pbotographj^ 
274. 

spontaneotu  insolubllitr  of  the,  !Wa 

Toilet  sojp,  382. 


INDEX. 


149 


Tombac,  11. 

Toning  bath,  obtaining  gold  from  M,  291. 

Tortoisesliell  with  horn,  imitating,  340. 

Tracing  paper,  9,  156. 

Tracings,  colouring,  6. 

Transfer  iuk,  3-1 7. 

paper,  9. 

paper,  lithographic,  428. 

varnish,  69. 

writing  ink,  347. 

'Transferring  engravings  on  glass,  57. 

phot^'graphs,  tearing  of  Image,  281. 

to  cardboard,  277. 

Transparent  paluimg  on  linen,  110. 

painting  on  paper,  111. 

positives,  287. 

soaps,  383. 

varnish,  green,  73. 

Tubes,  bending  glass,  60. 
Tunbridge  ware,  78,  79. 
Turners'  cement,  23. 

work,  polish  for,  87. 

Turpentine  colour,  108. 

spirits  of,  63. 

varnish,  70,  155. 

Tutania,  13. 
Twin-lens  camera,  286. 
Type  metal,  13. 

LjLTBAMARnrE,  96. 

ashes,  96. 

Under  exposure  of  photographs,  281. 
Unequal  sensitiveness  in  tissue  of  photographs, 

281. 
Uneven  development  in  photography,  280. 
texture  In  finished  print  of  photographs, 

281. 
Uniting  parchment  to  paper,  or  wood,  9. 
Untoned    prints,  silver    from    trimmings  of, 

292. 

Varietfes  ov  Ikon  Devklopek,  :9i. 
Varnishes,  60-74. 
Varnish,  anti-rust,  359. 

a.<phalte,  66. 

backing  positives,  72. 

black  for  straw  hats,  72. 

—  black  japan,  67. 

boiling-put  for,  61. 

bookbinders',  71. 

-  boots  and  shoes,  328. 

—  brown  hard  .spirit,  70 

—  Brunswick  black,  67 
brushes,  73. 

cabinet,  64. 

carriages,  64,  65. 

cheap  oak,  70. 

claritying  oil  for,  62. 

coachmakers'  black,  66. 

- —  for  coloured  drawings,  68. 

colourless,  71. 

common,  66,  71. 

copal,  64,  65,  71,  72. 

— -  dammar,  72. 

dark  for  light  woodworl'^  70 

etching,  71. 

fur  furniture,  69. 

for  gas  balloons,  73. 

for  gilt  articles,  69. 

1 


Varnish,  for  glass,  72. 

guM,  69. 

goMen,  73. 

green  transparent,  72. 

— -  gum-pot  for,  til. 

india-rubber,  73, 

for  iron,  72. 

for  Iron  patterns,  66. 

for  ironwork,  66,  68. 

lac-water,  74. 

linseed  oi  1  for,  63,  7 1. 

mahogany,  65,  70. 

marble,  391. 

making  on  a  small  sc'..;e,  62 

manufacture  of,  6u  to  74. 

mastic,  71. 

pale  amber,  67. 

paper  or  cardwork,  to,  68. 

photographers'  negative,  69. 

pictures  and  paintings,  68. 

polished  mt tal,  72. 

prints,  engravings,  or  map^,  C£ 

removing,  from  prints,  72. 

sealing-wax,  71. 

silver,  72. 

small  tools  for,  61. 

soft  briUiant,  71. 

spirits  of  turpentine  for,  6a 

steel,  72. 

table,  69. 

transfer,  for  diaphanie,  69 

turpentine,  70. 

violins,  70. 

wainscot,  65,  70, 

waterproof  goods,  71. 

white  furniture,  70. 

white  hard  spirit,  71. 

wood  resisting  boiling  water,  70. 

Varnished  silver  leaf,  318. 
Varnishing  and  polishing  fret-woik.  8/ 

intensifying  negatives  after,  :;y2. 

Vat,  ash,  for  woollens,  39. 

blue,  for  cotton,  39. 

crimson,  39. 

lavender,  39. 

purple,  39. 

roifc  pink,  39. 

woad,  38. 

Vats  for  various  colours,  3% 
Vegetiible  oils,  372. 
Vehicle  for  colour,  115. 
Vellum,  painting  on,  349. 
Veneering  411-414. 

with  marble,  388. 

Venetian  white,  94. 

enamel,  48. 

\"erd  antique  on  wood,  424,  i'K 
Vermilion,  pigment,  90. 
Vienna  green,  95. 
Views,  stereoscopic,  286. 

with  one  camera,  287. 

with  two  cameras,  287 

Violot-culour  house  paint,  lu; 

ink,  346. 

soap,  384. 

Violin  varnish,  70. 
Vitriol,  blue,  244. 
Vulcanite.  360. 

->oiishl08.  41(5 

•I    G 


450 


INDflX. 


\Vains«»t,  Oak  Grodnd,  419. 

Wainscot,  to  pnllsh,  87. 

vumish,  66,  70. 

Wiiluut,  polishing  in  the  lathe,  88. 

stain,  418. 

W^ ashing,  in  staining  woods,  414. 

Washing  prints,  chloride  of  silver  from,  292. 

Watchmakers'  oil,  334. 

Water-colour  drawing,  management  of,  104. 

Water-colours,  materials  for  painting  In,  104. 

on  carbon  prints,  280. 

painting  in,  104. 

pencils  and  Iniishes  for,  104. 

Water  gilding,  2»8. 
Waterproof  cffifi-coverings,  368. 

cement,  ;4 

goods,  varnish  for,  71. 

harness  piate,  327. 

paper,  369. 

solutions,  369. 

Walerpro.ifing,  368. 

W'u.x  bleacumg,  342,  354. 

W'a.x  impressions  from  seals,  340. 

Weak  and  flat  prints  from  negativis,  281. 

Weather,  effects  of,  on  photography,  29.5. 

Weight  of  deposited  silver,  215. 

Whalebone,  362. 

Wheels,  polishing.  403. 

Welding  cast  stiil,  361. 

White,  Chinesi',  91. 

copal  vaniish,  72. 

enamel,  48. 

furniture  cream,  87. 

furniture  varnish,  70. 

Hamburg,  94. 

hard  spirit  varnish,  71. 

house  paint,  105. 

li-ad,  93,  91. 

metal,  13. 

metal,  hard,  13. 

pigments,  93. 

Venetian,  94. 

— —  Wilkinson's,  94. 
Whitewash  or  colourwaah,  to.  117. 
Whiting,  94. 
Wicks,  354-356. 
Wilkinson's  white,  94. 
Window  glass,  54, 

glazing,  55. 

Windsor  soap,  .183. 
Wire-work,  paint  for,  99. 
Woa-l  vat,  3H. 
W'rxxl,  br-iMzink',  18. 
curving,  pidi«hiTi(4.  »^ 


Wood,  cements  for  Jomiug,  24. 
^■^  dyeing  for  veneers,  412. 

engraving  on,  146-150. 

Wood  engraving,  photography  for,  290 

graining,  419. 

marbling  on,  424. 

oil  gilding  on,  296,  297. 

polishing  hard,  88. 

pulp  for  paper,  428. 

. rendering  incombustible,  370 

staining,  414. 

uniting  to  paper,  9. 

vessels,  cement  lor,  24. 

Woodcuts,  enlarging,  411. 

to  imitate  on  stone,  162. 

M'ool,  to  bleach,  14. 
Woollen  dyeing,  33-35. 

spirits,  -10. 

Writing  and  drawing  on  transfei  paper,  348 

inks,  343. 

inks  and  chalks,  348. 

papers,  manifold,  427. 

on  glass,  58. 

paper  or  parchment,  gilding,  310. 

on  slate,  411. 

on  zinc,  349. 

Wrought  iron,  cleansing,  176. 

Yellow  Bbass,  10. 

chrome,  95. 

colours  tor  coach  painting,  81. 

to  dye  Cotton  chrome,  38. 

to  dye  Woollen,  35. 

enamel  49. 

gold,  heightening  colour  of,  311. 

house  paint,  105. 

iron  stains  from  linen,  removing,  293 

King's,  96. 

lake  pigment,  93. 

Naiiles,  96. 

-^—  pigments,  95. 
Yew-tree,  graining,  423. 

ZlKC,  ch'aiising,  176. 

deposits,  220. 

electro  gilding,  203. 

garden-labels,  849. 

gilding  on,  305. 

to  prepare  for  painting,  1  lb. 

Bolder  for,  361. 

to  tin.  IHH. 

veneering  uiurblc  ou.  38» 

— —  wrlllinf  on,  349. 


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THE  "JAMES  WATT" 
SILVER  MEDAL,  1889. 


THE  ONLY  "JAMES  WATT" 
SILVER  MEDAL  EVER  AWARDED  TO  A  GAS  GOVERNOR. 

The   "Shaw"  Reduces  Gas  Bills  from  10  to  40°/, 
with  a  better  light. 


Thomas  Newbigging,  Esq.,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  says,  "The  'Shaw'  performs 
the  functions  of  a  Governor  with  certainty  and  constancy.  I  pronounce  it 
to  be  a  satisfactory  and  trustworthy  instrument  in  every  respect." 

For  full  particulars  apply 

JOSEPH    SHAW, 

Albert  Works,  Huddersfield. 

LONDON:    115  &  117,  CANNON    STREET. 
MANCHESTER:   5,  EXCHANGE  ARCADE. 

Depots:  Liverpool,  Birmingham,  Glasgow,  Dublin,  &c. 


'  Practical  Hints  on  Gas  Consumption,'  a  12-page  Pamphlet,  shoioing  how 
to  consume  Gas  to  obtain  the  best  results,  post-free,  Twopence, 


nil 


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ELECTRICAL  SUPPLIES 

FOR 

ENGINEERS   AND    CONTRACTORS. 


APPLETON,   BURBEY, 


AND 


o 

z 

^^ 

E- 

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X 
O 

P^ 

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WILLIAMSON, 

ELECTRICAL   ENGINEERS  AND    MANUFACTURERS, 

91,  QUEEN  VICTORIA  STREET,  E.G. 

A\^ORKS:-IlATTO:Nr    OARDEN,    E.G. 


WORKSHOP  EECEIPTS  ADVERTISER.  ix 

Lewis's  Mechanical  and  Electrical 
Engineering  Works, 

37,  NEW  OXFORD  ST.,  LONDON,W.G. 

(Opposite  Mudie's  Library). 

ALL  KINDS  OF  SPECIALITIES  MADE  FOR 

CIVIL   ENGINEERS,  BUILDERS,  ARCHITECTS, 

PATENTEES,  INVENTORS,  &  AMATEURS. 

ESTABLISHED  1846. 


All  kinds  of  Machinery  for  Trade  made  and  improved  for 
producing  the  various  Articles  of  Trade. 

Plaia  and  Ornamental  Lathes  Pitted  with  Hardened  Steel  Collars  and 

Mandrills,  Slide  Eests,  Chucks,  Tools,  &c.,  &o. 

GENERAL    REPAIRS   DONE   FOR  THE   TRADE. 


A  very  superior  Testing  Pump  kept   in  stock,  will  test  over 

500  lb.  per  square  inch,  very  compact,  all  within 

7  inches  square,  from  £3  15s. 

37,  NEW  OXFORD  STREET,  LONDON,  W.C. 

Electric  Bells  from  2g.  6^.  each,  upwards. 

Invalid's  Bell,  set  complete,  from  12s.  6d. 

Bell  sets,  complete  from  8s.  6rf. ;  wire,  25  yds.,  Is. ;  50  yds.,  Is.  9d. ;  100  yds.,  3«. 

Pushes,  from  6d.  each  ;  Burglar  Alarms,  from  Is.  each. 

No.  2,  Leclanche  Cells,  2».  each,  complete. 

Zincs,  Porous  Cells,  &c. 

Shoiking  Coils,  complete,  from  3s.  6d. 

Small  Motors,  complete,  from  is.  6d. 

Dynamo,  from  168.,  upwards. 

Medical  Coils,  from  15s. 

37,  NEW  OXFORD  STREET,  LONDON,  W.C. 


WOEKSHOP  RECEIPTS  ADVERTISER, 


PICTURE  JFRAME  MAKING. 

INSTRUCTION    BOOK. 

4th    edition. 

Illustrated  with  150  Diagrams,  Designs,  Patterns,  &c.     Containing  instruc- 
tions in   Cutting,   Witrcing,   Joining,   Fitting,   Mount   Cutting,  and  every 
particular  connected  with  Frame  Making  and  Fitting. 

INCLUDING  PATTERN  BOOK  OF  MOULDINGS  OF  ALL  KINDS,  WITH  PRICES. 

Also  Prices  of  Ornamental  Corners. 
Best  Gold  Corners,  Mounting  Boards,  Cut  Mounts,  Oval  Frames,  Oak 

Oxford  Frames, 

And  everything  connected  with  Picture  Framing. 

Sent  Post-free,  6id.  in  Stamps. 


Plane. 

Saw. 

Vice. 

2  Blocks. 

24-in.  Rule. 

Hammer. 

Pincers. 

Chisel. 

Oilstone. 

Gluepot.' 

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3  lbs. 
assorted 
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Book. 
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CEO.   REES'   MOULDINGS. 

MOULDINGS  FOR' PICTURE  FRAMES. 
MOULDINGS  FOR  DECORATION. 
MOULDINGS  FOR  PANELLING. 
MOULDINGS  FOR  CABINETS. 
MOULDINGS  FOR  ALL  PURPOSES.^ 


ENGRAVINGS.  C.REES, 

ETCHINGS.  115.  STRAND.^  ^ 

eooo-re  ^>^-n  (Corner of  savoy  strSt) 

b  rU  K  I  o.9^  Cheapest  House  in  London. 


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XI 


THE  SKINNER  DRILL  CHUCK. 

AMATEURS  GEARED  SCROLL  CHUCK. 

LEE'S    ILLUSTRATED   CATALOGUE 

OF   SELECTED 

AMERICAN  TOOLS  &  MACHINERY. 

Lathes,  Chucks,  Slide-rests,  Lathe  Dogs,  Polishing  Lathes,  Drilling  Machines, 
Drills,  Parallel  and  Instantaneous  Grip  Vices,  Screw  Stocks,  Taps  and  Diss, 
Saws,  'Wrenches,  &c.,  &c.,  specially  selected  from  the  best  American  Manufac- 
turers, therefore  of  the  very  highest  quality,  and  at  low  prices. 

Send  for  Illustrated  Catalogue,  150  Illustrations,  price  6d.,  post-free. 

U.    A.    LEE, 

76,   77,   78a,    HIGH  HOLBORN,    LONDON,  W.C. 

Please  state  whether  American  Tool,  or  Model  Steam  Engine  Catalogue 
is  required,  when  ordering. 

■C^NGINE     CASTINGS.  —  LEE'S    WORLD  -  FAMED    BRASS 

■^  CASTlNGrS,  with  his  improved  "Tenon,"  or  Chuck  Pieces,  on  all  parts  requiring  to 
be  turned,  are  supplying  a  want  long  felt ;  being  easily  turned  even  by  the  most  unskilled 
amateur. 

rrO  AMATEURS.— R.  A.  LEE  is  now  supplying  all  his  best 
■■■  sets  of  HORIZONTAL  ENGINE  CASTING-S  from  l-in.  bore,  with  tbe 
Steam  and  Kxhaust  Ports  accurately  cast  in  the  Cylinders,  free  of  charge,  thus  saving  an  immense 
amount  of  work  In  fitting  up  and  insuring  accuracy  in  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of 
the  Engine. 
Thousands  of  Sets  of  these  Castiiigs  have  ieen  made  into  xcorking  Engines  by  amateur  mechanics. 

QREAT   REDUCTION   in  the  Price  of  CASTINGS.— Complete 

Sets  for  Horizontal  Slide-valve  Engine,  i-in.  bore,  l-in.  stroke.  Is.  6d.,  post-free,  Is.  9d. ; 
i-in.  bore,  li-in.  stroke,  2*.  3d.,  post-free,  2s.  9d. ;  l-in.  bore,  2-in.  stroke,  4s.,  post-free,  4s.  6d. ; 
]i-in.  bore,  2i-\u.  stroke,  8s.  9d.,  postrfree,  9s.  9d.,  by  Parcels  Post.  All  sizes  up  to  6-in. 
stroke  at  equally  low  prices.  Each  Casting  has  Lee's  improved  "  Tenon,"  without  which  model 
castings  are  practically  useless. 

MODEL  STEAM  ENGINES  of  every  description,  from  the 
smallest  to  powerful  Eng-ines. 

LEE'S     ILLUSTRATED     CATALOGUE, 

New  and  Jxevlsed,  Prices  greatly  Reduced. 

To  Amateurs  the  most  useful  book  extant,  and  largest  and  best  Catalogue 

in  the  Trade,  64  pages,  no  Illustrations,  price  6d.  post-free. 

Please  mention  this  Book  when  writing. 

76,  77,  &  78a,  HIGH  HOLBORN,  LONDON,  W.C. 

Gateway  entrance  directly  opposite  the  Jntis  of  Court  Hotel. 
AWARDED  PRIZE  MEDAL,  INTERNATIONAL  INVENTIONS  EXHIBITION   1885. 


xu  WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS  ADVERTISER. 


TO    INVENTORS. 


PRIVATE  WORKSHOP, 

WITH    ENGINE,   DYNA)VIOS,    LATHES,  AND   EVERY 

REQUISITE  FOR  WORKING  OUT  ELECTRICAL 

OR  IVIECHANICAL  INVENTIONS. 

Use  of  the  above  can  be  had  on  very  moderate  terms 
per  day  or  longer  period. 


ELECTRICAL  GOODS  OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION 
BOUGHT  FOR  CASH. 


A    LARGE     SELECTION    ALWAYS     IN    STOCK 
AT   VERY   LOW    PRICES. 


J.  W.  KING, 

13,  St.  John's  Square,  Clerkenwell, 

LONDON,    E.C, 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS  ADVERTISER.  xiii 


USEFUL    BOO.KiS. 


BOAT  BUILDING  FOR  AMATEURS,  PRACTICAL.    Containing 

Full  Instructions  for  Designing  and  Building  Punts,  Skiffs,  Canoes,  Sailing  Boats,  &c.  Fully 
Illustrated  with  Working  Diagrams.  By  Adman  Neison,  C.E.  Second  Edition,  Revised 
and  Enlarged  by  Dixon  Kemp,  Author  of  '  Yacht  Designing,"  '  A  Manual  of  Yacht  and 
Boat  Sailing,'  &c.    In  cloth  gilt,  price  2s.  6d. 

BOOKBINDING    FOR    AMATEURS:    Being   Descriptions    of   the 

various  Tools  and  Appliances  required,  and  Minute  Instructions  for  their  Effective  Use. 
By  VV.  J.  E.  CttANE.     Illustrated  with  156  Engravings.     In  cloth  gilt,  price  2s.  6cJ. 

FIREWORK-MAKING  FOR  AMATEURS.  A  complete,  accurate, 
and  easily  understood  work  on  Making  Simple  and  High-class  Fireworks.  By  Dr.  W.  H. 
BfioWKE,  M.A.    l^ice  2s.  6d. 

MODEL  YACHTS  AND  BOATS  :  Their  Designing,  Making,  and 
Sailing.  Illustrated  with  118  Designs  and  Working  Diagrams.  By  J.  du  V.  Grosvekok. 
In  leatherette,  price  5s. 

PIANOFORTES,  TUNING  AND  REPAIRING.     The  Amateur's 

Guide  to  the  I'ractical  Management  of  a  Piano  without  the  intervention  of  a  Professional. 
By  Charles  Babbington.    In  paper,  price  6d. 

PAINTING,  DECORATIVE.     A  Practical  Handbook  on  Painting  and 

Etching  upon  Textiles,  Pottery,  Porcelain,  Paper,  Vellum,  Leather,  Glass,  Wood,  Stone, 
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PICTURE-FRAME  MAKING  FOR  AMATEURS.    Being  Practical 

Instructions  in  the  Making  of  various  kinds  of  Frames  for  Paimings,  Drawings,  Photo- 
graphs, and  Engravings.    Illustrated.    By  the  Eev.  J.  Ldkin.     Price  Is. 

REPOUSSE  WORK  FOR  AMATEURS :  Being  the  Art  of  Orna- 
menting Thin  Metal  with  Raised  Figures.  By  L.  L.  Uaslope.  Hlustrated.  In  cloth  gilt, 
price  2s.  6d. 

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Third  Edition.    By  the  Rev.  J.  Ldkik,  B.A.    Price  6d. 

TAXIDERMY,  PRACTICAL.  A  Manual  of  Instruction  to  the 
Amateur  in  Collecting,  Preserving,  and  Setting-up  Natural  History  Specimens  of  all  kinds. 
Fully  illustrated  with  Examples  and  "Working  Diagrams.  By  Montagu  Browne,  F.Z.S. 
In  cloth  gilt,  price  7s.  Qd. 

TURNING  FOR  AMATEURS  :  Being  Descriptions  of  the  Lathe  and 
its  Attachments  and  Tools,  with  Minute  Instructions  for  their  Effective  Use  on  Wood, 
Metal,  Ivory,  and  other  materials.  By  James  Lukin,  B.A.  Illustrated  with  IH 
Engravings.    In  cloth  gilt,  price  2s.  Hd. 

WOOD  CARVING  FOR  AMATEURS.     Containing  Descriptions  of 

all  the  requisite  Tools,  and  Full  Instructions  for  their  Use  in  producing  different  varieties 
of  Carvings.    Illustrated.    Price  Is. 

All  hooks  sent  carriage  free. 

L.  UPCOTT  GILL,  170,  Strand,  London,  W.C. 


XIV 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS  ADVERTISER. 


Dogs  ^ 

Ferrets 

Guns 

Birds 

Curios 

Furniture 

Provisions 

Tricycles 

Dress 

Cameras 

Cattle 

Pictures 

Plants 

Jewellery 

Plate 

Books 

Tools 

Poultry 

Pets 

Bicycles 


EASILY 

BOUGHT,    SOLD, 
or  EXCHANGED 

THROUGH 

Ejrcbanoe  anb  ^avt 

Articles  on  Carpcnfry,  Turning.  Gild- 
ing. Designing  Dog  Management  Sport, 
or  other  subjects  of  interest  to  gentle- 
men, are  given  in  every  issue. 


"That  excellent  but  seductive  journal."— 
yaturJay  Jierkw. 


Price  2d.,  of  all  Newsagents. 


&c.,  &c. 


Offire:  MO,  STRAND,  LONDON. 


WOEKSHOP  RECEIPTS  ADVERTISER. 


XV 


Estab. 
1852. 


PERKEN,  SON  &  RAYMENT 

■MANUFACTURE  CAMERAS,  LENSES,  &C. 


Catalogue 
Tree. 


*OPTIMUS' 


Trade 


Photographic  Apparatus  of  every  description. 

I       "  OPTIMUS  "  MAGAZINE  CAMERA 

Pictures  ii  by  3i  inches. 


Mark. 


"OPTIMUS"  PHOTOGRAPHIC  SETS, 

With  tripod  and  every  necessary  complete. 


Rack 

adjusting 
Camera, 

for  Plates, 

4i  by  31, 

£3  8s. 


For  Plates, 
6i  by  4f , 

£5  15s. 

Plates, 
8i  by  6i, 
£9  10s. 


Carries  Twelve 
Dry  Plates, 

No 
Dark  Slides. 

Plates  changed 
by  turning 
a  Button. 


Tlie  most 

convenient 

yet  invented. 

Price,  with 

Beotilinear 

Lens  and 

Slmttcr, 

£tj  6s. 


"Optimus' 

7X5 

94s.  i5J. 


Rapid  Euryscope. 

8X5  9X7 

nO.<.  126s. 


10X8 

220». 


"  Optimus"  Wide  Angle  Euryscope. 

6X1  7X5  9X7  10  X8 


63i. 


94>.  6t/. 


1263. 


Optimus"  Rapid  Rectilinear. 


"OPTIMUS"  EURYSCOPE. 

"  Working  as  it  iluus  with  such 
a  large  apertuie  (f/6  approx.),  it 
serves  as  a  portrait  and  grouj) 
lens,  as  well  as  a  landscape  and 
copying  objective.  There  is  no 
doubt  of  its  proving  a  most  use- 
ful l6ns."-J.  Teaill  Tatlok. 
Brit.  Journal  of  Photography. 

"  We  are  pleased  to  tiud  upon 
trial  that  the  lens  ('  Optimus ' 
Rapid  Rectilinear)  .'*nt  for  re- 
view is  really  an  EXCELLENT 
INSTKUME.NT."  —  Photographic 
Newt, 


ios.        495.  6iJ. 


64s. 


82s.  6.i.        127s.  6(f. 


1425.  6il. 


1..5 

ISOt. 


as 
225<. 


t( 


Optimus"  Wide  Angle  Symmetrical. 


62j.  6d. 


825.  6d. 


127s.  6d. 


142s.  6rf. 


18UJ. 


"Optimus"  Quick-Acting-  Portrait. 

niam 2  inches.  2f  inches.  3^  inches. 

Price        90s.  120».  180>. 

IB  2B  3  B 

Rayment's  Patent  Camera  (.Long  Focus). 


120s. 


<iX3i 
13Cj. 


5X4 

126>. 


Pi  ice  includes  3  Double  Dark  .Slides. 
6i  X  IJ     I     8i  X  6i     I     10  X  8 


145*. 


212s. 


12  X  10 

258». 


"Optimus"  Camera  (Long  Focus). 

Price  includes  3  Double  Dark  Slides. 


5X4 
133<. 


6iX4i 

137s. 


8iX6i 
17os. 


10X8 
227s. 


12X10 
273s. 


15  X  12 
314>. 


15  X  12 
333f. 


Portable  (A.R.)  Camera. 

Compact,  Rigid,  and  of  Excellent  Finish. 


oX4 

104  s.  9.(. 


6iX4} 

11 8s. 


8iX6i 
1463.  3il. 


10X8 
174s.  6d. 


12  X  10 

216s. 


"  I  should  strongly  recommend 
Rayment's  Camera.    It  is  Light, 
Compact,    very   Rigid,  and   ex- 
tends to  about  double  the  usual  j 
fociu.'* — Amateur  Photo. 


15X12 
274«.  6<J. 

OPTIMUS"  Wide  Angle  CAMERA  (Long  Focus). 

Price  includes  3  Dark  Slides. 

6X4      I      61X41      I      8iX6i      1      10X8      I      12X10      I      15  X  IJ 

116<.   I    165«.    I    188<.    I   2351.   |    28g<.    |    S60<. 

Price  List,  Post-free. 


99,    HATTON    GARDEN,    LONDON,    E.C. 


XVI 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS  ADVERTISER. 


A.  W.  REID  Sl  CO., 

Makers  of  Lavatories,  Urinals,  Baths,  Plumbers' Brasswork,  Sanitary 

Earthenware,  Fireclay  Sinks,  Folding  Lavatories  for 

Steamships,  &c., 

69,  ST.  MARY  AXE,  LONDON,  E.C« 

SOLE  MANUFACTUEERS  OF 

PEARSON'S    PATENT 

TWIN-BASIN  WATER  CLOSET. 


roE 

SIMPLICITY, 

roR 

CLEANLINESS, 


roE 

SECUEITY 

AGAINST 
SE  WEE-GAS. 


These  Closets  have  been  thoroughly  tested  by  many  years'  use  in  Hospitals,  Schools,  Ilaihvay 
Stations,  Hotels,  Kuctories,  Warehouses,  ^^lausions,  and  Cottages,  with  the  very  Ix'st  results. 
They  have  been  tried  and  approved  by  the  highest  Sanitary  Authorities,  by  Architects,  and  by 
the  Medical  Profession. 

Bdow  it  an  extract  from  one  of  the  numerous  Testimonialt  received : — 

Suuveyoe's  Office,  Guy's  HosI'Ital,  London,  lOth  f'tbrnary,  1877. 
"Taken  altogether,!  have  ecen  nothing  to  equal  the  I'carson's  Closet,  or  I  should  not 
have  introduced  them  for  use  in  the  Hospital." 

(Signed)        ARTHUR  BILLING, 
Surveyor  to  the  Hospital. 

PATENT    FOLDING    LAVATORIES, 

HIGHLY    RECOMMENDED    WHERE    SPACE    IS    OF  IMPORTANCE, 


For 

Consulting  Rooms 

and 

Libraries. 


For 

Smoking 

and 

Billiard  Rooms. 


WORKSHOP  EECEIPTS  ADVERTISER. 


xvii 


SPONS'  ENCYCLOPAEDIA 

OF   THE 

INDUSTRIAL  ARTS.  MANUFACTURES,  &  COMMERCIAL  PRODUCTS. 

Edited  by  C.  G.  WARNFORD  LOCK,  F.L.S.,  &c.,  &c. 

In  Super-royal  %vo,  containing  zioo pp.,  and  Illustrated  by  nearly 

1500  Engravings. 

Can  be  had  in  the  following  bindings  : —  £   j.  d^ 

In  2  vols.,  cloth 3  10  o 

In  5  divisions,  cloth       311  6 

In  2  vols.,  half-morocco,   top  edge  gilt,  bound  in  a 

superior  manner 4  10  o 

In  33  monthly  parts,  at  2s.  each. 

Any  Part  can  be  had  separate,  price  2x.,  postage  zd. 


Complete  List  of  all  the  Subjects. 


Part 

Acids ii  2,  3 

Alcohol      3,  4 

Alkalies     4,  5 

Alloys        5,  6 

Arsenic      6 

Asphalte 6 

Aerated  Waters       . .      . .       6 
Beer  and  Wine        . .      ■ .  6,  7 

Beverages 7,  8 

Bleaching  Powder  . .      . .       8 

Bleaching 8,  9 

Borax 9 

Brushes      9 

Buttons      9 

Camphor 9.  10 

Candles      lo 

Carbon        10 

Celluloid 10 

Clays 10 

Carbolic  Acid 11 

Coal-tar  Products    . .     . .     11 

Cocoa II 

Coffee II,  i2 

Cork 12 

Cotton  Manufactures      12,  13 

Drugs        13 

Dyeing  and  Calico  Print- 
ing        13.  14 


14. 


15, 


Part 
14 
14 
IS 
IS 

16 
16 
16 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 


Dyestuffs  . .  . 
Electro-Metallurgy 
Explosives 

Feathers 

Fibrous  Substances 

Floor-cloth 

Food  Preservation 

Fruit 16, 

Fur 

Gas,  Coal        

Gems        

Glass         

Graphite i 

Hair  Manufactures       . .     18 

Hats 18 

Ice,  Artificial 18 

Indiarubber      Manufac- 
tures            18,  19 

Ink 19 

Jute  Manufactures        . .     19 
Knitted     Fabrics     (Ho- 
siery)         19 

Lace 19 

Leather i9>  20 

Linen  Manufactures     .  ■     20 

Manures 20 

Matches 20,  21 

Mordants         21 


Part 
Narcotics  . .  ..  21,  22 
Oils  &  Fatty  Substances 

22.  23,  24 

Paper        24 

Paraffin 24 

Pearl  and  Coral     . .      . .     24 

Perfumes 24 

Photography  . .      . .      24,  25 
Pigments  and  Paint      . .     25 

Pottery 25,  26 

Printing  and  Engraving     26 
Resinous    and     Gummy 
Substances  . .     . .      26,  27 

Rope         27 

Salt 27,  28 

Silk 28 

Skins         28 

Soap,   Railway    Grease, 
and  Glycerine     . .       28,  29 

Spices       29 

Starch       29 

Sugar        . .      . .        29.  30.  31 

Tannin     31,  32 

Tea 32 

Timber 32 

Varnish 32 

Wool  and  Woollen  Manu- 
factures      . .     . .      32,  33 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  1S6,  Strand,  London. 

New  York:    12,  Cortlandt  Street. 


XVIU 


WORKSHOP  RECEIPTS  ADVERTISER. 


In  18  Parts,  price  2s.  each. 

Bound  in  cloth,  3  Divisions,  13s.  6d.  each. 

Or,  in  One  Vol.,  cloth,  £2;  half-morocco,  £2  8s. 


A  SUPPLEMENT 


TO 


8P0N8'    DICTIONARY    OF   ENGINEERING, 

CIVIL,  MECHANICAL,  MILITARY,  AND  NAVAL. 

Edited  by  ERNEST   SPON,  Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.,  Mem.  Soc. 

Engineers,  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  and  of 

THE  Geologists'  Association. 

Any  Part  can  be  had  separate,  price  2s.,  postage  2d. 


Imple- 


Abacus 
Agricultural 

ments I 

Air  Compressors         i,  2 
Animal  Charcoal  Ma- 
chinery    2 

Antimony 2 

Axles  and  Axle-boxes  2 

Barn  Machinery       ..  2 

Belts  and  Belting     ..  2 

Blasting 3 

Boilers       3 

Brake         3 

Brick-making        Ma- 
chines   ..      ..         3,  4 
Bridge        ..      ..         4,  5 

Cages         5 

Calculus 5 

Canals       5 

Carpentry 5 

Cast  Iron  ..      ..         5,  6 
Cement,       Concrete, 

Limes,  and  Mortar  6 

Chimney  Shafts        ..  6 
Coal    Cleansing    and 

Washing        ..      ..  6 


Complete  List  of  all  the  Subjects 

No.  1 
Coal  Mining     ..        6,  7 
Coke  Ovens      ..      ..      7 

Copper      7 

Docks        ..      ..         7,  8 
Drainage 8 


No. 
I 


No. 
Lights,    Buoys,    and 

Beacons         ..     13,  1 4 
Machine  Tools        ..    14 
Materials  of  Construc- 
tion, Strengthof  14,  15 
Dredging 8    Mercury 15 


Dynamo-Electric  and 
Magneto  -  Electric 
Machines       ..      ..      8 

Dynamometer  ..         8,  9 
Electrical    Engineer- 
ing..     ..      ..       9,  ID 

Engines,  Varieties  of   10 
Explosives         ..      ..ID 

Fans 10 

Founding ..      ..     10,  11 
Gas,  Manufacture  of    li 

Hammers II 

Heat 12 

Horse  Power    ..      .,12 

Hydraulics        ..       ..    12 

Hydro-geology         ..    12 

I  Indicator  ..      ..     12,  13 

!  Iron 13 

j  Lifts,      Hoists,      and 
I      Elevators      .,      ..    13 


Meters       15 

Ores 

Piers 

Pile  Driving     .. 
Pneumatic  Transmis- 
sion         

Pump         

Pyrometer 

Road  Locomotive  15, 
Rock  Drill      ..      .. 
Rolling  Stock  16, 

Sanitary  Engineering 

17. 

Shafts  and  Shaft  Fit- 
tings       

Steel 

Stone-working  Ma- 
cliinery 

Tramways 

Well  Sinking  and 
Boring 18 


15 
IS 
15 

15 
15 

15 

16 

16 
17 

18 

18 
18 

18 
18 


WOEKSHOP  EECEIPTS  ADVEETISEE.  xix 

CENTRAL 

Patent  &  Trade-Mark  Offices, 

97,  NEWGATE  ST.,  LONDON. 


PROVISIONAL   PROTECTION  FROM   £2  2s. 

INVENTORS'  OWN  PROVISIONAL  APPLICATIONS  COMPLETED 
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rOEEIGN  PATENTS  ON  EQUALLY  MODEEATE  TEEMS. 


CIRCULAR,    WITH    PARTICULARS,    FREE    ON    APPLICATION. 


S.  S.  BROMHEAD, 

CONSULTING  ENGINEER,  Mem.  Society  of  Arts, 

97,  Newgate  St.,  London. 

20  YEAES'  EXPEEIENCE. 

INVENTORS   ASSISTED    IN   THE    DISPOSAL 

OF   PATENTS. 


XX 


WOEKSHOP  RECEIPTS  ADVERTISER. 


J.  BAKER  &  SONS, 

58,  CITY  ROAD,  LONDON,  E.G. 

Highest  Awards  ever  given  for  Bread  Machinery,  Biscuit  Machinery, 
Chocolate  and  Confectionery  Machinery,  and  Ovens. 

15  GOLD  MEDALS. 

Highest  Award,  London,  1884; 
Highest  Award,  Amsterdam,  1886; 
Highest  Award,  Edinburgh,  1886; 
Highest  Award,  Saltaire,  1887; 
Highest  Award,  Adelaide,  1887; 
Highest  Award,  Barcelona,  iSSS  ; 
Highest  Award,   Melbourne,  1888-9; 
Highest  Award,  Paris,  1889. 


^^-^ 


The  Bailey  Baker  Ovens. 

The  Best  Ovens  in  exiBtence,  clean, 

smokeless,  and  oconomical ;  over, 

1500  in  use. 


Melting  Jam  Piuis. 


Tatpnt  Flour  Sifting  and  Mixing 
JIachine. 


Ilodgklnson  Dough 
Kncader. 


Patent  Tabic 
Dough  Divider. 


Arm  Boator  Cake  Making 
Machines. 


S^A'**^ 


Latedt  Imprnvo'l  Patent  Blucult  CuHlnp  Machined. 

[Copyriyhl  Ilhttlrations. 


WOEKSHOP  EECEIPTS  ADVERTISER.  xxi 

Crown  8vo,  cloth,  with  numerous  illustrations,  Price  5s.  each  ; 

by  post,  5«.  id. 

WORKSHOP     RECEIPTS, 

FOR  THE  USE  OP 

MANUFACTURERS,  MECHANICS,  AND  SCIENTIFIC  AMATEURS. 


FIRST    SERIES. 

CoKTENTS  :  Bookbinding — Bronzes—  Candles— Cement— Cleaning— Concretes— Dyeing— Elec- 
tro-Metallurgy—Enamels— Engraving — Etching — Firework  Making — Freezing — Fulminates  — 
Furniture  Creams,  Oils,  Polishes,  Lacquers,  and  Pastes— Gilding— Glass  Cutting — Glass  Malting 

—  Graining  —  Gums  —  Horn  Working  —  India  -  rubber  —  Ink  —  Japans  —  Lacquers  —  Marble 
Working — Matches— Mortars— Paper  Hanging  —  Painting  in  Oils  —  Photography  —  Polishes  — 
Pottery — Silvering  —  Soap  —  Solders  —  Taxidermy  —  Treating  Horn,  Mother-o'-Pearl,  and  like 
substances — Varnishes — Veneering — Whitewashing,  kc,  &c. 

SECOND    SERIES. 

Contents  :  Acldimetry  and  Alkalimetry — Albumen — Alcohol — Alkaloids— Baking-powders 
— Bitters — Bleaching  —  Boiler  Incrustations  —  Cements  and  Lutes  —  Cleansing  —  Confectionery 
— Copying — Disinfectants — Dyeing — Staining  and  Colouring — Essences — Extracts — Fireprooting 

—  Gelatine,  Glue,  and  Size— Glycerine — Gut— Hydrogen  Peroxide — Ink — Iodine — Iodoform — 
Isinglass — Ivory  Substitutes — Leather — Luminous  Bodies — Magnesia — Matches — Paper — Parch- 
ment—Perchloric Acid — Pigments — Paint  and  Painting — Potassium  Oxalate — Preserving. 

THIRD    SERIES. 

Contents  :  Alloys  —  Aluminium  —  Antimony  —  Barium  —  Beryllium  —  Bismuth — Cadmium 
— Cfesium — Calcium — Cerrium — Chromium  —  Cobalt  —  Copper  —  Didymium — Electrics  (includ- 
ing alarms,  batteries,  bells,  carbons,  coils  [induction,  intensity,  and  resistance],  dynamo-electric 
machines,  lire  risks,  measuring,  microphones,  motors,  phonographs,  photophones,  storing,  tele- 
phones)— Enamels  and  Glazes— Erbium — Gallium — Glass — Gold  —  Indium  —  Iridium  —  Iron  — 
Lacquers — Lanthanum — Lead — Lithium — Lubricants —  Magnesium  — Manganese  —  Mercury — 
Mica  —  Molybdenum  —  Nickel  —  Misbium  —  Osmium  —  Palladium  —  Platinum  —  Potassium  — 
Rhodium — Rubidium — Ruthenium — Silenium — Silver — Slag — Sodium  —  Strontium  — Tantalum 

—  Terbium  —  Thallium  —  Thorium  —  Tin  —  Titanium  —  Tungsten  —  Uranium  —  Vanadium  — 
Yttrium — Zinc — ^Zirconium. 

FOURTH    SERIES. 

"Waterproofing"  :  rubber  good?,  cuprammonium  processes,  miscellaneous  preparations — 
Packing:  and.  Storing  articles  of  delicate  odour  or  colour,  of  a  deliquescent  character, 
liable  to  ignition,  apt  to  suffer  from  insects  or  damp,  or  easily  broken — Embalming'  and 
Preserving"  anatomical  specimens— Leather  Polislies— Cooling-  Air  and  Water, 
producing  low  temperatures,  making  ice,  cooling  syrups  and  solutions,  and  separating  salts  from 
liquors  by  refrigeration — Pumps  and  Siphons,  embracing  every  useful  contrivance  for 
raising  and  supplying  water  on  a  moderate  scale,  and  moving  corrosive,  tenacious,  and  other  liquids 
— Desiccating':  air-  and  water-ovens,  and  other  appliances  for  drying  natural  and  artificial 
products  —  Distilling::  water,  tinctures,  extracts,  pharmaceutical  preparations,  essences, 
perfumes,  and  alcoholic  liquids — Emulsifying  as  required  by  pharmacists  and  photo- 
graphers—  E'vaporating':  saline  and  other  solutions,  and  liquids  demanding  special 
precautions  —  Piltering: :  water,  and  solutions  of  various  kinds  —  Percolating-  and 
Macerating-  —  Electrotyping' —  Stereotyping-  by  both  plaster  and  paper  processes 

—  Bookbinding'  in  all  its  details  —  Stra-w  Plaiting  and  the  fabrication  of  baskets, 
matting,  &c.  —  Musical  Instruments:  the  preservation,' tuning,  and  repair  of  pianos, 
harmoniums,  musical  boxes,  &c.— Clock  and  Watch  Mending:  adapted  for  intelligent 
amateurs — Photography :  recent  development  in  rapid  processes,  handy  apparatus,  numerous 
recipes  for  gensitizing  and  developing  solutions,  and  applications  to  modem  illustrative  purposes. 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  125,  Strand,  London. 

ITew  York ;  12,  Cortlandt  Street. 


xxii  WOEKSHOP  KECEIPTS  ADVERTISER. 

BULL'S   METAL. 


This  Alloy  is  a  malleable  Brass  possessing  very 
valuable  characteristics.  It  can  be  easily  rolled,  forged 
or  otherwise  wrought  at  a  red  heat,  when  it  acquires 
an  elastic  limit  and  tensile  strength  higher  than  those 
of  Boiler  Plate  Steel.  It  has  also  within  a  consider- 
able range  the  advantage  of  perfect  elasticity  similar 
to  good  steel,  a  quality  almost  unique  in  Copper 
Alloys. 

The  chief  applications  of  Bull's  Metal  forgings 
are — Stern  Shafts,  Pump  Rods,  Rams,  Bolts  and 
Nuts,  Valves  and  Valve  Spindles. 

Its  uniformity  combined  with  the  leading  character- 
istics referred  to,  render  the  Alloy  suitable  for  most 
purposes  in  which  great  strength  and  resistance  to 
strain  and  corrosion  are  desiderata. 


SUPPLIED      BY 

THE  PHOSPHOR  BRONZE  CO., 

LIMITED, 

87,  SUMNER  STREET,   SOUTHWARK, 

LONDON,  S.E. 

Under  arrangement  with  the  Sole  Licensees  for  the 

United  Kingdom,  and  the  Inventor. 


Culinary  Flavouring  Essences  and 
Fruit  Syrups. 

PUREST!  CHEAPEST!!   BEST!!! 

FOR  ICES,  CONFECTIONERY,  MINERAL  WATER  TRADES,  &C. 


E.  F.  LANGDALE, 

Essence,  Essential  Oil,  &  Perfume  Distiller, 

Tmnopale.  Holborn  Hill,  1775  "  ppj^g    ,y,£OAL  "    ESSENCES 

DISTILLED    PEOM 

HERBS,  FRUITS,  &  SPICES, 

GATHERED  IN  THEIR  BLOOM 
AND  FRESHNESS. 

For  Flavouring  Spirits,  Custards,  Wines, 

The  Burning  of  LanqdaUs  Dittillery  on  Holborn  Tellie<;    Icp<;    and  for  all  riilinarv 

mnby  the  Lord  Gordon  Rioters  inl780,of  which  jellies,  ices,  ana  lor  all  Uulinary 

an  interoting  account  utill  be  found  in  CharUt  _ 

Dickens'  "  Barnaby  Rudge."— Chaps.  62  d  66.  Purposes. 

Distillery,  72  &  73,  HATTON  GARDEN,  LONDON,  E.G. 


PRIZE  MEDAL  Essence  of  Vanilla, 
Lemon,  Orange,  Pine-Apple,  Raspberry, 
Celery,  Cloves,  &c. 

PRIZE  MEDAL  Essence  of  Bitter 
Almonds,  Ratafia,  Noyau,  Peach  Kernels, 
&c.,  purified  free  from  Prussic  Acid  by 
Langdale's  process. 

Everi/  description  of  Essence,  Essential  Oils, 
Vanillas,  always  in  stock. 


i'xiADK  Make. 


1  .iNGDALE,  177j. 


JUST    I»UBLISJH[li:i>. 


In  demy  Svo,  clotb,  GOO  pages,  and  1420  Ilhistratious,  G«, 

SPONS' 

MECHANICS'   OWN   BOOK 

A  MANUAL  FOR  HANDICRAFTSMEN  AND  AMATEURS, 


Contents. 

Mechanical  Drawing — Casting  and  Founding  in  Iron,  Brass,  Bronze,  and 
other  Alloys — Forging  and  Finishing  Iron — Sheetnietal  Working — Soldering, 
Brazing,  and  Burning — Carpentry  and  Joinery,  embracing  descriptions  ot 
some  400  Woods,  over  200  Illustrations  of  Tools  and  tiieir  uses,  Exidanatious 
(with  Diagrams)  of  116  joints  and  liinges,  and  Details  of  Construction  ot 
AN'orkshop  appliances,  rough  furniture.  Garden  and  Yard  Erectious,  and 
House  Building — Cabinet  Making  and  Veneering — Carving  and  Freteuttiiig 
—  Upholstery  —  Painting,  Graining,  and  Marbling  —  Staining  Furniture, 
Woods,  Floors,  and  Fittings — Gilding,  dead  and  bright,  on  various  grounds — 
rdlisliing  Marble,  Metals,  and  Wood— Varnishing— Mechanical  Movements, 
illustrating  contrivances  for  transmitting  motion — Turning  in  Wood  and 
IMclals- Masonry,  embracing  Stonework,  Brickwork,  'i'erracotta,  and  Concrete 
—Rooting  \vith  Tliatcli,  Tiles,  Slates,  Felt,  Zinc,  &e— Glazing  witli  and 
without  putty,  and  lead  glazing— Plnsttring  an<l  W  iiitewasliing — Paper- 
lijinging  —  (ias-tltling  —  Bell-hanging,  ordinary  and  eleelrio  Systems  — 
Lighting  —  Warming — Ventilating  —  Koads,  Pavements,  and  Bri<lgeB — 
Hedges,  Ditches,  and  Drains  —  Water  Sujiiily  and  Sanitation— Hints  ou 
House  Construction  suited  to  new  countries. 


E.  «fe  r.  N.  SPON,  125,  Strand,  London. 

New  York  :  12,  Cortlandt  Street. 


iSgi. 

BOOKS  RELATING 


TO 


APPLIED  SCIENCE 

PUBLISHED   BY 

E.  &  F.  N.  SPON, 

LONDON:     12S,    STRAND. 
NEW  YORK  :    12,  CORTLANDT  STREET. 


The   Engineers     Sketch-Book   of  Mechanical  Move- 

tnents.  Devices,  Appliattces,  Contriva7tces,  Details  employed  in  the  Design 
and  Construction  of  Machinery  for  every  purpose.  Collected  from 
numerous  Sources  and  from  Actual  Work.  Classified  and  Arranged  for 
Reference.  Nearly  2000  Illustratio>ts.  By  T.  B.  Barber,  Engineer. 
8vo,  cloth,  7j.  6d. 

A  Pocket-Book  for  Chemists,  Chemical  Manufacturers, 

Metallurgists,  Dyers,  Distillers,  Brewers,  Sugar  Refiners,  Photographers, 
Students,  etc.,  etc.  By  Thomas  Bayley,  Assoc.  R.C.  Sc.  Ireland,  Ana- 
lytical  and  Consulting  Chemist  and  Assayer.  Fourth  edition,  with 
additions,  437  pp.,  royal  32mo,  roan,  gilt  edges,  ^s. 

Synopsis  of  Contents  : 

Atomic  Weights  and  Factors — Useful  Data — Chemical  Calculations — Rules  for  Indirect 
Analysis — Weights  and  Measures  —  Thermometers  and  Barometers  —  Chemical  Physics- 
Boiling  Points,  etc. — Solubihty  of  Substances — Methods  of  Obtaining  Specific  Gravity — Con- 
version of  Hydrometers — Strength  of  Solutions  by  Specific  Gravity — Analysis — Gas  Analysis — 
Water  Analysis — Qualitative  Analysis  and  Reactions — Volumetric  Analysis — Manipulation-— 
Mineralogy  —  Assaying  —  Alcohol  —  Beer  —  Sugar  —  Miscellaneous  Technological  matter 
relating  to  Potash,  Soda,  Sulphuric  Acid,  Chlorine,  Tar  Products,  Petroleum,  Milk,  Tallow, 
Photography,  Prices,  Wages,  Appendix,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Mechanician :    A  Treatise  on  the  Construction 

and  Manipulation  of  Tools,  for  the  use  and  instruction  of  Young  Engineers 
and  Scientific  Amateurs,  comprising  the  Arts  of  Blacksmithing  and  Forg- 
ing ;  the  Construction  and  IManufacture  of  Hand  Tools,  and  the  various 
Methods  of  Using  and  Grinding  them  ;  description  of  Hand  and  Machine 
Processes  ;  Turning  and  Screw  Cutting.  By  Cameron  Knight, 
Engineer.  Containing  1147  illustrations,  and  397  pages  of  letter-press. 
Fourth  edition,  4to,  cloth,  i8j. 

B 


2  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 

yust  Published,  in  Demy  Svo,  cloth,  containing  975  pages  and  250  Illustrations,  price  js.  6d. 

SPONS'  HOUSEHOLD  MANUAL: 

A  Treasury  of  Domestic  Eeceipts  and  G-uide  for  Home  Management. 

PRINCIPAL    CONTENTS. 

Hints  for  selecting-  a  good  House,  pointing  out  the  essential  requirements  for 
a  good  house  as  to  the  Site,  Soil,  Trees,  Aspect,  Construction,  and  General  Arrangement ; 
with  instructions  for  Reducing  Echoes,  Waterproofing  Damp  Walls,  Curing  Damp  Cellars. 

Sanitation- — What  should  constitute  a  good  Sanitary  Arrangement ;  Examples  (with 
Illustrations)  of  Well-  and  Ill-drained  Houses  ;  How  to  Test  Drains  ;  Ventilating  Pipes,  etc. 

"Water  Supply — Care  of  Cisterns;  Sources  of  Supply;  Pipes;  Pumps;  Purification 
and  Filtration  of  Water. 

Ventilation  and  Warming-.— Methods  of  Ventilating  without  causing  cold 
draughts,  by  various  means  ;  Principles  of  Warming  ;  Health  Questions  ;  Combustion  ;  Open 
Grates;  Open  Stoves  ;  Fuel  Economisers  ;  Varieties  of  Grates  ;  Close-Fire  Stoves;  Hot-air 
Furnaces;  Gas  Heating  ;  Oil  Stoves  ;  Steam  Heating;  Chemical  Heaters  ;  Management  ot 
Flues  ;  and  Cure  of  Smoky  Chimneys. 

Liighting:. — The  best  methods  of  Lighting ;  Candles,  Oil  Lamps,  Gas,  Incandescent 
Gas,  Electric  Light ;   How  to  test  Gas  Pipes  ;  Management  of  Gas. 

Furniture  and  Decoration. — Hints  on  the  Selection  of  Furniture ;  on  the  most 
approved  methods  of  Modern  Decoration  ;  on  the  best  methods  of  arranging  Bells  and  Calls  ; 
How  to  Construct  an  Electric  Bell. 

Thieves  and  Fire.— Precautions  against  Thieves  and  Fire  ;  Methods  of  Detection  ; 
Domestic  Fire  Escapes  ;  Fireproofing  Clothes,  etc. 

The  Iiarder.  —  Keeping  Food  fresh  for  a  limited  time;  Storing  Food  without  change, 
such  as  Fruits,  Vegetables,  Eggs,  Honey,  etc. 

Curing  Foods  for  lengthened  Preservation,  as  Smoking,  Salting,  Canning, 
Potting,  Pickling,  Bottling  Fruits,  etc.  :   Jams,  Jellies,  Marmalade,  etc. 

The  Dairy. — The  Building  and  Fitting  of  Dairies  in  the  most  approved  modern  style  ; 
Butter-making  ;  Chcesemaking  and  Curing. 

The  Cellar. — Building  and  Fitting  ;  Cleaning  Casks  and  Bottles  ;  Corks  and  Corking ; 
Aerated  Drinks  ;  Syrups  for  Drinks  ;  Beers  ;  Bitters  ;  Cordials  and  Liqueurs ;  Wines  ; 
Miscellaneous  Drinks. 

The    Pantry. — Bread-m.aking  ;     Ovens    and    Pyrometers  ;    Yeast ;     German    Veast  ; 

Biscuits;  Cakes;  Fancy  Breads;  Buns. 

The  Kitchen. — On  Fitting  Kitchens  ;  a  description  of  the  best  Cooking  Ranges,  close 
and  <jpcn  ;  the  Management  and  Care  of  Hot  Plates,  Baking  Ovens,  Dampers,  Flues,  and 
Chimneys;  Cooking  by  Gas;  Cooking  by  Oil;  the  Arts  of  Roasting,  Grilling,  Boiling, 
Stewing,  Braising,  Frying. 

Receipts  for  Dishes —Soups,  Fish,  Meat,  Game,  Poultry,  Vegetables,  Salads, 
Puddings,  r.i^lry,  Confectionery,  Ices,  etc.,  etc.  ;   Foreign  Dishes. 

The  Housewife's  Room. — Testing  Air,  Water,  and  Foods  ;  Cleaning  and  Renovat- 
ing ;  Destroying  \'eriiiin. 

Housekeeping-,  Marketing. 

The  Dining- Room. — Dietetics;  Laying  and  Waiting  at  Table:  Carving;  Dinners, 
Breakfasts,  Luncheons,    leas,  Suppers,  etc. 

The    Drawing-Room.— Etiquette;    Dancing;    Amateur  Theatricals ;    Tricks   and 

Illusions  ;   O.iincs  (indoor). 

The  Bedroom  and  Dressing-Room  ;  Sleep  ;  the  Toilet ;  Dress ;  Buying  Clothes  ; 
Outfits;    Fancy  I  )rc>  . 

The  Nursery— The  Room  ;  Clothing;  W.ishing  ;  Exercise;  Sleep;  Feeding ;  Teeth- 
ing ;   illness;    I  loiiie   Training. 

The  Sick-Room.— The  Room  ;  the  Nurse  ;  the  Bed  ;  Sick  Room  Accessories;  Feeding 
PaticnI.s  ;  Invalid  liisliesand  Drinks;  Administering  Physic  ;  Domestic  Remedies;  Accidents 
and  Emergencies;  Bandaging;  Burns;  Carrying  Injured  Persons;  Wounds ;  Drowning;  Fits; 
Frost-bites;  Poison*  uud  Antidotes ;  Sunstroke;  Common  Complaints;   Disinfection,  etc 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  &  F.  N.  SPON. 


The   Bath-Room.— Bathing  in  General ;  Management  of  Hot- Water  System. 
The  Laundry. — Small  Domestic  Washing  Machines,  and  methods  of  getting  up  linen 
Fitting  up  and  Working  a  Steam  Laundry. 

The  School-Room.— The  Room  and  its  Fittings  ;  Teaching,  etc. 

The  Playground.— Air  and  Exercise;  Training  ;  Outdoor  Games  and  Sports. 

The  Workroom. — Darning,  Patching,  and  Mending  Garments. 

The  Library.— Care  of  Books. 

The  Garden. — Calendar  of  Operations  for  Lawn,  Flower  Garden,  and  Kitchen 
Garden. 

The  Farmyard.— Management  of  the  Horse,  Cow,  Pig,  Poultry,  Bees,  etc.,  etc. 

Small  Motors. — A  description  of  the  various  small  Engines  useful  for  domestic 
purposes,  from  i  man  to  i  horse  power,  worked  by  various  methods,  such  as  Electric 
Engines,  Gas  Engines,  Petroleum  Engines,  Steam  Engines,  Condensing  Engines,  Water 
Power,  Wind  Power,  and  the  various  methods  of  working  and  managing  them. 

Household  Law. — The  Law  relating  to  Landlords  and  Tenants,  Lodgers,  Servants, 
Parochial  Authorities,  Juries,  Insurance,  Nuisance,  etc 

On  Desig7tmg  Belt  Gearmg.      By  E.   J.   Cowling 

Welch,  Mem.  Inst.  Mech,  Engineers,  Author  of  'Designing  Valve 
Gearing.'     Fcap.  8vo,  sewed,  bd. 

A  Handbook  of  FormulcB,  Tables,  and  Memoranda, 

for  Architectural  Surveyors  and  others  engaged  in  Building.  By  J.  T. 
Hurst,  C.E.     Fourteenth  edition,  royal  32mo,  roan,  5j, 

"It  is  no  disparagement  to  the  many  excellent  publications  we  refer  to,  to  say  that  in  our 
opinion  this  little  pocket-book  of  Hurst's  is  the  very  best  of  them  all,  without  any  exception. 
It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  a  recapitulation  of  the  contents,  for  it  appears  to  contain  almost 
everything  that  anyone  connected  with  building  could  require,  and,  best  of  all,  made  up  in  a 
compact  form  for  carrying  in  the  pocket,  measuring  only  5  in.  by  3  in.,  and  about  i  in.  thick, 
in  a  limp  cover.  We  congratulate  the  author  on  the  success  of  his  laborious  and  practically 
compiled  little  book,  which  has  received  unqualified  and  deserved  praise  from  every  profes- 
sional person  to  whom  we  have  shown  it."— The  Dublin  Builder. 

Tabulated   Weights   of  Angle,    Tee,    Bulb,    Round, 

Square,  and  Flat  Iron  and  Steel,  and  other  information  for  the  use  of 
Naval  Architects  and  Shipbuilders.  By  C.  H.  Jordan,  M.I.N.A.  Fourth 
edition,  32mo,  cloth,  2s.  6d. 

A  Co?nplete  Set  of  Contract  Documents  for  a  Country 

Lodge,  comprising  Drawings,  Specifications,  Dimensions  (for  quantities). 
Abstracts,  Bill  of  Quantities,  Form  of  Tender  and  Contract,  with  Notes 
by  J.  Leaning,  printed  in  facsimile  of  the  original  documents,  on  single 
sheets  fcap.,  in  paper  case,  \os. 

A    Practical   Treatise   on   Heat,  as   applied  to   the 

Useful  Arts;  for  the  Use  of  Engineers,  Architects,  &c.  By  Thomas 
Box.     Wkh  i/^  plates.     Sixth  edition,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  12s.  6d. 

A   Descriptive    Treatise  on  Mathematical  Drawing 

Instruments:  their  construction,  uses,  qualities,  selection,  preservation, 
and  suggestions  for  improvements,  with  hints  upon  Drawing  and  Colour- 
ing. By  W.  F.  Stanley,  M.R.I.  Sixth  edition,  -with  numerous  illustrations, 
crown  8vo,  cloth,  5^. 

B  2 


4  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 

Quantity  Surveying.    By  J.  Leaning.    With  42  illus- 
trations.    Second  edition,  revised,  crown  Svo,  cloth,  <js. 

Contents : 

A    complete    Explanation    of    the    London  '  Schedule  of  Prices. 

Practice.  I  Form  of  Schedule  of  Prices. 

General  Instructions.  Analysis  of  Schedule  of  Prices. 

Order  of  Taking  Off.  I  Adjustment  of  Accounts. 

Modesof  Measurement  of  the  various  Trades.  |  Form  of  a  Bill  of  Variations. 

Use  and  Waste.  j  Remarks  on  Specifications. 

Ventilation  and  Warming,  [  Prices     and     Valuation     of     Work,     with 

Credits,  with  various  Examples  of  Treatment.  Examples  and  Remarks  upon  each  Trade. 

Abbreviations.  The  Law  as  it  affects  Quantity  Surveyors, 

Squarinj;  the  Dimensions.  |  with  Law  Reports. 


Taking  Off  after  the  Old  Method. 

Northern  Practice. 

The  General  Statement  of  the  Methods 
recommended  by  the  Manchester  Society 
of  Architects  for  taking  Quantities. 

Examples  of  Collections. 

Examples  of  "  Taking  Off"  in  each  Trade. 

Remarks  on  the  Past  and  Present  Methods 


Abstracting,  with  Examples  in  illustration  of 

each  Trade. 
Billing. 

Examples  of  Preambles  to  each  Trade. 
Form  for  a  Bill  of  Quantities. 

Do.        Bill  of  Credits. 

Do.        Bill  for  Alternative  Estimate. 
Restorations  and  Repairs,  and  Form  of  Bill 

Variations  before  Acceptance  of  Tender.  \        of  Estimating 

Errors  in  a  Builder's  Estimate.  | 

Spons    Architects    and  Builders'  P^Hce   Book,    with 

useful  Memoranda.  Edited  by  W.  YoUNG,  Architect.  Crown  Svo,  cloth, 
red  edges,  3J.  dd.    Published  antiually.    Seventeenth  edition.    Now  ready. 

Long-Span  Railway  Bridges,  comprising  Investiga- 
tions of  the  Comparative  Theoretical  and  Practical  Advantages  of  the 
various  adopted  or  jjroposed  Type  Systems  of  Construction,  with  numerous 
Formulae  and  Tables  giving  the  weight  of  Iron  or  Steel  required  in 
Bridges  from  300  feel  to  the  limiting  Spans ;  to  which  are  added  similar 
Investigations  and  Tables  relating  to  Short-span  Railway  Bridges.  Second 
and  revised  edition,  ByB.  Baker,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.  Plates,  crown  Svo, 
cloth,  5^. 

Elementary  Theory  and  Calculation  of  Iron  Bridges 

and  Roofs.  By  August  Ritter,  I'h.D.,  Professor  at  the  Polyteclinic 
School  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Translated  from  the  third  German  edition, 
by  II.  R.  Sankey,  Capt.  R.E.     With  500  illustrations,  Svo,  cloth,  15J. 

TJie    Elementary     Pri7iciples    of    Carpentry.        By 

Thomas  Tredgoi.d.  Revised  from  the  original  edition,  and  partly 
re-written,  liy  J<JIIN  Thomas  Hurst.  Contained  in  517  pages  of  letter- 
press, and  illustrated  with  4S  plates  and  150  wood  ens^ravings.  Sixth 
edition,  reprinted  from  the  third,  crown  Svo,  cloth,  I2s.  6d. 

Section  \.  f)n  the  Equality  and  Distribution  of  Forces  —  Section  H.  Resistance  of 
Timber — Section  III.  Construction  of  Floors  —  Section  IV.  Construction  of  Hoofs  —  Sec- 
tion V.  (^jiislniction  of  Domes  and  Cupolas — Section  VI.  Construction  of  I'artitions — 
.Section  VII.  Scaffolds,  .Staging,  and  Gantries — Section  VIII.  Construction  of  Centres  for 
liridecs — Section  IX.  Coffer-dams,  Shoring,  and  Stnilting — Section  X.  Wooden  Bridges 
aad  Viaducts — .Section  XI.    Joints,  Straps,  and  other  Fastenings — Section  XII.    'limber. 

The  Builders  Clerk  :  a  Guide  to  the  Management 

of  a  Builder's  Business.     By  Thomas  Bales.     Ecap.  Svo,  clolh,  is.  6d. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  &  F.  N.  SPON. 


Practical  Gold-Mining :  a   Comprehensive  Treatise 

on  the  Origin  and  Occurrence  of  Gold-bearing  Gravels,  Rocks  and  Ores, 
and  the  methods  by  which  the  Gold  is  extracted.  By  C.  G.  Warnford 
Lock,  co-Author  of  '  Gold :  its  Occurrence  and  Extraction.'  WithZ plates 
and  275  engravings  in  the  text,  royal  8vo,  cloth,  2/.  2s, 

Hot  Water  Supply :  A  Practical  Treatise  upon  the 

Fitting  of  Circulating  Apparatus  in  connection  with  Kitchen  Range  and 
other  Boilers,  to  supply  Hot  Water  for  Domestic  and  General  Purposes. 
With  a  Chapter  upon  Estimating.    Fully  illustrated,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  3^'. 

Hot  Water  Apparatus :  An  Elementary  Guide  for 

the  Fitting  and  Fixing  of  Boilers  and  Apparatus  for  the  Circulation  of 
Hot  Water  for  Heating  and  for  Domestic  Supply,  and  containing  a 
Chapter  upon  Boilers  and  Fittings  for  Steam  Cooking.  32  illustrations, 
fcap.  8vo,  cloth,  \s.  6d, 

The  Use  and  Misuse^  and  the  Proper  and  Improper 

Fixing  of  a  Cooking  Range.     Illustrated,  fcap.  8vo,  sewed,  (>d. 

Iron  Roofs :  Examples  of  Design,  Description.  Illus- 
trated with  64  Workitig  Drawings  of  Exectited  Roofs.  By  Arthur  T. 
Walmisley,  Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E,  Second  edition,  revised,  imp.  4to, 
half-morocco,  3/.  3^-. 

A  History  of  Electric  Telegraphy,  to  the  Year  1837. 

Chiefly  compiled  from  Original  Sources,  and  hitherto  Unpublished  Docu- 
ments, by  J.  J.  Fahie,  Mem.  Soc.  of  Tel.  Engineers,  and  of  the  Inter- 
national Society  of  Electricians,  Paris.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  <js. 

Spans''  Information  for  Colonial  Engi7ieers.     Edited 

by  J.  T.  Hurst,     Demy  8vo,  sewed. 

No.  I,  Ceylon,     By  Abraham  Deane,  C.E.     2s.  6d. 

Contents  : 

Introductory  Remarks — Natural  Productions  —  Architecture  and  Engineering  ^Topo> 
graphy,  Trade,  and  Natural  History — Principal  Stations — Weights  and  Measures,  etc.,  etc. 

No.  2.  Southern  Africa,  including  the  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and  the 
Dutch  Republics,  By  Henry  Hall,  F,R.G.S,,  F,R,C,I.  With 
Map.    3^.  6^.  Contents: 

General  Description  of  South  Africa — Physical  Geography  with  reference  to  Engineering 
Operations — Notes  on  Labour  and  Material  in  Cape  Colony — Geological  Notes  on  Rock 
Formation  in  South  Africa — Engineering  Instruments  for  Use  in  South  Africa — Principal 
Public  Works  in  Cape  Colony :  Railways,  Mountain  Roads  and  Passes,  Harbour  Works, 
Bridges,  Gas  Works,  Irrigation  and  Water  Supply,  Lighthouses,  Drainage  and  Sanitary 
Engineering,  Public  Buildings,  Mines — Table  of  Woods  in  South  Africa — Animals  used  for 
Draught  Purposes — Statistical  Notes — Table  of  Distances — Rates  of  Carriage,  etc. 

No,  3,  India,   By  F,  C,  Danvers,  Assoc.  Inst,  C.E.  With  Map.   4J.  6d. 

Contents  : 

Physical  Geography  of  India — Building  Materials — Roads — Railways — Bridges — Irriga- 
tion—  River  Works  —  Harbours  —  Lighthouse  Buildings  —  Native  Labour  —  The  Principal 
Trees  of  India — Money — Weights  and  Measures— Glossary  of  Indian  Terms,  etc. 


CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 


Our  Factories,    Workshops,   and  Warehouses :    their 

Sanitary  and  Fire-Resisting  Arrangements.  By  B.  H.  Thwaite,  Assoc. 
Mem.  Inst.  C.E.      Wi^A  183  wood  engravings,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  gs. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Coal  Mini^ig.     By  George 

G.  Andre,  F.G.S.,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.,  Member  of  the  Society  of  Engineers. 
With  82  lithographic  plates.     2  vols.,  royal  410,  cloth,  3/.  \2s. 

A    Practical    Treatise   on    Casti^ig  and   Foimding, 

including  descriptions  of  the  modern  machinery  employed  in  the  art.  By 
N.  E.  Spretson,  Engineer.  Fifth  edition,  with  82  plates  drawn  to 
scale,  412  pp.,  demy  8vo,  cloth,  18^. 

A  Handbook  of  Electrical  Testing.    By  H.  R.  Kempe, 

M.S.T.E.     Fourth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  i6j. 

The  Clerk  0/  Works:  a  Vade-Mecum  for  all  engaged 

in  the  Superintendence  of  Building  Operations.  By  G.  G.  HOSKINS, 
F.R.I.B.A.     Third  edition,  fcap.  8vo,  cloth,  is.  6d. 

American   Fotcndry  Practice :    Treating   of  Loam, 

Dry  Sand,  and  Green  Sand  Moulding,  and  containing  a  Practical  Treatise 
upon  the  Management  of  Cupolas,  and  the  Melting  of  Iron.  By  T.  D. 
West,  Practical  Iron  Moulder  and  Foundry  Foreman.  Second  edition, 
7vith  mDHcrous  illustrations,  crown  Svo,  cloth,  \os.  6 J. 

The  Maintenance  of  Macadamised  Roads.     By  T. 

CODRINGTON,  M.I.C.E,  F.G.S.,  GeneralSuperintendentof  County  Roads 
for  South  Wales.     Second  edition.     8vo.  {Nearly  ready. 

Hydraulic   Stea^n   and  Hand  Poiver   Lifting  and 

Pressing  Machinery.  By  Frederick  ColYER,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  M.  Inst.  M.E. 
With  ii  plates,  8vo,  cloth,  i8j. 

Pumps  and  Ptimping  Machinery.      By  F.  Colyer, 

M.I.C.E..  M.I.M.E.     Wtth  zi  folding  plates,  Svo,  cloth,  lis.  dd. 

Pumps  a7id  Pumping  Machinery.     By   F.   Colyer. 

Second  Part.    With  11  large  plates,  8vo,  cloth,  12s.  6d. 

A  Treatise  07i  the  Origin,  Progress,  Prevention,  and 

Cure  of  Dry  Rot  in  Timher:  with  Remarks  on  tlic  Means  of  Preserving 
Wood  from  Dcstruclicn  Ijy  Sea- Worms,  Beetles,  Ants,  etc.  By  Thomas 
Allen  Britton,  late  Surveyor  to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works, 
etc.,  etc.      With  10  plates,  crown  Svo,  cloth,  "js.  6d. 

The  Artillery  of  the  Future  and  the  New  Powders. 

By  J.  A.  LoNORiDGE,  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.     Svo,  cloth,  ^s. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  &  F.  N.  SPON. 


Gas  Works :  their  Arrangement,  Construction,  Plant, 

and  Machinery.     By  F.  CoLYER,  M.  Inst.  C.E.     With  t,i  folding J>lates, 
8vo,  cloth,  i2s.  6d. 

The  Municipal  and  Sanitary  Engineer  s  Handbook. 

By  H.  Percy  Boulnois,  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.,  Borough  Engineer,  Ports- 
mouth.     Witk  numeral^  illustrations.     Second  edition,  demy  8vo,  cloth. 

Contents: 

The  Appointment  and  Duties  of  the  Town  Surveyor — Traffic — Macadamised  Roadways- 
Steam  Rolling— Road  Metal  and  Brealcing— Pitched  Pavements— Asphalte — Wood  Pavements 
— Footpaths — Kerbs  and  Gutters — Street  Naming  and  Numbering — Street  Lighting — Sewer- 
age— Ventilation  of  Sewers — Disposal  of  Sewage — House  Drainage — Disinfection — Gas  and 
Water  Companies,  etc..  Breaking  up  Streets — Improvement  of  Private  Streets — Borrowing 
Powers — Artizans'  and  Labourers'  Dwellings — Public  Conveniences — Scavenging,  including 
Street  Cleansing — Watering  and  the  Removing  of  Snow— Planting  Street  Trees — Deposit  of 
Plans— Dangerous  Buildings — Hoardings — Obstructions — Improving  Street  Lines — Cellar 
Openings — Public  Pleasure  Grounds — 'Cemeteries — Mortuaries — Cattle  and  Ordinary  Markets 
— Public  Slaughter-houses,  etc. — Giving  numerous  Forms  of  Notices,  Specifications,,  and 
General  Information  upon  these  and  other  subjects  of  great  importance  to  Municipal  Engi- 
neers and  others  engaged  in  Sanitary  Work. 

Metrical    Tables.      By    Sir    G.     L.    Moles  worth, 

M.I.C.E.    32mo,  cloth,  is.  6d. 

Contents. 

General — Linear  Measures — Square  Measures — Cubic  Measures — Measures  of  Capacity- 
Weights — Combinations — Thermometers. 

Elements  of  Construction  for  Electro-Magnets.     By 

Count  Th.  Du  Moncel,  Mem.  de  I'lnstitut  de  France.     Translated  from 
the  French  by  C.  J.  Wharton.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  4^.  bd. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Use  of  Belting  for  the  Transmis- 
sion of  Power.  By  J.  H.  Cooper.  Second  edition,  illustrated,  8vo, 
cloth,  15.?. 

A  Pocket-Book  of  Usefoil  Eormulce  and  Memoranda 

for  Civil  and  Mechattical  Engineers.  By  Sir  GuiLFORD  L.  MoLESWORTH, 
Mem.  Inst.  C.E.  Witk  numerous  illustrationSf  744  pp.  Twenty-second 
edition,  32mo,  roan,  6s. 

Synopsis  of  Contents: 

Surveying,  Levelling,  etc.— Strength  and  Weight  of  Materials— Earthwoi-.,  Brickwork 
Masonry,  Arches,  etc. — Struts,  Columns,  Beams,  and  Trusses — Flooring,  Roofing,  and  Roof 
Trusses — Girders,  Bridges,  etc. — Railways  and  Roads — Hydraulic  Formulae — Canals.  Sewers, 
Waterworks,  Docks— Irrigation  and  Breakwaters— Gas,  Ventilation,  and  Warming — Heat, 
Light,  Colour,  and  Soimd — Gravity :  Centres,  Forces,  and  Powers— Millwork,  Teeth  of 
Wheels,  Shafting,  etc.— Workshop  Recipes— Sundry  Machinery— Animal  Power— Steam  and 
the  Steam  Engine— Water-power,  Water-wheels,  Turbines,  etc.— Wind  and  Windmills- 
Steam  Navigation,  Ship  Building,  Tonnage,  etc.— Gunnery,  Projectiles,  etc.— Weights, 
Measures,  and  Money — Trigonometry,  Conic  Sections,  and  Curves — Telegraphy— Mensura- 
tion—Tables  of  Areas  and  Circumference,  and  Arcs  of  Circles — Logarithms,  Square  and 
Cube  Roots,  Powers — Reciprocals,  etc. — Useful  Numbers — Differential  and  Integral  Calcu- 
lus— Algebraic  Signs — ^Telegraphic  Construction  and  Formulae. 


8  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 


Hints  on  Architectural  Draughtsmanship.    By  G.  W. 

TuxFORD  Hallatt.     Fcap.  Svo,  cloth,  \s.  6d. 

Spons     Tables    and   Memoranda    for    Engineers; 

selected  and  arranged  by  J.  T.  Hurst,  C.E,,  Author  of  'Architectural 
Surveyors'  Handbook,'   '  Hurst's  Tredgold's  Carpentry,'  etc.     Eleventh 
edition,  64mo,  roan,  gilt  edges,  \s.  ;  or  in  cloth  case,  \s.  dd. 
This  work  is  printed  in  a  pearl  type,  and  is  so  small,  measuring  only  2^  in.  by  if  in.  by 
i  in.  thick,  that  it  may  be  easily  carried  in  the  waistcoat  pocket. 

"  It  is  certainly  an  extremely  rare  thing  for  a  re\newer  to  be  called  upon  to  notice  a  volume 
measuring  but  25  in.  by  if  in.,  yet  these  dimensions  faithfully  represent  the  size  of  the  handy 
little  book  before  us.  The  volume — which  contains  118  printed  pages,  besides  a  few  blanV 
pages  for  memoranda — is,  in  fact,  a  true  pocket-book,  adapted  for  being  carried  in  the  waist- 
coat pocket,  and  containing  a  far  greater  amount  and  variety  of  information  than  most  people 

would  imagine  could  be  compressed  into  so  small  a  space The  little  volume  has  been 

compiled  with  considerable  care  and  judgment,  and  we  can  cordially  recommend  it  to  our 
readers  as  a  useful  little  pocket  companion." — E7tgineering. 

A    Practical    Treatise   on   Natural  and  Artificial 

Concrete,  its  Varieties  and  Constructizie  Adaptations.  By  Henry  Reid, 
Author  of  the  '  Science  and  Art  of  the  Manufacture  of  Portland  Cement.' 
New  Edition,  with  59  woodcuts  attd  ^  plates,  Svo,  cloth,  15^, 

Notes  on  Concrete  and  Works  in  Concrete;  especially 

written  to  assist  those  engaged  upon  Public  Works.  By  John  Newman, 
Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.,  crown  Svo,  cloth,  4^'.  6d. 

Electricity  as  a  Motive  Power.     By  Count  Th.  Du 

MoNCEL,  Membre  de  I'lnstitut  de  France,  and  Frank  Geraldv,  Inge- 
nieur  des  Pouts  et  Chaussees.  Trnnslated  and  Edited,  with  Additions,  by 
C.  J.  Wharton,  Assoc.  Soc.  Tel.  Eng.  and  Elec.  With  113  engravings 
and  diagrams,  crown  Svo,  cloth,  "js.  6d. 

Treatise  on   Valve-Gears,  with  special  consideration 

of  the  Link-Motions  of  Locomotive  Engines.  By  Dr.  GusTAV  Zeuner, 
Professor  of  Applied  Mechanics  at  the  Confederated  Polytechnikum  of 
Zurich,  Translated  from  the  I'oiirth  German  Edition,  by  Professor  J.  F. 
Klein,  Lehigh  University,  Bethlehem,  Pa.   Illustrated,  Svo,  cloth,  12s.  6d. 

Tlie    French  -  Polishers   Manual.       By    a    French- 

Polisher;  containing  Timl^er  Staining,  Washing,  Matching,  Improving, 
Painting,  Imitations,  Directions  for  Staining,  Sizing,  Embodying, 
Smoothing,  Spirit  Varnishing,  French-l'olishing,  Directions  for  Re- 
polishing.     Third  edition,  royal  32mo,  sewed,  6</. 

Hops,    their    Cultivation,    Commerce,    and    Uses   in 

various  Countries.     By  P.  L.  Simmon  us.     Crown  Svo,  cloth,  4J.  dd. 

The   Pri7tciples   of  Graphic   Statics.      By    George 

Sydkniiam  Clarke,  Major  Koy.-il  Engineers.  With  112  illustrations. 
Second  edition,  410,  cloth,  12s.  dd. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  &  F.  N.  SPON. 


Dynamo  Tenders  Hand-Book.     By  F,  B.  Badt,  late 

1st  Lieut.  Royal  Prussian  Artillery.  IFith'jo  illustrations.  Third  edition, 
i8mo,  cloth,  4^.  6d. 

Practical    Geometry^    Perspective^    and  Engineering 

Drawing;  a  Course  of  Descriptive  Geometry  adapted  to  the  Require- 
ments of  the  Engineering  Draughtsman,  including  the  determination  of 
cast  shadows  and  Isometric  Projection,  each  chapter  being  followed  by 
numerous  examples  ;  to  which  are  added  rules  for  Shading,  Shade-lining, 
etc.,  together  with  practical  instructions  as  to  the  Lining,  Colouring, 
Printing,  and  general  treatment  of  Engineering  Drawings,  with  a  chapter 
on  drawing  Instruments,  By  George  S.  Clarke,  Capt,  R.E.  Second 
edition,  with  2\  plates.     2  vols.,  cloth,  \os.  6d. 

The   Elements   of    Graphic   Statics.     By   Professor 

Karl  Von  Ott,  translated  from  the  German  by  G.  S.  Clarke,  Capt. 
R.E.,  Instructor  in  Mechanical  Drawing,  Royal  Indian  Engineering 
College.     With  93  illustrations,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  5^. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  and  Distri' 

bution  of  Coal  Gas.  By  William  Richards.  Demy4to,  with  Jiumerous 
wood  engravings  and  29  plates,  cloth,  28j. 

Synopsis  of  Contents  : 

Introduction  —  History  of  Gas  Lighting  —  Chemistry  of  Gas  Manufacture,  by  Lewis 
Thompson,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S. — Coal,  with  Analyses,  by  J.  Paterson,  Lewis  Thompson,  and 
G.  R.  Hislop,  Esqrs. — Retorts,  Iron  and  Clay — Retort  Setting — Hydraulic  Main — Con- 
densers—  Exhausters  —  Washers  and  Scrubbers  —  Purifiers  —  Purification  —  History  of  Gas 
Holder  —  Tanks,  Brick  and  Stone,  Composite,  Concrete,  Cast-iron,  Compound  Annular 
Wrought-iron  —  Specifications  —  Gas  Holders  —  Station  Meter  —  Governor  —  Distribution — 
Mains — Gas  Mathematics,  or  Formulae  for  the  Distribution  of  Gas,  by  Lewis  Thompson,  Esq.— 
Services — Consumers'  Meters — Regulators — Burners — Fittings — Photometer — Carburization 
of  Gas — Air  Gas  and  Water  Gas — Composition  of  Coal  Gas,  by  Lewis  Thompson,  Esq. — 
Analyses  of  Gas — Influence  of  Atmospheric  Pressure  and  Temperature  on  Gas — Residual 
Products — Appendix — Description  of  Retort  Settings,  Buildings,  etc.,  etc. 

The  New  Formula  for  Mean  Velocity  of  Discharge 

of  Rivers  and  Canals.  By  W.  R.  Kutter.  Translated  from  articles  in 
the  'Cultur-Ingenieur,'  by  Lowis  D'A.  Jackson,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E. 
8vo,  cloth,  I2s.  6d. 

The   Practical  Millwright  and  Engineers    Ready 

Reckoner;  or  Tables  for  finding  the  diameter  and  power  of  cog-wheels, 
diameter,  weight,  and  power  of  shafts,  diameter  and  strength  of  bolts,  etc. 
By  Thomas  Dixon.     Fourth  edition,  i2mo,  cloth,  3^. 

Tin:    Descrlblnor   the    Chief   Methods    of   Mining, 

Dressing  and  Smelting  it  abroad  ;  with  Notes  upon  Arsenic,  Bismuth  and 
Wolfram.  By  Arthur  G.  Charleton,  Mem.  American  Inst,  of 
Mining  Engineers.     With  plates ^  8vo,  cloth,  12^.  bd. 

B3 


10  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 

Perspective^   Explained  and  Ilhistraied,     By  G.  S. 

Clarke,  Capt.  R.E.     With  illustrations,  8vo,  cloth,  y.  6d. 

Practical  Hydraulics ;  a  Series  of  Rules  and  Tables 

for  the  use  of  Engineers,  etc.,  etc.  By  Thomas  Box.  Ninth  edition, 
numerous  plates,  post  8vo,  cloth,  5j. 

The   Essential  Elements   of   Practical   Mechanics ; 

based  Oft  the  Principle  of  Work,  designed  for  Engineering  Students.  By 
Oliver  Byrne,  formerly  Professor  of  Mathematics,  College  for  Civil 
Engineers.  Third  edition,  with  148  wood  engravings,  post  8vo,  cloth, 
7j.  dd. 

Contents  : 

Chap.  I.  How  Work  is  Measured  by  a  Unit,  both  with  and  without  reference  to  a  Unit 
of  Time — Chap.  2.  The  Work  of  Living  Agents,  the  Influence  of  Friction,  and  introduces 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  Laws  of  Motion — Chap.  3.  The  principles  expounded  in  the  first  and 
second  chapters  are  applied  to  the  Motion  of  Bodies — Chap.  4.  The  Transmission  of  Work  by 
simple  Machines— Chap.  5.  Useful  Propositions  and  Rules. 

Breweries  a7id  Mattings :  their  Arrangement,  Con- 
struction, Machinery,  and  Tlant.  By  G.  Scamell,  F.R.I.B.A.  Second 
edition,  revised,  enlarged,  and  partly  rewritten.  By  F.  COLYER,  M.I.C.E., 
M.I.M.E.     With  20  plates,  8vo,  cloth,  12s.  6d. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Hori- 
zontal and  Vertical  Watcrwhecls,  specially  designed  for  the  use  of  opera- 
tive mechanics.  By  William  Cullen,  Millwright  and  Engineer.  With 
II  plates.    Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  small  4to,  cloth,  12^.6^. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mill-gearing,  Wheels,  Shafts, 

Riggers,  etc. ;  for  the  use  of  Engineers.  By  Thomas  Box.  Third 
edition,  with  1 1  plates.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  Js.  6d. 

Mining  Machinery :  a  Descriptive  Treatise  on  the 

Machinery,  Tools,  and  other  Appliances  used  in  Mining,  By  G.  G. 
Andri^,  F.G.S.,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.,  Mem.  of  the  Society  of  Engineers. 
Royal  4to,  uniform  with  the  Author's  Treatise  on  Coal  Mining,  con- 
taining 182  plates,  accurately  drawn  to  scale,   with  descriptive  text,  in 

2  vols.,  clotll,  3/.   12J. 

Contents : 

Machinery  for  ProspcclinR,  Kxcavatinp,  ILiuIinp;.  and  Hoisting— Vcniilarion— Pumping — 
Treatment  of  Mineral  I'roducls,  including  Gold  and  Silver,  Copper,  Tin,  and  Lc.id,  Iron, 
Coal,  Sulphur,  China  Clay,  lirick  Karth,  etc. 

Tables  for  Setting  out  Curves  for  Raikvays,  Canals, 

Roads,  etc.,  varying  from  a  radius  of  five  chains  to  three  miles.  By  A. 
Ke.nneky  and  R.  W.  IIackwuuu.     Illustrated  T,2mo,  cloth,  zs.  dd. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  &  F.  N.  SPON.  it 


Practical  Electrical  Notes  and  Definitions  for  the 

list  of  Engineering  Students  and  Practical  Men.  By  W.  Perren 
Maycock,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.  E.E.,  Instructor  in  Electrical  Engineering  at 
the  Pitlake  Institute,  Croydon,  together  with  the  Rules  and  Regulations 
to  be  observed  in  Electrical  Installation  Work.  Second  edition.  Royal 
32mo,  roan,  gilt  edges,  4^-,  (id. 

The  Dratcghtsman  s  Handbook  of  Plan  and  Map 

Drawing;  including  instructions  for  the  preparation  of  Engineering, 
Architectural,  and  Mechanical  Drawings.  With  numerous  illustrations 
in  the  text,  and  33  plates  (15  printed  in  colours).  By  G.  G.  Andre, 
F.G.S.,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.     4to,  cloth,  gj. 

Contents: 

The  Drawing  Office  and  its  Furnishings — Geometrical  Problems — Lines,  Dots,  and  their 
Combinations — Colours,  Shading,  Lettering,  Bordering,  and  North  Points — Scales — Plotting 
—Civil  Engineers'  and  Surveyors'  Plans — Map  Drawing — Mechanical  and  Architectural 
Drawing — Copying  and  Reducing  Trigonometrical  Formulae,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Boiler-maker  s  andiron  Ship-builder  s  Companion^ 

comprising  a  series  of  original  and  carefully  calculated  tables,  of  the 
utmost  utility  to  persons  interested  in  the  iron  trades.  By  James  Foden, 
author  of  '  Mechanical  Tables,'  etc.  Second  edition  revised,  with  illustra- 
tions, crown  8vo,  cloth,  5^. 

Rock  Blasting:   a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  means 

employed  in  Blasting  Rocks  for  Industrial  Purposes.  By  G.  G.  Andre, 
F.G.S.,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.  With  56  illustrations  and  \2 plates,  8vo,  cloth, 
lOi-.  dd. 

Experimental  Science:    Elementary,   Practical,   and 

Experimental  Physics.  By  Geo.  M.  Hopkins.  Illustrated  by  672 
engravings.     In  one  large  vol.,  8vo,  cloth,  i8.f. 

A  Treatise  on  Ropemaking  as  practised  in  public  and 

private  Rope-yards,  with  a  Description  of  the  Manufacture,  Rules,  Tables 
of  Weights,  etc.,  adapted  to  the  Trade,  Shipping,  Mining,  Railways, 
Builders,  etc.  By  R.  Chapman,  formerly  foreman  to  Messrs.  Pluddart 
and  Co.,  Limehouse,  and  late  Master  Ropemaker  to  H.M.  Dockyard, 
Deptford.     Second  edition,  l2mo,  cloth,  y. 

Laxtons  Builders   and  Contractors    Tables ;    for  the 

use  of  Engineers,  Architects,  Surveyors,  Builders,  Land  Agents,  and 
others.  Bricklayer,  containing  22  tables,  with  nearly  30,000  calculations. 
4to,  cloth,  5j. 

Laxtons  Builders  and  Contractors  Tables.  Ex- 
cavator, Earth,  Tand,  Water,  and  Gas,  containing  53  tables,  with  nearly 
24,000  calculations.     4to,  cloth,  5^. 


12  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 


Egyptian  Irrigation.     By  W.  Willcocks,  M.I.C.E., 

Indian  Public  Works  Department,  Inspector  of  Irrigation,  Egypt.  With 
Introduction  by  Lieut.-Col.  J.  C.  Ross,  R.E.,  Inspector-General  of 
Irrigation.  With  numerous  lithographs  atid.xuood  ettgravings,  royal  8vo, 
cloth,  il.  i6j. 

Screw  Cutting  Tables  for  Engineers  and  Machinists, 

giving  the  values  of  the  diiiferent  trains  of  Wheels  required  to  produce 
Screws  of  any  pitch,  calculated  by  Lord  Lindsay,  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S., 
etc.     Cloth,  oblong,  2s. 

Screw    Cutting    Tables,   for  the  use  of  Mechanical 

Engineers,  showing  the  proper  arrangement  of  Wheels  for  cutting  the 
Threads  of  Screws  of  any  required  pitch,  with  a  Table  for  making  the 
Universal  Gas-pipe  Threads  and  Taps.  By  W.  A.  Martin,  Engineer. 
Second  edition,  oblong,  cloth,  is.,  or  sewed,  6d. 

A  Treatise  on  a  Practical  Method  of  Designing  Slide- 

Valve  Gears  by  Simple  Geometrical  Construction,  based  upon  the  principles 
enunciated  in  Euclid's  Elements,  and  comprising  the  various  fomis  of 
Plain  Slide-Valve  and  Expansion  Gearing  ;  together  with  Stephenson's, 
Gooch's,  and  Allan's  Link-Motions,  as  applied  either  to  reversing  or  to 
variable  expansion  combinations.  By  Edward  J.  Cowling  Welch, 
Memb.  Inst.  Mechanical  Engineers.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  6j-. 

Cleaning  and  Scouring :  a  Manual  for  Dyers,  Laun- 
dresses, and  for  Domestic  Use.    By  S.  Christopher.     i8mo,  sewed,  dd. 

A    Glossary  of  Terms  used  in  Coal  Mining.      By 

William  Stukeley  Gresley,  Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.,  F.G.S.,  Member 
of  the  North  of  England  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers.  Illustrated  with 
numerous  woodcuts  and  diagrams,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  5^. 

A  Pocket-Book  for  Boiler  Makers  and  Steam  Users, 

comprising  a  variety  of  useful  information  for  Employer  and  Workman, 
Government  Inspectors,  Board  of  Trade  Surveyors,  Engineers  in  charge 
of  Works  and  Slips,  Foremen  of  Manufactories,  and  the  general  Steam- 
using  Public.  By  Maurice  John  Sexton.  Second  edition,  royal 
32mo,  roan,  gilt  edges,  5J. 

Electrolysis:     a    Practical    Treatise    on     Nickeling, 

Coppering,  Gilding,  Silvering,  the  Refining  of  Metals,  and  the  treatment 
of  Ores  by  means  of  Electricity.  By  IIiri'OLYTE  Fontaine,  translated 
from  the  French  by  J.  A.  Berly,  C.E.,  Assoc.  S.T.E.  With  engiavings. 
8vo,  cloth,  9x. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  &  F.  N.  SPON.  13 


Barlow  s    Tables  of  Squares,    Cubes,   Square  Roots, 

Cube  Roots,  Reciprocals  of  all  Integer  Numbers  up  to  10,000.  Post  8vo, 
cloth,  6^. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine,  con- 
taining Plans  and  Arrangements  of  Details  for  Fixed  Steam  Engines, 
with  Essays  on  the  Principles  involved  in  Design  and  Construction.  By 
Arthur  Rigg,  Engineer,  Member  of  the  Society  of  Engineers  and  of 
the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain.  Demy  4to,  copiously  ilhistrated 
with  woodcuts  and  96  plates,  in  one  Volume,  half-bound  morocco,  2/.  zs. ; 
or  cheaper  edition,  cloth,  z^s. 

This  work  is  not,  in  any  sense,  an  elementary  treatise,  or  history  of  the  steam  engine,  but 
is  intended  to  describe  examples  of  Fixed  Steam  Engines  without  entering  into  the  wide 
domain  of  locomotive  or  marine  practice.  To  this  end  illustrations  will  be  given  of  the  most 
recent  arrangements  of  Horizontal,  Vertical,  Beam,  Pumping,  Winding,  Portable,  Semi- 
portable,  Corliss,  Allen,  Compound,  and  other  similar  Engines,  by  the  moat  eminent  Firms  in 
Great  Britain  and  America.  The  laws  relating  to  the  action  and  precautions  to  be  observed 
in  the  construction  of  the  various  details,  such  as  Cylinders,  Pistons,  Piston-rods,  Connecting- 
rods,  Cross-heads,  Motion-blocks,  Eccentrics,  Simple,  Expansion,  Balanced,  and  Equilibrium 
Slide-valves,  and  Valve-gearing  will  be  minutely  dealt  with.  In  this  connection  will  be  found 
articles  upon  the  Velocity  of  Reciprocating  Parts  and  the  Mode  of  Applying  the  Indicator, 
Heat  and  Expansion  of  Steam  Governors,  and  the  like.  It  is  the  writer's  desire  to  draw 
illustrations  from  ever>-  possible  source,  and  give  only  those  rules  that  present  practice  deems 
correct. 

A   Practical   Treatise  on  the   Science  of  Land  and 

Engineering  Surveyitig,  Levelling,  Estimati7tg  Quantities,  etc.,  with  a 
general  description  of  the  several  Instruments  required  for  Surveying, 
Levelling,  Plotting,  etc.  By  H.  S.  Merrett.  Fourth  edition,  revised 
by  G.  W.  UsiLL,  Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.  41  plates,  zuith  illustrations 
and  tables,  royal  8vo,  cloth,  \2s.  6d. 

Principal  Contents  : 

Part  I.  Introduction  and  the  Principles  of  Geometry.  Part  2.  Land  Surveying;  com- 
prising General  Observations— The  Chain— Offsets  Surveying  by  the  Chain  only— Surveying 
Hilly  Ground— To  Survey  an  EsUte  ot  Parish  by  the  Chain  only— Surveying  with  the 
Theodolite — Mining  and  Town  Surveying — Railroad  Surveying — Mapping — Division  and 
Laying  out  of  Land — Observations  on  Enclosures — Plane  Trigonometry.  Part  3.  Levelling — 
Simple  and  Compound  Levelling— The  Level  Book— Parliamentary  Plan  and  Section- 
Levelling  with  a  Theodolite— Gradients— Wooden  Curi-es- To  Lay  out  a  Railway  Cune— 
Setting  out  Widths.  Part  4.  Calculating  Quantities  generally  for  Estimates — Cuttings  and 
Embankments — Tunnels— Brickwork — Ironwork — Timber  Measuring.  Part  5.  Description 
and  Use  of  Instruments  in  Surveying  and  Plotting — The  Improved  Dumpy  Level — Troughton's 
Level  —  The  Prismatic  Compass  —  Proportional  Compass — Box  Sextant — Vernier — Panta- 
graph— Merrett's  Improved  Quadrant— Improved  Computation  Scale — The  Diagonal  Scale- 
Straight  Edge  and  Sector.  Part  6.  Logarithms  of  Numbers  — Logarithmic  Sines  and 
Co-Sines,  Tangents  and  Co-Tangents— Natural  Sines  and  Co-Sines— Tables  for  Earthwork, 
for  Setting  out  Curves,  and  for  various  Calculations,  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

Mechanical  Graphics.  A  Second  Course  of  Me- 
chanical Drawing.  \Yith  Preface  by  Prof.  Perry,  B.Sc,  F.R.S. 
Arranged  for  use  in  Technical  and  Science  and  Art  Institutes,  Schools 
and  Colleges,  by  George  H.\lliday,  Wliitworth  Scholar.  8vo, 
cloth,  6s. 

B  4 


14  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 


The  Assay ers  Manual:    an  Abridged  Treatise  on 

the  Docimastic  Examination  of  Ores  and  Furnace  and  other  Artificial 
Products.  By  Bruno  Kerl.  Translated  by  W.  T.  Brannt.  With  65 
illustrations,  8vo,  cloth,  \2s.  6d. 

Dynavto  -  Electric    Machinery  :     a    Text  -  Book    for 

Students  of  Electro-Technology.  By  Silvanus  P.  Thompson,  B.A., 
D.Sc,  M.S.T.E.  \_Neio  edition  in  the  press. 

The  Practice  of  Hand  Turning  in  Wood,  Ivory,  Shell, 

etc.,  with  Instructions  for  Turning  such  Work  in  Metal  as  may  be  required 
in  the  Practice  of  Turning  in  Wood,  Ivory,  etc.  ;  also  an  Appendix  on 
Ornamental  Turning.  (A  book  for  beginners.)  By  FraN'CIS  Campin. 
Third  edition,  witk  -wood  engravings,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  6s. 

Contents : 

On  Lathes — Turning  Tools — Turning  Wood — Drilling — Screw  Cutting — Miscellaneous 
Apparatus  and  Processes — Turning  Particular  Forms — Staining — Polishing — Spinning  Metals 
— Materials — Ornamental  Turning,  etc. 

Treatise  on  IVatchwork,  Past  and  Present.     By  the 

Rev.  H.  L.  Nelthropp,  M.A.,  F.S.A.  With  32  illustrations,  crown 
8vo,  cloth,  6j.  dd. 

Contents : 

Definitions  of  Words  and  Terms  used  in  Watchwork — Tools — Time — Historical  Sum- 
mary— On  Calculations  of  the  Numbers  for  Wheels  and  Pinions;  their  Proportional  Sizes, 
Trains,  etc. — Of  Dial  Wheels,  or  Motion  Work — Length  of  Time  of  Going  without  Winding 
up — The  Verge— The  Horizontal — The  Duplex — The  Lever — The  Chronometer — Repeating 
Watches— Keyless  Watches — The  Pendulum,  or  Spiral  Spring — Compensation — Jewelling  of 
Pivot  Holes — Clerkenwell — Fallacies  of  the  Trade — Incapacity  of  Workmen — How  to  Choose 
and  Use  a  Watch,  etc. 

Algebra    Self-Taught.       By  W.    P.    Higgs,    M.A., 

D.Sc,  LL.D.,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.,  Author  of  'A  Handbook  of  the  Differ- 
ential Calculus,'  etc.     Second  edition,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  2j.  dd. 

Contents : 

.Symbols  and  the  Signs  o(  Operation — The  Equation  and  the  Unknown  Quantitj — 
Positive  and  Negative  Quantities — Multiplication — Involution — Exponents—  Negative  Expo- 
nents— Roots,  and  the  Use  of  Exponents  as  Logarithms — Logarithms — Tables  of  Logarithms 
and  Proponionatc  Parts  —  Transformation  of  .System  of  Logarithms  —  Common  Uses  of 
Common  Logarithms — Compound  Multiplication  and  the  llinomial  Theorem — Division, 
Fractions,  and  Ratio— Continued  Proportion — The  Series  and  the  Summation  of  the  Series- 
Limit  of  Scries — Square  and  Cube  Roots — Equations — List  of  Formula;,  etc. 

Spons  Dictionary  of  Engineering,  Civil,  MecJianical, 

Military,  and  A'aTal ;  with  tcclinical  terms  in  French,  German,  Italian, 
anil  Spanish,  3100  pp.,  and  nearly  8000  engravings,  in  sujjer-royal  8vo, 
in  8  divisions,  5/.  8j.  Comi)lete  in  3  vols.,  cloth,  5/.  5^.  Bound  in  a 
superior  manner,  half-morocco,  top  edge  gilt,  3  vols.,  61.  I2s. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  &  F.  N.  SPON.  15 


Notes  in. Mechanical  Engineering.  Compiled  prin- 
cipally for  the  use  of  the  Students  attending  the  Classes  on  this  subject  at 
the  City  of  London  College.  By  Henry  Adams,  Mem.  Inst.  M.E., 
Mem.  Inst.  C.E.,  Mem.  Soc.  of  Engineers.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  2s.  6d. 

Ca7ioe  and  Boat  Bnilding:    a  complete  Manual  for 

Amateurs,  containing  plain  and  comprehensive  directions  for  the  con- 
struction of  Canoes,  Rowing  and  Sailing  Boats,  and  Hunting  Craft. 
By  W.  P.  Stephens.  M^itk  nujnerous  illustrations  and  24  plates  oj 
Working  Drazuings.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  ^s. 

Proceedings  of  the  National  Conference  of  Electricians, 

Philadelphia,  October  8th  to  13th,  1884.     iSmo,  cloth,  3^. 

Dynamo  -  Electricity,    its    Generation,     Application, 

Transmission,  Storage,  and  Measurement.  By  G.  B.  Prescott.  IVith 
545  illustrations.     8vo,  cloth,  i/.  is. 

Domestic  Electricity  for  Amateurs.    Translated  from 

the  French  of  E.  Hospitalier,  Editor  of  "  L'Electricien,"  by  C.  J. 
Wharton,  Assoc.  Soc.  Tel.  Eng,  Numerotis  illustrations.  Demy  8vo, 
cloth,  6j. 

Contents: 

I.  Production  of  the  Electric  Current— 2.  Electric  Bells — 3.  Automatic  Alarms — 4.  Domestic 
Telephones — 5.  Electric  Clocks — 6.  Electric  Lighters — 7.  Domestic  Electric  Lighting — 
8.  Domestic  Application  of  the  Electric  Light — 9.  Electric  Motors — 10.  Electrical  Locomo- 
tion— II.  Electrotyping,  Plating,  and  Gilding — 12.  Electric  Recreations — 13.  Various  appli- 
cations— Workshop  of  the  Electrician. 

Wrinkles  in  Electric  Lighting.    By  Vincent  Stephen. 

With  illustrations.     i8mo,  cloth,  2s.  6d. 

Contents: 

I.  The  Electric  Current  and  its  production  by  Chemical  means — 2.  Production  of  Electric 
Currents  by  Mechanical  means — 3.  Dynamo-Electric  Machines — 4.  Electric  Lamps — 
5.  Lead— 6.  Ship  Lighting. 

Foundations  and  Foundation  Walls  for  all  classes  of 

Builditigs,  Pile  Driving,  Building  Stones  and  Bricks,  Pier  and  Wall 
construction,  Mortars,  Limes,  Cements,  Concretes,  Stuccos,  &c.  64  illus- 
tratio7is.     By  G.  T.  Powell  and  F.  Bauman.     8vo,  cloth,  \os.  6d. 

Manual  for  Gas  Engineering  Students.     By  D.  Lee. 

i8mo,  cloth,  IS. 


r6  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 


TelepJiones,    their    Constr^iction    and    Management. 

By  F.  C.  Allsop.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  5j-. 

Hydraulic  Machinery,  Past  and  Present.    A  Lecture 

delivered  to  the  London  and  Suburban  Railway  Officials'  Association. 
By  H.  Adams,  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.     Folding  plate.     8vo,  sewed,  \s. 

Twenty  Years  with  the  hidicator.    By  Thomas  Pray, 

Jun.,  C.E.,  M.E.,  Member  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers, 
2  vols.,  royal  8vo,  cloth,  \is.  6d. 

Annual   Statistical  Rep07't  of  the  Secretary  to  the 

Members  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Association  on  the  Home  and  Foreign  Iron 
and  Steel  Industries  in  i?>%g.     Issued  June  1890.     8vo,  sewed,  5j. 

Bad  Drains,  and  How  to  Test  them  ;  with  Notes  on 

the  Ventilation  of  Sewers,  Drains,  and  Sanitary  Fittings,  and  the  Origin 
and  Transmission  of  Zymotic  Disease.  By  R.  Harris  Reeves.  Crown 
8vo,  cloth,  3J-.  6«'. 

Well  Sinking.     The    modern    practice   of  Sinking 

and  Boring  Wells,  with  geological  considerations  and  examples  of  Wells. 
By  Ernest  Spon,  Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E..  Mem.  Soc.  Fng.,  and  of  the 
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The  Voltaic  Accmnnlator :  an  Elementary  Treatise. 

By  Emii.e  Reynier.  Translated  by  J.  A.  Berly,  Assoc.  Inst.  E.E. 
With  62  illustrations,  8vo,  cloth,  <^s. 

Ten    Years    Experience   in    Works   of  Intermittent 

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Second  edition,  with  additions.     Royal  8vo,  cloth,  51. 

Land  Surveying  on  the  Meridian  and  Perpendicular 

System.     By  WiLLiA.M  Penman,  C.E.    8vo,  cloth,  8j.  61/. 

The  Electromagnet  and  Electromagnetic  Mechanism. 

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Analyst,  and  Assayer,  Author  of  a  'Pocket-book  for  Chemists,'  'The 
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Royal  32mo,  boards,  gilt  edges,  6j. 

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A   Treatise  on  Modern  Steam  Engines  and  Boilers^ 

including  Land  Locomotive,  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers,  for  the 
use  of  Students.  By  Frederick  Colyer,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  Mem.  Inst.  M.E. 
With  2,6  plates.     4to,  cloth,  12s.  6d. 

Contents  : 

I.  Introduction — 2.  Original  Engines — 3.  Boilers — 4.  High-Pressure  Beam  Engines — 5. 
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Pressure  Engines — 9.  Special  Engines — 10.  Portable  Engines — 11.  Locomotive  Engines— 
12.  Marine  Engines. 

Steam    Engine    Management ;    a   Treatise    on   the 

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The  Marine  Transport  of  Petroleum.     A  Book  for 

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Tropical  Agriculture :    A  Treatise  on  the  Culture, 

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Health  and  Comfort  in  House  Building ;  or,  Ventila- 
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Mode  of  Calculating  the  Draught  in  Hot-air  Flues,  and  with  some  Actual 
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of  'Notes  on  Concrete,'  &c.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  "js.  6d. 

Gas  and  Petroleum  Engines:  A  Practical  Treatise 

on  the  Internal  Combustion  Engine.  By  Wm.  Robinson,  M.E.,  Senior 
Demonstrator  and  Lecturer  on  Applied  Mechanics,  Physics,  &c.,  City 
and  Guilds  of  London  College,  Finsbury,  Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.,  &c. 
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Waterways  and  Water  Transport  in  Different  Coun- 
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A  Treatise  on  the  Richards  Steam-Engine  Indicator 

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cloth,  gj. 


Contents. 


The  Nature  and  Use  of  the  Indicator  :  I    Of  the  Loss  attending  the  Employment  of 

The  several  lines  on  the  Diagram.  Slow-piston    Speed,    and    the    Extent   to 


Examination  of  Diagram  No.  I. 
Of  Truth  in  the  Diagram. 
Description  of  the  Richards  Indicator. 
Practical  Directions  for  Applying  and  Taking 

Care  of  the  Indicator. 
Introductory  Remarks. 
Units. 
Expansion. 
Directions  for  ascertaining  from  the  Diagram 

the  Power  exerted  by  the  Engine. 
To  Measure  from  the  Diagram  the  Quantity 

of  Steam  Consumed. 
To  Measure  from  the  Diagram  the  Quantity 

of  Heat  Expended. 
Of  the  Real  Diagram, and  how  to  Construct  it. 
Of  the  Conversion  of  Heat  into  Work  in  the 

Steam-engine. 
Observations   on   the   several   Lines  of  the 

Diagram. 


which  this  is  Shown  by  the  Indicator. 

Of  other  Applications  of  the  Indicator. 

Of  the  use  of  the  Tables  of  the  Properties  of 
Steam  in  Calculating  the  Duty  of  Boilers. 

Introductory. 

Of  the  Pressure  on  the  Crank  when  the  Con- 
necting-rod is  conceived  to  be  of  Infinite 
Length. 

The  Modification  of  the  Acceleration  and 
Retardation  that  is  occasioned  by  the 
Angular  Vibration  of  the  Connecting-rod. 

Method  of  representing  the  actual  pressure 
on  the  crank  at  every  point  of  its  revolu- 
tion. 

The  Rotative  Effect  of  the  Pressure  exerted 
on  the  Crank. 

The  Transmitting  Parts  of  an  Engine,  con- 
sidered as  an  Equaliser  of  Motion. 

A  Ride  on  a  Buflfer-beam  (Appendix). 


20  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS. 


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ARCHITECTURAL  EXAMPLES 

IN  BRICK,  STONE,  WOOD,  AND  IRON. 

A  COMPLETE  WORK  ON  THE  DETAILS  AND  ARRANGEMENT 
OF  BUILDING  CONSTRUCTION  AND  DESIGN. 

By  WILLIAM  FULLERTON,  Architect. 

Containing  220  Plates,  with  numerous  Drawings  selected  from  the  Architecture 

of  Former  and  Present  Times. 

The  Details  and  Designs  are  Drawn  to  Scale,  ^",  \",  \",  and  Full  size 

being  chiefly  used. 


The  Plates  are  arranged  in  Two  Parts.  The  First  Part  contains 
Details  of  Work  in  the  four  principal  Building  materials,  the  following 
being  a  few  of  the  subjects  in  this  Part : — Various  forms  of  Doors  and 
Windows,  Wood  and  Iron  Roofs,  Half  Timber  Work,  Porches, 
Towers,  Spires,  Belfries,  Flying  Buttresses,  Groining,  Carving,  Church 
Fittings,  Constructive  and  Ornamental  Iron  Work,  Classic  and  Gothic 
Molds  and  Ornament,  Foliation  Natural  and  Conventional,  Stained 
Glass,  Coloured  Decoration,  a  Section  to  Scale  of  the  Great  Pyramid, 
Grecian  and  Roman  Work,  Continental  and  English  Gothic,  Pile 
Foundations,  Chimney  Shafts  according  to  the  regulations  of  the 
London  County  Council,  Board  Schools.  The  Second  Part  consists 
of  Drawings  of  Plans  and  Elevations  of  Buildings,  arranged  under  the 
following  heads  : — Workmen's  Cottages  and  Dwellings,  Cottage  Resi- 
dences and  Dwelling  Houses,  Shops,  Factories,  Warehouses,  Schools, 
Churches  and  Chapels,  Public  Buildings,  Hotels  and  Taverns,  and 
Buildings  of  a  general  character. 

All  the  Plates  are  accompanied  with  particulars  of  the  Work,  with 
Explanatory  Notes  and  Dimensions  of  the  various  parts. 


specimen  Pages,  reduced  from  the  oj-igitiah. 


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By  ERNEST    SPON. 


Bookbinding. 

Bronzes  and  Bronzing. 

Candles. 

Cement. 

Cleaning. 

Colourwashing. 

Concretes. 

Dipping  Acids. 

Drawing  Office  Details. 

Drying  Oils. 

Dynamite. 

Electro  -  Metallurgy  — 
(Cleanmg,  Dipping, 
Scratch-brushing,  Bat- 
teries, Baths,  and 
Deposits  of  every 
description). 

Enamels. 

Engraving  on  Wood, 
Copper,  Gold,  Silver, 
Steel,  and  Stone. 

Etching  and  Aqua  Tint. 

Firework  Making  — 
(Rockets,  Stars,  Rains, 
Gerbes,  Jots,  Tour- 
billons,  Candles,  Fires, 
Lances,Lights,  Wheels, 
Fire-balloons,  and 
minor  Fireworks). 

Fluxes. 

Foundry  Mixtures. 


Synopsis  of  Contents. 

Freezing. 

Fulminates. 

Furniture  Creams,  Oils, 
Polishes,  Lacquers, 
and  Pastes. 

Gilding. 

Glass  Cutting,  Cleaning, 
Frosting,  Drilling, 
Darkening,  Bending, 
Staining,  and  Paint- 
ing. 

Glass  Making. 

Glues. 

Gold. 

Graining. 

Gums. 

Gun  Cotton, 

Gunpowder. 

Horn  Working. 

Indiarubbcr. 

Japans,  Japanning,  and 
kindred  processes. 

Lacquers. 

Lathing. 

Lubricants. 

Marble  Working. 

Matches. 

Mortars. 

Nitro-Glycerine. 

Oils. 


Paper. 

Paper  Hanging. 

Painting  in  Oils,  in  Water 
Colours,  as  well  as 
Fresco,  House,  Trans- 
parency, Sign,  and 
Carriage  Painting. 

Photography. 

Plastering. 

Polishes. 

Pottery — (Clays,  Bodies, 
Glazes,  Colours,  Oils, 
Stains,  Fluxes,  Ena- 
mels, and  Lustres). 

Scouring. 

Silvering. 

Soap. 

Solders. 

Tanning. 

Taxidermy. 

Tempering  Metals. 

Treating  Horn,  Mother- 
o'-Pearl,  and  like  sub- 
stances. 

Varnishes,  Manufacture 
and  Use  of. 

Veneering. 

Washing. 

Waterproofing. 

Welding. 


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Crown  8vo,  cloth,  485  pages,  with  illustrations,  51. 

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Synopsis  of  Contents. 


Acidimetry  and   Alkali- 
metry. 
Albumen. 
Alcohol . 
Alkaloids. 
Baking-powders. 
Bitters. 
Bleaching. 
Boiler  Incrustations. 
Cements  and  Lutes. 
Cleansing. 
Confectionery. 
Copying. 


Disinfectants. 

Dyeing,     Staining,     and 

Colouring. 
Essences. 
Extracts. 
Fireproofing. 
Gelatine,  Glue,  and  Size. 
Glycerine. 
Gut. 

Hydrogen  peroxide. 
Ink. 
Iodine. 


Iodoform. 

Isinglass. 

Ivory  substitutes. 

Leather. 

Luminous  bodies. 

Magnesia. 

Matches. 

Paper. 

Parchment. 

Perchloric  acid. 

Potassium  oxalate. 

Preserving. 


Pigments,  Paint,  and  Painting  :  embracing  the  preparation  of 
Pigments,  including  alumina  lakes,  blacks  (animal,  bone,  Frankfort,  ivory, 
lamp,  sight,  soot),  blues  (antimony,  Antwerp,  cobalt,  casruleum,  Egyptian, 
manganate,  Paris,  Peligot,  Prussian,  smalt,  ultramarine),  browns  (bistre, 
hinau,  sepia,  sienna,  umber,  Vandyke),  greens  (baryta,  Brighton,  Brunswick, 
chrome,  cobalt,  Douglas,  emerald,  manganese,  mitis,  mountain,  Prussian, 
sap,  Scheele's,  Schweinfurth,  titanium,  verdigris,  zinc),  reds  (Brazilwood  lake, 
carminated  lake,  carmine,  Cassius  purple,  cobalt  pink,  cochineal  lake,  colco- 
thar,  Indian  red,  madder  lake,  red  chalk,  red  lead,  vermihon),  whites  (alum, 
baryta,  Chinese,  lead  sulphate,  white  lead — by  American,  Dutch,  French, 
German,  Kremnitz,  and  Pattinson  processes,  precautions  in  making,  and 
composition  of  commercial  samples— whiting,  Wilkinson's  white,  zinc  white), 
yellows  (chrome,  gamboge,  Naples,  orpiment,  realgar,  yellow  lakes) ;  Pai7it 
(vehicles,  testing  oils,  driers,  grinding,  storing,  applying,  priming,  drying, 
filling,  coats,  brushes,  surface,  water-colours,  removing  smell,  discoloration ; 
miscellaneous  paints — cement  paint  for  carton-pierre,  copper  paint,  gold  paint, 
iron  paint,  lime  paints,  silicated  paints,  steatite  paint,  transparent  paints, 
tungsten  paints,  window  paint,  zinc  paints) ;  Painting  (general  instructions, 
proportions  of  ingredients,  measuring  paint  work  ;  carriage  painting — priming 
paint,  best  putty,  finishing  colour,  cause  of  cracking,  mixing  the  paints,  oils, 
driers,  and  colours,  varnishing,  importance  of  washing  vehicles,  re-varnishing, 
how  to  dry  paint ;  woodwork  painting). 


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Synopsis  of  Contents. 


Alloys. 

Indium. 

Rubidium. 

Aluminium. 

Iridium. 

Ruthenium 

Antimony. 

Iron  and  Steel. 

Selenium. 

Barium. 

Lacquers  and  Lacquering. 

Silver. 

Beryllium. 

Lanthanum. 

Slag. 

Bismuth. 

Lead. 

Sodium. 

Cadmium. 

Lithium. 

Strontium. 

Caesium. 

Lubricants. 

Tantalum. 

Calcium. 

Magnesium. 

Terbium. 

Cerium. 

Manganese. 

Thallium. 

Chromium. 

Mercury. 

Thorium. 

Cobalt 

Mica. 

Tin. 

Copper. 

Molybdenum. 

Titanium. 

Didymium. 

Nickel. 

Tungsten. 

Electrics. 

Niobium. 

Uranium. 

Enamels  and  Glazes. 

Osmium. 

Vanadium. 

Erbium. 

Palladium. 

Yttrium. 

Gallium. 

Platinum. 

Zinc. 

Glass. 

Potassium. 

Zirconium. 

Gold. 

Rhodium. 

PUBLISHED  BY  E.  &  F.  N.  SPON.  25 

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Waterproofing  —  rubber   goods,    cuprammonium  processes,    miscellaneous 

preparations. 
Packing  and  Storing  articles  of  delicate  odour  or  colour,  of  a  deliquescent 

character,  liable  to  ignition,  apt  to  suffer  from  insects  or  damp,  or  easily 

broken. 
Embalming  and  Preserving  anatomical  specimens. 
Leather  Polishes; 
Cooling  Air  and  Water,  producing  low  temperatures,  making  ice,  cooling 

syrups  and  solutions,  and  separating  salts  from  liquors  by  refrigeration. 

Pumps  and  Siphons,  embracing  every  useful  contrivance  for  raising  and 

supplying  water  on  a  moderate  scale,  and  moving  corrosive,  tenacious, 

and  other  liquids. 
Desiccating — air-  and  water-ovens,  and  other  appliances  for  drying  natural 

and  artificial  products. 
Distilling — water,  tinctures,  extracts,  pharmaceutical  preparations,  essences, 

perfumes,  and  alcoholic  liquids. 

Emulsifying  as  required  by  pharmacists  and  photographers. 

Evaporating — saline  and  other  solutions,  and  liquids  demanding  special 
precautions. 

Filtering — water,  and  solutions  of  various  kinds. 

Percolating  and  Macerating. 

Electrotyping. 

Stereotyping  by  both  plaster  and  paper  processes. 

Bookbinding  in  aU  its  details. 

Straw  Plaiting  and  the  fabrication  of  baskets,  matting,  etc. 

Musical  Instruments — the  preservation,  tuning,  and  repair  of  pianos 
harmoniums,  musical  boxes,  etc. 

Clock  and  Watch  Mending— adapted  for  intelligent  amateurs. 

Photography — recent  development  in  rapid  processes,  handy  apparatus, 
numerous  recipes  for  sensitizing  and  developing  solutions,  and  applica- 
tions to  modern  illustrative  purposes. 


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SPONS'  ENCYCLOPyGDIA 


OF  THB 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS,  MANUFACTURES,  AND  COMMERCIAL 

PRODUCTS. 

Edited  by  C.  G.  WARNFORD  LOCK,  F.L.S. 

Among  the  more  important   of  the   subjects  treated  of,   are  the 
following  : — 
Acids,  207  pp.  220  figs. 


Alcohol,  23  pp.  16  figs.- 
Alcoholic  Liquors,  13  pp. 
Alkalies,  89  pp.  78  figs. 
Alloys.  Alum. 

Asphalt.        Assaying. 
Beverages,  89  pp.  29  figs. 
Blacks. 

Bleaching  Powder,  15  pp. 
Bleaching,  51  pp.  48  figs. 
Candles,  18  pp.  9  figs. 
Carbon  Bisulphide, 
Celluloid,  9  pp. 
Cements.       Clay. 
Coal-tar  Products,  44  pp. 

14  figs. 
Cocoa,  8  pp. 
Coffee,  32  pp.  13  figs. 
Cork,  8  pp.  17  figs. 
Cotton  Manufactures,  62 

pp.  57  figs. 
Drugs,  38  pp. 
Dyeing       and       Calico 

Printing,  28  pp.  9  figs. 
Dycstuffs,  16  pp. 
Electro-Metallurgy,      13 

PP- 
Explosives,  22  pp.  33  figs. 

Feathers. 

Fibrous    Substances,    92 

pp.  79  figs. 

Floor-cloth,    16    pp.    21 

f'k's. 
Food  Preservation,  8  pp. 

Fruit,  8  pp. 


Fur,  5  pp. 

Gas,  Coal,  8  pp. 

Gems. 

Glass,  45  pp.  77  figs. 

Graphite,  7  pp. 

Hair,  7  pp. 

Hair  Manufactures. 

Hats,  26  pp.  26  figs. 

Ploney.         Hops. 

Plom. 

Ice,  ID  pp.  14  figs. 

Indiarubber       Manufac- 
tures, 23  pp.  17  figs. 

Ink,  17  pp. 

Ivory. 

Jute    Manufactures,     1 1 
pp.,  II  figs. 

Knitted      Fabrics  — 
Hosiery,  15  pp.  13  figs. 

Lace,  13  pp.  9  figs. 

Leather,  28  pp.  3 1  figs. 

Linen  Manufactures,   16 
pp.  6  figs. 

Manures,  21  pp.  30  figs. 

Matches,  17  pp.  38  figs. 

Mordants,  13  pp. 

Narcotics,  47  pp. 

Nuts,  10  pp. 

Oils    and     Fatty     Sub- 
stances, 125  pp. 

Paint. 

Papur,  26  pp.  23  figs. 

Paraffin,  8  i)p.  6  figs. 

Pearl  and  Coral,  8  pp. 

Perfumes,  10  pp. 


Photography,   13  pp.  20 

figs. 

Pigments,  9  pp.  6  figs. 
Pottery,  46  pp.  57  figs. 
Printing  and  Engraving, 

20  pp.  8  figs. 
Rags. 
Resinous    and     Gummy 

Substances,  75  pp.  16 

figs. 
Rope,  16  pp.  17  figs. 
Salt,  31  pp.  23  figs. 
Silk,  8  pp. 
Silk  Manufactures,  9  pp. 

II  figs. 
Skins,  5  pp. 
Small  Wares,  4  pp. 
Soap  and  Glycerine,  39 

pp.  45  figs. 
Spices,  16  pp. 
Sponge,  5  pp. 
Starch,  9  pp.  10  figs. 
Sugar,     155      pp.      134 

figs. 
Sulphur. 
Tannin,  18  pp. 
Tea.  12  pp. 
Timber,  13  pp. 
Varnish,  15  pp. 
Vinegar,  5  pp. 
Wax,  5  pp. 
Wool,  2  pp. 
Woollen     Manufactures, 

58  pp.  39  ^'L's- 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  &  F.  N.  SPON. 


27 


In  super-royal  8vo,  1168  pp.,  •with  2400  illustrations.,  in   3  Divisions,  cloth,  price  13J.  6r/. 
each  ;  or  1  vol.,  cloth,  2/.  ;  or  half-morocco,  2/.  Zs. 

A    SUPPLEMENT 

TO 

SPONS'  DICTIONARY  OF   ENGINEERING. 


Edited  by  ERNEST  SPON,  Memb.  Soc.  Engineers. 


Abacus,  Counters,  Speed  j 
Indicators,  and  Slide 
Rule,  J 

Agricultural  Implements 
and  Machinery. 

Air  Compressors. 

Animal    Charcoal    Ma- 
chinery. 

Antimony. 

Axles  and  Axle-boxes. 

Bam  Machinery. 

Belts  and  Belting. 

Blasting.     Boilers. 

Brakes. 

Brick  Machinery. 

Bridges. 

Cages  for  Mines. 

Calculus,  Differential  and 
Integral. 

Canals.  . 

Carpentry. 

Cast  Iron. 

Cement,       Concrete, 
Limes,  and  Mortar. 

Chimney  Shafts. 

Coal      Cleansing       and 
Washing. 


Coal  Mining. 

Coal  Cutting  Machines. 

Coke  Ovens.     Copper. 

Docks.     Drainage. 

Dredging  Machinery. 

Dynamo  -  Electric  and 
Magneto-Electric  Ma- 
chines. 

Dynamometers. 

Electrical  Engineering, 
Telegraphy,  Electric 
Lighting  and  its  prac- 
ticaldetailSjTelephones 

Engines,  Varieties  of. 

Explosives.     Fans. 

Founding,  Moulding  and 
the  practical  work  of 
the  Foundry. 

Gas,  Manufacture  of. 

Hammers,  Steam  and 
other  Power. 

Pleat.     Horse  Power. 

Hydraulics. 

Hydro-geology. 

Indicators.     Iron. 

Lifts,  Hoists,  and  Eleva- 
tors. 


Lighthouses,  Buoys,  and 
Beacons. 

Machine  Tools. 

Materials  of  Construc- 
tion. 

Meters. 

Ores,  Machinery  and 
Processes  employed  to 
Dress. 

Piers. 

Pile  Driving. 

Pneumatic    Transmis- 
sion. 

Pumps. 

Pyrometers. 

Road  Locomotives. 

Rock  Drills. 

Rolling  Stock. 

Sanitary  Engineering. 

Shafting. 

SteeL 

Steam  Navvy. 

Stone  Machinery. 

Tramways. 

Well  Sinking. 


28  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS. 


JTJST    PUBLISHED. 


In  demy  8vo,  cloth,  600  pages,  and  1420  Illustrations,  6s. 

SPONS' 
MECHANICS'   OAVN  BOOK; 

A  MANUAL  FOR  HANDICRAFTSMEN  AND  AMATEURS. 


Contents. 

Mechanical  Drawing — Casting  and  Founding  in  Iron,  Brass,  Bronze, 
and  other  Alloys — Forging  and  Finishing  Iron — Sheetmetal  Working 
— Soldering,  Brazing,  and  Burning — Carpentry  and  Joinery,  embracing 
descriptions  of  some  400  Woods,  over  200  Illustrations  of  Tools  and 
their  uses.  Explanations  (with  Diagrams)  of  1 16  joints  and  hinges,  and 
Details  of  Construction  of  Workshop  appliances,  rough  furniture. 
Garden  and  Yard  Erections,  and  House  Building — Cabinet-Making 
and  Veneering  —  Carving  and  Fretcutting — Upholstery  —  Painting, 
Graining,  and  Marbling — Staining  Furniture,  Woods,  Floors,  and 
Fittings — Gilding,  dead  and  bright,  on  various  grounds — Polishing 
Marble,  Metals,  and  Wood — Varnishing — Mechanical  movements, 
illustrating  contrivances  for  transmitting  motion — Turning  in  Wood 
and  Metals — Masonry,  embracing  Stonework,  Brickwork,  Terracotta, 
and  Concrete — Roofing  with  Thatch,  Tiles,  Slates,  Felt,  Zinc,  &c. — 
Glazing  with  and  without  putty,  and  lead  glazing — Plastering  and 
Whitewashing —  Paper-hanging —  Gas-fitting — Bell-hanging,  ordinary 
and  electric  Systems  —  Lighting  —  Warming  —  Ventilating  —  Roads, 
Pavements,  and  Bridges  —  Hedges,  Ditches,  and  Drains  —  Water 
Supply  and  Sanitation— Hints  on  House  Construction  suited  to  new 
countries.  

E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  125,  Strand,  London. 

New  York  :  12,  Cortlandt  Street. 


K 


W.    H.    MARLING, 
47,  FINSBURY  PAVEMENT,  LONDON,  E.G. 

(LATE  OF  40,  HATTON  GARDEN), 
MANUFACTURER  OF 

DRAWING  AND   SURVEYING  INSTRUMENTS. 


EXTRACTS  FROM  CATALOGUE. 


540    Sector  Joint       

543    Ditto,  ditto,  Improved  pattern,  hair  spring 


Brass.   Electrum.  Ex.  quality 
3/0  3/6  4/0 

6/0  6/6  VO 


Complete  Set  of  Instrtunents  from  T/-  to  £25. 


535  Double  jointed,  with  poxnts  to   hold  needles,  ink,        Brass.  ^Electrum.  Ex.  quality. 

or  pencil,  improved  pattern each  9/0  9/0  10/0 

536  Ditto,  ■WITH  Harling's  improved  needle  pokts     ..     ,,       —  —  11/0 

The  above  are  in  two  sizes — large,  about  Scinches ;  small,  about  3  inches. 


Small  Swan. 

251    Finest  Red  Sables,  in  quills — Crow,  6d.,  duck,  Od.,  goose,  15.  6d.,  extra  goose.  Is.  9(i.. 
small  swan,  3s.,  middle  swan,  4s.  6d.,  large  swan,  6s.,  extra  large  swan,  7*.  6d. 

Drawing-  Boards  and  Tee  Squares. 

907    Engineers'  and  Architects'  Drawing   Board,  inches,  inches,  inches,  inches,  inches, 

madeoffintst  dry  pine,  with  Mahogany  battens,  23X16    2SX2I   32X23  41X28   54X32 

brass  slots,  and  one  edge  inlaid  with  ebony     . .  4/6         7/6         8/0       13/0       20/0 

18  in.  24  in.      32  in.       3G  in 

900    Pearteee  T-Square,  taper  blade        ..       I/O  1/6          2/0          2;  9 

903    Mahogany,  edged  with  ebony,  taper 

blade 2/0  3/9           4/9           5/9 

"Whatman's  Hand-made  Drawing-  Papers. 

272    Imperial N  HP  and  R  Size  in  inches    31„22 

277    Double  Elephant     ..     ..      N  HP  and  R  ,  40„27 

Superior  Continuous  Tracing-  Paper. 

266i  Tracing  Paper  Vegetable,  Extra  Thick 21  yards  by  43  inches,  per  roll     6/6 

TV!....  Superfine  Extra  Thick     21        „        43      ,,  „  g/o 


42  in.     54  in. 
3/6  6/0 


6/9 
Per  quire 


11/0 


7/0 
13/6 


233  Ditto 

209i  Ditto 

209i  Ditto 


New  Parchment  (very  strung) 
ditto 


21 
21 


43 
39 
30 


13/0 
10/0 


Imperial  Tracing  Cloth. 

24  yards  long  X  IS  inches  wide,  12s.,  30  inches,  2ls.  6d.,  36  inches,  23s.  6<l.  per  rolL 

Full  Illustrated  Catalogue  on  Application. 


E.  S.  HINDLEY,  Engineer. 


ai 

CO 

O 

I- 

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o 

o 

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o 
o 

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o 
m 

> 

H 


O 


London  Show  Eooms  and  Stores— H,  QUEEN  VICTORIA  ST.,  E.G. 

WoRKS-BOURTON,   DORSET. 

STEAM    ENGINES-HORIZONTAL,  vertical,  portable  &  FIXED, 

IN  ALL  POWERS  FROM  \  H.P.  UPWARDS. 

Suitable   for   Industrial   or   Electric   Lighting    Purposes. 

These  Engines  are  controlled  by  Mr.  Hindley's  new 
Governor,  which  maintains  a  perfectly  uniform  speed 
under  sudden  variations  of  work,  and  is  adjustable 
when  working,  rendering  them  especially  suitable 
for  Electric  Lighting  purposes. 

SAW    BENCHES, 
STEAM  PUMPS, 

SHAFTING 

PULLEYS, 

&c. 


rUtutralcd  Catulujues,  I'liolos,  and  Vvlaihd  Juf<n-)u(dion  Ficv  un  ApiilkaUou. 


NOTICE. 

BRITANNIA  CO. 

ABE 

BONA-FIDE    MAKERS 


OF 


300   VARIETIES  OF  MACHINE  TOOLS. 

^°  Makers  to  the  British  GoYernment. 

SPECIAL    TOOLS    DESIGNED    OR    MADE  TO    DRAWING. 

Catalogues  Qd.,  list  of  second-hand  which 

have  been  tahen  in  exchange,  2d. 

Gas  and  Steam  Engines.    Boilers.    Shops  and 

Factories  fitted  up  complete. 


Show  Rooms:  100,  HOUNDSDITCH,  LONDON. 

^1  Letters  to  BRITANNIA  WOEKS,  COLCHESTEK. 

GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


3  319<;  nni  -tc  f<^