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WORKS OF ARISTOTLE

TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH
UNDER THE. EDITORSHIP

J. A. SMITH M.A.

WAYNFLETE PROFESSOR OF MORAL AND METAPHYSICAL PHILOSOPHY
FELLOW OF MAGDALEN COLLEGE

WD KOSS, ΝΜ

FELLOW OF ORIEL COLLEGE

VOLUME V

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM
By WILLIAM OGLE
DBE MOTU anp DE INCESSU ANIMALIUM
By A. 8.1. FARQUHARSON

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM
By ARTHUR PLATT

OXFORD
wl FOE CLARENDON PRESS

1912

HENRY FROWDE, M.A.
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK, TORONTO
MELBOURNE AND BOMBAY

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PREFACE

IT was the desire of the late Master of Balliol, Dr. Benjamin
Jowett, as formulated in his will, that the proceeds from the
sale of his works, the copyright in which he bequeathed to
Balliol College, should be used to promote the study of Greek
Literature, especially by the publication of new translations
and editions of Greek authors. Ina codicil to his will he ex-
pressed the hope that the translation of Aristotle’s works begun
by his own translation of the Polztics should be proceeded with
as speedily as possible. The College resolved that the funds
thus accruing to them should, in memory of his services to the
College and to Greek letters, be applied to the subvention of
a series of translations of the works of Aristotle. Through
the co-operation, financial and other, of the Delegates of the
University Press it has now become possible to begin the
realization of this design. By agreement between the College
and the Delegates of the Press the present editors were
appointed to superintend the carrying out of the scheme.
The series is published at the joint expense and risk of the
College and the Delegates of the Press.

The editors have secured the co-operation of various scholars
in the task of translation. The translations make no claim to
finality, but aim at being such as a scholar might construct in
preparation for a critical edition and commentary. Wherever
new readings are proposed the fact will be indicated, but notes

iii

PREFACE

justificatory of conjectural emendations or defensive of novel
interpretations will, where admitted, be reduced to the smallest
compass.

The editors, while retaining a general right of revision and
annotation, will leave the responsibility for each translation to
its author.

jl AS
W. D. R.

ΠΕ PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

Perak TIBUS
ANIMALIUM

TRANSLATED BY

ΕΠ ETAM OGLE M.A. M.D F.R.C.P.

SOMETIME FELLOW OF CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, OXFORD

OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

IQTI

HENRY FROWDE, M.A.
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK _
TORONTO AND MELBOURNE

TO
ἘΠΕ. MEMORY

ΕΟ Ake POSTE

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PREBACE

THIS translation is a revised version of one made by me
very many years ago and published in 1882, with intro-
ductory essays and very copious annotation. Exigencies
of space have necessitated the omission of the former and
a very great abridgement of the latter, while the translation
itself has been largely altered and corrected. It still, how-
ever, remains as before, a very free version; for it is not
intended to meet the linguistic requirements of the critical
Greek scholar so much as those of the student of biological
history, to whom a treatise that is the earliest extant
attempt to assign its function to each several organ of the
animal body cannot but be of great interest. Such being
my main object, I have not hesitated to transfer clauses,
or even an entire sentence, when by such transposition the
argument can be made less obscure or more consecutive,
and have ventured in no few cases to suggest new readings
or adopt new readings suggested by others, when such
readings are in my judgement called for by the context.

Bekker’s text has been followed as a rule, and any
departure from it is mentioned ina note. If there be MS.
authority for the departure the letter designating the MS.
is added, as ‘omitting ψυχρόν (Z)’. If the new reading be
one suggested by some other person, the name of that
person is given, as ‘ For ovordy read συνιστάν (Platt)’. For
other new readings I am myself responsible.

My sincere thanks are due to Mr. W. D. Ross of Oriel
College and to Professor Platt of University College, Lon-
don, for many valuable criticisms and suggestions made in
the course of revision.

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SYNOPSIS

INTRODUCTORY MATTER. i. I—i. 5.

1, Concerning the method of Natural Science .
ii. Concerning Necessity and the Final Cause and their
relative importance . : : :

11, Concerning the Soul and how far it falls into the pro-
vince of Natural Science :

Concerning Classification, dichotomous or other, and the
insufficiency of the former .

v. A defence of the study of animal structure, as not ignoble

iv.

<a
Ἢ

The plan of this treatise to take the parts in succession,
and inquire what share Necessity and the Final Cause
respectively have in their formation.

vi.

THE THREE DEGREES OF COMPOSITION. il. I—end of t
. The mutual relations of the three . , ὃ ᾿
. The first degree. Physical substances . : Ϊ

2. Hot and cold. 3. Solid and yee

111, The second degree. Homogeneous parts or tissues li,

1: τ

Ie We

ie Tis

1. 2—i. 4

ie
reatise.

11: 1

1, 2—ii. 3

4—il. 9.

4. Blood. 5. Fat. 6. Marrow, 7. Brain. 8. Flesh. 9. Bone.

iv. The third degree. Heterogeneous parts or organs
ii. 1oO—end o

A. In Sanguineous Animals

f treatise.

11. IO—iv. 4, and iv. to—end of treatise.

a. Organs ofthe Head. Ξ : : aT
10. Brain and organs of sense. 11, 12. Ears.
13,14,15. Eyelids and Eyelashes. 16. Nos-
iris, Lips. 17. Tongue. i. 1. Teeth.
2. Horns.
8. Organs of the Neck

3. Oesophagus ; W: ἜΣ (ar πος

γ. Visceral Organs. : Ξ . lil. 4-ξ]11. 15, iv.

4. Heart. 5. Blood vessels. 6. Lung. 7. Liver,
Spleen. ὃ. Bladder, 9. Kidneys. το. Dia-
phragm. τι. Fibrous membranes. 12. Vis-

_ cera of different groups compared. 13. Vis-

10—ili, 2.

111:.2-

I—iv, 4.

Vili SYNOPSIS

cera compared with flesh. 14. Stomach and
Intestines. 15. Rennet. iv. 1. Peculiartties
of viscera in ovipara. 2. Gall bladder.
3. Omentum. 4. Mesentery.
6. External parts : : : . iv. lo—iv. 14.
10. Jn vivipara. 1. In reptiles, 12. In birds.
13. /z fishes and intermediate groups,
cetacea, seals, bats. 14. 752 the ostrich.

B. In Bloodless Animals Ἔ : : : . iv. §—iv. 9.
a. Internal parts . δ : ; 4 : : : IVs 5e
8. External parts : : : iv. 6—iv. 9.
6. Jn insects. 7. In testacea. ὃ. In crustacea.
9. 79 cephalopoda.

BOOK I

1 Every!systematic science, the humblest and the noblest 639?
alike, seems to admit of two distinct kinds of proficiency ;
one of which may be properly called scientific knowledge
of the subject, while the other is a kind of educational
acquaintance with it. For an educated man should be able 5
to form a fair off-hand judgement as to the goodness or
badness of the method used by a professor in his exposition.
To be educated is in fact to be able to do this; and even
the man of universal education we deem to be such in
virtue of his having this ability. It will, however, of
course, be understood that we only ascribe universal
education to one who in his own individual person is thus 10
critical in all or nearly all branches of knowledge, and not
to one who has a like ability merely in some special
subject. For it is possible for a man to have this com-
petence in some one branch of knowledge without having
it in all.

It is plain then that, as in other sciences, so in that
which inquires into nature, there must be certain canons,
by reference to which a hearer shall be able to criticize the
method of a professed exposition, quite independently of
the question whether the statements made be true or false.
Ought we, for instance (to give an illustration of what 15
I mean), to begin by discussing each separate species—
man, lion, ox, and the like-—taking each kind in hand
independently of the rest, or ought we rather to deal first

1 This treatise, known to us as ‘On the Parts of Animals’, is referred to
by A. himself (G. A. v. 3. 782% 21) as ‘On the Causes of the Parts of
Animals’. It is professedly (ii. 1. 646% 11) an inquiry as to how far
the existence and structure of each part are due to Necessity and how
far to Design. Owing, however, to the giant share ascribed by A. to
the latter cause, the treatise becomes one on the functions of the parts
rather than on their causes, and might almost be styled, as was Galen’s
later work, a treatise De Usu Partium.

AR. PLA, B

639°

τὸ
σι

Θ 30"

σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

with the attributes which they have in common in virtue
of some common element of their nature, and proceed from
this as a basis for the consideration of them separately ?
For genera that are quite distinct yet oftentimes present
many identical phenomena, sleep, for instance, respiration,
growth, decay, death,’ and other similar affections and
conditions, which may be passed over for the present, as
we are not yet prepared to treat of them with clearness
and precision. Now it is plain that if we deal with each
species independently of the rest, we shall frequently be
obliged to repeat the same statements over and over again ;
for horse and dog and man present, each and all, every one
of the phenomena just enumerated. A discussion therefore
of the attributes of each such species separately? would
necessarily involve frequent repetitions as to characters,
themselves identical but recurring in animals specifically
distinct. (Very possibly also there may be other characters
which, though they present specific differences, yet come
under one and the same category. For instance, flying,
swimming, walking, creeping, are plainly specifically dis-
tinct, but yet are all forms of animal progression.) We
must, then, have some clear understanding as to the manner
in which our investigation is to be conducted; whether,
I mean, we are first to deal with the common or generic
characters, and afterwards to take into consideration special
peculiarities ; or whether we are to start straight off with
the ultimate species. For as yet no definite rule has been
laid down in this matter. So also there is a like uncer-
tainty as to another point now to be mentioned. Ought
the writer who deals with the works of nature to follow the
plan adopted by the mathematicians in their astronomical
demonstrations, and after considering the phenomena pre-
sented by animals, and their several parts, proceed subse-
quently to treat of the causes and the reason why; or
ought he to follow some other method? And when these

‘ ? All of these, be it noted, as also the modes of progression men-
tioned a few sentences later on, were made subjects of special treatises
by A.

? Reading τὰ συμβεβηκότα for τῶν συμβεβηκότων.

BOOK I. 1 639°

questions are answered, there yet remains another. The
causes concerned in the generation of the works of nature
are, as we see, more than one. There is the final cause and
there is the motor cause. Now we must decide which of
these two causes comes first, which second. Plainly,
however, that cause is the first which we call the final one.
For this is the Reason, and the Reason forms the starting- 15
point, alike in the works of art and in works of nature.
For consider how the physician or how the builder sets
about his work. Hestarts by forming for himself a definite
picture, in the one case perceptible to mind, in the other to
sense, of his end—the physician of health, the builder of
a house—and this he holds forward as the reason and
explanation of each subsequent step that he takes, and of
his acting in this or that way as the case may be. Now in 20
the works of nature the good end and the final cause is
still more dominant than in works of art such as these, nor
is necessity a factor with the same significance in them all ;
though almost all writers, while they try to refer their
origin to this cause, do so without distinguishing the various
senses in which the term necessity is used. For there is
absolute necessity, manifested in eternal phenomena ; and 2
there is hypothetical necessity, manifested in everything
that is generated by nature as in everything that is produced
by art, be it a house or what it may. For if a house or
other such final object is to be realized, it is necessary that
such and such material shall exist ; and it is necessary that
first this and then that shall be produced, and first this and
then that set in motion, and so on in continuous succession, 30
until the end and final result is reached, for the sake of
which each prior thing is produced and exists. As with
these productions of art, so also is it with the productions
of nature. The mode of necessity, however, and the mode
of ratiocination are different in natural science! from what 6407
they are in the theoretical sciences ;? of which we have

1 We might add, ‘and in art.’

* A. divides the sciences into three groups (M/etaph. E. 1). Firstly,
the Zheoretical, which are purely intellectual and not concerned with

action. In this are comprised Metaphysics, Physics, and Mathematics.
Secondly the Practical; and thirdly, the Constructive or Artistic.

640" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

spoken elsewhere. For in the latter the starting-point is
that which is; in the former that which is to be. For it is

5 that which is yet to be—health, let us say, or a man—that,
owing to its being of such and such characters, necessitates
the pre-existence or previous production of this and that
antecedent ; and not this or that antecedent which, because
it exists or has been generated, makes it necessary that
health or a man is in, or shall come into, existence. Nor
is it possible to trace back the series of necessary ante-
cedents to a starting-point, of which you can say that,
existing itself from eternity, it has determined their exist-
ence as its consequent. These however, again, are matters

το that have been dealt with in another treatise. There too it
was stated in what cases absolute and hypothetical necessity
exist ; in what cases also the proposition expressing hypo-
thetical necessity is simply convertible, and what cause it is
that determines this convertibility.’

The Practical and the Artistic comprehend action as well as intelli-
gence ; but differ from each other, in that the Practical have no other
result than the action itself; whereas the Constructive or Artistic, when
the action is over, leave as its result a substantial product.

The contrast in the text is between the theoretical and the con-
structive sciences ; among which latter, A. here inconsistently includes
ἡ φυσική ; and the points of contrast are as follows. The theoretical
philosopher starts from certain eternal facts or verities (τὸ éy)—the
mathematician for instance from his axioms—and proceeds to deduce
from these those consequences which are linked to them by absolute
necessity. The artist, on the other hand, or nature, the chief of artists,
starts from an ideal conception, not yet existent in matter, but to be
realized in the future (rd ἐσόμενον). Starting trom this, he reasons
backwards through the antecedent steps that are necessary, if the
conception is to be realized. The realization of my conception £, he
says, requires first the realization of 7); if D is to be produced, there
must previously be C; C again requires δ᾽ for,its production; and
so farther and farther back, until he reaches a link in the chain of
antecedents, let us say A, the material production of which is within
his power. Here the ratiocination ceases, and construction begins.
He produces 4 ; then by means of 4 produces }, from ZB produces C,
and so on, retracing his previous steps, until he reaches Δ, the con-
ception of which was his starting-point, as its, material realization is
his end.

1 (Cf. De G. οἱ C. ii. 9-11.) The following is a brief abstract of A.’s
views. The only motion capable of being eternal is motion ina circle;
and the only element endowed with a rotatory motion is the celestial
aether. The heavenly bodies consist of this; and they alone are
individually eternal. The Divinity, however, wishing to give the
things of earth as near an approach to eternity as is compatible with
their being made of other elements than aether, caused their motions

BOOK FT. 1

Another matter which must not be passed over without
consideration is, whether the proper subject of our exposi-
tion is that with which the ancient writers concerned them-
selves, namely, what is the process of formation of each
animal; or whether it is not rather, what are the characters
of a given creature when formed. For there is no small
difference between these two views. The best course
appears to be that we should follow the method already
mentioned, and begin with the phenomena presented by
each group of animals, and, when this is done, proceed
afterwards to state the causes of those phenomena, and to
deal with their evolution. For elsewhere, as for instance
in house building, this is the true sequence. The plan of
the house, or the house, has this and that form; and
because it has this and that form, therefore is its con-
struction carried out inthis or that manner. For the process
of evolution is for the sake of the thing finally evolved,
and not this for the sake of the process. Empedocles,
then, was in error when he said that many of the cha-
racters presented by animals were merely the results of
incidental occurrences during their development; for in-

to be so affected by that of the celestial bodies as to simulate rotation
in the only way possible, namely by a cyclical arrangement of their
serial phenomena. Not only is this manifested in the periodicity of
many phenomena (G. A. iv. το. 777” 16), but still more in the successive
stages of the evolution of organisms, these stages being so arranged as to
form a circle. Germ, foetus, infant, man, and then germ again, and so
on in eternal succession. Thus a simulacrum of eternity is impressed
on even perishable things in the only way possible for them (De Az.
li. 4. 41594; G. A. ii. 1. 731% 32); an eternity, however, which differs
from that of the celestial bodies, in that it does not attach to the
individual but to the species. For in the cycle—germ, foetus, man,
germ—it is not the same germ, but only a similar one, in which the
circle iscompleted. Each term in such a cycle is at once the antecedent
and the consequent of all the rest. Man necessarily presupposes germ,
and germ as necessarily presupposes man. Any hypothetical proposi-
tion then that states the necessary relation of any two of the terms—
e.g. if there is to be a man there must necessarily be a germ-— is
capable of simple conversion— viz. if there is to be a germ there must
necessarily be a man.

By the ‘ propositions expressing hypothetical necessity and capable
of simple conversion’ A. means, then, all those in which two stages in
the cyclical evolution of an organism are placed as antecedent and con-
sequent. By the ‘cause which determines this’ he may mean either
the action of the heavenly bodies upon terrestrial bodies ; or possibly,
going a stage farther back, the purpose of the Divinity in the con-
struction of the world.

640°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

stance, that the backbone was divided as it is into vertebrae,
because it happened to be broken owing to the contorted
position of the foetus inthe womb. In so saying he over-
looked the fact that propagation implies a creative! seed
endowed with certain formative properties. Secondly, he
neglected another fact, namely, that the parent animal

25 pre-exists, not only in idea, but actually in time. For

man is generated from man; and thus it is the possession
of certain characters by the parent that determines the
development of like characters in the child. The same
statement holds good also for the operations of art, and
even for those which are apparently spontaneous. For
the same result as is produced by art may occur sponta-
neously. Spontaneity, for instance, may bring about the
restoration of health. The products of art, however, require
the pre-existence of an efficient cause homogeneous with
themselves, such as the statuary’s art, which must neces-
sarily precede the statue; for this cannot possibly be
produced spontaneously. Art indeed consists in the con-
ception of the result to be produced before its realization in
the material. As with spontaneity, so with chance;* for

1 For συστών read συνιστάν (Platt).

2 No reason is here given as to how the desirable result of Chance
or Spontaneity can be said to occur for the sake of such end. The
explanation seems to be as follows :—

In the living body there are series of concatenated motions, estab-
lished by nature or habit, to produce each some desirable end. If
any one of these motions 'be set a- going, the rest of the series follow
automatically in due succession till the end is attained (ὅταν ἀρχὴ
γένηται. κινήσεως, ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς αὐτομάτοις θαύμασι, συνείρεται τὸ ἐφεξῆς,
G. A. ii. 5.741» 8). Such ἃ series is that which terminates in Health,
and its final terms are Heat, Uniform bodily condition (Grane):
Health. The man of Art, i.e. the physician, says, in order to restore
Health I must obtain ὁμαλότης ; to obtain this Heat is required; Heat
again will follow on Friction. Here then he has come to something
within his power. He applies Friction, and Heat, Equable Condition,
Health followin due order. But Friction may be applied by mere
Chance and set the mechanism going that ends in Health. In such
case the result may be said to be produced zztentionally, as it is
produced by machinery intentionally set up by nature with a view to ©
that end. It is only in the case of bodies that possess such inherent
capacity for self-motion (ota κινεῖσθαι ὑφ᾽ αὑτῆς) that chance can do the
work of Art. Results that Art produces from a purely inert material,
6. g. a statue, are quite beyond the power of Chance. Cf. PAys. ii. 4-6,
Metaph. Z. 7-9.

5. Accident is called Chance—or preferably Luck—when the accidental

BOOK τὺ 640°

this also produces the same result as art, and by the same
process.

The fittest mode, then, of treatment is to say, a man has
such and such parts, because the conception of a man in-
cludes their presence, and because they are necessary con-
ditions of his existence, or, if we cannot quite say this, which 35
would be best of all, then the next thing to it, namely,
that it is either quite! impossible for him to exist without
them, or, at any rate, that it is better for him that they
should be there ; and their existence involves the existence
of other antecedents. Thus we should say, because man 640?
is an animal with such and such characters, therefore is
the process of his development necessarily such as it is ;
and therefore is it accomplished in such and such an
order, this part being formed first, that next, and so on
in succession ; and after a like fashion should we explain
the evolution of all other works of nature.

Now that with which the ancient writers, who first philo- 5
sophized about Nature, busied themselves, was the material
principle and the material cause. They inquired what this
is, and what its character ; how the universe is generated
out of it, and by what motor influence, whether, for in-
stance, by antagonism or friendship, whether by intelligence
or spontaneous action, the substratum of matter being
assumed to have certain inseparable properties; fire, for
instance, to have a hot nature, earth a cold one; the former τὸ
to be light, the latter heavy. For even the genesis of the
universe is thus explained by them. After a like fashion
do they deal also with the development of plants and of
animals. They say, for instance, that the water? contained
in the body causes by its currents the formation of the
stomach and the other receptacles of food or of excretion ;
and that the breath by its passage breaks open the outlets
of the nostrils; air and water being the materials of which

σι

agent acts with intention, though not with the intention of producing
the result that actually occurs. It is called Spontaneity when the
agent has no intention at all. It is the intermixture of semi-intention
that gives force to the line τύχη τέχνην ἔστερξε καὶ τέχνη τύχην.

1 For ὅλως ὅτι read ὅτι ὅλως (2).

5. Omitting ὅτι.

640° DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

bodies are made; for all represent nature as composed
of such or similar substances.

But if men and animals and their several parts are natural
phenomena, then the natural philosopher must take into
consideration not merely the ultimate substances of which
they are made, but also flesh, bone, blood, and all the other

20 homogeneous parts; not only these, but also the hetero-
geneous parts, such as face, hand, foot ; and must examine
how each of these comes to be what it is, and in virtue
of what force. For to say what are the ultimate substances
out of which an animal is formed, to state, for instance, that
it is made of fire or earth, is no more sufficient than would
be a similar account in the case of a couch or the like.
For we should not be content with saying that the couch
was made of bronze or wood or whatever it might be, but

25 Should try to describe its design or mode of composition in
preference to the material; or, if we did deal with the
material, it would at any rate be with the concretion of
material and form. For a couch is such and such a form
embodied in this or that matter, or such and such a matter
with this or that form; so that its shape and structure
must be included in our description. For the formal nature
is of greater importance than the material nature.

30 ~=©Does, then, configuration and colour constitute the essence
of the various animals and of their several parts? For if so,
what Democritus says will be strictly correct. For such
appears to have been his notion. At any rate he says that
it is evident to every one what form it is that makes the
man, seeing that he is recognizable by his shape and colour.

35 And yet a dead body has exactly the same configuration as
a living one; but for all that is not a man. So also no
hand of bronze or wood or constituted in any but the
appropriate way can possibly be a hand in more than name.

641° For like a physician in a painting, or like a flute in a sculp-
ture, in spite of its name it will be unable to do the office
which that name implies. Precisely in the same way no
part of a dead body, such I mean as its eye or its hand, is

5 really an eye or a hand. To say, then, that shape and
colour constitute the animal is an inadequate statement,

BOOK Wx

and is much the same as if a woodcarver were to insist that
the hand he had cut out was reallya hand. Yet the physio-
logists, when they give an account of the development
and causes of the animal form, speak very much like
such a craftsman. What, however, I would ask, are the
forces by which the hand or the body was fashioned into
its shape? The woodcarver will perhaps say, by the axe

641°

or the auger; the physiologist, by air and by earth. Of το

these two answers the artificer’s is the better, but it is
nevertheless insufficient. For it is not enough for him to
say that by the stroke of his tool this part was formed
into a concavity, that into a flat surface; but he must state
the reasons why he struck his blow in such a way as to
effect this, and what his final object was ; namely, that the
piece of wood should develop eventually into this or that
shape. It is plain, then, that the teaching of the old
physiologists is inadequate, and that the true method is to
state what the definitive characters are that distinguish the
animal as a whole; to explain what it is both in substance
and in form, and to deal after the same fashion with its
several organs ; in fact, to proceed in exactly the same way
as we should do, were we giving a complete description of
a couch.

If now this something that constitutes the form of the
living being be the soul, or part of the soul, or something
that without the soul cannot exist ; as would seem to be the
case, seeing at any rate that when the soul departs, what is
left is no longer a living animal, and that none of the parts
remain what they were before, excepting in mere con-
figuration, like the animals that in the fable are turned into
stone; if, I say, this be so, then it will come within the
province of the natural philosopher to inform himself con-
cerning the soul, and to treat of it, either in its entirety, or,
at any rate, of that part of it which constitutes the essential
character of an animal; and it will be his duty to say what
this soul or this part of a soul is; and to discuss the attri-
butes that attach to this essential character, especially as
nature is spoken of in two senses, and the nature of a thing
is either its matter or its essence ; nature as essence includ-

-
ο

τὸ

641°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

ing both the motor cause and the final cause. Now it is in
the latter of these two senses that either the whole soul or
some part of it constitutes the nature of an animal; and
inasmuch as it is the presence of the soul that enables
matter to constitute the animal nature, much more than
it is the presence of matter which so enables the soul, the
inquirer into nature is bound on every ground to treat
of the soul rather than of the matter. For though the
wood of which they are made constitutes the couch and the
tripod, it only does so because it is capable of receiving
such and such a form,

What has been said suggests the question, whether it
is the whole soul or only some part of it, the consideration
of which comes within the province of natural science. Now
if it be of the whole soul that this should treat, then there
is no place for any other philosophy beside it. For as
it belongs in all cases to one and the same science to deal
with correlated subjects—one and the same science, for
instance, deals with sensation and with the objects of sense—
and as therefore the intelligent soul and the objects of
intellect, being correlated, must belong to one and the
same science, it follows that natural science will have to
include the whole universe in its province. But perhaps it
is not the whole soul, nor all its parts collectively, that con-
stitutes the source of motion; but there may be one part,
identical with that in plants, which is the source of growth,
another, namely the sensory part, which is the source of
change of quality, while still another, and this not the
intellectual part, is the source of locomotion. I say not the
intellectual part ; for other animals than man have the power
of locomotion, but in none but him is there intellect. Thus
then it is plain that it is not of the whole soul that we have
to treat. For it is not the whole soul that constitutes the
animal nature, but only some part or parts of it. Moreover,
it is impossible that any abstraction can form a subject
of natural science, seeing that everything that Nature inakes
is means to an end. For just as human creations are the
products of art, so living objects are manifestly the products
of an analogous cause or principle, not external but internal,

BOOK TF. Ὶ

derived like the hot and the cold! from the environing
universe. And that the heaven, if it had an origin, was
evolved and is maintained by such a cause, there is there-
fore even more reason to believe, than that mortal animals
so originated. For order and definiteness are much more
plainly manifest in the celestial bodies than in our own
frame ; while change and chance are characteristic of the
perishable things of earth. Yet there are some who, while
they allow that every animal exists and was generated by
nature, nevertheless hold that the heaven was constructed

to be what it is by chance and spontaneity ; the heaven, in

which not the faintest sign of hap-hazard or of disorder
is discernible! Again, whenever there is plainly some final
end, to which a motion tends should nothing stand in the
way, we always say that such final end is the aim or purpose
of the motion ; and from this it is evident that there must
be a something or other really existing, corresponding to
what we call by the name of Nature. Fora given germ
does not give rise to any chance living being, nor spring
from any chance one; but each germ springs from a definite
parent and gives rise to a definite progeny. And thus it is
the germ that is the ruling influence and fabricator of the
offspring. For these it is by nature, the offspring being at
any rate that which in nature will spring from it. At
the same time the offspring is anterior? to the germ; for
germ and perfected progeny are related as the develop-
mental process and the result.’ Anterior, however, to both
germ and product is the organism from which the germ
was derived. For every germ implies two organisms, the
parent and the progeny. For germ or seed is both the seed
of the organism from which it came, of the horse, for
instance, from which it was derived, and the seed of the
organism that will eventually arise from it, of the mule, for
example, which is developed from the seed of the horse.
The same seed then is the seed both of the horse and
of the mule, though in different ways as here set forth.
1 And the other material elements of our bodies.

* That is to say, in the order of thought.
5 And result is in thought anterior to evolution.

641”

to
°

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DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

Moreover, the seed is potentially that which will spring from
it, and the relation of potentiality to actuality we know.!

There are then two causes, namely, necessity and the
final end. For many things are produced, simply.as the
results of necessity. It may, however, be asked, of what
mode of necessity 2 are we speaking when we say this. For
it can be of neither of those two modes which are set forth
in the philosophical treatises.? There is, however, the
third mode, in such things at any rate as are generated.
For instance, we say that food is necessary; because an
animal cannot possibly do without it. This third mode is
what may be called hypothetical necessity. Here is another
example of it. Ifa piece of wood is to be split with an axe,
the axe must of necessity be hard; and, if hard, must
of necessity be made of bronze or iron. Now exactly
in the same way the body, which like the axe is an instru-
ment—for both the body as a whole and its several parts
jndividually have definite operations for which they are
made——just in the same way, I say, the body, if it is to do
its work, must of necessity be of such and sucha character,
and made of such and such materials.

It is plain then that there are two modes of causation,
and that both of these must, so far as possible, be taken
into account in explaining the works of nature, or that
at any rate an attempt must be made to include them
both ;* and that those who fail in this tell us in reality

1 We know, that is, to be that of consequent to antecedent.

? As A. has fully explained what he means by Hypothetical Neces-
sity only a few pages back, it is strange that he should now deal with
it again in terms that seem to imply that he is stating something quite
new. Very possibly the whole of this long paragraph is an inter-
polation.

3 Elsewhere (JZefaph. iv. 5) A. speaks of three kinds of necessity,
Absolute necessity, Necessity of coercion (as when a weaker agent 15
constrained by a stronger one), and Hypothetical necessity. There is
also another passage (PAys. 11. 9) in which he deals with necessity,
and distinguishes, as in the text, two kinds, Absolute and Hypotheticel.
Plainly, however, it can be to neither of these passages that he is now
referring. ‘The passage wherever it is, or was, must have been one in
which the two modes of necessity distinguished from each other were
Absolute and Coercive necessity. It may perhaps have been contained
in the lost dialogue on Philosophy ; concerning which see Heitz, Dze
verlor. Schrift. da. Arist. 179.

* Reading εἰ δὲ μή, πειρᾶσθαί ye ποιεῖν τοῦτο, δῆλον.

BOOK. Τὺ 642"

nothing about nature. For primary! cause constitutes the
nature of an animal much more than does its matter.
There are indeed passages in which even Empedocles hits
upon this, and following the guidance of fact, finds himself
constrained to speak of the ratio (6 Adyos) as constitut-
ing the essence and real nature of things. Such, for
instance, is the case when he explains what is a bone. For
he does not merely describe its material, and say it is this
one element, or those two or three elements, or a compound
of all the elements, but states the ratio (6 Adyos) of their
combination.2 As with a bone, so manifestly is it with the
flesh and all other similar parts.

The reason why our predecessors failed in hitting upon 25
this method of treatment was, that they were not in pos-
session of the notion of essence, nor of any definition of
substance. The first who came near it was Democritus,
and he was far from adopting it as a necessary method
in natural science, but was merely brought to it, spite of
himself, by constraint of facts. In the time of Socrates
a nearer approach was made to the method. But at this
period men gave up inquiring into the works of nature, and
philosophers diverted their attention to political science 30
and to the virtues which benefit mankind.

Of the method itself the following is an example. In
dealing with respiration we must show that it takes place
for such or such a final object ; and we must also show that
this and that part of the process is necessitated by this and
that other stage of it. By necessity we shall sometimes
mean hypothetical necessity, the necessity, that is, that the
requisite antecedents shall be there, if the final end is to be
reached ; and sometimes absolute necessity, such necessity
as that which connects substances and their inherent pro-
perties and characters. For the alternate discharge and re- 33

τὸ
ο

Τα, 6. the final cause ; for, as said earlier in the chapter, ‘that cause

is the first which we call the final.’

* Both Empedocles and Aristotle can speak of the λόγος of a bone,
but in different senses ; Empedocles meaning no more than the pro-
portion or ratio of the several component parts of bone; while Aris-
totle means the reason or cause of such composition, and professes to
believe that Empedocles meant something of the same kind.

642"

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DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

entrance of heat and the inflow of air are necessary if we are
to live. Here we have at once a necessity in the former of
the two senses. But the alternation of heat and refrigeration
produces of necessity an alternate admission and discharge
of the outer air, and this is a necessity of the second
kind.

In the foregoing we have an example of the method
which we must adopt, and also an example of the kind
of phenomena, the causes of which we have to investigate.

Some? writers propose to reach the definitions of the 2
ultimate forms of animal life by bipartite division. But
this method is often difficult, and often impracticable.

Sometimes the final differentia of the subdivision is
sufficient by itself, and the antecedent differentiae are mere
surplusage. Thus in the series Footed, Two-footed, Cleft-
footed,’ the last term is all-expressive by itself, and to
append the higher terms is only an idle iteration.

Again it is not permissible to break up a natural group,
Birds for instance, by putting its members under different
bifurcations, as is done in the published dichotomies, where
some birds are ranked with animals of the water, and others
placed in a different class. The group Birds and the group
Fishes happen to be named, while other natural groups
have no popular names; for instance, the groups that we
may call Sanguineous and Bloodless are not known popu-
larly by any designations. If such natural groups are not
to be broken up, the method of Dichotomy cannot be
employed, for it necessarily involves such breaking up and
dislocation. The group of the Many-footed, for instance,

* This passage defies all other than a paraphrastic rendering with
some expansion.

2 Alluding to Plato’s method of dividing downwards until by suc-
cessive bifurcations the infima species is at last reached. Examples
of this method, adscissio infinttz, will be found in the Sophistes
and Politicus. These are apparently the ‘ published dichotomies’ of
which A. speaks ; and it is to them that his criticisms in this and
the two next chapters have immediate reference. The main interest
of these chapters to the biologist lies in the evidence they give that
the idea of natural classification had occurred to Aristotle, their
whole drift indeed being to uphold the claims of natural as opposed to
artificial systems. 3 Omitting ἄπουν.

ΒΟΟΚΊΙ. 2 642"

would, under this method, have to be dismembered, and
some of its kinds distributed among land animals, others 20
among water animals.

8 Again, privative terms inevitably form one branch of
dichotomous division, as we see in the proposed dicho-
tomies. But privative terms in their character of privatives
admit of no subdivision. For there can be no specific
forms of a negation, of Featherless for instance or of Foot-
less, as there are of Feathered and of Footed. Yet a
generic differentia must be subdivisible ; for otherwise what 25
is there that makes it generic rather than specific? There
are to be found generic, that is specifically subdivisible,
differentiae; Feathered for instance and Footed. For
feathers are divisible into Barbed and Unbarbed, and feet
into Manycleft, and Twocleft, like those of animals with
bifid hoofs, and Uncleft or Undivided, like those of
animals with solid hoofs. Now even with differentiae 30
capable of this specific subdivision it is difficult enough
so to make the classification, as that each animal shall be
comprehended in some one subdivision and in not more
than one ; but far more difficult, nay impossible, is it to do
this, if we start with a dichotomy into two contradictories. 35
(Suppose for instance we start with the two contradictories,’
Feathered and Unfeathered; we shall find that the ant,?
the glow-worm, and some other animals fall under both
divisions.) For each differentia must be presented by some
species. There must be some species, therefore, under the
privative heading. Now specifically distinct animals cannot 643*
present in their essence a common undifferentiated element,
but any apparently common element must really be diffe-
rentiated. (Bird and Man for instance are both Two-footed,
but their two-footedness is diverse and differentiated. So
any two sanguineous groups must have some difference in
their blood, if their blood is part of their essence.) From

For ἄναιμα read ἐναντία.
2 The wing of an insect was held by A. to be a feather (πτερόν, not
πτέρυξ), differing, however, from the feather of a bird in being without

barbs and without shaft (ἄσχιστον and ἄκαυλον) and also in its mode of
origin (cf. iv. 6. 682” 18).

643" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

this it follows that a privative term, being insusceptible

5 of differentiation, cannot be a generic differentia; for, if
it were, there would be a common undifferentiated element
in two different groups.

Again, if the species are ultimate indivisible groups, that
is, are groups with indivisible differentiae, and ifno differentia
be common to several groups, the number of differentiae
must be equal to the number of species. Ifa differentia
though not divisible could yet be' common to several

το groups, then it is plain that in virtue of that common
differentia specifically distinct animals would fall into the
same division. It is necessary then, if the differentiae, under
which are ranged all the ultimate and indivisible groups, are
specific characters, that none of them shall be common; for
otherwise, as already said, specifically distinct animals will
come into one and the same division. But this would
violate one of the requisite conditions, which are as follows.
No ultimate group must be included in more than a single

15 division ; different groups must not be included in the same
division; and every group must be found in some division.
It is plain then that we cannot get at the ultimate specific
forms of the animal, or any other, kingdom by bifurcate
division. If we could, the number of ultimate differentiae

20 would equal the number of ultimate animal forms.? For
assume an order of beings whose prime differentiae are
White and Black.* Each of these branches will bifurcate,
and their branches again, and so on till we reach the
ultimate differentiae, whose number will be four or some
other power of two, and will also be the number of the
ultimate species comprehended in the order.

(A species is constituted by the combination of differentia

25 and matter.t For no part of an animal is purely material
or purely immaterial ; nor can a body, independently of its
condition, constitute an animal or any of its parts, as has

repeatedly been observed.)°
1 Omitting μή with Titze.

And that, he implies, is inconceivable.

5 For τὰ λευκά read τὸ λευκὸν καὶ τὸ μέλαν (Edit, nonnulli).

* Reading ἐν τῇ ὕλῃ τὸ εἶδος (Y).

"6.9; at i. 1. O41" TO.

BOOK 5

Further, the differentiae must be elements of the essence,
and not merely essential attributes. Thus if Figure is the
term to be divided, it must not be divided into figures
whose angles are equal to two right angles, and figures
whose angles are together greater than two right angles.
For it is only an attribute of a triangle and not part of
its essence that its angles are equal to two right angles.

Again, the bifurcations must be opposites, like White and
Black, Straight and Bent; and if we characterize one
branch by either term, we must characterize the other by
its opposite, and not, for example, characterize one branch
by a colour, the other by a mode of progression, swimming
for instance.

Furthermore, living beings cannot be divided! by the
functions common to body and soul, by Flying, for instance,
and Walking, as we see them divided in the dichotomies
already referred to. For some groups, Ants for instance,
fall under both divisions, some ants flying while others do
not. Similarly as regards the division into Wild and
Tame ; for it also would involve the disruption of a species
into different groups. For in almost all species in which
some members are tame, there are other members that are
wild. Such, for example, is the case with Men, Horses,
Oxen, Dogs in India, Pigs, Goats, Sheep; groups which,
if double, ought to have what they have not, namely,
different appellations; and which, if single, prove that
Wildness and Tameness do not amount to specific differ-
ences. And whatever? single element we take as a basis of
division the same difficulty will occur.

The method then that we must adopt is to attempt
to recognize the natural groups, following the indications
afforded by the instincts of mankind, which led them for
instance to form the class of Birds and the class of Fishes,
each of which groups combines a multitude of differentiae,
and is not defined by a single one as in dichotomy. The
method of dichotomy is either impossible (for it would put
a single group under different divisions or contrary groups

1 Reading οὐ δεῖ διαιρεῖν (Gaza).
5 Reading ὁποιᾳοῦν (Y) and διαφορᾷ (EY).

AR. P.A, ἰδ;

643"

w
ο

643”

σι

643"

τὸ
σι

644"

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

under the same division), or it only furnishes a single
ultimate differentia for ‘each species, which either alone
or with its series of antecedents has to constitute the
ultimate species.

If, again, a new differential character be introduced at
any stage into the division, the necessary result is that the
continuity of the division becomes merely a unity and con-
tinuity of agglomeration, like the unity and continuity of
a series of sentences coupled together by conjunctive par-
ticles. For instance, suppose we have the bifurcation
Feathered and Featherless, and then divide Feathered into
Wild and Tame, or into White and Black. Tame and
White are not a differentiation of Feathered, but are the
commencement of an independent bifurcation, and are
foreign to the series at the end of which they are introduced.

As we said then, we must define at the outset by a multi-
plicity of differentiae. If we do so, privative terms will be
available, which are unavailable to the dichotomist.

The impossibility of reaching the definition of any of
the ultimate forms by dichotomy of the larger group, as
some propose, is manifest also from the following con-
siderations. It is impossible that a single differentia, either
by itself or with its antecedents, shall express the whole
essence of a species. (In saying a single differentia by
itself I mean such an isolated differentia as Cleft-footed ; in
saying a single differentia with antecedent I mean, to give
an instance, Many-cleft-footed preceded by Cleft-footed.!
The very continuity of a series of successive differentiae in
a division is intended to show that it is their combination
that expresses the character of the resulting unit, or ultimate
group. But one is misled by the usages of language into
imagining that it is merely the final term of the series,
Many-cleft-footed for instance, that constitutes the whole
differentia, and that the antecedent terms, Footed, Cleft-
footed, are superfluous.2, Now it is evident that such a

1 For πρὸς τὸ σχιζύπουν read πρὸς τῷ σχιζόπουν (Platt).

ΞΊη the text as it stands the terms of several distinct series of
differentiae are mixed together with much confusion. If, however,

we omit ἢ τὸ δίπουν, and substitute σχιζόπουν for πολύπουν, as I have
ventured to do in the translation, the terms of only one series—

BOOK A. 2

series cannot consist of many terms. For if one divides
and subdivides, one soon reaches the final differential term,
but for all that will not have got to the ultimate division,
that is, to the species.) No single differentia, I repeat, either
by itself or with its antecedents, can possibly express the
essence of a species. Suppose, for example, Man to be the
animal to be defined ; the single differentia will be Cleft-
footed, either by itself or with its antecedents, Footed and
Two-footed.1. Now if man was nothing more than a Cleft-
footed animal, this single ? differentia would duly represent
his essence. But seeing that this is not the case, more
differentiae than this one will necessarily be required to
define him; and these cannot come under one division ;
for each single branch of a dichotomy ends in a single
differentia, and cannot possibly include several differentiae
belonging to one and the same animal.

It is impossible then to reach any of the ultimate animal
forms by dichotomous division.

It deserves inquiry why a single name denoting a higher
group was not invented by mankind, as an appellation
to comprehend the two groups of Water animals and
Winged animals. For even these have certain attributes
in common.? However, the present nomenclature is just.
Groups that only differ in degree, and in the more or less of
an identical element that they possess, are aggregated
under a single class; groups whose attributes are not
identical but analogous are separated. For instance, bird
differs from bird by gradation, or by excess and defect ;
some birds have long feathers, others short ones, but all are
feathered. Bird and Fish are more remote and only agree
Footed, Cleft-footed, Many-cleft-footed—are used, and the passage
becomes intelligible and clear.

1 If the text be correct, which the many different readings make
doubtful, A. is speakirg carelessly ; for Many-cleft-footed clearly does
not imply Two-footed, seeing that many. quadrupeds are πολυσχιδή.
Much alteration would be required to make the passage logically
accurate. It might, however, be done by reading ἢ τὸ πολυσχιδὲς μόνον
instead of ἢ τὸ σχιζόπουν μόνον, and for ὑπόπουν δίπουν σχιζόπουν reading
ὑπόπουν σχιζόπουν πολυσχιδές ; and then πολυσχιδές after ἄνθρωπος.

2 Read αὕτη ἡ μία.

3 Omit καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις.

644° DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

in having analogous organs ; for what in the bird is feather,
in the fish is scale. Such analogies can scarcely, however,
serve universally as indications for the formation of groups,
for almost all animals present analogies in their correspond-
ing parts.

The individuals’ comprised within a species, such as
Socrates and Coriscus, are the real existences ; but inas-
much as these individuals possess one common specific

25 form, it will suffice to state the universal attributes of the
species, that is, the attributes common to all its individuals,
once for all, as otherwise there will be endless reiteration,
as has already been pointed out.?

But as regards the larger groups—such as Birds—which
comprehend many species, there may be a question. For
on the one hand it may be urged that as the ultimate
species represent the real existences, it will be well, if

30 practicable, to examine these ultimate species separately,
just as we examine the species Man separately ; to ex-
amine, that is, not the whole class Birds collectively, but
the Ostrich, the Crane, and the other indivisible groups
or species belonging to the class.

On the other hand, however, this course would involve re-

35 peated mention of the same attribute, as the same attribute is
644” common to many species, and so far would be somewhat
irrational and tedious. Perhaps, then, it will be best to
treat generically the universal] attributes of the groups that
have a common nature and contain closely allied sub-
ordinate forms, whether they are groups recognized by
5a true instinct of mankind, such as Birds and Fishes, or
groups not popularly known by a common appellation, but
withal composed of closely allied subordinate groups ; and
only to deal individually with the attributes of a single
species, when such species—man, for instance, and any
other such, if such there be—stands apart from others, and
does not constitute with them a larger natural group.

1 By ra ἔσχατα εἴδη, if such be the true reading, must here be meant
‘the ultimate forms’, i.e. the individuals comprised in a species, as
rendered above. This, however, seems a scarcely tenable translation
of the words, and I prefer, as a possible emendation, that we should
read ra ἔσχατα without εἴδη.

2 ΘΕ te 6307727.

BOOK I. 4 644°

It is generally similarity in the shape of particular organs,
or of the whole body, that has determined the formation of
the larger groups. It is in virtue of such a similarity that
Birds, Fishes, Cephalopoda, and Testacea have been made τὸ
to form each a separate class. For within the limits of
each such class, the parts do not differ in that they have no
nearer resemblance than that of analogy—such as exists
between the bone of man and the spine of fish—but differ
merely in respect of such corporeal conditions as largeness
smallness, softness hardness, smoothness roughness, and
other similar oppositions, or, in one word, in respect of 15
degree.

We have now touched upon the canons for criticizing the
method of natural science, and have considered what is the’
most systematic and easy course of investigation ; we have
also dealt with division, and the mode of conducting it so
as best to attain the ends of science, and have shown why
dichotomy is either impracticable or inefficacious for its
professed purposes.

Having laid this foundation, let us pass on to our next
topic.

τὸ
ο

5. Of things constituted by nature some are ungenerated,
imperishable, and eternal, while others are subject to
generation and decay. The former are excellent beyond
compare and divine, but less accessible to knowledge. The
evidence that might throw light on them, and on the
problems which we long to solve respecting them, is fur-
nished but scantily by sensation ; whereas respecting perish-
able plants and animals we have abundant information,
living as we do in their midst, and ample data may be 30
collected concerning all their various kinds, if only we are
willing to take sufficient pains. Both departments, how-
ever, have their special charm. The scanty conceptions to
which we can attain of celestial things give us, from their
excellence, more pleasure than all our knowledge of the

te
σι

ΤΟ A.’s μαλάκια do not correspond to our Mollusca, though often so
rendered, but to the limited and well-defined group of Cephalopoda ;
and the term is so translated in the rest of this treatise.

644" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

35 world in which we live ; just as a half glimpse of persons
that we love is more delightful than a leisurely view of
645° other things, whatever their number and dimensions. On
the other hand, in certitude and in completeness our know-
ledge of terrestrial things has the advantage. Moreover,
their greater nearness and affinity to us balances somewhat
the loftier interest of the heavenly things that are the
objects of the higher philosophy. Having already treated

5 of the celestial world, as far as our conjectures could reach,
we proceed to treat of animals, without omitting, to the
best of our ability, any member of the kingdom, however
ignoble. For if some have no graces to charm the sense,
yet even these, by disclosing to intellectual perception the
artistic spirit that designed them, give immense pleasure to

10 41] who can trace links of causation, and are inclined to

philosophy. Indeed, it would be strange if mimic repre-
sentations of them were attractive, because they disclose
the mimetic skill of the painter or sculptor, and the original
realities themselves were not more interesting, to all at any
rate who have eyes to discern the reasons that determined
15 their formation. We therefore must not recoil with childish
aversion from the examination of the humbler animals.
Every realm of nature is marvellous: and as Heraclitus,
when the strangers who came to visit him found him warm-
ing himself at the furnace in the kitchen and hesitated

20 to go in, is reported to have bidden them not to be afraid
to enter, as even in that kitchen divinities were present, so
we should venture on the study of every kind of animal
without distaste ; for each and all will reveal to us some-
thing natural and something beautiful. Absence of hap-
hazard and conduciveness of everything to an end are to be
found in Nature’s works in the highest degree, and the
resultant end of her generations and combinations is a form
of the beautiful.

If any person thinks the examination of the rest of the
animal kingdom an unworthy task, he must hold in like
disesteem the study of man. For no one can look at the
primordia of the human frame—blood, flesh, bones, vessels,
3o and the like—without much repugnance. Moreover, when

σι

BOOK I. 5

any one of the parts or structures, be it which it may, is
under discussion, it must not be supposed that it is its
material composition to which attention is being directed
or which is the object of the discussion, but the relation of
such part to the total form. Similarly, the true object of
architecture is not bricks, mortar, or timber, but the house ;
and so the principal object of natural philosophy is not the
material elements, but their composition, and the totality
of the form, independently of which they have no existence.

The course of exposition must be first to state the
attributes common to whole groups of animals, and then to
attempt to give their explanation. Many groups, as already
noticed,! present common attributes, that is to say, in some
cases absolutely identical affections, and absolutely identical
organs,—feet, feathers, scales, and the like; while in other
groups the affections and organs are only so far identical
as that they are analogous. For instance, some groups
have lungs, others have no lung, but an organ analogous to
a lung in its place ; some have blood, others have no blood,
but a fluid analogous to blood,’ and with the same office.
To treat of the common attributes in connexion with each
individual group would involve, as already suggested,
uselessiteration. For many groups have common attributes.
So much for this topic.

As every instrument and every bodily member subserves
some partial end, that is to say, some special action, so the
whole body must be destined to minister to some plenary
sphere of action. Thus the saw is made for sawing, for
sawing is a function, and not sawing for the saw. Similarly,
the body too must somehow or other be made for the soul,
and each part of it for some subordinate function, to which
it is adapted.

1 Cf. i. 1. 639% 18 and 27.

2 A. divides animals into those with and those without blood, mean-
ing exclusively ved blood. This division into Sanguineous and
Bloodless tallies closely with that into Vertebrates and Invertebrates,
but not completely. For in Amphioxus, usually classed as vertebrate,
the blood is colourless, while it is red in no few invertebrates, 6. g. in
Planorbis, Arca, Pectunculus, Solen legumen, &c., &c. Possibly it was
the red blood in some worms, 6. g. those common in pond-mud, that

led A. to consider worms generally to be immature eels (G. A. iii. 11.
762» 26, H. A. vi. 16. 570° 15).

645°

645"

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4
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DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

We have, then, first to describe the common functions,
common, that is, to the whole animal kingdom, or to certain
large groups, or to the members of a species. In other
words, we have to describe the attributes common to all
animals, or to assemblages, like the class of Birds, of closely
allied groups differentiated by gradation, or to groups like
Man not differentiated into subordinate groups. In the
first case the common attributes may be called analogous,
in the second generic, in the third specific.

When a function is ancillary to another, a like relation
manifestly obtains between the organs which discharge
these functions ; and similarly, if one function is prior to and
the end of another, their respective organs will stand to
each other in the same relation. Thirdly, the existence of
these parts involves that of other things as their necessary
consequents.!

Instances of what I mean by functions and affections are

5 Reproduction, Growth, Copulation, Waking, Sleep, Loco-

motion, and other similar vital actions. . Instances of what
I mean by parts are Nose, Eye, Face, and other so-called
members or limbs, and also the more elementary parts? of
which these are made. So much for the method to be
pursued. Let us now try to set forth the causes of all
vital phenomena, whether universal or particular, and in so
doing let us follow that order of exposition which conforms,
as we have indicated, to the order of nature.

1 Reading ἃ τούτων for τῶν. The meaning is plain from other
passages. Thus: ‘we must not always expect to find such a final
cause ; for granted the existence in the body of this or that constituent
with such and such properties, many results must ensue as necessary
results of these properties’ (iv. 2. 677 17); and again, ‘ everything
given by nature is either itself given for an end, or is the incidental
accompaniment of something else that is so given’ (De Ax. iii.
12. 434° 31). A.’s triple division may be illustrated by an example.
(1) The alimentary canal, as a whole, has the elaboration of food for
its plenary function. (2) The teeth, gullet, stomach, and intestines,
with their several offices, are ancillary to the last. (3) The fatty
omentum is held by A. (iv. 3. 677» 22) to be the necessary consequent
of the above parts, and to have no distinct function of its own.

* Such appears to be the meaning of τῶν ἄλλων ; μόρια that are not
μέρη; that is homogeneous as contrasted with heterogeneous parts.
Cf. ii, 1. 646® 20 note.

BOOK II

1 The nature and the number of the parts of which
animals are severally composed are matters which have
already been set forth in detail in the book of Researches
about Animals. We have now to inquire what are the
causes that in each case have determined this composition,
a subject quite distinct from that dealt with in the Re-
searches.'

Now there are three degrees of composition ; and of
these the first in order, as all will allow, is composition out
of what some call the elements, such as earth, air, water,
fire. Perhaps, however, it would be more accurate to say
composition out of the elementary forces ;* nor indeed out

1 In the “7151. Animalium (Books i.—iv. 7) the parts were described ;
their causes are now to be considered—a very different subject.

* The so-called elements, says A. elsewhere (Le C. ef C. ii. 2), are
not simple bodies but compounds, being produced by combinations
of the primary forces or active properties of matter. Tangible objects
differ from each other in endless ways, as regards colour, taste, smell,
ἃς. (AZefeor. iv. 10); but they are all either fluid or solid, and all either
hot or cold. Everything tangible presents two of these properties ; it
is either solid or fluid, and either hot or cold. There are then four
main elementary properties, and each object possesses two of them.
Now among four things there may be six combinations of two and two
(συζεύξεις) ; but the pairing of two directly opposite properties, as of
cold and hot, causes them both to disappear ; for they neutralize each
other. Thus only four combinations remain, and these correspond to
the four apparently simple bodies, fire, air, water, earth; solid and hot
forming fire; hot and fluid forming air, for air corresponds to vapour ;
fluid and cold forming water; cold and solid forming earth.

It is evident then why A. hoids it more accurate to say composition
from the elementary forces rather than from the elements, the former
being the components of the latter. It is plain also that when he says
‘nor out of all of them’, he means to exclude all other properties ex-
cepting the four main ones, two of which belong to every tangible object.
From these four primary properties, he says, all others are derived,
and in contrast to them may be called secondary. As to the mode in
which the secondary properties are deducible from the primary ones,
οἷς, 7)6 (ἃ. δὲ C. i. 2.

It will be noticed that A. uses the adjectival forms, hot, cold, solid,
fluid, and not the substantives, heat, fluidity, &c. For he is speaking
not of abstract properties, but of concrete substances. His views
(De G. et C. ii. 1) were as follows. There is one ultimate matter,

646"

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

of all of these, but out of a limited number of them, as
defined in previous treatises. For fluid and solid,! hot and
cold, form the material of all composite bodies ;? and all
other differences are secondary to these, such differences,
that is, as heaviness or lightness, density or rarity, roughness
or smoothness, and any other such properties of matter as
there may be. The second degree of composition is that
by which the homogeneous ® parts of animals, such as bone,

which forms the universal substratum of all terrestrial things. This
matter, however, has no existence in a condition of isolation, but is
invariably combined with some or other of the primary properties,
heat, fluidity, &c. Thus we have fluid matter, hot matter, solid matter,
cold matter ; but there is no such thing as simple matter by itself, any
more than there is such a thing as fluidity by itself. By hot, cold,
solid, fluid, A. means then the universal substratum in a state of heat,
coldness, solidity, or fluidity.

1 The traditional rendering of ὑγρόν and ξηρόν is Wet or Moist and
Dry. They are here rendered Fluid and Solid. For though these
terms are, as A. says (ii. 3. 649 9), used in several senses, the
definitions he gives of them (De G. e¢ C. ii. 2. 329 30) are distinctly
definitions of Fluid and Solid. He defines ὑγρόν (fluid) as ‘that
which has no definite boundary of its own but readily has one
imposed upon it’, meaning, of course, by the receptacle into which it is
poured; while ξηρόν (solid) is ‘that which has a definite boundary of
its own and resists the imposition of another’.

? By compound substances A. means all substances made by com-
binations of the elements. Every such compound, that is every
actually existing substance, contains, says A. (De G. εὐ C. ii. 8),
some proportion of every one of the four elementary substances. The
differences between substances depended therefore, not on differences
in the elements of which they were made, but on differences in the
ever-varying proportions in which these were combined to form them.

A. distinguished clearly enough between chemical combination and
mere mixture. In the former, he says (De G. e¢ C. i. 10), the combining
substances disappear with their properties, and a new substance with
new properties arises from their unification. In the latter the mixed
substances remain with all their properties, and it is merely the imper-
fection of our vision which prevents us from seeing the particles of
each lying side by side and separate. Had we the eyes of Lynceus
we should do so, however intimate the mixture might be. But though
A. thus distinguished chemical combination from mechanical mixture,
he had no notion of preferential affinities, nor, of course, of combination
in definite proportions. The elementary bodies combined with each
other with perfect indifference, and in any chance proportions. There
was thus no such thing as definite composition, and consequently no
such thing as definite properties, in substances. One piece of matter
might resemble another more or less, but that it should be identical
with it in composition and therefore in properties was, in the infinity
of possibilities, so improbable as to be out of the question. It was
to this ἀοριστία τῆς ὕλης (G. A. iv. 7. 778°6) that A. ascribed the apparent
imperfections in Nature’s handiwork.

5. The division into Homogeneous and Heterogeneous parts corre-

BOOK ΤΙ 646"

flesh, and the like, are constituted out of the primary
substances. The third and last stage is the composition
which forms the heterogeneous parts, such as face, hand,
and the rest.

Now the order of actual development and the order of 25
logical existence are always the inverse of each other. For
that which is posterior in the order of development is
antecedent in the order of nature, and that is genetically
last which in nature is first.

(That this is so is manifest by induction ; for a house
does not exist for the sake of bricks and stones, but these
materials for the sake of the house; and the same is the
case with the materials of other bodies. Nor is induction
required to show this. It is included in our conception of 39
generation. For generation is a process from a something
to a something ; that which is generated having a cause in
which it originates and a cause in which it ends. The
originating cause is the primary efficient cause, which is
something already endowed with tangible existence, while
the final cause is some definite form or similar end; for
man generates man, and plant generates plant, in each 35
case out of the underlying material.)!

In order of time, then, the material and the generative
process must necessarily be anterior to the being that is
generated ; but in logical order the definitive character and 646°
form of each being precedes the material. This is evident
if one only tries to define the process of formation. For
the definition of house-building includes and presupposes
that of the house; but the definition of the house does not
sponds in a general way to the later division into Tissues and Organs;
the former, however, including much that we should not call tissue,
6. g. the blood, and, in short, any constituent of the body which A. held
to be incapable of further structural analysis, being formed directly
out of the compound, i.e. the chemical, substances. These Homo-
geneous parts again were of two kinds, (a) simple tissues or stuffs,
without any notion of size or shape, e.g. cartilaginous or osseous
tissues, and (8) simple organs, that is, organs made of a single tissue
but with definite form and size, e.g. a cartilage or a bone. In this
sense even the heart was homogeneous, being made of a single
tissue, viz. flesh, while it was heterogeneous as having a definite
shape.

* The material substratum is of comparatively small importance ;
the form is derived from the parent.

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DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

include nor presuppose that of house-building; and the
same is true of all other productions. So that it must
necessarily be that the elementary material exists for the
sake of the homogeneous parts, seeing that these are
genetically posterior to it, just as the heterogeneous parts
are posterior genetically to them. For these heterogeneous
parts have reached the end and goal, having the third
degree of composition, in which degree generation or
development often attains its final term.!

Animals, then, are composed of homogeneous parts, and
are also composed of heterogeneous parts. The former,
however, exist for the sake of the latter. For the active
functions and operations of the body are carried on by
these ; that is, by the heterogeneous parts, such as the eye,
the nostril, the whole face, the fingers, the hand, and the
whole arm. But inasmuch as there is a great variety in
the functions and motions not only of aggregate animals
but also of the individual organs, it is necessary that the
substances out of which these are composed shall present
a diversity of properties. For some purposes softness is
advantageous, for others hardness; some parts must be
capable of extension, others of flexion. Such properties,
then, are distributed separately to the different homogeneous
parts, one being soft another hard, one fluid another solid,
one viscous another brittle; whereas each of the hetero-
geneous parts presents a combination of multifarious
properties. For the hand, to take an example, requires
one property to enable it to effect pressure, and another
and different property for simple prehension. For this

1 The first degree of composition was that of the compound sub-
stances; the second that of the homogeneous parts or tissues; the
third that of the heterogeneous parts or organs. The evolution, then,
of an individual organ has reached its final term when this third stage
is attained. But in an animal ora plant, as a rule, thereis yet a fourth
degree of composition. For the entire organism is made up of a multi-
plicity of organs. This, however, is not the case with all organisms.
The simpler kinds (Aristotle would probably have instanced the Sponge,
the Actinia, the Medusa and, among plants, Lichens and Fungi)
present no such distinction of parts as allows us to say that they are
made up of organs. They are constructed not of organs, but directly
out of tissues. Their evolution, therefore, as that of a single organ,
ends with the third degree of composition. They are aggregates of the
third, not of the fourth, degree.

BOOK ΠῚ 646"

reason the active or executive parts of the body are
compounded out of bones, sinews, flesh, and the like, but
not these latter out of the former.

So far, then, as has yet been stated, the relations between
these two orders of parts are determined by a final cause.

We have, however, to inquire whether necessity may not

also have a share in the matter; and it must be admitted

that these mutual relations could not from the very 30
beginning have possibly been other than they are. For
heterogeneous parts can be made up out of homogeneous
parts, either from a plurality of them, or from a single one,

as is the case with some of the viscera which, varying in
configuration, are yet, to speak broadly, formed from a
single homogeneous substance; but that homogeneous 35
substances should be formed out of a combination of
heterogeneous parts is clearly an impossibility. For these 647°
causes, then, some parts of animals are simple and homo-
geneous, while others are composite and heterogeneous ;
and dividing the parts into the active or executive and the
sensitive, each one of the former is, as before said, hetero-
geneous, and each one of the latter homogeneous. For it
is in homogeneous parts alone that sensation can occur, as
the following considerations show.

Each sense is confined to a single order of sensibles,
and its organ must be such as to admit the action of that
kind or order. But it is only that which is endowed with
a property 77 posse that is acted on by that which has the
like property zz esse, so that the two are the same in kind,
and if? the latter is single so also is the former. Thus it is τὸ
that while no physiologists ever dream of saying of the
hand or face or other such part that one is earth, another
water, another fire, they couple each separate sense-organ
with a separate element, asserting this one to be air and

“that other to be fire.

Sensation, then, is confined to the simple or homogeneous 15

parts. But, as might reasonably be expected, the organ of

1 Reading καὶ εἰ ἐκεῖνο ἕν. If the organ were not a simple homo-
geneous substance it would be acted on by more than one order of
sensibles, which is not the case.

647°

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DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

touch, though still homogeneous, is yet the least simple of
all the sense-organs. For touch more than any other
sense appears to be correlated to several distinct kinds of
objects, and to recognize more than one category of
contrasts, heat and cold, for instance, solidity and fluidity,
and other similar oppositions. Accordingly, the organ
which deals with these varied objects is of all the sense-
organs the most corporeal,! being either the flesh, or the
substance which in some animals takes the place of flesh.
Now as there cannot possibly be an animal without
sensation, it follows as a necessary consequence that every
animal must have some homogeneous parts ; for these alone
are capable of sensation, the heterogeneous parts serving
for the active functions. Again, as the sensory faculty, the
motor faculty, and the nutritive faculty are all lodged in
one and the same part of the body, as was stated in
a former treatise,” it is necessary that the part which is the
primary seat of these principles shall on the one hand, in
its character of general sensory recipient, be one of the
simple parts; and on the other hand shall, in its motor
and active character, be one of the heterogeneous parts.
For this reason it is the heart which in sanguineous animals
constitutes this central part, and in bloodless animals it is
that which takes the place of a heart. For the heart, like
the other viscera, is one of the homogeneous parts ; for, if
cut up, its pieces are homogeneous in substance with each
other. But it is at the same time heterogeneous in virtue
of its definite configuration. And the same is true of the
other so-called viscera, which are indeed formed from the
same material as the heart. For all these viscera have
a sanguineous character owing to their being situated upon
vascular ducts and branches. For just as a stream of
water deposits mud, so the various viscera, the heart
excepted,? are, as it were, deposits from the stream of
blood in the vessels. And as to the heart, the very starting-
point of the vessels, and the actual seat of the force by

1 Cf. ii. 8. 653” 30 note.

2 Cf. De Somno, 2.455" 34, 4568 5.

5 The heart is excepted, because A. thought that it was formed
earlier than the blood, which is true if by blood be meant a red fluid.

BOOK If.: 3 647”

which the blood is first fabricated, it is but what one would
naturally expect, that out of the selfsame nutriment of
which it is the recipient its own proper substance shall be
formed. Such, then, are the reasons why the viscera are of
sanguineous aspect ; and why in one point of view they are
homogeneous, in another heterogeneous.

μι

2 Of the homogeneous parts of animals, some are soft and τὸ
fluid, others hard and solid ; and of the former some are
fluid permanently, others only so long as they are in the
living body.t Such are blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow,
semen, bile, milk when present, flesh,? and their various
analogues. For the parts enumerated are not to be found 15
in all animals, some animals only having parts analogous
to them. Of the hard and solid homogeneous parts bone,
fish-spine, sinew, blood-vessel, are examples. The last of
these points to a sub-division that may be made in the
class of homogeneous parts. For in some® of them the
whole and a portion of the whole in one sense are
designated by the same term—as, for example, is the case
with blood-vessel and bit of blood-vessel—while in another
sense they are not; but a portion of a heterogeneous part, 20
such as face, in no sense has the same designation as the
whole.

The first question to be asked is what are the causes to
which these homogeneous parts owe their existence? The
causes are various ; and this whether the parts be solid or
fluid. Thus one set of homogeneous parts represent the
material out of which the heterogeneous parts are formed ;
for each separate organ is constructed of bones, sinews,
flesh, and the like; which are either essential elements in
its formation, or contribute to the proper discharge of its
function. A second set are the nutriment of the first, and
are invariably fluid, for all growth occurs at the expense of

:᾽

ὃ

1 ΟΥ̓ “186 system’. For φύσις in this sense cf. ii. 3. 640" 28-32.

? Flesh is presumably called fluid as being potentially blood (iii. 5.
668" 27) ; a view which very possibly derived support from its cada-
veric rigidity.

’ Namely the simple organs. Cf. ii. 1. 646% 21 note. Blood-vessel
and bit of blood-vessel are both vascular tissue, but a bit of blood-
vessel is not a blood-vessel.

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DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

fluid matter; while a third set are the residue of the second.
Such, for instance, are the faeces and, in animals that have a
bladder, the urine; the former being the dregs of the solid
nutriment, the latter of the fluid.

Even the individual homogeneous parts present varia-
tions, which are intended in each case to render them more
serviceable for their purpose. The variations of the blood
may be selected to illustrate this. For different bloods
differ in their degrees of thinness or thickness, of clearness
or turbidity, of coldness or heat; and this whether we com-
pare the bloods from different parts of the same individual
or the bloods of different animals. For, in the individual,
all the differences just enumerated distinguish the blood of
the upper and of the lower halves of the body; and, dealing
with classes, one section of animals is sanguineous, while
the other has no blood, but only something resembling it in
its place. As regards the results of such differences, the
thicker and the hotter blood is, the more conducive is it to
strength, while in proportion to its thinness and its coldness
is its suitability for sensation and intelligence. A like
distinction exists also in the fluid which is analogous! to
blood. This explains how it is that bees and other similar
creatures are of a more intelligent nature than many
sanguineous animals; and that, of sanguineous animals,
those are the most intelligent whose blood is thin and cold.
Noblest of all are those whose blood is hot, and at the same
time thin and clear. For such are suited alike for the
development of courage and of intelligence. Accordingly,
the upper parts are superior in these respects to the lower,
the male superior to the female, and the right side to the
left. As with the blood so also with the other parts,

1 Reading τὸ ἀνάλογον ὑπάρχον.

* It was the unquestioning belief of Aristotle that the right was in
nature superior to the left, the upper to the lower, the front to the back.
He also held that ‘ Nature, when no more important purpose stands
in the way, places the more honourable part in the more honour-
able position’ (111. 4. 665 20). This dogma he uses as an axiom
beyond dispute, and has recourse to it on numerous occasions in
explanation of the relative positions of organs and other phenomena.
The stomach, for instance, is placed where it is and not nearer the

mouth because otherwise it would be above the heart, a nobler organ
than itself (iv. 10. 686213). Man’s nobility is shown by his upper part

BOOK II. 2

homogeneous and heterogeneous alike. For here also such
variations as occur must be held either to be related to the
essential constitution and mode of life of the several animals,
or, in other cases, to be merely matters of slightly better or
slightly worse. Two animals, for instance, may have eyes.
But in one these eyes may be of fluid consistency, while in
the other they are hard; and in one there may be eyelids,
in the other no such appendages. In such a case, the fluid
consistency and the presence of eyelids, which are intended
to add to the accuracy of vision, are differences of degree.

As to why all animals must of necessity have blood or :

something of a similar character, and what the nature of
blood may be, these are matters which can only be con-
sidered when we have first discussed hot and cold. For the
natural properties of many substances are referable to these
two elementary principles ; and it is a matter of frequent
dispute what animals or what parts of animals are hot and
what cold. For some! maintain that water animals are
hotter than such as live on land, asserting that their natural
heat counterbalances the coldness of their medium; and
again, that bloodless animals are hotter than those with
blood, and females than males. Parmenides, for instance,
and some others declare that women are hotter than men,
and that it is the warmth and abundance of their blood
which causes their menstrual flow, while Empedocles main-
tains the opposite opinion. Again, comparing the blood
and the bile, some speak of the former as hot and of the
latter as cold, while others invert the description. If there
be this endless disputing about hot and cold, which of all
things that affect our senses are the most distinct, what are
we to think as to our other sensory impressions ?

The explanation of the difficulty appears to be that the

648:

τὸ
υι

term ‘hotter’ is used in several senses; so that different 648°

being turned towards the upper part of the universe (ii. 10. 656% I1).
The front of man is chosen in preference to the back, for the growth
of hair (ii. 14. 658% 23). The nictitating membrane comes from the
canthus in front, rather than the canthus on the side (ii. 13. 657 22).
The heart, being the noblest part, is in front and in the upper half of
the body (iii. 4. 665” 18), and so on.

1 Empedocles, cf. De Resp. 14.

AR, P.A. D

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DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

statements, though in verbal contradiction with each other,
may yet all be more or less true. | There ought, then, to be
some clear understanding as to the sense in which natural
substances are to be termed hot or cold, solid or fluid. For
it appears manifest that these are properties on which even
life and death are largely dependent,-and that they are
moreover the causes of sleep and waking, of maturity and
old age, of health and disease ; while no similar influence
belongs to roughness and smoothness, to heaviness and_
lightness,nor, in short, to any other such properties of matter.
That this should be so is but in accordance with rational
expectation. For hot and cold, solid and fluid, as was
stated in a former treatise,! are the foundations of the
physical elements.

Is then the term hot used in one sense or in many? To
answer this we must ascertain what special effect is attributed
to a hotter substance, and if there be several such, how
many these may be. A body then is in one sense said to
be hotter than another, if it impart a greater amount of
heat to an object in contact with it. In a second sense,
that is said to be hotter which causes the keener sensation
when touched, and especially if the sensation be attended
with pain. This criterion, however, would seem sometimes
to be a false one ; for occasionally it is the idiosyncrasy of
the individual that causes the sensation to be painful.
Again, of two things, that is the hotter which the more
readily melts a fusible substance, or sets on fire an inflam-
mable one. Again, of two masses of one and the same
substance, the larger is said to have more heat than the
smaller. Again, of two bodies, that is said to be the hotter
which takes the longer time in cooling, as also we call that
which is rapidly heated hotter than that which is long about
it ; as though the rapidity implied proximity and this again
similarity of nature, while the want of rapidity implied
distance and this again dissimilarity of nature. The term
hotter is used then in all the various senses that have been

25 mentioned, and perhaps in still more. Now it is impossible

for one body to be hotter than another in all these different
1 De 6. et C. ii. 2-3, Meteor. iv.

BOOK II. 2 648"

fashions. Boiling water for instance, though it is more
scalding than flame, yet has no power of burning or melting
combustible or fusible matter, while flame has. So again
this boiling water is hotter than a small fire, and yet gets
cold more rapidly and completely. For in fact fire never 30
becomes cold ; whereas water invariably does so. Boiling
water, again, is hotter to the touch than oil; yet it gets cold
and solid more rapidly than this other fluid. Blood, again, is
hotter to the touch than either water or oil, and yet coagu-
lates before them. Iron, again, and stones and other similar
bodies are longer in getting heated than water, but when
once heated burn other substances with a much greater
intensity. Another distinction is this. In some of the 35
bodies which are called hot the heat is derived from without,
while in others it belongs to the bodies themselves ; and it 649°
makes a most important difference whether the heat has the
former or the latter origin. For to call that one of two
bodies the hotter, which is possessed of heat, we may almost
say, accidentally and not of its own essence, is very much
the same thing as if, finding that some man in a fever was
a musician, one were to say that musicians are hotter than
healthy men. Of that which is hot fer se and that which is 5
hot fer accidens, the former is the slower to cool, while not
rarely the latter is the hotter to the touch. The former
again is the more burning of the two—flame, for instance, as
compared with boiling water—while the latter, as the boiling 10
water, which is hot per accidens, is the more heating to the
touch. From all this it is clear that it is no simple matter
to decide which of two bodies is the hotter. For the first may
be the hotter in one sense, the second the hotter in another.
Indeed in some of these cases it is impossible to say simply
even whether a thing is hot or not. For the actual 15
substratum may not itself be hot, but may be hot when
coupled with heat as an attribute, as would be the case if
one attached a single name to hot water or hot iron. It is
after this manner that blood is hot.! In such cases, in those,
that is, in which the substratum owes its heat to an external

1 Because in A.’s opinion it derives its heat from the heart, or from
the celestial heat which has its main seat in the heart.

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influence, it is plain that cold is not a mere privation, but
an actual existence.

There is no knowing but that even fire may be another
of these cases. For the substratum of fire may be smoke
or charcoal, and though the former of these is always hot,
smoke being an uprising vapour, yet the latter becomes
cold when its flame is extinguished, as also would oil and
pinewood under similar circumstances. But even substances
that have been burnt nearly all possess some heat, cinders,
for example, and ashes, the dejections also of animals, and,
among the excretions, bile; because some residue of heat
has been left in them after their combustion. It is in
another sense that pinewood and fat substances are hot ;
namely, because they rapidly assume the actuality of fire.

Heat appears to cause both coagulation and melting.
Now such things as are formed merely of water are soli-
dified by cold, while such as are formed of nothing but
earth are solidified by fire. Hot substances again are
solidified by cold, and, when they consist chiefly of earth,
the process of solidification is rapid, and the resulting
substance is insoluble ; but, when their main constituent is
water, the solid matter is again soluble. What kinds of
substances, however, admit of being solidified, and what are
the causes of solidification, are questions that have already
been dealt with more precisely in another treatise."

In conclusion, then, seeing that the terms hot and hotter
are used in many different senses, and that no one sub-
stance can be hotter than others in all these senses, we
must, when we attribute this character to an object, add
such further statements as that this substance is hotter
per se, though that other is often hotter per accidens ; or
again, that this substance is potentially hot, that other
actually so; or again, that this substance is hotter in the

5 sense of causing a greater feeling of heat when touched,

while that other is hotter in the sense of producing flame
and burning. The term hot being used in all these various
senses, it plainly follows that the term cold will also be
used with like ambiguity.

1 Cf. Meteor. iv. 6-8, το.

BOOK (hk Ὸ

So much then as to the signification of the terms hot and
cold, hotter and colder.

In natural sequence we have next to treat of solid and
fluid. These terms are used in various senses. Sometimes,
for instance, they denote things that are potentially, at
other times things that are actually, solid or fluid. Ice for
example, or any other solidified fluid, is spoken of as being
actually and accidentally solid, while potentially and
essentially it is fluid. Similarly earth and ashes and the
like, when mixed with water, are actually and accidentally
fluid, but potentially and essentially are solid. Now sepa-
rate the constituents in such a mixture and you have
on the one hand the watery components to which its
fluidity was due,’ and these are both actually and poten-
tially fluid, and on the other hand the earthy components,
and these are in every way” solid; and it is to bodies
that are solid in this complete manner that the term ‘ solid’
is most properly and absolutely applicable. So also the
opposite term ‘fluid’ is strictly and absolutely applicable
to that only which is both potentially and actually fluid.
The same remark applies also to hot bodies and to cold.

These distinctions, then, being laid down, it is plain that
blood is essentially hot in so far as that heat is connoted in
its name ; just as if boiling water were denoted by a single
term, boiling would be connoted in that term. But the
substratum of blood, that which it is in substance while it
is blood in form, is not hot. Blood then in a certain sense
is essentially hot, and in another sense is not so. For heat
is included in the definition of blood, just as whiteness is
included in the definition of a white man, and so far there-
fore blood is essentially hot. But so far as blood becomes
hot from some external influence, it is not hot essentially.

1 The distinctive character of a fluid is that it is ἀναπληστικόν, that is,
that it has no shape of its own but takes that of the vessel which it fills up
as a mould (De G. e¢ C. ii. 2. 329” 34). Tosay then that a constituent of a
mixture is ἀναπληστικόν is to say that it confers fluidity on the mixture.

* That is, ‘both potentially and actually’. “Azavra, if the true
reading, must be taken as adverbial and as used though ‘de duobus

tantum agitur’ (Bonitz, 571} 51); but I suggest πάντως as a preferable
reading.

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As with hot and cold, so also is it with solid and fluid.
We can therefore understand how some substances are
hot and fluid so long as they remain in the living body, but
become perceptibly cold and coagulate so soon as they are
separated from it; while others are hot and consistent
while in the body, but when withdrawn undergo a change
to the opposite condition, and become cold and fluid. Of
the former blood is an example, of the latter bile; for
while blood solidifies when thus separated, yellow bile
under the same circumstances becomes more fluid. We
must attribute to such substances the possession of opposite
properties in a greater or less degree.

In what sense, then, the blood is hot and in what sense
fluid, and how far it partakes of the opposite properties,
has now been fairly explained. Now since everything that
crows must take nourishment, and nutriment in all cases
consists of fluid and solid substances, and since it is by the
force of heat that these are concocted and changed, it
follows that all living things, animals and plants alike, must
on this account, if on no other, have a natural source of
heat. This natural heat, moreover, must belong to many
parts, seeing that the organs by which the various elabora-
tions of the food are effected are many in number. For
first of all there is the mouth and the parts inside the
mouth, on which the first share in the duty clearly devolves,
in such animals at least as live on food which requires
disintegration. The mouth, however, does not actually
concoct the food, but merely facilitates concoction; for the
subdivision of the food into small bits facilitates the action
of heat upon it. After the mouth come the upper and the
lower abdominal cavities,? and here it is that concoction is

1 A. looked on the heart as the main but not the exclusive seat of
vital heat. ‘The whole body and all its parts have a certain connate
natural heat. But in sanguineous animals the main seat of this heat
must be the heart. For, though the other parts by their natural heat
can effect the concoction of the food, yet chief and foremost in this
office is the heart. The rest of the body then may become cold, and
yet life continue ; but should the heart cease to be hot, all life is at an
end; for no longer does there remain a source whence the rest of the
body may derive heat’ (De Juv. et Sen. 4. 469» 12).

2. The upper cavity is of coursethe stomach. By the lower is meant

BOOK II. 3

effected by the aid of natural heat. Again, just as there is
a channel for the admission of the unconcocted food into
the stomach, namely the mouth, and in some animals the
so-called oesophagus, which is continuous with the mouth
and reaches to the stomach, so must there also be other
and more numerous channels by which the concocted food
or nutriment shall pass out of the stomach and intestines
into the body at large, and to which these cavities shall
serve as a kind of manger. For plants get their food
from the earth by means of their roots; and this food is
already elaborated when taken in, which is the reason why
plants produce no excrement,! the earth and its heat
serving them in the stead of a stomach. But animals,
with scarcely an exception, and conspicuously all such
as are capable of locomotion, are provided with a stomachal
sac, which is as it were an internal substitute for the earth.
They must therefore have some instrument which shall
correspond to the roots of plants, with which they may
absorb their food from this sac, so that the proper end of
the successive stages of concoction may at last be attained.
The mouth then, its duty done, passes over the food to the

the large intestine, or rather its caecal enlargement. This is some-
times, as here, spoken of by A. as a seat of digestion, that is as
a second stomach, and sometimes merely as a receptacle of residual
matter, as though all digestion were over before this part was reached.
We may fairly suppose that A. in the different passages is speaking of
different animals; for while the caecum in some animals, as in the
horse, really acts as a second stomach, in others, as in man, its contents
are almost entirely faecal.

1 Περίττωμα, like the nutriment (G. A. i. 18. 725% 4) of which it is
the surplus, is of two kinds, the useless (ἄχρηστον) and the serviceable
(χρήσιμον). The former is eliminated, mainly by the bowels and
kidneys, and may be called the excremental residue. The latter is
such of the nutriment reduced to blood as remains after the nobler
parts, such as the sense-organs and flesh, have taken what they
require (G. A. ii. 6. 74423). This surplus is utilized in various ways.
Some is spent on the inert parts, such as nails, hairs, sinews, bones
(744> 25); some is stored up as fat (ii. 5. 651221); and some forms
useful secretions and notably the generative (iv. 10. 6897 8-13). All
these products of the περίττωμα are themselves called περιττώματα. The
χρήσιμον περίττωμα in the blood contrasts with the σύντηγμα or product
of body-waste (G. A. i. 18.724” 26sq.) ; and when A. says of anything,
other than excrement, that it is περίττωμα, he means that it derives from
the serviceable residue, not from the effete matter. Plants, he says
above, have no excremental residue, while their serviceable residue
forms their fruit and seeds (ii. 10. 655» 35).

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stomach, and there must necessarily be something to
receive it in turn from this. This something is furnished
by the blood-vessels, which run throughout the whole
extent of the mesentery from its lowest part right up to
the stomach. A description of these will be found in the
treatises on Anatomy and Natural History.' Now as
there is a receptacle for the entire matter taken as food,
and also a receptacle for its excremental residue, and again
a third receptacle, namely the vessels, which serve as such
for the blood, it is plain that this blood must be the final
nutritive material in such animals as have it; while in
bloodless animals the same is the case with the fluid which
represents the blood. This explains why the blood
diminishes in quantity when no food is taken, and increases
when much is consumed, and also why it becomes healthy
and unhealthy according as the food is of the one or the
other character. These facts, then, and others of a like
kind, make it plain that the purpose of the blood in
sanguineous animals is to subserve the nutrition of the
body. They also explain why no more sensation is pro-
duced by touching the blood than by touching one of the
excretions or the food, whereas when the flesh is touched
sensation is produced. For the blood is not continuous
nor united by growth with the flesh, but simply lies loose
in its receptacle, that is in the heart and vessels. The
manner in which the parts grow at the expense of the
blood, and indeed the whole question of nutrition, will find
a more suitable place for exposition in the treatise on
Generation, and in other writings.2__ For our present purpose

1 ΟΡ 77. 21: 1. τὸ} 1112: τ 12.

5.Α. often refers to a treatise which he was going to write on
Nutrition. It has been generally supposed that the De Generatione
Animalium, in which (ii. 4. 740% 21-- 12, ii. 6. 743% 8-7. 746 28) nutri-
tion is handled to a certain extent, is the treatise thus promised. But
this view seems incompatible with the fact that a similar reference to
a future treatise ‘on growth and nutrition’ is made in the De Genera-
tione itself (v. 4. 784” 3). The present passage, moreover, speaks of
‘other writings’ besides the De Generatione. The promised treatise
is not extant ; perhaps was never written; for no mention of such is
to be found in Diogenes Laertius. Heitz (Die verlor. Schrift. d. Arist.
61) thinks it probable that a short separate treatise was written, such

as those massed together in the Parva Naturalia, and that some
portions of it have come down to us merged in the De Generatione ;

BOOK -T; ‘3

all that need be said is that the blood exists for the sake
of nutrition, that is the nutrition of the parts; and with
this much let us therefore content ourselves.

4 What are called fibres are found in the blood of some
animals but not of all. There are none, for instance, in the
blood of deer and of roes;! and for this reason the blood
of such animals as these never coagulates. For one part of
the blood consists mainly of water? and therefore does not
coagulate, this process occurring only in the other and
earthy constituent, that is to say in the fibres, while the
fluid part is evaporating.

Some at any rate of the animals with watery blood have
a keener intellect than those whose blood is of an earthier
nature. This is due not to the coldness of their blood, but
rather to its thinness and purity; neither of which qualities
belongs to the earthy matter. For the thinner and purer
its fluid is, the more easily affected is an animal's sensi-
bility. Thus it is that some bloodless animals, notwith-
standing their want of blood, are yet more intelligent than
some among the sanguineous kinds. Such for instance, as
already said,*? is the case with the bee and the tribe
of ants, and whatever other animals there may be of a like
nature. At the same time too great an excess of water
makes animals timorous. For fear chills the body ; so that
in animals whose heart contains so watery a mixture the
way is prepared for the operation of this emotion. For
water is congealed by cold. This also explains why blood-
less animals are, as a general rule, more timorous than
such as have blood, so that they remain motionless, when
frightened, and discharge their excretions, and in some

and there is in fact in the De Somuno (3. 456” 6) a passage which
apparently refers to a treatise on Nutrition as already written. The
subject is treated in De G. e¢ C.i. 5. 321% 32 — 322? 33, 11. 8. 335% 10,
Meteor. iv. 2. 379° 23.

1 Elsewhere (/7. A. iii. 6. 515 34) to these animals are added the
Bubalis (antelope) and hare. It will be noted that all these are animals
that are hunted: and the blood of animals hunted to death coagulates
so imperfectly that J. Hunter was led to suppose erroneously that it did
not coagulate at all (Hunter’s Works, i. 234). A. (#7. A. iil. 6.516% 1)
admits an imperfect coagulation of such blood.

2 Omitting ψυχρόν (Z). SCE. it, 2. 648% 6.

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instances change colour.’ Such animals, on the other hand,
as have thick and abundant fibres in their blood are of
a more earthy nature, and of a choleric temperament, and
liable to bursts of passion. For anger is productive of heat ;
and solids, when they have been made hot, give off more heat

6515 than fluids. The fibres therefore, being earthy and solid, are

turned into so many hot embers in the blood, like the embers
in a vapour-bath, and cause ebullition in the fits of passion.

This explains why bulls and boars are so choleric and so
passionate. For their blood is exceedingly rich in fibres,?
and the bull’s at any rate coagulates more rapidly than
that of any other animal.? If these fibres, that is to say if
the earthy constituents of which we are speaking, are taken
out of the blood, the fluid that remains behind will no
longer coagulate; just as the watery residue of mud will
not coagulate after removal of the earth. But if the fibres
are left the fluid coagulates, as also does mud, under the
influence of cold. For when the heat is expelled by the
cold, the fluid, as has been already stated, passes off with it
by evaporation, and the residue is dried up and solidified,
not by heat but by cold.* So long, however, as the blood
is in the body, it is kept fluid by animal heat.

1 The bloodless animals that remain motionless when frightened are
beetles, moths, &c. (iv. 6. 682” 25). Those that discharge their excreta
are various insects and cephalopods (iv. 5. 679% 6); and it is these
latter that change colour (iv. 5. 679? 13).

2 Elsewhere (ZH. A. iii. 19. 521% 5) the ass is instanced as well as the
bull. Bovine animals (but still more swine and horses) have a larger
proportion of fibrine in their blood than men (Andral, Aum. de Chimie,
1842, p. 306); and from such scanty observations as exist it would
seem that the blood of bulls is richer in fibrine than that of cows or
oxen (zbid. p. 307). Thackrah seems to have arrived at much the same
general conclusion as Aristotle. ‘Although my experiments are far
from evincing a disparity uniform in its reference to the classes of
animals, yet it appears probable that a more complete examination
would prove ¢he crassamentum to bear a proportion to the strength
and ferocity of the animal, since I never found the serum in such
quantity as in the timid sheep, nor the crassamentum so abundant as
in the predatory dog’ (Ox the Blood, 1834, p. 154).

3. Thackrah says (Ox the Blood, p. 154) that ‘ from my observations
the general inference may be drawn that coagulation commences
sooner in small and weak animals than in large and strong’. This
seems in contradiction with A.’s statement.

* Cf. Meteor. iv.6-8, where A. discusses at length the questions of
coagulation, liquefaction, &c.

BOOK II. 4 651°

The character of the blood affects both the temperament
and the sensory faculties of animals in many ways. This
is indeed what might reasonably be expected, seeing that
the blood is the material of which the whole body is made.
For nutriment supplies the material, and the blood is the
ultimate nutriment. It makes then a considerable difference
whether the blood be hot or cold, thin or thick, turbid
or clear.

The watery part of the blood is serum; and it is watery,
either owing to its not being yet concocted, or owing to its
having become corrupted; so that one part of the serum
is the resultant of a necessary process,! while another part
is material intended to serve for the formation of the
blood.

5 The differences between lard and suet correspond to 20
differences of blood.? For both are blood concocted intothese
forms as a result ὅ of abundant nutrition, being that surplus
blood that is not expended on the fleshy part of the body,
and is of an easily concocted and fatty character. This is
shown by the unctuous aspect of these substances ; for such
unctuous aspect in fluids is due to a combination of air and
fire.* It follows from what has been said that no non-
sanguineous animals have either lard or suet ; for they have
no blood. Among sanguineous animals those whose blood

t
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1 By the ‘necessary process’ is meant the waste of the body
(σύντηξις) that is constantly going on, but is increased by toil (De
Somno, 3. 456 34). The effete matter (σύντηγμα) that results from
this necessary process, passing into the blood on its way to elimination
by the various emunctories, is there commingled with nutritive
material (χρήσιμον περίττωμα) that is on its way to repair the body-
waste. This σύντηγμα, to use modern terms, is catabolic matter, while
the χρήσιμον περίττωμα is anabolic.

2 A. calls the softer kinds of fat πιμελή and the harder kinds στέαρ,
terms corresponding to the Pinguedo and Sevum of later times. These
are here rendered Lard and Suet, ‘ lard’ being used in want of a better
word for any soft fat, not merely that of swine. J. Hunter made four
divisions—Oil, Lard, Tallow, Spermaceti, also taking consistency as the
basis of distinction.

5 A, held that in over-fed or well-fed animals the blood was of such
a character as favoured its conversion by further concoction into fat
rather than into generative secretions ; just as vines in rich soil run to
leaf rather than to fruit. G.A.i. 18. 72526 sq., 11. 7.746” 27; HA.
τ τῆς δ246531.

* This clause seems so inconsecutive that one may suspect it to be
an interpolation.

6515 DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

is dense have suet rather than lard. For suet is of an
30 earthy nature, that is to say, it contains but a small pro-
portion of water and is chiefly composed of earth ; and
this it is that makes it coagulate, just as the fibrous matter
of blood coagulates, or broths which contain such fibrous
matter. Thus it is that in those horned animals that have
no front teeth in the upper jaw the fat consists of suet.
For the very fact that they have horns and huckle-bones 1
shows that their composition is rich in this earthy element ;
for all such appurtenances are solid and earthy in character.
On the other hand in those hornless animals that have
front teeth in both jaws, and whose feet are divided into
35 toes, there is no suet, but in its place lard; ? and this, not
being of an earthy character, neither coagulates nor dries
up into a friable mass.
Both lard and suet when present in moderate amount are
beneficial ; for they contribute to health and strength, while
651° they are no hindrance to sensation. But when they are
present in great excess, they are injurious and destructive.
For were the whole body formed of them it would perish.
For an animal is an animal in virtue of its sensory part, that
5 isin virtue of its flesh, or of the substance analogous to flesh.?
But the blood, as before stated, is not sensitive ; as therefore
is neither lard nor suet, seeing that they are nothing but
concocted blood. Were then the whole body composed of
these substances, it would be utterly without sensation.
Such animals, again, as are excessively fat age rapidly.
το For so much of their blood is used in forming fat, that they
have but little left; and when there is but little blood the
way is already open for decay.* For decay may be said
_to be deficiency of blood, the scantiness of which renders it

1 Cf. iv. 10. 690% 13 note.

2 i.e. Swine. Elsewhere (27. A. iii. 17. 520% 9) A. says correctly
that the horse as well as the hog has soft fat.

8 Cf. ii. 8. 653” 30 note.

4 Cf. Thackrah, Ox the Blood, p. 131 : ‘Fat animals have I believe
considerably less blood in proportion to their weight than lean ones ;
and in the fat human subject venesection shows the veins to be com-
paratively small, and the quantity of blood, even when two or three
vessels are opened, is less than flows from one vein of a lean
person’ etc.

BOOK II. 5 651”

liable, like all bodies of small bulk, to be injuriously affected
by any chance excess of heat or cold. For the same
reason fat animals are less prolific than others. For that
part of the blood which should go to form semen and seed
is used up in the production of lard and suet, which are
nothing but concocted blood; so that in these animals
there is either no reproductive excretion at all, or only
a scanty amount.!

6 So much then of blood and serum, and of lard and suet.
Each of these has been described, and the purposes told
for which they severally exist.

“μι

The marrow also is of the nature of blood, and not, as 20
some ? think, the germinal force of the semen. That this is
the case is quite evident in very young animals. For in
the embryo the marrow of the bones has ἃ blood-like
appearance, which is but natural], seeing that the parts are
all constructed out of blood, and that it is on blood that
the embryo is nourished.* But, as the young animal grows 25
up and ripens into maturity, the marrow changes its colour,
just as do the external parts and the viscera.* For the
viscera also in animals, so long as they are young, have
each and all a blood-like look, owing to the large amount
of this fluid which they contain.

The consistency of the marrow agrees with that of the
fat. For when the fat consists of lard, then the marrow
also is unctuous and lard-like; but when the blood is con-
verted by concoction into suet, and does not assume the
form ὅ of lard, then the marrow also has a suety character. 30

1 On dirait qu’il y a un rapport constant et rigoureux entre la
sécrétion de la semence et l’exhalation de la graisse; que ces deux
fluides sont en raison inverse lun de l’autre’ (Bichat, Anat. (τόρ.
i.55). That over-fat animals are bad breeders is known to every farmer.
So also it is well known that castrated animals grow fat.

2 Alluding to Plato, who expresses this view in the 7Zmaews (73 Cc).

8 “The bones of the foetus are void of a distinct medullary canal, and
present merely a reddish homogeneous vascular pulp, somewhat con-
sistent but presenting soft portions. This state continues for some
time after birth’ (Todd, Cyclop. Anat. and Phys. i. 60). So also Vir-
chow’s Ce//ularpath. 369.

* In the foetus and infant there is less pigment in the body generally
than in the adult. The skin, hair, eyes (G.A. v. 1. 779% 26), and

olfactory region, are all lighter-coloured than in later life.
Ὁ For ὕμοιος read ὅμοιον (Z).

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In those animals, therefore, that have horns and are without
upper front teeth, the marrow has the character of suet ;
while it takes the form of lard in those that have front teeth
in both jaws, and that also have the foot divided into toes.
What has been said hardly applies to the spinal marrow.
For it is necessary that this shall be continuous and extend
without break through the whole backbone, inasmuch as
this bone consists of separate vertebrae. But were the
spinal marrow? either of unctuous fat or of suet, it could
not hold together in such a continuous mass as it does, but
would either be too fluid or too frangible.

There are some animals that can hardly be said to have
any marrow. These are those whose bones are strong and
solid, as is the case with the lion. For in this animal the
marrow is so utterly insignificant that the bones look as
though they had none at all. However, as it is necessary
that animals shall have bones or something analogous to
them, such as the fish-spines of water-animals, it is also
a matter of necessity that some of these bones shall contain
marrow; for the substance contained within the bones
is the nutriment out of which these are formed. Now the
universal nutriment, as already stated,? is blood ; and the
blood within the bone, owing to the heat which is de-
veloped in it from its being thus surrounded, undergoes
concoction, and self-concocted * blood is suet or lard; so
that it is perfectly intelligible how the marrow within the
bone comes to have the character of these substances. So
also it is easy to understand why, in those animals that
have strong and compact bones, some of these should

1 That the spinal cord is the marrow of the vertebrae is an error,
the memory of which is still preserved in the popular term ‘ spinal
marrow’.

SB Ch ar 2: 05 Gaal 14:

8 This passage is of importance ; for it indicates the answer to the
obvious objection, that many of the phenomena attributed by A. to
heat are manifestly not so producible. For, in using the term ‘self-
concoction’, A. means to draw a distinction between ordinary heat
and the heat of the blood or body. Mere cooking with fire of course
does not convert blood into fat, nor digest food, nor the like. But the
heat of the body, as the heat of the sun, says A. (G. A. ii. 3. 737% 1), is
something very different from this. It has a vivifying influence, which

simple fire has not, and produces effects far beyond the power of this
element.

BOOK II. 6 652°

be entirely void of marrow, while the rest contain but little
of it ;1 for here the nutriment is spent in forming the bones.
Those animals that have fish-spines in place of bones
have no other marrow than that of the chine.? For in the
first place they have naturally but asmall amount of blood ;
and secondly the only hollow fish-spine is that of the chine. r5
In this then marrow is formed ; this being the only spine in
which there is space for it, and, moreover, being the only
one which owing to its division into parts requires a con-
necting bond. This too is the reason why the marrow
of the chine, as already mentioned, is somewhat different
from that of other bones. For, having to act the part
of a clasp, it must be of glutinous character, and at the
same time sinewy so as to admit of stretching. 20
Such then are the reasons for the existence of marrow,
in those animals that have any, and such its nature. It
is evidently the surplus of the sanguineous nutriment appor-
tioned to the bones and fish-spines, which has undergone
concoction owing to its being enclosed within them.

7 From the marrow we pass on in natural sequence to the
brain. For there are many ® who think that the brain 25
itself consists of marrow, and that it forms the commence-
ment of that substance, because they see that the spinal
marrow is continuous with it. In reality the two may be
said to be utterly opposite to each other in character. For
of all the parts of the body there is none so cold as the
brain ; whereas the marrow is of a hot nature, as is plainly
shown by its fat and unctuous character. Indeed this is
the very reason why the brain and spinal marrow are con- 30
tinuous with each other. For, wherever the action of any
part is in excess, nature so contrives as to set by it another
part with an excess of contrary action, so that the excesses
of the two may counterbalance each other. Now that the
marrow is hot is clearly shown by many indications. The

1 Reading ὀλίγος for ὀλίγοις (1).
2 No fish has a medullary canal in its bones, though there are some,
as the trout, in which the bony tissue is more or less penetrated by an

oily fluid (Todd, Cyclop. of An. and Phy. iii. 958).
8 As Plato inthe 77zmaeus (73 Cc).

652°

54)

652”

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

coldness of the brain is also manifest enough.t For in
the first place it is cold even to the touch ; and, secondly,
of all the fluid parts of the body it is the driest? and the
one that has the least blood; for in fact it has no blood
at all in its proper substance. This brain is not residual
matter, nor yet is it one of the parts which are anatomically
continuous ὅ with each other ; but it has a character peculiar
to itself, as might indeed be expected. That it has no con-
tinuity with the organs of sense is plain from simple in-
spection, and is still more clearly shown by the fact, that,
when it is touched, no sensation is produced; in which
respect it resembles the blood of animals and their excre-
ment. The purpose of its presence in animals is no less
than the preservation of the whole body. For some‘ writers
assert that the soul is fire or some such force. This,
however, is but a rough and inaccurate assertion; and it
would perhaps be better to say that the soul is incorporate
in some substance of a fiery character. The reason for
this being so is that of all substances there is none so suit-
able for ministering to the operations of the soul as that
which is possessed of heat. For nutrition and the impart-
ing of motion are offices of the soul, and it is by heat that

1 There are three strange statements in this chapter as to the brain—
that it is cold ; that it is bloodless; that it is fluid. (a) The belief
that the brain is cold lasted from the time of Hippocrates into the six-
teenth or even the seventeenth century. For, as Dr. Payne states in
his Harveian Oration, it was taught by Harvey in his MS. Praelectiones
of 1616, and this though an anatomist of the preceding century is
quoted by himself as having placed one hand on the heart and the
other on the brain of a recently killed animal and found them equally
hot. (8) Most of the blood that goes to the brain goes to the super-
ficial gray matter. This, differing as it does from the mass below
in colour and general aspect, was considered by A. to be part of the
highly vascular Pza mater, from which indeed he can hardly have
learnt to separate it mechanically. He appears to have overlooked
the small vessels which penetrate the white mass, and which, though
numerous, only appear as bloody puncta. (y) A. uses the term ‘ fluid’
with much latitude ; and may mean no more than that the brain is, as
Galen calls it, ‘nearly fluid.’ At any rate he qualifies his statement
very much by saying that of all the fluids it is the least fluid (αὐχμηρό-
τατον), that is, the most consistent, and that it is only fluid in the
young and becomes consolidated afterwards (G. A. 11. 6. 744° 17).

2 i.e. the most consistent.

® Such as the vascular or osseous systems. See ii. 9. 654% 33.

* Democritus (De Az. i. 2. 403” 31).

BOOK Il. 7

these are most readily effected. To say then that the soul
is fire is much the same thing as to confound the auger or
the saw with the carpenter or his craft, simply because the
work is wrought by the two in conjunction. So far then
this much is plain, that all animals must necessarily have
a certain amount of heat. But as all influences require to
be counterbalanced, so that they may be reduced to
moderation and brought to the mean (for in the mean, and
not in either extreme, lies the true and rational position),
nature has contrived the brain as a counterpoise to the
region of the heart with its contained heat, and has given it
to animals to moderate the latter, combining in it the
properties of earth and water.' For this reason it is, that
every sanguineous animal has a brain; whereas no blood-
less creature has such an organ, unless indeed it be, as the

Poulp, by analogy.” For where there is no blood, there :

in consequence there is but little heat. The brain, then,
tempers the heat and seething of the heart. In order, how-
ever, that it may not itself be absolutely without heat, but
may have a moderate amount, branches run from both
blood-vessels,* that is to say from the great vessel and
from what is called the aorta, and end in the membrane
which surrounds the brain ;* while at the same time, in
order to prevent any injury from the heat, these encom-
passing vessels, instead of being few and large, are numerous
and small, and their blood scanty and clear, instead of being
abundant and thick. We can now understand why de-
fluxions have their origin in the head, and occur whenever
the parts about the brain have more than a due propor-

1 And therefore causing it to be cold ; for both earth and water are
compounds of cold matter, the former with solid, the latter with fluid
matter. (Cf. 11. 1. 646? 16 note.)

2 Elsewhere (//. A. i. 16. 494” 27) A. speaks of Cephalopods in
general, and not only of the Poulp, as having a brain. The cephalic
ganglia in these animals are so large as to rival the brains of vertebrates
in size and importance.

3 Cf. iii. 5. 667" 16 note.

* i.e. the 2Ζα mater. A. (H. A.i. 16) describes the brain as having
two membranes, an outer and stronger one next to the bone (dura
mater), and an inner one in contact with the brain itself ( fa mater).
This latter is the vascular one, so often mentioned by Aristotle. This
membrane consists in great part of a plexus of extremely numerous
and very minute vessels, as A. says.

AR. P.A, E

652°

μ
uo

to
ο

τὸ

σι

652°

653°

μι
σι

τὸ
oe

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

tion of coldness. For when the nutriment steams upwards
through the blood-vessels, its refuse portion is chilled by
the influence of this region, and forms defluxions of phlegm
and serum. We must suppose, to compare small things
with great, that the like happens here as occurs in the
production of showers. For when vapour steams up from
the earth and is carried by the heat into the upper regions,
so soon as it reaches the cold air that is above the earth, it
condenses again into water owing to the refrigeration, and
falls back to the earth as rain. These, however, are matters
which may be suitably considered in the Principles of
Diseases,! so far as natural philosophy has anything to say
to them.

It is the brain again—or, in animals that have no brain,
the part analogous to it—which is the cause of sleep. For
either by chilling the blood that streams upwards after
food, or by some other similar influences, it produces heavi-
ness in the region in which it lies (which is the reason why
drowsy persons hang the head), and causes the heat to
escape downwards in company with the blood. It is the
accumulation of this in excess in the lower region that pro-
duces complete sleep, taking away the power of standing
upright from those animals to whom that posture is natural,
and from the rest the power of holding up the head.
These, however, are matters which have been separately
considered in the treatises on Sensation and on Sleep.?

That the brain is a compound of earth and water is
shown by what occurs when it is boiled. For, when so
treated, it turns hard and solid, inasmuch as the water
is evaporated by the heat, and leaves the earthy part
behind. Just the same occurs when pulse and other fruits
are boiled. For these also are hardened by the process,
because the water which enters into their composition is
driven off and leaves the earth, which is their main con-
stituent, behind.

Of all animals, man has the largest brain in proportion to

* As to the question whether the promised treatise on the Principles of

Diseases was ever written, see Heitz, Die verlor. Schrift. d. Arist. p. 58.
? De Somno, 2. 455” 28 -- 3. 4589 32. I find nothing in De Sensu.

ΒΘΘΚΟ πὴ 7 653°

his size; and it is larger in men than in women. This is
because the region of the heart and of the lung is hotter 30
and richer in blood in man than in any other animal; and

in men than in women. This again explains why man,
alone of animals, stands erect. For the heat, overcoming

any opposite inclination, makes growth take its own line of
direction, which is from the centre of the body upwards.

It is then as a counterpoise to his excessive heat that

in man’s brain there is this superabundant fluidity and
coldness ; and it is again owing to this superabundance
that the cranial bone, which some call the Bregma,}! is 35
the last to become solidified ; so long does evaporation ?
continue to occur through it under the influence of heat.

Man is the only sanguineous animal in which this takes
place. Man, again, has more sutures in his skull than any 653?
other animal,? and the male more than the female. The
explanation is again to be found in the greater size of the
brain, which demands free ventilation, proportionate to its
bulk. For if the brain be either too fluid or too solid,
it will not perform its office, but in the one case will freeze
the blood, and in the other will not cool it at all ; and thus
will cause disease, madness, and death. For the cardiac
heat and the centre of life is most delicate in its sympathies,
and is immediately sensitive to the slightest change or
affection of the blood on the outer surface of the brain.°

σι

1, 6. the anterior fontanel, considered by A. to be a separate bone
(7, Al. 1.7. 4015 31).

* The erroneous notion that the use of the sutures is to ventilate
the brain is repeated by Galen (De Just. Odor.2; De Santt. tuenda,
1: 13).

5. This is an error. A. was probably led to it by the fact that in
numerous animals the sutures become more or less effaced at a very
early age. This is notably the case with birds, fishes, and, of mammals,
with the cetacea and elephants.

* The sutures in the female skull are really identical with those of
the male. Still it is not impossible that A.’s statement may have been
founded on some single observation. For it is by no means uncommon
for the sutures on the vertex to become more or less effaced in pregnant
women ; so common indeed is it, that the name ‘ puerperal osteophyte’
has been given to the condition by Rokitansky (Path. Anat. iii. 208,
Syd. Soc. Transl.).

® A. is ridiculed by Galen for having made the brain no more than
a spongeful of cold water. It is plain, however, that in reality he
assigned to it an office scarcely less important than that he attached
to the heart. It is true he made this latter the actual sensory centre,

E 2

653" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

The fluids which are present in the animal body at the
time of birth have now nearly all been considered. Amongst
το those that appear only at a later period are the residua
of the food, which include the deposits of the belly and also
those of the bladder. Besides these there is the semen and
the milk, one or the other of which makes its appearance
in appropriate animals. Of these fluids, the excremental
residua of the food may be suitably discussed by themselves,
when we come to examine and consider the subject of
nutrition. Then will be the proper time to explain in what
13 animals they are found, and what are the reasons for their
presence. Similarly all questions concerning the semen
and the milk may be dealt with in the treatise on Genera-
tion,! for the former of these fluids is the very starting-point
of the generative process, and the latter has no other ground
of existence than generative purposes.

We have now to consider the remaining homogeneous 8

20 parts, and will begin with flesh, and with the substance
that, in animals that have no flesh, takes its place. The
reason for so beginning is that flesh forms the very basis of
animals, and is the essential constituent of their body. Its
right to this precedence can also be demonstrated logically.
For an animal is by our definition something that has
sensibility and chief of all the primary sensibility, which is
that of Touch ;? and it is the flesh, or analogous substance,
which is the organ of this sense. A nd it is the organ, either

25 in the same way as the pupil is the organ of sight, that is it
constitutes the primary organ of the sense; or it is the
organ and the medium through which the object acts com-
but he represented it as so directly dependent upon the brain for the
discharge of its functions, and as so instantaneously affected by any
change which occurs in this organ, that heart and brain came as it
were to form one consolidated organ.

SGA. 1. 17 = 11.353. ν᾿ ὃ.

? Not meaning that the other special senses are only modifications of
touch or general sensibility. For this view, entertained by Democritus,
is expressly repudiated by A. (De Senmsu, 4. 4428 29). Touch is to A.
the primary sense, firstly because it is the most universally distributed
of the senses; no animals being without it, though they may be with-
out any other (De Ax. iii. 13. 435" 1; ii. 3. 41523; H. A. i. 3. 4805 17);
and secondly, because it is by touch that we are able to recognize the
four primary properties of matter (De Ax. ii. 11).

BOOK IIL. 8 653”

bined, that is it answers to the pupil with the whole
transparent medium attached to it. Now in the case of
the other senses it was impossible for nature to unite the
medium with the sense-organ, nor would such a junction
have served any purpose ; but in the case of touch she was
compelled by necessity to do so. For of all the sense-
organs that of touch is the only one that has corporeal
substance, or at any rate it is more corporeal than any
other, and its medium must be corporeal like itself.

It is cbvious also to sense? that it is for the sake of the 30
flesh that all the other parts exist. By the other parts
I mean the bones, the skin, the sinews, and the blood-
vessels, and, again, the hair and the various kinds of nails,
and anything else there may be ofa like character. Thus
the bones are a contrivance to give security to the soft
parts,? to which purpose they are adapted by their hard- 35
ness ; and in animals that have no bones the same Office is
fulfilled by some analogous substance, as by fish-spine in
some fishes, and by cartilage in others.

Now in some animals this supporting substance is situated
within the body, while in"some of the bloodless species it is 654"

1 A.’s statements as to the relation of the flesh to Touch are by no
means clear. The flesh is sometimes (ii. 1. 651% 20) spoken of as the
Sense-organ (αἰσθητήριον) of Touch; sometimes this is strenuously
denied (ii. 10.; 656% 25) and it is said to be the medium (τὸ μεταξὺ
Tov ἁπτικοῦ). Here it is suggested that it is medium and organ com-
bined; and this seems to be the view to which A. inclines, the
outer mass of flesh being the medium and some undefined and purely
hypothetical part of it, situated internally in close proximity to the
heart (ἔνδον, πρὸς τῇ καρδίᾳ), being the organ. Medium, organ, and
heart being thus in continuity with each other, any motion of the
medium affects organ and heart not in succession but simultaneously,
just as a blow on a shield in immediate contact with the body affects
shield and body together. A. held (De G. e¢ C. i. 7) that nothing
could be set in motion except by an agent generically homogeneous
with itself. In sensation the object of sense sets the medium in
motion, and then the motion of the medium is communicated to the
sense-organ (Ve An. 11. 7). The medium then and the sense-organ
must be generically alike. Now, wherever an animal may be, its eye
and ear find media of corresponding nature to themselves in the
external air or water; but the sense-organ of Touch being a corporeal,
that is a solid, substance requires a solid medium, and this it can
only have if attached to itself and carried about as part of the body.

* Besides having its right to precedence logically demonstrable, as
stated a few sentences back.

* Reading τοῦ μαλακοῦ,

654" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

placed on the outside. The latter is the case in all the
Crustacea,! as the Carcini (Crabs) and the Carabi (Prickly
Lobsters) ; it is the case also in the Testacea, as for in-
stance in the several species known by the general name of
oysters. For in all these animals the fleshy substance is
within, and the earthy matter, which holds the soft parts
together and keeps them from injury, is on the outside.
5 For the shell not only enables the soft parts to hold
together, but also, as the animal is bloodless and so has
but little natural warmth, surrounds it, as a chaufferette
does the embers, and keeps in the smouldering heat.
Similar to this seems to be the arrangement in another and
distinct tribe of animals, namely the Tortoises, including
το the Chelone and the several kinds of Emys.? But in Insects
and in Cephalopods the plan is entirely different, there
being moreover a contrast between these two themselves.
For in neither of these does there appear to be any bony or
earthy part, worthy of notice, distinctly separated from the
rest of the body. Thus in the Cephalopods the main bulk
of the body consists of a soft flesh-like substance, or rather
of a substance which is intermediate to flesh and sinew,
so as not to be so readily destructible as actual flesh.
I call this substance intermediate to flesh and sinew, because
it is soft like the former, while it admits of stretching like
the latter.? Its cleavage, however, is such that it splits not
longitudinally, like sinew, but into circular segments, this
being the most advantageous condition, so far as strength is
concerned. These animals have also a part inside them
20 corresponding to the spinous bones of fishes. For instance,
in the Cuttle-fishes there is what is known as the os sepiae,
and in the Calamaries there is the so-called g/adius. In
the Poulps,* on the other hand, there is no such internal
part, because the body, or, as it is termed in them, the
head,’ forms but a short sac, whereas it is of considerable
length in the other two; and it was this length which led

_
on

Cf. iv. 8. 683” 25 note. 2 Cf. πὶ. 9. 6712 32 note.
Cf. ili. 4. 666” 13 note.

Read τό for ra and γένος after πολυπόδων (Platt).

Cf. iv. 9. 685% 5 note.

1
3
4
5

BOOK II. 8 654°

nature to assign to them their hard support, so as to ensure
their straightness and inflexibility ; just as she has assigned
to sanguineous animals their bones or their fish-spines, as 2-
the case may be. To come now to Insects. In these the
arrangement is quite different from that of the Cephalopods ;
quite different also from that which obtains in sanguineous
animals, as indeed has been already stated. For in an
insect there is no distinction into soft and hard parts,
but the whole body is hard, the hardness, however, being
of such a character as to be more flesh-like than bone, and
more earthy and bone-like than flesh. The purpose of 30
this is to make the body of the insect less liable to get
broken into pieces.

9 There is a resemblance between the osseous and the
vascular systems ; for each has a central part in which it
begins, and each forms a continuous whole. For no bone
in the body exists as a separate thing in itself, but each is
either a portion of what may be considered a continuous 35
whole, or at any rate is linked with the rest by contact and
by attachments; so that nature may use adjoining bones
either as though they were actually continuous and formed 654”
a single bone, or, for purposes of flexure, as though they
were two and distinct. And similarly no blood-vessel has
in itself a separate individuality ; but they all form parts of
one whole. For an isolated bone, if such there were, would
in the first place be unable to perform the office for the
sake of which bones exist ; for, were it discontinuous and
separated from the rest by a gap, it would be perfectly ;
unable to produce either flexure or extension ; nor only so,
but it would actually be injurious, acting like a thorn or
an arrow lodged in the flesh. Similarly if a vessel were
isolated, and not continuous with the vascular centre, it
would be unable to retain the blood within it in a proper
state. For it is the warmth derived from this centre that
hinders the blood from coagulating; indeed the blood,
when withdrawn from its influence, becomes manifestly τὸ
putrid. Now the centre or origin of the blood-vessels is
the heart, and the centre or origin of the bones, in all

654"

σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

animals that have bones, is what is called the chine. With
this all the other bones of the body are in continuity ; for
it is the chine that holds together the whole length of
an animal and preserves its straightness. But since it is
necessary that the body of an animal shall bend during
locomotion, this chine, while it is one in virtue of the con-
tinuity of its parts, yet by its division into vertebrae is
made to consist of many segments. It is from this chine
that the bones of the limbs, in such animals as have these
parts, proceed, and with it they are continuous, being fastened
together by the sinews where the limbs admit of flexure, and
having their extremities! adapted to each other, either by
the one being hollowed and the other rounded,? or by both
being hollowed and including between them a hucklebone,’
as a connecting bolt, so as to allow of flexure and extension.
For without some such arrangement these movements
would be utterly impossible, or at any rate would be per-
formed with great difficulty. There are some joints, again,
in which the lower end of the one bone and the upper end
of the other are alike in shape. In these cases the bones
are bound together by sinews, and cartilaginous pieces are
interposed in the joint, to serve as a kind of padding, and
prevent the two extremities from grating against each other.

Round about the bones, and attached to them by thin
fibrous bands, grow the fleshy parts, for the sake of which
the bones themselves exist. For just as an artist, when he
is moulding an animal out of clay or other soft substance,
takes first some solid body as a basis, and round this
moulds the clay, so also has nature acted in fashioning the
animal body out of flesh. Thus we find all the fleshy parts,
with one exception, supported by bones, which serve, when
the parts are organs of motion, to facilitate flexure, and,
when the parts are motionless, act as a protection. The

1 Read συνεχῆ πρὸς αὐτὴν τὰ τούτων ὀστᾶ τῶν μορίων (Z) ἐστίν, 7 ἔχει
τὰ κῶλα κάμψιν συνδεδεμένα τοῖς (SU) νεύροις κτλ.

21, 6. Ball and socket joints, as οἵ hipand shoulder. The next form,
containing an astragalus, is the ankle joint. The third kind mentioned
includes arthrodial joints, 6. g. the sterno-clavicular, carpal, &c., but
probably refers more especially to the knee-joint with its semilunar

cartilages.
* Cf. iv. 10. 6907 Io note.

BOOK II. 9 654”

ribs, for example, which enclose the chest are intended to
ensure the safety of the heart and neighbouring viscera.
The exception of which mention was made is the belly. 655*
The walls of this are in all animals devoid of bones; in
order that there may be no hindrance to the expansion
which necessarily occurs in this part after a meal, nor, in
females, any interference with the growth of the foetus,
which is lodged here.

Now the bones of viviparous animals, of such, that is, as 5
are not merely externally but also internally viviparous,!
vary but very little from each other in point of strength,
which in all of them is considerable. For the Vivipara in
their bodily proportions are far above other animals, and
many of them occasionally grow to an enormous size, as is
the case in Libya and in hot and dry countries generally.

But the greater the bulk of an animal, the stronger, the τὸ
bigger, and the harder, are the supports which it requires ;
and comparing the big animals with each other, this
requirement will be most marked in those that live a life of
rapine. Thus it is that the bones of males are harder than
those of females; and the bones of flesh-eaters, that get
their food by fighting, are harder than those of Herbivora.
Of this the Lion is an example ; for so hard are its bones,
that, when struck, they give off sparks, as though they
were stones. It may be mentioned also that the Dolphin,
inasmuch as it is viviparous, is provided with bones and not
with fish-spines.

In those sanguineous animals, on the other hand, that
are oviparous, the bones present successive slight variations
of character. Thus in Birds there are bones, but these are
not so strong as the bones of the Vivipara. Then come the
Oviparous fishes, where there is no bone, but merely fish- 20
spine. In the Serpents too the bones have the character
of fish-spine, excepting in the very large species, where
the solid foundation of the body requires to be stronger, in
order that the animal itself may be strong, the same reason
prevailing as in the case of the Vivipara. Lastly, in the

11,6, Of the truly viviparous, not the ovo-viviparous such as the
Selachia, whose bones are cartilaginous. Cf. iv. 1. 676” 3 note.

655°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

Selachia, as they are called, the fish-spines are replaced by
cartilage. For it is necessary that the movements of these
animals shall be of an undulating character; and this
again requires the framework that supports the body to be
made of a pliable and not of a brittle substance. Moreover,
in these Selachia! nature has used all the earthy matter on
the skin; and she is unable to allot to many different parts
one and the same superfluity of material. Even in vivi-
parous animals many of the bones are cartilaginous. This
happens in those parts where it is to the advantage of the
surrounding flesh that its solid base shall be soft and muci-
laginous. Such, for instance, is the case with the ears and
nostrils; for in projecting parts, such as these, brittle sub-
stances would soon get broken. Cartilage and bone are
indeed fundamentally the same thing, the differences
between them being merely matters of degree. Thus
neither cartilage nor bone, when once cut off, grows again.®

35 Now the cartilages of these land animals are without

655

σ'

marrow, that is without any distinctly separate marrow.
For the marrow, which in bones is distinctly separate, is
here mixed up with the whole mass, and gives a soft and
mucilaginous consistence to the cartilage. But in the Sela-
chia the chine, though it is cartilaginous, yet contains
marrow ; for here it stands in the stead of a bone.

Very nearly resembling the bones to the touch are such
parts as nails, hoofs, whether solid or cloven, horns, and the

1 The skin of the fishes called Selachia by A. is studded with
numerous tubercles, granules, or spines, of bony matter ; a peculiarity
designated as ‘ placoid’ by modern ichthyologists.

2 It has been a matter of question whether the credit of being the
first to put forth the law of organic equivalents should be assigned to
Geoffroi St. Hilaire or to Goethe; the former of whom spoke of it as
‘la loi de balancement organique’, while the latter expressed it in
these terms, ‘ Nature must save in one part in order to spend in
another.’ As a matter of fact, the law, whether true or false, is
perfectly recognized by Aristotle, and is used by him over and over
again in explanation of morphological phenomena.

5 So also Hippocrates (Aphor. vii. 28); where, as also in the Coacae
Praenotiones (Kiihn i. 319), the word used is, as in this passage and
H. A. iii. 8. 516” 33, ἀποκοπῇ; i.e. excised. But dcaxory—cut through—
is used in another Aphorism (vi. 19) and is the object of the hostile
criticism from which Galen somewhat weakly defends Hippocrates
(Κύμη xviii, Part i. 30).

BOOK IL. 9

beaks of birds, all of which are intended to serve as means
of defence. For the organs which are made out of these
substances, and which are called by the same names as the
substances themselves, the organ hoof, for instance, and
the organ horn, are contrivances to ensure the preservation
of the animals to which they severally belong. In this
class too must be reckoned the teeth, which in some
animals have but a single function, namely the mastication
of the food, while in others they have an additional office,
namely to serve as weapons ; asis the case with all animals
that have sharp interfitting teeth or that have tusks. All
these parts are necessarily of a solid and earthy character ;
for the value of a weapon depends on such properties.
Their earthy character explains how it is that all such parts
are more developed in four-footed vivipara than in man.
For there is always more earth in the composition of these
animals than in that of the human body. However, not
only all these parts but such others as are nearly connected
with them, skin for instance, bladder, membrane, hairs,
feathers, and their analogues, and any other similar parts
that there may be, will be considered farther on with the
heterogeneous parts.1. There we shall inquire into the
causes which produce them, and into the objects of their
presence severally in the bodies of animals. For, as with
the heterogeneous parts, so with these, it is from a con-
sideration of their functions that alone we can derive any
knowledge of them. The reason for dealing with them at
all in this part of the treatise, and classifying them with the
homogeneous parts, is that under one and the same name
are confounded the entire organs and the substances of
which they are composed. But of all these substances
flesh and bone form the basis. Semen and milk were also
passed over when we were considering the homogeneous

fluids. For the treatise on Generation ? will afford a more :

suitable place for their examination, seeing that the former

1 Cf. as to Bladder, iii. 8; Membrane, iii.11; Hairs, ii.14; Feathers,
iv. 12. 692 10 sq.; Nails, iv. 10. 68723 sq.; Hoofs, iv. 10. 690 4;
Horns, iii. 2; Beaks, iii. 1. 662% 29sq.; Teeth, ili. 1. 661% 34 sq.

SiG, A. i; .17-i. 3, ν 5 8:

655"

σι

τὸ
σι

655" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

of the two is the very foundation of the thing generated,
while the latter is its nourishment.

Let us now make, as it were, a fresh beginning, and con- IO
sider the heterogeneous parts, taking those first which are
the first in importance. For in all animals, at least? in all

30 the perfect kinds, there are two parts more essential than
the rest, namely the part which serves for the ingestion of
food, and the part which serves for the discharge of its
residue. For without food growth and even existence is
impossible. Intervening? again between these two parts
there is invariably a third, in which is lodged the vital
principle. As for plants, though they also are included by
us among things that have life, yet are they without any

35 part for the discharge of waste residue. For the food
which they absorb from the ground is already concocted,
and they give off as its equivalent their seeds and fruits.

656° Plants, again, inasmuch as they are without locomotion,
present no great variety in their heterogeneous parts. For,
where the functions are but few, few also are the organs
required to effect them. The configuration of plants is
a matter then for separate consideration. Animals, how-

5 ever, that not only live but feel, present a greater multi-
formity of parts, and this diversity is greater in some
animals than in others, being most varied in those to
whose share has fallen not mere life but life of high degree.
Now such an animal is man, For of all living beings with
which we are acquainted man alone partakes of the divine,
or at any rate partakes of it in a fuller measure than the

1orest. For this reason, then, and also because his external
parts and their forms are more familiar to us than those of
other animals, we must speak of man first ; and this the
more fitly, because in him alone do the natural parts hold
the natural position ; his upper part being turned towards
that which is upper in the universe. For, of all animals,
man alone stands erect.

In man, then, the head is destitute of flesh; this being

* For καί read τοῖς ye.
* This sentence is transposed from ll. 36-37.

BOOK II. τὸ 656"

the necessary consequence of what has already been stated * 18
concerning the brain. There are, indeed, some? who hold
that the life of man would be longer than it is, were his
head more abundantly furnished with flesh; and they
account for the absence of this substance by saying that it
is intended to add to the perfection of sensation. For the
brain they assert to be the organ of sensation; and sensa-
tion, they say, cannot penetrate to parts that are too
thickly covered with flesh. But neither part of this state-
ment is true. On the contrary, were the region of the 20
brain thickly covered with flesh, the very purpose for which
animals are provided with a brain would be directly con-
travened. For the brain would itself be heated to excess
and so unable to cool any other part; and, as to the other
half of their -statement, the brain cannot be the cause of
any of the sensations, seeing that it is itself as utterly
without feeling as any one of the excretions.* These
writers see that certain of the senses are located in the
head, and are unable to discern the reason for this; they
see also that the brain is the most peculiar of all the animal
organs; and out of these facts they form an argument, by

"Ὁ

τ:

2 e.g. Plato in the Zzmaeus (75 B), who probably borrowed the
opinion, as Galen says he did his physiology generally, from Hippo-
crates. Democritus also had taught that the sovereign part of the
soul was in the head ; and Diogenes of Apollonia, more directly, had
held that the brain was the seat of sensation, being surrounded by
a layer of hot dry air, which was in connexion with the sense-organs
by means of the blood-vessels, and so sympathized with their motions
and affections (cf. Grote’s P/azo, 1.65).

5 A.’s chief reasons for refusing to admit that the brain was the
sensory centre were as follows. (1) It was insensible to touch (ii. Io,
656% 23; ii. 7.652” 5). (2) There was no brain or analogous organ in
any of the bloodless animals, cephalopods excepted (ii. 7. 652" 25).
(3) It was cold and bloodless (ii. 7. 652% 33). (4) It was not anatomi-
cally connected with the sense-organs, notably with those of touch and
taste (ii. 7. 652 3).

On the other hand, the heart (1) was palpably affected in emotion or
when pain or pleasure was felt (11. 6. 6692 19) ; (2) was present, or an
analogous organ, in all animals (iii. 4. 665" 10; G. A. iv. 4. 771° 3);
(3) was the source of heat and of the blood (iii. 5.667" 26) ; (4) was in
anatomical connexion, through the blood-vessels, with all the sense-
organs (G. A. il. 6. 7442 3); (5) was the first part to be formed in the
embryo, the ‘ primum vivens, ultimum moriens’ (G. A. ii. 5. 741° 20) ;
(6) was in a central position befitting the supreme organ (iii. 7.
670* 24).

656" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

which they link sensation and brain together. It has,
however, already been clearly set forth in the treatise on
Sensation, that it is the region of the heart that constitutes
30 the sensory centre. There also it was stated that two of
the senses, namely touch and taste, are manifestly in imme-
diate connexion with the heart ;' and that as regards the
other three, namely hearing, sight, and the centrally placed
sense of smell, it is the character of their sense-organs
which causes them to be lodged as a rule in the head.
Vision is so placed in all animals. But such is not invart-
ably the case with hearing or with smell. For fishes and
35 the like hear and smell, and yet have no visible organs
for these senses in the head ;? a fact which demonstrates
the accuracy of the opinion here maintained. Now that
vision, whenever it exists, should be in the neighbourhood
656” of the brain is but what one would rationally expect. For
the brain is fluid and cold, and vision is of the nature of
water, water being of all transparent substances the one
most easily confined. Moreover it cannot but necessarily
be that the more precise senses will have their precision
5 rendered still greater if ministered to by parts that have
the purest blood. For the motion of the heat of blood
destroys sensory activity. For these reasons the organs of
the precise senses are lodged in the head.

It is not only the fore part of the head that is destitute
of flesh, but the hind part also. For, in all animals that
have a head, it is this head which more than any other
part requires to be held up. But, were the head heavily

το laden with flesh, this would be impossible ; for nothing so
burdened can be held upright. This is an additional proof
that the absence of flesh from the head has no reference to

1 Cf. De Sensu, 2. 439% 1.

2 One might suppose from this passage that the excavations near the
anterior part of the snout, which constitute in fishes the external organs
of smell, had entirely escaped A.’s notice. But this was not so, as
appears from a passage (H. A. iv. 8. 533" 1), where he mentions these
recesses, and says that some consider them to be organs of sense.
This, however, he will not admit, because ‘ the passages (πόροι) do not
appear to lead to the brain, but are either blind or lead to the gills’.
His notion was that in fishes the gills were the external organs of
smell (cf. ii. 16. 659? 16 note).

BOOK II. 10 656?

brain sensation. For there is no brain in the hinder part
of the head,! and yet this is as much without flesh as is the
front.

In some animals hearing as well as vision is lodged in
the region of the head. Nor is this without a rational 15
explanation. For what is called the empty space is full
of air, and the organ of hearing is, as we say, of the nature
of air. Now there are channels? which lead from the eyes
to the blood-vessels that surround the brain; and similarly
there is a channel which leads back again from each ear
and connects it with the hinder part of the head. But no
part that is without blood is endowed with sensation, as
neither is the blood itself, but only some one of the parts
that are formed of blood.*

? An error borrowed from Hippocrates (Kiihn’s edit. i. 183); but
very possibly deriving support from examination of the brain of
cold-blooded animals. For in Fishes and Reptiles the brain is not
large enough to fill the cranial cavity, a character to which Lamarck
attached great importance in distinguishing these groups from
Mammals and Birds (P&Az/. Zool. i. 276, Martin’s edit.). In the
tortoise, for instance, the area of a vertical section of the brain, ac-
cording to Desmoulins (Todd, Cyclop. of An. and Phys.i. 724), is
nearly a third less than the area of the cavity. So also the brain
completely fills the brain-case in embryonic fishes, but in the adult
only occupies a small part of it, as its growth is by no means pro-
portionate to that of the cranium itself. That A. had noticed this is
probable from his saying (G. A. 11. 6.7442 17) that the brain of animals
is at first of large size, but afterwards falls in and becomes of smaller
dimensions. So also in Cephalopods, animals specially studied by
A., and with whose so-called brain he was acquainted, the cavity in
which the ganglia are lodged is much larger than the ganglia them-
selves.

2 Frantzius, following Schneider, interprets these channels or πόροι
to mean nerves, and, were the πόροι of the eye alone in question, there
are passages (77. 4.1.16. 4952 11-18; G. A. ii. 6. 744 9) which would
make this view highly probable. But A. (G. A. ii. 6. 743” 36) speaks
of a// the sense-organs as being on πόροι, and describes the πόροι of the
ears and nose as full of connate air, and running to the blood-vessels
on the outside of the brain and so communicating with the heart.
The present passage, moreover, seems to imply that the internal auditory
πόρος is Of the same character as the external auditory meatus, that is
to say isan air-duct. Meyer (Zhierkunde, Ὁ. 428) takes the πόροι to be
blood-vessels. It seems, however, unnecessary to assume that some one
exclusive structure applicable to all the sense-organs is indicated. The
nerves of the eye, the supposed air-ducts of the ears and nose, the
blood-vessels of the organs generally, are all πόροι ; all, that is, are
channels by which the sense-organs communicate with the heart,
either directly or with the intermediation of the φλέβια τὰ περὶ τὸν
ἐγκέφαλον (6. A. ii. 6. 744% 4).

ὁ The argument is this: The channels from the eyes end in the

656" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

The brain in all animals that have one is placed in the
front part of the head; because the direction in which
sensation acts is in front; and because the heart, from

25 which sensation proceeds, is in the front part of the body ;
and lastly because the instruments of sensation are the
blood-containing parts, and the cavity in the posterior part
of the skull is destitute of blood-vessels.

As to the position of the sense-organs, they have been
arranged by nature in the following well-ordered manner.
The organs of hearing are so placed as to divide the circum-
ference of the head into two equal halves; for they have to
hear not only sounds which are directly in a line with

30 themselves, but sounds from all quarters. The organs of
vision are placed in front, because sight is exercised only
in a straight line, and moving as we do in a forward direc-
tion it is necessary that we should see before us, in the
direction of our motion. Lastly, the organs of smell are
placed with good reason between the eyes. For as the
body consists of two parts, a right half and a left, so also

35 each organ of sense is double. In the case of touch this is
not apparent, the reason being that the primary organ of
this sense is not the flesh or analogous part, but lies in-
ternally.1. In the case of taste, which is merely a modifica-
tion of touch and which is placed in the tongue, the fact
is more apparent than in the case of touch, but still not

657% so manifest as in the case of the other senses. However,
even in taste it is evident enough ; for in some animals the
tongue is plainly forked. The double character of the
sensations is, however, more conspicuous in the other organs

of sense. For there are two ears and two eyes, and the
nostrils, though joined together, are also two. Were these

5 latter otherwise disposed, and separated from each other as

blood-vessels outside the brain, and blood itself is insensible. The
channels from the ears end in the void space, where there are no
blood-vessels ; and no part without blood-vessels is sensitive. Neither
the sensibility of the eyes nor that of the ears can therefore be
explained simply by their connexion with the interior of the cranium.

A short sentence is here omitted, as being partly unintelligible,
partly empty iteration. Part of it, moreover, is wanting in E, one of the
best MSS.

1 Cf. ii. 8. 653" 30 note.

BOOK ΤΠ τὸ 657°

are the ears, neither they nor the nose in which they are
placed would be able to perform their office. For in such
animals as have nostrils olfaction is effected by means of
inspiration, and the organ of inspiration is placed in front
and in the middle line. This is the reason why nature has
brought the two nostrils together and placed them as the 10
central of the three sense-organs, setting them side by side
on a level with each other, to avail themselves of the
inspiratory motion. Inother animals than man the arrange-
ment of these sense-organs is also such as is adapted in

Il each case to the special requirements. For instance, in
quadrupeds the ears stand out freely from the head and are
set to all appearance above the eyes. Not that they are in
reality above the eyes; but they seem to be so, because
the animal does not stand erect, but has its head hung
downwards. This being the usual attitude of the animal
when in motion, it is of advantage that its ears shall be
high up and movable; for by turning themselves about
they can the better take in sounds from every quarter.

12 In birds, on the other hand, there are no ears, but only the
auditory passages. This is because their skin is hard and
because they have feathers instead of hairs, so that they 2°
have not got the proper material for the formation of ears.
Exactly the same is the case with such oviparous quadru-
peds as are clad with scaly plates, and the same explanation
applies to them. There is also one of the viviparous quad-
rupeds, namely the seal, that has no ears but only the
auditory passages. The explanation of this is that the
seal, though a quadruped, is a quadruped of stunted
formation.

1. Men, and Birds, and Quadrupeds, viviparous and ovi- 25
parous alike, have their eyes protected by lids. In the
Vivipara there are two of these; and both are used by
these animals not only in closing the eye, but also in the
act of blinking; whereas the oviparous quadrupeds, and
the heavy-bodied birds’ as well as some others, use only

' That is the Gallinaceous birds (H/. JA. ii, 8. 613” 6).

AR, P.As iB

657"

657”

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

the lower lid to close the eye ;! while birds blink by means
of a membrane that issues from the canthus. The reason
for the eyes being thus protected is that nature has made
them of fluid consistency, in order to ensure keenness of
vision. For had they been covered with hard skin, they
would, it is true, have been less liable to get injured by
anything falling into them from without, but they would
not have been sharp-sighted. It is then to ensure keenness
of vision that the skin over the pupil is fine and delicate ;
while the lids are superadded as a protection from injury.
It is as a still further safeguard that all these animals blink,
and man most of all; this action (which is not performed
from deliberate intention but from a natural instinct) serving
to keep objects from falling into the eyes; and being more
frequent in man than in the rest of these animals, because
of the greater delicacy of his skin. These lids are made
of a roll of skin; and it is because they are made of skin
and contain no flesh that neither they, nor the similarly
constructed prepuce, unite again when once cut.”

As to the oviparous quadrupeds, and such birds as re-
semble them in closing the eye with the lower lid, it is the
hardness of the skin of their heads which makes them do so.
For such birds as have heavy bodies are not made for flight ;
and so the materials which would otherwise have gone to
increase the growth of the feathers are diverted thence, and
used to augment the thickness of the skin. Birds therefore
of this kind close the eye with the lower lid; whereas
pigeons and the like use both upper and lower lids for the
purpose. As birds are covered with feathers, so oviparous
quadrupeds are covered with scaly plates ; and these in all

Ὁ In birds, as a rule, as also in Chelonia, in crocodiles, and in frogs,
the lower lid is much larger and more movable than the upper, and
it is with it therefore that the eye is closed in sleep. There are, how-
ever, some few exceptions, and of these the owl is one, as noticed by
A. elsewhere (.Χ. A. 11. 12. 5042 26), A few sentences later it is said
that pigeons use both lids to close the eye, which is also a correct
observation.

* This is an unfortunate statement, borrowed however from Hippo-
crates (Kiihn’s ed. i. 319; iil. 752). Firstly, the presence of flesh, i.e. of
muscular tissue, is not essential for reunion after section; secondly,
the eyelid does contain muscular tissue; and, lastly, cuts both in it
and the prepuce can be made to unite by proper appliances.

BOOK IL. 18

their forms are harder than hairs, so that the skin also to
which they belong is harder than the skin of hairy animals,
In these animals, then, the skin on the head is hard, and so
does not allow of the formation of an upper eyelid, whereas
lower down the integument is of a flesh-like character, so
that the lower lid can be thin and extensible.

The act of blinking is performed by the heavy-bodied
birds’ by means of the membrane already mentioned, and
not by this lower lid. For in blinking rapid motion is
required, and such is the motion of this membrane, whereas
that of the lower lid is slow. It is from the canthus that
is nearest to the nostrils that the membrane comes. For it
is better to have one starting-point for nictitation than two;
and in these birds this starting-point is the junction of eye
and nostrils, an anterior starting-point being preferable to
a lateral one. Oviparous quadrupeds do not blink in like
manner as the birds ;? for, living as they do on the ground,
they are free from the necessity of having eyes of fluid
consistency and of keen sight, whereas these are essential
requisites for birds, inasmuch as they have to use their eyes
at long distances. This too explains why birds with talons,
that have to search for prey by eye from aloft, and there-
fore soar to greater heights than other birds, are sharp-
sighted ; while common fowls and the like, that live on the
ground and are not made for flight, have no such keenness
of vision. For there is nothing in their mode of life which
imperatively requires it.

Fishes and Insects and the hard-skinned Crustacea present
certain differences in their eyes, but so far resemble each
other as that none of them have eyelids. As for the hard-
skinned Crustacea it is utterly out of the question that they
should have any; for an eyelid, to be of use, requires the
action of the skin* to be rapid. These animals then have

1 And by all other birds also (cf. 27. A. ii. 12. 504% 26).

2 A. both here and elsewhere speaks erroneously of a nictitating
membrane as peculiar to birds. For, though it is especially well
developed in birds, yet it is to be found in numerous reptiles, amphibia,
and sharks, not to mention some mammals.

’ There are exceptions among fishes, particularly in sharks.

* Read ταχεῖαν τὴν δερματικὴν ἔχει ἐργασίαν.

F 2

657”

τ᾿
ο

657”

658*

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

no eyelids and, in default of this protection, their eyes are
hard, just as though the lid were attached to the surface
of the eye, and the animal saw through it. Inasmuch,
however, as such hardness must necessarily blunt the sharp-
ness of vision, nature has endowed the eyes of Insects, and
still more those of Crustacea,’ with mobility (just as she
has given some quadrupeds movable ears), in order that
they may be able to turn to the light and catch its rays,
and so see more plainly. Fishes, however, have eyes of
a fluid consistency. For animals that move much about
have to use their vision at considerable distances. If now
they live on land, the air in which they move is transparent
enough. But the water in which fishes live is a hindrance
to sharp sight, though it has this advantage over the air,
that it does not contain so many objects to knock against
the eyes. The risk of collision being thus small, nature,
who makes nothing in vain, has given no eyelids to fishes,
while to counterbalance the opacity of the water she has
made their eyes of fluid consistency.

All animals that have hairs on the body have lashes on 14

the eyelids; but birds and animals with scale-like plates,
being hairless, have none.?— The Libyan ostrich, indeed,
forms an exception ; for, though a bird, it is furnished with
eyelashes. This exception, however, will be explained
hereafter. Of hairy animals, man alone has lashes on both
lids. For in quadrupeds there is a greater abundance of
hair on the back than on the under side of the body ;
whereas in man the contrary is the case, and the hair is
more abundant on the front surface than on the back. The
reason for this is that hair is intended to serve as a pro-

tection to its possessor. Now, in quadrupeds, owing to

1 A’s knowledge of Crustacea was confined, or nearly so, to
Podophthalmata, in which the eyes are supported on movable
peduncles. Insects have, almost invariably, sessile and motionless
eyes; and though in a few instances the eyes are on peduncles, these
peduncles are not movable like those of Crustacea.

* Birds, as a rule, have no eyelashes. There are, however, a few
exceptions, and of these the Ostrich is one.——Casaubon rightly
explains the construction—‘ voluit dicere et scripsisset alius, ὄρνιθες δὲ
οὐκ ἔχουσιν οὐδὲ τῶν φολιδωτῶν οὐδέν᾽,

BOOK II. 14 658*

their inclined attitude, the under or anterior surface does 20
not require so much protection as the back, and is therefore
left comparatively bald, in spite of its being the nobler of
the two sides. But in man, owing to his upright attitude,
the anterior and posterior surfaces of the body are on an
equality as regards need of protection. Nature therefore
has assigned ‘the protective covering to the nobler of the
two surfaces;! for invariably she brings about the best
arrangement of such as are possible. This then is the
reason that there is no lower eyelash in any quadruped ;
though in some a few scattered hairs sprout out under the
lower lid.2 This also is the reason that they never have
hair in the axillae, nor on the pubes, as man has. Their
hair, then, instead of being collected in these parts, is either
thickly set over the whole dorsal surface, as is the case for
instance in dogs, or, sometimes, forms a mane, as in horses 30
and the like, or as in the male lion, where the mane is still
more flowing and ample. So, again, whenever there is
a tail of any length, nature decks it with hair, with long
hair if the stem of the tail be short, as in horses, with short
hair if the stem be long, regard also being had to the
condition of the rest of the body. For nature invariably 35
gives to one part what she subtracts from another. Thus
when she has covered the general surface of an animal's
body with an excess of hair, she leaves a deficiency in
the region of the tail. This, for instance, in the case with 658"
bears.

No animal has so much hair on the head as man. _ This,
in the first place, is the necessary result of the fluid
character of his brain, and of the presence of so many
sutures in his skull. For wherever there is the most fluid
and the most heat, there also must necessarily occur the 5

τ
σι

1 Cf. ii. 2. 648% 13 note.

2 So far as I can ascertain it is true that man is the only mammal
with a distinct marginal lower eyelash, with the exception of some
monkeys, an exception elsewhere (7. A. ii. 8. 502* 31) recognized
by A., and some few antelopes. In very many mammals, especially
the smaller kinds, there are no eyelashes at all. In the larger kinds,
as a rule, the upper lash is well developed and marginal, while the
lower lash is represented, as A. rightly says, by some long straggling
hairs set below the lid, not on its margin.

658"

τὸ
σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

ereatest outgrowth. But, secondly, the thickness of the
hair in this part has a final cause, being intended to protect
the head, by preserving it from excess of either heat or
cold. And as the brain of man is larger and more fluid
than that of any other animal, it requires a proportionately
greater amount of protection. For the more fluid a sub-
stance is, the more readily does it get excessively heated or
excessively chilled, while substances of an opposite character
are less liable to such injurious affections.

These, however, are matters which by their close con-
nexion with eyelashes have led us to digress from our real
topic, namely the cause to which these lashes owe their
existence. We must therefore defer any further remarks
we may have to make on these matters till the proper
occasion arises and then return to their consideration.

Both eyebrows and eyelashes exist for the protection of 15

the eyes ; the former that they may shelter them, like the
eaves of a house, from any fluids that trickle down from
the head ;1 the latter to act like the palisades which are
sometimes placed in front of enclosures, and keep out any
objects which might otherwise get in. The brows are
placed over the junction of two bones, which is the reason
that in old age they often become so bushy as to require
cutting. The lashes are set at the terminations of small
blood-vessels. For the vessels come to an end where the
skin itself terminates; and, in all places where these endings
occur, the exudation of moisture of a corporeal character
necessitates the growth of hairs,? unless there be some
operation of nature which interferes, by diverting the
moisture to another purpose.

1 The explanation and the comparison are borrowed from Xenophon
(JZem. i. 4. 6), who puts them into the mouth of Socrates.

2 A. knew that the blood passed from the heart to the various parts
by the vessels, but scarcely recognized its returning. Thus when the
blood reached the peripheral ends of the vessels, it had to be disposed
of in some form or other; that which escaped internally formed the
viscera, that which escaped externally formed hair and the like. Thus
the hair was in a certain sense an excretion (ii. 6507 22 note). So also
was it regarded by Bacon (WVa¢. Ast. cent. i, sect. 58) and Shake-

speare— ‘Your bedded hair, like life in excrements,
Starts up, and stands on end’ (Hamile¢ iii. 4).

BOOK. 1 658"

16 Viviparous quadrupeds, as a rule, present no great
variety of form in the organ of smell. In those of them,
however, whose jaws project forwards and taper to a
narrow end, so as to form what is called a snout, the
nostrils are placed in this projection, there being no other
available plan; while, in the rest, there is a more definite
demarcation between nostrils and jaws. But in no animal
is this part so peculiar as in the elephant, where it attains
an extraordinary size and strength. For the elephant uses 3°
its nostril as a hand; this being the instrument with 65¢
which it conveys food, fluid and solid alike, to its mouth.
With it, too, it tears up trees, coiling it round their stems.
In fact it applies it generally to the purposes of a hand.
For the elephant has the double character of a land animal,
and of one that lives in swamps. Seeing then that it has to
get its food from the water,! and yet must necessarily breathe,
inasmuch as it is a land animal and has blood; seeing,
also, that its excessive weight prevents it from passing
rapidly from water to land, as some other sanguineous
vivipara that breathe can do, it becomes necessary that it
shall be suited alike for life in the water and for life on dry
land. Just then as divers are sometimes provided with
instruments for respiration, through which they can draw τὸ
air from above the water, and thus may remain for a long
time under the 568,2 so also have elephants been furnished
by nature with their lengthened nostril ; and, whenever
they have to traverse the water, they lift this up above the
surface and breathe through it. For the elephant’s pro- 15
boscis, as already said, is a nostril. Now it would have

σι

1 The elephant is much given to bathing: but A. appears to have
entertained an exaggerated idea of its aquatic habits, and to have mis-
interpreted its reasons for betaking itself to the water ; imagining that
it went there not merely to slake its thirst or for the luxury of a cold
bath, but because it depended, of course in its wild state, on water-
plants for its sustenance !

* From this curious passage it would appear that the ancients were
already acquainted with some form of diving apparatus corresponding
to the submarine helmet and tubes in use at the present time. It may,
however, have been some very simple instrument, such as the reed by
means of which Australian natives (Tylor, Axthrop. p. 208) are said
to be able to swim for a distance under water, so as to approach
a flock of ducks without being seen.

8 Cf. H. A. ix. 46.630” 27. The elephant does in fact use its trunk in
the way described when crossing a deep river (cf. Tennent, Cey/o7, ii, 310).

659" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

been impossible for this nostril to have the form of a pro-
boscis, had it been hard and incapable of bending. For its
very length would then have prevented the animal from
supplying itself with food, being as great an impediment as
20 the horns of certain oxen, that are said! to be obliged to
walk backwards while they are grazing. It is therefore
soft and flexible, and, being such, is made, in addition to
its own proper functions, to serve the office of the fore-feet ;
nature in this following her wonted plan of using one and
the same part for several purposes. For in polydactylous
quadrupeds the fore-feet are intended not merely to support
25 the weight of the body, but to serve as hands. But in ele-
phants, though they must be reckoned? polydactylous,as their
foot has neither cloven nor solid hoof, the fore-feet, owing
to the great size and weight of the body, are reduced to the
condition of mere supports ; and indeed their slow motion
and* unfitness for bending make them useless for any
30 other purpose. A nostril, then, is given to the elephant for
respiration, as to every other animal that has a lung, and is
lengthened out and endowed with its power of coiling
because the animal has to remain for considerable periods
of time in the water, and is unable to pass thence to dry
ground with any rapidity. But as the feet are shorn of
their full office, this same part is also, as already said, made
35 by nature to supply their place, and give such help as
otherwise would be rendered by them.
As to other sanguineous animals, the Birds, the Serpents,
659” and the Oviparous quadrupeds, in all of them there are the
nostril-holes, placed in front of the mouth ; but in none are
there any distinctly formed nostrils, nothing in fact which
can be called nostrils except from a functional point of
s view. A bird at any rate has nothing which can properly
be called a nose. For its so-called beak is a substitute for
jaws. The reason for this is to be found in the natural
conformation of birds. For they are winged bipeds; and
' This story comes from Herodotus (iv. 183).
β Although the toes are not separate nor clearly defined, ἀσχίστους
καὶ ; ἠρέμα διηρθρωμένους. (Cf. ..7. A. ili. 9. 517% 32.)

* A. does not mean that the elephant has no joints in its legs, for
he specially repudiates this vulgar error (217. A. ii. 1. 4988 9).

BOOK II. 16

this makes it necessary that their head and neck shall be
of light weight; just as it makes it necessary that their
breast! shall be narrow. The beak therefore with which
they are provided is formed of a bone-like substance, in
order that it may serve as a weapon as well as for nutritive
purposes, but is made of narrow dimensions to suit the
small size of the head. In this beak are placed the
olfactory passages. But there are no nostrils; for such
could not possibly be placed there.

As for those animals that have no respiration, it has
already been explained? why it is that they are without
nostrils, and perceive odours either through gills, or through
a blow-hole, or, if they are insects, by the hypozoma ;? and
how the power of smelling depends, like their motion, upon
the innate spirit of their bodies, which in all of them is
implanted by nature and not introduced from without.

Under the nostrils are the lips, in such sanguineous
animals, that is, as have teeth. For in birds, as already
has been said, the purposes of nutrition and defence are
fulfilled by a bone-like beak, which forms a compound
substitute for teeth and lips. For supposing that one were

1 Cf. iv. 12. 693” 17 note.

1 Perhaps this refers to De Sensu 5. 444» 6 sq.

5 By hyfozoma A. designates no distinct organ or structure, but the
indefinite mid part of the trunk, that in the human body is called the
waist, but in other animals has no name. In insects this region is
marked by a narrow constriction, but A. also speaks of a hypozoma in
fishes where there is no such constriction (G. 4. i. 8. 718 1). It is
not difficult to understand why A. located the sense of smell in or near
this region of the insect’s body. Arguing by analogy from the higher
animals, A. believed that the organ of smell was inseparable from the
organ of respiration, or, in the lower animals, of refrigeration. He
accordingly located smell in the gills of fishes, in the blowpipe of
Cetacea, and in insects, in a specially thin part of the integument,
covering a fissure just below the Zyfozoma, and serving, as he thought,
for escape of heat and production of sounds (De Resf. 9. 475 1-19 ;
H. A.iv.9. 535» 8). This refers to the so-called ‘drums’ of cicadae and
the ‘tympana’ of grasshoppers, to which A. apparently supposed there
was something correspondent in other insects ; meaning perhaps the
thinner integument between the successive rings of the abdomen. The
alternate contractions and dilatations, which are visible in an insect’s
abdomen, and which are in reality respiratory, were attributed by him
to the refrigerating motion of the ‘connate spirit’. It must be by
inadvertence that the blowpipe of Cetacea is mentioned, for A. is

659°

-
uo

speaking of animals that have no lungs, and he well knew that ἡ

Cetacea were not of these.

659"

660%

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

to cut off a man’s lips, unite his upper teeth together, and
similarly his under ones, and then were to lengthen out
the two separate pieces thus formed, narrowing them on
either side and making them project forwards, supposing,
I say, this to be done, we should at once have a bird-like
beak.

The use of the lips in all animals except man is to
preserve and guard the teeth; and thus it is that the
distinctness with which the lips are formed is in direct
proportion to the degree of nicety and perfection with
which the teeth are fashioned. In man the lips are soft
and flesh-like and capable of separating from each other.
Their purpose, as in other animals, is to guard the teeth,
but they are more especially intended to serve a higher
office, contributing in common with other parts to man’s
faculty of speech. For just as nature has made man’s
tongue unlike that of other animals, and, in accordance
with what I have said! is her not uncommon practice, has
used it for two distinct operations, namely for the per-
ception of savours and for speech, so also has she acted
with regard to the lips, and made them serve both for
speech and for the protection of the teeth. For vocal
speech consists of combinations of the letters, and most of
these it would be impossible to pronounce, were the lips
not moist, nor the tongue such as it is. For some letters
are formed by closures of the lips and others by applica-
tions of the tongue. But what are the differences presented
by these and what the natureand extent of such differences,
are questions to which answers must be sought from those
who are versed in metrical science.2_ It was necessary that
the two parts which we are discussing should, in con-
formity with the requirements, be severally adapted to
fulfil the office mentioned above, and be of appro-
priate character. Therefore are they made of flesh, and
flesh is softer in man than in any other animal, the reason

1 ΕΘ ΡΟΝ 21,

2. The so-called Metrical Science had for its province everything
relating to words considered merely as sounds, and ranged therefore

from prosody and the laws of versification back to the elementary
vocal sounds and the mechanism of their production. Cf. Poetics 20.

BOOK II. 16 660°

for this being that of all animals man has the most delicate
sense of touch.

17 The tongue is placed under the vaulted roof of the
mouth. In land animals it presents but little diversity.
But in other animals it is variable, and this whether we
compare them as a class with such as live on land, or
compare their several species with each other. It is in
man that the tongue attains its greatest degree of freedom,
of softness, and of breadth; the object of this being to
render it suitable for its double function. For its softness
fits it for the perception of savours, a sense which is more 20
delicate in man than in any other animal, softness being
most impressionable by touch, of which sense taste is but
a variety. This same softness again, together with its
breadth, adapts it for the articulation of letters and for
speech. For these qualities, combined with its freedom
from attachment, are those which suit it best for advancing
and retiring in every direction. That this is so is plain, if we
consider the case of those who are tongue-tied in however
slight a degree. For their speech is indistinct and lisping ;
that is to say there are certain letters which they cannot
pronounce. In being broad is comprised the possibility of
becoming narrow ; for in the great the small is included,
but not the great in the small.

What has been said explains why, even among birds,
those that are most capable of pronouncing letters are such 30
as have the broadest tongues ;! and why the viviparous
and sanguineous quadrupeds, where the tongue is hard and
thick and not free in its motions, have a very limited vocal
articulation. Some birds have a considerable variety of
notes. These are the smaller kinds.? But it is the birds
with talons that have the broader tongues. ΑἹ] birds use 3;
their tongues to communicate with each other. But some
do this in a greater degree than the rest; so that in some 660°
cases it even seems as though actual instruction were

τὸ
ao

1 In parrots, included by A. among the birds with talons, the tongue
is ‘épaisse, charnue et arrondie; deux circonstances qui leur donnent
la plus grande facilité ἃ imiter la voix humaine’ (Cuvier, Reg. Az. i. 461).

SCL 7. A. iv. Ὁ... 5362.24.

66ο"

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

imparted from one to another by its agency. These,
however, are matters which have already been discussed in
the Researches concerning Animals.'

As to those oviparous and sanguineous animals that live
not in the air but on the earth, their tongue in most cases
is tied down and hard, and is therefore useless for vocal -
purposes ; in the serpents, however, and in the lizards it is
long and forked, so as to be suited for the perception of
savours. So long indeed is this part in serpents, that
though small while in the mouth it can be protruded to
a great distance. In these same animals it is forked and
has a fine and hair-like extremity, because of their great
liking for dainty food. For by this arrangement they
derive a twofold pleasure from savours, their gustatory
sensation being as it were doubled.

Even some bloodless animals have an organ that serves
for the perception of savours; and in sanguineous animals
such an organ is invariably present. For even in such of
these as would seem to an ordinary observer to have
nothing of the kind, some of the fishes for example, there is
a kind of shabby representative of a tongue,” much like
what exists in river crocodiles. In most of these cases the
apparent absence of the part can be rationally explained
on some ground or other. For in the first place the interior
of the mouth in animals of this character is invariably
spinous. Secondly, in water animals there is but short
space of time for the perception of savours, and as the use
of this sense is thus of short duration, shortened also is the
separate part which subserves it. The reason for their
food being so rapidly transmitted to the stomach is that
they cannot possibly spend any time in sucking out the
juices ; for were they to attempt to do so, the water would
make its way in during the process. Unless therefore one
pulls their mouth very widely open, the projection of
this part is quite invisible. The region exposed by thus

Ch AR Ast. 1251504? τ; ἀν: Ὁ. 536" 20-9 19: ix, 1..6e0"

2 Cf. H. A. ii. 13. 505% 31. Many fishes have no tongue. In none is it
protrusible, being at best an insignificant ligamentary or cellular body,

scarcely projecting from the glosso-hyoid. Cf. Owen (γί, i. 411),
Cuvier (Am. Comp. ii. 681), Giinther (SZ. of Fishes, p. 119).

BOOK: ti. 17 660°

opening the mouth is spinous ; for it is formed by the close
apposition of the gills, which are of a spinous character.

In crocodiles the immobility of the lower jaw also
contributes in some measure to stunt the development of
the tongue. For the crocodile’s tongue is adherent to the
lower jaw. For its upper and lower jaws are, as it were,
inverted, it being the upper jaw which in other animals is
the immovable one. The tongue, however, of this animal
is not attached to the upper jaw, because that would
interfere with the ingestion of food, but adheres to the lower
jaw, because this is, as it were, the upper one which has
changed its place.!. Moreover, it is the crocodile’s lot, though
a land animal, to live the life of a fish, and this again
necessarily involves an indistinct formation of the part in
question.

The roof of the mouth resembles flesh, even in many of 35
the fishes ; and in some of the river species, as for instance
in the fishes known as Cyprini,” is so very flesh-like and soft
as to be taken by careless observers for a tongue. The 661° |
tongue of fishes, however, though it exists as a separate
part, is never formed with such distinctness as this, as has
been already explained. Again, as the gustatory sensibility
is intended to serve animals in the selection of food, it is not
diffused equally over the whole surface of the tongue-like
organ, but is placed chiefly in the tip; and for this reason
it is the tip which is the only part of the tongue separated 5
in fishes from the rest of the mouth. As all animals are
sensible to the pleasure derivable from food, they all feel a
desire for it. For the object of desire is the pleasant. The
part, however, by which food produces the sensation is not
precisely alike in all of them, but while in some it is free τὸ

fe)

1 The exact drift of this passage is not very evident. I take it that
A. thinks it necessary to explain why the tongue, if it adheres to one
jaw, does not adhere to that which in his view is the nobler, namely
the upper (ii. 2. 648° 11 note). His explanation is that in reality the
tongue does adhere to the upper jaw; but that the upper jaw has
been brought into the position of the lower one, as its immobility
testifies, lest the adherence of the tongue to it should interfere with
deglutition.

* In the Cyprinoids the palate is cushioned with a thick soft vascular
substance, remarkable for its great irritability. This is still commonly
known in France as ‘ langue de carpe’ (Cuvier, A. Ax. ii. 270).

661°

Lal
on

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

from attachments, in others, where it is not required for
vocal purposes, it is adherent. In some again it is hard, in
others soft or flesh-like. Thus even the Crustacea, the
Carabi for instance and the like, and the Cephalopods, such
as the Sepias and the Poulps, have some such part inside
the mouth. As for the Insects, some of them have the
part which serves as tongue inside the mouth, as is the case
with ants, and as is also the case with many Testacea,
while in others it is placed externally. In this latter case
it resembles a sting, and is hollow and spongy, so as to
serve at one and the same time for the tasting and for
the sucking up of nutriment. This is plainly to be seen in
flies and bees and all such animals, and likewise in some of
the Testacea. In the Purpurae,! for instance, so strong is
this part that it enables them to bore holes through the
hard covering of shell-fish, of the spiral snails, for example,
that are used as bait to catch them. So also the gad-flies
and cattle-flies? can pierce through the skin of man, and
some of them even through the skins of other animals.
Such, then, in these animals is the nature of the tongue,
which is thus as it were the counterpart of the elephant’s
nostril. For as in the elephant the nostril is used as a
weapon, so in these animals the tongue serves as a sting.

In all other animals the tongue agrees with the
description already given.

1 Under Purpura are probably included all the various species of
Murex and Purpura from which purple dye was obtainable. Of these
the most important seem to have been 77. ¢runculus and M. brandaris
(Woodward, FR. & F. Shells, p. 106). As to the power possessed by
P. lapillus of boring through shells by means of its armed tongue, see
Forbes and Hanley, 4rz¢. Mollusca, 111. 385.

2 By Oestri and Myopes, translated vaguely as Gad-flies and Cattle-
flies, are probably meant some species or other of Tabanus.

BOOK III

I We have next to consider the teeth, and with these the
mouth, that is the cavity which they enclose and form. 35
The teeth have one invariable office, namely the reduction 661°
of food ; but besides this general function they have other
special ones, and these differ in different groups. Thus in
some animals the teeth serve as weapons; but this with a
distinction. For there are offensive weapons and there are
defensive weapons ; and while in some animals, as the wild 5
Carnivora, the teeth answer both purposes, in many others,
both wild and domesticated, they serve only for defence.
In man the teeth are admirably constructed for their general
office, the front ones being sharp, so as to cut the food into
bits, and the hinder ones broad and flat, so as to grind it to
a pulp ; while between these and separating them are the
dog-teeth, which, in accordance with the rule that the mean τὸ
partakes of both extremes, share in the characters of those
on either side, being broad in one part but sharp in another.!
Similar distinctions of shape are presented by the teeth of
other animals, with the exception of those whose teeth are
one and all of the sharp kind. In man, however, the
number and the character even of these sharp teeth have
been mainly determined by the requirements of speech.
For the front teeth of man contribute in many ways to the 1;
formation of letter-sounds.

In some animals, however, the teeth, as already said,
serve merely for the reduction of food. When, besides this,
they serve as offensive and defensive weapons, they may
either be formed into tusks. as for instance is the case in
swine, or may be sharp-pointed and interlock with those of
the opposite jaw, in which case the animal is said to be saw-
‘toothed. The explanation of this latter arrangement is as
follows. The strength of such an animal is in its teeth, and 20

1 That is ‘broad below and sharp above’ (11. A. ii. 3. 537” 17).

661" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

these depend for their efficiency on their sharpness. In
order, then, to prevent their getting blunted by mutual
friction, such of them as serve for weapons fit into each
other’s interspaces, and are so kept in proper condition.
No animal that has sharp interfitting teeth is at the same
time furnished with tusks. For nature never makes anything
25 superfluous or in vain. She gives, therefore, tusks to such
animals as strike in fighting, and serrated teeth to such as
bite. Sows, for instance, have no tusks, and accordingly
sows bite instead of striking.
A general principle must here be noted, which will be
found applicable not only in this instance but in many
30 others that will occur later on. Nature allots each weapon,
offensive and defensive alike, to those animals alone that can
use it; or, if not to them alone, to them in a more marked
degree; and she allots it in its most perfect state to those
that can use it best; and this whether it be a sting, or a
spur, or horns, or tusks, or what it may of a like kind.
Thus as males are stronger and more choleric than
females, it is in males that such parts as those just mentioned
are found, either exclusively, as in some species, or more
fully developed, as in others. For though females are of
35 course provided with such parts as are no less necessary to
them than to males, the parts, for instance, which subserve
nutrition, they have even these in an inferior degree, and
the parts which answer no such necessary purpose they do
662° not possess at all. This explains why stags have horns,
while does have none; why the horns of cows are different
from those of bulls, and, similarly, the horns of ewes from
those of rams. It explains also why the females are often
without spurs in species where the males are provided with
5 them, and accounts for similar facts relating to all other
such parts.
All fishes have teeth of the serrated form, with the single
exception of the fish known as the Scarus.!. In many of
them there are teeth even on the tongue and on the roof of

' The Scarus is doubtless the parrot-fish (Scarus Cretensis). This
is, however, by no means the only exception to the general statement
that all fishes have serrated dentition.

BOOK III. 1

the mouth. The reason for this is that, living as they do in
the water, they cannot but allow this fluid to pass into the
mouth with the food. The fluid thus admitted they must
necessarily discharge again without delay. For were they
not to do so, but to retain it for a time while triturating the
food, the water would run into their digestive cavities.
Their teeth therefore are all sharp, being adapted only for
cutting,! and are numerous and set in many parts,” that their
abundance may serve in lieu of any grinding faculty, to
mince the food into small bits. They are also curved,
because these are almost the only weapons which fishes
possess.

In all these offices of the teeth the mouth also takes its
part; but besides these functions it is subservient to
respiration, in all such animals as breathe and are cooled
by external agency. For nature, as already said,° uses the
parts which are common to all animals for many special
purposes, and this* of her own accord. Thus the mouth
has one universal function in all animals alike, namely its
alimentary office; but in some, besides this, the special
duty of serving as a weapon is attached to it; in others
that of ministering to speech; and again in many, though
not in all, the office of respiration. All these functions are
thrown by nature upon one single organ, the construction
of which she varies so as to suit the variations of office.
Therefore it is that in some animals the mouth is con-
tracted, while in others it is of wide dimensions. The
contracted form belongs to such animals as use the mouth
merely for nutritive, respiratory, and vocal purposes;
whereas in such as use it as a means of defence it has

1 Reading διαίρεσιν μόνον, καί (P).

2 The mouth in many fishes, 6. g. the pike, is beset with a countless
number of sharp teeth which project from all parts of the internal
surface. The object of this is not so much the comminution of the
food, as A. supposes, as to enable the fish to retain hold of its slippery
prey. Similarly the recurved form of the teeth, noticeable in many
predatory species, serves to prevent the prey when once in the mouth
from escaping, the points being all directed towards the oesophagus.

3 Namely, at ii. 16. 658 35, when speaking of the elephant’s trunk.
Similar statements are made (iv. 10. 688% 24, and 690% 2) concerning

the female mammae, and the tails of animals.
* i.e. not of necessity.

AR, P.A, G

662*

μι

μι
σι

662°

662»

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

a wide gape. This is its invariable form in such animals as
are saw-toothed. For seeing that their mode of warfare
consists in biting, it is advantageous to them that their mouth
shall have a wide opening; for the wider it opens, the
greater will be the extent of the bite, and the more
numerous will be the teeth called into play.

What has just been said applies to fishes as well as
to other animals; and thus in such of them as are carni-
vorous, and made for biting, the mouth has a wide gape ;
whereas in the rest it is small, being placed at the extremity
of a tapering snout. For this form is suited for their
purposes, while the other would be useless.

In birds the mouth consists of what is called the beak,
which in them is a substitute for lips and teeth. This beak
presents variations in harmony with the functions and
protective purposes which it serves. Thus in those birds
that are called Crooked-clawed? it is invariably hooked,
inasmuch as these birds are carnivorous, and eat no kind of
vegetable food whatsoever. For this form renders it service-
able to them in obtaining the mastery over their prey, and
is better suited for deeds of violence than any other.
Moreover, as their weapons of offence consist of this beak
and of their claws, these latter also are more crooked in
them than in the generality of birds. Similarly in each
other kind of bird the beak is suited to the mode of life.
Thus, in woodpeckers? it is hard and strong, as also in
crows and birds of crow-like habit, while in the smaller
birds it is delicate, so as to be of use in collecting seeds
and picking up minute animals. In such birds, again,
as eat herbage, and such as live about marshes—those, for
example, that swim and have webbed feet—the bill is
broad, or adapted in some other way to the mode of life.
For a broad bill enables a bird to dig into the ground with
ease, just as, among quadrupeds, does the broad snout
of the pig, an animal which, like the birds in question, lives

1 i.e. the Raptores.

> The example is well chosen. For in woodpeckers, especially in
the larger species, the beak acquires the density of ivory (cf. Owen,

Vert. ii. 146). In the raven also, which is the bird usually meant by
A. when he speaks of crows, the beak is hard and strong.

BOOK III. 1 662°

on roots. Moreover, in these root-eating birds and in some 15
others of like habits of life, the tips of the bill end in hard
points, which gives them additional facility in dealing with
herbaceous food.

The several parts which are set on the head have now,
pretty nearly all, been considered. In man, however, the
part which lies between the head and the neck is called the
face, this name (prosdpon) being, it would seem, derived 20
from the function of the part. For as man is the only
animal that stands erect, he is also the only one that looks
directly in front (frosd); and the only one whose voice
is emitted in that direction.

2 We have now to treat of horns; for these also, when
present, are appendages of the head. They exist in none
but viviparous animals; though in some ovipara certain 25
parts are metaphorically spoken of as horns, in virtue of
a certain resemblance.1. To none of such parts, however,
does the proper office of a horn belong ; for they are never
used, as are the horns of vivipara, for purposes which
require strength, whether it be in self-protection or in
offensive strife. So also no polydactylous animal? is fur-
nished with horns. For horns are defensive weapons, and
these polydactylous animals possess other means of security.
For to some of them nature has given claws, to others teeth
suited for combat, and to the rest some other adequate
defensive appliance. There are horns, however, in most of 35
the cloven-hoofed animals, and in some ® of those that have 663°
a solid hoof, serving them as an offensive weapon, and
in some cases also as a defensive one. There are horns

(SS)
ο

1 For instance, in some male fishes, lizards, and many beetles,
where the horns are not weapons but mere ornaments. So A. calls the
antennae of Crustacea horns (H. A. iv. 2. 5268 6). He alludes, however,
more especially to the Egyptian snake (27. A. ii. 1. 500% 3): ‘ Thus the
Egyptians speak of the snakes about Thebes as horned, because they
have a kind of projection which as it were simulates a horn.’ This is
a reference to Herodot. ii. 74, and the snake in question was doubtless
the Cerastes of Egypt.

? Under Polydactyla are included Carnivora, Rodentia, Insectivora,
Cheiroptera, as well as man, apes, and elephants; in fact all Mammalia
known to A. excepting Ruminantia, Solidungula, and Cetacea.

5 Meaning the Indian Ass. Cf. 663% 20 note.

G 2

663° DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

also in all animals that have not been provided by nature
with some other means of security ; such means, for instance,
as speed, which has been given to horses ; or great size, as
in camels; for excessive bulk, such as has been given
to these animals, and in a still greater measure to elephants,
is sufficient in itself to protect an animal from being de-
stroyed by others. Other animals again are protected by
the possession of tusks; and among these are the swine,
though they have a cloven hoof.!

All animals again, whose horns are but useless append-
ages, have been provided by nature with some additional
το means of security. Thus deer are endowed with speed;

for the large size and great branching of their horns makes

these a source of detriment rather than of profit to their
possessors.2, Similarly endowed are the Bubalus® and
gazelle; for though these animals will stand up against
some enemies and defend themselves with their horns, yet
they run away from such as are fierce and pugnacious.
15 The Bonasus* again, whose horns curve inwards towards
each other,’ is provided with a means of protection in the
discharge of its excrement ; and of this it avails itself when

σι

* And therefore, he implies, might be expected to have horns, like
most cloven-hoofed animals. Read διχαλὸν ov.

2. It is somewhat astounding to find so determined a teleologist
suddenly declaring that antlers are not merely useless but actually
injurious to stags. A modern writer, however (Bailly, Sur /’usage des
cornes, Ann. ad. Sc. Nat. ii. 371), has come to the same conclusion:
‘Quant aux bois du cerf, du renne, de I’élan, on sait qu’ils sont plus
nuisibles qu’utiles.’ The horns are, however, not so utterly useless as
is here supposed, the upper antlers serving in defence, the brow antlers
in attack (Desc. of Man, ii. 253). Still, as Darwin points out, the
large branching horns do present a difficulty. For a straight point
would inflict a much more serious wound than several diverging ones.
Their great size and branching serve, however, as ornaments, and so
give an advantage in the sexual struggle.

5. The Bubalus must not be confounded with the Buffalo (Buda/us),
which was known to A. as the wild ox of the Arachotae (H. A. i. 2.
499* 4). It is probably an Antelope, perhaps the Bubaline Antelope
of N. Africa.

4 The Bonasus (#. A. ix. 45) is universally admitted to be the
European bison, which in the present day is almost extinct, existing
only in Lithuania and in the Caucasus, but which in ancient times
abounded in the forests of Europe generally. A. speaks of it (11. A. ii.
I. 500* 1) as living in his days in Paeonia and Medica, i.e. North
Macedonia.

° And are therefore of no use as weapons.

BOOK ὙΠ 2

frightened. There are some other animals besides the
Bonasus that have a similar mode of defence. In no case,
however, does nature ever give more than one adequate
means of protection to one and the same animal.

Most of the animals that have horns are cloven-hoofed ;
but the Indian ass, as they call it, is also reported to be
horned, though its hoof is solid.

Again as the body, so far as regards its organs of motion,
consists of two distinct parts, the right and the left, so also
and for like reasons the horns of animals are, in the great
majority of cases, two innumber. Still there are some that
have but a single horn; the Oryx,” for instance, and the
so-called Indian ass; in the former of which the hoof is
cloven, while in the latter it is solid. In such animals the
horn is set in the centre of the head; for as the middle
belongs equally to both extremes, this arrangement is. the
one that comes nearest to each side having its own horn.

Again, it would appear consistent with reason that the
single horn should go with the solid rather than with
the cloven hoof. For hoof, whether solid or cloven, is
of the same nature as horn; so that the two naturally
undergo division simultaneously and in the same animals.
Again, since the division of the cloven hoof depends on
deficiency of material, it is but rationally consistent, that
nature, when she gave an animal an excess of material
for the hoofs, which thus became solid, should have taken
away something from the upper parts and so made the
animal to have but one horn.

Rightly too did she act when she chose the head whereon
to set the horns; and A¢sop’s Momus’? is beside the mark,

1 The account of the Indian Ass with a solid hoof, and a single
horn, was taken by A. from Ctesias, who apparently did not profess
himself to have seen more of the animal than its astragalus. It has
been plausibly conjectured that the Indian Rhinoceros (2. 2ι712.0712115)
is the animal meant. For, though this animal has three toes, they are
so indistinctly separated, that the real character of the foot might
easily escape a casual observer, to whom the animal would, moreover,
probably not give much leisure for observation.

2 Probably the Leucoryx of N. Africa.

3 The fable of Momus, the critic God, is alluded to by Lucian
(Nigrinus, 32), and told in full by Babrius (Sir C. Lewes’s ed. 59).
Their account of the criticism on the bull’s structure is not quite the

663?

663: DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

when he finds fault with the bull for not having its horns

upon its shoulders. For from this position, says he, they

would have delivered their blow with the greatest force,

663” whereas on the head they occupy the weakest part of the

whole body. Momus was but dull-sighted in making this

hostile criticism. For had the horns been set on the

shoulders, or had they been set on any other part than they

are, the encumbrance of their weight would have been

5 increased, not only without any compensating gain whatso-

ever, but with the disadvantage of impeding many bodily

operations. For the point whence the blows could be

delivered with the greatest force was not the only matter

to be considered, but the point also whence they could be

delivered with the widest range. But as the bull has no

hands and cannot possibly have its horns on its feet or on

its knees, where they would prevent flexion, there remains

io no other site for them but the head; and this therefore

they necessarily occupy. In this position, moreover, they

are much less in the way! of the movements of the body
than they would be elsewhere.

Deer are the only animals in which the horns are solid
throughout, and are also the only animals that cast them.
This casting is not simply advantageous to the deer from
the increased lightness which it produces, but, seeing how
heavy the horns are, is a matter of actual necessity.

In all other animals the horns are hollow for a certain
distance, and the end alone is solid, this being the part
of use ina blow. At the-same time, to prevent even the
hollow part from being weak, the horn, though it grows
out 2 of the skin, has a solid piece from the bones fitted into
its cavity. For this arrangement is not only that which
makes the horns of the greatest service in fighting, but that

=
σι

same as Aristotle’s. Momus objects that the horns are so placed
as to be in the way of the animal’s sight when it has its head down to
attack its foe.

1 ἀνεμπόδιστα, in spite of its form, is here supposed to be used in an
active sense on the authority of Bonitz (56% 6) and of Liddell and
Scott.

> Omitting οὐ before πέφυκεν (EPYZ), cf. H. A. ii. τ. 500° 8, For
εἶναι read ἐστίν (Platt).

BOOK III. 2 663”

which causes them to be as little of an impediment as
possible in the other actions of life.

Such then are the reasons for which horns exist ; and 20
such the reasons why they are present in some animals,
absent from others.

Let us now consider the character of the material nature
whose necessary results have been made available by rational
nature for a final cause.

In the first place, then, the larger the bulk of animals, the
greater is the proportion of corporeal and earthy matter 25
which they contain. Thus no very small animal is known
to have horns, the smallest horned animal that we are
acquainted with being the gazelle. But in all our specula-
tions concerning nature, what we have to consider is the
general rule ; for that is natural which applies either uni-
versally or generally. And thus when we say that the
largest animals have most earthy matter, we say so because 3°
such is the general rule. Now this earthy matter is used in
the animal body to form bone. But in the larger animals
there is an excess of it, and this excess is turned by nature
to useful account, being converted into weapons of defence.
Part of it necessarily flows to the upper portion of the body,
and this is allotted by her in some cases to the formation of
tusks and teeth, in others to the formation of horns. Thus
it is that no animal that has horns has also front teeth
in both jaws, those in the upper jaw being deficient.1 For 664*
nature by subtracting from the teeth adds to the horns;
the nutriment which in most animals goes to the former
being here spent on the augmentation of the latter. Does,
it is true, have no horns and yet are equally deficient with
the males as regards the teeth. The reason, however, for 5
this is that they, as much as the males, are naturally horn-
bearing animals; but they have been stripped of their

Φ.

1 ‘The inverse relationship between the development of teeth and
horns, exemplified by the total absence of canines in the ruminants
with persistent frontal weapons, by their first appearance in the
periodically hornless deer, and by their larger size in the absolutely
hornless musks, is further illustrated by the presence not only of
canines but of a pair of laniariform incisors in the upper jaw of
Camelidae’ (Owen Vert, iii. 348).

664° DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

horns, because these would not only be useless to them but
actually baneful; whereas the greater strength of the males
causes these organs, though! equally useless, to be less
of an impediment. In other animals, where this material is
not secreted from the body in the shape of horns, it is used
το to increase the size of the teeth; in some cases of all the
teeth, in others merely of the tusks, which thus become so

long as to resemble horns projecting from the jaws.
So much, then, of the parts which appertain to the head.

Below the head lies the neck, in such animals as have 3
15 one. This is the case with those only that have the parts
to which a neck is subservient. These parts are the larynx ”
and what is called the oesophagus. Of these the former,
or larynx, exists for the sake of respiration, being the
instrument by which such animals as breathe inhale and
20 discharge the air. Therefore it is that, when there is no
lung, there is also no neck. Of this condition the Fishes
are an example. The other part, or oesophagus, is the
channel through which food is conveyed to the stomach ;
so that all animals that are without a neck are also without
a distinct oesophagus. Such a part is in fact not required
of necessity for nutritive purposes; for it has no action
25 whatsoever on the food. Indeed there is nothing to prevent
the stomach from being placed directly after the mouth.
This, however, is quite impossible in the case of the lung.
For there must be some sort of tube common to the two
divisions of the lung, by. which—it being bipartite—the
breath may be apportioned to their respective bronchi, and
thence pass into the air-pipes ; and such an arrangement

1 In some cases.

2 The word here rendered /aryux is in the Greek pharynx. It
is quite clear, however, that the part which is made of cartilage, serves
for vocal and respiratory purposes, lies in front of the oesophagus, &c.,
can only be what we call larynx. Yet the word /avyzx was known to
A., and occasionally used by him as by us. It would seem that the
two words pharynx and /arynx had not in his day been clearly
differentiated from each other, but were used indifferently for one and
the same part (27. A. iv. 9. 535° 29, 32, and Aristophanes, /70g5, 571-5),
namely the larynx. What we call pharynx had for A. no distinct
name, being nothing more than the first part of the oesophagus ; which

latter he says, later on in this chapter, is directly continuous with the
mouth.

BOOK Ill. 3 664"

will be the best for giving perfection to inspiration and
expiration. The organ then concerned in respiration must 30

of necessity be of some length ; and this, again, necessitates
there being an oesophagus to unite mouth and stomach.!
This oesophagus is of a flesh-like character, and yet admits

of extension like a sinew.?_ This latter property is given to

it, that it may stretch when food is introduced ; while the
flesh-like character is intended to make it soft and yielding,

and to prevent it from being rasped by particles as they 35
pass downwards, and so suffering damage. On the other
hand, the windpipe and the so-called larynx are constructed

out of a cartilaginous substance. For they have to serve 664°
not only for respiration, but also for vocal purposes ; and

an instrument that is to produce sounds must necessarily be

not only smooth but firm. The windpipe lies in front of

the oesophagus, although this position causes it to be some
hindrance to the latter in the act of deglutition. For if

a morsel of food, fluid or solid, slips into it by accident, 5
choking and much distress and violent fits of coughing
ensue. This must be a matter of astonishment to any
of those who assert that it is by the windpipe that an
animal imbibes fluid. For the consequences just men-
tioned occur invariably, whenever a particle of food slips in,
and are quite obvious. Indeed on many grounds it is
ridiculous to say that this is the channel through which
animals imbibe fluid. For there is no passage leading from
the lung to the stomach, such as the oesophagus which we
see leading thither from the mouth. Moreover, when any
cause produces sickness and vomiting, it is plain enough
whence the fluid is discharged. It is manifest also that
fluid, when swallowed, does not pass directly into the

' It would probably be truer to say that there is a long trachea
in order that there may be a long neck, so as to facilitate the motions
of the head, than to say, as A. does, that there must be a long neck, in
order to provide space for a long trachea. Still the length of the
trachea is not without use ; for the air in its passage down the long
canal is filtered of its dust, moistened, and warmed. In some animals
the trachea is still further lengthened by being formed into a coil.

2 Cf. iii. 4. 666 13 note.

* Alluding to Plato (Z7maeus, 70C). Hippocrates mentions and
attacks this same strange notion (De Morézs, iv. 30).

664"

is)
Or

665°

σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

bladder and collect there, but goes first into the stomach.
For, when red wine is taken, the dejections of the stomach
are seen to be coloured by its dregs ; and such discoloration
has been even seen on many occasions inside the stomach
itself, in cases where there have been wounds opening into
that organ. However, it is perhaps silly to be minutely
particular in dealing with silly statements such as this.

The windpipe then, owing to its position in front of the
oesophagus, is exposed, as we have said, to annoyance from
the food. To obviate this, however, nature has contrived
the epiglottis. This part is not found in all sanguineous
animals,! but only in such of them as have a lung; nor in
all of these, but only in such as at the same time have
their skin covered with hairs, and not either with scaly
plates or with feathers. In such scaly and feathered
animals there is no epiglottis, but its office is supplied by
the larynx,? which closes and opens, just as in the other
case the epiglottis falls down and rises up ; rising up during
the ingress or egress of breath, and falling down during the
ingestion of food, so as to prevent any particle from slipping
into the windpipe. Should there be the slightest want of
accuracy in this movement, or should an inspiration be
made during the ingestion of food, choking and coughing
ensue, as already has been noticed. So admirably con-
trived, however, is the movement both of the epiglottis and
of the tongue, that, while the food is being ground to a pulp
in the mouth, the tongue very rarely gets caught between
the teeth ; and, while the food is passing over the epiglottis,
seldom does a particle of it slip into the windpipe.

The animals which have been mentioned as having no
epiglottis owe this deficiency to the dryness of their flesh
and to the hardness of their skin. For an epiglottis made
of such materials would not admit of easy motion. It
would, indeed, take a longer time to shut down an epiglottis
made of the peculiar flesh of these animals, and shaped

1 For ζῳοτοκοῦντα, which is obviously wrong, read ζῷα ra ἔναιμα.

* Mammals alone have an epiglottis. In other vertebrates the
opening into the larynx and trachea is closed simply by constrictor
muscles.

BOOK III. 3

like that of those with hairy skins, than to bring the edges
of the windpipe itself into contact with each other.

Thus much then as to the reason why some animals have
an epiglottis while others have none, and thus much also
as to its use. It is a contrivance of nature to remedy the
vicious position of the windpipe in front of the oesophagus.
That position is the result of necessity. For it is in the
front and centre of the body that the heart is situated, in
which we say is the principle of life and the source of all
motion and sensation. (For sensation and motion are
exercised in the direction which we term forwards, and it
is on this very relation that the distinction of before and
behind is founded.) But where the heart is, there and
surrounding it is the lung. Now inspiration, which occurs
for the sake of the lung and for the sake of the principle
which has its seat in the heart, is effected through the
windpipe. Since then the heart must of necessity lie in
the very front place of all, it follows that the larynx also

and the windpipe must of necessity lie in front of the 2

oesophagus. For they lead to the lung and heart,’ whereas
the oesophagus leads to the stomach. And it is a universal
law that, as regards above and below, front and back, right
and left, the nobler and more honourable part invariably
is placed uppermost, in front, and on the right, rather than
in the opposite positions, unless some more important
object stands in the way.

1 It is not necessary to infer with Frantzius from this passage, that
A. thought that the windpipe communicated directly with the heart.
For he supposed that air could pass without any such direct channel,
as the following passages show. ‘When the windpipe reaches the
lung, it divides and subdivides, each division producing smaller and
smaller branches, tiil the whole lung is permeated by them’ (17. 4.
i. 16. 495» 8). ‘There are also ducts (i.e. the pulmonary blood-
vessels) which lead from the heart to the lung; and these also divide
and subdivide, their branches accompanying the branches from the
windpipe. But there is no communication between the two (οὐδεὶς δ᾽
ἐστὶ κοινὸς πόρος). Notwithstanding this, however, air can pass from
the former (i.e. ‘He bronchial tubes) into the latter (i.e. the Bulmonary
vessels), owing to the close contact in which the two lie (Sea τὴν σύναψιν),
and be transmitted to the heart’ (4. A. 1. 17. 4962 28). This passage
shows that A. not only had a fair knowledge of the anatomy of the lung,
but also believed the air to pass from the air-passages into the blood-
es through their unbroken walls, just as we hold the oxygen
to do.

665?

-
σι

fe)

665°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

We have now dealt with the neck, the oesophagus, and 4
the windpipe, and have next to treat of the viscera. These
are peculiar to sanguineous animals, some of which have
all of them, others only a part, while no bloodless animals
have any at 411.: Democritus then seems to have been
mistaken in the notion he formed of the viscera, if, that is
to say, he fancied that the reason why none were dis-
coverable in bloodless animals was that these animals were
too small to allow them to be seen. For, in sanguineous
animals, both heart and liver are visible enough when the
body is only just formed, and while it is still extremely
small. For these parts are to be seen in the egg sometimes
as early as the third day, being then no bigger than

665" a point ;* and are visible also in aborted embryos, while

still excessively minute. Moreover, as the external organs
are not precisely alike in all animals, but each creature is
provided with such as are suited to its special mode of life
and motion, so is it with the internal parts, these also
differing in different animals. Viscera, then, are peculiar
to sanguineous animals; and therefore are each and all
formed from sanguineous material, as is plainly to be seen
in the new-born young of these animals. For in such the
viscera are more sanguineous, and of greater bulk in pro-
portion to the body, than at any later period of life, it
being in the earliest stage? of formation that the nature
of the material and its abundance are most conspicuous.
There is a heart, then, in all sanguineous animals, and

' A. limits the term viscera to such internal parts as are so coloured
as to resemble blood, of which in fact he supposes them to be formed
(iii. 4. 665 6; iii. 10. 673 1). As the bloodless animals have
merely a fluid analogous to blood, so they can only have parts
analogous to viscera.

2 Cf. ἢ. A. vi. 3. 561% 11, where it is said that the heart in the bird’s
egg at its first appearance looks like a bloody spot, and palpitates as
though endowed with life; a description which is the origin of the
punctum saliens of later writers.

% The liver in the mature foetus forms jth of the whole body; in
the adult it forms only 34th. The heart also is larger proportionately
to the whole body in the young embryo (34th) than in the mature
foetus (;4th), and in the foetus than in adult man (;49th). In infancy
again the lungs are of a brightish colour, ‘ which might be compared
to blood froth ; but as life advances they become darker, mottled with
spots, patches, ἄς. Cf. Quain’s Aas. 1145.

BOOK ΠῚ 4

the reason for this has already been given.' For that
sanguineous animals must necessarily have blood is self-
evident. And, as the blood is fluid, it is also a matter of
necessity that there shall be a receptacle for it; and it is
apparently to meet this requirement that nature has devised
the blood-vessels. These, again, must necessarily have one
primary source. For it is preferable that there shall be
one such, when possible, rather than several. This primary
source of the vessels is the heart. For the vessels mani-
festly issue from it and do not go through it. Moreover,
being as it is homogeneous, it has the character of a blood-
vessel. Again its position is that ofa primary or dominating
part. For nature, when no other more important purpose
stands in her way, places the more honourable part in the
more honourable position; and the heart lies about the
centre of the body, but rather in its upper than its lower
half, and also more in front than behind. This is most
evident in the case of man, but even in other animals there
is a tendency in the heart to assume a similar position, in
the centre of the necessary part of the body, that is to say
of the part which terminates in the vent for excrement.
For the limbs vary in position in different animals, and are
not to be counted with the parts which are necessary for
life. For life can be maintained even when they are re-
moved ; while it is self-evident that the addition of them
to an animal is not destructive of it.

There are some ® who say that the vessels commence in
the head. In this they are clearly mistaken. For in the
first place, according to their representation, there would
be many sources for the vessels, and these scattered ; and
secondly, these sources would be in a region that is mani-
festly cold, as is shown by its intolerance of chill, whereas
the region of the heart is as manifestly hot. Again, as
already said, the vessels continue their course through the
other viscera, but no vessel spreads through the heart.*

Ὁ Cf. iil. 3.665% 12. 2 See note 4.

3. Elsewhere (HZ. A. iii. 3. 513% 10) A. says that not only some but all
his predecessors held this opinion.

* The terms διέχουσι and διατείνουσι, used several times in describing
the relation of the blood-vessels to the viscera, present much difficulty.

665°

Ὁ

665" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

From this it is quite evident that the heart is a part of the
vessels and their origin ; and for this it is well suited by

35 its structure. For its central part consists of a dense and
hollow substance, and is moreover full of blood, as though
666% the vessels took thence their origin. It is hollow to serve
for the reception of the blood, while its wall is dense, that
it may serve to protect the source of heat. For here, and
here alone in all the viscera and indeed in all the body,
there is blood without blood-vessels, the blood elsewhere
being always contained within vessels. Nor is this but
consistent with reason. For the blood is conveyed into the
vessels from the heart, but none passes into the heart from
without. For in itself it constitutes the origin and fountain,
or primary receptacle, of the blood. It is, however, from

The natural interpretation of διέχουσι would be that the vessels traverse
the viscera and pass on to some other part; and in the case of the
liver such an interpretation is neither impossible nor improbable.
For A. may have well supposed that the Hepatic vein after giving
numerous small branches to the liver (77. A. iii. 4. 514% 33) passed on
as the veva fortae to the intestinal parts; and indeed it is difficult to
see what other explanation A. could find for the vexa fortae; if no
vessel could originate in the liver and the course of all vessels was to
the periphery.

But in the case of the other viscera such an interpretation is im-
possible ; for A. distinctly states that all the blood brought to kidneys
and spleen is used up in the substance of those viscera (ili. 9. 671 13;
H, A.i. 17. 4972 9; iii. 4. 514” 5), the viscera being indeed mainly in-
tended to provide means of disposing of the surplus blood.

It seems therefore impossible to give any other meaning to διέχουσι,
at any rate in the case of other viscera than the liver, than ‘ spread
through the substance’, making it equivalent to διατείνουσι as indeed
it apparently is at iii. 4. 665 32. Similarly when it is said that no
blood-vessel διατείνει the heart, it must be understood as meaning
that no nutrient vessels are distributed through its substance (the
coronary vessels being overlooked), this organ being nourished (ii.
I. 647” 6) by the blood in its own cavities. A. appears to have
used διέχουσι ambiguously, applying it to the liver in a different sense
from that in which he applies it to the other viscera and the heart.

1 These words must not be interpreted too strictly ; for, though of
course A. holds the main current of blood to run from the heart
outwards, he admits some flow in the opposite direction. Indeed,
without this the heart could have no material for elaboration. The
food, absorbed from the stomach as vapour, is, he says, converted
into fluid in the blood-vessels and passes on as such to the heart
(De S. et V. 3. 456” 3). The blood-vessels that go to the head are
likened by him to a narrow strait in which the current changes to and
fro (De S. e¢ V. 3. 456” 20) ; and the heart is distinctly stated (De S.
et V. 3. 458” 18) to receive blood both from the great vessel and from
the aorta.

BOOK III. 4

dissections and from observations on the process of develop-
ment that the truth of these statements receives its clearest
demonstration. For the heart is the first of all the parts to
be formed; and no sooner is it formed than it contains
blood. Moreover, the motions of pain and pleasure, and
generally of all sensation, plainly have their source in the
heart, and find in it their ultimate termination. This, indeed,
reason would lead us to expect. For the source must, when-
ever possible, be one ; and, of all places, the best suited for
a source is the centre. For the centre is one, and is equally
or almost equally within reach of every part. Again, as
neither the blood itself, nor yet any part which is bloodless,
is endowed with sensation, it is plain that that part which
first has blood, and which holds it as it were in a receptacle,
must be the primary source of sensation. And that this
part is the heart is not only a rational inference, but is also

evident to the senses. For no sooner is the embryo formed, :

than its heart is seen in motion as though it were a living
creature, and this before any of the other parts, it being, as
thus shown, the starting-point of their nature in all animals
that have blood. A further evidence of the truth of what
has been stated is the fact that no sanguineous animal is
without a heart. For the primary source of blood must of
necessity be present in them all. It is true that sanguineous
animals not only have a heart but also invariably have
a liver. But no one could ever deem the liver to be the
primary organ either of the whole body or of the blood.
For the position in which it is placed is far from being that
of a primary or dominating part; and, moreover, in the most
perfectly finished animals there is another part, the spleen,
which as it were counterbalances it. Still further, the liver
contains no spacious receptacle in its substance, as does the
heart ; but its blood is in a vessel as in all the other viscera.
The vessel, moreover, extends through it, and no vessel
whatsoever originates in it; for it is from the heart that all
the vessels take their rise. Since then one or other of these
two parts must be the central source, and since it is not the
liver which is such, it follows of necessity that it is the heart
which is the source of the blood, as also the primary organ in

666"

666°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

other respects. For the definitive characteristic of an animal
is the possession of sensation ; and the first sensory part is
that which first has blood; that is to say is the heart, which

666? is the source of blood and the first of the parts to contain it.

The apex of the heart is pointed and more solid than the
rest of the organ. It lies against the breast, and entirely in
the anterior part of the body, in order to prevent that region
from getting chilled. For in all animals there is compara-
tively little flesh over the breast, whereas there is a more
abundant covering of that substance on the posterior surface,
so that the heat has in the back a sufficient amount of pro-
tection. In all animals but man the heart is placed in the
centre of the pectoral region ; but in man? it inclines a little
towards the left, so that it may counterbalance the chilliness
of that side. For the left side is colder in man, as compared
with the right, than in any other animal. It has been stated
in an earlier treatise 5 that even in fishes the heart holds the
same position as in other animals ; and the reason has been
given why it appears not to do so. The apex of the heart,
it is true, is in them turned towards the head, but this in
fishes is the front aspect, for it is the direction in which
their motion occurs.®

The heart again is abundantly supplied with sinews,* as

1 It is not quite true that man is the only animal in which the heart
inclines to the left. A like obliquity exists in the higher quadrumana
(Cuvier, Azat. Comp. iv.197), and in the mole.

2 De Resp. 16. 478° 3.

% By the apex of the heart of fishes A. plainly means the point at
the anterior extremity of the organ, where the du/dus arteriosus gives
off the branchial artery. This, however, has no anatomical corre-
spondence with the apex of the heart of other vertebrates. A. makes
a similar statement as to the position of the fish’s heart elsewhere
(H. A. ii. 17. 507° 3; De Resp. 16, 478” 2), and accounts for it by saying
that the head in other animals is moved in a vertical plane, from
above downwards, whereas in fishes it hasno such motion. Forwards
then in a fish is in the line from tail to mouth, while in other animals
it is in the line from above downwards, that is, from the back to the
sternum.

* Under νεῦρα A. included (iii. 4. 666" 14 note) tendons, sinews, liga-
ments, and all other fibrous parts; with which, moreover, were con-
founded any nerves which may have been noticed, without recognition
of their special nature, in the course of dissection; and this accounts
for the statement (27. «4. iii. 5. 515° 20) that numbness is never produced
in a part where there are no νεῦρα. The active part in muscular con-
traction was taken not by the red tissue but by the νεῦρα, that is by the

BOOK III. 4

might reasonably be expected. For the motions of the
body commence from the heart, and are brought about by
traction and relaxation. The heart therefore, which, as
already said,! is as it were a living creature inside its
possessor, requires some such subservient and strengthening
parts.

In no animals does the heart contain a bone, certainly in
none of those that we have ourselves inspected, with the
exception of the horse and a certain kind of ox. In these
exceptional cases the heart, owing to its large bulk, is pro-
vided with a bone as a support ; just as the bones serve as
supports for the body generally.”

In animals of great size the heart has three cavities; * in
smaller animals it has two; and in all has at least one, for,
as already stated,* there must be some place in the heart
to serve as a receptacle for the first blood ; which, as has
been mentioned more than once, is formed in this organ.
But inasmuch® as the main blood-vessels® are two in

tendinous fibres. The blood-vessels as they advanced became smaller
and smaller, until at last their calibre was insufficient for the passage
of blood, and the red muscular tissue consisted of a mass of small
vessels thus choked up with inspissated blood (iii. 5. 668" 1). The
vessels themselves, however, were continued as solid fibres (//. J. iii.
5. 515*31) to form by their aggregation the tendon (νεῦρον), and it
was to the shortening and widening of these tendinous fibres, endowed
with transverse extensibility (H. A. iii. 5.51515), that muscular action
was due, the red tissue being completely inactive, and serving merely
as the medium of Touch.

1 iil. 4. 666% 22.

* Cf. H. A. ii. 15. 506% 8. It is not uncommon to find in large
mammalia, especially in Pachyderms and Ruminants, a cruciform ossifi-
cation in the heart, below the origin of the aorta. In the ox this
is a normal formation, as also in the stag. But in Pachyderms, or at
any rate in the horse, it is only found in old individuals, and appears
to be the result of pathological degeneration.

3 Commentators differ widely as to these three cavities, nor do the
several passages relating to them admit of any thoroughly consistent
and satisfactory interpretation. I am, however, strongly of opinion that
the three are the two ventricles and the left auricle (see ch. 5. 667”
16n.). This view was promulgated by me in a lengthy note to my
former translation. I found afterwards that Huxley had already come
to the same conclusion, and had set it forth in an elaborate article in
Nature (Nov. 6, 1869); republished in Sczence and Nature (p. 180).

mer, 666%7.

5 Put a full stop after εἰρήκαμεν. Read Διὰ δὲ τό (ESUYZ) and put
ERATEPOS τς τος «0 ἐροῦμεν in brackets with omission of yap.

δ See first note to next chapter.

AR, P.A, H

666"

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666" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

number, namely the so-called great vessel and the aorta,
each of which is the origin of other vessels; inasmuch,
moreover, as these two vessels present differences, hereafter
to be discussed,! when compared with each other, it is of
advantage that they also shall themselves have distinct
origins. This advantage will be obtained if each side have
30 its own blood, and the blood of one side be kept separate
from that of the other. For this reason the heart, whenever
it is possible, has two receptacles. And this possibility
exists in the case of large animals, for in them the heart, as
the body generally, is of large size. Again it is still better
that there shall be three cavities, so that the middle and
odd one may serve as a centre common to both sides. But
this requires the heart to be of greater magnitude, so that
35 it is only in the largest hearts that there are three cavities.
667* Of these three cavities it is the right that has the most
abundant ? and the hottest blood, and this explains why the
limbs also on the right side of the body are warmer than
those on the left. The left cavity has the least blood of all,
and the coldest ; while in the middle cavity the blood, as
regards quantity and heat, is intermediate to the other two,
being however of purer quality than either. For it behoves
5 the supreme part to be as tranquil as possible, and this
tranquillity can be ensured by the blood being pure, and of
moderate amount and warmth.

In the heart of animals there is also a kind of joint-like
division,’ something like the sutures of the skull. This is
not, however, attributable to the heart being formed by the
union of several parts into a compound whole, but is rather,
as already said, the result of a joint-like division. These

PCF Hh. 667" 15.

2 In an animal, especially one killed by strangulation, as recom-
mended by A. (H. “4. iil. 3. 513% 13), the right side of the heart and the
vessels connected with it would be found gorged with dark blood and
contrasting strongly with the almost empty left side and vessels. It
is doubtless this that makes A. say that the blood is more abundant, less
pure, and denser (H. 4.i.17. 496" 10) on the right side than on the left.

5 The allusion is to the transverse and longitudinal grooves which
mark out on the surface the limits of auricles and ventricles. A. is
quite right in saying that the heart is not formed by the union of dis-

tinct parts intoa whole. It is at first a body with a single cavity, which
is converted into several by the after-development of internal septa.

BOOK III. 4

jointings are most distinct in animals of keen sensibility, and
less so in those that are of duller feeling, in swine for
instance. Different hearts differ also from each other in
their sizes, and in their degrees of firmness; and these
differences somehow extend their influence to the tempera-
ments of the animals. For in animals of low sensibility the
heart is hard and dense in texture, while it is softer in such
as are endowed with keener feeling. So also when the
heart is of large size the animal is timorous, while it is
more courageous if the organ be smaller and of moderate
bulk. For in the former the bodily affection which results
from terror already pre-exists ; for the bulk of the heart is
out of all proportion to the animal’s heat, which being small
is reduced to insignificance in the large space, and thus the
blood is made colder than it would otherwise be.

The heart is of large size! in the hare, the deer, the
mouse, the hyena, the ass, the leopard, the marten, and in
pretty nearly all other animals that either are manifestly
timorous, or betray their cowardice by their spitefulness.

What has been said of the heart as a whole is no less true
of its cavities and of the blood-vessels ; these also if of large
size being cold. For just as a fire of equal size gives less
heat in a large room than in a small one, so also does the
heat in a large cavity or a large blood-vessel, that is in a
large receptacle, have less effect thanin a smallone. More-
over, all hot bodies are cooled by motions external to them-
selves,? and the more spacious the cavities and vessels are,
the greater the amount of spirit they contain, and the more
potent its action. Thus it is that no animal that has large
cavities in its heart, or large blood-vessels, is ever fat, the
vessels being indistinct and the cavities small in all or most
fat animals.

The heart again is the only one of the viscera, and indeed
the only part of the body, that is unable to tolerate any
serious affection.2 This is but what might reasonably be

1 The heart is very large in the hare, nearly twice as heavy in pro-
portion to the body-weight, asin man. As regards the other animals
I can give no accurate figures.

2 Cf. iii. 6. 669” 3 note.
3 Cf. iv. 2. 677%4. (Daremberg (Ga/en. i. 401) represents A. as

H 2

6675

ie)

=
σι

τὸ
ο

667° DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

expected. For, if the primary or dominant part be diseased,
35 there is nothing from which the other parts which depend
667° upon it can derive succour. A proof that the heart is thus
unable to tolerate any morbid affection is furnished by the
fact that in no sacrificial victim has it ever been seen to be
affected with those diseases that are observable in the other
viscera. For the kidneys are frequently found to be full of
stones, and growths, and small abscesses, as also are the
5 liver, the lung, and more than all the spleen. There are
also many other morbid conditions which are seen to occur
in these parts, those which are least liable to such being the
portion of the lung which is close to the windpipe, and the
portion of the liver which lies about the junction with the
great blood-vessel. This again admits of a rational explana-
1otion. For it is in these parts that the lung and liver are
most closely in communion with the heart. On the other
hand, when animals die not by sacrifice but from disease, and
from affections such as are mentioned above, they are found

on dissection to have morbid affections of the heart.
Thus much of the heart, its nature, and the end and cause

of its existence in such animals as have it.

15 In due sequence we have next to discuss the blood-
vessels, that is to say the great vessel and the aorta.! For —

saying in this passage that the heart is not liable to disease, or at any
rate less liable than other organs ; just as Galen said that it was made
of hard flesh which could not easily be injured. But in fact A. says
nothing of the kind, but merely states what is fairly true, viz. that
diseases of the heart are more certainly fatal, and less consistent with
apparently good health, than diseases of other parts, so that when
a victim, i.e. an animal supposed to be of sound health, is sacrificed,
its heart is never found diseased, though such is frequently the case
when an animal dies of amalady. What would A. have thought of the
bull sacrificed by Caesar, which the soothsayers asserted to have no
heart at all (Cicero, De Div. 11. 16)!

1 The ‘great vessel’, as I interpret A.’s account, consists of the upper
and lower Venae cavae, with the right auricle, considered by A., as by
Galen and later anatomists, to be no part of the heart but merely the
dilated junction of the two Venae cavae. This communicates with the
largest cavity (right ventricle) by the wide auriculo-ventricular opening,
and from this same cavity issues the pulmonary artery, regarded by A.
in virtue of its connexion with the same cavity, its having a similarly
thin wall, and being found after death (iii. 4. 667% 2 note) similarly
gorged with dark blood, as a part of the ‘great vessel’, though
separated from its main trunk by the interposition of the right ventricle,

BOOK III. 5

it is into these two that the blood first passes when it quits
the heart ; and all the other vessels are but offshoots from
them. Now that these vessels exist on account of the
blood has already been stated. For every fluid requires
a receptacle, and in the case of the blood the vessels are
that receptacle. Let us now explain why these vessels are
two, and why they spring from one single source, and extend
throughout the whole body.

The reason, then, why these two vessels coalesce into one
centre, and spring from one source, is that the sensory soul
is in all animals actually one; and this one-ness of the
sensory soul determines a corresponding one-ness of the
part in which it primarily abides. In sanguineous animals
this one-ness is not only actual but potential, whereas in
some bloodless animals! it is only actual. Where, however,
the sensory soul is lodged, there also and in the self-same
place must necessarily be the source of heat ; and, again,
where this is there also must be the source of the blood,
seeing that it thence derives its warmthand fluidity. Thus,
then, in the oneness of the part in which is lodged the
prime source of sensation and of heat is involved the one-
ness of the source in which the blood originates ; and this,

this being the cavity referred to (27. «4. iii. 3. 513” 4) as that ἐν ᾧ λιμνάζει
τὸ αἷμα. The middle cavity from which the aorta proceeds is the left
ventricle, and the smallest is the left auricle. All three cavities are
connected with the lung, but in only one (7ight ventricle) is the con-
nexion distinctly visible (7. A. iii. 3. 5132 36). Thus ‘the great vessel’
comprises all the vessels connected with the right side cf the heart,
and the aorta comprises all that are connected with the left, that is all
the systemic arteries and the pulmonary veins, and each side has its
distinct and completely separate blood (iii. 4. 666” 29), which is much
more abundant, denser, and less pure (iii. 4. 667% 2 note) on the right
side than on the left. Lastly, the opening by which the aorta com-
municates with the heart is much smaller (H. A. iii. 3. 5135) than
that by which ‘the great vessel’ so communicates, i.e. the right auri-
culo-ventricular opening, not the aperture of the pulmonary artery,
as stated by error in my former translation.

1 Alluding to such Invertebrata as insects, myriapods, and annelids,
which he frequently mentions as capable of living for a short time when
cut into segments ; which shows that each segment must have its own
centre of vitality ; the entire animal seemingly consisting of an aggre-
gation of many animals, each with a certain individuality, which
ordinarily is merged in the life of the aggregate, but is capable of
asserting its existence when the segment is isolated ; the only reason,
in fact, why such an isolated segment does not live more than a short
time, being that it has not got the necessary organs of nutrition.

667°

iS)

fe)

τὸ
ὸὺ

667°

668:

σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

again, explains why the blood-vessels have one common
starting-point.

The vessels, again, are two, because the body of every
sanguineous animal that is capable of locomotion? is
bilateral; for in all such animals there is a distinguishable
before and behind, a right and left, an above and below.
Now as the front is more honourable and of higher supre-
macy than the hinder aspect, so also and in like degree is
the great vessel superior to the aorta. For the great vessel
is placed in front, while the aorta is behind; the former
again is plainly visible in all sanguineous animals, while
the latter is in some indistinct and in some not discernible
at all.

Lastly, the reason for the vessels being distributed
throughout the entire body is that in them, or in parts
analogous to them, is contained the blood, or the fluid
which in bloodless animals takes the place of blood, and
that the blood or analogous fluid is the material from which
the whole body is made. Now as to the manner in which
animals are nourished,? and as to the source from which

‘ As all the sanguineous animals, i.e. vertebrates, are capable of
locomotion, these words might seem surplusage. But they are not so.
For A. holds that the bilateral symmetry of animals belongs to them
primarily in virtue of their locomotor organs; and that the symmetrical
disposition of these determines an imperfect degree of bilateral
symmetry in the organs of vegetative life.

2 A.’s general notions on the subject of nutrition were much as
follows :—

The food masticated in the mouth, but not otherwise altered (ii. 3.
650% 11), reaches the stomach, where it is concocted ; the heat for this
purpose, which is not common heat but a heat with special powers
(ii. 6. 6522 το note), being supplied by the liver and spleen, which are hot
organs in close contiguity with the stomach (iii. 7.6702 21). The solid
and indigestible portion passes off by the lower bowel, but the fluid
portion, which alone can be serviceable in nutrition (ii. 2. 647° 26), is
absorbed by the blood-vessels of the stomach and intestine (iv. 4.
678* 10), over the surface of which they are spread like the roots of
a plant (ii. 3. 650% 25). These blood-vessels open by very minute and
invisible pores into the intestine, pores like those in jars of unbaked
clay that let water filter through (G. A. ii. 6. 7432.9). The matter thus
absorbed passes up to the heart in the form of vapour (ἀναθυμιᾶται),
not as yet being blood, but only (ii. 4. 651% 17) an imperfect serum
(ἰχώρ). In the heart and vessels (De Sommno, 3. 456” 4) it undergoes
a second concoction, these being the hottest parts of the body, and by
this second concoction the serum is converted into blood (27. A. iil.
19. 5213. 17), the ultimate food of all the organs. The amount of blood
thus formed is extremely small, as compared with the original materials

BOOK IIL 5

they obtain nutriment and as to the way in which they
absorb this from the stomach, these are matters which may
be more suitably considered and explained in the treatise
on Generation.!. But inasmuch as the parts are, as already
said, formed out of the blood, it is but rational that the
flow of the blood should extend, as it does, throughout the
whole of the body. For since each part is formed of blood,
each must have blood about and in its substance.

To give an illustration of this. The water-courses in
gardens are so constructed as to distribute water from one
single source or fount into numerous channels, which divide
and subdivide so as to convey it to all parts; and, again,
in house-building stones are thrown down along the whole
ground-plan of the foundation walls; because the garden-
plants in the one case grow at the expense of the water;
and the foundation walls in the other are built out of the
stones. Now just after the same fashion has nature laid
down channels for the conveyance of the blood throughout
the whole body, because this blood is the material out of
which the whole fabric is made. This becomes very evident
in bodies that have undergone great emaciation. For in
such there is nothing to be seen but the blood-vessels ; just
as when fig-leaves or vine-leaves or the like have dried up,
there is nothing left of them but their vessels. The ex-
planation of this is that the blood, or fluid which takes its

(G. A. i.18.725* 18). The blood when made passes from the heart by
the vessels (arteries and veins alike), being mingled with air inhaled by
the lungs and thence conveyed to the heart, and is carried to all parts
of the body. Each organ selects from the common stock those materials
which it requires. The nobler parts, such as the flesh and the organs
of sense, take the choicer elements, while the inferior parts, as bones
and sinews, are fed on the inferior elements or leavings (ὑπολείμματα)
of the former (G. A. 11. 6. 744” 15). This nutrition of the parts
goes on most actively at night (De Somno, τ. 454” 32).

Thus every part of the blood that can be turned to account is
utilized ; but such as from its quality is unfit for use, for instance any
bitter substance, is excreted as bile, urine, sweat, etc., in company with
the matter which results from the decay (σύντηξις) of the parts them-
selves.

Such surplus of nutritious matter as there may be, after all parts are
satisfied, is either stored up in the body as fat or the like, or passes
out to form hairs, scales, feathers, and other cutaneous appen-
dages.

1 G. A. ii. 4.740% 21-> 12, 6. 7439 8-7. 746% 28.

668"

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υ

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ο

6685 DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

place, is potentially body and flesh, or substance analogous
to flesh. Now just as in irrigation the largest dykes are
permanent, while the smallest are soon filled up with mud

3o and disappear, again to become visible when the deposit of
mud ceases; so also do the largest blood-vessels remain
permanently open, while the smallest are converted actually
into flesh, though potentially they are no whit less vessels
than before.!| This too explains why, so long as the flesh
of an animal is in its integrity, blood will flow from any
part of it whatsoever that is cut, though no vessel, however
small, be visible in it. Yet there can be no blood, unless
there be a blood-vessel. The vessels then are there, but

35 are invisible owing to their being clogged up, just as the
dykes for irrigation are invisible until they have been
cleared of mud.

668» As the blood-vessels advance, they become gradually
smaller and smaller, until at last their tubes are too fine to
admit the blood. This fluid can therefore no longer find its
way through them, though they still give passage to the
humour which we call sweat; and especially so when the

5 body is heated, and the mouths of the small vessels are
dilated. Instances, indeed, are not unknown of persons
who in consequence of a cachectic state have secreted
sweat that resembled blood,’ their body having become
loose and flabby, and their blood watery, owing to the heat
in the small vessels having been too scanty for its concoction.

1o For, as was before said, every compound of earth and
water—and both nutriment and blood are such—becomes
thicker from concoction. The inability of the heat to effect
concoction may be due either to its being absolutely small
in amount, or to its being small in proportion to the quantity
of food, when this has been taken in excess. This excess

15 again may be of two kinds, either quantitative or quali-
tative; for all substances are not equally amenable to
concoction.

The widest passages in the body are of all parts the most
1 Cf. iii, 4. 666 τς note.

5. Instances of red-coloured sweat are not unknown. Cf. Todd,
Cycl. An, and Phys, ἵν. 844.

BOOK IIL 5 668"

liable to haemorrhage ; so that bleeding occurs not infre-
quently from the nostrils, the gums, and the fundament,
occasionally also from the mouth. Such haemorrhages are
‘of a passive kind, and not violent as are those from the
windpipe.

The great vessel and the aorta, which above lie somewhat 20
apart, lower down exchange positions, and by so doing give
compactness to the body. For when they reach the point ἢ
where the legs diverge, they each split into two, and the
great vessel passes from the front to the rear, and the aorta
from the rear to the front. By this they contribute to the
unity of the whole fabric. For as in plaited work the parts 2;
hold more firmly together because of the interweaving, so
also by the interchange of position between the blood-
vessels are the anterior and posterior parts of the body
more closely knit together. A similar exchange of position
occurs also in the upper part of the body, between the
vessels that have issued from the heart.*? The details how-
ever of the mutual relations of the different vessels must be
looked for in the treatises on Anatomy and the Researches 30
concerning Animals.*

So much, then, as concerns the heart and the blood-
vessels. We must now pass on to the other viscera and
apply the same method of inquiry to them.

6 The lung,° then, is an organ found in all the animals of

1 The mention of gums and mouth points to the existence of scurvy
in those days.

2 The common iliac arteries, formed by the division of the descending
aorta, do in fact, as A. says, come forwards and lie in front of the
common iliac veins; whereas as a general rule the veins lie in front
of the arteries.

$ The pulmonary artery, regarded by A. asa part of the μεγάλη φλέψ,
at its origin is in front of the aorta, but when it reaches the arch sends
its right and larger division behind the ascending aorta. It is probably
to this that A. alludes.

TCE Fie Ast. 17 3: iil. 2-4:

δ It will be noticed that A. always speaks of ¢he /ung of an animal,
and not as we do of the dungs. He considers the two to be merely
subdivisions of a single organ, because they have one common outlet,
viz. the trachea. When the right and left bronchi which lead from
this to either lung are of more than ordinary length, as in birds, he
admits that the lung has the outward appearance of being a double
organ, but still considers it really to be a single one for the above

668"

669°

σι

“-ι
σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

a certain class, because they live on land. For there must
of necessity be some means or other of tempering the heat
of the body ; and in sanguineous animals, as they are of an
especially hot nature, the cooling agency must be external,
whereas in the bloodless kinds the innate spirit is sufficient
of itself for the purpose. The external cooling agent must
be either air or water. In fishes the agent is water. Fishes
therefore never have a lung, but have gills in its place, as
was stated in the treatise on Respiration.! But animals
that breathe are cooled by air. These therefore are all
provided with a lung.

All land animals breathe, and even some water animals,
such as the whale, the dolphin, and all the spouting Cetacea.
For many animals lie half-way between terrestrial and
aquatic ; some that are terrestrial and that inspire air being
nevertheless of such a bodily constitution that they abide
for the most time in the water; and some that are aquatic
partaking so largely of the land character, that respiration
constitutes for them the main condition of life.

The organ of respiration is the lung. This derives its
motion from the heart; but it is its own large size and
spongy texture that affords amplitude of space for the
entrance of the breath. For when the lung rises up the
breath streams in, and is again expelled when the lung col-
lapses.” It has been said ° that the lung exists as a provision

reason; though ‘any one might think that there were two because the
ducts from the two divisions unite at a considerable distance from
them * 77. A. il. 17. 507" 195 PA, ii, 7. 609") 27.

1 De Resp. τοῦ 475" 15 sq.

* The mechanisin of respiration is described elsewhere (De Δ ες.
21). The lung is compared, aptly enough, to a pair of forge bellows.
When the lung is expanded, air rushes in; when it is contracted, the
air is again expelled. The expansion is brought about by the heat
derived from the heart; heat always causing expansion in the parts to
which it extends. The lung then, heated by the heart, expands ; and
with it the cavity of the thorax. Cold air rushes in to fill the void, and
the heat is reduced. This causes the lung and thorax to collapse, and
the air is expelled.

° Plato (Zzm.70 C) regarded the lung asasoft yielding buffer, intended
to receive the impact of the heart, when throbbing violently in fits of
emotion. To this A. objects that animals that are not liable to such
fits of emotion nevertheless have lungs ; and, moreover, that the lung
is not placed on the side of the heart where the impact occurs ; that is,
not on the sternal aspect.

BOOK ΠῚ. 6 669"

to meet the jumping of the heart. But this is out of the
question. For man is practically the only animal whose
heart presents this phenomenon of jumping, inasmuch as
he alone is influenced by hope and anticipation of the 20
future. Moreover, in most animals the lung is separated
from the heart! by a considerable interval and lies above it,
so that it can contribute nothing to mitigate any jumping.

The lung differs much in different animals. For in some
it is of large size and contains blood ; while in others it is
smaller and of spongy texture. In the vivipara it is large
and rich in blood, because of their natural heat; while in
the ovipara it is small and dry but capable of expanding to
a vast extent when inflated. Among terrestrial animals,
the oviparous quadrupeds, such as lizards, tortoises, and the
like, have this kind of lung ; and, among inhabitants of the
air, the animals known as birds.* For in all these the lung
is spongy, and like foam. For it is membranous and col-
lapses from a large bulk to a small one, as does foam
when it runs together. In this too lies the explanation of
the fact that these animals are little liable to thirst and 35
drink but sparingly, and that they are able to remain for
a considerable time under water. For, inasmuch as they 669°
have but little heat, the very motion of the lung, airlike
and void, suffices by itself to cool them for a considerable
period.

These animals, speaking generally, are also distinguished
from others by their smaller bulk. For heat promotes

τὸ

iS)
ο

1 The natural nominative to ἀπέχει, as the text stands, is ὁ πλεύμων,
and this, as also the sense, requires that for τοῦ πλεύμονος should be
read τῆς καρδίας ; for in no sense can the heart be said to be adove the
lung, nor would such a position invalidate Plato’s notion, whereas ‘ in
most animals’, that is in quadrupeds, the lung is placed above the
heart, and away from the side where the heart’s impact occurs.

2 The lungs of birds, though smaller in proportion to the body than
those of mammals, are highly vascular.

* A. seems to have had some strange notion that a fan cools a body
not merely by bringing a continuous current of cold air into contact
with it, but directly by its own motion, that is independently of the air.
‘Every hot body,’ he says, ‘is cooled by the motions of bodies external
to itself’ (iii. 4. 667% 28). So he supposes here that when an animal is
under water, its lung will continue in motion, and that, though no air
is admitted, yet the motion will itself produce a certain amount of
cooling in the neighbouring parts. See also De Resp. 9. 475% 14.

669° DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

growth, and abundance of blood is a sure indication of

5 heat. Heat, again, tends to make the body erect; and
thus it is that man is the most erect of animals, and the
vivipara more erect than other quadrupeds. For no vivi-
parous animal, be it apodous? or be it possessed of feet, is
so given to creep into holes as are the ovipara.

The lung, then, exists for respiration; and this is its
universal office ; but in one order of animals it is bloodless
and has the structure described above, to suit the special

10 requirements. There is, however, no one term to denote
all animals that have a lung; no designation, that is, like
the term Bird, applicable to the whole of a certain class.
Yet the possession of a lung is a part of their essence, just
as much as the presence of certain characters constitutes the
essence of a bird.

Of the viscera some appear to be single, as the heart 7
and lung; others to be double, as the kidneys; while of
a third kind it is doubtful in which class they should be
reckoned. For the liver and the spleen would seem to lie
half-way between the single and the double organs. For
they may be regarded either as constituting each a single
organ, or as a pair of organs resembling each other in
character.”

In reality, however, all the organs are double. The
reason for this is that the body itself is double, consisting
of two halves, which are however combined together under

"
σι

τ Meaning the viper, which is apparently said to be less of ἃ trog-
lodyte than its congeners, because other snakes conceal themselves
underground during their period of torpor, while the viper remains on
the surface, hiding under stones. (17. A. viii. 15. 599” 1.)

2 It seems to have been the universal opinion of the ancients that the
spleen was the left homologue of the liver. In modern times the more
general view is that of Miiller, that there is no such relation between
them, each being an azygos organ. The ancient opinion is not, how-
ever, without its modern advocates. Dr. Doellinger, forinstance (Gruad-
viss der Naturlehre des menschl, Organ. 1805), supported it; and
more recently Dr. Sylvester (7he Discov. of the Nature of the Spleen,
1870) has argued with much ingenuity that ‘ the spleen is not a blood-
gland in the mesial line of the body, having no homologous relation-
ship with the liver,’ but that ‘it is the left lateral homologue of a portion
of the liver, the latter being a combination of a sanguiferous gland and
a biliary apparatus,’ and the spleen the homologue of the former por-
tion of it.

BOOK III. 7

one supreme centre. For there is an upper and a lower
half, a front and a rear, a right side and a left.

This explains why it is that even the brain and the
several organs of sense tend in all animals to consist of two
parts ; and the same explanation applies to the heart with
its cavities. The lung again in Ovipara is divided to such
an extent that these animals look as though they had
actually two lungs. As to the kidneys, no one can over-
look their double character. But when we come to the
liver and the spleen, any one might fairly be in doubt.
The reason of this is, that, in animals that necessarily have
a spleen,’ this organ is such that it might be taken for
a kind of bastard liver; while in those? in which a spleen
is not an actual necessity but is merely present, as it were,
by way of token, in an extremely minute form, the liver
plainly consists of two parts; of which the larger tends to
lie on the right side and the smaller on the left. Not but
what there are some even of the Ovipara in which this con-
dition is comparatively indistinctly marked ; while, on the
other hand, there are some Vivipara in which the liver is
manifestly divided into two parts.* Examples of such

1 That is to say in the viviparous quadrupeds.

2? Namely the Ovipara.

3 There is some foundation for the statement that the size of the
spleen and the distinctness with which the liver is divided into lobes
are inversely related to each other. Thus it is in Mammalia that the
spleen is largest in proportion to the body, and in them also that the
liver is least distinctly lobulated. Among Mammalia it is the rodents
that have the smallest spleen, and in these also it is that the liver
reaches its maximum of sub-division. On the other hand, the spleen
is large in ruminants and their liver at the same time presents scarcely
any marks of lobulation. In the Ovipara the spleen is much smaller
than in Mammalia. and the liver, as a general though not universal
~ rule, is much more decidedly cleft into distinct lobes. In all birds, in
all batrachians, and in all reptiles, excepting Ophidia, the liver is dis-
tinctly divided into two lobes. In the remaining class, fishes, the
spleen varies much in size; sometimes is apparently altogether absent,
sometimes excessively small, sometimes almost as large in proportion
to the body as that of amammal, and the liver is sometimes multilobed,
sometimes bilobed, sometimes unilobed. In this class, however, I can-
not ascertain that there is any such relation as that mentioned in the
text between the two conditions.

* The exceptional ovipara are the Ophidia and many osseous fishes,
where the liver is unilobed. The exceptional vivipara are the rodents,
of which A. specially mentions the hare. Omit κἀκεῖ and ὥσπερ ἔν
τίσι (EY).

669°

τὸ

669°

670°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

division are furnished by the hares of certain regions, which
have the appearance of having two livers, and by the car-
tilaginous and some other fishes.’

It is the position of the liver on the right side of the
body that is the main cause for the formation of the spleen ;
the existence of which thus becomes to a certain extent
a matter of necessity in all animals, though not of very
stringent necessity.

The reason, then, why the viscera are bilateral is, as we
have said, that there are two sides to the body, a right and
a left. For each of these sides aims at similarity with the
other, and so likewise do their several viscera; and * as the
sides, though dual, are knit together into unity, so also do
the viscera tend to be bilateral and yet one by unity of
constitution.

Those viscera which lie below the diaphragm exist one
and all on account of the blood-vessels ;? serving as a bond,
by which these vessels, while floating freely, are yet held in
connexion with the body. For the vessels give off branches
which run to the body through the outstretched structures,*
like so many anchor-lines thrown out from a ship. The
sreat vessel sends such branches to the liver and the spleen;
and these viscera—the liver and spleen on either side with
the kidneys behind—attach the great vessel to the body
with the firmness of nails.° The aorta sends similar branches
to each kidney, but none to the liver or spleen.®

These viscera, then, contribute in this manner to the
compactness of the animal body. The liver and spleen
assist, moreover, in the concoction of the food ; for both are

1 In cartilaginous fishes the liver consists of two distinct lobes,
whereas in osseous fishes it is often unilobed.

2 Reading καὶ καθάπερ (PZ).

3 Assisting them in the mechanical way immediately mentioned, and
also by providing an outlet for their surplus blood. Cf. iii. 10. 673? 1.

4 The mesentery is meant.

5 The introduction of nails into the metaphor is so out of place, that
the temptation is strong to substitute edvai—mooring-stones—for ἧλοι.
The metaphor would then run on all fours; the ship being the main
blood-vessel ; the anchor-lines its outstretching branches ; the moor-
ing-stones the liver, spleen, kidneys.

® The hepatic and splenic arteries seem to have escaped A.’s notice;
probably because they are not given off directly from the aorta.

BOOK. Ill. ἢ

of a hot character, owing to the blood which they contain.
The kidneys, on the other hand, take part in the separation
of the excretion which flows into the bladder.

The heart then and the liver are essential constituents of
every animal; the liver that it may effect concoction, the
heart that it may lodge the central source of heat. For
some part or other there must be which, like a hearth, shall
hold the kindling fire; and this part must be well protected,
seeing that it is, as it were, the citadel of the body.

All sanguineous animals, then, need these two parts ; and
this explains why these two viscera, and these two alone,
are invariably found in them all. In such of them, however,
as breathe, there is also as invariably a third, namely the
lung. The spleen, on the other hand, is not invariably
present ; and, in those animals that have it, is only present
of necessity in the same sense as the excretions of the belly
and of the bladder are necessary, in the sense, that is, of
being an inevitable concomitant. Therefore it is that in
some animals the spleen is but scantily developed as regards
size. This, for instance, is the case in such feathered ani-
mals as have a hot stomach. Such are the pigeon, the
hawk, and the kite. It is the case also in oviparous quad-
rupeds, where the spleen is excessively minute, and in many
of the scaly fishes. These same animals are also without
a bladder, because the loose texture of their flesh allows the
residual fluid to pass through and to be applied to the for-
mation of feathers and scales. For the spleen attracts the
residual humours? from the stomach, and owing to its
bloodlike character is enabled to assist in their concoction.
Should, however, this residual fluid be too abundant, or the
heat of the spleen be too scanty, the body becomes sickly
from over-repletion® with nutriment. Often, too, when the

1 The spleen is small in all birds, but whether specially so in these,
or in the owl, which he adds elsewhere (ZH. A. ii. 15. 506% 13) to the
list, I cannot say.

2. The notion that the spleen serves to attract superfluous humours is
taken from Hippocrates, who thus expresses himself, ‘I say that when
a man drinks a more than ordinary amount of fluid, both the body and
the spleen attract to themselves the water from the stomach’ (De
Morbis, iv. 9 and De Morb. Mul. i. 15).

3 Reading πλήθει for πλήρη.

670°

670°”

670° DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

spleen is affected by disease, the belly becomes hard ! owing
to the reflux into it of the fluid ; just as happens to those

το who form too much urine, for they also are liable to a simi-
lar diversion of the fluids into the belly. But in those ani-
mals that have but little superfluous fluid to excrete, such
as birds and fishes, the spleen is never large, and in some
exists no more than by way of token. So also in the
oviparous quadrupeds it is small, compact, and like a kidney.

15 For their lung is spongy, and they drink but little, and
such superfluous fluid as they have is applied to the growth
of the body and the formation of scaly plates, just as in
birds it is applied to the formation of feathers.

On the other hand, in such animals as have a bladder,
and whose lung contains blood, the spleen is watery, both
for the reason already mentioned, and also because the left
side of the body is more watery and colder than the right.

20 For each of two contraries has been so placed as to go
together with that which is akin to it in another pair of
contraries. Thus right and left, hot and cold, are pairs of
contraries ; and right is conjoined with hot, after the manner
described, and left with cold.

The kidneys when they are present exist not of actual
necessity, but as matters of greater finish and perfection.

25 For by their special character they are suited to serve in
the excretion of the fluid which collects inthe bladder. In
animals therefore where this fluid is very abundantly formed,
their presence enables the bladder to perform its proper
office with greater perfection.”

Since then both kidneys and bladder exist in animals for
one and the same function, we must next treat of the bladder,

30 though in so doing we disregard the due order of succession
in which the parts should be enumerated. For not a word
has yet been said of the midriff, which is one of the parts
that environ the viscera and therefore has to be considered
with them.

1 Also from Hippocrates (Kiihn’s Ed. i. 533).

2 A. thought that the bladder was the essential agent in forming the
urine, the kidneys being comparatively unimportant adjuncts, though

he also admits that when the fluid leaves these organs, it already has
in a measure the characters of the final excretion. Cf. iii. 9. 671 24.

BOOK III. 8 670?

8 It is not every animal that has a bladder ; those only
being apparently intended by nature to have one, whose
lung contains blood. .To such it was but reasonable that 671°
she should give this part. For the superabundance in their
lung of its natural constituents causes them to be the
thirstiest of animals, and makes them require a more than
ordinary quantity not merely of solid but also of liquid
nutriment. This increased consumption necessarily entails
the production of an increased amount of residue ; which
thus becomes too abundant to be concocted by the stomach
and excreted with its own residual matter. The residual
fluid must therefore of necessity have a receptacle of its
own ; and thus it comes to pass that all animals whose lung
contains blood are provided with a bladder. Those animals,
on the other hand, that are without a lung of this character,
and that either drink but sparingly owing to their lung
being of a spongy texture, or never imbibe fluid at all for
drinking’s sake but only as nutriment, insects for instance
and fishes, and that are moreover clad with feathers or scales
or scaly plates!—all these animals, owing to the small
amount of fluid which they imbibe, and owing also to such
residue as there may be being converted into feathers and
the like, are invariably without a bladder? The Tortoises,
which are comprised among animals with scaly plates, form
the only exception ; and this is merely due to the imperfect
development of their natural conformation ; the explanation
of the matter being that in the sea-tortoises the lung is
flesh-like and contains blood, resembling the lung of the ox,
and that in the land-tortoises it is of disproportionately

μη

=
[2]

1 A. distinguishes the scales of fishes from those of reptiles by
giving them distinct names, but nowhere discusses their differences
excepting that he says (iv. 2. 691% 16) ‘these plates (podides) are
equivalent to scales (λεπίδες) but of a harder character’. Butsee iv. 13.
697* 5 note.

? All viviparous quadrupeds, i.e. Mammalia, have (Monotremata
excepted) a urinary bladder. Birds have none. In many fishes the
ureters form a small dilatation or bladder. Among reptiles, Ophidia
and many Saurians have no bladder; but there is one in some Saurians
and in all Chelonia, and in these latter it is of great size.

A. is mistaken in supposing that tortoises drink but little. Darwin
describes them as wearing broad and well-beaten paths to the springs
in Chatham Island (Voyage of Beagle, p. 383).

AR, P.A, I

6715

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

large size! Moreover, inasmuch as the covering which in-
vests them is dense and shell-like, so that the moisture
cannot exhale through the porous flesh, as it does in birds
and in snakes and other animals with scaly plates, such an
amount of secretion is formed that some special part is
required to receive and hold it. This then is the reason
why these animals, alone of their kind, have a bladder, the
sea-tortoise a large one, the land-tortoises an extremely
small one.”

What has been said of the bladder is equally true of the 9
kidneys. For these also are wanting in all animals that are
clad with feathers or with scales or with scale-like plates;
the sea and land tortoises * forming the only exception. In
some of the birds, however, there are flattened kidney-like
bodies, as though the flesh allotted to the formation of the
kidneys, unable to find one single place of sufficient size,
had been scattered over several.*

1 The lungs of Chelonia are of much greater size than those of most
Saurians and Amphibia, and ‘ s’étendent le long du dos jusqu’au bassin
au-dessus de tous les viscéres’ (Cuvier, Legoms, iv. 347). They are,
moreover, not only thus larger, but contain ‘in correlation with the non-
transpirable integument a much greater development of internal paren-
chyma’ (Rolleston, Horms of An. Life, lx). This comparative abun-
dance of parenchyma is more marked in marine than in other tortoises
(Cuvier, Legons, iv. 324 and 332).

* Perrault found on repeated dissections that precisely the contrary
was the case, and consequently inferred ‘ qu'il y a faute au texte par la
transposition des mots Zerrestre et marine’ (Mém. pour servir ἃ C hist.
nat. des Animaux, 2° partie, 2. 403).

% A similar statement, that no Ovipara save the tortoises have
kidneys, is made elsewhere (#. A. ii. 16); where also it is said that
the kidney of the tortoise consists, like that of the ox, of numerous
smaller parts. The chelonian kidney is, in fact, extremely subdivided
on the outer surface; so that there can be ‘no doubt that A. had
examined it. But it is difficult to understand how the kidneys of other
Ovipara escaped his notice. It is true they are so differently shaped
from those of a mammal, or even of a tortoise, that they might appear
to a careless observer to be totally different organs. But the probable
explanation is that A. argued a priord that it was impossible for there
to bea kidney if there was no bladder. For the essential organ in the
formation of urine was, as he thought, not the kidney, but the bladder ;
and the kidneys were but adjuncts to this (iii. 7.670 28 note). A kidney,
then, in an animal without a bladder was to A. just as absurd a sup-
position as would be to us a urinary bladder when there was no
kidney. That A. was misled by this preconception is shown by the
fact that he did see the kidneys in birds, and did recognize their
kidney-like aspect ; but yet refused to consider them as true kidneys.

* In birds the kidneys, almost always trilobed, are flattened against

BOOK ΜΠ ‘6 671°

The Emys? has neither bladder nor kidneys. For the
softness of its shell allows of the ready transpiration of
fluid ; and for this reason neither of the organs mentioned
exists in this animal. All other animals, however, whose 3;
lung contains blood are, as before said, provided with
kidneys. For nature uses these organs for two separate 671°
purposes, namely for the excretion of the residual fluid,
and to subserve the blood-vessels,? a channel leading to
them from the great vessel.

In the centre of the kidney is a cavity of variable size.
This is the case in all animals, excepting the seal.* The
kidneys of this animal are more solid than those of any 5
other, and in form resemble the kidneys of the ox. The
human kidneys are of similar shape ; being as it were made
up of numerous small kidneys,‘ and not presenting one un-
broken surface like the kidneys of sheep and other quadru-
peds.® For this reason, should the kidneys of a man be
once attacked by disease, the malady is not easily expelled. τὸ
For it is as though many kidneys were diseased and not
merely one; which naturally enhances the difficulties of
a cure.

The duct which runs to the kidney from the great vessel
does not terminate in the central cavity, but is expended
on the substance of the organ, so that there is no blood in 15
the cavity, nor is any coagulum found there after death.
A pair of stout ducts, void of blood, run, one from the cavity
of each kidney, to the bladder ; and other ducts, strong and

the back, and, fitting into the deep interspaces between the bones,
retain the impressions of these successive cavities or depressions.

1 The Emys was some freshwater tortoise (27. 4. v. 33. 558% 8); but
what species is uncertain, as there are several in Greece. None is
without a bladder, but this is equally true of all known Chelonia.
Neither has any animal now known as Emys a soft shell.

5. ΘΕ ili..7. 670" 8 note.

3 The cavity in the seal’s kidney is very small. It is pictured in
section by Buffon (Azs¢. Wat. xiii. pl. 48). The kidney consists of
numerous distinct lobes, and in this respect resembles that of an ox.

* This is not true of adult man, excepting as an occasional anomaly.
But it is true of the foetus. This is one of the statements which lead
me to think that A. may have dissected the human foetus.

® Not all quadrupeds other than the ox have non-lobulated kidneys,
though such is the general rule. The elephant, bear, otter, all have
lobulated kidneys.

671°

672"

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

continuous, lead into the kidneys from the aorta! The
purpose of this arrangement is to allow the superfluous
fluid to pass from the blood-vessel- into the kidney, and the
resulting renal excretion to collect, by the percolation of the
fluid through the solid substance of the organ, in its centre,
where as a general rule there is a cavity. (This by the way
explains why the kidney is the most ill-savoured of all the
viscera.) From the central cavity the fluid is discharged
into the bladder by the ducts that have been mentioned,
having already assumed in great degree the character of
excremental residue.2, The bladder is as it were moored to
the kidneys ; for, as already has been stated, it is attached
to them by strong ducts. These then are the purposes for
which the kidneys exist, and such the functions of these
organs.

In all animals that have kidneys, that on the right is
placed higher than that on the left.? For, inasmuch as
motion commences from the right,* and the organs on this
side are in consequence stronger than those on the left, they
must all push upwards in advance of their opposite fellows ;
as may be seen in the fact that men even raise the right
eyebrow more than the left, and that the former is more
arched than the latter. The right kidney being thus drawn
upwards is in all animals brought into contact with the
liver ; for the liver lies on the right side.

Of all the viscera the kidneys are those that have the
most fat. This is in the first place the result of necessity,
because the kidneys are the parts through which the residual
matters percolate. For the blood which is left behind after
this excretion, being of pure quality, is of easy concoction,
and the final result of thorough blood-concoction is lard
and suet. For just as a certain amount of fire is left in the
ashes of solid substances after combustion, so also does a
remnant of the heat that has been developed remain in

1 The bloodless ducts are the ureters. The ducts from the aorta and
great vessel are the renal arteries and veins respectively.

2 Cf. iii. 7. 670» 28 note.
_* This is the general but not universal rule. One of the exceptions
is man, where the right kidney is usually slightly lower than the left.

* Cf. De Caelo, ii. 2. 284 28 and De An. Inc. 4. 705" 29; 6.706" 17.

BOOK ΤΠ: 9

fluids after concoction; and this is the reason why oily
matter is light, and floats on the surface of other fluids.
The fat is not formed in the kidneys themselves, the density
of their substance forbidding this, but is deposited about
their external surface. It consists of lard or of suet, accord-
ing as the animal’s fat is of the former or latter character.
The difference between these two kinds of fat has already
been set forth in other passages.!. The formation, then, of
fat in the kidneys is the result of necessity ; being, as ex-
plained, a consequence of the necessary conditions which
accompany the possession of such organs. But at the same
time the fat has a final cause, namely to ensure the safety
of the kidneys, and to maintain their natural heat. For
placed, as these organs are, close to the surface, they require
a greater supply of heat than other parts. For while the
back is thickly covered with flesh, so as to form a shield for
the heart and neighbouring viscera, the loins, in accordance
with a rule that applies to all bendings, are destitute of
flesh ; and fat is therefore formed as a substitute for it, so
that the kidneys may not be without protection. The
kidneys, moreover, by being fat are the better enabled to
secrete and concoct their fluid ; for fat is hot, and it is heat
that effects concoction.

Such, then, are the reasons why the kidneys are fat. But
in all animals the right kidney is less fat than its fellow.*
The reason for this is, that the parts on the right side are
naturally more solid and more suited for motion than those
on the left. But motion is antagonistic to fat, for it tends
to melt it.

Animals then, as a general rule, derive advantage from
their kidneys being fat; and the fat is often very abundant
and extends over the whole of these organs. But, should
the like occur in the sheep, death ensues. Be its kidneys,
however, as fat as they may, they are never so fat but that
some part, if not in both at any rate in the right one, is left
free. The reason why sheep are the only animals that
suffer in this manner, or suffer more than others, is that in

1 Ch liye f eee
2 Aubert and Wimmer say this is true of rabbits.

672?

S)
ο

672" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

animals whose fat is composed of lard! this is of fluid con-
sistency, so that there is not the same chance in their case
of wind getting shut in and causing mischief. But it is to
such an enclosure of wind that rot? is due. And thus even
35 in men, though it is beneficial to them to have fat kidneys,
yet should these organs become over-fat and diseased, deadly
pains ensue. As to those animals whose fat consists of
672” suet, in none is the suet so dense as in the sheep, neither is
it nearly so abundant; for of all animals there is none in
which the kidneys become so soon gorged with fat as in the
sheep.? Rot, then, is produced by the moisture and the
wind getting shut up in the kidneys, and is a malady that
5 carries off sheep with great rapidity. For the disease
forthwith reaches the heart, passing thither by the aorta
and the great vessel, the ducts which connect these with the
kidneys being of unbroken continuity.

We have now dealt with the heart and the lung, as also

10 with the liver, spleen, and kidneys. The latter are sepa- 10
rated from the former by the midriff or, as some call it, the
Phrenes. This divides off the heart and lung, and, as already
said, is called Phrenes in sanguineous animals, all * of which
have a midriff, just as they all have a heart and a liver.

15 For they require a midriff to divide the region of the heart
from the region of the stomach, so that the centre wherein
abides the sensory soul may be undisturbed, and not be
overwhelmed, directly food is taken, by its up-steaming
vapour and by the abundance of heat then superinduced.

20 For it was to guard against this that nature made a division,

INCE ai. 5 651} 25-

2 A.is plainly speaking of some disease that is compatible with
accumulation of fat, and that also is, at any rate sometimes, rapidly
fatal. Such seems to be the case with rot. ‘In this disease there is
no loss of condition, but quite the contrary. For the sheep in the early
stages‘of rot has a great propensity to fatten’ (Youatt, Book of Farm.
ii. 386). Again, the rot is sometimes ‘rapid in its course, and this
season a large number of sheep have been killed very quickly by it’
(Gamgee, Pr. Counc. Rep. v. 240).

5 The ox and the sheep, says John Hunter, have more fat about the
kidneys, the loins, and within the abdomen, than most other animals
(Museum Cat. iii. 312).

* Mammals alone have a perfect diaphragm, but in most vertebrates

there is something analogous to it. The description, however, given
further on, applies only to the perfect diaphragm, viz. that of mammals.

BOOK III. τὸ 672°

constructing the midriff as a kind of partition-wall and
fence, and so separated the nobler from the less noble parts,
in all cases where a separation of upper from lower is pos-
sible. For the upper part is the more honourable, and is
that for the sake of which the rest exists; while the lower
part exists for the sake of the upper and constitutes the
necessary element in the body, inasmuch as it is the recipient
of the food.

That portion of the midriff which is near the ribs is 25
fleshier and stronger than the rest, but the central part has
more of a membranous character; for this structure con-
duces best to its strength and its extensibility. Now that
the midriff, which is a kind of outgrowth from the sides of
the thorax, acts as a screen to prevent heat mounting up
from below, is shown by what happens, should it, owing to
its proximity to the stomach, attract thence the hot and
residual fluid. For when this occurs there ensues forthwith 30
a marked disturbance of intellect and of sensation. It is
indeed because of this that the midriff is called! Phrenes,
as though it had some share in the process of thinking
(Phronein). In reality, however, it has no part whatsoever
itself in the matter, but, lying in close proximity to organs
that have, it brings about the manifest changes of intelli-
gence in question by acting upon them. This too explains
why its central part is thin. For though this is in some
measure the result of necessity, inasmuch as those portions 35
of the fleshy whole which lie nearest to the ribs must neces-
sarily be fleshier than the rest,? yet besides this there is a
final cause, namely to give it as small a proportion of humour
as possible; for, had it been made of flesh throughout, it 673%
would have been more likely to attract and hold a large
amount of this. That heating of it affects sensation rapidly
and in a notable manner is shown by the phenomena of
laughing. For when men are tickled they are quickly set
a-laughing, because the motion quickly reaches this part, 5

? A notion still commemorated in the anatomical terms ‘ phrenic
nerves’ and ‘ phrenic centre’.

° The central part of the midriff, which is tendinous, is the ‘ cordi-
form tendon ’ of modern anatomists.

673° DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

and heating! it though but slightly nevertheless manifestly

so disturbs the mental action as to occasion movements that

are independent of the will. That man alone is affected by

tickling is due firstly to the delicacy of his skin, and secondly

to his being the only animal that laughs. For to be tickled

is to be set in laughter, the laughter being produced by such
το ἃ motion as mentioned of the region of the armpit.

It is said also that when men in battle are wounded any-
where near the midriff, they are seen to laugh,’ owing to
the heat produced by the wound. This may possibly be
the case. At any rate it is a statement made by much
more credible persons than those who tell the story of the
human head, how it speaks after it is cut off. For so some

15 assert, and even call in Homer to support them, representing
him as alluding to this when he wrote,’ ‘His head still
speaking rolled into the dust,’ instead of ‘ The head of the
speaker’. So fully was the possibility of such an occurrence
accepted in Caria, that one of that country was actually
brought to trial under the following circumstances. The
priest of Zeus Hoplosmios* had been murdered ; but as yet

20 it had not been ascertained who was the assassin; when
certain persons asserted that they had heard the murdered
man’s head, which had been severed from the body, repeat
several times the words, ‘ Cercidas slew man on man.’ Search
was thereupon made and a man of those parts who bore the
name of Cercidas hunted out and put upon his trial. But
it is impossible that any one should utter a word when the
windpipe is severed and no motion any longer derived from

25 the lung. Moreover, among the Barbarians, where heads
are chopped off with great rapidity, nothing of the kind has
ever yet occurred. Why, again, does not the like occur in

1 Reading θερμαίνουσαν (PUY) for θερμαίνουσι, with a comma before
it; but the text of this passage is too corrupt for more than conjectural
interpretation.

2 When the diaphragm is suddenly ruptured, instant death usually
follows, and the face is said invariably to assume the peculiar expres-
sion or grin, called Rzsus Sardonicus. Cf. Dict. d. Sci. Médic, ix. 214.

3 Tliad x. 457; Odyssey xxii. 329. In both places the reading is
φθεγγομένου not φθεγγομένη.

4 Probably meaning ‘armed’ Zeus. So too there was a temple of
Here Hoplosmia in the Peloponnesus. (Liddell and Scott.)

BOOK. III. τὸ 673°

the case of other animals than man? For that none of
them should laugh, when their midriff is wounded, is but
what one would expect ; for no animal but man ever laughs.
So, too, there is nothing irrational in supposing that the
trunk may run forwards to a certain distance after the head
has been cut off ; seeing that bloodless animals at any rate 30
can live, and that for a considerable time, after decapitation,
as has been set forth and explained in other passages.!

The purposes, then, for which the viscera severally exist
have now been stated. It is of necessity upon the inner
terminations of the vessels that they are developed; for
humour, and that of a bloody character, cannot but exude
at these points, and it is of this, solidified and coagulated, 673”
that the substance of the viscera is formed. Thus they are
of a bloody character, and in substance resemble each other
while they differ from other parts.

1 The viscera are enclosed each ina membrane. For they
require some covering to protect them from injury, and
require, moreover, that this covering shall be light. To such 5
requirements membrane is well adapted; for it is close in
texture so as to form a good protection, destitute of flesh
so as neither to attract humour nor retain it, and thin so as
to be light and not add to the weight of the body. Of the
membranes those are the stoutest and strongest which
invest the heart and the brain;* as is but consistent with τὸ
reason. For these are the parts which require most pro-
tection, seeing that they are the main governing powers of
life, and that it is to governing powers that guard is due.

I2 Some animals have all the viscera that have been enu-
merated ; others have only some of them. In what kind of
animals this latter is the case, and what is the explanation,
has already been stated.* Moreover, the self-same viscera
present differences in different possessors. For the heart is 15

1 Cia: 53.677" 27 note: De Ani. δ. 411 19; i, 2. 413" 205 De
Long. Vit. Luv. et Sen. 6. 467% το; De Vita, 2. 468% 25,2; De Resp.
3. 471 20; 77: A. iv. 7. 531” 30-5322 5; De Inc. An. 7. 707% 27.

2 Cf. ii. 15. 658" 24 note.

5 The pericardium and dura mater.

1 Cf ili, 4. 665% 20.

678"

674

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

not precisely alike in all animals that have one ; nor, in fact,
is any viscus whatsoever. Thus the liver is in some animals
split into several parts, while in others it is comparatively
undivided.t Such differences in its form present themselves
even among those sanguineous animals that are viviparous,
but are more marked in fishes and in the oviparous quad-
rupeds, and this whether we compare them with each other
or with the Vivipara. As for birds, their liver very nearly
resembles that of the Vivipara ; for in them, as in these, it
is of a pure and blood-like colour. The reason of this is
that the body in both these classes of animals admits of the
freest exhalation, so that the amount of foul residual matter
within is but small. Hence it is that some of the Vivipara
are without any gall-bladder? at all. For the liver takes
a large share in maintaining the purity of composition and
the healthiness of the body. For these are conditions that
depend finally and in the main upon the blood, and there is
more blood in the liver than in any of the other viscera, the
heart only excepted. On the other hand, the liver of ovi-
parous quadrupeds and fishes inclines, as a rule, to a yellow
hue,’ and there are even some of them in which it is entirely
of this bad colour,’ in accordance with the bad composition
of their bodies generally. Such, for instance, is the case in
the toad, the tortoise, and other similar animals.

The spleen, again, varies in different animals. For in
those that have horns and cloven hoofs, such as the goat,
the sheep, and the like, it is of a rounded form ;° excepting
when increased size has caused some part of it to extend its
growth longitudinally, as has happened in the case of the

! Cf. iil. 7. 669" 32, 35 notes. 2. Cf. iv. 2. 676" 26.

ὅ The liver of mammals and birds is as a rule of a brown-red colour.
In reptiles it inclines to a yellow hue; and in fishes this yellow tint is
often still more decided. Cf. Cuvier, Zegoms, iv. 14-16.

4 * Bad’ because the degree of yellowness is to A. a measure of the
impurity which the liver has to separate from the blood. Perhaps also
with some reference to the views of the soothsayers, who seem to have
considered a pale liver to be an unfavourable omen, the lucky tint
being the normal mottled red, the ποικίλη εὐμορφία of Aeschylus;
in which case ‘bad’ would correspond to the furfia exta of Livy
(xxvii. 26).

> Or perhaps ‘of a broad oval form’; στρογγύλος being the term
applied to a merchant vessel as distinguished from a ship of war.

BOOK III. 12 674°

ox. On the other hand, it is elongated in all polydactylous
animals.! Such, for instance, is the case in the pig,? in man,
and in the dog. While in animals with solid hoofs it is of
a form intermediate to these two, being broad in one part,
narrow in another. Such, for example, is its shape in the
horse, the mule, and the ass.

13 The viscera differ from the flesh not only in the turgid
aspect of their substance, but also in position; for they lie
within the body, whereas the flesh is placed on the outside.
The explanation of this is that these parts partake of the
character of blood-vessels, and that while the former exist
for the sake of the vessels, the latter cannot exist without
them.?

σι

14 Below the midriff lies the stomach, placed at the end of
the oesophagus when there is one, and in immediate con- 10
tiguity with the mouth when the oesophagus is wanting.
Continuous with this stomach is what is called the gut.
These parts are present in all animals, for reasons that are
self-evident. For it is a matter of necessity that an animal

1 The spleen ‘is broader at one end in the cow, reindeer, and giraffe
than in other ruminants’ (Owen, Ver¢ed. iii. 561). In the hog it is
elongated ; so also in Carnivora generally. In the Ungulata it is of
proportionately smaller dimensions than in the Carnivora, and in the
horse is ‘ elongated, flattened, broadest at the upperend’. A.’s account
so far therefore fairly tallies with the facts. But as regards man his
statement is erroneous. Forthough the human spleen is very variable
in shape as in size, yet it cannot be said to be elongated in comparison
with that of other mammalia.

2 A. seems to have been at a loss to classify the pig. Here he
reckons it with the many-toed animals in opposition to the animals
with solid or cloven hoofs. In the next chapter he separates it from
the many-toed, and puts it into a separate division, consisting of ‘ those
that have a cloven hoof, but yet have front teeth in both jaws’; of
course in contradistinction tothe ruminants. In another place (H. A.
ii. I. 499” 12) he says the pig lies half-way between the cloven-hoofed
and the solidungulates; and, in corroboration of this, states that there
are sometimes pigs with a solid hoof; an anomaly of which instances
do in fact occur not very rarely.

The foot of the pig has in reality four toes; but of these the two
middle ones are much longer and stouter than the others, and form
a cloven hoof which is used by the animal in walking. The two lateral
toes are also furnished with hoofs, but are placed at some distance
above the ground, so as not to touch it.

5. It is the viscera that exist ‘for the sake of the vessels’ (iii. 7.
670% 8), the flesh that ‘cannot exist without them’ (111. 5. 668% 32).

674" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

shall receive the incoming food ; and necessary also that it
15 shall discharge the same when its goodness is exhausted.
This residual matter, again, must not occupy the same
place as the yet unconcocted nutriment. For as the ingress
of food and the discharge of the residue occur at distinct
periods, so also must they necessarily occur in distinct
places. Thus there must be one receptacle for the ingoing
food and another for the useless residue, and between these,
therefore, a part in which the change from one condition to
the other may be effected. These, however, are matters
20 Which will be more suitably set forth when we come to
deal with Generation and Nutrition.1 What we have at
present to consider are the variations presented by the
stomach and its subsidiary parts. For neither in size nor
in shape are these parts uniformly alike in all animals.
Thus the stomach is single in all such sanguineous and
viviparous animals as have teeth in front of both jaws. It
25 is single therefore in all the polydactylous kinds, such as
man, dog, lion, and the rest ; in all the solid-hoofed animals
also, such as horse, mule, ass; and in all those which, like
the pig, though their hoof is cloven, yet have front teeth in
both jaws.2, When, however, an animal is of large size, and
feeds on substances of so thorny and ligneous a character as
to be difficult of concoction, it may in consequence have
30 several stomachs, as for instance is the case with the camel.
A similar multiplicity of stomachs exists also in the horned
animals ; the reason being that horn-bearing animals have
no front teeth in the upper jaw. The camel also, though it
has no horns, is yet without upper front teeth.? The ex-
planation of this is that it is more essential for the camel to
have a multiple stomach than to have these teeth. Its
stomach, then, is constructed like that of animals without
674” upper front teeth, and, its dental arrangements being such

1G. A. ii. 4.7408 21- 12; 6. 743% 8— 7. 7463 28.

2 Ch aller2n6747 3 note:

3’ The camel has in fact two incisor teeth in the upper jaw. But
these are placed laterally close against the canines, so as to leave a
considerable vacant space in the front of the mouth. Had A. known
of the existence of these upper incisors, he would not have failed to find

in their presence a striking confirmation of his views as to the inverse
development of teeth and horns. Cf. ill. 2. 664° 1.

BOOK III. 14 674”

as to match its stomach, the teeth in question are wanting.
They would indeed be of no service. Its food, moreover,
being of a thorny character, and its tongue necessarily made
of a fleshy substance, nature uses the earthy matter which
is saved from the teeth to give hardness to the palate.
The camel ruminates like the horned animals, because its 5
multiple stomach resembles theirs. For all animals that
have horns, the sheep for instance, the ox, the goat, the
deer, and the like, have several stomachs. For since the
mouth, owing to its lack of teeth, only imperfectly per-
forms its office as regards the food, this multiplicity of 10
stomachs is intended to make up for its shortcomings ; the
several cavities receiving the food one from the other in
succession ; the first taking the unreduced substances, the
second the same when somewhat reduced, the third when
reduction is complete, and the fourth when the whole has
become a smooth pulp. Such is the reason why there is
this multiplicity of parts and cavities in animals with such
dentition. The names given to the several cavities are the
paunch, the honey-comb bag, the manyplies, and the reed.
How these parts are related to each other, in position and
in shape, must be looked for in the treatises on Anatomy
and the Researches concerning Animals.'

Birds also present variations in the part which acts as
a recipient of the food; and the reason for these variations
is the same as in the animals just mentioned. For here
again it is because the mouth fails to perform its office and
fails even more completely — for birds have no teeth at all,
nor any instrument whatsoever with which to comminute
or grind down their food—it is, I say, because of this, that
in some of them what is called the crop precedes the stomach
and does the work of the mouth; while in others the oeso-
phagus is either wide throughout? or a part of it bulges

t Cif. Am. 17; 507% 34—" 15.

* The oesophagus, as a general rule, is wide and dilatable in birds, ‘ in
correspondence with the imperfection of the oral instruments as com-
minutors of the food’ (Owen). It is especially wide in the cormorant
and other fishing birds. A. (27. A. ii. 17. 508" 35) gives as examples
several species of crows, with which he appears (27. A. vill. 3. 593” 18)
to have classed the cormorant.

674°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

25 just before it enters the stomach, so as to form a preparatory

675"

store-house for the unreduced food ;! or the stomach itself
has a protuberance in some part,” or is strong and fleshy,?
so as to be able to store up the food for a considerable
period and to concoct it, in spite of its not having been
ground into a pulp. For nature retrieves the inefficiency
of the mouth by increasing the efficiency and heat of the
stomach. Other birds there are, such, namely, as have long
legs and live in marshes, that have none of these provisions,
but merely an elongated oesophagus. The explanation of
this is to be found in the moist character of their food. For
all these birds feed on substances easy of reduction, and
their food being moist and not requiring much concoction,
their digestive cavities are of a corresponding character.
Fishes are provided with teeth, which in almost all of
them ° are of the sharp interfitting kind. For there is but
one small section in which it is otherwise. Of these the fish
called Scarus (Parrotjish) is an example. And this is
probably the reason why this fish apparently ruminates,

1 Alluding to the Jroventriculus or glandular stomach. This exists
in all birds, but is much larger and more glandular when there is no
crop, than when this is present. Doubtless in such cases it supplies
the absence of the crop (Cuvier, Zegovs, 111. 408), and acts as a store-
house of food.

2 The example given in the H. A. (ii. 17. 509% 6) is a bird which
Aubert and Wimmer identify with (alco tinnunculus. They point out
that in all the diurnal birds of prey there is a peculiarity, thus described
by Meckel (77. Gén. ad’ Anat. Comp. viii. 314): ‘ L’estomac folliculeux
d’une ampleur peu considérable forme subitement une saillie allongée,
qui est séparée par un étranglement, supérieurement de Il’cesophage,
et inférieurement de l’estomac musculaire.’

3 The gizzard is strong and muscular in graminivorous birds ; but thin
and membranous in the carnivorous species.

* In the Greek text, instead of oesophagus (στόμαχος) we have crop
(πρόλοβος). This must be an error; for the presence of a crop is one
of the very provisions which A. has just enumerated, and which he
says are wanting in the long-legged marsh-birds, i.e. the Grallatores.
I therefore read στόμαχος for πρόλοβος ; which is in harmony with
the parallel passage in the 1715 Ax. (ii. 17. 509% 9), where it is said
that these birds have a long oesophagus to match their long neck.

In the typical waders there isnocrop; neither is the stomach fleshy,
but has thin walls, as in piscivorous birds generally. The ‘ dilatation
of the oesophagus before it enters the stomach’, i. 6. the proventriculus,
would also seem to A.to be absent ; for it forms one single cavity with
the thin-walled gizzard ; at least such is the case in the heron (Cuvier,
Legons, iii. 410).

° For πάντας read πάντες.

BOOK III. 14

though no other fishes do 50.1 For those horned animals
that have no front teeth in the upper jaw also ruminate.

In fishes the teeth are all* sharp; so that these animals
can divide® their food, though imperfectly. For it is im-
possible for a fish to linger or spend time in the act of
mastication, and therefore they have no teeth that are flat
or suitable for grinding; for such teeth would be to no
purpose. The oesophagus again in some fishes is entirely
wanting, and in the rest is but short. In order, however,
to facilitate the concoction of the food, some of them, as the
Cestreus* (szz//et), have a fleshy stomach resembling that
of a bird; while most of them have numerous processes
close against the stomach, to serve as a sort of antechamber
in which the food may be stored up and undergo putrefac-
tion® and concoction. There is a contrast between fishes
and birds in the position of these processes. For in fishes
they are placed close to the stomach; while in birds, if
present at all, they are lower down, near the end of the σας."
Some of the Vivipara also have processes connected with

1 Whether the parrot-fish ruminates I do not know ; but A.is wrong
in saying that no other fish does so. There are several species,
especially of the carp tribe, in which a sort of rumination occurs. Cf.
Owen, Comp. Anat. 11. 236.

2 For πάντες read πάντας.

3 Cf. iil, 1. 662213. Thesharp teeth of fishes, however, serve rather
for the retention than for the mastication of food.

‘ The Cestreus is doubtless some species of Mugil, a tribe of which
our grey mullet is a familiar example. What species is meant is un-
certain; the Mediterranean containing at least five. In all these
Mugilidae the stomach has much the character of a true muscular
gizzard. ‘ Of all the fish I have seen, the mullet is the most complete
instance of this (the grinding) structure ; its strong muscular stomach
being evidently adapted, like the gizzard of birds, to the two offices of
mastication and digestion.—John Hunter.

5 A. seems here to admit that digestion is in part due to putrefaction,
a doctrine held by Pleistonicus.

δ In most osseous fishes, though not in all, there are a variable
number of caecal appendages close behind the pylorus, which have
been erroneously held to be the homologues of the pancreas. Their
use is not known with certainty. The Selachia are rightly stated by
A. (H. A. ii. 17. 508" 22) to be without these caeca. In birds, asarule,
there are two caeca at the junction of small and large gut ; rarely, as
in the heron, a single caecum. Sometimes, however, as A. notices here
and elsewhere (27. A. ii. 17. 50814), the caecaare absent. Thisis the
case, for instance, in the wryneck, woodpecker, lark, and cormorant,
among birds known to Aristotle.

675°

bdS
σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

the lower part of the gut 1 which serve the same purpose as
that stated above.

The whole tribe of fishes is of gluttonous appetite, owing
to the arrangements for the reduction of their food being
very imperfect, and much of it consequently passing through
them without undergoing concoction ; and, of all, those are
the most gluttonous that have a straight intestine. For as
the passage of food in such cases is rapid, and the enjoy-
ment derived from it in consequence but brief, it follows of
necessity that the return of appetite is also speedy.”

It has already been mentioned that in animals with front
teeth in both jaws the stomach is of small size. It may be
classed pretty nearly always under one or other of two head-
ings, namely as resembling the stomach of the dog, or as
resembling the stomach of the pig. In the pig the stomach
is larger than in the dog, and presents certain folds of
moderate size, the purpose of which is to lengthen out the
period of concoction ; while the stomach of the dog is of
small size, not much larger in calibre than the gut, and
smooth on the internal surface.*

Not much larger, I say, than the gut; for in all animals
after the stomach comes the gut. This, like the stomach,
presents numerous modifications. For in some animals it
is uniform, when uncoiled, and alike throughout, while in

’ Meaning of course the caecum and vermiform appendix. There
is the greatest variety in the different mammalian orders as to the
presence or absence of these. Cf. Cuvier, Zegoms, 111. 465.

* Fishes, says A., do not digest their food well, because they have
a short gut ; and so theyare ravenous. Similarly inthe 77zvaevs it is
said that a long intestine was given to animals to prevent insatiable
gluttony. An abnormally short gut is, in fact, a sufficient cause for
a ravenous appetite (cf. Schiff, Swr da Digestion, i. 44). The normally
short gut of a fish is, however, probably to be explained by the easy
digestibility of their food.

* What he stated before was that they had a single stomach, not
asmall one. The single stomach is, however, small as compared with
the multiple stomach of the ruminants.

* The stomach of the dog, as of Carnivora generally, is of small size,
somewhat elongated, and perfectly smooth within. That of the pig is
of larger dimensions owing to the very ample cardiac cul-de-sac, is of
globular shape, and presents on its internal surface two transverse folds
on either side of the cardia. Cf. A.A. ii. 17. 507219. The two
types, then, under which A. classes stomachs are the small, perfectly
simple stomach of Carnivora, and the larger and less simple stomach
that, beginning with the pig, culminates in the very complicated organ
of the ruminants. Cf. Owen, Avat. of Vert. iii. 463.

BOOK Ill 14 675°

others it differs in different portions. Thus in some cases it

is wider in the neighbourhood of the stomach, and narrower
towards the other end; and this explains by the way why
dogs' have to strain so much in discharging their excre-
ment. But in most animals it is the upper portion that is 675”
the narrower and the lower that is of greater width.

Of greater length than in other animals, and much con-
voluted, are the intestines of those that have horns.” These
intestines, moreover, as also the stomach, are of ampler
volume, in accordance with the larger size of the body. For
animals with horns are, as a rule, animals of no small bulk,
because of the thorough elaboration which their food under-
goes. The gut, except in those animals*® where it is
straight, invariably widens out as we get farther from the
stomach and come to what is called the colon, and to
a kind of caecal dilatation. After this it again becomes
narrower and convoluted.* Then succeeds a straight portion
which runs right on to the vent. This vent is known as the
anus, and is in some animals surrounded by fat, in others
not so. All these parts have been so contrived by nature
as to harmonize with the various operations that relate to
the food and its residue. For, as the residual food gets
farther on and lower down, the space to contain it enlarges,
allowing it to remain stationary and undergo conversion.
Thus is it in those animals which, owing either to their large
size, or to the heat of the parts concerned,°® require more
nutriment, and consume more fodder than the rest.

[Ὁ

“μι

** Dans les chiens. . les gros intestins n’ont guéres plus de
diametre que les gréles.’ Cuvier, Legons, 111. 485.

2 Theintestines, longer in Herbivora generally than in Carnivora, attain
the greatest length in ruminants. In the sheep, for instance, they are
twenty-eight times as long as the body ; in the equally herbivorous but
non-ruminating rabbit ten times; in the carnivorous dog only five times.

5 What animals, if any, at all comparable with ruminants, A. held to
have a straight intestine, ] cannot surmise. Here, however, he seems
to include all non-ruminants under εὐθυέντερα, as being comparatively
straight-gutted. Cf. 27. A. ii. 17. 507” 34

* Referring to the spiral coil of the selon: which forms one of the
characteristics of the Artiodactyla (cf. Owen, Vert. iii. 474). The
colon becomes narrower where it assumes this spiral disposition.
Later on A. calls this part the coil or helix (ἕλιξ) The straight
terminal part is of course the rectum.

é : The digestive cavities. As to τόπων compare τῶν τύπων ἀμφοτέρων,
ΟἿ 2.
AR, P,A. K

675" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

Neither is it without a purpose that, just as a narrower
στ succeeds to the upper stomach, so also does the residual
food, when its goodness is thoroughly exhausted, pass from

20 the colon and the ample space of the lower stomach into a
narrower channel and into the spiral coil. For so naturecan
regulate her expenditure and prevent the excremental residue
from being discharged all at once.!

In all such animals, however, as have to be comparatively
moderate in their alimentation,” the lower stomach presents
no wide and roomy spaces, though their gut is not straight,

25 but has a number of convolutions. For amplitude of space
causes desire for ample food, and straightness of the intestine
causes quick return of appetite. And thus it is that all
animals whose food receptacles are either simple or spacious
are of gluttonous habits, the latter eating enormously at a
meal, the former making meals at short intervals.

Again, since the food in the upper stomach, having just

30 been swallowed, must of necessity be quite fresh, while that
which has reached the lower stomach must have had its
juices exhausted and resemble dung, it follows of necessity
that there must also be some intermediate part, in which
the change may be effected, and where the food will be
neither perfectly fresh nor yet dung. And thus it is that,
in all such animals as we are now considering, there is found
what is called the jejunum ;? which is a part of the small
gut, of the gut, that is, which comes next to the stomach,

35 For this jejunum lies between the upper cavity which con-
tains the yet unconcocted food and the lower cavity which
holds the residual matter, which by the time it has got here
has become worthless. There is a jejunum in all these

676° animals, but it is only plainly discernible in those of large
size, and this only when they have abstained from food for

1 Why should she do so? A. probably has in mind the Bonasus
(iii. 2. 663 16).

* That is, the Carnivora; whose food is only taken at comparatively
long intervals (iv. 10. 688» 4) and is not so bulky as that of Herbivora.
In these the gut, though not unconvoluted, is less so than in ruminants,
of which animals A. has up to now been speaking, and is without their
spiral coil or their capacious caecum and colon.

* Jejunum (νῆστις) is the name given to the middle section of the
small intestine, because it is usually found empty after death. The
passage of the contained food through it takes place with great rapidity
(cf. M. Edwards, Legoms, iii. 130).

BOOK III. 14 676"

a certain time. For then alone can one hit on the exact
period when the food lies half-way between the upper and
lower cavities ; a period which is very short, for the time
occupied in the transition of food is but brief. In females
this jejunum may occupy any part whatsoever of the upper
intestine, but in males it comes just before the caecum and
the lower stomach.!

σι

Ι5 What is known as rennet? is found in all animals that have
a multiple stomach, and in the hare? among animals whose
stomach is single. Inthe former the rennet neither occupies
the large paunch, nor the honeycomb bag, nor the terminal
reed, but is found in the cavity which separates this terminal
one from the two first, namely in the so-called manyplies.*
It is the thick character of their milk which causes all these
animals to have rennet; whereas in animals with a single
stomach the milk is thin, and consequently no rennet is
formed. It is this difference in thickness® which makes the
milk of horned animals coagulate, while that of animals with-
out horns does not. Rennet forms in the hare because it feeds
on herbage that has juice like that of the fig ;® for juice of
this kind coagulates the milk in the stomach of the sucklings.‘
Why it is in the manyplies that rennet is formed in animals
with multiple stomachs has been stated in the Problems.$

[9]

Ὁ

1 This strange statement has no anatomical foundation.

2 By rennet is usually meant the wall of the fourth stomach of
a sucking ruminant, which contains a substance that has the property
of coagulating milk ; but the term is also used for the milk when thus
coagulated, which, owing to the substance mixed with it, has the power
of coagulating other milk. It is this concreted milk that A. calls rennet,
attributing its formation to that convenient agent ‘ Vital heat’ (G. 4.
maa 7 30° 23; ΗΝ A. il. 21, 522} 7).

* So also Varro (De Re rustica, ii. 11).

* This is erroneous. It is the fourth stomach that gives rennet.

5 The thickness of milk, as explained in 277. A. iii. 20. 521 28, depends
on the proportion of cheese it contains as compared with the whey. The
milk of ruminants is rightly stated to contain much more cheese, i. e.
caseine, than that of other animals.

5 The leaves of the common Pinguicula contain a juice which has
the power of coagulating milk, and is said by Linnaeus to be used by
the Laplanders in the fabrication of cheese. The same property is
possessed by Galium Verum, sometimes therefore called Cheese
Rennet. As to fig-juice cf. H. A. iii. 20. 522» 2.

7 Ἔμβρυον seems a strange term for a suckling which not only sucks
but grazes. Cf. Odyssey ix. 245.

§ Not in the Problems as they have come down to us.

K 2

BOOK IV

THE account which has now been given of the viscera,!' 1
the stomach, and the other several parts holds equally good
not only for the oviparous quadrupeds, but also for such

25 apodous animals as the Serpents. These two classes of
animals are indeed nearly akin, a serpent resembling a lizard
which has been lengthened out and deprived of its feet.
Fishes, again, resemble these two groups in all their parts,
excepting that, while these, being land animals, have a lung,
fishes have no lung, but gills in its place. None of these

30 animals, excepting the tortoise, as also no fish, has a urinary
bladder.? For owing to the bloodlessness of their lung, they
drink but sparingly ; and such fluid as they have is diverted
to the scaly plates, as in birds it is diverted to the feathers,
and thus they come to have the same white matter on the
surface of their excrement as we see on that of birds. For ὃ
in animals that have a bladder, its excretion when voided
throws down a deposit of earthy brine in the containing

35 vessel. For the sweet and fresh elements, being light, are
expended on the flesh.

676" Among the Serpents, the same peculiarity attaches to
vipers, as among fishes attaches to Selachia. For both these
and vipers are externally viviparous, but previously produce
ova internally.®

1 The stomach is not one of the viscera in A.’s sense. Cf. ili, 4.
665% 31 note.

Gf. 111. 867115 ποῖα. 8. For διόπερ read διότι.

* And this earthy brine, it is implied, must, if there is no bladder,
be discharged by the bowel. It is, of course, discharged with the
faecal matter from the reptilian and avian cloaca.

5 A. includes under Selachia all cartilaginous fishes, among which he
erroneously classes the Lophius (cf. iv. 13.695” 14 note). All these, he
often says, with the exception of Lophius, are ovoviviparous: that is,
they retain their ova within the body till hatched. In some of these
Ovovivipara the embryo throughout remains free from all anatomical
connexion with the mother, but in some, when the nutriment supplied
by the yelk is exhausted, the embryo forms a connexion with the
parent's body (G. A, ii. 4. 727” 23; iii. 3. 754” 27). The latter part of

BOOK “IV. 676°

The stomach in all these animals is single, just as it is
single in all other animals that have teeth in front of both
jaws; and their viscera are excessively small, as always 5
happens when there is no bladder. In serpents these viscera
are, moreover, differently shaped from those of other animals.
For, a serpent’s body being long and narrow, its contents
are as it were moulded into a similar form, and thus come
to be themselves elongated. 10

All animals that have blood possess an omentum, a
mesentery,! intestines with their appendages, and, moreover,

a diaphragm and a heart ; and all, excepting fishes, a lung
and a windpipe. The relative positions, moreover, of the
windpipe and the oesophagus are precisely similar in them
all; and the reason is the same as has already been given.? 15

2 Almost all sanguineous animals have a gall-bladder. In
some this is attached to the liver, in others separated from
that organ? and attached to the intestines, being apparently
in the latter case no less than in the former an appendage
of the lower stomach.* It is in fishes that this is most

this statement applies to certain sharks, which do in fact present a
rudimentary placenta. The former part of his statement is too wide
a generalization; for the oviparous dogfishes and the rays present
exceptions to the statement that all A.’s Selachia are, as he says, ovo-
viviparous. Yet A. (217. A. vi. 10. 565° 22) was well acquainted with the
eggs of the dogfishes and the rays. The explanation seems to be that
he imagined that the young fish was fully developed in the ovum at the
time when this was first laid. It is, however, very doubtful whether this
is the case, unless as an exception. Cf. Meyer, 7hzerhunde, p. 281.

The osseous fishes A. states to be alloviparous. Thisrule, however,
is not without exception; e.g. the viviparous blenny.

1 All vertebrata have a mesentery, with the exception of the lamprey,
the carp, and some other fishes, and even these have it in their
embryonic stage. As to the omentum, cf. iv. 3. 677° 23 note ; as to
the diaphragm, cf. iii. 10. 672» 13 note.

2 Cf. iii, 3. 664" 3, where, however, the inconvenient position is
described, but no explanation proffered.

5. In certain Ophidia the gall-bladder is, in fact, completely separated
from the liver and lies close to the pylorus. This is so in all the
serpents that have the tongue enclosed in a sheath (Duvernoy, Azz.
α΄. Sc. Nat. xxx. 127). A similar condition is found in some fishes
(Owen, Lect. on Comp. An. ii. 243), among others in the Lophius, the
Swordfish, and the Muraena; all of which are elsewhere (ZH. A. ii. 15.
506” 15) enumerated as examples of this structure. Probably this
peculiar arrangement has reference to the long narrow shape of the
animals, and exists for convenience of packing.

* As to lower stomach, cf. ii. 3. 650% 14 note; iii. 14. 675 19. The

676°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

clearly seen. For all fishes? have a gall-bladder ; and in
most of them it is attached to the intestine, being in some,
as in the Amia,? united with this, like a border, along its
whole length. It is similarly placed in most serpents.
There are therefore? no good grounds for the view enter-
tained by some writers, that the gall exists for the sake of
some sensory action. For they say that its use is to affect
that part of the soul which is lodged in the neighbourhood
of the liver, vexing this part when it is congealed, and re-
storing it to cheerfulness when it again flows free. But this
cannot be. For in some animals there is absolutely no gall-
bladder at all—in the horse, for instance, the mule, the ass,
the deer, and the roe ; and in others, as the camel, there is
no distinct bladder, but merely small vessels of a biliary
character. Again, there is no such organ in the seal, nor, of
purely sea-animals, in the dolphin.* | Even within the limits
of the same genus, some animals appear to have and others
to be without it.° Such, for instance, is the case with mice;

exact meaning of this passage is doubtful. I understand, however, A.
to mean that the bile is in all cases discharged into the intestine at
a point below the upper or true stomach.

1 Fishes are very rarely without a gall-bladder, though there are
some few exceptions, e. g. sawfish, lamprey, and basking-shark.

* The Amia appears to be the Scoméber Sarda of Cuvier. This fish
abounds in the Mediterranean. Like the tunny, bonito, and sundry
other Scombridae, it is remarkable for the extreme length and slender-
ness of its gall-bladder. Cuvier, Reg. Anim. 11. 199, and Owen,
Lect. ii. 244.

8 This very obscure and corrupt passage is intended to summarize
Plato’s views as to the gall as given in the Zimaeus 71. For συνιστῇ
read συστῇ.

4 A, is correct in this enumeration of animals that have no gall-
bladder, with the exception of the seal. The Phoca vitulina has
a gall-bladder; but it may possibly, though improbably, be that the
Phoca monachus, which was the species best known to the ancients
(Cuvier, Régne An. i. 169), is without one, as Frantzius suggests.

> The gall-bladder is sometimes present, sometimes absent in giraffes
(Owen-Joly); in the apteryx and bittern (Owen); in the guinea-fowl,
ἄς. It is especially variable, as A. rightly says, in the different
species of Mus (Cuvier, Zegovs, iv. 36). In man a congenital absence
of the gall-bladder has been noticed in rare instances (Rokitansky, ii.
155; Phil. Trans. 1749). This, however, could not be known to A.,
who says, moreover (27. A. 1. 17. 496” 22), that #zos¢ men are without
a gall-bladder. If, as is not impossible, A. examined aborted human
embryos, he might easily have been led to this erroneous opinion. For
the gall-bladder is not developed at all until the third month, at
a time when the liver almost entirely fills the abdominal cavity.

BOOK IVo 2

such also with man. For in some individuals there is a dis-
tinct gall-bladder attached to the liver, while in others there
is no gall-bladder at all. This explains how the existence of
this part in the whole genus has been a matter of dispute.
For each observer, according as he has found it present or
absent in the individual cases he has examined, has supposed
it to be present or absent in the whole genus. The same
has occurred in the case of sheep and of goats. For these

676”

animals usually have a gall-bladder; but, while in some 677°

localities it is so enormously big as to appear a monstrosity,
as is the case in Naxos, in others it is altogether wanting,
as is the case in a certain district belonging to the inhabi-
tants of Chalcis in Euboea.t. Moreover, the gall-bladder in
fishes is separated, as already mentioned,” by a considerable
interval from the liver? No less mistaken seems to be the
opinion of Anaxagoras and his followers, that the gall-
bladder is the cause of acute diseases, inasmuch as it be-
comes over-full, and spirts out its excess on to the lung, the
blood-vessels, and the ribs. For, almost invariably, those
who suffer from these forms of disease are persons who
have no gall-bladder at all, as would be quite evident were
they to be dissected. Moreover, there is no kind of corre-
spondence between the amount of bile which is present in
these diseases and the amount which is χε. The most
probable opinion is that, as the bile when it is present in
any other part of the body is a mere residuum or a product
of decay, so also when it is present in the region of the
liver it is equally excremental and has no further use ; just
as is the case with the dejections of the stomach and
intestines. For though even the residua are occasionally
used by nature for some useful purpose, yet we must not in
all cases expect to find such a final cause; for granted the
existence in the body of this or that constituent, with such

tite A, ds τη. 406".20. 2 Cf. iv. 2. 676° 10:

* And therefore cannot have the action these writers attribute to it.

* When an animal’s body is opened some time after death, the parts
near the gall-bladder are often found to be stained yellow from an
exudation of bile. It is probably to this overflow that reference is
made, as being excessively small in comparison with the amount of
bile which is apparent in the human body in cases of jaundice.

677"

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

and such properties, many results must ensue merely as
necessary consequences of these properties. All animals,

20 then, whose liver is healthy in composition and supplied

σι

677

σ'

with none but sweet blood, are either entirely without
a gall-bladder on this organ, or have merely small bile-
containing vessels ; or are some with and some without such
parts. Thus it is that the liver in animals that have no
gall-bladder is, as a rule, of good colour and sweet; and
that, when there is a gall-bladder, that part of the liver is
sweetest which lies immediately underneath it. But, when
animals are formed of blood less pure in composition, the
bile serves for the excretion of its impure residue. For the
very meaning of excrement is that it is the opposite of
nutriment, and of bitter that it is the opposite of sweet ;
and healthy blood is sweet. So that it is evident that the
bile, which is bitter, cannot have any useful end, but must
simply be a purifying excretion. It was therefore no bad
saying of old writers that the absence of a gall-bladder gave
long life. Inso saying they had in mind deer and animals
with solid hoofs. For such have no gall-bladder and live
long. But besides these there are other animals that have
no gall-bladder, though those old writers had not noticed
the fact, such as the camel and the dolphin ; and these also
are, as it happens, long-lived. Seeing, indeed, that the
liver is not only useful, but a necessary and vital part in all
animals that have blood, it is but reasonable that on its
character should depend the length or the shortness of life.
Nor less reasonable is it that this organ and none other
should have such an excretion as the bile. For the heart,
unable as it is to stand any violent affection, would be
utterly intolerant of the proximity of such a fluid; and, as
to the rest of the viscera, none excepting the liver are
necessary parts of an animal. It is the liver therefore that
alone has this provision. In conclusion, wherever we see
bile we must take it to be excremental. For to suppose

1 The camel is said by A. (27. A. viii. 9. 596% 10) to live for 30
years, and exceptionally for 100 years. Burckhardt gives it a life of
40 years. As to the dolphin it is stated (77. A. vi. 12. 566> 24) that
some had been marked by fishermen and let go; and that by their
recapture it had been ascertained that they live at least 30 years.

BOOK WV.) Ὁ

that it has one character in this part, another in that, would
be as great an absurdity as to suppose mucus or the dejec-
tions of the stomach to vary in character according to
locality and not to be excremental wherever found.

3 So much then of the gall-bladder, and of the reasons why
some animals have one, while others have not. We have
still to speak of the mesentery and the omentum ; for these
are associated with the parts already described and con-
tained in the same cavity. The omentum, then, is a mem-
brane containing fat; the fat being suet or lard, according
as the fat of the animal generally is of the former or latter
description. What kinds of animals are so distinguished
has been already set forth in an earlier part of this treatise.!
This membrane, alike in animals that have a single and in
those that have a multiple stomach, grows from the middle
of that organ, along a line which is marked on it like a seam.
Thus attached, it covers the rest of the stomach and the
greater part of the bowels, and this alike in all sanguineous
animals, whether they live on land or in water.2— Now the

677”

το

development of this part into such a form as has been de-’

scribed is the result of necessity. For, whenever solid and
fluid are mixed together and heated, the surface invariably
becomes membranous and skin-like. But the region in
which the omentum lies is full of nutriment of such a mixed
character. Moreover, in consequence of the close texture
of the membrane, that portion of the sanguineous nutriment
will alone filter into it which is of a greasy character ; for
this portion is composed of the finest particles ; and when it
has so filtered in, it will be concocted by the heat of the
part, and will be converted into suet or lard, and will not
acquire a flesh-like or sanguineous constitution. The de-
velopment, then, of the omentum is simply the result of
necessity. But when once formed, it is used by nature for
an end, namely, to facilitate and to hasten the concoction
of food. For all that is hot aids concoction; and fat is hot,
and the omentum is fat. This too explains why it hangs

PEt li. 5. 057° 35.

* A similar statement is made elsewhere (iv. 1. 676 11; 27. A. iii.
14). Itis, however, erroneous.» Mammalia alone have an omentum.

τὸ

σι

ie)

677" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

from the middle of the stomach; for the upper part of the
stomach has no need of it, being assisted in concoction by
35 the adjacent liver. Thus much as concerns the omentum.

The so-called mesentery is also a membrane; and ex- 4

tends continuously from the long stretch of intestine to the
678* great vessel and the aorta. In it are numerous and close-
packed vessels, which run from the intestines to the great
vessel and to the aorta. The formation of this membrane
we shall find to be the result of necessity, as is that of the
other [similar] parts.1_ What, however, is the final cause of
its existence in sanguineous animals is manifest on reflection.
For it is necessary that animals shall get nutriment from with-
out; and, again, that this shall be converted into the ulti-
mate nutriment, which is then distributed as sustenance to the
various parts; this ultimate nutriment being, in sanguineous
animals, what we call blood, and having, in bloodless ani-
romals, no definite name. This being so, there must be
channels through which the nutriment shall pass, as it were
through roots, from the stomach into the blood-vessels.
Now the roots of plants are in the ground ; for thence their
nutriment is derived. But in animals the stomach and in-
testines represent the ground from which the nutriment is
to be taken. The mesentery, then, is an organ to contain
15 the roots ; and these roots are the vessels that traverse it.
This then is the final cause of its existence. But how it
absorbs nutriment, and how that portion of the food which
enters into the vessels is distributed by them to ® the various
parts of the body,are questions which wil] be considered when

20 we come to deal with the generation and nutrition of animals.
The constitution of sanguineous animals, so far as the
parts as yet mentioned are concerned, and the reasons for
such constitution, have now been set forth. In natural se-
quence we should next go on to the organs of generation,
as yet undescribed, on which depend the distinctions of male
and female. But, inasmuch as we shall have to deal spe-

σι

ΤΑ, cannot have meant that all the parts are the necessary outcome
of purely physical conditions, but only that membranes (G. A. ii. 4.
739” 27) so originate. Either τοιούτοις must be supplied before μορίοις
or for μορίοις may be read ὑμέσιν (Platt).

* For ταῦτα read πάντα.

BOOK IV. 4 678"

cially with generation hereafter, it will be more convenient
to defer the consideration of these parts to that occasion.

5 Very different from the animals we haveas yet considered
are the Cephalopoda and the Crustacea. For these have
absolutely no viscera! whatsoever; as is indeed the case
with all bloodless animals, in which are included two other 30
genera, namely the Testacea and the Insects. For in none
of them does the material out of which viscera are formed
exist. None of them, that is, have blood. The cause of
this lies in their essential constitution. For the presence of
blood in some animals, its absence from others, must be in-
cluded in the conception which determines their respective
essences. Moreover,in the animals we are now considering, 35
none of those final causes will be found to exist which in
sanguineous animals determine the presence of viscera.
For they have no blood-vessels nor urinary bladder,? nor 678”
do they breathe ; the only part that it is necessary for them
to have being that which is analogous to a heart. For in all
animals there must be some central and commanding part
of the body, to lodge the sensory portion of the soul and
the source of life. The organs of nutrition are also of 5
necessity present in them all. They differ, however, in
character because of differences of the habitats in which
they get their subsistence.

In the Cephalopoda there are two teeth,* enclosing what
is called the mouth ; and inside this mouth is a flesh-like
substance which represents a tongue and serves for the dis-
crimination of pleasant and unpleasant food. The Crustacea
have teeth corresponding to those of the Cephalopoda,
namely their anterior teeth,* and also have the fleshy repre-

Ct. ii. 4. 0685 91 note.

2 Urinary bladder and lung (iii. 8. 671% 1) were to A. signs of
abundant blood; and viscera (iii. 7. 670% 8 note) were one of the
channels by which superfluous blood was eliminated.

* By the teeth are meant the two halves of the parrot-like beak.
The so-called tongue is a large organ, and its anterior part ‘very soft
in texture, beset with numerous papillae, having all the characters of
a perfect organ of taste’ (Owen).

* The ‘anterior teeth’ are the strong shear-like mandibles; which
are called anterior to distinguish them from the stomachal teeth
presently to be mentioned. By the tongue is meant the bifid lower lip,
which has been called a tongue by other writers than A., but is not
properly comparable to such an organ. Cf. Todd, Cyc/. i. 773.

678"

τὸ
ut

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

sentative of a tongue. This latter part is found, moreover,
in all Testacea,' and serves, as in sanguineous animals, for
gustatory sensations. Similarly provided also are the In-
sects. For some of these, such as the Bees and the Flies,
have, as already described,’ their proboscis protruding from
the mouth; while those others that have no such instru-
ment in front have a part which acts as a tongue inside the
mouth.® Such, for instance, is the case in the Ants and the
like. As for teeth, some insects have them, the Bees and
the Ants‘ for instance, though in a somewhat modified
form, while others that live on fluid nutriment are without
them. For in many insects the teeth are not meant to deal
with the food, but to serve as weapons.

In some Testacea, as was said in the first treatise,> the
organ which is called the tongue is of considerable strength ;
and in the Cochli (Sea-svaz/s) there are also two teeth,® just
as in the Crustacea. The mouth in the Cephalopoda is
succeeded by a long gullet. This leads to a crop,’ like that
of a bird, and directly continuous with this is the stomach,
from which a gut runs without windings to the vent. The
Sepias and the Poulps resemble each other completely, so
far as regards the shape and consistency of these parts. But
not so the Teuthides (Calamaries). Here, as in the other
groups, there are the two stomach-like receptacles ; but the

1 The tongue or odontophore forms a very remarkable organ in the
Gasteropoda, but there is none in the Conchifera or bivalves of
Aristotle. ΕΙΣ ALi. 4. 528" ΟΣ

5. The so-called ‘tongue’ of insects is the upper portion of the
labium, and is very distinct in some species. In bees and flies this
tongue goes, with the rest of the labium, to form what A. calls their
proboscis ; so that it is only in other insects that there is a distinct
tongue inside the mouth.

* Reading μυρμήκων for μυιῶν, the very probable emendation of
Meyer. The ‘modified teeth’ are the mandibles. The insects that
live on fluid nutriment and have no teeth are the Lepidoptera, in which
the maxillae are converted into a long proboscis, while the mandibles
are quite rudimentary. Ὁ 77. 71: AN: 4: 520" 33%

° i.e. the horny jaws with which some Gasteropods are furnished.

* By the crop (πρόλοβος) and stomach of the Cephalopoda A. meant
respectively what modern anatomists recognize as the stomach and
the first part of the intestine ; which latter is dilated and has a diver-
ticulum that in some species is spirally convoluted so as to be aptly
likened by A. (4. A. iv. 1. 524» 11) to the helix of a whelk. The real

crop, which is present only in the poulps among dibranchiate Cephalo-
poda, was not noticed by A.

ΒΟΟΚ ΙΝ. 5 678°

first of these cavities has less resemblance to a crop, and in
neither is the form [or the consistency] the same as in the
other kinds, the whole body indeed being made of a softer
kind of flesh.

The object of this arrangement of the parts in question is
the same in the Cephalopoda as in Birds; for these also are
all unable to masticate their food; and therefore it is that 35
a crop precedes their stomach.

For purposes of defence, and to enable them to escape
from their foes, the Cephalopoda have what is called their
ink, This is contained in a membranous pouch, which is 6795
attached! to the body and provided with a terminal outlet
just at the point where what is termed the funnel gives issue
to the residua of the stomach. This funnel is placed on the
ventral surface of the animal. All Cephalopoda alike have 5
this characteristic ink, but chief of all the Sepia, where it is
more abundant than in the rest. When the animal is dis-
turbed and frightened it uses this ink to make the surround-
ing water black and turbid, and so, as it were, puts a shield
in front of its body.

In the Calamaries and the Poulps the ink-bag is placed
in the upper part of the body, in close proximity to the
mytis,” whereas in the Sepia it is lower down, against the
stomach. For the Sepia has a more plentiful supply of ink
than the rest, inasmuch as it makes more use of it. The
reasons for this are, firstly, that it lives near the shore, and,
secondly, that it has no other means of protection ; whereas
the Poulp has its long twining feet to use in its defence, and
is, moreover, endowed with the power of changing colour.?
This changing of colour, like the discharge of ink, occurs as

fo}

1 For προσπεφυκότα read προσπεφυκότι.

> The mytis is identical with the secon, which exists in all
Crustacea (27. A. iv. 2. 526” 32); is a bag containing excretory matter
(H. A. iv. 4.529” 11) ; placed (680% 23) near the hinge in bivalves, and
in the spiral part of the shell in Turbinata, being spiral itself, in the
whelk for instance (77. A. iv. 4. 529% 10). This can be nothing else
than the liver; and Kéhler’s notion that the glandular appendages of
the veins are meant (Todd, Cyc/. of An. and Phy. i. 539) is out of the
question.

5. In reality all these Cephalopods have the faculty of changing
colour ; but the phenomenon is most conspicuous in the poulps (cf.
Cuvier, 2. Az. iil. 10).

679°

σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

numerous. For there are those with turbinate shells, of
which some have just been mentioned ; and, besides these,
there are bivalves and univalves. Those with turbinate
shells may, indeed, after a certain fashion be said to resemble
bivalves. Tor they all from their very birth have an oper-
culum to protect that part of their body which is exposed
to view.’ This is the case with the Purpuras, with Whelks,
with the Nerites, and the like. Were it not for this, the part
which is undefended by the shell would be very liable to
injury by collision with external objects. The univalves
also are not without protection. For on their dorsal surface
they have a shell, and by the under surface they attach
themselves to the rocks, and so after a manner become bi-
valved, the rock representing the second valve. Of these
the animals known as Limpets are an example. The bivalves,
scallops and mussels, for instance, are protected by the power
they have of closing their valves; and the Turbinata by the
operculum just mentioned, which transforms them, as it were,
from univalves into bivalves. But of all there is none so
perfectly protected as the sea-urchin. For here there is
a globular shell which encloses the body completely, and
which is, moreover, set with sharp spines. This peculiarity
distinguishes the sea-urchin from all other Testacea, as has
already been mentioned.”

The structure of the Testacea and of the Crustacea is
exactly the reverse of that of the Cephalopoda. For in the
latter the fleshy substance is on the outside and the earthy
substance within, whereas in the former the soft parts are
inside and the hard part without. In the sea-urchin, how-
ever, there is no fleshy part whatsoever.

All the Testacea then, those that have not been mentioned

1 That all Turbinata have opercula is of course an error. In many
genera, especially those with large apertures, it is quite rudimentary
or obsolete (Woodward, 2. and F. Shells, p. 102). So also a con-
siderable division of air-breathing gasteropods is inoperculate.

That the operculum corresponds to the second valve of bivalves is
a view that has been held by some modern zoologists, erroneously.
It represents their dyssus (Woodward, 7. and F. Shells, p.47). More-
over, the bivalve shell is really a single shell, hardened by deposits of
lime on the right and left, but with a central strip left uncalcified and
soft, so as to allow the two sides to fold together.

51 can find no passage to which this can refer.

BOOK IV. 5 679°

as well as those that have, agree as stated in possessing

a mouth with the tongue-like body, a stomach, and a vent

for excrement, but they differ from each other in the positions

and proportions of these parts. The details, however, of
these differences must be looked for in the Researches con- 680°
cerning Animals and the treatises on Anatomy! For while
there are some points which can be made clear by verbal
description, there are others which are more suited for
ocular demonstration.”

Peculiar among the Testacea are the sea-urchins and the
animals known as Tethya (Asczdians). The sea-urchins
have five teeth,® and in the centre of these the fleshy body
which is common to all the animals we have been discussing.
Immediately after this comes a gullet, and then the stomach,
divided into a number of separate compartments, which look
like so many distinct stomachs ; for the cavities are separate
and all contain abundant residual matter. They are all,
however, connected with one and the same oesophagus, and
they all end in one and the same excremental vent.* There
is nothing besides the stomach of a fleshy character, as has
already been stated.® All that can be seen are the so-

= Cf 7. A. iv. 4. 528? 10 sq.

* This passage with others shows that the Ast. Animaléum and the
lost treatises on Anatomy were illustrated. Cuvier indeed (A7zs¢. ὦ.
Sc. i. 141) says the latter contained co/oured illustrations. I can find
no authority for this statement. There is none in the twenty-eight
passages referring to the ἀνατομαί collected by Heitz (Verlor. Schr. des
Arist. p. 70).

5. Forming what is still, known as the ‘lantern of Aristotle’ from
a comparison in the Ast. An. (iv. 5. 531% 5). The central fleshy
piece is there said (iv. 5. 530? 25) to be ‘in place of a tongue’. As the
sea-urchin has no tongue, the pharyngeal portion of the oesophagus
must be meant.

* The oesophagus of Echinus terminates in a much wider tube,
which is continued to the anus without any distinct separation into
stomach and intestine. This gastro-intestinal tube is attached, by
what may be called a mesentery, to the inner surface of the shell, in
such a manner as to form loops or festoons, five in each of its two
coils ; and it is to this appearance of subdivision that A.alludes. This
is plain not only from the careful way in which he here guards himself
from saying that there are actually a number of distinct stomachs, but
still more from his language in Hzs¢. Az. (iv. 5. 530° 27), where he says
that all the /oops (κόλποι) of the stomach run together to the anus; and
where also he makes no mention of an intestine as distinct from the
stomach.

5 What he said (679 34) was that there was no fleshy part a¢ a//.
Perhaps, therefore, for παρά should be read περί (with U).

AR. PAs Te

σοι

Lal

680" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

called ova, of which there are several, contained each in

a separate membrane, and certain black bodies which have

no name, and which, beginning at the animal’s mouth, are

scattered round its body here and there promiscuously.?
15 These sea-urchins are not all of one species, but there are
several different kinds, and in all of them the parts mentioned
are to be found. It is not, however, in every kind that the
so-called ova are cdible. Neither do these attain to any
size in any other species than that with which we are all
familiar.2 A similar distinction may be made generally in
the case of all Testacea. For there is a great difference in
the edible qualities of the flesh of different kinds; and
in some, moreover, the residual substance known as the
mecon* is good for food, while in others it is uneatable.
This secon in the turbinated genera is lodged in the spiral
part of the shell, while in univalves, such as limpets, it
occupies the fundus, and in bivalves is placed near the hinge,
25 the so-called ovum lying on the right ;° while on the opposite

1 The ‘so-called ova’ which A. thought to be masses of fat, or
of something analogous to the fat of sanguineous animals, are the
ovaries, or in males the testes. These are five in number, and arranged
symmetrically round the upper interior of the shell, and would be called
by fishermen ‘ sea-urchins’ eggs’.

2 These mysterious black bodies are also mentioned in the Azs¢. Av.
(iv. 5. 530% 31) and are said to be bitter and uneatable. They are
further said, in one kind at any rate (530 14), to start from the mouth
and run in distinct lines that converge towards the aboral aperture of
the test, dividing this into segments. This plainly suggests the rows
of ambulacral vesicles; and, though these do not appear to be black
in any known species, there is generally a certain amount of pigment
connected with them in £. esculentus, as 1 am informed by the
Director of the Plymouth Laboratory, and this, though scanty in young
Echini, becomes more extensive in some of the older specimens. See
also Macbride (Camb. Nat. Hist. Echinod. pp. 527-8), as to ‘ masses of
pigment’ formed in these animals by certain degenerative processes.
Admitting, however, these pigmentary deposits to be the ‘black
bodies’ there still remains unexplained the further statement (/7. 4. iv. 5.
530” 33) that analogous bodies, though of different colour, are present
in Frogs, Toads, Tortoises, turbinated Testacea, and Cephalopods.

5 Frantzius, as also Meyer (7zzerkunde, Ὁ. 175), takes ἐπιπολάζοντα
to mean ‘ floating on this surface’. But no sea-urchins do this, and
Frantzius therefore supposes A. to be speaking of dead specimens!
Possibly the word may mean ‘living wear the surface’, that is in
shallow water, in opposition to the deep-sea species (G. 4. ν. 3. 7838
21 sq.). The most probable interpretation, however, is that given above,
meaning the common edible kind.

* See 679? 11n.

° So also H. A. iv. 4. 529” 12. What A. exactly meant by the right

BOOK ΝΞ 68ο"

side is the vent. The former is incorrectly termed ovum,
for it merely corresponds to what in well-fed sanguineous
animals is fat; and thus it is that it makes its appearance
in Testacea at those seasons of the year when they are in
good condition, namely, spring and autumn. Forno Testacea
can abide extremes of temperature, and they are therefore
in evil plight in seasons of great cold or heat. This is 30
clearly shown by what occurs in the case of the sea-urchins.
For though the ova are to be found in these animals even
directly they are born, yet they acquire a greater size
than usual at the time of full moon; not, as some think,
because sea-urchins eat more at that season, but because the
nights are then warmer, owing to the moonlight.! For these
creatures are bloodless, and so are unable to stand cold and 3
require warmth. Therefore it is that they are found in
better condition in summer than at any other season ; and
this all over the world excepting in the Pyrrhean tidal 680°
strait. There the sea-urchins flourish as well in winter as
in summer. But the reason for this is that they have
a greater abundance of food in the winter, because the fish
desert the strait at that season.

The number of the ova is the same in all sea-urchins, and
is an odd one. For there are five ova, just as there are also
five teeth and five stomachs; and the explanation of this is 5
to be found in the fact that the so-called ova are not really
ova, but merely, as was said before, the result of the animal’s
well-fed condition. Oysters also have a so-called ovum,
corresponding in character to that of the sea-urchins, but
existing only on one side of their body. Now inasmuch as

οι

and left side of a bivalve it is impossible to say. For he had not made
out the position of the mouth, and therefore had no guide as to what
was the front aspect. As is not surprising, he entirely failed to make
out the internal structure of these animals.

' Cicero (Ve Divin. ii. 14) mentions, among other instances of some
natural connexion existing between things apparently remote and
incongruous, ‘that oysters and other shell-fish increase and decrease
with the growth and waning of the moon.’ So also Lucilius says,
‘Luna alit ostrea et implet echinos’; and again Manilius, ‘Si sub-
mersa fretis, concharum et carcere clausa, Ad lunae motum variant
animalia corpus.’ The two last quotations I borrow from Mead
(Lnfluence of Sun and Moon, &c., 1748, p. 65), who accepts the state-
ment as true; as also at the present day, as I am informed, do fisher-
men on the Riviera.

L 2

68ο"

ste)

τὸ
σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

the sea-urchin is of a spherical form, and not merely a single
disk like the oyster, and in virtue of its spherical shape is
the same from whatever side it be examined, its ovum must
necessarily be of a corresponding symmetry. For the spheri-
cal shape has not the asymmetry of the disk-shaped body
of the oysters. For in all these animals the head is central,
but in the sea-urchin the so-called ovum is above [and sym-
metrical, while in the oyster it is only on one 5146}. Now
the necessary symmetry would be observed were the ovum
to form a continuous ring. But this may not be. For it
would be in opposition to what prevails in the whole tribe
of Testacea ; for in all the ovum is discontinuous, and in all
excepting the sea-urchins asymmetrical, being placed only
on one side of the body. Owing then to this necessary dis-
continuity of the ovum, which belongs to the sea-urchin as
a member of the class, and owing to the spherical shape of
its body, which is its individual peculiarity, this animal
cannot possibly have an even number of ova. For were
they an even number, they would have to be arranged
exactly opposite to each other, in pairs, so as to keep the
necessary symmetry ; one ovum of each pair being placed
at one end, the other ovum at the other end of a transverse
diameter. This again would violate the universal provision
in Testacea. For both in the oysters and in the scallops
we find the ovum only on one side of the circumference.
The number then of the ova must be uneven, three for
instance, or five. But if there were only three they would
be much too far apart ;* while, if there were more than
five, they would come to form a continuous mass. The
former arrangement would be disadvantageous to the animal,
the latter an impossibility. There can therefore be neither
more nor less than five. For the same reason the stomach
is divided into five parts, and there is a corresponding
number of teeth. For seeing that the ova represent each
of them a kind of body for the animal, their disposition

1 An attempt is made in the translation to give some kind of meaning
to this unintelligible passage by supposing that τοῖς δ᾽ ἄλλοις ἐπὶ θάτερα
μόνον should be read here, having been omitted by the copyist because

of the occurrence of similar words at the end of the next sentence.
* Read λίαν ἂν ἦν.

BOOK IV. 5

must conform to that of the stomach,! seeing that it is from
this that they derive the material for their growth. Now
if there were only one stomach, either the ova would be too
far off from it, or it would be so big as to fill up the whole
cavity, and the sea-urchin would have great difficulty in
moving about and finding due nourishment for its repletion.
As then there are five intervals between the five ova, so are
there of necessity five divisions of the stomach, one for each
interval. So also, and on like grounds, there are five teeth.
For nature is thus enabled to allot to each stomachal com-
partment and ovum its separate and similar tooth. These,
then, are the reasons why the number of ova in the sea-
urchin is an odd one, and why that odd number is five. In
some sea-urchins the ova are excessively small, in others
of considerable size, the explanation being that the latter
are of a warmer constitution, and so are able to concoct
their food more thoroughly ; while in the former concoction
is less perfect, so that the stomach is found full of residual
matter,” while the ova are small and uneatable. Those of
a warmer constitution are, moreover, in virtue of their
warmth more given to motion, so that they make expeditions
in search of food, instead of remaining stationary like the
rest. As evidence of this, it will be found that they always
have something or other sticking to their spines, as though
they moved much about ; for they use their spines as feet.°
The Ascidians differ but slightly from plants, and yet
have more of an animal nature than the sponges, which are
virtually plants and nothing more. For nature passes from
lifeless objects to animals in such unbroken sequence,
interposing between them beings which live and yet are not
animals, that scarcely any difference seems to exist between
two neighbouring groups owing to their close proximity.*

' For ζωῆς read κοιλίας.

2 Literally ‘for which reason the uneatable varieties are more full
of residual matter’, but expanded above for clearness. Περίττωμα is
here used not for excremental matter but for unconcocted food.

8 The spines are really instruments of locomotion, and, Agassiz said,
were the only ones; but their main function is probably protective,
the chief organs of locomotion being the tube-feet, which A. had not
noticed in either Echini or Star-fishes.

* HA. viii. 588” 4 sq.

680”

js)
rl

681°

681" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

15 A sponge, then, as already said, in these respects com-
pletely resembles a plant, that throughout its life it is
attached to a rock, and that when separated from this it dies.
Slightly different from the sponges are the so-called Holo-
thurias and the sea-lungs, as also sundry other sea-animals
that resemble them. For these are free and unattached.

20 Yet they have no feeling, and their life is simply that of
a plant separated from the ground. For even among land-
plants there are some that are independent of the soil, and
that spring up and grow, either upon other plants, or even
entirely free. Such, for example, is the plant which is
found on Parnassus, and which some call the Epipetrum.?

25 This you may hang up on a peg? and it will yet live for

a considerable time. Sometimes it is a matter of doubt

whether a given organism should be classed with plants or

with animals. The Ascidians, for instance, and the like so
far resemble plants as that they never live free and un-
attached,’ but, on the other hand, inasmuch as they have

a certain flesh-like substance, they must be supposed to

possess some degree of sensibility.

An Ascidian has a body divided by a single septum and
with two orifices, one where it takes in the fluid matter that
ministers to its nutrition, the other where it discharges the
surplus of unused juice, for it has no visible residual sub-
stance, such as have the other Testacea. This is itself
a very strong justification for considering an Ascidian, and
anything else there may be among animals that resembles
it, to be of a vegetable character ; for plants also never have
any residuum.* Across the middle of the body of these
5 Ascidians there runs a thin transverse partition, and here it

is that we may reasonably.suppose the part on which life
depends to be situated.

ww
on

1 Probably a Sedum. There is an English species, S. /e/ephium,
which has gained the popular name ‘ Livelong’ from its persistent
vitality after being pulled up from the ground,

2. Literally ‘the pegs’; apparently referring to some constant house-
hold fixture. Or perhaps ‘the rafters’.

8. Aristotle’s Tethya, or Ascidians, are not Tunicata generally, but
only the simple solitary Ascidians, which are always sessile.

* Chai. 3.656" 23 nate,

BOOK IV. 5 681°

The Acalephae,! or Sea-nettles, as they are variously
called, are not Testacea at all, but lie outside the recognized 681°
groups. Their constitution, like that of the Ascidians, ap-
proximates them on one side to plants, on the other to
animals. For seeing that some of them can detach them-
selves and can fasten upon their food, and that they are
sensible of objects which come in contact with them, they
must be considered to have ananimal nature. The like con-
clusion follows from their using the asperity of their bodies ?
as a protection against their enemies. But, on the other
hand, they are closely allied to plants, firstly by the imper-
fection of their structure, secondly by their being able to
attach themselves to the rocks, which they do with great
rapidity, and lastly by their having no visible residuum not-
withstanding that they possess a mouth.

Very similar again to the Acalephae are the Starfishes.
For these also fasten on their prey, and suck out its juices, τὸ
and thus destroy a vast number of oysters. At the same
time they present a certain resemblance to such of the
animals we have described as the Cephalopoda and Crus-
_tacea, inasmuch as they are free and unattached. The same
may also be said of the Testacea.

Such, then, is the structure of the parts that minister to
nutrition and which every animal must necessarily possess.
But besides these organs it is quite plain that in every animal
there must be some part or other which shall be analogous
to what in sanguineous animals is the presiding seat of sen-
sation. Whether an animal has or has not blood, it cannot
possibly be without this. In the Cephalopoda this part
consists of a fluid substance contained in a membrane,

Ὁ

' H. A. iv. 6. 5318 32 sq. The anemones of our coasts, though
richly furnished with nematocysts, very exceptionally cause irritation,
when handled, to the fingers. Presumably such irritation must be
more common with the Greek anemones, as otherwise they would
scarcely have got the general name of Sea-nettles. In all the instances
of such stinging by British anemones cited by Gosse (Lr. Sea An.,
pp. 166, xxxviii) the culprit was Anthea cereus. This is common in
the Mediterranean, and ‘ would probably be one of the first species of
the whole race to become popularly known’ (of. cz¢., p. 162). It was
known to Rondelet as U/rtica cinerea.

* More definitely called stinging (27. A. ix. 37. 621" 11) and ascribed
to the general surface of the body.

681"

682°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

through which runs the gullet on its way to the stomach.
It is attached to the body rather towards its dorsal surface,
and by some is called the mytis.1 Just such another organ
is found also in the Crustacea and there too is known by the
same name. This part is at once fluid and corporeal and,
as before said, is traversed by the gullet. For had the
gullet been placed between the myzzs and the dorsal surface
of the animal, the hardness of the back would have inter-
fered with its due dilatation in the act of deglutition. On
the outer surface of the zy¢zs runs the intestine ; and in con-
tact with this latter is placed the ink-bag, so that it may be
removed as far as possible from the mouth and its obnoxious
fluid be kept at a distance from the nobler and sove-
reign part. The position of the mytzs shows that it corre-
sponds to the heart of sanguineous animals; for it occupies
the self-same place. The same is shown by the sweetness
of its fluid, which has the character of concocted matter and
resembles blood.

In the Testacea the presiding seat of sensation is in a
corresponding position, but is less easily made out.? It
should, however, always be looked for in some midway
position ; namely, in such Testacea as are stationary, mid-
way between the part by which food is taken in and the
channel through which either the excrement or the sper-
matic fluid * is voided, and, in those species which are capable
of locomotion, invariably midway * between the right and
left sides.

In Insects this organ, which is the seat of sensation, lies,
as was stated in the first treatise,» between the head and
the cavity which contains the stomach. In most of them
it consists of a single part ; but in others, for instance in such
as have long bodies and resemble the Juli (A7z//ipedes), it is

1 The mytis, which in cephalopods is traversed by the oesophagus,
is the liver, not the heart (cf. 679% 9n.). The real heart of cephalopods,
as of all other invertebrates, escaped Aristotle.

2 A. does not profess to have seen the heart of a mollusc, but only
to say where it is likely to be found on a@ grzord grounds.

5 ‘or the spermatic fluid’ is probably an interpolation. For A.
(G. A. iii. 11. 761» 25) denied the existence of any distinct generative
secretion in bivalves.

* Read ἐν τῷ μέσῳ (P). ST, Ay iv: 7. 530 sa

BOOK IV. 5 682"

made up of several parts, so that such insects continue to live 5
after they have been cut in pieces. For the aim of nature
is to give to each animal only one such dominant part; and
when she is unable to carry out this intention she causes the
parts, though potentially many, to work together actually
as one. This is much more clearly marked in some insects
than in others.

The parts concerned in nutrition are not alike in allo
insects, but show considerable diversity. Thus some have
what is called a sting in the mouth, which is a kind of
compound instrument that combines in itself the character
of a tongue and of lips. In others that have no such in-
strument in front there is a part inside the mouth that
answers the same sensory purposes. Immediately after the
mouth comes the intestine, which is never wanting in any
insect. This runs in a straight line? and without further
complication to the vent; occasionally, however, it has a 15
spiral coil. There are, moreover, some insects in which
a stomach succeeds to the mouth, and is itself succeeded
by a convoluted intestine, so that the larger and more
voracious insects may be enabled to take in a more abun-
dant supply of food. More curious than any are the
Cicadae. For here the mouth and the tongue are united 20
so as to form a single part, through which, as through a
root, the insect sucks up the fluids on which it lives.? In-
sects are always small eaters, not so much because of their
diminutive size as because of their cold temperament. For
it is heat which requires sustenance; just as it is heat which
speedily concocts it. But cold requires no sustenance. In
no insects is this so conspicuous as in these Cicadae. For
they find enough to live on in the moisture which is depo-

τ᾿

1 In most Myriapoda, included by A. among insects, the alimentary

canal is a simple tube running in a straight line from mouth to anus.
But in some, e. g. Glomeris, the tube, though still simple, is conveluted.
In true insects the canal varies much in complexity; but in many
is a long convoluted organ divided into a varying number of distinct
compartments.
_ ® Alluding to the so-called ‘rostrum’ of Hemipterous insects. This
is a suctorial tube formed by the upper and lower lips, within
a are the mandibles and maxillae converted into lancet-shaped
needles.

682°

ει

682"

σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

sited from the air. So also do the Ephemera! that are
found about the Black sea. But while these latter only live
for a single day, the Cicadae subsist on such food for several
days, though still not many.

We have now done with the internal parts of animals,
and must therefore return to the consideration of the ex-
ternal parts which have not yet been described. It will be
better to change our order of exposition and begin with the
animals we have just been describing, so that proceeding
from these, which require less discussion, our account may
have more time to spend on the perfect kinds of animals,
those namely that have blood.

We will begin with Insects. These animals, though they
present no great multiplicity of parts, are not without
diversities when compared with each other. They are all
many-footed ; the object of this being to compensate their
natural slowness and frigidity, and give greater activity to
their motions. Accordingly we find that those which, as the
Juli (Willipedes), have long bodies, and are therefore the most
liable to refrigeration, have also the greatest number of feet.
Again, the body in these animals is insected*—the reason
for this being that they have not got one vital centre but
many—and the number of their feet corresponds to that
of the insections ὃ,

Should the feet fall short of this, their deficiency is
compensated by the power of flight. Of such flying insects
some live a wandering life, and are forced to make long
expeditions in search of food. These have a body of light
weight, and four feathers, two on either side, to support it.
Such are bees and the insects akin to them, When, how-
ever, such insects are of very small bulk, their feathers are

1 The Ephemera of A. are presumably the insects still so named.
They are said, however (27. A. i. 5. 490% 34), to have only four legs,
which is neither true of Ephemera nor of any other insects. __

* That is, are divided into segments. The ἐντομαί or insections are
the more or less complete belts of softer and more pliable integument
that form joints between the successive segments, being visible on the
upper or under surface of the body or on both; and it is to these
évrouai or insections that ἔντομα or insects owe their name (/7. A. 1. I.
487% 33; iv. 1. 523° 13).

5 Read κατὰ ταύτας.

BOOK IV. 6

reduced to two, as is the case with flies. Insects with heavy '
bodies and of stationary habits, though not polypterous in the
same way as bees, yet have sheaths to their feathers to main-
tain their efficiency.2, Such are the Melolonthae? and the like.
For their stationary habits expose their feathers to much
greater risks than are run by those of insects that are more
constantly in flight, and on this account they are provided
with this protecting shield. The feather of an insect has
neither barbs nor shaft. For, though it is called a feather,
it is no feather at all, but merely a skin-like membrane that,
owing to its dryness, necessarily’ becomes detached from the
surface of the body, as the fleshy substance grows cold.
These animals then have their bodies insected, not only
for the reasons already assigned," but also to enable them to
curl round in such a manner as may protect them from in-
jury *; for such insects as have long bodies ἢ can roll them-
selves up, which would be impossible were it not for the

1 For βραχέα read βαρέα, and in the next line for ἔχει δέ read ἔχει
ye .

? If the Greek text as it stands is correct, we must suppose that A.
thought that beetles have elytra—that is shards, 2 addition to their
multiple πτερά. But it is scarcely credible that A. should have thought
this to be the case. I have therefore adopted a suggestion made by
Prof. Platt, and read οὐκ after μελίσσαις. Thisalteration not only makes
the passage intelligible, but, moreover, gives its proper significance to
ὁμοίως.

3 Probably Cockchafers. But, if so, the statement as to their
development (17. A. v. 19. 552% 16) is quite erroneous.

* Frantzius,as also Aubert and Wimmer, renders mrepsv when applied
to insects as ‘wing’. But this part of an insect is never termed
πτέρυξ by A., but always πτερόν or πτίλον ; and, moreover, is said to
contrast with other πτερά in being ἄσχιστον and ἄκαυλον, which can only
mean ‘ without barbs or shaft’. It must, however, be admitted that
A. calls bats δερμόπτερα, in which title πτερόν can only mean ‘ wing’

ΘΕ iv. 5. 677" 23; 678° 3 note; σ. A. ii. 4. 739” 27.

δ Or rather ‘reason’, for only one αἰτία was assigned.

7 Liddell and Scott (7th ed.) interpret δὲ ἀπάθειαν as ‘without
suffering pain’, which makes admirable sense but seems scarcely
tenable. If the reading be correct, the words must apy be
taken as equivalent to πρὸς τὸ ἀπαθῆ εἶναι (iil τι. 673» 5), ὃ id being used
in the sense, exceptional in A., of ‘for the sake of’ as in διὰ τὴν ἰσχύν
(iv. τὸ: 687» 17). Conjecturally, however, the reading may be δι
ἀκινησίαν, ‘curl round and derive security from remaining motionless’.

8 The Juli when alarmed coil themselves up ina spiral form, with
the feet entirely concealed. The Glomeridz roll themselves into a
perfect ball. Not only long-bodied insects, but some others, roll
themselves up. For instance, the ant known as AZyrm. Latreilli? is
said by Sir J. Lubbock to do so.

682”

--
σι

682»

683°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

insections ; and those that cannot do this can yet draw
their segments up into the insected spaces, and so increase
the hardness of their bodies. This can be felt quite plainly
by putting the finger on one of the insects, for instance,
known as Canthari.1. The touch frightens the insect, and
it remains motionless, while its body becomes hard. The
division of the body into segments is also a necessary re-
sult of there being several supreme organs in place of one ;
and this again is a part of the essential constitution of in-
sects, and is a character which approximates them to plants.
For as plants, though cut into pieces, can still live, so also
can insects. There is, however, this difference between the
two cases, that the portions of the divided insect live only
for a limited time, whereas the portions of the plant live on
and attain the perfect form of the whole, so that from one
single plant you may obtain two or more.

Some insects are also provided with another means of
protection against their enemies, namely a sting. In some
this is in front, connected with the tongue, in others behind
at the posterior end. For just as the organ of smell in
elephants answers several uses, serving alike as a weapon
and for purposes of nutrition, so does also the sting, when
placed in connexion with the tongue, as in some insects,
answer more than oneend. For itis the instrument through
which they derive their sensations of food, as well as that
with which they suck it up and bring it to the mouth.
Such of these insects as have no anterior sting are provided
with teeth, which serve in some of them for biting the food,
and in others for its prehension and conveyance to the
mouth. Such are their uses, for instance, inants and all the

1 The description of the Canthari in the “1252. A. (v. 19. 552% 17),
where they are said to roll dung into balls, in which they deposit their
progeny, seems to identify them with the Scarabaei of Egypt (A ¢euchus
sacer). Many beetles when touched assume attitudes more or less
such as here described. ‘ The common dung-chaffer, when touched or
in fear, sets out its legs as stiff as if they were made of iron wire;
which is their posture when dead ; and, remaining perfectly motionless,
thus deceives,’ &c., &c. The pill-beetles ‘ pack their legs so close to
the body, and lie so entirely without motion when alarmed, that they
look like a dead body’. Still nearer to A.’s description is the action
of certain caterpillars. ‘The body is kept stiff and immovable with
the separation of the segments scarcely visible’ (Kirby and Spence).

BOOK αν Ὁ

various kinds of bees.!_ As for the insects that havea sting
behind, this weapon is given them because they are of
a fierce disposition. In some of them the sting is lodged
inside the body, in bees, for example, and wasps. For these
insects are made for flight, and were their sting external and
of delicate make it would soon get spoiled ;? and if, on the
other hand, it were of thicker build,® as in scorpions, its
weight would be an incumbrance. As for scorpions that
live on the ground and have a tail, their sting must be set
upon this, as otherwise it would be of no use as a weapon.
Dipterous insects never havea posterior sting. For the very
reason of their being dipterous is that they are small and
weak, and therefore require no more than two feathers to
support their light weight; and the same reason which
reduces their feathers to two causes their sting to be in
front ; for their strength is not sufficient to allow them to
strike efficiently with the hinder * part of their body. Poly-
pterous insects, on the other hand, are of greater bulk—in-
deed it is this which causes them to have so many feathers ;
and their greater size makes them stronger in their hinder
parts. The sting of such insects is therefore placed be-
hind. Nowit is better, when possible, that one and the same
instrument shall not be made to serve several dissimilar uses ;
but that there shall be one organ to serve as a weapon,
which can then be very sharp, and a distinct one to serve
as a tongue, which can then be of spongy texture and fit
to absorb nutriment. Whenever, therefore, nature is able
to provide two separate instruments for two separate uses,
without the one hampering the other, she does so,’ instead

1 Ants, bees, and Hymenoptera of all kinds have biting jaws or
mandibles. It is these that A. calls their ‘modified’ teeth (iv. 5. 678»
18 note). These mandibles, however, are not used merely or principally
for the prehension of food, as stated in the text, but ‘ comme instru-
ments de sculpture dans les travaux architecturaux de ces animaux’
(M. Edwards, Legovs, v. 520).

2 Read εὔφθαρτα ἂν ἦν.

3 For ἀπεῖχεν read παχέα ἦν (Platt); and two lines down for κέντρον
read κέρκον, and for ἐπὶ ταῦτα read ἐπὶ ταύτῃ.

* For τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν read τοῖς ὄπισθεν.

δ Here we have a distinct statement of the advantage of division of
labour in the animal body ; a truth which Milne Edwards thought he

was the first to enunciate. ‘Dans les créations de la Nature, de
méme que dans l’industrie des hommes, c’est surtout par la division du

683?

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

of acting like a coppersmith who for cheapness makes
a spit and lampholder in one.' It is only when this is
impossible that she uses one organ for several functions.
The anterior legs are in some cases longer? than the
others, that they may serve to wipe away any foreign matter
that may lodge on the insect’s eyes and obstruct its sight,
which already is not very distinct owing to the eyes being
made of a hard substance. Flies and bees and the like may
be constantly seen thus dressing themselves with crossed
forelegs. Of the other legs, the hinder are bigger than the
middle pair, both to aid in running and also that the insect,
when it takes flight, may spring more easily from the ground.
This difference is still more marked in such insects as leap,
in locusts for instance, and in the various kinds of fleas.®

travail, que ce perfectionnement s’obtient,’ and in a note he adds, ‘ Ce
principe de physiologie générale qui aujourd’hui est adopté par presque
tous les zoologistes a été formulé pour la premiere fois dans un article
que j’ai publié en 1827’ (M. Edwards, Legos, i. 16).

' This strange implement with a double purpose is also mentioned
in the Politics (iv. 15. 1299” 10); where A. likens it to a board of
magistrates charged with a multitude of distinct functions. Among
the Graeco-Roman antiquities in the British Museum is a lampholder,
to which my attention was directed by Mr. Arthur Smith, and which
I think may very probably be an actual ὀβελισκολύχνιον. This holder
is a bronze rod, some sixteen inches long, formed at one end into
a horse-shoe, within which a small detachable oil-lamp swings freely,
so as to have its face uppermost in all positions of the holder. A little
way from the other end is a hook, obviously for suspension; while
the end itself—and this is the distinctive character—is a spike, intended,
as I conjecture, to allow the holder to be stuck in the ground when the
lamp was used out of doors or in a tent, as by soldiers, for whose use
it was meant (Theopomp. Εἰρήνη, quoted by Pollux, x. 118). When
the soldier wanted the holder for cooking purposes, he would detach it
from the lamp and fix the meat on the spike as on a toasting-fork,
possibly, if the piece was large, further securing it by aid of the hook.
In the passage of Theopompus cited above the ὀβελισκολύχνιον is
coupled with ξιφομάχαιρα, sword and knife in one. So sergeants in our
own army used to carry sword-bayonets, which served both purposes
indicated by the name.

2 The anterior pair of legs are remarkably long in some insects;
(Kirby, Bridg. Tr. ii. 180) ; with what use it is difficult to say. Some-
times, at any rate, it seems to be a provision to enable the male to secure
the female, the peculiarity being confined to, or most marked in, the
former sex. The explanation given by A. can hardly be the correct
one; for the anterior pair are not specially elongated in ants or bees,
though these are insects that use their legs to dress themselves.

5 In such insects as are slow walkers all the legs are, as a rule, of
much the same length; in those that run quickly all the legs are
elongated, the hinder pair being the largest ; in swimming insects, and
still more in leapers, the hind legs are much longer than the rest. In

BOOK IV. 6 683°

For these first bend and then extend the legs, and, by doing

so, are necessarily shot up from the ground. It is only the 35
hind legs of locusts, and not the front ones, that resemble

the steering oars! of aship. For this requires that the joint 683
shall be deflected inwards, and such is never the case with

the anterior limbs. The whole number of legs, including
those used in leaping, is six in all these insects.

7 In the Testacea the body consists of but few parts, the
reason being that these animals live a stationarylife. For such
animals as move much about must of necessity have more
numerous parts than such as remain quiet ; for their activi-
ties are many,” and the more diversified the movements the
greater the number of organs required to effect them. Some
species of Testacea are absolutely motionless, and others
not quite but nearly so. Nature, however, has provided
them with a protection in the hardness of the shell with τὸ
which she has invested their body. This shell, as already
has been said,*? may have one valve, or two valves, or be
turbinate. In the latter case it may be either spiral, as in
whelks, or merely globular,‘ as in sea-urchins. When it has
two valves, these may be gaping, as in scallops and mussels,
where the valves are united together on one side only, so as
to open and shut on the other; or they may be united
together on both sides, as in the Solens® (razor-fishes). In
all cases alike the Testacea have, like plants, the head
downwards.° The reason for this is, that they take in their

σι

Coal
σι

fleas the difference is not so marked as in grasshoppers ; nor do fleas
jump, like the latter, exclusively from the hind legs; for, having placed
one in a glass tube under a microscope, I have seen it hop with the
anterior legs.

1 The resemblance of these legs to the long lateral rudder-oars of
ancient ships includes not only position but function. ‘ Whoever,’
says Kirby, ‘has seen any grasshopper take flight or leap from the
ground will find that they stretch out their legs, and like certain birds
use them as a rudder’ (Bridg. Treat. ii. 162).

? For διὰ τὸ εἶναι read διὰ τὸ πολλὰς eivat (Platt). 5 Cf. iv. 5. 679" 16.

* A.reckons Echinus, though globular, with Turbinata (στρομβώδη).

° Probably So/en marginatus, see Forbes and Hanley (Bri¢. Aol-
lusca, i. 240).

δ The ordinary position of most living bivalves is not on their side
but vertical, with the opening between the valves downwards. ‘This
probably led A. to the conclusion that the head, or what answered to
it, was downwards, so as to take in food from below.

683" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

20 nourishment from below, just as do plants with their roots.
Thus the under parts come in them to be above, and the
upper parts to be below. The body is enclosed in a mem-
brane, and through this the animal filters fluid free from
salt and absorbs its nutriment. In all there is a head; but
none of the parts, excepting this recipient of food, has any
distinctive name.

25 All the Crustacea ! can crawl as well as swim, and accord- 8
ingly they are provided with numerous feet. There are
four main genera, viz. the Carabi, as they are called, the
Astaci, the Carides, and the Carcini. In each of these
genera, again, there are numerous species, which differ from
each other not only as regards shape, but also very con-

30 siderably as regards size. For, while in some species the
individuals are large, in others they are excessively minute.
The Carcinoid and Caraboid Crustacea resemble each other
in possessing claws. These claws are not for locomotion,
but to serve in place of hands for seizing and holding objects ;
and they are therefore bent in the opposite direction to the
feet, being so twisted as to turn their convexity towards the

35 body, while their feet turn towards it their concavity. For
in this position the claws are best suited for laying hold of

684° the food and carrying it to the mouth. The distinction
between the Carabi and the Carcini (Crvads) consists in the
former having a tail while the latter have none. For the
Carabi swim about and a tail is therefore of use to them,
serving for their propulsion like the blade of an oar. But it
would be of no use to the Crabs; for these animals live

5 habitually close to the shore, and creep into holes and
corners. In such of them.as live out at sea, the feet are
much less adapted for locomotion than in the rest, because
they are little given to moving about but depend for pro-
tection on their shell-like covering. The Maiae? and the

1 For a more detailed account of Crustacea see H. A. iv. 2. A.
divides those known to him into four groups (1) Carcini—our Bra-
chyura or Crabs. (2) Carabi—our Palinuridae or Spiny Lobsters.
(3) Astaci—comprising the Smooth Lobsters and the River Crawfish.
(4) Carides—among which are included Prawns, Shrimps, Squills, and

other small species.
2 The very large (H. A. iv. 2. 525» 4), hard-shelled (H. A. viii. 17.
ge (

BOOK IV. 8

crabs known as Heracleotic are examples of this; the legs
in the former being very thin, in the latter very short.

The very minute crabs that are found among the small
fry at the bottom of the net have their hindermost feet
flattened out into the semblance of fins or oar-blades, so as
to help the animal in swimming.’

The Carides are distinguished from the Carcinoid species
by the presence of a tail ; and from the Caraboids by the
absence of claws. This is explained by their large number
of feet, on which has been expended the material for the
growth of claws. Their feet again are numerous to suit
their mode of progression, which is mainly by swimming.

Of the parts on the ventral surface, those near the head
are in some of these animals formed like gills, for the admis-
sion and discharge of water ; while the parts lower down
differ in the two sexes. For in the female Carabi these are
more laminar than in the males,? and in the female crabs
the flap is furnished with hairier appendages. This gives
ampler space for the disposal of the ova, which the females
retain in these parts instead of letting them go free, as do
fishes and all® other oviparous* animals. In the Carabi and
in the Crabs the right claw is invariably the larger and the
stronger.” For it is natural to every animal in active

601% 18), thin-legged Maia, with eyes placed close together near the
central line (7. A. iv. 3. 527 13), is doubtless the Spiny Spider-crab
(117. sguinado). There are no sufficient data for determining what are
meant by the ‘ Heracleotic crabs’.

1 In most crabs the four hinder pairs of feet are formed exclusively
for running ; but in some few they are flattened out so as to serve in
swimming. These swimming crabs are all small. Rondelet mentions
several species as found inthe Mediterranean.

* “In the Podophthalma, the lamelliform ciliated appendages of the
abdominal segments include similar marsupial or incubatory recesses
for the ova. The female lobster and other Macrura are distinguished
from the male by the greater development of these appendages ’ (Owen,
Lect. i. 185). Similarly Cuvier (Δὸν. Az. iv. 28), speaking of the flap
or tail of the Brachyura, says, ‘ Triangulaire dans les mdles et garnie
seulement ἃ sa base de quatre ou deux appendices, elle s’arrondit,
s’élargit et devient bombée dans les femelles. Son dessous offre
quatre paires de doubles filets velus, destinés 4 porter les ceufs.
Plusieurs de ces filets existent dans les males, mais dans un état
rudimentaire.’

8 There are exceptions. Thus some spiders, toads, and even at least
one fish carry their ova about with them after extrusion.

* For τίκτοντα read φοτοκοῦντα.

δ This is too absolute a statement; and elsewhere (17. 4. iv. 3.

AR, P.Ay M

6845

to
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6845 DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

operations to use the parts on its right side in preference
to those on its left ; and nature, in distributing the organs,
invariably assigns each, either exclusively or in a more per-

30 fect condition, to such animals as can use it. So it is with
tusks, and teeth, and horns, and spurs, and all such defen-
sive and offensive weapons.

In the Lobsters alone it is a matter of chance which claw
is the larger, and this in either sex... Claws they must have,
because they belong to a genus in which this is a constant

35 Character; but they have them in this indeterminate way,
owing to imperfect formation and to their not using them
684" for their natural purpose, but for locomotion.

For a detailed account of the several parts of these animals,
of their position and their differences, those parts being also
included which distinguish the sexes, reference must be made
to the treatises on Anatomy and to the Researches con-

5 cerning Animals.? .

We come now to the Cephalopoda.’ Their internal 9
organs have already been described* with those of other
animals. Externally there is the trunk of the body, not
distinctly defined, and in front of this the head sur-
rounded by feet, which form a circle about the mouth and

το teeth, and are set between these and the eyes. Now in all
other animals the feet, if there are any, are disposed in one of
two ways; either before and behind or along the sides, the
latter being the plan in such of them, for instance, as are
bloodless and have numerous feet. But in the Cephalopoda
there is a peculiar arrangement, different from either of these.

527» 6) A. speaking more carefully says that the rule is general but not
universal. There are some grounds for his statement. ‘In many
species (of the higher Crustacea) the chelae on the opposite sides of
the body are of unequal size, the right-handed one being, as I am
informed by Mr. C. Spence Bate, generally though not invariably the
largest. This inequality is often much greater in the male than in the
female’ (Darwin, Desc. of Man, i. 330). There are, however, some
small Crustacea in which the right claw appears to be invariably the
bigger. Such, for instance, is the case in some, but not all, species of
Hermit-crabs.

1 This is apparently correct, but not so the further statement that
lobsters use their claws only for locomotion and not for prehension.

2-7. A. ἵν. 2.3: NAL 20.

° For a fuller account of Cephalopoda see H. A. iv. 1. 523” 21 sq.

* Cf. iv. 5. 678° 24 — 679% 31.

BOOK IV. 9

For their feet are all placed at what may be called the fore
end. The reason for this is that the hind part of their body
has been drawn up close to the fore part,' as is also the case
in the turbinated Testacea. For the Testacea, while in some
points they resemble the Crustacea, in others resemble the
Cephalopoda. Their earthy matter is on the outside, and
their fleshy substance within. So far they are like the
Crustacea. But the general plan of their body is that of
the Cephalopoda; and, though this is true in a certain
degree of all the Testacea, it is more especially true of those
turbinated species that have a spiral shell.?_ Of this general
plan,common to the two,’ we will speak presently. But let us
first consider the case of quadrupeds and of man, where the
arrangement is that of a straight line. Let A at the upper
end * of such a line be supposed to represent the mouth,
then δ the gullet, and C the stomach, and the intestine to
run from this Cto the excremental vent where D is inscribed.
Such is the plan in sanguineous animals ; and round this
straight line as an axis are disposed the head and so-called
trunk ; the remaining parts, such as the anterior and posterior
limbs, having been superadded by nature, merely to minister
to these and for locomotion.

In the Crustacea also and in Insects there is a tendency to
a similar arrangement of the internal parts in a straight line ;
the distinction between these groups and the sanguineous
animals depending on differences of the external organs

1 A similar idea concerning the cuttlefish, viz. that it is comparable
to a vertebrate animal bent double, with the approximated arms and
legs extending forwards, was advanced in a paper read before the
Academy of Sciences in 1830. This paper was referred to Geoffroy
St.-Hilaire and Latreille; was reported on most favourably, and its
position in fact almost entirely adopted by them. This was the
starting-point in the famous controversy between G. St.-Hilaire and
Cuvier as to unity of type; the controversy which excited Goethe more
than the revolution of 1830 (see Lewes, Goethe, ii. 436).

* Excluding, that is, the Echini, which A. reckons among Turbinata,
notwithstanding their more or less globular shell.

3. What A. means in this passage is perfectly clear, but the tran-
scribers have evidently misunderstood him and the text consequently
requires very free handling.

* The manifestly corrupt text may be conjecturally amended as
follows: πρῶτον μὲν emt ἄκρῳ τῷ ἄνω τῆς εὐθείας κατὰ TO A τὸ στύμα,
ἔπειτα κατὰ τὸ Β τὸν στόμαχον, τὸ δὲ Τ' τὴν κοιλίαν, ἀπὸ δὲ τούτου τὸ
ἔντερον (Platt).

M 2

684°

το
ο

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684" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

which minister to locomotion. But the Cephalopoda and
the turbinated Testacea have in common an arrangement
685° which stands in contrast with this. For here the two ex-
tremities are brought together by a curve, as if one were to
bend the straight line marked & until D came close to A.
Such, then, is the disposition of the internal parts; and
round these, in the Cephalopoda, is placed the sac (in the
5 Poulps alone called a head),! and, in the Testacea, the tur-
binate shell which corresponds to the sac. There is, in fact,
only this difference between them, that the investing sub-
stance of the Cephalopoda is soft while the shell of the
Testacea is hard, nature having surrounded their fleshy part
with this hard coating as a protection because of their
limited power of locomotion. In both classes, owing to
this arrangement of the internal organs, the excrement is
10 voided near the mouth ; at a point below this orifice in the
Cephalopoda, and in the Turbinata on one side of it.”
Such, then, is the explanation of the position of the feet in
the Cephalopoda, and of the contrast they present to other
animals in this matter. The arrangement, however, in the
Sepias and the Calamaries is not precisely the same as in
15 the Poulps, owing to the former having no other mode of
progression than by swimming, while the latter not only
swim but crawl. For in the former six? of the feet are
above the teeth and small, the outer one on either side being
the biggest ; while the remaining two, which make up the
total eight, are below the mouth and are the biggest of all,
just as the hind limbs in quadrupeds are stronger than the
20 fore limbs. For it is these that have to support the weight,*

? The head and body in the Poulps are connected by a broad cervical
band. This, and the comparatively small size of the body, doubtless
caused the entire mass to be looked on as a head by the vulgar,

2. In Gasteropoda the-mouth and anus are near each other, but never
in the same median plane.

8. After ὀδόντων read ἐξ μικρούς (Gaza) and for μεγίστους τούτων read
μεγίστους πάντων.

* A. is not quite correct in his view of the part taken by the posterior
limbs, at Jeastin Mammalia. For though these take the chief part in
the propulsion of the body, it is on the fore limbs that devolves the
greater share in its support; and it is, says Owen, this difference in
function that explains the different conformation of manus and 265.
Cf. Owen, Wature of Limbs, p. 26, and Archet. of the Skeleton, p. 167.

BOOK IV. 9 685°

and to take the main part in locomotion. And the outer
two of the upper six are bigger than the pair which inter-
vene between them and the uppermost of all, because they
have to assist the lowermost pair in their office. In the
Poulps, on the other hand, the four central feet are the
biggest. Again, though the number of feet is the same in
all the Cephalopoda, namely eight,” their length varies in
different kinds, being short in the Sepias and the Cala-
maries, but greater in the Poulps. For in these latter the
trunk of the body is of small bulk, while in the former it is
of considerable size ; and so in the one case nature has used
the materials subtracted from the body to give length to the
feet, while in the other she has acted in precisely the oppo-
site way, and has given to the growth of the body what she
has first taken from the feet.* The Poulps, then, owing to
the length of their feet, can not only swim but crawl, whereas
in the other genera the feet are useless for the latter mode 30
of progression, being small while the bulk of the body is
considerable. These short feet would not enable their pos-
sessors to cling to the rocks and keep themselves from
being torn off by the waves when these run high in times of
storm ; neither would they serve to lay hold of objects at

all remote and bring them in ; but, to supply these defects,

the animal is furnished with two long proboscises, by which

it can moor itself and ride at anchor like a ship in rough 35
weather. These same processes serve also to catch prey at 685?

1 There does not seem any very certain rule as to the comparative
lengths of the different arms in Sepia and Loligo. The general rule,
however, is that there is a gradual increase in length from the dorsal
to the ventral pair ; and the statement in the text that the ventral pair
are the biggest, and the third pair the next in size, accords with this.
Neither does there seem to be any certain rule inthis matter in Poulps.
Cuvier (2g. Ax. 111. 11) says that their arms are all much of the same
length. Owen (Lect. on Comp. Anat. i. 344) says that in most of
them the dorsal pair are the longest, which accords with H. A, iv. 1.
5245" 4.

® A. does not reckon the two long retractile tentacles or ‘ probo-
scises’ of sepias and calamaries as feet ; so that he is correct in saying
that all Cephalopoda are octopodous.

° Cf. ii, 9. 6552 28n. ‘The development of the eight external arms
bears an inverse proportion to that of the body; they are therefore
longer in the short round-bodied Octopi, and shortest in the lengthened
calamaries and cuttlefishes, in which the two elongated retractile
tentacles are superadded by way of compensation’ (Owen, Lec¢. i. 344).

685" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

a distance and to bring it to the mouth. They are so used
by both the Sepias and the Calamaries. In the Poulps the
feet are themselves able to perform these offices, and there
are consequently no proboscises. Proboscises* and twining
tentacles,” with acetabula set upon them, act in the same

5 way and have the same structure as those plaited instru-
ments ? which were used by physicians of old to reduce
dislocations of the fingers. Like these they are made by
the interlacing of their fibres, and * they act by pulling upon
pieces of flesh and yielding substances. For the plaited
fibres encircle an object in a slackened condition, and when
they are put on the stretch they grasp and cling tightly to
whatever it may be that is in contact with their inner sur-

το face. Since, then, the Cephalopoda have no other instru-
ments with which to convey anything to themselves from
without, than either twining tentacles,’ as in some species,
or proboscises as in others, they are provided with these to
serve as hands for offence and defence and other necessary
uses.

1 As the Greek text stands A. likens the entire cephalopod, and not
merely its various tentacles with their suckers, to a πλεγμάτιον and,
moreover, entirely leaves out of account the most important of the
instruments he is discussing, namely, the προβοσκίδες of sepias and
calamaries; for these are not counted by him as πόδες, I venture
therefore to suggest that for ὅσοις should be read ὅσαις and προβοσκίσι
for πρὸς τοῖς πόσι.

2 The term πλεκτάναι, though sometimes used to denote the feet of
any cephalopod without distinction, is applied more precisely to the
long twining tentacles of the poulps, as contrasted with the compara-
tively short tentacles of the sepias and calamaries. These πλεκτάναι,
and especially the dorsal pair (#7. A. iv. 1. 5243 4), are held by A.
to combine with their common office of feet the function of the long
retractile tentacles (προβοσκίδες) of the sepias and calamaries, that is,
to lay hold of prey at a distance and draw it to the mouth.

8 These are the ‘Saurae’ mentioned by Hippocrates (Kiihn’s ed. iii.
266). The ‘Saura’ was a short tube of plaited palm-fibres, in size
like the finger of a glove but open at both ends. Placing one end
round the dislocated finger, the operator introduced his own finger into
the other end, and, on pulling, the tube grasped both fingers tightly and
enabled the surgeon to reduce the dislocation. A. likens the προβο-
oxis to a Saura; Owen (Cycl. An. and Phys. i. 529, fig. 215) with equal
aptness to obstetrical forceps. * For ais ἔλκουσι read καὶ ἕλκουσι.

> Though A. uses carelessly the general term ποσί, he plainly means
πλεκτάναις. For parts special to some species of cephalopods, not
parts common to all, are clearly indicated ; and it is the πλεκτάναι of
the poulps that serve like the proboscises of sepias and calamaries to
bring objects in from without. After ἄλλην read χρείαν καί (Y).

BOOK IV. 9 685°

The acetabula are set in double line in all the Cephalo-
poda excepting in one kind of poulp, where there is but
a single τονν.Ϊ The length and the slimness which is part
of the nature of this kind of poulp explain the exception.
For a narrow space cannot possibly admit of more than 1;
asingle row. This exceptional character, then, belongs to
them, not because it is the most advantageous arrangement,
but because it is the necessary consequence of their essential
specific constitution.

In all these animals there is a fin, encircling the sac. In
the Poulps and the Sepias this fin is unbroken and contin-
uous, as is also the case in the larger calamaries known as
Teuthi.2. But in the smaller kind, called Teuthides, the fin 20
is not only broader than in the Sepias and the Poulps, where
it is very narrow, but, moreover, does not encircle the entire
sac, but only begins in the middle of the side. The use of
this fin is to enable the animal to swim, and also to direct
its course. It acts, that is, like the rump-feathers in birds,
or the tail-fin in fishes. In none is it so small or so indis-
tinct as in the Poulps.* For in these the body is of small 25
bulk and can be steered by the feet sufficiently well without
other assistance.

The Insects, the Crustacea, the Testacea, and the Cephalo-
poda, have now been dealt with in turn; and their parts
have been described, whether internal or external.

Ιο We must now go back to the animals that have blood,
and consider such of their parts, already enumerated, as
were before passed over. We will take the viviparous
animals * first, and, when we have done with these, will pass 30
on to the oviparous, and treat of them in like manner.

The parts that border on the head, and on what is known
as the neck and throat, have already been taken into con-

1 The poulp with a single row of suckers is some species of Eledone
(HZ. A. iv. τ. 525 16), 3. cévrhosa according to Owen.

? For the distinctive characters of Teuthi and Teuthides see 27. A.
iv. I. 5245 29. It is sufficient here to consider them as large and
small calamaries without attempting precise identification, as to which
zoologists differ greatly.

5. The Octopodidae have in fact no body-fin at all.
* i.e. the Mammalia.

685°

686°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

sideration! All animals that have blood have a head ;
whereas in some bloodless animals, such as crabs, the part
which represents a head is not clearly defined. As to the
neck, it is present in all the Vivipara, but only in some of
the Ovipara; for while those that have a lung also have
a neck, those that do not inhale the outer air have none.?

The head exists mainly for the sake of the brain. For
every animal that has blood must of necessity have a brain;
and must, moreover, for reasons already given,® have it
placed in an opposite region to the heart. But the head
has also been chosen by nature as the part in which to set
some of the senses; because its blood is mixed in such
suitable proportions as to ensure their tranquillity and pre-
cision, while at the same time it can supply the brain with
such warmth as it requires. There is yet a third con-
stituent superadded to the head, namely the part which
ministers to the ingestion of food. This has been placed
here by nature, because such a situation accords best with
the general configuration of the body. For the stomach
could not possibly be placed above the heart, seeing that
this is the sovereign organ; and if placed below, as in fact
it is, then the mouth could not possibly be placed there
also. For this would have necessitated a great increase in
the length * of the body ; and the stomach, moreover, would
have been removed too far from the source of motion and of
concoction.°

The head, then, exists for the sake of these three parts ;
while the neck, again, exists for the sake of the windpipe.

τ Cf. ii. 10-iii. 3.

2 i.e. Fishes. Serpents, though they have a lung, have no neck.
This exception, though not noted here, is dealt with in the next chapter.

PICEA 7 OS ZE ΤῊΣ

* Read πολὺ yap ἂν τὸ μῆκος ἦν (P).

5. The argument isthis. ‘ The stomach cannot be placed above the
heart, for such a position would be inconsistent with the dignity of the
chief organ (cf. ii. 2. 6488 13 n.) ; it must therefore be placed below it.
But if the mouth were also placed below the heart, the stomach, owing
to the length of the oesophagus, would be removed so far from the heart,
that digestion, which is due to heat derived from the heart, would
not be possible.’ A. forgets that elsewhere (111. 3. 664% 23) he has
said that the oesophagus is only necessary, because there is a neck,

and that, but for this, the stomach might come immediately after the
mouth.

BOOK IV. to

For it acts as a defence to this and to the oesophagus,
encircling them and keeping them from injury. In all
other animals this neck is flexible and contains several
vertebrae; but in wolves and lions it contains only a single
bone.! For the object of nature was to give these animals
an organ which should be serviceable in the way of strength,
rather than one that should be useful for any of the other
purposes to which necks are subservient.”

Continuous with the head and neck is the trunk with the
anterior limbs. In man the forelegs and forefeet are
replaced by arms and by what we call hands. For of all
animals man alone stands erect, in accordance with his god-
like nature and essence. For it is the function of the god-

686?

τὸ
or

like to think.and to be wise; and no easy task were this 30

under the burden of a heavy body, pressing down from
above and obstructing by its weight the motions of the
intellect and of the general sense.* When, moreover, the
weight and corporeal substance become excessive, the body
must of necessity incline towards the ground. In such cases
therefore nature, in order to give support to the body, has
replaced the arms and hands by forefeet, and has thus con-
verted the animal into a quadruped. For, as every animal
that walks must of necessity have the two hinder feet, such
an animal becomes a quadruped, its body inclining down-
wards in front from the weight which its soul cannot sustain.

1 Though there were lions in N. Greece in A.’s time they were rare
and confined to a small locality (7. A. vi. 31.579" 6), and A. clearly was
scantily informed about them; for nearly all his statements about
their structure are erroneous. Here he says that they have only one
cervical vertebra ; a little later on he says they have but two dugs; else-
where that their bones are without medullary cavity, &c.

2 Such uses, for instance, as turning round quickly to guard the
hinder part against a foe (iv. 11. 692% 5); picking up food from the
bottom of the water, as do web-footed and other water-birds (iv. 12.
693 8); or catching prey at a distance, the long neck serving as
a fishing rod (iv. 12. 693% 23).

8 There are some perceptions, says A., that are peculiar to one
sense, e.g. colour to vision, hardness and temperature to touch, &c.
But there are others not peculiar to one sense, but appreciable by
several, or at any rate by vision and by touch. Such are motion, rest,
number, figure, magnitude. These, then, are common sensibles, and
that which perceives them is the one common or general sense, of
which the five senses are special forms. Cf. De An. ili. 1 and2; De
Som.2; De Sens. 4. 442” 4.

686”

686" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

For all animals, man alone excepted, are dwarf-like in form.
For the dwarf-like is that in which the upper part is large,
while that which bears the weight and is used in progression
sis small. This upper part is what we call the trunk,' which
reaches from the mouth to the vent. In man it is duly pro-
portionate to the part below, and diminishes much in its
comparative size as the man attains to full growth. But in
his infancy the contrary obtains, and the upper parts are
large, while the lower part is small; so that the infant can
10 only crawl, and is unable to walk ; nay, at first cannot even
crawl, but remains without motion. For all children are
dwarfs in shape, but cease to be so as they become men,
from the growth of their lower part ; whereas in quadrupeds
the reverse occurs, their lower parts being largest in youth,
and advance of years bringing increased growth above, that
is in the trunk, which extends from the rump to the
15head. Thus it is that colts are scarcely, if at all, below
full-grown horses in height; and that while still young
they can touch their heads with the hind legs, though this
is no longer possible when they are older. Such, then, is
the form of animals that have either a solid or a cloven
hoof. But such as are polydactylous and without horns,
though they too are of dwarf-like shape, are so in a less
20 degree ; and therefore the greater growth of the lower parts
as compared with the upper is also small, being proportionate
to this smaller deficiency.”
Dwarf-like again is the race of birds and fishes; and so
in fact, as already has been said, is every animal that has
blood. This is the reason why no other animal is so intelli-

1 In the Greek text ‘thorax’ (θώραξ) ; this term not being as yet
restricted to the cavity above the diaphragm, cf. H. A. i. 7. 491% 29.

» Cf. H. A. ii. 1.500 26sq. This statement as to the alteration that
occurs in the human body in the relative proportions of the upper and
lower parts is correct. ‘After birth, the proportions of the body alter
in consequence of the legs growing faster than the rest of the body.
In consequence, the middle point of the height of the body—which at
birth is situated about the umbilicus—becomes gradually lower until,
in the adult male, it is as low as the symphysis pubis’ (Huxley, Ver+.
p. 488). On the other hand, every one is familiar with the prepon-
derant length of a colt’s legs as compared with that of its body.
Lastly, if one compares a kitten with a cat, one finds no such contrast
of proportions.

BOOK IV. Io

gent as man. For even among men themselves if we

686°

compare children with adults, or such adults as are of 25

dwarf-like shape with such as are not, we find that, what-
ever other superiority the former may possess, they are at
any rate deficient as compared with the latter in intelligence.
The explanation, as already stated, is that their psychical
principle is corporeal, and much impeded in its motions.
Let now a further decrease occur in the elevating heat, and
a further increase in the earthy matter, and the animals
become smaller in bulk, and their feet more numerous, until
at a later stage they become apodous, and extended full
length on the ground. Then, by further small successions
of change, they come to have their principal organ below ;
and at last their cephalic part becomes motionless and
destitute of sensation. Thus the animal becomes a plant,
that has its upper parts downwards and its lower parts above.
For in plants the roots are the equivalents of mouth and
head, while the seed has an opposite significance,! for it is
produced above at the extremities of the twigs.

The reasons have now been stated why some animals
have many feet, some only two, and others none; why, also,
some living things are plants and others animals; and,
lastly, why man alone of all animals stands erect. Standing
thus erect, man has no need of legs in front, and in their
stead has been endowed by nature with arms and hands.
Now it is the opinion of Anaxagoras that the possession
of these hands is the cause of man being of all animals the
most intelligent. But it is more rational to suppose that
his endowment with hands is the consequence rather than
the cause of his superior intelligence. For the hands are
instruments or organs, and the invariable plan of nature in
distributing the organs is to give each to such animal as can
make use of it; nature acting inthis matter as any prudent
man would do. For it is a better plan to take a person who
is already a flute-player and give him a flute, than to take
one who possesses a flute and teach him the art of flute-
playing. For nature adds that which is less to that which

ἢ Answers, that is to say, to the residual nutriment of animals. Cf.
ll. 3. 650% 20 ἢ.

35
687?

σι

"
σι

685)" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

is greater and more important, and not that which is more
valuable and greater to that which is less. Seeing then
that such is the better course, and seeing also that of what
is possible nature invariably brings about the best, we must
conclude that man does not owe his superior intelligence to
his hands, but his hands to his superior intelligence. For
the most intelligent of animals is the one who would put

20 the most organs to use; and the hand is not to be looked
on as one organ but as many ;; for it is, as it were, an in-
strument for further instruments. This instrument, there-
fore,—the hand—of all instruments the most variously
serviceable, has been given by nature to man, the animal of
all animals the most capable of acquiring the most varied
handicrafts.

Much in error, then, are they who say that the construc-
tion of man is not only faulty, but inferior to that of all
other animals; seeing that he is, as they point out, bare-

25 footed, naked, and without weapon of which to avail himself.
For other animals have each but one mode of defence, and
this they can never change; so that they must perform all
the offices of life and even, so to speak, sleep with sandals
on, never laying aside whatever serves as a protection to

30 their bodies, nor changing such single weapon as they may
chance to possess. But to man numerous modes of defence

687” are open, and these, moreover, he may change at will; as
also he may adopt such weapon as he pleases, and at such
times? as suit him. For the hand is talon, hoof, and horn,
at will. So too it is spear, and sword, and whatsoever other
5 weapon or instrument you please; for all these can it be
from its power of grasping and holding them all. In har-
mony with this varied office is the form which nature has
contrived * for it. For it is split into several divisions, and
these are capable of divergence. Such capacity of diver-
gence does not prevent their again converging so as to
form a single compact body, whereas had the hand been an
undivided mass, divergence would have been impossible.

1 Ck. Polit. 1:4. 12537533: 2 Read ὁπόταν for ὅπου ἄν.
3 For συμμεμηχανῆσθαι read συμμεμηχάνηται and omit καί before
τῇ φύσει.

BOOK IV. to

The divisions also may be used singly or two together and
in various combinations.' The joints, moreover, of the
fingers are well constructed for prehension and for pressure.
One of these also, and this not long like the rest but short
and thick, is placed laterally. For were it not so placed all
prehension would be as impossible, as were there no hand
at all. For the pressure of this digit is applied from below
upwards, while the rest act from above downwards; an
arrangement which is essential, if the grasp is to be firm
and hold like a tight clamp. As for the shortness of this
digit, the object is to increase its strength, so that it may
be able, though but one, to counterbalance its more
numerous”? opponents. Moreover, were it long it would be
of no use. This is the explanation ® of its being sometimes
called the great digit, in spite of its small size; for without
it all the rest would be practically useless. The finger
which stands at the other end of the row is small, while the
central one of all is long, like a centre oar* in a ship.
This is rightly so; for it is mainly by the central part of
the encircling grasp that a tool must be held when put to use.

No less skilfully contrived are the nails. For, while in
man these serve simply as coverings to protect the tips of
the fingers, in other animals they are also used for active
purposes; and their form in each case is suited to their
office.

The arms in man and the fore limbs in quadrupeds bend
in contrary directions, this difference having reference to the

1 If the text be correct, by ἑνί must be meant one of the divisions
implied in διαιρετή, viz. one of the fingers. Not only is this a very
strange construction, but τῶν δακτύλων in the next sentence seems to
mark that as the beginning of the account of the fingers. We should
also expect πλείοσι rather than πολλαχῶς if fingers are meant. May it
not be that for ἑνί should be read μιᾷ, the transcriber having been led
to make this mistake by the ἔνι that begins the preceding sentence?
‘ The hands also may be used singly or together and in various com-
binations.’

* Transposing iva... πολλοῖς to follow τὴν ἰσχύν.

5. Transpose καὶ διά... ἄνευ τούτου to come after εἰ μακρός.

* For μέσον νέως read μεσόνεως (Schneider). According to Dr. Warre
(Badminton, Boating, p. 14) the midship oars in an ancient Greek
vessel were longer and heavier than those nearer stern and prow;
and consequently it was these centre oars that poets put in the hands
of heroes, see Apoll. Rhodius, “προ. i. 395-400.

687°

687” DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

ingestion of food and to the other offices which belong to
these parts. For quadrupeds must of necessity bend their
anterior limbs inwards that they may serve in locomotion,
for they use them as feet.) Not but what even among
30 quadrupeds there is at any rate a tendency for such as are
polydactylous to use their forefeet not only for locomotion
688° but as hands. And they are in fact so used, as any one
may see. For these animals seize hold of objects, and also
repel assailants with their anterior limbs ; whereas quadru-
peds with solid hoofs use their hind legs for this latter
purpose. For their fore limbs are not analogous to the
arms and hands of man.?

It is this hand-like office of the anterior limbs which

5 explains why in some of the polydactylous quadrupeds, such
as wolves, lions, dogs, and leopards, there are actually five
digits on each forefoot, though there are only four on each
hind one. For the fifth digit of the foot corresponds to the
fifth digit of the hand,° and like it is called the big one. It
is true that in the smaller polydactylous quadrupeds the
hind feet also have each five toes. But this is because these

io animals are creepers; and the increased number of nails
serves to give them a tighter grip, and so enables them to
creep up steep places with greater facility,* or even to run
head downwards.

In man between the arms, and in other animals between
the forelegs, lies what is called the breast. This in man is
broad, as one might expect; for as the arms are set

15 laterally on the body, they offer no impediment to such
expansion in this part. But in quadrupeds the breast is

1 Reading ὡς (P) before ποσίν, and substituting a comma for the
colon after κώλα.

2 Analogous is here used in the modern sense, i.e. having similar
functions, and not as equivalent to homologous.

3 And therefore is not wanted, as the hind foot has no hand-like
office such as that of the corresponding forefeet.

4 In Canidae and Felidae, from which A.’s examples are taken, there
are only four toes to the hind foot, while the forefeet have each five,
as in most Unguiculata. The smaller quadrupeds, that are described
as having five hind toes and as creeping or even running head down-
wards, are such animals as rats, squirrels, moles, martens, weasels.
It is, however, not only small quadrupeds and creepers that have five
hind toes ; for the same is the case with elephants and bears.

BOOK. Τὺ τὸ

narrow, owing to the legs having to be extended in a for-
ward direction in progression and locomotion.

Owing to this narrowness the mammae of quadrupeds are
never placed on the breast. But in the human body there
is ample space in this part ; moreover, the heart and neigh-
bouring organs require protection, and for these reasons this
part is fleshy and the mammae are placed upon it separately,
side by side, being themselves of a fleshy substance in the
male and therefore of use in the way just stated; while in
the female, nature, in accordance with what we say is her
frequent practice, makes them minister to an additional
function, employing them as a store-place of nutriment for
the offspring. The human mammae are two in number, in
accordance with the division of the body into two halves,
a right and a left. They are somewhat firmer than they
would otherwise be, because the ribs! in this region are
joined together; while they form two separate masses,
because their presence is in no wise burdensome.” In other
animals * than man, it is impossible for the mammae to be
placed on the breast between the forelegs, for they would
interfere with locomotion; they are therefore disposed of
otherwise, and in a variety of ways.*’ Thus in such animals
as produce but few at a birth, whether horned quadrupeds
or those with solid hoofs, the mammae are placed in the
region of the thighs, and are two in number,° while in such
as produce litters, or such as are polydactylous, the dugs

1 The upper or true ribs which are united to the sternum, in opposi-
tion to the false ribs below. Thus there is firmness given to the
mammae by the firm substratum. For ἀλλήλας read ἀλλήλαις.

2 As the arms are not used for locomotion, the mammae are not in
the way, and so there is no disadvantage in there being two of them ;
otherwise they would be made to form a single mass.

5. Elsewhere (4. A. ii. 8. 502% 34), apes, as well as man, are excepted.
Pectoral mammae are by no means confined, however, to man and
apes. In bats, for instance, the two mammae are pectoral ; so also in
elephants, as indeed is presently mentioned.

4 Omit ἤδη before πολλούς.

5 The horned animals which produce few at a birth and have only
two mammae are sheep and goats. For in other horned animals, e.g.
the cow, there are four, as A. elsewhere (HZ. A. ii. 1. 499" 19) mentions.
Even in sheep and goats there are really four; but two of these are
usually rudimentary. The Solidungula have, as correctly stated, only
two mammae and these inguinal.

688*

688"

688°

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

are either numerous and placed laterally on the belly, as in
swine and dogs, or are only two in number, being set, how-
ever, in the centre 1 of the abdomen, as is the case in the lion.”
The explanation of this latter condition is not that the lion
produces few at a birth, for sometimes it has more than two
cubs at a time, but is to’be found in the fact that this animal
has no plentiful supply of milk. For, being a flesh-eater, it
gets food at but rare intervals, and such nourishment as it
obtains is all expended on the growth of its body.

In the elephant also there are but two mammae, which
are placed under the axillae of the forelimbs. The mammae
are not more than two, because this animal has only a single
young one at a birth; and they are not placed in the region
of the thighs, because they never occupy that position in
any polydactylous animal such as this. Lastly, they are
placed above, close to the axillae, because this is the position
of the foremost dugs in all animals whose dugs are numerous,
and the dugs so placed give the most milk. Evidence of
this is furnished by the sow. For she always presents these
foremost dugs to the first-born of her litter. A single
young one is of course a first-born, and so such animals as
only produce a single young one must have these anterior
dugs to present to it ; that is they must have the dugs which
are under the axillae. This, then, is the reason why the
elephant has but two mammae, and why they are so placed.
But, in such animals as have litters of young, the dugs are
disposed about the belly ; the reason being that more dugs
are required by those that will have more young to nourish.
Now it is impossible that these dugs should be set trans-
versely in rows of more than two, one, that is, for each side
of the body, the right and the left*; they must therefore be

1 In opposition to the general rule in bi-mammary animals, whose
mammae, as said a few lines back, are set ἐν τοῖς μηροῖς, that is are
inguinal, or are pectoral as in man.

* The number and position of the mammae are given correctly by
A. in the other instances ; but as usual he is in error as regards the
lion ; for though its mammae are, as stated, abdominal, they are four,
not two, in number. The lion produces not unfrequently four, and
occasionally even five or six, at a birth (G. A. iii. το. 760” 23).

δ᾽ The dua... δεξιόν must refer in sense to the preceding δύο, not to
the μόνους. There must be two in each row because of the require-

BOOK IV. τὸ 688°

placed lengthways, and the only place where there is
sufficient length for this is the region between the front and 20
hind legs. As to the animals that are not polydactylous
but produce few at a birth, or have horns, their dugs are
placed in the region of the thighs.1_ The horse, the ass, the
camel are examples ; all of which bear but a single young one
at a time, and of which the two former have solid hoofs,
while in the last the hoof is cloven. As still further
examples may be mentioned the deer, the ox, the goat, and =
all other similar animals.

The explanation is that in these animals growth takes
place in an upward direction;* so that there must be an
abundant collection of residual matter and of blood in the
lower region, that is to say in the neighbourhood of the
orifices for efflux, and here therefore nature has placed the
mammae. For the place in which the nutriment is set in
motion must also be the place whence nutriment can be de- 30
rived by them. In man there are mammae in the male as
well as in the female ; but some of the males of other animals
are without them. Such, for instance, is the case with horses,
some stallions being destitute of these parts, while others
that resemble their dams have them.? Thus much then
concerning the mammae.

Next after the breast comes the region of the belly, which 35
is left unenclosed by the ribs fora reason which has already 6805
been given;* namely that there may be no impediment to
the swelling which necessarily occurs in the food as it gets
heated, nor to the expansion of the womb in pregnancy.

tb
σι

ments of bilateral symmetry (cf. 688% 26), and not more than two,
because of the narrow space.

1 Omit καί before ἐν τοῖς μηροῖς.

21,6. in the direction from tail to head. This upward growth
implies, he says, the accumulation of nutriment in the part from which
the growth proceeds, for otherwise there would be no material for the
growth ; and it is in this land of plenty that the mammae are placed.
In the human body the growth takes place in the contrary direction,
and the seat of plenty and location of the mammae is accordingly at the
opposite or pectoral end. As to direction of growth cf. 686° 32 note.

5. Linnaeus counted the horse among those exceptional quadrupeds
in which the male has no teats; but John Hunter discovered vestiges
of them in the stallion. Possibly what A. says may be true, and thus
the discrepancy between these two modern authorities explained.

Ὁ di... 655° 2,

AR, P.A. N

6895 DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

At the extreme end of what is called the trunk are the
parts concerned in the evacuation of the solid and also of
the fluid residue. In all sanguineous animals with some

s few exceptions,! and in all Vivipara without any exception
at all, the same part which serves for the evacuation of the
fluid residue is also made by nature to serve in sexual con-
gress, and this alike in male? and female. For the semen
is a kind of fluid and residual matter.2 The proof of this
will be given hereafter,* but for the present let it be taken

10 for granted. (The like holds good of the menstrual fluid in
women, and of the part where they ὅ emit semen. This also,
however, is a matter of which a more accurate account will
be given hereafter. For the present let it be simply stated
as a fact, that the catamenia of the female like the semen

15 of the male are residual matter.° Both of them, moreover,

1 This passage is translated as it stands ; but the text cannot but be
corrupt. For it makes A. say that all oviparous vertebrates with some
few exceptions form urine, in contradiction of his repeated and distinct
statement (e. g. ili. 8 and 9, iv. 13. 697213; A.A. τ. 16) that none of
them do so or have either kidneys or bladder, except tortoises. I have
no doubt that what A. really said here was as follows: ‘Jz all such
sanguineous animals as are viviparous and in some few of those that
are oviparous, the same part, &c.; the ‘some few’ being the various
tortoises, as to whose coitus see H. A. v. 3, v. 5. 541% 8. Forégo...
ἐναίμοις, therefore, I would read ἐν ὀλίγοις τισὶν τῶν φοτόκων.

2 For τῶν ἀρρένων read τοῖς ἄρρεσιν.

8. See note 6 and ii. 14. 6584 23 note.

4G. A. 1.. 18.724? 20-7267 2

5 If the reading be correct, A. apparently attributes to females the
secretion of γονή 2 addition to the καταμήνια. So also in the 1. A.
(i. 3. 4892 9-13) he attributes to them the secretion of σπέρμα. But
when he considers the question more fully in the G. A. he again and
again (e.g. G. A. 1. 19. 7279 1 and 28) maintains that the καταμήνια are
themselves the female equivalent of γονή or σπέρμα. Prof. Platt, how-
ever, ingeniously suggests that the reading should be εἰ προΐενταί τινα
γονήν, ‘and of the semen if so be that they emit any.’

® Hippocrates (Kihn ed. i. 551) had said, in partial anticipation of
Darwin’s doctrine of pangenesis, that the semen was formed hy con-
tributions from all parts of the parent’s body; and he explained on
this hypothesis the resemblance of the offspring to the parent, which
extended occasionally even to accidental or acquired peculiarities of
structure. This opinion is combated by A. (G. A. i. 17, 18), who
insists, among other arguments, that it would imply that the semen
was a product of dissolution or decay (σύντηξις), which is clearly
inadmissible. He argues that the semen can be nothing else in
substance than part of that surplus or residue of sound nutriment,
which, after conversion into blood, has not been required for the
growth or maintenance of the bodily fabric. This, he says, explains
why no semen is formed either when the growth is active, as in

BOOK ‘IV. τὸ

being fluid, it is only natural that the parts which serve for
voidance of the urine should give issue to residues which
resemble it in character.') Of the internal structure of these
parts, and of the differences which exist between the parts
concerned with semen and the parts concerned with con-
ception, a clear account is given in the book of Researches
concerning Animals and in the treatises on Anatomy.
Moreover, I shall have to speak of them again when I come
to deal with Generation.2 As regards, however, the external
shape of these parts, it is plain enough that they are adapted
to their operations, as indeed of necessity they must be.
There are, however, differences in the male organ corre-
sponding to differences in the body generally. For all
animals are not of an equally sinewy nature. This organ,
again, is the only one that, independently of any morbid
change, admits of augmentation and of diminution of bulk.
The former condition is of service in copulation, while the
other is required for the advantage of the body at large.
For, were the organ constantly in the former condition, it
would be an incumbrance. The organ therefore has been
formed of such constituents as will admit of either state.
For it is partly sinewy, partly cartilaginous,? and thus is
enabled either to contract or to become extended, and is
capable of admitting air.‘

childhood, or when the power of concocting nutriment is small, as
in old age or sickness ; and also why those animals whose surplus
nutriment is turned into fat are not prolific (ii. 5. 651 13). The
semen, then, instead of being, as Hippocrates would have it, some-
thing which comes from each and every part of the parent, is some-
thing which might have gone to each and every part of the parent.
To the semen of the male corresponds the menstrual discharge of the
female ; but, in accordance with the colder nature of females, their
generative secretion is less concocted (G. A. iv. 5. 774 2), and there-
fore retains a greater resemblance to blood.

1 Omitting τῶν αὐτῶν καί.

ete 1 15. Τὴ 1: τῇ. 4078 27; 111. 13 G. A. 1. 2-16.

8 Elsewhere (7. A. ii. 1. 500? 22) sundry Carnivora are correctly
stated to have a bone in the penis; the camel and stag to have no such
bone, but a sinewy organ, also correctly ; and man to have cartilage in
the part, which chances to be true of some negroes. In no other case,
however, does the penis contain cartilage. As to the presence of
sinew conferring the power of contraction, cf. iii. 4. 666 14 note.

‘ Erection was attributed to air, not to blood (P7007. xxx. 1. 953” 34) ;
as also emission (//. A. vii. 7. 586 16).

N 2

689"

689°

689?

σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

All female quadrupeds void their urine backwards, because
the position of the parts which this implies is useful to them
in the act of copulation. This is the case with only some
few males, such as the lynx, the lion, the camel, and the
hare.' No quadruped with a solid hoof is retromingent.

The posterior portion of the body and the parts about
the legs are peculiar in man as compared with quadrupeds.
Nearly all these latter have a tail, and this whether they
are viviparous or oviparous. For, even if the tail be of no
great size, yet they have a kind of scut, as at any rate a small
representative”? of it. But man is tail-less. He has, how-
ever, buttocks, which exist in none of the quadrupeds, His
legs also are fleshy (as too are his thighs and feet) ;* while
the legs in all other animals that have any, whether vivi-
parous or not, are fleshless, being made of sinew and bone
and spinous substance. For all these differences there is,
so to say, one common explanation, and this is that of all
animals man alone stands erect. It was to facilitate the
maintenance of this position that Nature made his upper
parts light, taking away some of their corporeal substance,
and using it to increase the weight of the parts below, so
that the buttocks, the thighs, and the calves of the legs
were all made fleshy. The character which she thus gave
to the buttocks renders them at the same time useful in

1 The camel, the cats, and many rodents including the hare, are
retromingent.

2 For σμικροῦ read σημείου (Bonitz).

3 For κνήμας read πόδας (Y).

A. uses the term σκέλος, as we use ‘leg’, to designate not only the
entire limb, but also that lower part of it which lies between thigh and
foot ; but, as he shares the popular misconception which identifies the
knee-joint of man with what is really the tarsal joint of other vertebrates,
the tibial segment in man with its fleshy calf (κνήμη and γαστροκνημία)
and the scraggy metatarsal segment of quadrupeds and birds come
to be the σκέλη which he supposes to correspond anatomically and
compares with each other.

The same misconception as to the knee-joint causes him to find the
counterpart of the human femur in the tibial segment of the other verte-
brates ; but this leaves him in the case of these vertebrates with an extra
limb-segment (the femur) unaccounted for. The human femur is jointed
to the pelvic ischium, and therefore A. calls this extra segment an
ischium, though it is a separate bone, and looks, he is bound to admit,
when detached from its surroundings, just like a femur (17. A. 11. 12.

503? 35).

BOOK IV. 10 689"

resting the body. For standing causes no fatigue to
quadrupeds, and even the long continuance of this posture
produces in them no weariness ; for they are supported the
whole time by four props, which is much as though they
were lying down. But to man it is no easy task to remain
for any length of time on his feet, his body demanding rest 20
in a sitting position. This, then, is the reason why man
has buttocks and fleshy legs; and the presence of these
fleshy parts explains why he has no tai]. For the nutriment
which would otherwise go to the tail is used up in the
production of these parts, while at the same time the
existence of buttocks does away with the necessity of a tail.
But in quadrupeds and other animals the reverse obtains.
For they are of dwarf-like form, so that all the pressure of
their weight and corporeal substance is on their upper part,
and is withdrawn from the parts below.’ On this account
they are without buttocks and have hard legs. In order,
however, to cover and protect that part which serves for
the evacuation of excrement, nature has given them a tail 30

of some kind or other, subtracting for the purpose some of

the nutriment which would otherwise go to the legs. Inter-
mediate in shape between man and quadrupeds is the ape,
belonging therefore to neither or to both, and having on this
account neither tail nor buttocks; no tail in its character of
biped, no buttocks in its character of quadruped. There is

a great diversity of so-called tails; and this organ like others 6g0*
is sometimes used by nature for by-purposes, being made
to serve not only as a covering and protection to the
fundament, but also for other uses and advantages of its
possessor.

There are differences in the feet of quadrupeds. For in
some of these animals there is a solid hoof, and in others
a hoof cloven into two, and again in others a foot divided
into many parts.

The hoof is solid when the body is large and the earthy
matter present in great abundance ; in which case the earth,
instead of forming teeth and horns, is separated in the
character of a nail, and being very abundant forms one

1 1. 6: the hind legs, 27. A. ii. 1. 500 20.

τὸ

σι

690*

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

continuous nail, that is a hoof, in place of several. This
consumption of the earthy matter on the hoof explains why
these animals, as a rule, have no? huckle-bones ; a second
reason ἢ being that the presence of such a bone in the joint
of the hind leg somewhat impedes its free motion. For
extension and flexion can be made more rapidly in parts
that have but one angle than in parts that have several.
But the presence of a huckle-bone, as a connecting bolt, is
the introduction as it were of a new limb-segment between
the two ordinary ones. Such an addition adds to the
weight of the foot, but renders the act of progression more
secure. Thus it is that in such animals as have a huckle-
bone, it is only in the posterior and not in the anterior limbs
that this bone is found. For the anterior limbs, moving as
they do in advance of the others, require to be light and
capable of ready flexion, whereas firmness and extensibility

20 are what are wanted in the hind limbs. Moreover, a huckle-

bone adds weight to the blow of a limb, and so renders it
a suitable weapon of defence ; and these animals all use
their hind legs to protect themselves, kicking out with their
heels against anything which annoys them. In the cloven-
hoofed quadrupeds the lighter character of the hind legs
admits of there being a huckle-bone; and the presence of
the huckle-bone prevents them from having a solid hoof,
the bony substance remaining in the joint, and therefore
being deficient in the foot. As to the polydactylous quad- .
rupeds, none of them have huckle-bones. For if they had
they would not be polydactylous, but the divisions of the
foot would only extend to that amount of its breadth which
was covered by the huckle-bone.? Thus it is that most * of
the animals that have huckle-bones are cloven-hoofed.

1 Not every tarsal bone, which modern anatomists call astragalus,
was so called by A., but only such as in size and shape were suitable
for the ancient game which has come down to us as the game of
huckle-bone or knuckle-bone. Such are the astragali of the smaller
ruminants.

2 Read καί before διὰ τὸ δυσκινητοτέραν (S 1).

3.Α. probably means that, if there were an astragalus, there would
be much earthy matter; and, if much earthy matter, then the hoof
would be a solid mass ; excepting in that part of its breadth where the

earthy matter was used up in making the astragalus.
* As to the supposed exceptions see 7. A. ii. 1. 499” 20.

BOOK IV. Io 690°

Of all animals man has the largest foot in proportion to
the size of the body.!. This is only what might be expected.
For seeing that he is the only animal that stands erect,
the two feet which are intended to bear all the weight of 30
the body must be both long and broad. Equally intelli-
gible is it that the proportion between the size of the
fingers and that of the whole hand should be inverted in the
case of the toes and feet. For the function of the hands is
to take hold of objects and retain them by pressure ; so that
the fingers require to be long. For it is by its flexed por-
tion that the hand grasps an object. But the function of 690"
the feet is to enable us to stand securely, and for this? the
undivided part of the foot requires to be of larger size
than the toes. However, it is better for the extremity to be
divided than to be undivided. For in an undivided foot
disease of any one part would extend to the whole organ ;
whereas, if the foot be divided * into separate digits, there is
not an equal liability to such an occurrence. The digits,
again, by being short would be less liable to injury. For
these reasons the feet in man are many-toed, while the
separate digits are of no great length. The toes, finally,
are furnished with nails for the same reason as are the
fingers, namely because such projecting parts are weak and 10
therefore require special protection.

σι

We have now done with such sanguineous animals as live
on land and bring forth their young alive ;* and, having
dealt with all their main kinds, we may pass on to such

II sanguineous animals as are oviparous. Of these some have
four feet, while others have none. The latter form a single
genus, namely the Serpents ; and why these are apodous 15
has been already explained in the dissertation on Animal

1 “T’homme a les pieds plus larges, et il peut les écarter l'un de
l'autre plus que les autres animaux.... La grandeur de la surface
du pied de l'homme tient ἃ ce qu’il appuye le tarse, le métatarse et
tous les doigts ἃ terre, ce qu’aucun animal ne fait aussi parfaitement ’
(Cuvier, Legows, i. 474).

2 For ὥστε read πρὸς δέ. For νομίζειν read μεῖζον (Platt).

3 For ἐσχισμένων read ἐσχισμένου. For συμβλάπτοιντο read ἂν βλά-
mrowro (Platt).

* That is, all the Mammalia known to him, with the exception of
Cetacea.

690”

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

Progression.' Irrespective of this absence of feet, serpents
resemble the oviparous quadrupeds in their conformation.
In all these animals there is a head with its component
parts ; its presence being determined by the same causes *
as obtain in the case of other sanguineous animals; and in
all, with the single exception of the river crocodile, there is
a tongue inside the mouth? In this one exception there
would seem to be no actual tongue, but merely a space left
vacant for it. The reason is that a crocodile is ina waya
land-animal and a water-animal combined. In its character
of land-animal it hasa space for a tongue ; but in its character
of water-animal it is without the tongue itself. For in some
fishes, as has already been mentioned,’ there is no appear-
ance whatsoever of a tongue, unless the mouth be stretched
open very widely indeed; while in others it is indistinctly
separated from the rest of the mouth. The reason for this
is that a tongue would be of but little service to such
animals, seeing that they are unable to chew their food or
to taste it before swallowing, the pleasurable sensations
they derive from it being limited to the act of deglutition.®
For it is in their passage down the gullet that solid edibles
cause enjoyment, while it is by the tongue that the savour of
fluids is perceived. Thus it is during deglutition that the
oiliness, the heat, and other such qualities of food are

1 De An. Inc. 8. 708% 9-20. See also iv. 13. 696% 10, where the
explanation is repeated.

* Cf. iv. 10. 6868 5-18.

8. There are, as a matter of fact, some oviparous quadrupeds without
a tongue; but these are species which were unknown to Aristotle, such
as the Carinthian Proteus, the Surinam Pipa, and the Dactylethra of
South Africa. The crocodile really has a tongue; but it is flat,
destitute of papillae, and united by its whole extent to the floor of the
mouth. This seems to be recognized in other passages (27. A. 11. Io.
503° 13 ΤΟ. A. ii. 17. 660" 15).

21CE di.07G00" 1:

5 That the sense of taste must be very dull in fishes is admitted by
all naturalists (cf. Yarrell, δ γιζ, Fishes, i. xvii); for, as A. justly
observes, they do not chew their food, and thus the juices, which alone
can excite true taste, are not expressed. Moreover, the inside of the
mouth is being constantly washed over with water, which must of
itself interfere with the possibility of any delicate gustation. Still they
are probably not entirely without this sense, as is elsewhere (27. A. iv.
8. 533° 30) admitted ; for, as there pointed out, they manifest certain
preferences for one food rather than another.

BOOK. IV. τῇ

recognized ; and,! in fact, the satisfaction from most solid
edibles and dainties is derived almost entirely from the
dilatation of the oesophagus during deglutition.? This
sensation, then, belongs even to animals that have ποῦ tongue,
but while other animals have in addition the sensations of
taste, tongueless animals have, we may say, no other*
satisfaction than it. What has now been said explains why
intemperance as regards drinks and savoury fluids does not
go hand in hand with intemperance as regards eating and
solid relishes.

In some oviparous quadrupeds, namely in lizards, the
tongue is bifid,° as also it is in serpents,® and its terminal
divisions are of hair-like fineness, as has already been de-
scribed.’ (Seals also have a forked tongue.) This it is
which accounts for all these animals being so fond of dainty
food. The teeth in the four-footed Ovipara are of the
sharp interfitting kind, like the teeth of fishes.’ The organs
of all the senses are present and resemble those of other
animals. Thus there are nostrils for smell, eyes for vision,
and ears for hearing. The latter organs, however, do not
project from the sides of the head, but consist simply of the

1 Transposing ἔχει... αἴσθησιν to after ἡ χάρις, and διό... ἐδωδήν to
after ἡ ἑτέρα.

2. 0 ῃ which account ἃ certain gormandizer wished that his throat
were longer than a crane’s, implying that his pleasure was derived from
the sense of touch’ (£7¢hics, iii. 13. 1118 32). The same notion led
Spenser, in describing Gluttony, to say, ‘And like a crane, his neck
was long and fyne’ (Faéry Queen, 1. 4. 21).

3 For ζῳοτόκα, substitute ἄγλωττα, as imperatively demanded by the
context. A. did not suppose any vertebrate to be absolutely tongue-
less, not even the crocodile (ii. 17. 660” 25) though he calls it ἄγλωττος.
In fishes, however, this part was almost rudimentary (ii. 17. 660” 14 note)
and their sense of taste consequently very feeble.

* For ὡσπερανεί read ὥσπερ μόνη (Y).

° Cf. H. A. ii. 17. 508% 23. The tongue in Ophidia is bifid, as also it is
in one great division of Sauria (hence called Fissilinguia or Leptiglossa),
but not in all; not, for instance, in the chameleon nor in the wall
gecko, or scarcely so, among species known to Aristotle. In the seal
the tongue is deeply notched. See Buffon, Vaz. A7zs¢. xiii. pl. 50.

® Read καί before οἱ ὄφεις (Y).

Cl. τ 17. 660". Ὁ.

8 For ioxva read λίχνα (Karsch).

" The teeth of Saurian reptiles are usually acutely conical and
slightly hooked. In some cases they are blade-like, and occasionally
dentated on the edges. Rarely, as in Cyclodus, they have broad
crushing crowns. In Chelonia there are no teeth whatsoever.

690°

601°

σι

691" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

duct, as also is the case in birds. This is due in both cases
15 to the hardness! of the integument; birds having their

bodies covered with feathers, and these oviparous quad-

rupeds with horny plates. These plates are equivalent to

scales, but of a harder character. This is manifest in tor-

toises and river crocodiles, and also in the large serpents.

For here the plates become stronger than the bones,? being
20 seemingly of the same substance as these.

These animals have no upper eyelid, but close the eye
with the lower lid. In this they resemble birds, and the
reason is the same as was assigned in their case.* Among
birds there are some ® that can not only thus close the eye,
but can also blink by means of a membrane which comes
from its corner. But none of the oviparous quadrupeds

25 blink ;° for their eyes are harder than those of birds.?. The
reason for this is that keen vision and far-sightedness*® are
of very considerable service to birds, flying as they do in
the air, whereas they would be of comparatively small use
to the oviparous quadrupeds, seeing that they are all of
troglodytic habits.

Of the two separate portions which constitute the head,
namely the upper part and the lower jaw, the latter in man °
and in the viviparous quadrupeds moves not only upwards

80 and downwards, but also from side to side ; 1° while in fishes,

) Chil. 42 syamdiai 337657208"

” All reptiles have horny epidermal scales, but not so such Amphibia
as the frog and toad, which A. included in the same group.. In the
Chelonia and the crocodiles these scales are combined with bony
scutes, and these animals are’ therefore known as Loricata. But
nothing of the kind occurs in the large serpents, none of which were
actually known to Aristotle, but of which he had probably heard
fabulous accounts from some of Alexander’s companions; from
Nearchus, for instance, whose statement as to the existence of monstrous
serpents in the East is quoted by Arrian in his /zdzca.

* Most reptiles have an upper eyelid, though they use the lower lid
exclusively or preferentially. In Ophidia, however, and some Lacertilia,
there are no lids at all, or rather the two lids are transparent and
continuous with each other in front of the eye; a condition of things
which A. supposed (ii. 13. 657 32) to exist in Crustacea.

MCE. 133657 ἘΣ

° Not some but all, as more correctly stated, H. A. ii. 12. 504 26.

5 This is an error (cf. ii. 13. 657° 23 note).

” And therefore, he implies, do not require so much protection.

* Reading ὀξυωπία καὶ τὸ πόρρω προϊδεῖν (U Y). 9. Omitting οὖν (Y).

Ὁ The Carnivora are an exception, their teeth being adapted for

BOOK TY: oe 691°

and birds and oviparous quadrupeds, the only movement is

up and down. The reason is that this latter movement is

the one required in biting and dividing food, while the 691°
lateral movement serves to reduce substances to a pulp.

To such animals, therefore, as have grinder-teeth this lateral
motion is of service; but to those animals that have no
grinders it would be quite useless, and they are therefore
invariably without it. For nature never makes anything that

is superfluous. While in all other animals it is the lower 5
jaw that is movable, in the river crocodile it is exception-

ally the upper.! This is because the feet in this creature

are so excessively small as to be useless for seizing and
holding prey ; on which account nature has given it a mouth

that can serve for these purposes in their stead. For that
direction of motion which will give the greater force to τὸ

a blow will be the more serviceable one in holding or in
seizing prey ; and a blow from above is always more forcible
than one from below. Seeing, then, that both the prehen-
sion and the mastication of food are offices of the mouth,
and that the former of these two is the more essential in an
animal that has neither hands nor suitably formed feet, these
crocodiles will derive greater benefit from a motion of the
upper jaw downwards than from a motion of the lower jaw
upwards. Thesame considerations explain why crabs also
move the upper division of each claw and not the lower.
For their claws are substitutes for hands, and so require to
be suitable for the prehension of food, and not for its com-
minution ; for such comminution and biting is the office 2°
of teeth. In crabs, then, and in such other animals as
are able to seize their food in a leisurely manner, inasmuch
as their mouth is not called on to perform its office while
they are still in the water, the two functions are assigned to

cutting and not for grinding. This exception, though not mentioned
here, is recognized presently, when it is said that lateral motion goes
with grinding teeth only, and therefore not with the serrated dentition
of Carnivora.

1 This was the common belief of the ancients (cf. Herodotus, ii. 68).
Cuvier thus accounts for the error: ‘Les mAachoires inférieures se
prolongeant derriére le crane, il semble que la supérieure soit mobile,
et les anciens l’ont écrit ainsi; mais il ne se meut qu’avec la téte toute
entiére’ (Aég. Ax. ii. 18).

6ο1"

5.5

692°

σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

different parts, prehension to the hands or feet, biting and
comminution of food to the mouth. But in crocodiles
the mouth has been so framed by nature as to serve both
purposes, the jaws being made to move in the manner just
described.

Another part present in these animals is a neck, this
being the necessary consequence of their having a lung.
For the windpipe by which the air is admitted to the lung
is of some length.! If, however, the definition of a neck be
correct, which calls it the portion between the head and
the shoulders, a serpent can scarcely be said with the same
right as the rest of these animals to have a neck, but only
to have something analogous to that part of the body. It
is a peculiarity of serpents, as compared with other animals
allied to them, that they are able to turn their head back-
wards without stirring the rest of the body. The reason of
this is that a serpent, like an insect, has a body that admits
of being curled up, its vertebrae being cartilaginous and
easily bent.2 The faculty in question belongs then to

‘serpents simply as a necessary consequence of this character

of their vertebrae; but at the same time it has a final cause,
for it enables them to guard against attacks from behind.
For their body, owing to its length and the absence of feet,
is ill-suited for turning round and protecting the hinder
parts; and merely to lift the head, without the power of
turning it round, would be of no use whatsoever.

The animals with which we are dealing have, moreover,
a part which corresponds to the breast; but neither here
nor elsewhere in their body have they any mammae, as
neither has any bird or fish. This is a consequence of their
having no milk ; fora mamma is a receptacle for milk and,
as it were, a vessel to contain it. This absence of milk is not
peculiar to these animals, but is common to all such as are
not internally viviparous.® For all such produce eggs, and the

1 Cf. iii. 3.664% 30 note.

* The vertebrae of Ophidia are not cartilaginous but osseous. The
great flexibility of the spine is due to its division into excessively
numerous segments, and to the existence of a perfect ball and socket
joint between each of these and that which precedes and follows it.

8 “Internally viviparous’ is equivalent to Mammalia, whose ovum

BOOK IV. 1 692?

nutriment which in Vivipara has the character of milk is in 15
them engendered in theegg. Of all this, however, a clearer
account will be given in the treatise on Generation! As
to the mode in which the legs? bend, a general account, in
which all animals are considered, has already been given in
the dissertation on Progression.? These animals also have

a tail, larger in some of them, smaller in others, and the
reason for this has been stated in general terms in an earlier 20
passage.*

Of all oviparous animals that live on land there is none so
lean as the Chamaeleon. For there is none that has so
little blood. The explanation of this is to be found in the
psychical temperament of the creature. For it is of a timid
nature, as the frequent changes it undergoes in its outward 25
aspect testify.° But fear is a refrigeration, and results from
deficiency of natural heat and scantiness of blood.

We have now done with such sanguineous animals as are 692”
quadrupedous and also such as are apodous, and have stated
with sufficient completeness what external parts they possess,
and for what reasons they have them.

12 The differences of birds compared one with another are
differences of magnitude, and of the greaterorsmallerdevelop-
ment of parts. Thus some have long legs, others short legs ;
some have a broad tongue, others a narrow tongue ; and so
on with the other parts. There are few of their parts that
differ save in size,® taking birds by themselves. But when
birds are compared with other animals the parts present
differences of form also. For in some animals these are

σι

was unknown to Aristotle; it excludes ovoviviparous animals, which
A. called ‘ externally viviparous but internally oviparous.’

WGA. Wi. 2. 752” τὸ sad. 2 For καμπύλων read σκελών (P).

Ge De Aa: le." 15.

4 Cf. iv. 10. 689” 3-690? 4.

> Alluding of course to the well-known changes of colour that occur
in this animal (cf. Owen, Verfed. i. 556), which are apparently deter-
mined not only by variations in the temperature, the amount of light,
and the tints of surrounding objects, but also by emotions, as fear,
anger, and the like.

6 The sense requires πλὴν κατὰ μέγεθος or equivalent words after
ἀλλήλων. The class Aves is remarkably homogeneous. ‘The struc-
tural modifications which they present are of comparatively little
importance’ (Huxley).

692” DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

hairy, in others scaly, and in others have scale-like plates,
while birds are feathered.
το Birds, then, are feathered,! and this is a character common
1o them all and peculiar to them. Their feathers, too, are
split and distinct in kind from the undivided feathers of
insects; for the bird’s feather is barbed, these are not; the
bird’s feather has a shaft, these have none.”
1s A second strange peculiarity which distinguishes birds
from all other animals is their beak. For as in elephants?
the nostril serves in place of hands, and as in some insects
the tongue serves in place of mouth, so in birds there is a
beak, which, being bony,* serves in place of teeth and lips.
20 Their organs of sense have already been considered.°®
All birds have a neck extending from the body ; and the
purpose of this neck is the same as in such other animals as
have one. This neck in some birds is long, in others short ;
its length, as a general rule, being pretty nearly determined
by that of the legs. For long-legged birds have a long
neck, short-legged birds a short one, to which rule, however,
693° the web-footed birds form an exception. For to a bird
perched up on long legs a short neck would be of no use
whatsoever in collecting food from the ground ; and equally
useless would be a long neck, if the legs were short. Such
birds, again, as are carnivorous would find length in this
part interfere® greatly with their habits of life. For a long
neck is weak, and it is on their superior strength that car-
nivorous birds depend for their subsistence. No bird, there-
fore, that has talons ever has an elongated neck. In web-
footed birds, however, and in those other birds’ belonging

σι

1 Transpose πτερωτοί ... τῶν ἄλλων, placing it after the next sen-
tence.
2 Cf. iv. 6. 682" 17 note. 5 ἘΠ 11 το 658». 35:

* Read ὄὕστινον ὄν (Y). Not, however, actually bony, but resembling
bone in being hard. Cf. ii. 9. 655” 3.

ΠΕ. 12 1ὴ.

6. Read ὑπεναντίον ἂν ἢν τό (P Yb).

7 Read καὶ τὰ διῃρημένους, and for ὡς ἐν τῷ read καὶ ἐν τῷ. The birds
alluded to are the Grebes, Phalaropes, and Coots (the Pinnatipedes of
Temminck), in which the toes, as described more distinctly farther on,
are bordered with broad membranous lobes. The word in the Greek
text (σεσιμωμένους), rendered ‘with flat marginal lobes’, is literally
‘snub-nosed’; the main stem of the toe answering to the ridge of the
nose, and the lobes on either side to the flattened nostrils.

BOOK IV. 12 693°

to the same class, whose toes though actually separate have
flat marginal lobes, the neck is elongated, so as to be suit-
able for collecting food from the water; while the legs are
short, so as to serve in swimming.

The beaks of birds, as their feet, vary with their modes of τὸ
life. For in some the beak is straight, in others crooked ;
straight, in those who use it merely for eating; crooked, in
those that live on raw flesh. For a crooked beak is an
advantage in fighting ; and these birds must, of course, get
their food from the bodies of other animals, and in most
cases by violence. In such birds, again, as live in marshes 1;
and are herbivorous the beak is broad and flat, this form
being best suited for digging and cropping, and for pulling
up plants. In some of these marsh birds, however, the
beak is elongated, as too is the neck, the reason for this
being that the bird gets its food from some depth below the
surface. For most birds of this kind, and most of those 20
whose feet are webbed, either in their entirety or each part
separately,! live by preying on some of the smaller animals
that are to be found in water, and use these parts for their
capture, the neck acting as a fishing-rod, and the beak
representing the line and hook.

The upper and under sides of the body, that is of what in
quadrupeds is called the trunk, present in birds one un-
broken surface, and they have no arms? or forelegs attached
to it, but in their stead wings, which are a distinctive
peculiarity of these animals; and, as these wings are sub- 693”
stitutes for arms, their terminal segments lie on the back in
the place of a shoulder-blade.*

The legs are two in number, as in man; not however, as
in man, bent outwards, but bent inwards like the [hind] legs
of a quadruped.* The wings are bent like the forelegs of 5

τὸ
σι

1 The sense is obvious (see last note), but the true meaning doubtful.
I suggest omitting τό with Y and for ταὐτό reading τούτοις, meaning
the elongated neck and beak.

2 Read kai ἔχουσι ἀπηρτημένας, omitting ἔχουσι after προσθίων (Y b).

3 The scapula in birds is a simple elongated bone, not flattened out
into a plate or blade, and so was not recognized by A. as a ‘ blade-
bone’, just as he did not recognize the astragalus unless it had the
form suiting it for use as a ‘ huckle-bone’.

* Cf. H. A. ii. 1. 498% 27; De An. Inc. 15.71222 sq. A. uses two sets

693" DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

a quadruped, having their convexity turned outwards. That
the feet should be two in number is a matter of necessity.
For a bird is essentially a sanguineous animal, and at the
same time essentially a winged animal; and no sanguineous
animal has more than four points for motion.! In birds,
το then, as in those other sanguineous animals that live and
move upon the ground, the limbs attached to the trunk are
four in number. But, while in all the rest these four limbs
consist of a pair of arms and a pair of legs,? or of four legs
as in quadrupeds, in birds the arms or forelegs are replaced
by a pair of wings, and this is their distinctive character.
For it is of the essence of a bird that it shall be able to
fly ; and it is by the extension of wings that this is made
15 possible. Of all arrangements, then, the only possible, and
so the necessary, one is that birds shall have two feet; for
this with the wings will give them four points for motion.
The breast in all birds is sharp-edged, and fleshy.* « The
sharp edge is to minister to flight, for broad surfaces move
with considerable difficulty, owing to the large quantity of
air which they have to displace ; while the fleshy character

of terms to describe the bendings of the limbs: (1) Forwards and back-
wards, (2) Inwards and outwards. A limbis said to be bent forwards or
backwards when its convexity is turned forwards or backwards; e.g.
the leg of a man is bent forwards; so is the foreleg of a horse. But
the hind leg of a horse is bent backwards ; the arm of a man is bent
backwards with a slight inclination to the side. A limb is bent
inwards, when its concavity is turned in the direction in which the
main bulk of the body lies; outwards when the concavity is turned
away from this. Thus both the fore and hind legs of a horse are bent
inwards. So also the leg of a bird is bent inwards; but the leg of
a man is bent outwards. Cf. H. 4.11. 1. 498% 3-31 ; De An. nc. 12-15.

It must be remembered that A. knows nothing of the homologies of
the various joints. He simply takes the limbs as wholes, and
compares the general direction of their main curvature in different
animals.

1 A. rightly says that no sanguineous animal has more than four
organs of locomotion, that is, more than four limbs. There are
passages from which it might be inferred that he imagined, less
correctly, that they never have less than four. But in the De Az. 7716.
(10. 709> 22) he expressly repudiates such a statement.

2 Reading σκέλη τοῖς δὲ τετράποσι σκέλη (PY).

5.Α. had clearly neither dissected, nor seen the skeleton of,
an ostrich. In all other birds known to him the sternum is provided
with a keel, and is compared by him (De Ax. Jue. το. 710% 31) to the
sharp prow of a felucca, reminding one of the term ‘ Carinatae ’ now
applied to birds with a keeled sternum. By the fleshy covering is of
course meant the mass of pectoral muscles.

BOOK IV. τὸ 693°

acts as a protection, for the breast, owing to its form, would
be weak, were it not amply covered.

Below the breast lies the belly, extending, as in quad-
rupeds and in man, to the vent and to the place where the 20
legs are jointed to the trunk.

Such, then, are the parts which lie between the wings and
the legs. Birds like all other animals, whether produced
viviparously or from eggs, have an umbilicus during their
development, but, when the bird has attained to fuller
growth, no signs of this remain visible. The cause of this
is plainly to be seen during the process of development ;
for in birds the umbilical cord unites with the intestine, and 25
is not a portion of the vascular system, as is the case in
viviparous animals.!

Some birds, again, are well adapted for flight, their wings
being large and strong. Such, for instance, are those that 6045
have talons and live on flesh. For their mode of life renders
the power of flight a necessity, and it is on this account that
their feathers are so abundant and their wings so large.
Besides these, however, there are also other genera of birds
that can fly well; all those, namely, that depend on speed
for security, or that are of migratory habits. On the other
hand, some kinds of birds have heavy bodies and are not
constructed for flight. These are birds that are frugivorous
and live on the ground, or that are able to swim and get

σι

ΤΕ might be supposed from this passage that A. imagined a bird to
be developed without an allantois and merely with an umbilical vesicle.
But from other passages (G. A. iii. 3. 754° 4 ; G.A. iii. 2.753» 20 sq. ;
H. A.vi. 3.561" 5) it is plain that this was not the case. He describes
the foetal] bird and reptile as differing from fishes in having two umbilical
appendages, one going to the membrane surrounding the yelk, and
serving to introduce the nutriment thence derived, the other (a//anzots)
to the membranous expansion which lines the inner surface of the
shell. This latter appendage, he says, collapses as the embryonic
bird enlarges ; while the former with the yelk is drawn back into the
abdominal cavity, the walls of which unite together behind it. He
had not observed the umbilical vesicle of mammals, which is com-
paratively small, and shrivels up at an early period of foetal life, and
erroneously supposed their allantois to correspond to the umbilical
vesicle of birds and reptiles. This error was not corrected till 1667,
when Needham discovered the umbilical vesicle of mammals, and
recognized its correspondence to that of birds. Neither had A. ob-
served that Amphibia in this matter resemble fishes and not reptiles,
with which latter he grouped them.

AR. P,A, O

6945 DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

their living in watery places. In those that have talons the
body, without the wings, is small ; for the nutriment is con-
sumed in the production of these! wings, and of the weapons
and defensive appliances; whereas in birds that are not
made for flight the contrary obtains, and the body is bulky
and so of heavy weight. In some of these heavy-bodied birds
the legs are furnished with what are called spurs, which
replace the wings as a means of defence. Spurs and talons
1g Never co-exist in the same bird. For nature never makes
anything superfluous ; and if a bird can fly, and has talons, it
has no use for spurs ; for these are weapons for fighting on
the ground, and on this account are an appanage of certain
heavy-bodied birds. These latter, again, would find the
possession of talons not only useless but actually injurious ;
20 for the claws would stick into the ground and interfere with
progression. This is the reason why all birds with talons
walk so badly, and why they never settle upon rocks.?
For the character of their claws is ill-suited for either action.
All this is the necessary consequence of the process of
development. For the earthy matter in the body issuing ὃ
from it is converted into parts that are useful as weapons.
That which flows upwards gives hardness or size to the beak ;
and, should any flow downwards, it either forms spurs upon
the legs or gives size and strength to the claws upon the
feet. But it does not at one and the same time produce
both these results, one in the legs, the other in the claws;
for such a dispersion of this residual matter would destroy
allits efficiency. In other. birds this earthy residue furnishes
694” the legs with the material for their elongation; or some-
times, in place of this, fills up the interspaces between the

1 For ἐνταῦθα read eis ταύτας (Q 5 U Z) ; and read καί before εἰς τὰ ὅπλα.

? Birds of prey are awkward movers on the ground or other flat
surface, because of their talons, and help themselves along by flapping
their wings. But the statement made here and elsewhere (27. A. ix,
32. 619? 7) that they very seldom or never settle on rocks is erroneous ;
they often do so, and indeed rocks are the usual resting-place of
many. Moreover, in the Falconidae the claws are retractile, so that
they can be elevated at pleasure, and their sharp ends kept from being
blunted by contact with any hard body on which the bird may perch.

3. If the strange word ἔξορμον be kept, we may read ἔξορμον ἐκ τούτου
τά (Y), and suppose the earthy matter making its way out of the body
to be compared metaphorically to a ship making its way out of a
harbour, but Langkavel’s suggested reading ἔξω ῥυέν is very probable.

is}
σι

BOOK IV. 12

toes. Thus it is simply a matter of necessity,’ that such
birds as swim shall either be actually web-footed, or shall
have a kind of broad blade-like margin running along the
whole length of each distinct toe. The forms, then, of these
feet are simply the necessary results of the causes that have
been mentioned. Yet at the same time they are intended
for the animal’s advantage. For they are in harmony with
the mode of life of these birds, who, living on the water,
where their wings? are useless, require that their feet shall
be such as to serve in swimming. For these feet are so

694°

σι

developed as to resemble the oars of a boat, or the fins? of τὸ

a fish; and the destruction of the foot-web has the same
effect as the destruction of the fins ; that is to say, it puts
an end to all power of swimming.

In some birds the legs are very long, the cause of this
being that they inhabit marshes. I say the cause, because
nature makes the organs for the function, and not the func-
tion for the organs. It is, then, because these birds are not
meant for swimming that their feet are without webs, and it
is because they live on ground that gives way under the foot
that their legs and toes are elongated, and that these latter
in most of them have an extra number of joints.4. Again,
though all birds have the same material composition, they
are not all made for flight; and in these, therefore, the
nutriment that should go to their tail-feathers is spent on
the legs and used to increase their size. This is the reason
why these birds when they fly make use of their legs as
a tail, stretching them out behind, and so rendering them
serviceable, whereas in any other position they would be
simply an impediment.®

1 Because the earthy matter has not been used in any other manner,
and must be disposed of in some way or other.

2 For πτερῶν read πτερύγων (Yb).

5 Read καί before τὰ πτερύγια τοῖς ἰχθύσιν (Y b).

* This is erroneous. The number of phalanges is the same in the
several toes of Waders as in other birds, though the toes are as a rule
longer.

° * These water birds fly with their legs stretched out behind,
using them in place of a tail to steer their course.’ In the heron, for
instance, the tail is short, and the long legs, stretched out in flight,
‘seem, like the longer tails of some birds, to serve as a rudder’
(Bewick’s Birds, p. 11).

O 2

-
σ

694°

695

σι

Ιο

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

In other birds, where the legs are short, these are held
close against the belly during flight. In some cases this is
merely to keep the feet out of the way, but in birds that
have talons the position has a further purpose, being the one
best suited for rapine. Birds that have a long and a thick
neck keep it stretched out during flight ; but those whose
neck though long is slender fly with it coiled up. For in
this position it is protected, and less likely to get broken,
should the bird fly against any obstacle.

In all birds there is an ischium,? but so placed and of
such length that it would scarcely be taken for an ischium,
but rather for a second thigh-bone ; for it extends as far as
to the middle of the belly. . The reason for this is that the
bird is a biped, and yet is unable to stand erect. For if its
ischium extended but a short way from the fundament, and
then immediately came the leg, as is the case in man and in
quadrupeds, the bird would be unable to stand up at all.?
For while man stands erect, and while quadrupeds have
their heavy bodies propped up in front by the forelegs,
birds can neither stand erect owing to their dwarf-like
shape, nor have anterior legs to prop them up, these legs
being replaced by wings. Asa remedy for this Nature has
given them a long ischium, and brought it to the centre of
the body, fixing it firmly; and she has placed the legs
under this central point, that the weight on either side may
be equally balanced, and standing or progression rendered
possible. Such then is the reason why a bird, though it isa
biped, does not stand erect. Why its legs ® are destitute of
flesh has also already been stated ;° for the reasons are the
same as in the case of quadrupeds.

1 The heron in flight rests its very slender neck and head on the back,
so that the bill appears to issue from the chest ; while the stork, the ibis,
the goose, &c., fly with the comparatively stout neck outstretched.

2 A. uses the term ‘ischium’ in two senses; firstly, for the fleshy
buttocks, and it is with this meaning that he says (iv. 10. 690% 25) that
man alone has ischia; secondly, forthe bone with which the femur in
man, and what he mistakes for the femur in other vertebrates, is ar-
ticulated at its upper end; and it is with this meaning that he says
that birds have long ischia. (Cf. iv. 10. 689» 7 note.)

8 For ὀρθόν read ὅλως (P Q U).

4 Read διὰ τοῦτο, πτέρυγας δὲ avr’ αὐτῶν (Y).

5 By σκέλη here are plainly meant not the whole legs, but their
tarso-metatarsal segments. © Cf iv. 10. 68927.

~<A

BOOK: [V." 12 695°

In all birds alike, whether web-footed or not, the number
of toes in each foot is four. For the Libyan ostrich may
be disregarded for the present, and its cloven hoof and other
discrepancies of structure as compared with the tribe of
birds will be considered further on.2 Of these four toes
three are in front, while the fourth points backwards, serv- 20
ing, as a heel, to give steadiness. In the long-legged birds
this fourth toe is much shorter 5 than the others, as is the
case with the Crex,* but the number of their toes is not in-
creased. The arrangement of the toes is such as has been
described in all® birds with the exception of the wryneck.
Here only two of the toes are in front,’ the other two behind ;
and the reason for this is that the body of the wryneck is
not inclined forward so much as that of other birds. All
birds have testicles ; but they are inside the body. The
reason for this will be given in the treatise on the Genera-
tion of Animals.’

το
σι

13 Thus then are fashioned the parts of birds. But in fishes 695”
a still further stunting has occurred in the external parts.
For here, for reasons already given,’ there are neither legs
nor hands nor wings, the whole body from head to tail pre-
senting one unbroken surface. This tail differs in different
fishes, in some approximating in character to the fins,!° while
in others, namely in some of the flat kinds, it is spinous and
elongated, because the material which should have gone to

1 This is a general but not universal rule. In some birds, as the
great bustard, the Otis of Aristotle, the toes are reduced to three by
suppression of the hallux, as in the ostrich they are reduced to two by
suppression of both hallux and second digit. 2h ive VA:

* The hind toe varies very much in its development in Waders.
Usually it is short, as A. correctly says, but sometimes it is as long as,
or even longer than, the others.

* The Crex was doubtless some bird that derived its name, as does
our corn-crake, from its note. But it is uncertain what exact species
was thus designated. Cf. D’Arcy Thompson, Greek Birds, p. 103.

® Although such increase might perhaps have been expected by way
of compensation.

5 Elsewhere (47. A. ii. 12.5049 11) A. says, more correctly, that there
are several exceptions besides the wryneck.

7 Transpose ὄπισθεν and ἔμπροσθεν (Karsch).

NG? Ali A 717" 4a ΕἿΣ,

5.1 cannot say to what passage A. refers. But his explanation of
the substitution of fins for limbs is given a little further on in this
chapter. See 695? 17.

0 After παραπλησίαν, by itself unmeaning, read τοῖς πτερυγίοις.

οι

695"

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

the tail has been diverted thence and used to increase the
breadth of the body. Such, for instance, is the case with the
Torpedos,' the Trygons, and whatever other Selachia there
may be of like nature. In such fishes, then, the tail is
spinous and long; while in some others it is short and
fleshy, for the same reason which makes it spinous and long
in the Torpedo. For to be short and fleshy comes to the
same thing as to be long and less amply furnished with flesh.

What has occurred in the Fishing-frog ? is the reverse of
what has occurred in the other instances just given. For
here the anterior and broad part of the body is not of
a fleshy character, and so all the fleshy substance which
has been thence diverted has been placed by nature in the
tail and hinder portion? of the body.

In fishes there are no limbs attached to the body. For
in accordance with their essential constitution they are
swimming animals ; and nature never makes anything super-
fluous or void of use. Now inasmuch as fishes are made
for swimming they have fins,* and as they are not made for

1 The electric rays or Torpedos are found abundantly in the Medi-
terranean, and must have been well known to A., who frequently speaks
of them. Yet in these the tail is far from being spinous and elongated,
as compared, that is, with other rays. Frantzius suggests therefore
that some error has got into the text, and that perhaps Batos should
be read instead of Torpedo. A similar correction would have to be
made a few lines farther on. The Trygon is doubtless the 7xygonu
Pastinaca or sting-ray, which is abundant in the Mediterranean.

2 The Fishing-frog (Lophius piscatorius or L. budegassa) was
erroneously classed by A. with Selachia, confounding it with the rays.
Into this error he was doubtless led by the somewhat ray-like form of
this fish, by the semi-cartilaginous character of its skeleton (Cuvier,
R. Ax. ili. 250), and by its naked skin, rough with warts and tubercles.
A. did not, however, fail to observe that this fish differed in many
important points from the rest of the group; in being, for instance,
oviparous (G. A. ill. 3. 754% 25); and in having an operculum for its
gills, which are themselves placed laterally, not ventrally as in true
fays (77. 21.11.02. ΒΟΟ δὴ:

3 For αὐτό read αὐτῶν (U).

* Although A. recognizes the correspondence of the paired fins (i. e.
pectorals and ventrals) of fishes to the four limbs of other vertebrates,
this recognition is not based on any serious anatomical grounds, as is
plain from what he says of the Rays. For he fails to see that the
marginal parts of the flattened bodies of these fishes are really the
pectorals, but supposes these to have been moved back and to be
represented by the (dorsa/) fins on the tail, which in many rays are two
in number. So also he speaks of the serpents, which have no limbs
at all, as still resembling the other sanguineous animals, i.e. in having
four points of motion. ‘ For,’ says he, ‘their flexures are four,’ while

BOOK IV. 18 695”

walking they are without feet ; for feet are attached to the
body that they may be of use in progression on land.
Moreover, fishes cannot have feet, or any other similar
limbs, as well as four fins ; for they are essentially san-
guineous animals. The Cordylus,! though it has gills, has
feet, for it has no fins but merely has its tail flattened out
and loose in texture.”
Fishes, unless, like the Batos and the Trygon, they are
broad and flat, have four fins, two on the upper and two on 696°
the under side of the body; and no fish ever has more -
than these. For, if it had, it would be a bloodless animal.
The upper pair of fins is present in nearly all fishes, but
not so the under pair ;* for these are wanting in some of
those fishes that have long thick bodies, such as the eel, the
conger, and a certain kind of Cestreus that is found in the
lake at Siphae. When the body is still more elongated,
and resembles that of a serpent rather than that of a fish, as
is the case in the Smuraena,* there are absolutely no fins at
all ; and locomotion is effected by the flexures of the body,
the water being put to the same use by these fishes as is the
ground by serpents. For serpents swim in water exactly
in the same way as they glide on the ground. The reason
for these serpent-like fishes being without fins is the same
as that which causes serpents to be without feet ; and what

μι

fe)

in such fishes as have only two fins ‘the flexures are two, to replace
the missing pair’ (cf. 27. A. 1. 5. 490% 30).

1 Cf. H. A. viii. 2. 589° 26. The Cordylus must presumably be the
larval form of some triton or newt which retains its gills for a longer
period than the generality of tadpoles. Such, says Prof. D’Arcy
Thompson, are 77zton alpestris and Salamandra atra. It is strange
that A. should not have known that tadpoles are the larval forms of

frogs and newts. 2 Destitute, that is, of fin-rays.
* The pectoral fins are, as rightly stated in the text, much more
constant than the ventral pair. Even in those elongated eels in which

no pectorals are visible externally, rudiments of them are to be found
on dissection; whereas not only are the ventral fins more often
externally wanting than the pectorals, but their absence is often com-
plete, no rudiment of them appearing on dissection, e.g. in Muraena,
Muraenophis, Gymnotus, &c. There are pectoral, but no ventral, fins
in the eel, the conger, and the rest of the so-called Apodal Physo-
stomatous fishes. As to the Cestreus, it is impossible to say what fish
is here meant. It can scarcely be one of the Mugilidae, though these
are the fishes usually called Cestreus by Aristotle.

* The Smuraena and Muraena are probably one and the same fish,
namely the JZuvaena Helena, common in the Greek seas, and still,
according to Erhard, called Smurna or Sphurna.

696°

σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

this is has been already stated in the dissertations on the Pro-
gression and the Motion of Animals.!. The reason was this.
If the points of motion were four, motion would be effected
under difficulties; for either the two pairs of fins would be
close to each other, in which case motion would scarcely be
possible, or they would be at a very considerable distance
apart, in which case the long interval between them would
be just as great an evil. On the other hand, to have more
than four such motor points would convert the fishes into
bloodless animals. A similar explanation applies to the
case of those fishes that have only two fins. For here
again the body is of great length and like that of a serpent,
and its undulations 2 do the office of the two missing fins. It
is owing to this that such fishes can even crawl on dry ground,
and can live there for a considerable time ; and do not begin
to gasp until they have been for a considerable time out of
the water, while others, whose nature is akin to that of land-
animals, do not even do as much as that.’ In such fishes as
have but two fins it is the upper pair (fecforals) that is
present, excepting when the flat broad shape of the body
prevents this. The fins in such cases are placed at the
head, because in this region there is no elongation, which
might serve in the absence of fins as a means of locomotion ;
whereas in the direction of the tail there is a considerable
lengthening out in fishes of this conformation. As for the
Bati and the like, they use the marginal part of their flat-
tened bodies in place of fins for swimming.’

In the Torpedo and the Fishing-frog the breadth of the
anterior part of the body is not so great as to render loco-
motion by fins impossible, but in consequence of it the
upper pair (feczorals) are placed further back and the under
pair (vextrals) are placed close to the head, while to com-
pensate for this advancement they are reduced in size so as
to be smaller than the upper ones.? In the Torpedo the

1 Cf. De An. Inc.7. 709 7sqq. There is no corresponding passage
in the De Motu. Moreover, that treatise is universally admitted to be
spurious. Possibly A. is merely using a longer title than usual to
designate his treatise on Progression. 2 See 695? 20 note.

8 The text here is so corrupt as only to admit of somewhat con-
jectural rendering.

* The Rays swim as here described. See, however, 695” 20 note.

δ In the Fishing-frog the ventral fins are, as stated, in advance of

BOOK. IV. 13 696°

two upper fins (fectorals) are placed on the tail,’ and the fish
uses the broad expansion of its body to supply their place,
each lateral half of its circumference serving the office ofa fin.

The head, with its several parts, as also the organs of
sense, have already come under consideration.?

There is one peculiarity which distinguishes fishes from
all other sanguineous animals, namely, the possession of
gills. Why they have these organs has been set forth in 696°
the treatise on Respiration. These gills are in most fishes
covered by opercula, but in the Selachia, owing to the
skeleton being cartilaginous, there are no such coverings.
For an operculum requires fish-spine for its formation, and
in other fishes the skeleton is made of this substance, 5
whereas in the Selachia it is invariably formed of cartilage.
Again, while the motions of spinous fishes are rapid, those
of the Selachia are sluggish, inasmuch as they have neither
fish-spine nor sinew ; but an operculum requires rapidity of
motion, seeing that the office of the gills is to minister as it
were to expiration.* For this reason in Selachia the branchial
orifices themselves effect their own closure, and thus there
is no need for an operculum to ensure its taking place with
due rapidity.° In some fishes the gills are numerous, in
others few in number; in some again they are double, in
others single. The last gill in most cases is single.® For

Lon!

3°

the pectorals and smaller than these. It is quite true that when the
ventrals are advanced forwards, so as to become jugular, they are as
a rule, if not invariably, reduced in size ; and they are also, as a rule,
modified in such a way as to serve new purposes, to act, for instance,
as instruments of touch. Cf. Amz. d. Sct. Nat., 1872, t. xvi. p. 93.

1 Cf. 695” 20 note.

2 Namely, in the latter part of the second book and beginning of the
third book. 5 De Resp. το. 4768 1 sq., and 21. 480” 13.

* A. says, minister ‘as it were’ to expiration; for expiration is
limited by him to the expulsion of air from a lung after inspiration.
The expulsion of water through gills is analogous to this, but not the
same thing.

5. In these cartilaginous fishes there is no gill-cover ; the gills being
placed in a series of distinct sacs or pouches, each of which has its
own separate slit-like aperture, which is closed during inhalation by
its own muscular sphincter.

δ In the Elasmobranchii or cartilaginous fishes there are five, and
in osseous fishes four, gills on either side as a rule. But the number is
subject to some variations. Each gill consists, as a rule, of a double row
of leaflets. But it is by no means uncommon for the last, that is the
fourth, gill in an osseous fish to be, as A. says, furnished with only
a single row, 6. g. Scarus, Scorpaena, Cottus, most Labroids, &c.

696°

τὸ
οι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

a detailed account of all this, reference must be made to the
treatises on Anatomy, and to the book of Researches con-
cerning Animals.!

It is the abundance or the deficiency of the cardiac heat
which determines the numerical abundance or deficiency of
the gills. For, the greater an animal’s heat, the more rapid
andthe more forcible does it require the branchial movement
to be ;? and numerous and double gills act with more force
and rapidity than such as are few and single. Thus, too, it
is that some fishes that have but few gills, and those of
comparatively small efficacy, can live out of water for
a considerable time; for in them there is no great demand
for refrigeration. Such, for example, are the eel and all
other fishes of serpent-like form.

Fishes also present diversities as regards the mouth. For
in some this is placed in front, at the very extremity of the
body, while in others, as the dolphin * and the Selachia, it is
placed on the under surface ; so that these fishes turn on the
back in order to take their food. The purpose of Nature in
this was apparently not merely to provide a means of salva-
tion for other animals, by allowing them opportunity of
escape during the time lost in the act of turning—for all the
fishes with this kind of mouth prey on living animals—but
also to prevent these fishes from giving way too much to
their gluttonous ravening after food.* For had they been

LCf. 27. Alin. 13. 504° 28-505 20,

* Because the hotter an animal is, the more perfect must be the
arrangements for its refrigeration.

5 Seeing that dolphins abound in the Mediterranean, and that the
main points in their structure, and their habits of life, are accurately
enough described by Aristotle, it seems to me quite impossible either
that he can have imagined their mouth to be underneath their body,
or, as has been suggested, confounded them with the larger sharks.
I agree therefore with Frantzius that the word dolphins in the text is
probably an interpolation; and this notwithstanding the objection to
that view taken by Meyer, namely, the fact that the same false statement
occurs elsewhere (H. A. viii. 2. 591° 26). The same transcriber who
made the addition to the text in the one place may very possibly have
made it in the other.

4 This is, so far as I know, the only place where A. speaks of the
structure of an animal as intended for the advantage of other animals
than itself. Elsewhere he always speaks of the organs as given to
animals to be of service to themselves. ‘ Nature never gives an organ
to an animal except when it is able to make use of it.’ Even here he

considers the habit in question to be of use to its possessor, and only
speaks doubtfully of its being intended asa means of salvation to others.

Se Se ee

BOOK ΠΥ 15

able to seize their prey more easily than they do, they
would soon have perished from over-repletion. An addi-
tional reason is that the projecting extremity of the head in
these fishes is round and small, and therefore cannot admit
of a wide opening.

Again, even when the mouth is not placed on the under
surface, there are differences in the extent to which it can
open. For in some cases it can gape widely, while in others
it is set at the point of a small tapering snout ; the former
being the case in carnivorous fishes, such as those with sharp
interfitting teeth, whose strength lies in their mouth, while
the latter is its form in all such as are not carnivorous.

The skin is in some fishes covered with scales (the scale
ofa fish is a thin and shiny film, and therefore easily becomes
detached from the surface of the body’). In others it is
rough, as for instance in the Rhine, the Batos 2, and the like.
Fewest of all are those whose skin is smooth. The Selachia
have no scales, but a rough skin. This is explained by their
cartilaginous skeleton. For the earthy material which has
been thence diverted is expended by nature upon the skin.

No fish has testicles * either externally or internally ; as
indeed have no apodous animals, among which of course are

1 This parenthesis appears to be a note introduced to point out
the difference between the scale of a fish (λεπίς) and the scale of
a reptile (φολίς) ; the former thin and quite superficial, so as to be
easily rubbed off, the latter thicker and set more firmly in the skin.
It is strange that λαμπρότης should be assigned as a cause of easy
detachment, unless ‘shiny’ is supposed to connote ‘ superficial’. Per-
haps, however, for λαμπρότητα should be read μαλακότητα.

* The Batus is indisputably a Ray. The Rhine is usually identified
with the Angel-fish (2. Sgwazina), but much more probably is some
- other shark in shape like a dog-fish; while the Angel-fish is the
Rhinobates, said (7. A. vi. 11. 566% 28) to be in the fore part like the
Batus and in the hind part like the Rhine, and supposed to be a cross
between the two. It ‘has a form and appearance intermediate between
the Sharks and Rays’ (Seeley).

5. That is to say they have no solid organ of the globular or ovoid
shape which characterizes the testes of Mammalia, birds, and most
reptiles. This is all that A. can mean; for he was perfectly aware
that the milt was an organ from which the male fish secreted sperm ;
and he states, in opposition to those who held that there were no
males among osseous fishes, that the ova of the female fish come to
nothing unless the male voids the secretion of this milt upon them
(G. A. iii. 1.750% 15; A. A. vi. 14.5686). He refuses, however, to call
these saccular organs ‘testes’, because of their shape and of their being
hollow, and styles them spermatic tubes (πόροι) or roe (@opixa). He
supposed (G. «4. 1. 4) that these saccular spermatic tubes or roe, as

696°

697°

697"

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

included the serpents. One and the same orifice serves both
for the excrement and for the generative secretions,! as is
the case also in all other oviparous animals, whether two-
footed or four-footed,? inasmuch as they have no urinary
bladder and form no fluid excretion.*

Such then are the characters which distinguish fishes from
all other animals. But dolphins and whales and all such
Cetacea are without gills; and, having a lung, are pro-
vided with a blow-hole; for this serves them to discharge
the sea-water which has been taken into the mouth.* For,
feeding as they do in the water, they cannot but let this
fluid enter into their mouth, and, having let it in, they must
of necessity let it out again. The use of gills, however, as
has been explained in the treatise on Respiration,’ is limited
to such animals as do not breathe; for no animal can
possibly possess gills and at the same time be a respiratory
animal. In order, therefore, that these Cetacea may dis-
charge the water, they are provided with a blow-hole. This

also the elongated testes of serpents, corresponded not to the solid
globular or ovoid organs of birds, reptiles, and mammals, but to the
tubular vasa deferentia ; and it was to these latter that he erroneously
ascribed the seminal secretion. The ovoid or globular bodies he
thought were merely parts superadded, when the secreting spermatic
tubes became very long and complicated, for certain mechanical
purposes, which are set forth by him. His account of the seminal
organs of fishes seems to have been taken from osseous fishes; for in
the rays and sharks, that is to say in his Selachia, the testes are
compact oval bodies (cf. Huxley, Vert. p. 135).

1 In birds, reptiles, amphibians, there is a cloaca, i.e. a common
chamber into which open the rectum and the genital organs, as also
the urinary, though the latter escaped A.’s notice. ‘Thus in these
animals the faeces and the generative products are voided by one and
the same orifice. There is also a cloaca in the Plagiostomous fishes,
or Selachia of Aristotle. But though the statement in the text so far Ὁ
is true, it is erroneous as regards other fishes. For in these the anus
is distinct from the generative orifice or abdominal pore.

2 Read καὶ δίποδα καὶ τετράποδα.

8. The meaning must be: ‘ ΠῚ there were urinary organs and external
urinary orifice, the generative secretions would be discharged by this.
But as there is none, these secretions are discharged by the anus.’

4 The like statement is often enough made nowadays, but is
incorrect. The sea-water taken into the mouth has no access to the
respiratory passages and blow-hole, owing to the peculiar arrangement
by which the elongated trachea and larynx are continuous with the
tubular prolongation of the nasal passage formed by the soft palate.
The ‘ spouting’ is due to the sudden condensation of expired vapour,
and to spray driven up by the force of the expiration, when this begins
before the animal has quite reached the surface.

5 De Resp. το. 476% 1 sq.3 21. 480? 13.

BOOK IV. 13 697°

is placed in front of the brain ; for otherwise it would have 25
cut off the brain from the spine.1 The reason for these
animals having a lung and breathing, is that animals of
large size require an excess of heat, to facilitate? their
motion. A lung, therefore, is placed within their body, and

is fully supplied with blood-heat. These creatures are after

a fashion land and water animalsinone. For so far as they
are inhalers of air they resemble land-animals, while they 30
resemble water-animals in having no feet and in deriving
their food from the sea. So also seals lie half-way between 697”
land and water animals, and bats half-way between animals
that live on the ground and animals that fly ; and so belong
to both kinds or to neither. For seals, if looked on as
water-animals, are yet found to have feet; and, if looked
on as land-animals, are yet found to have fins.* For their
hind feet are exactly like the fins of fishes ; and their teeth 5
also are sharp and interfitting * as in fishes. Bats again, if
regarded as winged animals, have feet ; and, if regarded as
quadrupeds, are without them.’ So also they have neither
the tail of a quadruped nor the tail of a bird; no quad-
ruped’s tail, because they are winged animals; no bird’s
tail, because they are terrestrial. This absence of tail is τὸ
the result of necessity. For bats fly by means of a mem-
brane, but no animal, unless it has barbed feathers, has the
tail of a bird ; for a bird’s tail is composed of such feathers.

? As to continuity of brain and spinal cord, and its supposed purpose,
ἘΠῚ 7: 652% 50:

3 Heat is the instrument of the soul in motion, as in all operations.
Cetacea, therefore, that move actively must have much heat ; and this
again necessitates a perfect organ to regulate heat, and such is the
lung. 3 For πτέρυγας read πτερύγια.

* H. A.ii. τ. 501° 21. In the seals, says Owen (Odontog. i. 506),
‘the coadaptation of the crowns of the upper and lower teeth is more
completely alternate than in any of the terrestrial Carnivora, the lower
teeth always passing into the interspace anterior to its fellow in the
upper jaw.’

5 A. means that the anterior limbs of bats though they are wings
yet have claws, and so resemble feet and are unlike the wings of
a bird; but at the same time they do not so closely resemble the fore-
limbs of a quadruped as to make the bat strictly quadrupedous. A.
knew that bats are viviparous and suckle their young ; for he speaks
of these animals as having cotyledons in their uterus (H. A. iii. 1.
511° 31sq.), and groups them with the hare and the rat among vivi-
parous animals with teeth in both jaws.

697”

-
σι

DE PARTIBUS ANIMALIUM

As for a quadruped’s tail, it would be an actual impedi-
ment, if present among the feathers.

Much the same may be said also of the Libyan ostrich. 14

For it has some of the characters of a bird, some of the
characters of a quadruped. It differs from a quadruped in
being feathered ; and from a bird in being unable to soar
aloft, and in having feathers that resemble hair and are use-
less for flight.1 Again, it agrees with quadrupeds in having
upper eyelashes,? which are the more richly supplied with
hairs because the parts about the head and the upper por-
tion of the neck are bare;* and it agrees with birds in being
feathered in all the parts posterior to these. Further, it
resembles a bird in being a biped, and a quadruped in
having a cloven hoof; for it has hoofs and not toes.* The
explanation of these peculiarities is to be found in its bulk,
which is that of a quadruped rather than that of a bird. For,
speaking generally, a bird must necessarily be of very small
size. For a body of heavy bulk can with difficulty be
raised into the air.

Thus much then as regards the parts of animals. We
have discussed them all, and set forth the cause why each
exists ; and in so doing we have severally considered each
group of animals. We must now pass on, and in due
sequence must next deal with the question of their genera-
tion.

1 In the ostrich and other Ratitae the barbs of the feathers are dis-
connected, so that they come to resemble long hairs, and, owing to
their want of firmness, are useless for flight.

ΣΦ Chan G56" 15 mote:

5’ The head and neck are naked, or covered with only a short
downy plumage. Cf. ii. 9. 6552 28 note.

4 The foot of the ostrich has two stout toes, connected at the base
by a strong membrane. Of these toes the internal is much the larger,
and is furnished with a thick hoof-like claw, but the external and
smaller toe is clawless. Aristotle had probably never himself seen an
ostrich; for, had he done so, he would scarcely have spoken of its foot
as having two hoofs. That the ostrich is a kind of link, uniting birds
with mammals, is not a fancy confined to Aristotle. The vulgar
opinion in Arabia still makes it the product of a camel and a bird, as
in the days when it got the name, already used for it by Pliny, of
Struthio-camelus. The height of the bird, its long neck, its bifid foot,
its frequentation of the desert, its patient endurance of thirst, and

possibly the comparative complexity of its digestive organs, were
doubtless the grounds of this strange notion.

ERRATA

666° το note 4. Before Under νεῦρα read Meaning the
Chordae tendineae (H. A. 111. 5. 515% 25). and omit reference
after A. included

6807 15 note 3. or this surface read the surface
693° 20 note 1. For true meaning vead true reading

In Index: under Birds, at line 5 for zd. read 92°
under Heart, at line 26 for 7d. read 66?

Aristotle Translation : de Partébus Antmalium.
March 1911. (At end)

INDEX

39°—97" = 639°—697”

The English version clearly cannot tally line for line with the Berlin
Greek text ; it tallies, however, pretty closely with it at the lines marked
5, Io, 15 &c. In the following Index, the matter intervening between two
consecutive figures, say Io and 15, is regarded asa section, and anything
occurring in that section is referred to by the figure at its beginning. For
instance, anything between 63 10 and 63” 15 is referred to in the Index

as 63? Io.

Abdomen, why unenclosed by ribs
Εν oO” i.

Acalephae or sea-nettles 81 35 ; in-
termediate to plants and animals
81>1 5 in what characters like
animals zé.; in what like plants
26. 53; protected by stinging sur-
face 81° 5 n.

Aesop’s Momus wrongly criticizes
bull’s horns 638 35.

Amia, its gall-bladder 76” 20.

Anaxagoras, ascribed acute diseases
to gall-bladder 77% 5; man’s in-
telligence to his hands 87° 1,

Ants, some apterous some not 43?
I; teeth 78> 15, 83°5; tongue-
like body 61215; why intelligent
ΠΥ ΕΣ

Aorta and Great Vessel 67” 15 n. ;
relative position at heart 687 1 ;
changed at bifurcation of legs 68”
20; advantage of this 7b. 25;
blood from heart first passes into
these two 67" 15; all other vessels
being branches from them 70. ;
both send branches to brain sur-
face 5225 ; to kidneys 71” Io, 15,
72» 5; to mesentery 78° 1; but
only Great Vessel to liver and
spleen 70% 10. wv. Blood-vessel,
fleart.

Ape, its intermediate character 89?
30.

Art, the conception of the result as
yet unrealized in matter 40 30.
Ascidia, like plants always attached
and without excrement 81 25 ;
but flesh-like substance implies
some sensation 70.; two orifices

AR, P.A.

and central septum 2d. 30; vital
centre presumably in this septum
zo, 35. Grouped with Testacea
807 I.

Ass v. Solidungula.

Astragalus v. Huckletone.

Backbone wv. Chzne.

Bat, intermediate character 97? 5.

Batos, fins 95» 25 ; mode of swim-
ming οὐδ 25; skin 97? 5.

Beak, variations of 628 35 sq.

Bear, much hair on body, therefore
little for tail 58> 1.

Bee, light and polypterous to suit
mode of life 8210; modified
teeth and their use 78? 15, 839 5;
proboscis for suction 61% 20, 78»
15; sting, why internal 83? 5.
Why intelligent 484 5, 50> 25.

Beetle, its shards 82? τὸ n.; be-
haviour when frightened 82 25.

Bendings of limbs, descriptive
terms 93” καὶ n., 92% 15, 87° 25; of
insects 83 1 ; of Crustacea Ζό. 30,

Bilaterality, of sense-organs 56” 30,
57213; of viscera 69> 15, 7071;
of motor organs 63% 20; of
horns 26.

Bile, yellow bile becomes more fluid
when withdrawn from body 49?
30; is always to be looked on as
excremental 77225, 775. vw.
Liver, Gall-bladder.

Birds, a homogeneous class 92? 5.
Why generally small 97? 25.
Feathers, how different from
πτερά (feather-wings) of insects
26. το. Beak for lips and teeth

INDEX

zb, 15; its varied forms in har-
mony with mode of life 93% Io.
Neck usually varies in length
with legs 92” 20. Breast sharp-
edged and fleshy 93? 15. Wings
and scapula 7d. 1; differences
of wings 942 1. Legs not fleshy
95* 10; length varies with mode
of life 94> 10; long ischia 95 1
n.; spurs never co-exist withtalons
94210; toes four except in os-
trich 9515; only one points
backwards save in wryneck 7d.
20; webbed in swimmers, or with
marginal lobes 94 1. Testes in-
ternal 95% 25; no external ears
but auditory passages 91* Io, 572
15; nor nostrils, but olfactory
passages 59) Io,
ter of 57% 30; in most closed by
lower lid 57 10; and nictitating
membrane zd. 15, 57% 30 ; no eye-
lashes 58% 10. Oecesophagus 74?
20, 30; want of teeth compen-
sated by crop or proventriculus
or gizzard or hot stomach Zé, 20.
Liver, why of pure blood-like hue
73 20; spleen very small 70* 30,
70» το; no bladder but kidney-
like bodies 71225; white matter
on faeces represents earthy part
of urine 76* 30 ; lung small, mem-
branous but highly distensible
698 30; umbilical cord 93? 25;
navel not persistent 76,20, Why
birds are not erect though bipeds
95*5. Can communicate vocally
with each other 607 35; those
that can utter words have broad
tongues Ζό. 30; small birds have
most variety of notes 26. Birds
with talons live by rapine 93?
10; keen sighted 57> 25; beak
hooked 93210; neck short 92>
20; body small 94% 5; powerful
wings and abundant plumage
76. 1; never have spurs 2d. 15 ;
walk badly and never settle on
rocks 2. 20; legs, why held
against body in flight 94? 25.
Swimming birds, long neck but
short legs, and reason 93* 5, 20;
feet webbed or with marginally
lobed toes 941. Marsh birds,
long legs and toes 94? Io; toes
generally with extra joint 2d. 15
n.; beak broad 93715; some-

Eyes, charac- |

times elongated as is the neck 70. ;
purpose of this zd. 20; legs used
as a tail in flight 94> 20; neck if
thick stretched out, if slender
coiled up 2b. 25. Heavy bodied
birds not made for flight 94% 10;
frugivorous and live on ground
7b. 5; often have spurs 20. το.

Bladder urinary, only in animals
that have full-blooded lung 70?
30, and drink freely 718 5 ; none
in birds, reptiles, fishes 24. 10, 70?
I, except tortoises 71% 15, 76% 30;
reasons for this 7115; urine
formed by it, kidneys only ad-
juncts 70 25; attached by strong
passages to kidneys 7125. wv.
Kidneys.

Blood, formed by concoction of ab-
sorbed nutriment 68” 5-10,51° 15;
is the final nutriment zé.; material
for all the parts 24. 10, 68 20;
hot and fluid in the body, cold
and solid when withdrawn 49?
30; its fluidity due to heat 512
to, 545; its heat not intrinsic
but derived from heart 49? 15 n.;
varies in amount and wholesome-
ness with the food 50% 35; varies
in different animals, and relation
of such difference to tempera-
ment, intelligence, sensibility 50?
15, 30, 51% 10, 48913; varies in
different parts of body 47” 30;
as in upper compared with lower
488 1; each side has its separate
and different blood 66°30, 6781; of
head suitable toensure tranquillity
of sense organs 86210; being
purest 565; its serum in part
not yet fully concocted nutriment,
in part product of body-waste
51215; its fibres the part that
coagulates 50” 15; abundance of
these causes rapid coagulation
512 1; as in bull and in boar 28. ;
their absence prevents it,asin deer
50? Ion. ; so does excess of water
until it evaporates 70. 15, 51° 5.

Blood-vessels, a connected system
of which heart is centre 54? 1,
10; why one centre 67» 20;
start from heart 6675; not
from head 65” 25; nor from liver
66® 25; are all branches of aorta
and great vessel 6715 ἢ. ; absorb
nutriment from abdominal] organs

INDEX

507 15; andconvey it to all parts
68? 20; except heart itself 66° 5 ;
resemble water-courses in gar-
den 20. 10; asthey advance grow
smaller till too fine for passage of
blood 68" 1; still allow sweat to
transude 7.; then constitute
flesh 68% 30; or viscera 47? 1,
73° 30. v. Aortaand Great Vessel,

Bonasus, how it protects itself 638
15; its horns do not serve the
purpose 76. Io.

Bone and cartilage differ only in
degree 55730; neither grows
again when cut off zd. Bones
form a continuous system of
which chine is centre 54° 30;
united by sinews at the joints
54> 20; with interposed car-
tilage 76. 25; strongest in vivi-
para 55* 5; in carnivora stronger
than in herbivora zd, ΤΟ ; in males
than in females 70. ; less strong
in birds 74.15. Replaced by fish-
spine in oviparous fishes 2d. 20;
and in smaller serpents 20.3; by
cartilage in Selachia zd.; reason
for this zd.; and in projecting
parts as nose and ears 7d. 30.
Bones serve to support fleshy
parts 54> 30; or protect them 7d.
35, 53° 30; why none round ab-
domen 5521. Bone in heart of
horse 66°15; in cephalopods
54° 20.

Brain, a peculiar organ 520 1 ; why
present in every sanguineous ani-
mal 26.20; compounded of earth
and water 53% 20; cold and fluid
2b. 30, 52% 30; fatal results if
too fluid or too solid 531; but
excess of cold or heat obviated
by vessels on surface 52” 25;
solidified when boiled 53% 20;
contrasts with spinal marrow 522
25; why continuous with it zd. 30;
not formed of marrow 720. 25; no
blood in its substance 76. 35 ;
numerous small vessels in the pia
mater 52° 30; derived both from
aorta and great vessel Ζό. 25; no
brain in back part of head 56” 10;
not the organ of sensation 56%20;
why thought to be so 20, 25; in-
sensitive itself 26, 20, 52” 5; not
directly continuous with sense-
organs 70. I ; its function to tem-

AR. PA.

per heat of heart 7d. 20; neces-
sary for preservation of the whole
body 26. 5; slightest change on
its surface immediately affects the
heart 53” 5; how it causes sleep
538 το; how defluxions 52” 30;
largest in man, and in males
larger than in females 537 25;
none in bloodless animals 52” 20 ;
but analogous organ in poulps
26.

Breast, broad in man 88% Io;narrow
in quadrupeds zd, 15 ; and reason
26. ; in man alone site of mammae
88? 20; narrow in birds 59” 5;
and sharp-edged and fleshy 93”
15; reason for this 20.

Bregma, last part of man’s skull to
ossify 53% 35.

Bubalus, its horns no adequate de-
fence 63% Ion.

Calamary v. Cephalopoda.

Camel, stomach as in horned ani-
mals 748 30; therefore ruminates
745; hard palate for thorny
food 76. 1; no distinct gall-bladder
but small biliary vessels 77% 30;
male retromingent 898 30 ; long-
lived 772 30; its bulk a protection
695 5.

Canthari v. Beedle.

Carabi 83? 25 ἢ. wv. Crustacea.

Carides 83> 25 ἢ. wv. Crustacea.

Cartilage v. Bove.

Catamenia 89? Io.

Celestial order constant, terrestrial
subject to change 41° 15; terres-
trial general, not universal 63°
25; study of celestial things com-
pared with that of terrestrial 44?
20.

Cephalopoda, fleshy part outside,
hard within 79> 30; soft part in-
termediate to flesh and sinew 54*
15; softest in Teuthis 78 30;
all have eight feet 85220; differ-
ences in length of different pairs
and in different kinds zd. 15 ; in
sepias and calamaries a pair of
proboscises in addition to feet 20.
30; useof these Ζό., 85% 1; their
resemblance to sauvae 16. 5 n.;
suckers on tentacles in double
row save in one kind of poulp 20.
10 ; fin round body, and its differ-
ence in different species 2d. 15 ; its

INDEX

use Ζό. 20; general internal plan
that of spiral Testacea 84” 10, 30;
teeth and tongue 785; gullet,
crop, stomach, unconvoluted gut
7b, 25; crop as in birds to com-
pensate absence of mastication
7o.; inkbag and ink 7d. 35; its
use 79* 5; ink represents urine
26. 15; discharged with excre-
ment by funnel 791; in fright
76.25; of necessity but also as a
protection 2.30; ink most abun-
dant and bag lower down in Sepia
76. 5; reason for this 74. 10; an
internal bone in Sepias and Cala-
maries but not in poulps 20. 20,
54® 20; reason for this zé.; poulps
have a part analogous to a brain
52 20; and change colour in
fright 792 10. Sensory centre the
mytis 81° 15. v. Mytis.

Cercidas 73% 20.

Cestreus, stomach fleshy like a
bird’s 752 10; one kind without
ventral fins 967 5.

Cetacea, intermediate to land and
water animals 974 30; all breathe
air 69% 5; lung and blow-hole
97* 15; position of this explained
76. 25; organ of smell 59? 15 ἢ.

Chameleon, lean and timid and
almost bloodless 92* 20; chang-
ing aspect Ζό. 25.

Chance and Spontaneity, may pro-
duce the same results as art 40?
25; but not all zd. 30; not cause
of construction of the heavens
41 20.

Chine, centre of osseous system 54”
10; preserves the straightness
and extension of body 7d.; made
of vertebrae to allow of flexure Ζό.
15; the only bone in fishes with
marrow 52° 10; its marrow dif-
ferent from that of other bones 70.
15. wv. Marrow.

Cicada, rostrum how formed 82?
20; can live on moisture of air
for a time Ζό. 25.

Classification, by dichotomy im-
practicable 425, 4325; the
natural groups formed instinc-
tively by man 43?10; must be
the recognized basis Ζό. ; these
not defined by a single character
but many z?. Requisite condi-
tions of 43% 10.

Cloven-hoofed and horned animals
(Ruminants) 62°35, 6538 τῷ;
mostly of large size 75” 5, 63” 25 ;
cloven foot due to deficient
earthy material 638 30; have no
upper front teeth 63” 35; have
hucklebones θοῦ 20. Stomach
multiple 740 5; intestines long
and much convoluted 75? 1;
spleen rounded 73” 30. Their
fat is suet 51* 30; as also their
marrow 51” 30. Have rennet
76 10; their milk is thick and
coagulates 26. v. Horns, Huckle-
bone, Intestines, Rennet, Stomach,
Teeth.

Cockchafer 82” 15.

Complexity of life involves com-
plexity of organs and vice versa
56% 1-5, 83” 5.

Composition, three degrees of, 46%
10; first 2. 15; second and
third 2. 20.

Concoction of food, not begun in
mouth 507 10; effected in upper
and lower abdominal cavities 20. ;
with aid of liver and spleen 70*
20; by means of vital heat 50%
Io. Concoction of absorbed
food in heart and vessel forms
blood 51215, 68 5-10. Con-
coction of blood forms fat and
semen 51% 20 n.

Conger, no ventral fins 96° I.

Cordylus 95° 25 ἢ.

Crane 448 30.

Grexo52/2e:

Crocodile, land and water animal
combined 60? 30, go” 20; upper
jaw the movable one 60? 25 ;
reason for this 915; scarcely
has a tongue go” 20; this adhe-
rent to lower jaw 60°30; has
hard scaly plates 917 15.

Crustacea—usual name the soft-
shelled, but sometimes the hard-
skinned 57? 30, 35; soft parts in-
side, hard without 547 1, 79” 30;
four main divisions, each with
numerous species 83” 25 ; which
kind have claws 26. 30; which
none and reason 84% 15; why
right the larger in Carabi and
crabs 76.25 ; why no fixed rule in
lobsters 26. 30; claws used as
hands and so bent differently
from feet 83" 30; feet numerous

INDEX

26.25; not well adapted for loco-
motion in pelagic species 84%
5; in small swimming species
the hindermost like fins 20. Io.
Some have gill-like processes
near head 26.15. Tail serves as
an oar-blade 26. 1; why none in
crabs 26. Under surface hairy
and laminated in females for re-
tention of ova zd. 20. General
internal plan that of insects, not
of Turbinata or Cephalopods 84”
30. Two anterior teeth 798 30,
78» 5; gustatory organ 7d. ; small
gullet, stomach sometimes with
second teeth, unconvoluted gut
791; mytis 819 20. Eyes hard
without lids 57 30; but movable
582 1. Sensory centre the my¢zs
81> 15. wv. Mytis.
Cyprini, fleshlike palate 60” 35.

Deer, long-lived 77% 30; blood does
not coagulate 50 15; alone have
solid horns and cast them 63? 10;
their large branching horns detri-
mental 63% 10; protected by
speed 2d.; does hornless 62 1,
645 5; why so zd.

Democritus 40” 30, 429 25, 65% 30.

De Partibus, its special subject the
causes of the parts 46% το.

Diaphragm v. AZtdriff.

Dichotomy, inadequacy of 42° 5
sq., 43°10 sq. v. Classification.

Divers, instrument used by 59% Io.

Dog, stomach typical 75% 25; this
small and smooth internally 7d.
30; intestine narrower in lower
part, and defaecation difficult 26. ;
spleen elongated 742 1; dugs set
laterally on belly 88% 35. Indian
dogs 43” 5.

Dolphin, has true bones 55* 15 ; no
gall-bladder 76» 25, 77 30; posi-
tion of mouth 96” 25. wv. Cetacea.

Dwarf-like, disproportionate bulk
of upper parts 86" 1 ; all animals
as compared with man 2d, το;
man himself in infancy 70.;
changes in later life zd. ἢ. ; dwarfs
comparatively unintelligent 20.25.

Ears v. Sense-organs.
Educated man competent critic of
method 308 5.

Eel, no ventral fins 962 1; why few
gills 96° 20.

Elementary forces, fluid, solid, hot,
cold,the material of all compound
bodies 468 15 n.; all other differ-
ences secondary to these 7d. ; and
comparatively unimportant 48? 5.

Elements, the so-called, earth, air,
water, fire 468 lo ; are compounds
of the elementary forces 7d. 15 n.

Elephant, aquatic habits σοῦ 30;
trunk and its multiple offices 58”
30 sq., 618 25, 82» 35; fore-feet
serve merely as supports 59% 25;
foot has toes 76.; mammae two
and axillary 8815 ; protected by
bulk 638 5.

Empedocles 407 15, 422 15, 488 30;
alluded to 488 25 ἢ.

Emys, why without bladder and
kidneys 71* 30 n.

Ephemera, live without food for a
day 823 25.

Epiglottis v. Windpipe.

Epipetrum 81% 20.

Exposition, course of to be adopted
45° 1 sq.

Eyebrows, grow over junction of
two bones 5815; consequent
growth and occasional shagginess
in old age 26.20; shelter eyes like
eaves Ζό. 15; right more raised
than left in man 71? 30.

Eyelashes, in all hairy animals and
no others, except ostrich 58# Io;
set at ends of small vessels 58”
20; and necessary result of their
exudation zd. ; why in man alone
on both lids 584 15; act asa
palisade 58” 15.

Eyelids, in men, birds, and all quad-
rupeds 57% 25; are rolls of skin
without flesh 57" 1; therefore do
not reunite after section 2. 5;
both used by vivipara to close
eye and in blinking 57% 25; only
lower by reptiles and most birds
ib.; cause of this 57 5; man
blinks more than other animals
57% 1; this action quite involun-
tary zd. ; birds have a special nic-
titating membrane 57* 30; reason
for this 57” 15 ; why fishes have
no eyelids 5825; why Crustacea
and insects 57” 30.

Fat, reckoned with fluids 47? 10;

INDEX

surplus of concocted blood in
well-fed animals 51% 20, 72° 5 ;
none in bloodless animals 514 25 ;
according to character of blood
is lard or suet Ζό, ; in what animals
respectively zd. 30; in moderate
amount beneficial zd. 35 ; in excess
injurious 51» 1; why fat animals
agerapidly 24.5; inverse relation
of fat and semen Ζό. 10.

Fear, associated with cold and
watery blood 50” 25; and with
large heart 67% 20; bloodless
animals more timorous than san-
guineous 50? 30, 792 25. Fright
causes alvine disturbance and
discharge of urine zd. ; and of ink
by cuttlefish 24. 10; and change
of colour zé.; behaviour of some
beetles when frightened 82? 25.

Final cause uv. Vecessity.
Fire, one of the so-called elements

46° το; perhaps due to some ex-
ternal influence on a cold sub-
stratum 49* 20; soul is not fire
but incorporate in a fiery sub-
stance 52” 5.

Fishes, general form 95" 1; skin scaly
or rough and rarely smooth 977 5;
tail inversely developed to ante-
rior body 955; limbs replaced
by two pairs of fins 26.15 ; upper
pair rarely absent, under in some
long species 962 1; both in still
longer zd. 5 ; locomotion by flex-
ures in absence of fins zd. 1; or
by margins of flattened body
when fins are misplaced 26. 30;
position of fins in such species
zb. 25. Gills, double or single
96 10; their number determined
by cardiac heat 26.15 ; why some
fishes can live for a time out of
water 96 20; gill-covers in
osseous fishes, not in Selachia
7. 1; reason for this 70.5; how
Selachia close the orifices Ζό. 10.
Bones made of fish-spine but in
Selachia of cartilage 55% 20;
reason for this 26. 25 ; no marrow
save in chine 52210. Mouth in
some fishes terminal but in Se-
lachia underneath body 96? 25 ;
reason for this zd. ; its varied gape
97% 1. Teeth sharp and serrate
except in Scarus 75% 1, 624 5; and
curved 7d, 10; often on tongue

Fishing-frog, why

and palate zd. 5; and very nu-
merous 26. 10; reason for this 24.,
7545. Tongue poorly developed
60» 10; mainly consists of tip
61*1; reason for this 60 15.
Palate sometimes fleshy 720. 35.
Oesophagus short or wanting
ΠῚ δὲ Stomach sometimes
fleshy 7d. 10; has certain caecal
processes close to it Ζό. 15. Gall-
bladder constant 76? 20, 77% 4;
at considerable distance from
liver 778 1. Liver in some fishes,
as Selachia, much divided 69? 30,
73» 20; inclines to yellow zd. 30.
Spleen small χοῦ το. Food im-
perfectly elaborated and conse-
quent gluttony 75* 20; provision
against gluttony in Selachia 96”
25. No testicles 97* Ion.; one
orifice for generative secretions
and excrement zd, ἢ. Selachia
ovoviviparous 76 1. Heart, apex
turned towards head 66? to ἢ.
No external organs of smell or
hearing 56 35 ἢ. Smell through
gills 59” 15 n.

erroneously
classed by A. with Selachia 95°
Io ἢ. ; position of fins 96°25.

Flesh, reckoned among fluids 47

10; constituted by ultimate
minute blood-vessels 68% 30;
bleeds wherever cut 26. ; the dis-
tinctive part of animals 51° 1;
the basis of animal body 53? 20;
all other parts exist for it 2d. 30;
is the medium, or organ and
medium combined, of touch 7d.
20; not its primary organ 56?
35; its relative position to hard
parts in different classes 547 I. .

Flies, small and dipterous 82” 10;

have projecting proboscis 78? 15 ;
this a hollow spongy stinglike
instrument for taste and suction
61715; no tail-sting 83% 10;
dress themselves with crossed
forelegs 76. 30. Gadflies and
cattle-flies pierce the hide of ani-
mals 61720 ἢ.

Food, necessary for everything that

grows 50° 1; desired by all ani-
mals as pleasant 61% 5 ; consists
of both solid and fluid 5041;
pleasure from fluid derived
through tongue, from solid

INDEX

through oesophagus go? 25 ; com-
minuted in mouth but not altered
507 10; concocted in stomach
and intestines by natural heat 20. ;
absorbed by mesenteric vessels
26. 30. Its useless residue 74 15,
7525; discharged at nether end
of trunk 89 1; by bowel and
bladder 53 10. Food of plants
derived from the earth, already
elaborated 502 20.

Foot 908 25 sq. ; human contrasted
with hand 76. 30. v. Wan.

Front, superior to back 65 20, 67
35; therefore heart in front 65”
20; and hair of man more abun-
dant in front 58% 20; and great
vessel in front of aorta 688 1,

Function, every part has some 45?
15; soul the function of entire
body zé.; organ made for func-
tion not function for organ 87? Io,

Gall-bladder, present in most San-
guinea 76” 15 ; from what animals
absent 26. 25; not constant in
man or in some genera as mice
Ζό. 30; its variable position 70.
15; in all cases an appendage of
lower stomach 2é. n.; does not
affect sensation as some sup-
pose 76. 20; nor cause acute
diseases as Anaxagoras thought
77% 5; how far true that its ab-
sence gives long life Ζό, 30. v. Bile,
Liver.

Gazelle, smallest horned animal 63?
25; its horns not of much avail
63> το.

Generative orifice, same as urinary
in animals with a bladder 89?
5 n.; when no bladder same as
faecal 97 Io.

Glow-worm, winged and wingless

42» 30.
Goat, gall-bladder 76> 35; spleen
73 30; stomach 74? 8.

Hair, in some Sanguinea, in others
feathers or scales 64" 20; grows
out from skin at ends of vessels
58> 20; of head most abundant
inman zd. 1; this a necessary
result of his many sutures and
fluid brain 26. ; but also protects
brain from excess of cold or heat
76. 5; its distribution in quad-

rupeds 58% 25; in them most
abundant on back, in man the
contrary 76. 15; reason for this
26. 20; hair in axillae or on pubes
only in man zd. 25; correlation
of hair with skin 57 10; when
abundant in one part scanty in
others 58% 35.

Hand 87? 1 sq., 90% 30. Ψ. Wan.

Hard and soft parts, relative posi-
tion of in different classes of
animals 547 I sq.

Hare, has large heart 672 20; liver
in some so divided as to seem
two 69> 30; has rennet 762 5;
the reason 74. 15.

Hawk, hot stomach, small spleen
ΠΟΡῚ.

Head, distinct in all Sanguinea but
not in allbloodless animals 85? 30;
exists for the sake of three parts 86
15; frstly to lodge the brain zd.
5; which must be distant from
the heart Ζό. ; secondly to lodge
the sense-organs 70., 56% 30; of
vision always zd.; not always of
hearing and smell zé.; why suit-
able place for these 56” 1, 862 10;
thirdly for the inlet of food 74. 10;
its suitability for this 74.15. Why
destitute of flesh 56715. Has
empty space at back, connected
with ear 56? 15. Its sutures and
their use 5321, 581. Why
hairiest in man 26. w. Hair,
Mouth, Sense-organs, Sutures.

Heart, at once homogeneous and
heterogeneous 472 25; it and
liver the most necessary organs
in Sanguinea 70% 20 ; seat of sen-
sory, motor, and nutritive faculties
47% 25, 78 1, 66% τὸ: central
source of heat γοῦ 20; it and not
liver centre and source of the
vessels 66% 25; its dominating
position 65> 15; well protected
like a citadel 70725; within reach
of all parts 662 15; why in front
of body 66> 1; why in man in-
clined slightly to left zd. 5; its
wall dense especially towards
apex 661; has no vessels in its
substance 65 30 ἢ, 6691;
nourished by the blood in its
cavities 47 5; no bone except
in horse and certain oxen 66? τς ;
number of its cavities depends on

INDEX

size of animals 7d. 20; three in
none but largest zd. 35; differences
of blood in the three 674 1; the
chordae tendineae and their use
76. 10; joint-like sutures on the
outer surface 67% 5; these not
due to heart being formed by
union of separate parts but to
subdivision 76. ; relation of differ-
ences of structure to character
76. 10; heart the first part formed
662 10; to be seen in motion in
embryo like a living creature zd.
20; visible in egg on third day
65% 35; cannot stand serious
morbid affection 67% 30; as shown
by sacrificial victims 67? 1 ; gives
off Aorta and Great Vessel 20. 1.
v. Aorta, Blood-vessels.

Heat, important difference between
intrinsic heat and heat derived
from without 4971, 52210 n.;
all animals must have a natural
source of heat 50% 5; its central
seat and source the heart 70% 20;
but must belong to many parts
ποῦ 5 ; for to it is due concoction
Ζό., 77 25, nutrition and motion
52” 10, growth 69 1, and erect
attitude of body 7d. 5, 53 30;
is greater in vivipara than in ovi-
para 69% 25; and greatest of all
in man 53* 30; abundant blood
its sure indicator 69” 1; is tem-
pered by air in animals with
lungs and by water in fishes 692
1. Heat induced by tickling of
arm-pit 738 5 ; or by wounds near
midriff 74. το. Fluids after con-
coction retain remnant of heat
72% 5. Solids that have beén
made hot give off more heat than
fluids 50° 35. Heat requires sus-
tenance 82220. Heat causes
both solidification and melting
49* 30.

Heracleotic crabs 84 5.

Heraclitus 45° 15.

Herodotus, account of backward-
grazing oxen 59% 20 ἢ.

Hippocrates, apparent borrowings
from, as to non-reproduction of
excised bone or cartilage 55* 30n.;
empty space at back of head 56”
10n.; non-reunion of eyelid or pre-
puce after section 575 n.; action
of spleen 70” 5n.; as to saurae 85»

5 n.3 his pangenetic doctrine
opposed 897 15 ἢ.

Hog, classed with polydactyla 74

In.; but also called cloven-
hoofed zd. 25; though with front
upper teeth 24.; snout broad,
suitable for digging 62” το; pro-
tected by tusks 632 5; of which
sows have none 61 25; mammae
numerous, abdominal 88 30;
foremost presented by sow to
first-born 88> 10. Stomach single
742 25; and typical 759 25; has
internal folds to prolong concoc-
tion 24. Spleen elongated 74? 1.
Grooves on heart indistinct 67
10; and sensibility dull 2d.

Holothuria 814 15.
Homogeneous and heterogeneous,

the second and third stages of
composition 46% 20 n.;_ their
mutual relation due to necessity
46” 25 ; but also has final cause 20.
10; sense-organs homogeneous
and why 478 5; executive organs
heterogeneous and why 46? 15;
some parts homogeneous by sub-
stance but heterogeneous by de-
finite form 47% 25 ; such as heart
and viscera zd. 35; fluid homo-
geneous parts instanced 47? 10;
and solid 76. 15; causes of the
homogeneous parts, and their
several kinds 26. 20; variations
of individual homogeneous parts,
such as blood 76. 30; kinds
severally dealt with 50? 10-55»
30; so also heterogeneous parts
55> 30—end of treatise. v. Synop-
sis.

Horned animals v. Cloven-hoofed.
Horns only in vivipara save meta-

phorically 62» 25; why none in
polydactyla 206. 30; in most
cloven-hoofed animals and some
solidungulates 26. 35 ; in no very
small animals 63" 25 ; inversely
developed to teeth 63" 35; are
weapons of offence and defence
638 1; only in animals with no
other means of defence 70. ; some-
times, however, useless appen-
dages zd. 5; or even detrimental
7. 10; in such cases other modes
of protection provided 70. 15;
usually bilateral but single and
central in Oryx and Indian ass

INDEX

638 20; relation of this to hoof
26.253; are solid in deer and cast
by them 63? 10; in other animals
hollow and dermal but fitted on
a bony outgrowth 74. 15; their
position wrongly criticized by
Momus 63* 35.

Horse, some wild 43” 5 ; colt almost
as tall as dam 86" 15; bone in
heart 662 15. v. Solzdungula.

Hot, cold, solid, fluid, terms used
with much ambiguity 48? 1, 49>
5, 10; when used require further
statement 49> 1; only strictly
applicable to things that are such
both actually and potentially 20.
15; different significations of
hot 48> 10 sq.; cold not mere
privation of heat 49215. wv. E/e-
mentary forces.

Hucklebone, an additional limb-
segment 9o® 10; only in hind-legs
z6. 15 ; and in horned and cloven-
hoofed animals 2d. 20, 51* 30;
why none in Solidungula 9o#
1on.; nor in Polydactyla 2d. 25;
its use 20. 20.

Hyaena, heart large 672 20.

Hypozoma 59” 15 n.

Indian ass 63% 20.

Innate spirit, agent of refrigeration
in bloodless animals 692 1; of
motion and olfaction in insects
59” 15.

Insects, no distinction of soft and
hard parts 542 το. Many-footed
and why 82° 35 ; especially milli-
pedes 82 1; feet correspond in
number to segments Ζό. ; or de-
ficiency compensated by power
of flight 74. 5. Feathers four in
active fliers 2.; or only two in
smaller kind, as flies 726. 10;
their real nature and formation
zd. 15; Shards of beetles and
their use 24. lon. Vital centre
usually one and thoracic 827 1;
but multiple in long-bodied kind
as millipedes 82% 1. Segmenta-
tion due to this zd. 1, 25; but
also protective 7b, 20; is reason
why insects can live when cut in
pieces 824 5, 82» 25 ; though not
like plants permanently 7d. Legs
six in [most] insects 83? 1 ; dif-
ferences of successive pairs and

their several uses 833 25. Sting
anterior or posterior 82” 25; an-
terior a combination of tongue
and lips 82% 10; used both for
taste and suction 8381: when
no anterior, food dealt with by
teeth zd. ; posterior, if delicate, is
internal, but stout and external in
scorpion 76. 10; none in Diptera
but only in Polyptera 7d. 15;
reason for this 26. Mouth has
projecting proboscis for taste in
bees and flies 7815; or a
tongue as in ants 74.; sometimes
has modified teeth zé.; but not
when food is fluid zd. 20; these
often serve not for food but as
weapons 720. Intestine imme-
diately follows mouth 82 10;
usually unconvoluted but some-
times with a coil Ζό. ; in some a
stomach and convoluted intestine
76.15. Smell by their hypozoma
with aid of the innate spirit 59>
15; on which latter their motion
also depends 2d.; and their re-
frigeration 6921. Insects, why
small eaters 82% 20; behaviour
when frightened 82» 25.

Intemperance as to drink, why dis-

tinct from intemperance as to
solids 914 1.

Intestines of vivipara, sometimes

uniform, sometimes vary in dif-
ferent parts 75% 30; when stomach
7s single, usually widen out in
lower part 75” 1; but not always
75* 30; jejunum the part of small
intestine in which the food parts
with its nutritive matter 75 30;
this quite exhausted when caecum
is reached zd. 35 ; transit through
jejunum rapid 76213; in what
animals and when jejunum is
visible 26.3; when stomachits mul-
tiple, are voluminous and much
convoluted 75» 1; widen out to
caecum or second stomach 720. 5 ;
here conversion of food com-
pleted 7d, 10; then narrower and
with a spiral coil Ζό. 5, 20; then
rectum and vent 2d. 5.

Ischia, used in two senses 957 I ἢ.

Jaws, lower the movable, save in

crocodile 915; motion both
vertical and lateral in animals

INDEX

with grinders 91° 30; only vertical
in other animals zd. ; reasons for
this 9121; why crocodile is ex-
ceptional οἵ 5.

Jejunum v. /ndestines.

Joints, various kinds of 54” 20.

Juli 82% 1, 82> 1.

Kidneys, none in birds or reptiles,
except tortoises 71% 25; other
than Emys 24. 30; but in birds
certain kidney-like bodies 2. 30 ;
lobulated in ox and in man 71?
5; which makes disease of them
in man difficult of cure 7d. 10;
always a central cavity except in
seal 206. 1; receives branch from
great vessel zd. 10; and from
aorta zd. 15, 70715; the blood
does not run into central cavity,
but is expended in the substance
7110; attached to bladder by
strong ducts 26. 15, 20; right
higher than left and reason 70.
25; are the fattest of the organs
72° 1; the left the fatterand why
76. 20; the fat superficial 20, 5 ;
and a result of necessity 26. 10;
but also has a final cause 20. 15 ;
what this is 2d. 20; fat in moderate
amount beneficial in man, in ex-
cess pernicious 20. 35; in sheep
cause of rot 72? 1. Stone and
other renal diseases 67 1, Kid-
neys serve to keep vessels in
place 70% 15, 711; and take
part in secretion of urine 20. 15,
20, 70” 20, 72° 20; but only as
adjuncts to bladder 7o» 25 ; and
therefore are not necessary organs
26.20. v. Bladder.

Kite, hot stomach, small spleen
70* 30.

Knowledge, scientific and general
contrasted 39? 1,

Larynx, sometimes called Pharynx
647 15n. v. Windpipe.

Laughter peculiar to man 73 5;
why produced by tickling 26. ;
or by wounds of midriff 2d. το.

Leopard 882 5; has large heart
67% 20.

Limbs of Sanguinea, never more
than four 93° 5, 95> 20, 962 15;
replaced by fins in fishes 95» 15 ;
altogether absent in some 96? 5 ;
absent in serpents alone among

reptiles go? 15. Anterior bend
differently in man and quadrupeds
87> 25; and reason 7é.; used in
some measure as hands by Poly-
dactyla 7. 30; and therefore
have five toes 8875 ; represented
in birds by wings 93” 10; which
bend like the forelegs of quad-
rupeds 93" 5. Posterior stronger
than fore limbs in quadrupeds 854
15; firmer and more extensible
go* 15; alone have hucklebone
76.; support the weight and take
main part in locomotion 85% 20;
used by Solidungula as weapons
88% I, go 20,

Limpet, how defended 79> 25;
position of its secon 80* 20.

Lion, erroneous statements about
86* 20 n., 888 30, 52° 1; its mane
58° 30; its hard bones 55 15;
five toes to forefoot, four to hind
88 5; male retromingent 89? 30.

Lips, general use to guard teeth
59” 25; vary in distinctness with
nicety of these 22, 30; none in
birds being toothless 24. 20; re-
presented in them by beak 26. :
in man aid also in speech 60% 1:
and are of appropriate character
for this zd. 10.

Liver of Sanguinea; it and heart
the only two constant organs
70* 25 ; essential as ministering
to concoction 7, 20 ; anecessary
and vital part 77* 35; has more
blood than any organ save heart
73” 25; receives branches from
the great vessel 70% 10; but not
from aorta 26, 15 ; and serves as
an anchor to great vessel Ζ2. :
may be regarded as correspond-
ing on right to spleen on left
69” 15, 35 ; andis the main cause
of its formation 704 1; in some
animals is split into several parts,
in others undivided 73” 15; such
division most marked in fishes
and oviparous quadrupeds 20. 20 ;
especially in Selachia 69> 35;
distinctness of its division in-
versely related to size of spleen
69> 25n.; but with exceptions
7. 30. Contributes largely to
maintain purity and healthiness
of body 73°25. Colour pure and
blood-like in vivipara and birds

INDEX

70. 20; and when there is no
gall-bladder 77% 20; or in part
under bladder when there is one
26. ; of yellow hue in fishes and
Oviparous quadrupeds 73? 30.
uv. Gall-bladder, Bile.

Lizard v. Ovifarous Quadrupeds.

Lobster v. Crustacea.

Locust, hind legs like steering oars
83° 35. ἢ

Lung, though a single organ looks
like two in ovipara 69” 20; in
what animals present 6971; no
common name for these 69” 10;
the organ of respiration 70. 5;
required to temper heat of body
68" 30; close to heart and round
it 65% 15; derives from this its
motion 69715; its alternate ex-
pansion and collapse 7d. n.; is
not a buffer for heart’s impact 2é. ;
nor a receptacle for drink 64? 5 ;
large and full of blood in vivipara
692 25 ; small dry but highly dis-
tensible in ovipara 20. ; liable to
morbid growths 67” 1 ; especially
in parts farthest from windpipe
76. 5; reason for this zd. 10.

Lynx, retromingent 89? 30.

Maia 84? 5.

Male, superior to female 48 10;
stronger and more choleric 61”
30; has weapons exclusively or
more fully developed 74.; and
even larger organs of nutrition
26. 35; harder bones 55% 10;
more sutures in skull 530 1; his
generative organ 89 20. Jeju-
num differs in the two sexes
76* 1. Male lionalone has mane
58% 30; in male crabs under
parts less laminated and with
less hairy appendages 84? 20.
Different views as to comparative
heat of sexes 45% 30.

Mammae pectoral in man 888 20;
why not so in quadrupeds 2d. 25 ;
two and inguinal in animals that
produce few at a birth 88> 20;
why so 24. 25; numerous and
abdominal in those that produce
litters 88% 30; reason for this
88> 15; foremost give most milk
7.10; in elephant two and axil-
lary 26. 5 ; why so zd. 10; but in
lion two and abdominal 88? 35 n.;

present in males of man but not
of all animals 8830; why pre-
sence variable in stallions 76.; in
human male fleshy and protective
884 20.

Man, his godlike nature 56% 5, 86

25; in him alone upper parts
lighter than lower 89 10; alone
erect 53% 30, 56% το, 62» 20, 69>
5, 86225, 8731: consequently
has buttocks and fleshy thighs
89» 10 sq.; and no tail 76. 20;
and largest feet in proportion to
body go® 25; andarms and hands
for fore limbs 87% 5; allowing
breast to be broad 88 10; and
mammae to be pectoral 7%. 20.
Man wrongly said to be defence-
less, for his hand supplies the
place of many weapons 87? 1;
admirable construction of this
hand 87 ς sq. ; which is not the
cause but consequence of his
intelligence 87415; hand and
foot contrasted οοῦ 30; why foot
has toes and why these are short
go” 5. Man has the largest brain
535 25; the softest flesh 60% 10;
and most delicate sense of touch
zb.; and of taste zd. 15 ; tongue
free, soft, broad, and adapted for
speech 60% 20 sq.; as also are
hislips 5930; andteeth61°15 ; be-
sides their fitness for mastication
26.5. Face ὅθ τς. Heart more
central than in other animals 65»
20; why inclined towards left
66 5 ; why alone subject to pal-
pitation 69215; spleen 7471;
gall-bladder 76 30; kidneys
much divided like those of ox
715. More hair on front surface
than on back as in quadrupeds,
and why 58215; hair on head
more abundant than in other
animals, and why 581; alone
has lashes on both eyelids 582
15; and hair in axillae and on
pubes 20. 25. Solid earthy parts
less developed than in quadrupeds
55> 10. Man alone laughs and
alone affected by tickling 73 5.
v. Dwarf-like, and various parts.

Marrow, not seminal 51> 20; is

blood concocted by heat of en-
vironing bones 52% 20; and their
nutriment 26. 5; of blood-like

INDEX

aspect in embryo 51? 25; absent
or scanty in very compact bones
528 10; as those of lion 51” 35 ;
in fishes none save in chine, and
reason for this 522 10. Marrow
of chine of a different character
76.15; why so 26., 51> 35; is con-
tinuous with brain 52% 25; but
hot while brain is cold 74.; this
the reason for the continuity 2d.
30.

Mastication, no action on food save
comminution 507 Io ; necessarily
rapid in fishes 7525. wv. Teeth.

Material existence antecedent in
development to logical 46? 25 ;
but posterior in order of nature
26. 35.

Mecon, inside stomach of Testacea
79 10; in what part of shell
80% 20; edible only in some
kinds 76.

Membrane, formed of necessity on
compounds of solid and fluidwhen
cooling 77” 20, 78% 1, 82> 15; but
utilized 77° 30, 78®5; suitable
in character for a protection 73”
5; surround each viscus 70. 1;
strongest round heart and brain
16. 5.

Mesentery, present in all Sanguinea
76 το; formed like all mem-
branes of necessity, but utilized
for an end 78? 1 sq.; carries the
small nutrient vessels from ab-
dominal organs to the great vessel
and aorta 2d. I, 10.

Method of discussion, general ques-
tions concerning 39% Io sq.;
course of, to be adopted 45" 1 sq.

Metrical science 60* 5 ἢ.

Mice, gall-bladder in some species,
not in others 76 30; heart large
67% 20.

Midriff, in all Sanguinea, 72? 10 n.;
its marginal part fleshy, central
membranous 70. 25; why so 7d.
35 ; a barrier between the nobler
and less noble parts 70.20; keep-
ing back heat and vapour of food
20. 15; why called Phrenes in
Greek 76. 30; only affects intel-
lect and sensation indirectly 72. ;
how affected by heat or tickling
73% 13 or by wounds 20. Io.

Milk, residual nutriment 53° 10;
most abundant in foremost dugs

88» 10; thick in horned animals,
thin in others 76% 10; former
alone coagulated by rennet 20. ;
coagulated by certain herbage
720. 153; to be discussed in De
Gen. 53” 15, 55 25.

Mouth, its various offices 62% 15 sq. ;
has no actual part in concoction
50* 10; its gape wide when used
for defence, otherwise contracted
629 25. v. Lips, Teeth, Tongue.

Mule wv. Solidungula.

Mussel, bivalved 79> 253; gaping
valves 83” 15.

Mytis, presiding seat of sensation
in Cephalopoda 81 15; corre-
sponding to heart 76. 25; is a
bag of fluid traversed by gullet
26. 15; why so zd. 20; similar
part in Crustacea 2d,

Nails, in man to protect tips of
fingers 87> 20; and of toes go? 5 ;
in other animals for active pur-
poses 87> 20; five to each hind-
foot in smaller Polydactyla 88# Io.

Nature makes nothing without pur-
pose 6120; or superfluous 91?
5,95" 15; brings about the best
of what is possible 58 20, 87915;
gives organs to those only that
can use them 61? 30, 84 25, 87
10; often utilizes the results of
necessity 58” 5, 63> 20, 79% 30;
spends on one part what she
saves in another 52% Io, 55% 25,
57” 5, 58% 35, 63 30, 64° 1, 74? 1,
842 15, 852 25, 89” τὸ, 20; often
uses one organ for more than one
office 59% 20, 607 1, 62% 15, 885
20, 962 1; but if possible gives
each function its separate organ
832 20; modifies an organ com-
mon to several animals to suit
their several requirements 62° 20 ;
places the nobler parts in the
more honourable position 65 15;
never gives an animal more than
one adequate means of protection
63705.

Necessity, absolute and hypothe-
tical 39° 20, 40 Io.

Necessity and Final cause, the two
causes of living things 39” 10;
must both be taken into account
42° 15; the former alone con-
sidered by former writers 40? 5 ;

INDEX

inadequacy of this 74. 15; the
final cause the first cause 39? 10;
and starting-point in art and
nature 2.15; and in nature more
dominant than in art 7d. 20.
Many things in body are results
of necessity alone 42° 1; or are
necessary consequents of parts
made with design 45 30 n., 77%
15; such results of necessity often
utilized for an end 63? 20,

Neck, defined as part between head
and shoulders 91? 25; therefore
strictly speaking none in serpents
26. 30; only in animals with lung
647 20, 86° 1; exists for sake of
windpipe zd. 15; on account of
length of this 9125, 64% 30;
flexible and with several vertebrae
862 20; save in wolves and lions
where there is only one Ζ0. ; rea-
son for this 2d.

Nerites, defended by operculum
79> 20.

Nictitating membrane v. Eyelids.

Nutrition, A.’s views concerning 68?
5 n.

Oesophagus, no action on food 64°
20; only necessitated by neck 24.
30; satisfaction from solid food
due to its dilatation go? 30;
why soft, yielding, and dilatable
64* 30.

Omentum, in all Sanguinea 76” 10;
a membrane containing fat 77”
15; formed of necessity but
utilized for an end 24.30; namely
to aid in concoction 7.; why it
is attached to middle of stomach
only 2d.

Oryx, has single horn 63* 20.

Ostrich, avian by feathers, which,
however, are like hair and useless
for flight 97” 15; quadrupedal
by cloven hoof and upper eye-
lashes zd. 20, 58 10.

Oviparous quadrupeds, less erect
than vivipara 69» 5 ; integument
with horny plates 91* 15; a neck
to accommodate Jong windpipe
g1» 25; breast but no mammae
g2* 10; a tail of variable size 7d.
pS. . Veeth serrate o1* ΤῸ; ὉΠΙν
motion of lower jaw up and down
7b. 30; in crocodile the upper
jaw the movable one 91” 5. Lung

membranous and small but highly
distensible 69% 25. Senses all
present 91210; eyes hard and
without upper lid 26. 20; why
closed by lower 575; do not
blink nor are keensighted, and
reason for this 912 25; no exter-
nal ears, and reason 7. 10, 153
tongue in all save crocodile go?
20; this bifid in lizards 91 5.
Spleen small and like a kidney
70» 10; no kidneys 713 25; nor
bladder save in tortoises 70. 10,
76% 30, Can live for a time un-
der water 697 35; reason for this
69» τ. Usually of smaller bulk
than vivipara zd.

Ovoviviparous, vipers and _ carti-
laginous fishes 76? 1.

Ox, some wild 43° 5; spleen in one
part elongated 749 13; a certain
kind has bone in heart 66° 15;
backward-grazing kind 59220n. ;
blood of bull rich in fibres 51% 1;
and therefore coagulates rapidly
26. vu. Cloven-hoofed animals.

Oyster, general name for various
species 54” 1; body a disk, and
not symmetrical 80? 10; head
central zd.; ovum unilateral 70.
5, 20; vast number destroyed by
starfish 81” 10,

Parmenides thought women hotter
than males 48 25.

Pig v. Hog.

Pigeon, small spleen 70% 30; use
both lids to close eye 57” to.

Plants, not much variety of organs
562 1; upper and lower parts in-
verted 83" 20, 86 30; roots their
mouth 20. 35 ; absorb food already
elaborated from the ground κοῦ
20, 78* 10; therefore no excreta
ΒΡ 30, 815 320; give off their
surplus nutriment as fruit and
seeds 55” 30, 86 35; some live
free, some on ether plants 81?
20; some when uprooted 70.;
separated parts live on and attain
perfect form 82> 25; whether
plant or animal in some cases
doubtful 81% 25; distinguished
from animals by absence of sensa-
tion 66 30.

Plato, views alluded to; as to dicho-
tomy 42> 5; as to marrow of

INDEX

bones 51” 20; as to brain and
spinal marrow 527 25; as to
absence of flesh from head 562
15; as to fluid passing by wind-
pipe 64” 5; as to lung serving as
buffer to heart 692 15; as to gall-
bladder 76” 20.

Polydactylous vivipara, less dwarf-
like than other quadrupeds 86?
15; forefeet serve as hands and
not only for locomotion 87” 30;
or for support 598 20; which is
their only use in elephants 72d.
25; are used in defence 887 1 ;
usually five toes to each fore-
foot, four to each hind foot 887 5 ;
but in small kinds five to this
also z6.; reason for this 70. Io;
have no horns 62” 30; because
they have claws, fangs, or other
defensive weapons 74.; why no
hucklebones οοῦ 25; mammae
never pectoral, and reason 887 15 ;
their position and number Ζό. 35 ;
fat soft like lard 51? 35.

Poulp v. Cephalopoda.

Proboscis, of elephant 58” 30 sq.;
of insects 78 10; of sea-snails
and other molluscs 79> 5; of
sepias and calamaries 85° 30.

Proportions of upper and lower
parts 86> 1; changes in later life
26.10. v. Dwarf-ltke.

Protection, no animal has more than
one adequate 63* 15; various
forms of enumerated 62? 30 sq.,
795 5, 79” 25, 30, 83” το, 82” 20.
v. Weapons.

Purpura, shell turbinate 79? 10;
has operculum 79” 20; bores
holes through hard shells 61 20.

Rain, how produced 53? 5.

Refrigeration, heat of body requires
tempering 68» 30; in bloodless
animals this effected by innate
spirit 69% 1 ; in sanguineous by
external agency 68? 35 ; viz. water
and gills in fishes, air and lung in
the rest 6921; or by mere motion
of lung without air 69” 1.

Rennet, found in third stomach of
horned animals 76% 5n.; result
of their thick milk 26. 10; also
formed in hare Ζό. 5; because of
the character of the herbage it
consumes 76. 15.

Reptiles, quadrupedal and apodal
ovipara go 10; alike save as
regards feet 20.15. v. Oviparous
guadrupeds, Serpents.

Residual substances, what meant
κοῦ 20n.

Rhine, what fish meant 97° 5n.;
skin rough 7A,

Right, superior to left 48% το, 652
20; is hotter 679°1, “yo? sume
stronger and more advanced 71”
30; more solid and better suited
for motion 72% 25; motion com-
mences from it 71” 30; naturally
used preferentially 84% 25.

Roe, no gall-bladder 76 25; blood
without fibres 50 τὸ n.; and
therefore does not coagulate 26.15.

Rot, how caused 720 1; why only
or chiefly in sheep 72% 30; why
so rapidly fatal 72° 5.

Rumination, horned animals with
no upper front teeth ruminate
75% 1; as also does the camel
though hornless 740 5. Among
fishes the Scarus alone ruminates
75° I.

Ruminants v. Cloven-hoofed.

Sanguineous and bloodless, how
far same as vertebrate and in-
vertebrate 45> 5 n.; Sanguinea
the more perfect 82% 30; vital
centre always single 67” 25; all
have heart and liver 65? το, 66%
25; and distinct head 85” 35,
go” 15; alone have viscera 65%
30; are hotter than bloodless 68”
35; therefore have special organs
for refrigeration by _ external
agencies z6.; are bilaterally sym-
metrical 67? 30; never have more
than four motor points 93? 5, 95”
20, 967 1, 15. Bloodless must
have some part analogous to
heart 81°15. vw. Ascidia, Cepha-
lopoda, Crustacea, Insects.

Scale of Nature, gradual ascent
from inanimate things through
plants to animals 81210; gradual
descent from erect man to plants
with upper part downwards 86?
30; life, and life of high degree
565 5.

Scale of fish and scaly plate of
reptile, o1* 15,972 50:

Scarus, teeth not serrate 627 5, 75?

INDEX

I; this probable cause of rumi-
nation 20.

Sciences, classification of 40 In.

Scorpion, sting why external 83?
10.

Seal, intermediate animal 97? 1;
has both feet and fins zé.; no ex-
ternal ears 57% 20; teeth serrate
97” 53 tongue bifid 918 5; no
gall-bladder 76” 25; kidneys
solid and lobed 71” 5.

Sea-lung 819 15.

Sea-nettles v. Acalephae.

Sea-urchin, classed with Testacea
80 1, 79 30; well protected by
globular spiny shell 2ό. 25 ; spines
serve as feet 81% 5. Teeth five
807 5; surrounding a fleshy sub-
stance Ζό. ; stomach single but in
five compartments 74, 10 n., 80?
25. So-called ova also five 70. 1;
not real ova but surplus nutri-
ment 80% 25, 80? 5; why largest
in spring and autumn Zé. ; and at
full moon 24. 30; not edible in
every species 80915. Why all
these several parts are five 80?
5 sq. Black substances in inte-
rior without name 80? Ion.

Selachia, cartilaginous fishes 552
20. w. Fishes.

Semen, is residual matter 89% Io,
50% 20n.; inversely related to fat
51> 10, 51220n.; in animals with
bladder has same orifice as urine
897 15; in others as faeces 972
Io; to be discussed in the De
Gen. 53 15, 55° 25.

Sensation, distinctive character of
animals 66% 30; its central seat
in Sanguinea the heart 56% 25;
in Cephalopoda and Crustacea
the mytis 815 15; in Testacea
situation doubtful, but in some
median position Ζό. 30; in insects
usually single and thoracic 828 1:
but in long-bodied as millipedes
multiple zd. ; in Ascidia presuma-
bly in central septum 81? 35.

Sense-organs, why homogeneous
47* 5; each coupled by older
physiologists with a separate ele-
ment 74. 10; are bilateral 56° 30,
57* 1; of sight always in head
567 30; of hearing and smell
usually 20. ; whyso placed 56” 5 ;
local arrangements of these three

and the reason 76. 25 sq.; are
connected by channels with vessels
of pia mater 76.15; or those of
hearing with empty space at back
of head 7é.; but not continuous
with brain 521. Eyes, why of
water 561; the best of fluid
consistency and with eyelids 488
15, 57* 30; why without lids in
fishes though of fluid consistency
585; hard and unprotected in
Crustacea and insects 57” 30;
this compensated by mobility 58
I. Olfactory organ, not very di-
verse in quadrupeds 58°25; placed
at inspiratory orifice 5725; with-
out nostrils in birds and reptiles
59> 1; peculiar in elephant 58»
25; in Cetacea is the blowhole
59 15n.; in fishes the gills 26. ;
in insects the hypozoma 7d,
Auditory organs, so placed as to
catch sounds from all quarters
56> 25; have no bone but carti-
lage 55* 30; projecting in quad-
rupeds 57* 10; and movable in
some 58* 1. Only auditory
passages in birds 91 10, 57% 15;
and reptiles 912 15; and seal 573
20; none visible in fishes 568 30.
Organ of touch and taste internal
56 35; in direct connexion with
the heart 56° 30.

Senses, touch the primary sense

53” 20; recognizes more distinct
differences than any other 478
15; most delicate in man 60% Io,
Taste a form of touch 56” 35,
60" 20; deficient in tongueless
animals 9121; limited in fishes
60> 15; acute in serpents 74. 5;
most delicate in man 60° 20.
Sight, most accurate when eyes
are of fluid consistency 488 15;
exercised in a straight line only
56530. Hearing, recognizes sounds
from all quarters 56” 25. Media
of senses 53? 25.

Sepia v. Cephalopoda.
Serpents, are like oviparous quadru-

peds save in absence of feet go?
15, 76225. Viscera moulded to
fit elongated body 76” 5. Integu-
ment in large kinds has hard
bony plates 91215. No neck 91°
30; yet can turn head back while
body is at rest 92" 1; owing to

INDEX

vertebrae being cartilaginous 20.
5. Tongue long, protrusible, bifid
οἵ ς, 6ο καὶ ; consequent fondness
for dainty food zd. No testes 972
Io ἢ. Oviparous except viper,
which is ovoviviparous 76" 1. wv.
Oviparous guadrupeds. °

Sheep, horned 74 5; stomach
multiple zé.; variable character
of gall-bladder 76” 35 ; its kidneys
without lobes 71% 5; has the
densest suet 7251; why alone
liable to rot 72% 30. w. Cloven-
hoofed animals.

Sinew, various fibrous structures
included 66° ton.

Sleep, cause of 53” 10.

Smuraena 962 5 n.

Socrates, study of nature neglected
after him 427 25.

Solen, valves united on both sides
83P 15.

Solid and Fluid v. Hot, Cold, Solid,
fluid.

Solidification, caused both by heat
and cold 49? 30; what substances
so affected and the causes, dis-
cussed elsewhere 20.

Solidungula, much earthy constitu-
ent in body 908 5 ; why no huckle-
bone z4. 10; repel assailants with
hind-legs 88 1; mammae two and
inguinal zd. 30; have mane 584
30; stomach single 74 25;
spleen broad in one part, long in
another zd. 13; no gall-bladder
77* 30; never retromingent 89?
30; single young at a birth 88”
20.

Soul, how far within the province of
natural science 417 30 sq.; is
not fire but incorporate in a fiery
substance 52> 5; heat its in-
strument 2d, 10. Is the function
of the whole body 45° 15.

Speech, consists in combination of
letter sounds 60% 1; these pro-
duced by lips and tongue 26. 5,
59” 30, 61210; and front teeth
61» 15; man’s tongue suited for
this by softness, breadth, free-
dom 60% 20; and his lips by
their moisture 26. 5; speech in-
distinct in tongue-tied persons
20. 25; birds that can pronounce
words have broadest tongues Ζό.
30 ; all birds communicate orally

with each other 7d. 35; and in
some cases instruction apparently
so imparted 60° 1. v. Vocal
utterance.

Spit and Lampholder in one 83? 25n.

Spleen, not invariably present 70%
30; nor when present necessary
except as an inevitable concomi-
tant zd. 1; and a counterpart to
liver 66% 25, 69” 35; its size in-
versely related to lobulation of
liver 26. 25 n. 3 receives a branch
from great vessel 707 τὸ ; but not
from aorta zd, 15; its shape in
different animals 73” 30; helps
to concoct food 70* 20; and
draw off superfluous fluid from
stomach 70? 5; small when there
is little of this as in birds and
fishes 24.10; or when it is other-
wise expended as in reptiles 70.
15; when present in other animals
is of watery character zd. 15; belly
hard when spleen is diseased 70”
5; is excessively liable to morbid
growths 67” 5.

Sponge, always attached and dies
when separated, altogether like a
plant 81* Io, 15.

Starfish, destroys many oysters 81?
ΤΟ.

Sting, in some Testacea tongue
serves also as a sting 61°15, 25.
vu. Insects.

Stomach of vivipara. Szzg7e when
both jaws have front teeth 74?
20; and small 752 25; is of two
types, the dog’s and the pig’s
26. ; how these differ 26. Wudti-
ple when upper jaw has no front
teeth 74% 30; so as to compensate
for the imperfect dentition 74? 5 ;
names of the successive cavities
76. 10; their several uses 20.

Sutures of skull, ventilate the brain
530 1; most numerous in man,
and in male more than female 26. ;
this due to his larger brain 7d. ;
late ossification of anterior fonta-
nel 538 35. wv. Bregma.

Sweat, secreted from minute blood-
vessels 68” 1; blood-like not un-
known 20. 5.

Tadpole vw. Cordylus.
Tail, different forms of 90% 1; in
most quadrupeds 89" 1; none in

INDEX

ape 20. 30; nor in man, and why
76. 20 ; relation of its hairiness to
that of the body 58* 30; its uses
26. 25, 90 1; of birds 97” 10; of
fishes 95” 5,15, οὐδ 20; of tad-
pole 95> 25; used as oar by
Carabi 842 τ. Why bat has none
97? Io.

Taste, variety of touch 56 35, 60%
20. wv. Senses.

Teeth of bloodless animals v. Cepha-
lopoda, Crustacea, Insects, Sea-
urchin, Testacea.

Teeth of Sanguinea, universal
function reduction of food 61? 1;
admirably suited for this in man
26. 5; grinders, dog-teeth, inci-
sors 26.; his front teeth aid also
in speech 76. 15; no upper front
teeth in horned animals 63? 35 ;
and why 6421. Teeth also serve
as weapons, defensive, offensive,
or both 6113 viz.as tusks to
strike with, or by serrate arrange-
ment in biters 7b. 25; advantage
of serrate arrangement 7. 20.
Serrate also in most fishes and
curved and numerous 62° Io;
reason for this 7d. 5.

Testacea, mostly stationary, there-
fore few parts 83 1; of which
head alone has distinctive name
20. 20; in some points like Crus-
tacea, in others Cephalopoda 84?
15, 8521, 7930; genera and
species numerous Ζό. 15; com-
prise Turbinata, univalves, bi-
valves 76.; and sea-urchins 70.
25; and ascidians 807 5; various
kinds of protective shell 83» Io.
Turbinata also protected by oper-
culum 7925; which makes them
in a way bivalved z4.; univalves
by attachment to rock which acts
as second valve Ζό. ; bivalves by
power of closure 20. ; sea-urchins
by spiny globular shell 74. 30.
Head downwards as in plants,
and why 830 15; all have mouth,
tongue-like organ, stomach, vent
79> 35; gullet and crop 76. 10;
inside the stomach the mecon
giving rise to intestine Ζό. ; posi-
tion of this in the several genera
802 20; some have teeth 78>
20n.; position of tongue and its
great strength in some 613 15, 20,

78> 20, Proboscis 795. So-
called ova not ova but resemble
fat 80% 25; appear when animals
are in good condition, viz. inspring
and autumn 7é.; where situated
in different kinds 805 sq. Vital
centre not easily made out, but
must be looked for in a median
position 81» 30. v. Ascidia, Sea-
urchin.

Tethya v. Ascidia.

Teuthi and Teuthides 85> 15 ἢ. v.
Cephalopoda.

Toad 73? 30.

Tongue, present in all Sanguinea 60
10; least variable in land animals
60715; freest, softest, broadest in
man 26. ; and so adapted for taste
and speech 76. 20; taste chiefly
in tip 61713 in viviparous quad-
rupeds hard, thick, and vocal use
very limited 60% 30; in birds
broadest in those that can pro-
nounce words 60% 30; in reptiles
hard, tied down, and useless for
vocal purposes 60” 5 ; but forked
in serpents and lizards 72é.; giving
double gustatory sensation 76. 10 ;
peculiar in crocodile 7d. 25; in
fishes barely developed 7d. 10;
not more than the tip 61* 5; why
so rudimentary 60 15. Blood-
less animals such as Cephalopoda
and Crustacea have tongue-like
body inside mouth 617 10; Testa-
cea also and insects, either in or
out of mouth 24. 15; when ex-
ternal serving for taste, suction,
and also as a piercer or sting 20. ;
its great strength in some of these
2b. 20.

Torpedo, broad body, long spinous
tail 95” 5 n.; altered position of fins
οὐδ 25 ; mode of swimming Zé. 30.

Tortoise, shell preserves the heat
5425; liver yellow owing to bad
composition 73 30; alone of
reptiles has bladder 76* 30, 71°
20; reason for this Ζό. ; difference
of bladder in land and sea species
71% 25; and of lung zd. 15 ; both
kinds have kidneys 2d. 25. wv.
Oviparous quadrupeds,

Trygon 95? 5, 25.

Turbinata v. Zestacea.

Upper—in man alone upper turned

INDEX

to upper in universe 56% 10; upper
is part for which rest exists 72
20; superior to lower 65% 20, 488
10; therefore heart in upper 65»
20; upper and lower reversed in
Testacea 83> 20; and in plants
86° 30.

Viper, ovoviviparous 76” 1.
Viscera, at once homogeneous and
heterogeneous 478 35, 47” 5; none
in bloodless animals 65% 25, 65»
5, 78% 25; formed by exudation
from ultimate blood-vessels 47”
I, 73" 30; as shown by blood-like
aspect and large size in new-born
animals 65” 5; are bilateral 69”
15; whyso 70? 5; each enclosed
in membrane 73°13; the abdomi-
nal serve to anchor the main
vessels 707 5; and some to aid
concoction 24.20; heart and liver
the most constant 2d. 25; con-
trast with flesh in position and
aspect 74° 5; differences in differ-
ent animals 73> 15 56. ; small
when there is no bladder 76” 5.
Vital or Natural Heat, differs from
ordinary 52° 10n.; belongs not
only to heart but to many parts
δοῦ 5n. wv. Heart.

Vocal utterance, impossible with-
out lung and Jarynx 73% 20; very
limited in viviparous quadrupeds
60% 30 ; in oviparous quadrupeds
tongue useless for this purpose
60” 5; small birds have greatest
variety of notes 60% 30. vw. Speech.

Wasps, sting internal 83% 5.

Weapons offensive or defensive 55”
I; given to those only that can
use them 61° 30, 84 25, 872 το;
to males exclusively, or more per-
fectly 627 1,61» 30; suchas stings,
spurs, horns, tusks and the like
z.; hind leg used as weapon by
Solidungula 882 1; foreleg by
Polydactyla zd.; who have no
horns but claws, fangs, or other
defensive weapons 62” 30, Man
not unarmed 87% 20; his hand
represents many weapons 87? 1.

Whale 697 5, 972 15. wv. Cetacea.

Whelk, shell turbinate 83” 10, 79?
10; has operculum 26. 20.

Wild boar, blood rich in fibres 51%
I; in consequence passionate 20.

Windpipe and larynx, why neces-
sarily of some length 64% 30; car-
tilaginous for vocal purposes 20.
35; is not a passage for fluid
64” το; its vicious position in re-
lation to oesophagus 70. 1,652 10;
why so placed 7d.; possible ill
results 64» 20; obviated by epi-
glottis Ζ20., 65% 5; admirably
accurate action of this 64" 30;
only exists in hairy sanguinea 70.
20; in other sanguinea larynx
effects its own closure 20. 25 ; why
they have no epiglottis 65% 1.

Wolf, only one cervical vertebra
86* 20.

Wood-pecker, hard strong beak
62> 5,

Wryneck, two toes point backwards,
and the reason 95* 20.

Oxford : Printed at the Clarendon Press by Horace Hart, M.A.

DE MOTU ANIMALIUM
DE INCESSU ANIMALIUM

Ap ΘΕ . τα μον ἀνὰ

FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

IgI2

HENRY FROWDE, M.A.
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK, TORONTO
MELBOURNE AND BOMBAY

Μ. 5.

[OHANNIS LANGHORNE AM.

APVD ROFFENSES SCHOLAE REGALIS
OLIM MAGISTRI

ΒΕΒΕΆΟΙΗ

THESE translations have been made from Bekker’s text
(Berlin, 1831) with the help of the critical apparatus there
given, of photographic facsimiles of the manuscripts E and Y
for de Motu, and of U for de Jucessu, as well as the C.C.C.
Oxon. MS. of the latter treatise (Bekker’s Z). I have noted
some readings from an azztigua uersio of both tracts (Ball.
Coll. MS. CCL) of the late XIIIth century. I refer to it
as I, though the text on which it is based is not the same
for both de Motu and de Incessu, nor is the Latin by the
same translator. The pages of the Berlin edition are given
in the margin.

The commentary of Michael Ephesius (Comm. in Arist.
Graeca, xxii. 2, Hayduck, 1904) has been some help for
the text of both treatises, occasionally for the interpretation.
In a small measure this holds also of Alexander Aphrodisias’
de Anima (Supp. Arist. ii. 1, Bruns), Of the MSS. E and Z
are the oldest, Γ 15 independent though approaching Z very
closely in the last part of de /ucessu, U and S are akin, Y
is copied from E and a MS. very like Z, P has preserved
some good variants. The paraphrase of de Motu by
Albertus Magnus (Opp. ix. 2, Borgnet, 1890), derived
from a Greek original (‘in Campania nobis iuxta Graeciam
iter agentibus peruenit ad manus nostras libellus Aristotelis
de motibus anim™.’), throws some light on the text. It is
referred toas A.M.inthe notes. I have used with profit the
Latin translation of Nicolaus Leonicus Thomaeus (ob. A. D.
1533),an Aristotelian scholar who evidently made use of more
than one MS. Isaac Casaubon speaks ill of his Aristotelian
labours (de Enthusiasmo, ch. vi), but I venture rather to
agree with Wyttenbach’s praise of his elegance and learning
(Opuscula, i. 363). I have also read Bernardino Crippa’s
Latin translation and notes (A.D. 1566). St. Hilaire’s
French rendering and notes are useful for the general sense.

vi PREFACE

Authorities differ as to the genuineness of de Motu, the
more modern opinion inclining to accept it. It certainly
gives, except in one difficult passage, the exact doctrine of
Aristotle, and I hope that the rather full references I have
given will show this. I have defended its genuineness,
with especial regard to the remarkable doctrine of ch. x, in
a paper communicated to the Oxford Philological Society,
a paper favourably received by the scholars then present.

I have to thank Dr. Giinther, Fellow of Magdalen College,
who kindly read my MSS., for valuable criticisms from the
naturalist’s point of view. It was difficult to resist the
temptation to make the notes fuller in this connexion.
Mr. W. D. Ross, Fellow of Oriel College, has done the
same by the rendering of the actual Greek. I am very
sensible of his patience and accuracy as well as of his
learning. I have also had the advantage, in the critical
estimate of the text, of one evening with the Oxford Philo-
logical, and of two with the Oxford Aristotelian Society.
My thanks are also given to Mrs. New and to Mr. F. J.
Routledge of New College, who made for me transcripts of
the Latin Version ; to my friend Monsieur R. Simeterre,
for his generous labour in Paris; to Rev. H. M. Bannister of
Pembroke College, who helped me in Rome; and to
Corpus Christi and Balliol Colleges for the loan of MSS.
The little book is dedicated to the memory of my old
schoolmaster. He died just as I had finished. Whiston’s
successor at Rochester, the descendant of Plutarch’s trans-
lator, by his stern judgement and nice taste first opened to
me the Greek and Roman Classics. I could wish that this
interpretation were exact enough to have disarmed his
inveterate prejudice against Oxford versions.

OXFORD,
Fune, 1912.

354.

ur
.

“I

ΞΡ

10.

11.

CONTENTS

DE MOTU ANIMALIUM

. The source or ground of animal movement, i.e. movement in

place (translation). Physics teaches that all movements in the
Universe are related to an unmoved ground (primum movens).
Experience, the handmaid of Science, confirms physical theory.
Animal movement requires
(a) points of rest (joints) in an organized body ;
(4) an external resisting fulcrum (e.g. earth, air, or water).
Illustrative experiments.

Can the primum movens be 2αγΖ of the Universe? Truth and
error in older speculation. Equilibrium and vis inertiae. As
the universe is eternal, the p.m. must lie outside the physical
universe, itself immovable. Motions of inorganic bodies on
the earth derived ultimately from animate bodies.

Subordinate kinds of motion; structural alteration, growth,
generation and decay.

. Final cause of movement. How does Soul move Body? Such

movements relate to an End.

Animal movement belongs to the sphere of action, not specu-
lation.

Analogy between the Universe and the animate body.

Action and Speculation. Act the conclusion of the syllogism of
action. Animal movements compared with automatic toys.
Toys mechanical, animal change physiological. Latens pro-
cessus.

Minute organic changes are subconscious. Psychophysical
mechanism. Chain of movements indicate a common centre.
Illustrative experiment.

Efficient cause of movement, the heart. Bilateral symmetry of
the body. Anatomical confirmation. Analogy of centre of
sense. The common original is the heart, the organ of soul.

Formal and material cause of movement. Physiological changes,
necessary to movement, depend upon place-movements of
‘connatural spirit’. Physical characters of ‘spirit’, The body
a well-ordered commonwealth. Central control, local self-
government.

Similar principles hold of involuntary and non-voluntary move-
ments. Rationale of body’s structure. Irrational movements
related to physical states. Conclusion.

viii

Io.

11.
12.
13:

14.

iy.

16.

17.
18.
19.

CONTENTS

DE INCESSU ANIMALIUM

Variety of organs of locomotion in animals. Number and modes
of flexion of limbs vary.

. General scientific principles, and accepted definitions presumed.
. Joints necessary to animal movement, and an external fulcrum.
. Dimensions of living bodies to be determined by function, not by

spatial position. Plants compared with Animals. Dimensions
determined by Nutrition, Sensation, and Locomotion. Superiority
of right to left. Illustrations. Gradation of natural forms.
Higher animals more differentiated. Man the most zatural
animal.

. Number of limbs (generically termed ‘feet ’) related to dimensional

differentiation. Bipeds more natural than Quadrupeds.

. Bodily structure and mechanics of movement. Principles of

_de Motu assumed and recapitulated. One dimensional pair
excluded.

. Four points of normal movement. These characterize Sanguinea,

the most natural animal order. Sanguinea true unities, Poly-
poda really aggregates. Limbless Sanguinea no exception.
Snakes, eels, &c.

. Absence of limbs in elongated Sanguinea explained. Limbs

necessarily even. Experiments on living animals.

. Further inquiry into mechanism of jointed limbs. Physical and

mathematical proofs, Flexion necessary also to limbless animals.
Further illustrations from-saltatorial animals, birds and fishes.

Birds, though bipeds, use four points. Function of tail in birds
and insects.

Structure of man, the only erect animal. Comparison with birds.
Balance of a bird’s structure. The tail. Monstrous inventions
of artists.

Reasons for differences in flexions of man’s limbs and quadruped’s.

Diagrams of limb-flexion. Principle of alternate opposition.

Why a quadruped’s limbs move criss-cross. The crab’s peculiar
gait.

Birds compared with quadrupeds. Reasons for structure and
flexion of a bird’s legs. General survey of creatures of air
and of the water. Oblique attachment of wings and fins.
Oviparous quadrupeds.

Locomotion of non-sanguineous animals explained. Peculiarity
of the Crab.

Crabs, crayfish, flatfish, and aquatic fowl.

Why birds have feet, but fish none. Homology of wings and fins.

Distorted animals; Molluscs compared with Seals and Bats.
Zoophytes. Conclusion.

DE MOTU ANIMALIUM

I ELSEWHERE we have investigated in detail! the move- 6988
ment of animals after their various kinds, the differences
between them, and the reasons for their particular characters
(for some animals fly, some swim, some walk, others move 5
in various other ways) ; there remains an investigation of
the common ground? of any sort of animal movement
whatsoever.

Now we have already determined (when we were dis- τὸ
cussing? whether eternal motion exists or not, and its
definition, if it does exist) that the origin of all other
motions is that which moves itself, and that the origin* of
this is the immovable, and that the prime mover must of
necessity be immovable. And we must grasp this not
only generally in theory,° but also by reference to individuals
in the world of sense, for with these in view we seek general
theories, and with these we believe that general theories
ought to harmonize. Now in the world of sense too it is 15
plainly impossible for movement to be initiated if there is
nothing at rest, and before all else in our present subject—
animal life.’ For if one of the parts of an animal be moved,

le.g. P.A. iv. 10-14 and de Jnc. Anim. (the latter treatise being
a section of the former work and presupposed in de Motu Anim.).

* The full title seems to have been περὶ τῆς κοινῆς κινήσεως τῶν ζῴων
(704 2), cf. the last words in some MSS. of de Divinatione per
Somnum ; or ἡ κοινὴ αἰτία τῆς τῶν ζῴων κινήσεως (782% 21), de causa motus
animaltum. That is, On animal movement in general; or The general
ground of animal movement. (Cf. P. A. 6468 το.) Movements had been
reduced in the Physics to a primary kind, Thrusts and Pulls, i.e.
Translation ; this treatise discusses the origination of such primary
movements in the animate body; they are referred to a central original,
the heart, and that is the organ of the soul.

3 Cf. de Anim. iii. 2, 9, 10; Physics, viii. 5; Metaph. xii. 7 and 8.

* Leg. τούτου EYPT, Mich. Eph., Leonicus. (Zeller, Avzs¢. Eng.
trans. 11. 492.) Cf. Physics, 252? 1 πάντων δὲ τὸ ἀκίνητον : Met. 1072”7.

5 P and Mich. om. καθόλου, but vid. G. A. 729% 24.

® Zeller finds in this an exaggeration of A.’s empirical attitude ; cf.
however Parv. Nat. 468% 23; G.A. 76028, 788919. Bon. Index
177* 45. 7 Cf. Physics, 259” 1 φανερῶς.

ν. AR: Μ. Α. Β

6988

698"

σι

DE MOTU

another must be at rest, and this is the purpose of their
joints ;! animals use joints like a centre,? and the whole
member, in which the joint is, becomes both one and two,3
both straight and bent, changing potentially and actually
by reason of the joint. And when it is bending and being
moved one of the points in the joint is moved and one is at
rest, just as if the points A and D of a diameter were at
rest, and B were moved, and DAC were generated.*’ How-
ever, in the geometrical illustration, the centre is held to be
altogether indivisible (for in mathematics motion is a fiction,
as the phrase goes, no mathematical entity being really
moved),> whereas in the case of joints the centres become
now one potentially and divided actually, and now one
actually and divided potentially. But still the origin ® of
movement, qua origin, always remains at rest when the
lower part of a limb is moved; for example, the elbow
joint, when the forearm” is moved, and the shoulder, when
the whole arm; the knee when the tibia is moved, and the
hip when the whole leg. Accordingly it is plain that each
animal as a whole must have within itself a point at rest,
whence will be the origin of that which is moved, and
supporting itself upon which ὃ it will be moved both asa
complete whole and in its members.

1 Cf. de Inc. Anim. 3 and 9.

2 Cf. de Anim. 43326; P.A.654"1 (ἵνα χρῆται ἡ φύσις καὶ ὡς ἑνὶ καὶ
συνεχεῖ, καὶ ὡς δυσὶ καὶ διῃρημένοις πρὸς τὴν κάμψιν), where there is an
account of various types of joint.

3 Cf. de Anim. 4278 10 and znufra, 702° 30,

* Leg. γίνοιτο ἡ AAT (Prof. J.C. Wilson), The Diagram contemplated
is given by Mich. Eph.:

DB, the whole arm. Cc

AC, the forearm (cf. radius).

DA, the humerus.

A, the elbow.
5 Leg. κινεῖσθαι EYST. Cf. Physics,

193° 34; Met. 989» 32, 1064% 30, Bg Aa D
δ

6 ἀρχή used for Ζε7λ)2271145 a guo or origin; source of movement or
original, sometimes with a suggestion of rule or command, or seat of
government. In this treatise it is most often translated ‘original’.

7 βραχίων loosely for πῆχυς. The Greeks did not speak of forearm,
but lower arm. Later προπήχιον (Poll. il. 142) was used for the ulna,
by contrast with παραπήχιον (radius). A. here is thinking of the move-
ment of the ulna.

® Cf. de Inc. 705%5; Met. 1040 10. For the notion of something
external against which the moving body must support itself (a notion

ANIMALIUM 2

But the point of rest in the animal is still quite ineffectual
unless there be something without which is absolutely at
rest and immovable. Now it is worth while to pause and
consider what has been said, for it involves a speculation
which extends beyond animals even to the motion and
march of the universe. For just as there must be some-
thing immovable within the animal, if it is to be moved, so
even more must there be without it something immovable,
by supporting itself upon which that which is moved moves.
For were that something always to give way (as it does for
mice? walking in grain or persons walking in sand) advance
would be impossible, and neither would there be any walking
unless the ground ® were to remain still, nor any flying or
swimming were not the air and the sea to resist. And this
which resists must needs be different from what is moved,
the whole of it from the whole of that, and what is thus
immovable must be no part of what is moved ; otherwise
there will be no movement.* Evidence of this lies in the
problem why it is that a man easily moves a boat? from
outside, if he push with a pole, putting it against the mast
or some other part, but if he tried to do this when in the
boat itself he would never move it, no not giant Tityus
himself nor Boreas® blowing from inside the ship, if he
really were blowing in the way painters represent him ; for
they paint him sending the breath out from the boat. For

more fully developed in de JZo¢u than elsewhere, though accepted in
de Inc.) we may compare A.’s general doctrines of the moving universe,
and of sense perception (e.g. de Anim. 417° 4 ἄνευ τῶν ἔξω οὐ ποιοῦσιν
αἴσθησιν).

1 Cf. Metz. 1072" 14,

2 Leg. οἷον τοῖς μυσὶ ἐν τῇ Cera ἢ τοῖς ἐν TH ἄμμῳ πορευομένοις (ἐν TH...
E). Mich. had γῇ but did not understand it; in his Commentary to
de. Inc. (p. 138. 18) he illustrates the same point by βάδισις εἰς ἅλω πλήρη
κέγχρου.

5 i.e. the ground beneath their feet; Mich. is mistaken here in
speaking of the immobility of the Earth; cf. de Jc. 70529, where A.
speaks of the vedafive stability of the ground.

* In all this discussion A. obviously intends ‘relative’ movement and
‘relative’ equilibrium.

5 For the illustration of the boat cf. Phys. 254» 30.

ὁ Cf. Meteor. 3491. Mich. says the representation of Winds in this
way was very familiar. The point requires the wind-god to be zz a
boat. I cannot find any trace of such representation in ancient art,
nor any other literary reference to such representation (cf. de Jnc.
7118 2 note). Leg. αὐτοῦ, with I viz. rod πλοίου.

698”

Lan!

τὸ
ἐπ

698>

699"

DE MOTU

whether one blew gently or so stoutly as to make a very
great wind, and whether what were thrown or pushed were
wind or something else, it is necessary in the first place to
be supported upon one of one’s own members which is at
rest and so to push, and in the second place for this member,
either itself, or that of which it is a part, to remain at rest,
fixing itself against something external to itself.1 Now the
man who is himself in the boat, if he pushes, fixing himself
against the boat, very naturally does not move the boat,
because what he pushes against should properly remain at
rest. Now what he is trying to move, and what he is fixing
himself against is in his case the same. If, however, he
pushes or pulls from outside he does move it, for the ground
is no part of the boat.

Here we may ask the difficult question whether ifg
something moves the whole heavens this mover must be
immovable,? and moreover be no part of the heavens, nor
in the heavens. For either it is moved itself and moves the
heavens, in which case it must touch something immovable
in order to create movement, and then this is no part of
that which creates movement ; or if the mover is from the
first immovable it will equally be no part of that which is
moved. In this point at least they argue correctly who
say ° that as the Sphere is carried round in a circle no single
part remains still, for then either the whole would necessarily
stand still or its continuity be torn asunder ;* but they
argue less well in supposing that the poles have a certain
force, though conceived as having no magnitude, but as
merely termini or points. For besides the fact that no such
things have any substantial existence it is impossible for a
single movement to be initiated by what is twofold ;° and

1 Curiously enough he does not in this treatise give a general reason
for this i cf. G..A. 76818 ὅλως τὸ κινοῦν ἔξω τοῦ πρώτου ἀντικινεῖταί τινα
κίνησιν, οἷον τὸ ὠθοῦν ἀντωθεῖταί πως καὶ ἀντιθλίβεται τὸ θλῖβον.

> Leg. εἶναί τε δεῖ ἀκίνητον καὶ τοῦτο, καὶ μηθὲν. . .

8 οἱ λέγοντες, probably some of the Physicists (Phys. 193” 29).
Possibly these were Pythagoreans (de Anim. 405° 32; de Caelo,
293° 33). The Sphere is that of the fixed stars (A7e/. xii. 8; de
Cae/o, ii. 6).

* Cf. de Caelo, 290° 6.

5 Cf. Phys. 259% 18.

ANIMALIUM 3 699%

yet they make the poles two. From a review of these
difficulties we may conclude that there is something so
related to the whole of Nature, as the earth is to animals 25
and things moved by them.

And the mythologists with their fable of Atlas’ setting
his feet upon the earth appear to have based the fable upon
intelligent grounds. They make Atlas a kind of diameter? 30
twirling the heavens about the poles. Now as the earth
remains still this would be reasonable enough, but their
theory involves them in the position that the earth is no
part of the universe. And further the force of that which
initiates movement must be made equal to the force of that
which remains at rest. For there is a definite quantity of
force or power by dint of which that which remains at rest 35
does so, just as there is of force by dint of which that which
initiates movement does so; and as there is a necessary
proportion between opposite motions, so there is between
absences of motion. Now equal forces are unaffected by
one another, but are overcome by a superiority of force.
And so in their theory Atlas, or whatever similar power 699>
initiates movement from within, must exert no more force
than will exactly balance the stability of the earth—other-
wise the earth will be moved out of her place in the centre
of things. For as the pusher pushes so is the pushed 5
pushed, and with equal force. But the prime mover moves
that which is to begin with at rest, so that the power it
exerts is greater, rather than equal and like to the power
which produces absence of motion in that which is moved.
And similarly? also the power of what is moved and so
moves must be greater than the power of that which is
moved but does not initiate movement. Therefore the
force of the earth in its immobility will have to be as great
as the force of the whole heavens, and of that which moves

' Atlas, cf. 7762. 1023%20 (where the believers in Atlas are said to be
poets and some physicists). Bacon approves A.’s ‘ very elegant inter-
pretation’ of this ancient fable, de Aug. iv. 4.

2 Diameter, rather radius. The Greeks had no word except ἡ ἡμίσεια
διάμετρος for radius.

8 Leg. ἡ τοῦ κινουμένου {καὶ κινοῦντος τῆς τοῦ κινουμένου) μὲν μὴ
κινοῦντος δέ.

699° DE MOTU

το the heavens. But if that is impossible,! it follows that the
~ heavens cannot possibly be moved by any force of this kind
inside them.

There is a further difficulty about the motions of the parts 4
of the heavens? which, as akin to what has gone before, may
be considered next. For if one could overcome by force of

15 motion the immobility of the earth he would clearly move
it away from the centre. And it is plain that the power from
which this force would originate will not be infinite, for the
earth is not infinite ὃ and therefore its weight is not. Now
there are more senses than one of the word ‘ impossible ’.*
When we say it is impossible to see a sound, and when we
say it is impossible to see the men in the moon,° we use two

20 senses of the word; the former is of necessity, the latter,
though their nature is to be seen, cannot as a fact be seen
by us. Now we suppose that the heavens are of necessity
impossible to destroy and to dissolve,® whereas the result of
the present argument would be to do away with this
necessity. For it is natural and possible for a motion to
exist greater than the force by dint of which the earth is at

25 rest, or than that by dint of which Fire and Aether’ are
moved. If then there are superior motions, these will be
dissolved in succession by one another: and if there actually
are not, but might possibly be (for the earth cannot be
infinite 8 because no body can possibly be infinite), there is
a possibility ὃ of the heavens being dissolved. For what is

1 Cf. de Caelo, 298% 19; Meteor. 340° 7, 3528 27 for the small size of
the Earth by comparison with the universe.

* Heavens, i.e. universe; cf. Bonitz, /zdex, 541” 56.

ΔΘ PRY S: De Ss 4 Cf. Phys. 204% 4; de Anim. 422%27.

5 The men in the moon were a belief of the Pythagoreans, and were
connected with the fiery element. (Cf. Aet. P/ac. ii. 30; Diels,
Doxographi, p. 361; and Galen, H7s¢. Phil. 70.) Some Stoics thought
the souls of the departed dwelt here, ‘circa lunam (dormitio nostra)
cum Endymionibus Stoicorum,’ Tert. de Aim. 55. It is merely an
illustration here, due perhaps to a commentator. For animals in the
moon cf. G.A. 76122. A.M. uses the sun’s rays to illustrate the
point.

6 Cf. Phys. viii. 1 et seq. ; de Caelo, i. 10-12, ii. 1.

7 ἄνω σῶμα, i.e. the aether. Mich. takes it to mean οὐρανός in the
limited sense. Cf. de Caelo, 27022 ; Meteor. 340° 6; de Mundo, 3925 5 ;
G. A. 736° 29. ® Cf. Phys. iti. 53 de Caelo, 1. 12.

® Cf. Phys. 203” 30; de Caelo, i. 5.

ANIMALIUM 4 699"

to prevent this coming to pass, unless it be impossible?
And it is not impossible unless the opposite is necessary. 3°
This difficulty, however, we will discuss elsewhere.’

To resume, must there be something immovable and at
rest outside of what is moved, and no part of it, or not?
And must this necessarily be so also in the case of the
universe? Perhaps it would be thought strange were the
origin of movement inside. And to those who so conceive 35
it the word of Homer? would appear to have been well
spoken :

‘Nay, ye would not pull Zeus, highest of all, from heaven 700*
to the plain, no not even if ye toiled right hard ; come, all
ye gods and goddesses! Set hands to the chain’ ; for that
which is entirely immovable cannot possibly be moved by
anything. And herein lies the solution ® of the difficulty
stated some time back, the possibility or impossibility of
dissolving the system of the heavens, in that it depends from
an original which is immovable.

Now in the animal world there must be not only an
immovable without, but also within * those things which move
in place, and initiate their own movement. For one part of
an animal must be moved, and another be at rest, and
against this the part which is moved will support itself and
be moved ; for example, if it move one of its parts ; for one τὸ
part, as it were, supports itself against another part at rest.®

But about things without life which are moved one might
ask the question whether all contain in themselves both that
which is at rest and that which initiates movement, and
whether they also, for instance fire, earth, or any other
inanimate thing,® must support themselves against something
outside which is at rest. Or is this impossible and must it 15
not be looked for rather’ in those primary causes by which

1 Cf. Phys. Book VIII, passim ; de Caelo, Book I.

2 Tliad, viii. 21 (wrongly quoted move A. in order and words). Cf.
Metz. xii. 8 ; Theophrastus, 7761. Br. 31016 (Usener v? 17).

8 Mich. records a variant δύεται for λύεται, which shows that a difficulty
was felt.

4 Viz. ultimately the central part of the heart.

5 Cf. ch. 1, supra; de Inc. Anim. passim.

® For a discussion of the movement of inorganic bodies cf. Phys.
Vili. 4; de Caelo, 3117 12.

7 Leg. ἀλλ᾽ ὑφ᾽ ὃν PY, Mich. (Leonicus, sed).

700* DE MOTU

they are set in motion? For all things without life are
moved by something other, and the origin of all things so
moved are things which move themselves. And out of
these we have spoken? about animals (for they must all have
in themselves that which is at rest, and without them that

20 against which they are supported); but whether there is
some higher and prime mover is not clear, and an origin of
that kind involves a different discussion.2, Animals at any
rate which move themselves are all moved supporting them-
selves on what is outside them, even when they inspire and
expire; for there is no essential difference between casting

25 ἃ great and a small weight, and this is what men do when
they spit and cough and when they breathe in and breathe
out.?

But is it only in that which moves itself in place that 5
there must be a point at rest, or does this hold also of that
which causes its own qualitative changes, and its own
growth?* Now the question of original generation and
decay is different ; for if there is, as we hold, a primary

80 movement,° this would be the cause of generation and
decay,® and probably of all the secondary movements too.
And as in the universe, so in the animal world this is the
primary movement, when the creature attains maturity ;7 and
therefore it- is the cause of growth, when the creature
becomes ὃ the cause of its own growth, and the cause too of
alteration. But? if this is not the primary movement then

1 Mich. refers to ?. A., i.e. de Luc. ch. 3, &c.; cf. supra, ch. 2.

2 e.g. Met. xii. 8.

8 For respiration as movement cf. Phys. 24312 (where πτύσις is
held to be cognate). Marc. Antonin. Comm. 11. 2 (τὸ πνεῦμα) πάσης
ὥρας ἐξεμούμενον καὶ πάλιν ῥοφούμενον.

* i.e. does the aforesaid principle hold also of the two subordinate
species of κίνησις ὃ (ἡ κατὰ μέγεθος Ξε αὔξησις, and ἡ κατὰ πάθος = ἀλλοίωσις).
Cf. de Anim. 406710; Phys, viii. 7 ; Met. 1069 12, τοϑ88 32.

δ i.e. motion in place or translation; cf. Phys. viii. 7 et seq.;
Generation and Decay are not properly motions though sometimes
loosely termed such (cf. G.4.i. 4; de Anim. 406712). They depend
upon primary movements.

® Del. comma after φθορᾶς (with Leonicus),—[here as elsewhere the
Berlin edition misprints the Latin version], and leg. τῶν ἄλλων δή.

7 Cf. Phys. 260” 33; G.A. 7358 13, 740° 26 (with a suggestion also
of the coming to be of the perfect creature, Phys. 261717).

® Leg. γίνεται αὐτὸ αὑτῷ αἴτιον, kai...

9 The suppressed argument is ‘and if this be so these secondary

ANIMALIUM 5 700°

the point at rest is not necessary. However, the earliest
srowth and alteration in the living creature arise through 35
another and by other channels,! nor can anything possibly 700”
be the cause of its own generation and decay, for the mover
must exist before the moved, the begetter before the
begotten,” and nothing is prior to itself.

6 Now whether the soul is moved or not, and how it is
moved if it be moved, has been stated before in our treatise 5
concerning it. And since all inorganic things are moved
by some other thing—and * the manner of the movement of
the first and eternally moved, and how the first mover
moves it, has been determined before in our Metaphysics,®
it remains to inquire how the soul moves the body, and to
what is the origin of movement in a living creature. For, if
we except the movement of the universe, things with life are
the causes of the movement of all else, that is of all that are
not moved by one another by mutual impact. And so all
their motions have a term or limit, inasmuch as the move-
ments of things with life have such. For all living things 15
both move and are moved with some object, so that this is
the term of all their movement, the end, that is, in view.
Now we see that the living creature is moved by intellect,
imagination, purpose, wish, and appetite. And all these are
reducible to mind and desire. For both imagination’ and
sensation are on common ground® with mind, since all 20
three are faculties of judgement ® though differing according
to distinctions stated elsewhere.!° Will, however, impulse,"

movements, depending on the primary, will a fortiori require a point
of rest’.

1 Viz. the embryo is nourished, the child suckled by the movement of
its parent’s blood, or by her changes of position.

2 Cf. G. A. 735%13; de Anim. 41617; Met. 1073 3.

3 Cf. de Anim. i. 3-5, il. 4, lil. g-end.

4 Leg. περὶ δὲ τοῦ πρώτου E (526) ST.

PCE ΟΣ xi. 9.

6 Cf. Nic. Eth. 1139%17, 1147731. Throughout ὄρεξις is translated
by ‘desire’, ἐπιθυμία by ‘appetite’.

7 Cf. de Anim. 4339.

8 Perhaps there is a reference also to the heart as the seat of all these
powers (cf. Parv. Nat. 4695 1).

9 Cf. de Anim. 426” το, 432° 16.

10 Cf. de Anim. iii. 3. 11 1,6, θυμός.

DE MOTU

and appetite, are all three forms of desire, while purpose *
belongs both to intellect and to desire. Therefore the
object of desire or of intellect ? first initiates movement, not,
that is, every object of intellect, only the end in the domain

25 of conduct. Accordingly among goods that which moves

is a practical end,® not the good in its whole extent. For it
initiates movement only so far as something else is for its
sake, or so far as it is the object of that which is for the
sake of something else. And we must suppose that a
seeming * good may take the room of actual good, and so
may the pleasant, which is itself a seeming good.® From

30 these considerations it is clear that in one regard that which

is eternally moved by the eternal mover is moved in the
same way as every living creature, in another regard
differently, and so while it is moved ® eternally, the move-
ment of living creatures has a term.’ Now the eternal
beautiful, and the truly and primarily good (which is not at

35 one time good, at another time not good), is too divine and

precious to be relative 8 to anything else. The prime mover?

qo1* then moves, itself being unmoved, whereas desire and its

faculty are moved and so move. But it is not necessary for
the last in the chain of things moved to move something
else ;!° wherefore it is plainly reasonable that motion in
place should be the last of what happens in the region of
things happening, since the living creature’! is moved and

1 Cf. Nic. Eth. 11137 10 and vi. 2, 5 and 6; PA&ys. viii. 2.

In de Anim. 111. 10 βούλησις is used instead of προαίρεσις.

2 Cf. Phys. 253°17; de Anim. 433°18; Met. 1072%26; Nic. Eth.
1139 34. 3 Cf. de Anim. 433% 29.

4 Cf. de Anim. 433228; Nic. Eth. 1113%16; Ret. 1360} 18.

5 Cf. Mic. Eth. 114622; Eud. Eth. 1227% 39; Rhet. 1369? 19.

6 Leg. τὸ μὲν ἀεὶ κινεῖται.

7 6 πρακτικὸς νοῦς διαφέρει τοῦ θεωρητικοῦ τῷ τέλει, de Anim. 433514.

8 πρὸς ἕτερον PI., πρότερον ESY (5)ς Mich. who interprets ‘than to
have anything prior to itself’), Perhaps Mich. had really ὥστ᾽ εἶναί τι
πρότερον. Leon. ‘ quam ut illo quicquam sit prius’. The point is that
the first good has nothing beyond to move it, cf. Phys. 260% 5 οὐδὲν
αὐτὸ μεταβάλλον πρὸς τὸ κινούμενον, and Mer. 1072 26.

πρότερον, Cf. de Caelo,i. 12. Bywater, Contributions, &c., p. 15.

® i.e. the good aimed at or achieved in act. Cf. de Anim. 433” 16,
τὸ ὀρεκτόν is τὸ κινοῦν οὐ κινούμενον (433 12), i.e. τὸ πρακτὸν ἀγαθόν, here
called τὸ πρῶτον οὐ κινούμενον κινοῦν.

10 Cf. de Anim. 434” 35 τὸ ἔσχατον ὠθεῖται οὐκ daar.
1 The last in the chain of causes and effects.

ANIMALIUM 6 7017

goes forward by reason of desire or purpose,! when some 5
alteration has been set going on the occasion of sensation or
imagination.

7 But how is it that thought (viz. sense, imagination, and
thought proper) is sometimes followed by action, some-
times not ; sometimes by movement, sometimes not? What
happens seems parallel to the case of thinking and inferring
about the immovable objects of science. There the end 10
is the truth seen 2 (for, when one conceives the two premisses,
one at once conceives and comprehends the conclusion), but
here the two premisses result in a conclusion which is an
action—for example, one conceives that every man ought
to walk, one is a man oneself: straightway * one walks ;
or that, in this case,no man should walk, one is a man:
straightway one remains at rest. And one so acts in the
two cases provided that there is nothing in the one case to
compel or in the other to prevent. Again, I ought to create
a good, a house is good: straightway I make a house.
I need a covering, a coat is a covering: I need a coat.
What I need I ought to make, I need a coat: I make
a coat.* And the conclusion I must make a coat is an 20
action. And the action goes back to the beginning® or
first step. If there is to be a coat, one must first have B,
and if B then A, so one gets A to begin with. Now that
the action® is the conclusion is clear. But the premisses
of action’ are of two kinds, of the good and of the possible.®

And as in some cases of speculative inquiry we suppress 25
one premise so here the mind does not stop to consider at
all an obvious minor premise ; for example if walking is

1 Cf. supra, 700" 23 and note.

* On the contrast between the Syllogisms of Science and of Practice
see Vic. Eth. vii. 3. An explanation such as that before us is there
described as φυσικῶς (cf. de Anim. 434218 ; Eud. Eth. 1227” 28).

8 Cf. Nic. Eth. 1147* 24. * Leg. ἱμάτιον ποιεῖ E (sic).

5 Cf. Mic. Eth. 1112 23, 1113°6; in a different sense the ἀρχή is the
major premise (l.c. 1144 32).

6 It is the same in art (ποίησις proper), JZet. 1032 6; Nic. Eth.
111219.

7 ποιητικαΐ = πρακτικαί : cf. Nic. Eth. 1147% 28 ; Eud. Eth. 1227” 30.
In this matter the spheres of ποιεῖν and πράττειν agree.

8 δυνατὰ δὲ ἃ Ov ἡμῶν γένοιτ᾽ ἄν, Nic. Eth, 1112 27, the possible is
what can be brought about by our own or our friends’ agency.

701% DE MOTU

good for man, one does not dwell upon the minor ‘I am

a man’. And so what we do without reflection, we do

quickly. For when a man actualizes himself in relation

to his object either by perceiving, or imagining or con-

30 ceiving it, what he desires he does at once.’ For the

actualizing of desire is a substitute for inquiry or reflection.

I want to drink, says appetite; this is drink, says sense

or imagination or mind: straightway I drink. In this way

living creatures are impelled to move and to act, and

+ 35 desire is the last or immediate cause of movement, and

desire arises after perception or after imagination and con-

ception. And things that desire to act now create and

now act under the influence of appetite or impulse or of
desire or wish.?

The movements of animals may be compared with those
of automatic puppets,® which are set going on the occasion
of a tiny movement; the levers are released, and strike
the twisted strings against one another ;* or with the toy

zor"

1 Del. comma after ὀρέγεται (sic Mich.). A good instance would be
what is now called ideomotor action.

2 ὄρεξις is the kind of which ἐπιθυμία, θυμός, and βούλησις are species.
Cf. de Anim. 414" 2.

8 A natural illustration, much used by A. (cf. G. A. 734? 10; Met.
9837 14) as it was later by the Stoic Emperor Marcus, and his great
contemporary Galen (e.g. de Usu Part. K. iii. 48,262). Plato uses the
θαύματα differently in the famous allegory of the cave, Rep. 514 B
(cf. Leges, 782 B, &c.). The mechanism of strings in the simple toy
which moved its members in answer toa pull from one governing cord
(de Mundo, ch. 6), the xervis alienis mobile lignum of the Roman poet,
developed into the true automata which seem to have been puppets
dancing in answer to an elaborate hidden mechanism of strings,
weights, and rollers. The dolls may be seen in any museum, but the
automatic machinery is nowhere fully described. We may get some
notion of it from the figures of surgical machines in medical MSS. (vid.
Littré, Hipp. iv, p. 305, Hipp. Avtic. 74, Apoll. Cit. (Schéne) Tab.
Xvli, xvili). For other automatic toys cf. de Anim. 416° 18; Parv.
Nat. 461% 15; Pol. 125335; Plato, Euthyphro, 11 B; Meno, 97 Ὁ.

* Leg. τῶν ξύλων καὶ κρουόντων ἀλλήλαις τὰς σ. (¢xfra Ὁ 9). The sense
of στρέβλαι is clear, they are the strings which agitated the limbs, though
the word is not used in Hippocrates. στρεβλοῦσθαι gets its sense in
this way, and we may see a play upon the double meaning in Dio
Chrys. Charidemus, 303 M ὑπὸ τούτων κατατείνεσθαι καὶ στρεβλοῦσθαι.
Philoponus (or Michael Eph.) in a gloss upon G. A. 734? 4 (Comm. in
Arist. Graeca, xiv. 3, p. 77) explains that the νευροσπάστης or showman
knocked one of the ξύλα and so released the mechanism, which then
went off of itself, the various ξύλα somehow releasing one another:
“ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν αὐτομάτων θαυμάτων ὁ μὲν θαυματοποιὸς κινήσας τόδε τι
πέπαυται τοῦ κινεῖν, τοῦτο δὲ τὸ προσεχῶς ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ κινηθὲν ἐκίνησεν ἄλλο,
κἀκεῖνο ἕτερον᾽, and ‘6 θαυματοποιὸς κινεῖ τόδε μὲν τὸ ξύλον καὶ ἀπέρχεται;

ANIMALIUM 7 701?

wagon. For the child mounts on it and moves it straight
forward,! and then again it is moved in a circle owing to its 5
wheels being of unequal diameter (the smaller acts like
a centre on the same principle as the cylinders*). Animals
have parts of a similar kind, their organs, the sinewy
tendons to wit and the bones ; the bones are like the wooden
levers in the automaton, and the iron; the tendons are
like the strings, for when these are tightened or released 3
movement begins. However, in the automata and the toy τὸ
wagon there is no change of quality, though if the inner
wheels became smaller and greater by turns there would
be the same circular movement set up. In an animal the
same part has the power of becoming now larger and now
smaller, and changing its form,* as the parts increase by 15
warmth and again contract by cold and change their quality.
This change of quality is caused by imaginations and sensa-

τοῦτο δὲ ὑπὸ τῆς ἐνδοθείσης αὐτῷ κινητικῆς δυνάμεως διά τινος μηχανῆς κινεῖ
ἕτερον, κἀκεῖνο ἄλλο, κἀκεῖνο τὸ εἴδωλον. I take it that the machine
(like a rack or surgical instrument) was of cylinders with strings wound
round them, and with weights suspended (cf. συνείρεται in G. A. 7419
referring to the rollers strung together) ; the cylinders had pegs (ξύλα)
on them which in time (ἐφεξῆς) set other rollers going and so made the
puppets dance on the table above. Aristotle alludes to the rollers,
I think, in his laconic manner in the words καθάπερ ἐν τοῖς κυλίνδροις.
The point in both this and the following simile lies in the automatism
of the body, and the manifest outward gestures which flow from a tiny
internal initial motion, just as the prow swings through a wide circle
on a small movement of the helm.

1 Leg. καὶ τὸ ἁμάξιον᾽ ὁ yap ὀχούμενος αὐτὸ κινεῖ (ὀχούμενος S). The
point is the change of motion in a straight line to circular movement
by the automatic action of the inner wheels, as well as the slight
impulse given by the child. I have often seen children in old days
jumping on such little carriages in the side streets of London and then
swinging round ina circle. (The emendation was suggested indepen-
dently by Mr. H. P. Richards and Mr. W. D. Ross.)

2 The reference is obscure, being apparently a brief note for
Aristotle’s own use. I take it to refer to the cylinders of the automatic
machine. St. Hilaire illustrates from comzca/ rollers which are used for
crushing cement (but cf. Pv0d/. 913» 38 where the cone is expressly
distinguished from the cylinder 6 κῶνος ὠσθεὶς κύκλῳ περιφέρεται, τῆς
κορυφῆς μενούσης). Mich. speaks vaguely of toy carriages with cylin-
drical wheels, ‘ which babies drag along in their games—very pretty
playthings for the colours lavished on them by painters’ !

8. Leg. ὧν συστελλομένων καὶ ἀνιεμένων.

* i.e. the body’s motions are produced physiologically (by alteration)
and not mechanically. A change of temperature in the heart’s region
causes an alteration in the tendons (νεῦρα) and these pull the bones.
In ch. 10 A, is gravelled by the difficulty of relating this physiological
change to φορά or translation, in his system the necessarily primary
motion (cf. notes to ch. 10; and Galen, referred to in 703% 31 note).

οι DE MOTU

tions and by ideas. Sensations are obviously a form of
change of quality, and imagination and conception have the
same effect as the objects so imagined and conceived.

20 For in a measure the form conceived! be it of hot or cold
or pleasant or fearful is like what the actual objects would
be, and so we shudder and are frightened at a mere idea.
Now all these affections involve changes of quality, and
with those changes some parts of the body enlarge, others
grow smaller. And it is not hard to see that a small

25 change occurring at the centre? makes great and numerous
changes at the circumference, just as by shifting the rudder
a hair’s breadth you get a wide deviation at the prow.
And further,? when by reason of heat or cold or some
kindred affection a change is set up in the region of the

30 heart, even in an imperceptibly small part* of the heart,
it produces a vast difference in the periphery of the body,—
blushing, let us say, or turning white, goose-skin and
shivers and their opposites.®

But to return, the object we pursue or avoid in the field 8
of action is, as has been explained, the original of move-
35 ment, and upon the conception and imagination of this
there necessarily © follows a change in the temperature of

1 Shecies tntelizgibilis of later writers.

2 Viz. the heart (cf. ἢ 29 zzfra). For these small changes at or affect-
ing the centre cf. de Anim. 4039 21; H. A. 590% 3; G. A.716 3, 7889 11.

5 Del. full stop after πάθος.

4 Cf. Hobbes, Zev. i. 16 ‘And altho’ unstudied men doe not conceive
any motion at all to be there, where the thing moved is invisible; or
the space it is moved in is (for the shortness of it) insensible ; yet that
doth not hinder but that such motions are’; a favourite topic with
Bacon, e.g. /V. O. ii. 6 ‘omnis actio naturalis transigitur per illa quae
sunt minora quam ut sensum feriant’, and with Des Cartes, e.g. Princ.
Phil. iv, ΤΟΙ ‘ At multas in singulis corporibus considero, quae nullo
sensu percipiuntur : quod illi fortasse non probant, qui sensus suos pro
mensura cognoscibilium sumunt’ et seq. For ships’ rudders cf. AZech.
ch. 5 (lever principle).

5 Homer (//zad, N 279) gives a vivid description of the motions set
up by fear. Such observations developed into the Prognostics or
Symptoms of physicians (vid. Hipp. Progz. et Epzd. Book III) ; cf.
Prob. 902” 37 ; the opposites are caused by θερμότης εὔκρατος, which
ἀνίησί τε τὸ σῶμα καὶ αὔξησιν αὐτῷ ἐμποιεῖ (Alex. de Anim. 77.1); ‘and
their opposites ’ seems a gloss, cf. Mich. 115. 22.

® Des Cartes’ equivocal treatment of the Soul, and strong inclination
to see automatism in bodily changes, present a remarkable contrast
and parallel. (Vid. 7vazté des Passions, passim.)

ANIMALIUM 8 Jor?

the body. For what is painful we avoid, what is pleasing
we pursue. We are, however, unconscious of what happens
in the minute parts ;! still anything painful or pleasing is 702*
generally speaking accompanied by a definite change of
temperature? in the body. One may see this by con-
sidering the affections. Blind courage and panic fears,
erotic motions, and the rest of the corporeal affections,
pleasant and painful, are all accompanied by a change of
temperature, some in a particular member, others in the
body generally. So, memories and anticipations,’? using 5
as it were the reflected images* of these pleasures and
pains, are now more and now less causes of the same
changes of temperature. And so we see the reason of
nature’s handiwork® in the inward parts, and in the
centres of movement of the organic members ; they change
from solid to moist, and from moist to solid, from soft to τὸ
hard and vice versa. And so when these are affected in
this way, and when besides the passive and active® have

1 Leon. apparently had λίαν λανθάνει, a variant not in E nor Y nor
recorded in Bekker. The passage is out of place, but the sense is clear.
Mich., with our reading, translates δέ as yap.

3 The stress on heat and cold is connected with the doctrines of the
‘hypothetical’ school of Medicine ridiculed by Hippocrates (de antig.
Med. ch. 13). In Des Cartes a purely hypothetical change in the ‘vital
spirits’ is the analogue to these temperature changes. ‘The first germ
of the doctrine of ‘animal spirit’ (ψυχικὸν πνεῦμα) is contained in ch. x,
infra,andin G.A. It played a disproportionate part in subsequent
physiology (e.g. in the Stoics and in Galen).

For the bodily effects of heat and cold vid. P. A. 600” 28, 679% 25,

692 23; znfra, 70315; G. A. 740? 32.

* § Cf. Parv. Nat. 44927; Plato, P27. 32 Ὁ ‘memory of the past,
anticipation of the future pleasures or pains’ (τὸ μὲν mpd τῶν ἡδέων
ἐλπιζόμενον ἡδὺ καὶ θαρραλέον, τὸ δὲ mpd τῶν λυπηρῶν φοβερὸν καὶ
ἀλγεινόν).

4 Viz. φαντάσματα, cf. Parv. Wat. 4508 13, either images, likenesses
(Parv. Nat. 462° 11), called εἰκόνες (Parv. Nat. 451215; Plato, PAzl. 398),
and ζωγραφήματα (4503 27, Plato, Phz/. 40 A), or reflections (Pasv. Nat.
464 9), dream phantoms being like forms reflected in more or less
troubled water (cf. Plato, 77.728). The later Peripatetics called
them ἀναζωγραφήματα.

5 Cf. G.A. 731%°24. A., though free from the vulgar Teleology of
Design, is fond of calling Nature a cunning artificer, especially in his
Nat. Hist. treatises. His language becomes coloured with enthusiasm
in such passages as P. A. 64529; de Jue. 711° 18; and G.A. 730" 27,
743% 23. Cf. Galen de Usu P. passim.

ο Cf. de Anim. 417° 1 ἐν τοῖς καθόλου λόγοις περὶ τοῦ ποιεῖν καὶ πάσχειν.
Some have thought there was a special treatise so named, and similarly
a treatise περὶ τροφῆς. On the interrelation of agent and patient ct.

702" DE MOTU

the constitution we have many times described, as often as
it comes to pass that one is active and the other passive,
and neither of them falls short of the elements of its

15 essence,! straightway one acts and the other responds.
And on this account thinking that one ought to go and
going are virtually simultaneous, unless there be something
else to hinder action.2, The organic parts are suitably
prepared by the affections, these again by desire, and desire
by imagination.? Imagination in its turn depends either

20 Upon conception or sense-perception. And the simultaneity
and speed are due to the natural correspondence of the
active and passive.

However, that which first moves the animal organism
must be situate in a definite original. Now we have said
that a joint is the beginning of one part of a limb, the end
of another.*| And so nature employs it sometimes as one,
sometimes as two. When movement arises from a joint,

25 one of the extreme points must remain at rest, and the
other be moved (for as we explained above the mover
must support itself against a point at rest); accordingly,
in the case of the elbow-joint, the last point of the forearm
is moved but does not move anything, while, in the flexion,
one point of the elbow, which lies in the whole forearm

30 that is being moved, is moved,’ but there must also be
a point which is unmoved, and this is our meaning when
we speak of a point which is in potency one, but which
becomes two in actual exercise. Now if the arm were
the living animal, somewhere in its elbow-joint would be

Parv. Nat. 46515; Physics, iii. 3; Meteor. iv; de Gen. et Corr.i. 9 ;
G. A. 740” 21, 768523; Metaphysic, ix. 5 (especially de Gen. et Corr.
324° 9; Met. 1047” 35).

1 Or ‘definition’. Cf. 7767, 10487 2. 2 Cf. Met. 1048917.

8 Cf. Phys. 2535 17; de Anim. 433° 28.

4 Leg. ὅτι τοῦ μέν ἐστιν, Y, i.e. the elbow-joint is the end of the fore-
arm, the beginning of the upper arm. The joint is ultimately two
juxtaposed points (more accurately surfaces, de Anim. 43322); of
these one is the original, the other the end of the extremity moved. In
another sense the centre point is the middle of a line, and therefore
both beginning and end (PAys. 220712, 262% 21, &c.). This geometrical
point is in potency two but in act one, the point here is potentially one,
in act two, just because it is not a mathematical entity. Cf. de Anim.
427% Io. δ Cf. supra, 698 19.

6 ? Leg. κινεῖ καὶ κινεῖται T, A.M. Cf. P. and zz/fra 703* 14 (note).

ANIMALIUM 8 702%

situate the original seat of the moving soul. Since, how-
ever, it is possible for a lifeless thing to be so related

to the hand as the forearm is to the upper (for example,
when a man moves! a stick in his hand), it is evident that

the soul,” the original of movement, could not lie in either 35
of the two extreme points, neither, that is, in the last point

of the stick which is moved, nor in the original point which
causes movement. For the stick too has an end point and 702°
an originative point by reference to the hand. Accordingly,
this example shows that the moving original which derives
from the soul is not in the stick; and if not,then not in the
hand; for a precisely similar relation obtains between
the hand‘ and the wrist, as between the wrist and the
elbow. In this matter it makes no difference whether
the part is a continuous part of the body or not ; the stick ὅ
may be looked at as a detached part of the whole. It
follows then of necessity that the original cannot lie in
any individual origin which is the end of another member,
even though there may lie another part outside® the one
in question. For example, relatively to the end point
of the stick the hand is the original, but the original of the
hand’s movement is in the wrist. And so if the true
original is not in the hand, because there is still something
higher up,’ neither is the true original in the wrist, for once

1 Leg. κινοίη τις βακτηρίαν, viz. by bending the wrist. A. speaks
loosely of the wrist’s function, and nowhere considers the rotation
of the hand, just as in de /uc. Anim. he treats only implicitly of the
ankle, ignoring its rotation in human progression. If A. studied, as
is almost certain, only azzwzal anatomy these movements would more
easily escape him.

2 ἡ ψυχή loosely for ἡ ἀπὸ τῆς ψυχῆς ἀρχή, or else the soul is carelessly
spoken of as the original of bodily movement (cf. de Anim. 406°
24, &c.).

5 The ‘extreme’ is not the outermost end of the stick or the
argument would fail. It is the end point where the stick meets the
hand, the ‘ beginning’ or ‘ original’ is the point of the wrist which is
at rest, hand being, as often, used for wrist (contrast 27. «4. 493? 27).
Mich. was puzzled and is more than usually unhappy in his explanation ;
the confusion arises from a play upon ἀρχή, most characteristic of
Aristotle (cf. 70217 note; Newman, Zhe Pol. of A. iv. 322).

* Lit. extremity of the hand, viz. all the hand from the wrist
(regarded as part of the hand) outwards; a popular use in Greek.

5 For the ‘ stick’ illustration cf. Phys. viii. 5.

§ Viz. further from the centre of the organism, i.e. the heart.

7 Viz. higher up towards the shoulder—a local centre—and ultimately

ν. AR. M.A. (Ὁ

702” DE MOTU

more if the elbow is at rest! the whole part below it can be
moved as a continuous whole.

Now since the left and the right sides are symmetrical,’ 9
and these opposites are moved simultaneously,® it cannot
be that the left is moved by the right remaining stationary,

15 nor vice versa; the original must always be in what lies
above both. Therefore, the original seat of the moving
soul must be.in that which lies in the middle, for of both
extremes the middle is the limiting point ;* and this is
similarly related to the movements from above [and below, |
those that is from the head, and ὅ to the bones which spring

20from the spinal column, in creatures that have a spinal
column.*®

And this is a reasonable arrangement. For the senso-
rium’ is in our opinion in the centre too; and so, if the
region of the original of movement is altered in structure
through sense-perception and thus changes, it carries with
it the parts * that depend upon it and they too are extended
or contracted, and in this way the movement of the creature ©

25 necessarily follows. And the middle of the body must

towards the heart. Cf. 2#fra, 70215; and G. A. 7884 14 τοῦτο yap ἐστι
τὸ ἀρχὴν εἶναι τὸ αὐτὴν μὲν αἰτίαν εἶναι πολλῶν, ταύτης δ᾽ ἄλλο ἄνωθεν
μηθέν. Fr. 14918 13.

1 Viz. if the lower arm and hand be held rigid, like the stick in
the illustration ; similarly the ἀρχή is not in the elbow, nor yet in the
shoulder.

2 τὸ ζῷον rather than ἡ ἀρχή is the implied subject.

$ Mich. violently turns ἅμα by κατὰ μέρος, confounding the argument.

4 Lit. ‘extreme’ (ἔσχατον). Of both extremes the middle is the
extreme or limit point. The paradox is very Aristotelian ; cf. de Cae/o,
3127 10 ἔστι yap ws ἔσχατον καὶ μέσον ἀμφοτέρων (eat) τὸ μεταξύ. Cf.
P.A.661% 11; Prob. 913 36; Met. Το228 12; Mic. Eth. 1107°8.

5 Leg. κεφαλῆς, καὶ πρὸς τά (τά EY), kai κάτω is, I think, a gloss. om. TI.

6 The ῥάχις is the ἀρχή of the bony system (cf. H.A. 516210; P.A.
654° 32, 12; Alex. de Anima, 97 1. 27), τάς (sc. κινήσ εἰι9) would imply a
knowledge of the nervous system of the spine which only arose much
later. The heart is also centrally situate in regard to the skeletal
system, radiating from the ῥάχις. It is thus the centre of the bony
and vascular, of the sensory as well as of the motor organization.

7 Cf. P. A. 647% 25, 656% 28, 665% 10, 721% 22; Parv: Nat. 456° 4. The
heart is the original of sense apprehension, though some of the πόροι
aio Onrixoi pass through the head.

8 Viz. τὰ νεῦρα (chordae tendineae), the sinewy tendons that are con-
ceived to move the limbs. The ἀρχαί or four local originals are the
centres from which the limbs are moved (cf. de /uc. 704 15).

ANIMALIUM 9 qo2”

needs be in potency one but in action more than one; for
the limbs are moved simultaneously from the original seat
of movement, and when one is at rest the other is moved.
For example, in the line BAC,! B is moved, and A is the
mover. There must, however, be a point at rest if one is to 30
move, the other to be moved. A <«AE)? then being one
in potency must be two in action, and so be a definite
spatial magnitude not a mathematical point.* Again, C
may be moved simultaneously with B. Both the originals
then in A must move and be moved, and so there must
be something other than them which moves but is not
moved. For otherwise, when the movement begins, the
extremes, i.e. the originals, in A would rest upon one 35
another, like two men putting themselves back to back 703*
and so moving their legs. There must then be some one
thing which moves both.* This something is the soul,
distinct from the spatial magnitude just described and yet
located therein.®

Although from the point of view of the definition of
movement—a definition which gives the cause—desire ® is

A
1 Cf. 70330. The diagrams, so often mentioned
(cf. Parv. Nat. 45217; G. A. 749° 8, 761% 10), are lost,
though substitutes appear in the margins of some MSS.
According to Mich. the figure contemplated is ΒΟ
Mich. speaks of A, or AE, as μέγεθός τι, so that A.’s E
drawing may have been after the similitude of a pair A

of compasses, E being the actual centre. On the central
part of the heart cf. P. A. 666” 33.

2 AE in Mich.; cf. ABinS.

3 τὸ ἀμερὲς οὐκ ἐνδέχεται κινεῖσθαι, Phys. 240° 8, 258”
25; de Anim. 402 1; De Incessu, 705% 23 (note).

* Leg. ἀναγκαῖον ἕν εἶναι. ‘necesse esse unum’ I, cf. \
ἈΠΜ 1 cnp:343. Β Cc

5 This unity is properly the organ of soul, like Des Cartes’ pineal
gland. He regarded this as the material centre of animal movement
because it alone had no double in the brain (cf. de Anim. 406” 24,
415° 21 ὅθεν πρῶτον ἡ κατὰ τόπον κίνησις, ψυχή). A. did not consider the
body to be moved éy the soul but κατὰ ταύτην, as fire by its levity, or
the artist by his art.

δ The word ψυχή, at the end of last chapter, is used loosely for
ἡ ὀρεκτικὴ δύναμις τῆς Ψυχῆς, by reason of which organized bodies
are moved. Desire, then, is the formal cause or ground of move-
ment, it remains to find the material cause. (Cf. de Anim. 412” 20,
where ὄψις is οὐσία ὀφθαλμοῦ ἡ κατὰ τὸν λύγον, ὁ δ᾽ ὀφθαλμὸς ὕλη
ὄψεως.)

Ε2

703° DE MOTU

5 the middle term or cause, and desire moves being moved,!
still in the material animated body there must be some
material? which itself moves being moved. Now that
which is moved, but whose nature is not to initiate move-
ment, is capable of being passive to an external force,
while that which initiates movement must needs possess
a kind of force and power. Now experience shows us that
animals do both possess connatural spirit ? and derive power
from this. (How this connatural spirit is maintained in the
body is explained in other passages of our works.*) And
this spirit appears to stand to the soul-centre or original in
a relation analogous to that between the point in a joint
which moves being moved and the unmoved.® Now since
this centre is for some animals in the heart, in the rest in
a part analogous ® with the heart, we further see the reason
for the connatural spirit being situate where it actually is
found. The question whether the spirit remains always the
same or constantly changes and is renewed, like the cognate
question about the rest of the parts of the body, is better
postponed.” At all events we see that it is well disposed

σι

1 Cf. de Anim. 433Ὁ 16.

2 Cf. de Anim. 4330 τὸ ᾧ δὲ κινεῖ ὀργάνῳ ἡ ὄρεξις, ἤδη τοῦτο σω-
ματικόν.

3. Aristotle heroically faces the difficulty of relating ἀλλοίωσις to φορά,
since his general view of κίνησις involves the priority of translation to
alteration. On this very obscure subject, consult among many passages
Meteor. 366° 1 ; de Anim. ii. 4; Parv. Nat. 4742 25 et seq.; G.A. 728" 28,
735” 37, 736° 37, 741} 32, 7818 24, 789° 7.

The spirit is called ἔμφυτον πνεῦμα in Parv. Nat. 4755 8 ; φυτικὸν πῦρ
in 474? 12.

* The unnecessary assumption that this is a reference to περὶ
πνεύματος, a later work, has been used as an argument against the
genuineness of De Motu. The reference is the other way about, as
will be seen from the opening words of de Sfirvztu. The reference here
is quite undetermined but we may compare de Anim. 416" 31; Parv.
Nat. 456915, 4743; P.A.647"5, 651415. Mich. refers to περὶ τροφῆς,
a work possibly contemplated by A., but if written soon lost (cf.
702* II note).

° Cf. chs. 1 and 7 supra, The point is here called with greater
accuracy ‘moving and moved’. Cf. 702% 30 (note).

5 Cf. Parv. Nat. 474» 2 τοῖς ἀναίμοις ἀνώνυμον and P. A. 68116; G. A.
F2u ΣΙ 78 0. le:

7 Passages are scattered about the works on this question (vid. Bonitz,
Index, 10416). The renewing agent is the blood, which generates by
vital heat this ‘spirit’ in the heart, and then by help of the lungs and
the cold air from without acts and reacts upon the heart’s walls and so
on the whole bodily frame. (Cf. P. A. ii. 3, iv. 4; G.A. ii. 6-7, v. 43

ANIMALIUM Io

to excite movement and to exert power ;? and the functions
of movement are thrusting and pulling. Accordingly, the
organ of movement must be capable of expanding * and con-
tracting ; and this is precisely the characteristic of spirit.
It contracts and expands naturally,* and so is able to
pull and to thrust from one and the same cause, ex-
hibiting gravity compared with the fiery® element, and
levity by comparison with the opposites of fire.6 Now that
which is to initiate movement without change of structure
must be of the kind described, for the elementary bodies?

Alex. de Anim. 94.17; Galen, de Usu Part. Καὶ. 111. 496, de Usu Resp.
Κ. iv. 502.)

1 φαίνεται, a reference perhaps to holding the breath when a weight is
lifted. A., like gymnastic teachers to-day, supposed it gave power (cf.
de Anim. 42193: Parv. Nat. 456% 15; G.A. 775» 3).

2 Cf. de Inc. 704° 23; for the reduction of all‘movements to ὦσις καὶ
ἔλξις, vid. Phys. 2435 16, 243” 16. Movement, it must be remembered,
is not contemplated in abstraction from bodies, but taken in the sense
of duevement communicated by force to body.

ἢ αὐξάνεσθαι i in its vulgar sense, ef PSA. 653° 31 ἡ γὰρ τοῦ θερμοῦ φύσις
ἐνισχύουσα ποιεῖ τὴν αὔξησιν ἀπὸ τοῦ μέσου κατὰ τὴν αὑτῆς “φοράν.

4 Leg. ἀβιάστως συστελλομένη {τε καὶ ἐκτεινομένη καὶ ἑλκτικὴ ) καὶ ὦ.
The emendation seems certain from Mich.’s words quoted below and
from I ‘tractiua et pulsiua’. ἀβίαστος is a word only found in Antoninus
(Comm. iii. 16, &c.) and Alex. Aphr. The sense is ‘naturally’ (avro-
φυῶς in the later Peripatetics), cf. de Anim. 4066 ὠσθείη yap ἂν Bia τὸ
ζῷον. For the omission of ἐκτεινομένη cf. supra, 701" 15, where συστελ-
λομένων is omitted by EY. Mich., probably following an older com-
mentator, says in his notes on P. A. Ρ. 88. 35 τοῦ ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ πνεύματος
ἐκτεινομένου καὶ συστελλομένου ὡς ἐν τῇ περὶ ζ. κινήσεως δέδεικται ; Cf.p.128. 5.

Aristotle seems to have conceived the contraction of the spirit as giving
a pull (ἑλκτική), and its expansion as loosening the sinews, whereas Des
Cartes thought the vital spirits blew up the muscles and so shortened
and broadened them. A. probably was thinking of such a similitude
as that of an inflated wineskin or bladder, having in mind the familiar
Greek mode of reducing a dislocation of the thigh by blowing up a
wineskin ; cf. Hipp. «472. 77 (Littré, iv. 310), where ἰσχύς and ἀναγκάζειν
are used of the force so applied to the injured member.

For the doctrine cf. de Anim. 403° 31 where ὄρεξις from ἃ physicist’s
point of view is said to be ζέσις τοῦ περὶ καρδίαν αἵματος καὶ θερμοῦ ; ἢ. A.
6533.31; and for a parallel treatment of the mechanism of respiration,
P. A. 666° 15. We may compare also the later Stoic notions of Bia
πνευματική, ἄς. (cf. H.A. 586% 17).

5 πυρώδη, cf. G.A. 7371 ἀνάλογον οὖσα τῷ τῶν ἄστρων στοιχείῳ:

‘respondens elemento stellarum,’ Harvey, 77 -eatise on Generation.

® Called θερμὸς ἀήρ in G. A. 7368 1 ; vital heat is not ordinary heat,
and πνεῦμα σ. is conceived as a nice balance between the fiery and the
aery.

For its volatile nature cf. G. A. 735” 34; 744° 3; and for the language
Parv. Nat. 479" 31 where ζέσις is πνευματουμένου τοῦ ὑγροῦ.

τὰ φυσικὰ σώματα, viz. Earth, Air, Fire, and Water, cf. de Cae/o,
os and 29 (κρατεῖν).

703°

703° DE MOTU

prevail over one another in a compound body by dint of
disproportion ; the light is overcome and kept down by the
heavier, and the heavy kept up by the lighter.
We have now explained what the part is which is moved
when the soul originates movement in the body, and what
30 is the reason for this. And the animal organism must be
conceived after the similitude of a well-governed common-
wealth. When order is once established in it there is no
more need of a separate monarch to preside over each
several task. The individuals each play their assigned
part as it is ordered, and one thing follows another in its
accustomed order. So in animals there is the same order-
liness—nature taking the place of custom—and each part
naturally doing his own work as nature has composed them.?
There is no need then of a soul in each part, but she resides
in a kind of central governing place of the body, and the
remaining parts live by continuity of natural structure, and
play the parts Nature would have them play.

Ww
eye

log

793

So much then for the voluntary movements of animal 1
bodies, and the reasons for them. These bodies, however,
display in certain members involuntary movements too, but
most often non-voluntary movements.? By involuntary I
mean motions of the heart ὁ and of the privy member ; ὃ for
often upon an image arising and without express mandate
of the reason these parts are moved. By non-voluntary I

1 Cf. Plato, 7zm. 70 A; P.A.670%26 where the head or heart as
seat of government is termed ἀκρόπολις. In Wie. E7h. 1113%8 the com-
parison is with the Homeric monarchy, in Po/. 1254” 5 the relation of
soul and body is that of master to slave (Seomorixn). The simile is ©
worked out elaborately in de Mundo, 40014 et seq. For the Stoic
view vid. Seneca, Epist. Mor. 113. 23. Galen, de Usu P. K. iii. 268.

Galen, de Placitis, vii. 4 (K. v. 611) states the conflicting views about
πνεῦμα. Does it pass through the body, or does a message go from the
brain and produce alteration in the local nerves, or does the brain act
by force without matter? This last view he illustrates from the power
of the sun, who stays in his own seat and yet warms and brightens the
atmosphere.

2 Leg. ἕκαστον τῶν οὕτω (i.e. φύσει) συστάντων, cf. Phys. 250° 14;
de Anim. 4167 16.

5. Cf.the division ofactsinto voluntary, non-voluntary, and involuntary,
Nic. Eth, iii. τ.

* Palpitation, cf. Parv. Nat. 476 22, 479” 19, 480% 14; P. A. 669% 20
(πήδησις connected with ἐλπίς).

5. Cf. de Anim. 43228; P.A. 666" 17.

—s

ANIMALIUM π

mean sleep and waking and respiration,! and other similar
organic movements. For neither imagination nor desire is
properly mistress of any of these; but since the animal body
must undergo natural changes of quality,? and when the
parts are so altered some must increase and others decrease,
the body must straightway be moved and change with the
changes that nature makes dependent upon one another.

703°

Now the causes of the movements are natural changes of 15

temperature,’ both those coming fram outside * the body,
and those taking place within it.2 So the involuntary
movements which occur in spite of reason in the aforesaid
parts occur when a change of quality supervenes.? For
conception and imagination, as we said above, produce the
conditions necessary to affections, since they bring to bear
the images or forms? which tend to create these states.
And the two parts aforesaid display this motion more
conspicuously than the rest, because each is in a sense
a separate vital organism,’ the reason being that each
contains vital moisture.® In the case of the heart the cause
is plain, for!® the heart is the seat of the senses, while an
indication that the generative organ too is vital is that there
flows from it the seminal potency, itself a kind of organism.

1 Cf. Phys. 259” 9, growth, decay, respiration. A. does not seem to
contemplate here such semi-voluntary movements as winking (7. A.
657° 1 οὐκ ἐκ προαιρέσεως, and compare what is said of tickling in ?. A.
673° 6).

* Mich. puts a full stop after ἀλλοίωσιν, but the apodosis is καὶ ai mapa
τὸν λόγον δὴ...

3 For effect of heat and cold cf. P. A. 679226; Probl. 902° 37.

* ai θύραθεν, cf. Phys. 253%15; P.A. 6531.

5 Insert comma after ὑπάρχουσαι.

6 Sleep, &c., are non-voluntary movements; we set ourselves upon
going to sleep and then the changes occur, largely owing to heat
generated in digestion. Similarly, A. argues (like Des Cartes), the
involuntary movements are bye-products of natural changes. Cf.
Parv. Nat. 455°28 ; P. A. 6537 10.

T τὰ yap εἴδη, cf. 701° 20, supra.

8.1 do not know any other references to this individuality of organs.
For the heart cf. P. A. 666% 21,17; forthe other member, Plato, 77)».
ΟἹ B οἷον ζῷον ἀνυπήκοον τοῦ λόγου, and (of the σπέρμα) ἀόρατα ζῷα. The
θάυματα emphasized this individuality of the αἰδοῖον, Hdt. ii. 48 ; Luc.
de Dea Syria, Reitz, iii. 463.

° Cf. Parv. Nat. 466918 τὸ ξῴόν ἐστι φύσει ὑγρὸν καὶ θερμόν, G. A.
742715; Galen, Defin. Med. (K. xix. 370) σπέρμα ἐστὶ πνεῦμα ἔνθερμον ἐν
ὑγρῷ ἐξ ἑαυτοῦ κινούμενον et seq.

10 Leg. τὰς γὰρ ἀρχάς (PST), and insert comma after αἰτίαν.

Ls)
υ

793

704°

DE MOTU ANIMALIUM 1

Again, it is a reasonable arrangement that the movements
arise in the centre upon movements in the parts, and in the
parts upon movements in the centre, and so reach one
another. Conceive A to be the centre or starting-point.
The movements then arrive at the centre from each letter
in the diagram ' we have drawn, and flow back again from
the centre which is moved and changes, (for the centre is
potentially ? multiple) the movement of B goes to B, that
of C to C, the movement of both to both; but from B to C3
the movements * flow by dint of going from B to A as to
a centre, and then from A to C as from a centre.

Moreover® a movement contrary to reason sometimes
does and sometimes does not arise in the organs on the
occasion of the same ὃ thoughts; the reason is that some-
times the matter which is passive’ to the impressions is
there in sufficient quantity and of the right quality and
sometimes not.

And so we have finished our account of the reasons® for
the parts of each kind of animal, of the soul, and further of
sense-perception, of sleep, of memory,’ and of movement in
general; it remains to speak of animal generation.

1 Cf. supra, 702” 29.

2 Suydpec—one would expect ἐνεργείᾳ (702 31, &c.). The other and
more ordinary sense of potentiality has slipped in here.

$ Omit ἀρχή a gloss on preceding words, with which Lf actualiy
places it.

* Leg. semicolon after ¢up», a comma after I, and delete δέ after τῷ
(sic Ἐ, ΤῚ.

δ Leg. ἔτι EP for ὅτι (Mich. and © had ὅτι) and οὗ αἴτιον τὸ (ὅτε δ᾽ οὗ
αἴτιον ὅτο μὲν E sic).

δ Leg. ταὐτά (τὰ αὐτά P). Cf. Bywater, Contributions, &c., N. E. vi. 4.
11408 18. :

Τ Cf. de Anim. 403719; Parv. Nat. 447216, 450° 1 τοῖς μὲν ἐν κινήσει
πολλῇ διὰ πάθος ἢ Sv ἡλικίαν οὖσιν ov γίνεται μνήμη et seq.

® Reasons, grounds or causes—cf. supra, 6988 4 : G. A. γ823 22.

* This was the position of the Treatise in Mich.’s MSS. and is the
place it occupies in E S and P. The traditional order of the two
treatises was for de /ucessu to follow de Partibus immediately (as it now
follows in U Yb), and for de Motu with de Gen. Anim. to be interposed
amid the treatises often called Parva Naturalia or Minuta Naturalia.
These two followed de Div. per Somnum (cf. Themistius, Parva Natu-
ralia) and preceded de long. et brev. Vitae. The equivocal position of
de Motu is explained by its subject-matter (ἐν τοῖς κοινοῖς σώματος καὶ Ψυχῆς
ἔργοις, de Anim. 43320). We may compare Ptolemy’s list of the works,
where it follows immediately after de Somno. Compare also the MS.end-
ing of de Div. (omitted in Bekker) and the similar words in Themistius
(p. 105 v.) and Mich. Eph. p. 103. (Vid. Note at end of de Jucessu.)

DE INCESSU ANIMALIUM

WE have now to consider the parts which are useful to 4

animals for movement in place (locomotion) ; first, why
each part is such as it is and to what end they possess them ;
and second, the differences! between these parts both in
one and the same creature, and again by comparison of the
parts of creatures of different species with one another.
First then let us lay down how many questions we have to
consider.

The first is what are the fewest points of motion necessary.
to animal progression, the second why sanguineous animals
have four points 2 and not more, but bloodless animals more
than four, and generally why some animals are footless,
others bipeds, others quadrupeds, others polypods, and why
all have an even number of feet, if they have feet at all ;
why in fine the points on which progression depends are
even in number.

Next, why are man and bird bipeds, but fish footless ;
and why do man and bird, though both bipeds, have an
opposite curvature of the legs. For man bends his legs
convexly,? a bird has his bent concavely ; again, man bends

1 It should rather have been ‘ the reasons for the differences...’ On
the subject generally cf. Galen, de Usu Partium, iii. 2.

3. The four points in a quadruped (Bacon’s quaternion) are the points
of attachment of the limbs, cf. z#/ra, 712% 19.

8 Convexly and concavely, that is forwards and backwards (#7. A.
498*6, &c.), or as it is sometimes expressed outwards and inwards (P. 4.
693°3; G.A. 7289, where ἐντός is correct). The terms seem chosen
in this treatise to avoid confusion with the fore and hind limbs and
to be later in date than de Partibus (vid. P. A. 693"35). Forwards
and backwards are clear enough, since the front of an animal is deter~
mined by the senses, especially by vision (τοῖς ὄμμασι διώρισται τὸ
πρόσθιον, infra, 7120 17, cf. 70516). The next step is to call these
flexions outwards and inwards (ἔξω of man’s legs, P. A. 6939 3 εἴσω of a
bird’s). Manis the norm, and his knees bend away from the centre
of his figure or outwards, that is ἐπὶ τὴν περιφέρειαν towards the circum-
ference. This somewhat equivocally is then treated as towards the
convex, and ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον used as its opposite. The Americans have

coined the barbarous words cephalads and caudads, i. e. headwards and
tailwards, for a similar purpose.

045 DE INCESSU

his arms and legs in opposite directions, for he has his arms

bent convexly, but his legs concavely. And a viviparous

quadruped’* bends his limbs in opposite directions to a

man’s, and in opposite directions to one another; for he

has his forelegs bent convexly, his hind legs concavely.
704. Again, quadrupeds which are not viviparous but oviparous?
have a peculiar curvature of the limbs laterally ? away from
the body. Again, why do quadrupeds move their legs
criss-cross 4?

We have to examine the reasons for all these facts, and
others cognate to them ; that the facts are such is clear
from our Natural History,® we have now to ask reasons for
the facts.

At the beginning of the inquiry we must postulate the
principles® we are accustomed constantly to use for our

fe}

1 Except the elephant ; H. A. 4988 ; zufra, 7125 11.

2 e.g. lizards. The flexion of Ovipara is said in H. A. 4985 15 to be
forwards for both pairs of limbs, but 27/ra, ch. 13, their flexion is con-
sidered the same as that of Viviparous Quadrupeds except for the lateral
inclination. A. speaks only superficially as he did not grasp the homo-
logy of the parts of the limbs. In the case of lizards and crocodiles (as
in frogs) the superficial appearance is that the forelegs bend backwards,
the hind legs forwards, though in some positions both look backwards
bent, never both forwards. The text of H. A. 498%15 seems therefore
corrupted, though the general drift shows that A. there contrasted vivi-
parous and oviparous quadrupeds in this regard (cf. 4988 23).

8 Cf. A. A. 498% 16 μικρὸν εἰς τὸ πλάγιον παρεγκλίνοντα.

* Cf. H. A. 490» 4 lit. diagonally, i.e. the normal contrary movement
of a trotting horse’s feet, near fore with off hind (cf. z#fra, ch. 14). In the
trot the pairs come down exactly together. A. considers a galop forcé
to be abnormal, not progression but jumping (cf. ch. 14). In A.A.
498" 6 he records another kind, the amble of the camel, as normal to it
(and tothe lion!) In ch. 14 he does not seem to remember about the
camel, which achieves what he there regards as dynamically impossible.

5 ἱστορία φυσική, cf. P..A. 650% 32, the original of our term Natural
History. The reference is to the work called usually ai περὶ τῶν ζῴων
ἱστορίαι, vid. H.A. 490” 4, 4988 3 seq.; cf. P. A. 6465 9.

® Unfortunately A. instances only the principles of Purpose, and of
Selection of the Best Possible (Bonitz, /wzdex, 836% 48) ; cf. Leibniz, ΟΖ.
(ed. Erdmann) p. 106, ‘ Bien loin d’exclure les causes finales et la con-
sidération d’un Etre agissant avec sagesse, c’est de la qu’il faut tout
déduire en Physique.’ In the following few pages A. appeals also to :

(2) Economy or Organic Equivalents, 7108 32,7163 τό, εἴ. P..A. 652931,
658" 34, 694» 18 et passim, a species of Compensation, H. A. 487° 26,
504” 7 et saepe.

(3) Bilateral Symmetry, 710° 3, cf. P..A. 65631, 663222, 669° 17,
686% 12.

(4) Specialized Differentiation, viz. one organ for one primary pur-
pose, 706? 18, cf. Pol. 12523, &c.

ANIMALIUM 2 704”

scientific investigation of nature, that is we must take for
granted principles of this universal character which appear
in all Nature’s work. Of these one is that Nature creates 15
nothing without a purpose, but always the best possible in
each kind of living creature by reference to its essential
constitution. Accordingly if one way is better than another
that is the way of Nature! Next we must take for granted
the different species of dimensions? which inhere in various
things; of these there are three pairs of two each, superior 29
and inferior, before and behind, to the right and to the left.
Further we must assume that the originals of movements in
place are thrusts and pulls.* (These are the essential place-
movements, it is only accidentally that what is carried by
another is moved; it is not thought to move itself, but to 705*
be moved by something else.*)

3 After these preliminaries, we go on to the next questions
in order. - :

Now of animals which change their position some move
with the whole body at once, for example jumping animals,
others move one part® first and then the other, for example
walking (and running) animals. In both these changes the
moving creature always changes its position by pressing
against what lies below it. Accordingly if what is below
gives way ὅ too quickly for that which is moving upon it to τὸ

(5) Secondary Adaptation, 714811, cf. P. A. 688% 24.

(6) Utility: (a) for preservation in environment, 710% 27, 713" 28, cf.
P. A. 6934; (4) of mechanical structure, 71021, 71132, 71320,
cf. P. A. 694" 13.

(7) Homology of organs and members, 709 30, 714>3, et passim
feb Z.-A- 1- ch. 1).

(8) Serial Homology, 707? 2.

(9) Analogy between the parts and works of Nature, 705” 5.

(10) Sovereignty, the principle of subordination running through
Creation (Po/. 1254 31: (a) man’s superiority to the rest of the animal
kingdom, cf. 25. “44. 6565 7 ; (6) of the right to the left, of upper to lower,
706” το et seq., cf. P. A. 686225; (c) the ‘gradual scale’ from lifeless
things to the highest animate beings, cf. P. A. 681% 12.

1 Leg. τὰ κατὰ φύσιν Z, cf. Nic. Eth. 1099 23 (Bywater).

2 Cf. ch. 4, 2afra; Topics, 142° 34; Phys. 208° 13, 243716; de Caelo,
2846; Met. 101625; Plato, Leges, 817 E, &c. For the application
to organisms cf. H. A. 49317, 4942 20; P.A. 669” 20.

8 Cf. de Motu, 7038 20 and note.

4 Gt. Phys..243"/10; 5 Leg. xara μέρος Z, cf. 2717. 708 28,

5. Cf. de Motu, 698" 15, &c.

705° DE INCESSU

lean against it, or if it affords no resistance at all to what is
moving, the latter can of itself effect no movement upon it.
For an animal which jumps makes its jump both by leaning
against its own upper part’ and also against what is

15 beneath its feet; for at the joints the parts do in a sense
lean upon one another, and in general that which pushes
down leans upon what is pushed down. That is why
athletes jump further with weights? in their hands than
without, and runners run faster if they swing their arms;
there is in extending the arms a kind of leaning against the
hands and wrists. In all cases then that which moves

20 makes its change of position by the use of at least two parts
of the body; one part so to speak squeezes, the other is
squeezed ; for the part that is still is squeezed as it has to
carry the weight, the part that is lifted strains against that
which carries the weight. It follows then that nothing
without parts? can move itself in this way, for it has not in

25 it* the distinction of the part which is passive ὅ and that
which is active.

Again, the boundaries® by which living beings are 4
naturally determined are six in number, superior and
inferior, before and behind, right and left. Of these all living
beings have a superior and an inferior part ; for superior

30 and inferior is in plants too, not only in animals. And this
distinction is one of function, not merely of position
relatively to our earth and the sky above our heads. The

1 Leg. αὐτὸ UF Mich.; cf. H. A. 56798, infra, 7098. It is most
remarkable that A. nowhere refers in this treatise to the vertebrae of
the back, though they are presupposed here and certainly in his discus-
sion of snakes; cf. P..A. 654° 14 ἀνάγκη κινουμένου τοῦ ζῴου κάμπτεσθαι
τὸ σῶμα : Galen, de Usu Part. xii. 10. Prof. Platt (J. of Phzl. xxxii. 63)
suggests τῷ ἄνω (τω 5).

* Pieces of wood or metal, shaped either as half disks or like our
dumb-bells, used by Greek athletes to give the body additional
momentum in the long-jump (cf. Prod. 88193; Nic. Eth. 1123°31).
They are illustrated in Dubois-Villeneuve, /ut. ἃ ? Etude des Vases
antiques, Plate xvi.

$ PSU and Mich. ἀμελές, viz. without limbs ; but cf. szpra, line 20;
de Motu, 702» 31 (note) ; zzfra, 70522. Τ' read ἀσκελές.

* Leg. αὑτῷ Z. (sic). > Cf. de Motu, 702% 11 (note).

° Cf. de Motu, 70318 (note). διάστασις might almost be turned by
‘dimension ’, but A. uses it only of body (a line is defined by Proclus,
μέγεθος ἐφ᾽ ἕν διάστατον). Cf. de Caelo, 28424, where ‘up’ is the
principle of length, ‘right’ of breadth, and ‘front’ of depth.

ANIMALIUM 4 705°

superior is that from which flows in each kind the distribution
of nutriment and the process of growth; the inferior is that 705"
to which the process flows and in which it ends. One is a
starting-point, the other an end, and the starting-point is
the superior. And yet it might be thought! that in the
case of plants at least the inferior is rather the appropriate
starting-point, for in them the superior and inferior are in
position other than in animals.? Still they are similarly 5
situated from the point of view of function, though not in
their position relatively to the universe. The roots are the
superior part 5 of a plant, for from them the nutriment * is
distributed to the growing members, and a plant takes it
with its roots as an animal does with its mouth.°

Things that are not only alive but are animals have both
a front and a back, because they all have sense,® and front 19
and back are distinguished by reference to sense.’ The
front is the part in which sense is innate, and whence each
thing gets its sensations, the opposite parts are the back.

All animals which partake not only in sense, but are able
of themselves to make a change of place,® have a further 15
distinction of left and right besides those already enumerated;
like the former these are distinctions of function and not of
position. The right 9 is that from which change of position

1 Leg. καίτοι δόξειε γ᾽ ἂν τοῖς φυτοῖς U, cf. Mich.

2 Plato calls Man φυτὸν οὐκ ἔγγειον ἀλλ᾽ οὐράνιον, plant not of earth
but of the firmament (77. 90 A). Among animals Testacea are inverted
like plants (?. A. 683» 20); Molluscs (Cephalopods) have no superior and
inferior (6. «4. 741° 33), cf. zzfra, 7061. Linnaeus said ‘ Planta est
animal inversum’; Bacon (/V. QO. 11. 27) ‘homo sit tanquam planta
inversa’.

3 Cf. de Anim. 41695; Parv. Nat. 468%1; H.A. 494226, 500? 28 ;
P. A. 650% 20, 6567 to.

4 Cf. de Gen. et Corr. 335%13; G.A. 762" 12.

5 Cf. de Anim. 4123; P.A. 686" 28.

6 Cf. de Anim. 4131; Parv. Nat. 46723; P.A. 666%34; G.A.
73154; Met. 980% 28.

7 Cf. de Caelo, 284° 29 ἔμπροσθεν ἐφ᾽ ὃ ai αἰσθήσεις, 285° 24 τὸ δὲ [εἰς
τὸ] πρόσθεν ἐφ᾽ ὃ (sc. ἡ κίνησις).

8 Sensation (de Anim. 41403: Parv. Nat. 4540 25; P.A. 653° 22)
and movement in Place (Pol. 129026) are the proper characteristics
of animals (PAys. 265 34). Some of the Testacea (e.g. mussels) are
almost sedentary, and are therefore akin to both plants and animals
(H. A. 4876; P.A. 6834; 6. 41. 7310 8). Cf. what is said of Sponges,
P. A. 681 11, and of Ascidians, 681226. Contrast de Cae/o, 284» 32.

9. Cf. de Caelo, 285% 25, » 16.

705°

DE INCESSU

20 naturally begins, the opposite which naturally depends

706°

upon this is the left.

This distinction (of right and left) is more articulate and
detailed in some than in others. For animals which make
the aforesaid change (of place) by the help of organized
parts (I mean feet for example, or wings or similar organs)
have the left and right distinguished in greater detail, while
those which are not differentiated into such parts, but make
the differentiation’ in the body itself and so progress, like
some footless animals (for example snakes and caterpillars
after their kind, and besides what men call earth-worms?%),
all these have the distinction spoken of, although it is not
made so manifest to us. That the beginning of movement
is on the right 3 is indicated by the fact that all men carry
burdens on the left * shoulder; in this way they set free the
side which initiates movement and enable the side which
bears the weight to be moved. And so men hop easier on
the left leg; for the nature of the right is to initiate move-
ment, that of the left to be moved. The burden then must
rest on the side which is to be moved, not on that which is
going to cause movement, and if it be set on the moving
side, which is the original of movement, it will either not be
moved at all or with more labour. Another indication
that the right is the source of movement is the way we put
our feet forward; all men lead off with the left, and after
standing still prefer to put the left foot forward, unless
something happens to prevent it. The reason is that their

1 Viz. by undulations, cf. zzfra, 707” 7.

? Lit. earth-entrails.

5 Cf. H. A. 498°7; infra, 712*25. Man is the standard, he moves
his left leg first, the right being the original of motion (ἀρχὴ κινήσεως).
It is strange that A. nowhere considers the effect of the bilateral structure
in this connexion ; since the determining cause seems to be the develop-
ment of the right hand and arm; in quadrupeds it would follow naturally
that the near hind should move first (and so in fact is the tendency in
most horses), but 77z/ra, 712% 25, he says that the off fore moves first, and
that strictly should correspond to man’s right hand.

* Many curious observations might be made. Beginners in skating
exhibit a painful tendency to strike off with the left (706%5); fencing
and boxing seem adverse to A.’s doctrine. In Testacea (e. g. Snails)
A. says the spiral runs from left to right; their movement being from
the spiral is from right to left, accordingly they carry their shell on the
right, contrary to the usual position of a burden (cf. z/ra, 7067 13).

ANIMALIUM 4 706%

movement comes from the leg they step off, not from the
one put forward. Again, men guard themselves with their
right. And this is the reason why the right is the same in τὸ
all, for that from which motion begins is the same for all,
and has its natural position in the same place, and for this
reason the spiral-shaped Testaceans have their shells on the
right,! for they do not move in the direction of the spire,
but all go forward in the direction opposite to the spire.
Examples are the murex and the ceryx.? As all animals
then start movement from the right, and the right moves in
the same direction as the whole, it is necessary for all to be
alike right-handed. And man has the left limbs detached ὃ
more than any other animal because he is natural in a
higher degree than the other animals; now the right is
naturally both better* than the left and separate from it,
and so in man the right is more especially the right, more
dextrous that is, than in other animals. The right then
being differentiated it is only reasonable that in man the
left should be most movable,> and most detached.* In
man, too, the other starting-points’ are found most

~
υ

το

nw
ou

ΟΡ A 526" ον wire, 710 8; G.A. 763* 22,

2 The Trumpet-shell.

8 Except the elephant, cf. H. A. 49722.

For the principle of Sovereignty, obtaining between each pair, cf.
Plato, 72m. 45; P.A. 648° 11, 665% 22, 67222; G.A. 742>16.. The
idea is of Pythagorean origin, de Caelo, 284>7, fr. 1513%24; the
superior being in their view prior to the right, and to the front,
de Caelo, 285221. Onthe payee ground for the sovereignty of
the right, cf. P. A.667221,°35; G.A.765"1.

Pliny, WV. H. xviii. 24 (54) makes a suggestive remark on sowing:
‘Manus utique congruere debet cum gradu semperque cum dextro
pede,’ and this action may be seen in medals and other plastic repre-
sentations of sowing. Some modern writers connect the Saturnian
metre with this beat of the right foot.

5 Leg, εὐκινητότατα, which appears to be Z’s original reading. Two
letters are erased and a written ina later hand. Man is the only ambi-
dextrous animal, H.A. 49731; Mic. Eth. 1134» 34. Plato held that at
birth he was nearly ambidextrous, only dextrous by habit (/eges,794E).
The determining influence of habit is recognized in JZag. Mor. 1194” 30,
but even for the ambidextrous the right is still φύσει βελτίω. Hippo-
crates (de Aér. 17) makes some interesting remarks upon the effect of
mutilation and habit upon the right side of Sauromatian women.

δ The reasoning seems a friorz. Feline creatures have their left
forelimbs more detached than men; in H. A. 497» 22 the elephant is
said to be the equal of man in this respect.

7 ἀρχαί, as usual, hard to render adequately. The superior, front
and right, are said to be ἀρχαί in two senses in de Cae/o, 284” 20.

706°

DE INCESSU

naturally and clearly distinct, the superior part that is and
the front.

Animals which, like men and birds, have the superior 5
part distinguished from the front are two-footed (biped).
In them, of the four points of motion, two are wings in the
one, hands and arms in the other. Animals which have the
superior and the front parts! identically situated are four-
footed, many-footed, or footless (quadruped, polypod,
limbless). I use the term foot? fora member employed for
movement in place * connected with a point on the ground,
for the feet appear to have got their name from the ground
under our feet.

Some animals, too, have the front and back parts
identically situated, for example Cephalopods (molluscs)
and spiral-shaped Testaceans, and these we have discussed
elsewhere in another connexion.*

Now there is in place® a superior, an intermediate, and
an inferior; in respect to place bipeds have their superior
part corresponding to the superior part of the universe ; ὃ
quadrupeds,’ polypods, and footless animals to the inter-
mediate part,® and plants to the inferior. The reason is
that these have no power of locomotion, and the superior

1 Cf. P. A. 686% 33 ; man is the norm, his arms are superior limbs ;
a quadruped’s forelegs are homologous with man’s arms, and are
therefore strictly ‘superior’, and so the superior and front are in
quadrupeds identical.

2 ποῦς ποδός, derived ἀπὸ τοῦ πέδου ; cf. foot and pad in English, as if
we related pad to path etymologically ; cf. P. A. 695% 22 ἡ τῶν ποδῶν
πρόσθεσις πρὸς τὴν ἐπὶ τῷ πέδῳ κίνησιν χρήσιμος (leg. πέδῳ with PSU).

3 Leg. κινητικόν (with ΓῚ, cf. last note.

*e. g. H. A. 523” 21 ; : ἘΠ ΣΙ: 684} 14, Ὁ 34 seq. (πάντας ἔ ἔχουσι, τοὺς
πόδας ἐπὶ τὸ καλούμενον ἔμπροσθεν" τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον ὅτι συνῆκται αὐτῶν τὸ
ὄπισθεν πρὸς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν).

° Cf. supra, 705” 4 (note). The passage is almost unique in doctrine.
It would be more characteristic to consider the middle or intermediate
to be the best, as in P. A. 6669 15 εὐφυέστατος τῶν τόπων 6 μέσος (cf. Pol.
132720); Plato, Epin. 987 Ὁ ; Theoph. Jez. Br. 321).

In this connexion A. generally uses only superior and inferior, and τὸ
μέσον is ἔσχατον, cf. de Caelo, 308? 23, in which treatise there i isa parallel
to our passage, 312°7 οἱ τόποι δύο, τὸ “μέσον (the centre) καὶ τὸ ἔσχατον. ἔστι
δὲ δή τι καὶ [τὸ] μεταξὺ τούτων... τὸ μεταξύ (viz. region of water and air).

ὁ τοῦ ὅλου, cf. de Motu, 6995 12 for the complete term ὅλος οὐρανός.

7 Leg. ra δὲ {τετράποδα ἢ) πολύποδα... ..

8 τὸ μεταξύ. Cf. Parv. Nat. 4688 7, and for the Universe, 727 ΐδοζ.

34075, 18 ὁ μεταξὺ γῆς καὶ οὐρανοῦ τόπος.

ANIMALIUM 5 706°

part is determined relatively to the nutriment, and their
nutriment is from the earth. Quadrupeds, polypods, and
footless animals again have their superior part corresponding
to the intermediate, because they are not erect. Bipeds
have theirs corresponding to the superior part of the
universe because they are erect, and of bipeds, man par
excellence; for man is the most natural of bipeds. And it 10
is reasonable for the starting-points to be in these parts;
for the starting-point! is honourable, and the superior is
more honourable? than the inferior, the front than the
back, and the right than the left. Or we may reverse the
argument and say quite well that these parts are more 15
honourable than their opposites just because the starting-
points are in them.

6 The above discussion has made it clear that the original
of movement is in the parts on the right. Now every
continuous whole,’? one part of which is moved while the
other remains at rest must, in order to be able to move as
a whole while one part stands still, have in the place * where
both parts have opposed movements® some common part
which connects the moving parts with one another. Further
in this common part the original of the motion (and similarly
of the absence of motion) of each of the parts must lie.

Clearly ὁ then if any of the opposite pairs of parts (right
and left, that is, superior and inferior, before and behind) 25
have a movement of their own, each of them has for common
original of its movements the juncture” of the parts in
question.

Now before and behind are not distinctions relatively to

τὸ

ie)

1 Cf. Post. An. 88%5; Nic. Eth. 1102° 3.
2 Cf. supra, 706° 20 and note.

8 Cf. H. A. iii. 7.
* Viz. at the joints, particularly at the four ‘ points’ of an organized
body.

° The opposed movements are motion, and privation of motion,
regarded as contraries by A. He does not realize that the stationary
limb is so kept by muscular contraction, though this would chime with
his general doctrine.

5 Leg. δῆλον ὅτι (Τ) and insert comma after στάσεως.

7 Or perhaps leg. κατὰ τὴν τῶν eip. PI (5Ζς Mich.), viz. ‘hasa common
original by reason of the natural interconnexion of the parts in question’.
The common original is the joint.

V. AR. 1: A, D

706"

707°

DE INCESSU

that which sets up its own motion,! because in nature
nothing has a movement backwards,? nor has a moving
animal any division whereby it may make a change of
position towards its front or back; but right and left,
superior and inferior are so distinguished. Accordingly, all
animals which progress by the use of distinct members have
these members distinguished not by the differences of before
and behind, but only of the remaining two pairs ; the prior
difference dividing these members into right and left (a
difference which must appear as soon as you have division
into two), and the other difference appearing of necessity
where there is division into four.

Since then these two pairs, the superior and inferior and
the right and left, are linked to one another by the same
common original? (by which I mean that which controls
their movement), and further, everything which is intended
to make a movement in each such part properly must have
the original cause of all the said movements arranged in
a certain definite position relatively to the distances from
it of the originals of the movements of the individual
members (and these centres of the individual parts are in
pairs arranged co-ordinately or diagonally,* and the common
centre is-the original from which the animal’s movements
of right and left, and similarly of superior and inferior,
start); each animal must have this original at a point®

1 The fore and hind limbs of a quadruped are superior and inferior
by homology with man ; there is therefore no articulation corresponding
to the dimensions ‘front’ and ‘behind’. Cf. H.A. 494227; P.A.
6862 34. ~

2 Apparent exceptions are cephalopods and crayfish (7. A. 489» 33,
490% 3). The latter is correctly described as sometimes swimming back-
wards, but A. only hesitatingly recognizes the use of the abdomen in
that kind of progression. The crayfish also wa/ks backwards.

Among quadrupeds the badger and the weasel seem to trot back-
wards quite easily and naturally.

3 Viz. the heart.

* Co-ordinately, e.g. fore near and hind near; diagonally, fore near,
hind off.

5 Leg. ταύτην δεῖ ἔχειν ἕκαστον 7 ὁμοίως ἢ παραπλησίως ἔχει πρὸς ...5
ἣ παραπλησίως ἐν. Τ' preserves époiws,‘eodem modo aut quasi similiter.’

ταύτην δ᾽ ἔχειν ἑκάστω ἣ παραπλησίως ἔχει πρὸς ἕκαστον τῶν Z (-nv δ᾽ ἔχειν
ἑκάστω is written above an erasure, and above that ἀναγκαῖον ; ἕκαστον has
been altered to ἑκάστην much later) and Mich. ὁμοίως, p. 148.19.

ταύτην, 1. 6. τὴν ἀρχήν, τὸ τῶν κινήσεων αἴτιον, the heart ; cf. P..A. 666715
τὸ μέσον (the heart) ἐπὶ πᾶν ἐφικτὸν ὁμοίως ἢ παραπλησίως...

]

ANIMALIUM 6

where it is equally or nearly equally related to each of
the centres in the four parts described.

It is clear then how locomotion belongs to those animals
only which make their changes of place by means of two
or four points in their structure, or to such animals par
excellence. Moreover, since this property’? belongs almost
peculiarly to Sanguineous animals, we see that no San-
guineous animal can progress at more points than four,
and that if it is the nature of anything so to progress at
four points it must of necessity be Sanguineous.

What we observe? in the animal world is in agreement
with the above account. For no Sanguineous animal if it
be divided into more parts can live for any appreciable
length of time, nor can it enjoy the power of locomotion
which it possessed while it was a continuous and undivided
whole. But some bloodless animals and polypods can live
a long time,* if divided, in each of the severed parts, and
can move in the same way as before they were dismembered.
Examples are what is termed the centipede® and other
insects that are long in shape, for even the hinder portion
of all these goes on progressing in the same direction as
before ® when they are cut in two.

The explanation of their living when thus divided is that
each of them is constructed like a continuous body of many
separate living beings.’ It is plain, too, from what was said
above why they are like this. Animals constructed most
naturally are made to move at two or four points, and even
limbless Sanguinea are no exception. They too move by

The exception is man’s heart, which is a little to the left and upwards ;
Hi. A. 496° 15, 50741; P.A. 666? 6.

1 Viz. to have a common centre of movement or ἀρχή, lying in the
middle, cf. zz/va, * 27.

tet #7..A. 490%27:

8 A. appeals, as so often in his scientific treatises, to experience for
confirmation of general theory.

* Viz. τὰ ἔντομα, H. A. 531" 30; cf. de Anim. 40979, 411” 19, 413° 20;
Parv. Nat. 467 19, 468 25, 471» 20; Py A667" 27, 6737 30.

: Scolopendra, cf. 4. A. 505° 13, 5329 5, 6218 7

5 Leg. κατὰ ταὐτὸ (καὶ Z) and τῷ πρόσθεν. ce H. A. 532° 4, where
the several parts are said to move either way (cf. Prof. Platt, 1. c. p. 40).

7 On this point and its relation to the many limbs A. seems in
advance of Galen (cf. de Usu Partium, iii. 2).

707°

DE INCESSU

dint of four points, whereby they achieve progression. They
go forward by means of two flexions.!. For in each of their
flexions there is a right and a left, both before and behind
in their flat surface,’ in the part towards the head a right
and a left front point, and in the part towards the tail the
two hinder points.* They look as if they moved at two
points only, where they touch before and behind, but that
is only because they are narrow in breadth. Even in them
the right is the sovereign part,* and there is an alternate
correspondence behind,’ exactly as in quadrupeds. The
reason of their flexions is their great length, for just as tall
men walk with their spines bellied (undulated) forward, and
when their right shoulder is leading in a forward direction
their left hip is rather inclined backwards, so that their
middle becomes hollow and _bellied® (undulated), so we

1 The doctrine is somewhat different from that of A.A. 490°31.
There the snake is said to progress by means of four bends (cf. the
same theory as to eels, 708*5 zzfra). Here the philosopher seems
to intend the theory expressed in the translation, which the diagram
below will make clear. Had A. compared the progression of snakes
with that of lizards his theory of four points would have been exactly
exemplified. Iam not certain
that the snake or lizard alter-
nates the curves, thougha fish
necessarily does so in order
to keep straight. The point
is not discussed in Cuvier.
A., though he describes their
great number (4. A. 508° 3),
did not realize the function of
the ribs of the snake which,
with their remarkable ball
and socket joints, make the
snake a polypod rather than
a quadruped, though if he had he would have doubtless referred them
to four original points (of course the ribs are not strictly feet). He
does not remark upon the function of the tail of fish or lizard in this
connexion, though in HA. 490% 4 he says that the newt’s tail is used
for progression (cf. P. A. 6845 3). Vid. A.M. ΟΖ. ix, p. 298.

2 Leg. καὶ (τὸ) ὀπίσθιον PY. Lit. ‘in the breadth’.

8 Mich. forcing the Greek takes this to describe four flexions.

‘ ἡγεῖται has the pre-eminence, viz. initiates movement, not necessarily
goes first or leads, which is ἡγεῖσθαι τῇ θέσει, 711% 23.

5 Viz. the opposed response is made behind, i.e. motion of the left
side.

6 A.’s observation about tall men is just. λορδός is opposed to κυφός
(710 18); it was a medical term strictly used of the spine, viz. hollow
backed )(hunched. Hipp. de Artic. 807 B; λορδωτὸν. . . ἐναντίον τ΄
κυρτῷ Erotiani G/lossaria, Ὁ. 242 (Franzius).

ANIMALIUM 7 707°

ought to conceive snakes as moving in concave curves
(undulations) upon the ground. And this is evidence that
they move themselves like the quadrupeds, for they make
the concave in its turn convex and the convex concave.
When in its turn the left of the forward parts is leading, the
concavity is in its turn reversed, for the right becomes 25
the inner. (Let the right front point be A, the left B, the
right hind C, the left 1).

Among land animals this is the character of the move-
ment of snakes, and among water animals of eels, and
conger-eels and also lampreys, in fact of all that have their
form snakelike.2 However, some marine animals of this 30
shape have no fin, lampreys* for example, but put the sea 708%
to the same use* as snakes do both land and water (for
snakes swim precisely as they move on the ground).° Others
have two fins only, for example conger-eels and eels and
a kind of cestreus® which breeds in the lake of Siphae. 5
On this account too those that are accustomed to live on
land, for example all the eels, move with fewer flexions
in a fluid than on land,’ while the kind of cestreus which
has two fins, by its flexion in a fluid makes up the remaining

8 points.6 The reason why snakes are limbless® is first that
nature makes nothing without purpose, but always regards τὸ
what is the best possible for each individual, preserving the

1 Cf. 707” τὸ (note) and 702 29 (note). Probably Z’s cyclic order is
correct.

ΓΕ H.. A. 4890 26; P.A. 696% 3 (and Dr. Ogle’s note), and zz/ra,
709? 12.

3 Cf. H. A. 489» 28, 504 34.

4 Muraena helena, cf. H.A. 48929, where the lamprey and other
similar creatures are said to use the sea as snakes do the earth, and to
swim in the watery medium in a manner similar to the movements of
serpents.

P Cf P.. A. 696*.9:

6 Cf. H. A. 504> 33; P.A. 694°4. The features are not those of
a mullet. Perhaps it is a fish akin to the Bichir of the Nile, and the
Reed fish of Old Calabar. The latter has no ventral fins.

7 Eels appear to be regarded here as land fishes. The true reason
of their fewer flexions in water is the greater ease of their progress
there, not the fins, which are practically of no help.

® Leg. ra Nowra σημεῖα Z. 1.6. inasmuch as they have two fins they
use fewer flexions in the water than a snake, and thus preserve Nature’s
balance of four points of motion; cf. 27. «4. 490% 32 δύο {καμπαὶ σὺν
τοῖς πτερυγίοις, and 2mfra, 709” 13 (τὴν λοιπὴν κίνησιν).

9. Cf. P. A. 690° 14, 6927 16.

708% DE INCESSU

peculiar essence of each and its intended character, and
secondly the principle we laid down above that no San-
guineous creature can move itself at more than four points.
Granting this it is evident that Sanguineous animals like
15 snakes, whose length is out of proportion to the rest of their
dimensions, cannot possibly have limbs; for they cannot
have more than four (or they would be bloodless), and if they
20 had two or four they would be practically stationary ; so slow
and unprofitable would their movement necessarily be.?
But every limbed animal has necessarily an even number
of such limbs. For those which only jump and so move
from place to place do not need limbs? for this movement
ag δ least, but those which not only jump but also need to
walk, finding that movement not sufficient for their purposes,
evidently either are better able to progress with even limbs
or cannot otherwise progress at all,® [for* every animal
which has limbs must have an even number], for as this
kind of movement is effected by part of the body at a time,
and not by the whole at once® as in the movement of
30 leaping, some of the limbs must in turn remain at rest, and
others be moved, and the animal must act in each of these
cases with opposite limbs, shifting the weight from the
limbs that are being moved to those at rest. And so®
708» nothing can walk on three limbs or on one ;7 in the latter

1 Cf. P. A. 696% 11, where the present passage is referred to.

2 Viz. do not need limbs in the specific sense of locomotory organs.

Elsewhere A. relates the movement of jumping to the abnormally
developed hind legs (e.g. in, ἀκρίδες and WiAda), cf. H.A. 532°27;
P, A683" 23.

A. nowhere recognizes the uses of the tail in leaping, nor does he
appear to mention the Elateridae (Skipjacks).

$ Leg. δῆλον ὅτι οὕτως μὲν βέλτιον τοῖς δ᾽ ὅλως ἀδύνατον {addws)
πορεύεσθαι. My emendation gives the necessary sense, that polypods
though they can succeed in progressing on odd limbs (cf. 7/ra, Ὁ 14-16)
do so Jeffery on even limbs; quadrupeds cannot walk at all on odd
limbs. Iseems to have read ὡς εἰ οὗτος μὲν βέλτιον τοῖς δὲ ἀδύνατον ὅλως.
Necessity in the organic world manifests itself in a distribution of
organs which is ἐκ τῶν ἐνδεχομένων βέλτιστον (best of possible arrange-
ments) or necessary and inevitable because of some τέλος, cf. P. A.
640% 36 ἢ ὅτι ὅλως ἄδύνατον ἄλλως ἢ καλῶς γε οὕτως. ᾿

* Clearly a gloss on the whole paragraph (om, PSU).

5 Cf. supra, 705° 5.

§ Viz., on account of this opposition.

7 Leg. τρισὶ μὲν οὐθὲν οὐδ᾽ ἑνί. τρεῖς μὲν οὐθ᾽ ἑνὶ οὐδέν Z. Cf. Mich.
151. 27 ἢ Ov ἑνὸς ἢ διὰ τριῶν. ‘nullum neque uno’ TY.

ANIMALIUM 8 708°

case it has no support at all on which to rest the body’s
weight, in the former only in respect of one pair of opposites,
and so it must necessarily fall in endeavouring so to move.
Polypods however, like the Centipede,’ can indeed make
progress on an odd number of limbs, as may be seen by
the experiment of wounding one of their limbs; for then
the mutilation of one row of limbs is corrected by the
number of limbs which remain on either side. Such muti-
lated creatures, however, drag the wounded limb after them
with the remainder, and do not properly speaking walk.
Moreover, it is plain that they, too, would make the change
of place better? if they had an even number, in fact if none
were missing and they had the limbs which correspond to
one another. In this way they could? equalize their own
weight, and not oscillate to one side, if they had corre-
sponding supports instead of one section of the opposite
sides* being unoccupied by a limb. A walking creature
advances from each of its members alternately,® for
in this way it recovers the same figure that it had at
first.
The fact that all animals have an even number of feet, 20
9 and the reasons for the fact have been set forth. What
follows will explain that if there were no point at rest
flexion and straightening would be impossible. Flexion ®
is a change from a right line to an arc or an angle,
straightening a change from either of these to a right line.
Now in all such changes the flexion or the straightening a5
must be relative to one point.’ Moreover, without flexion
there could not be walking or swimming or flying... For
since limbed*® creatures stand and take their weight alter-
nately on one or other of the opposite legs, if one be thrust

οι

μι
ο

μ᾿

1 Scolopendra, vid. 707% 30 note.

2 βέλτιον, cf. supra, 708% 26 note.

3 Leg. δύναιτ᾽ ἂν (δύναιντο PSUY, cf. 709% 12 reading of PY).

* Om. τήν after χώραν PSUY.

5 He is thinking of quadrupeds as typical, and their movement κατὰ
διάμετρον (cf. ch. 14 7#fra). évadddéas in Euclid, i. 27 ai ἐναλλὰξ γωνίαι,
the alternate angles, the angles there being taken, like the limbs here,
in cyclic order.

6 Cf. Meteor. 386° 2.

7 Cf. de Motu, ch. 1; supra, ch. 3.

8 μέν refers to δέ in 709% 24.

708° DE INCESSU

30 forward the other must of necessity be bent. For the
opposite limbs are naturally of equal length, and the one
which is under the weight must be a kind of perpendicular ἢ
at right angles to the ground.

When then one leg is advanced it becomes the hypo-
709° tenuse of a right-angled triangle. Its square then is equal
to the square on the other side together with the square
on the base.?, As the legs then are equal, the one at rest
must bend either at the knee or, if there were any kneeless
animal which walked, at some other articulation. The
5 following experiment exhibits the fact. If a man were
to walk parallel to a wall in sunshine,’ the line described
(by the shadow of his head*) would be not straight but
zigzag,° becoming lower as he bends, and higher when he
stands and lifts himself up.
It is, indeed, possible to move oneself even if the leg be
το not bent, in the way in which children® crawl. This was
the old though erroneous account of the movement of
elephants.’ But these kinds of movements involve a flexion
in the shoulders® or in the hips. Nothing at any rate?®
could walk upright continuously and securely without
flexions at the knee, but would have to move like men in
the wrestling schools who crawl forward through the sand

15 on their knees. For the upper part of the upright creature
is long so that its leg has to be correspondingly long; in

1 Cf. Mech. 857° 27 ἀνάγκη τὸν ἑστῶτα κάθετον εἶναι πρὸς τὴν γῆν.

2 The base, i.e. the line between the point where the advanced leg
touches the ground and the panony, Τοῦ

5 Leg. ἐν αὖγῇ ἡλίου: ἐν yy PSUY: 28 esse 2 With, DE ΤΠ ἸΔΈΒΗ
hand (the space is for about 9 letters). Ch Plut. Conviv. iii. 1 (ii. 658 F).
It should be evening light. I seems to have read ἐν γειτόνων (uicinus).
Perhaps this belongs to the alternative in Mich. p. 155.

* Not in the Greek.

® Arist., like many Greek geometers, regards a zigzag as a kind of
line, cf. Met. 101622,12. The line traced is ww as Mich. says.

°’To judge from Mich.’s note some words like καὶ oi ἱ ἀνάπηροι λεγό-
μενοι are missing here, viz. seals and bats, cf. 2ηγγα, 714” 12.

7 It was reported (perhaps by Ctesias of Cnidos, G. 4. 736% 22) that
the elephant had no knee-joints. A. corrects this eee in H.A.
4988 8, and zzfra, 712% 11. He appears to be incorrectly informed in
P.A. 6592 29, where he speaks of their legs as bending with difficulty
(apviay τῆς κάμψεως), unless that means the exceptional bending.

8 Scapula, cf. 27. A. 498°31 ἡ δὲ φώκη ὥσπερ πεπηρωμένον... εὐθὺς
ἔχει μετὰ τὴν ὠμοπλάτην τοὺς πόδας.

® Leg. ὀρθόν γε.

ANIMALIUM 9 709°

consequence there must be flexion. For since a stationary
position is perpendicular, if that which moves cannot bend ?
it will either fall forward as the right angle becomes acute
or will not be able to progress. For if one leg is at right
angles to the ground and the other is advanced, the latter
will be at once equal and greater. For it will be equal to
the stationary leg and also equivalent to the hypotenuse of 20
a right-angled triangle. That which goes forward there-
fore must bend, and while bending one, extend the other
leg simultaneously, so as to incline forward and make
a stride and still remain above the perpendicular ; for the
legs form an isosceles triangle, and the head sinks lower
when it is perpendicularly above the base on which it
stands.®

Of limbless animals, some progress by undulations (and 25
this happens in two ways, either they undulate on the
ground, like snakes, or up and down, like caterpillars),
and undulation is a flexion; others by a telescopic * action,
like what are called earthworms and leeches. These go
forward, first one part leading and then drawing the whole 80
of the rest of the body up to this, and so they change from
place to place. It is plain too that if the two curves were
not greater than the one line® which subtends them undu-
lating animals could not move themselves; when the flexure 709°
is extended they would not have moved forward at all if

1 Inser. εἰ ἄκαμπτον ἔσται τὸ κινούμενον Y (cf. Z); the words do not
seem a gloss. (Prof. Platt agrees, |. c. p. 42.)

2. δυνήσεται, not here used in the mathematical sense as supra, 709* I,
but in the ordinary sense. The leading leg is both equal to the back leg,
because a man’s legs are equal, and greater because (in the figure
made necessary by the inflexibility hypothesis) it subtends the right
angle.

$ βαίνειν, as in Euclid iii, Def. 9, an angle stands on the arc below
it (not in L. and S. or Bonitz in this sense). As the man moves, his
head drops lower until it is the perpendicular of an isosceles A
triangle, where AB and AC are his legs. The brachy-
logy is easier in Greek because isosceles means ‘ with
equal /egs’. 5 ς

* ἰλύσπασις, cf. H.A. 4870 22 ; telescopic suggests the movement
of earthworms, which is concertina-like. L. and S. wrongly translate
‘wriggling ’, which is not a worm’s normal movement. A.’s account of
the fact is characteristically accurate ; characteristically too he does not
ask how it squares with his theory of movement.

ὃ Viz. the two arcs are together greater than the chord which sub-
tends them.

709” DE INCESSU

the flexure or arc were equal to the chord subtended ; as it
is, it reaches further when it is straightened out, and then
this part stays still and it draws up what is left behind.
In all the changes described that which moves now
5 extends itself in a straight line to progress, and now is
hooped; it straightens itself in its leading part, and is
hooped in what follows behind. Even jumping animals all
make a flexion in the part of the body which is underneath,
and after this fashion make their leaps. So too flying
το and swimming? things progress, the one straightening and
bending their wings to fly, the other their fins to swim.
Of the latter some have four fins,’ others which are rather
long, for example eels, have only two. These swim by
substituting a flexion of the rest of their body for the
(missing) pair of fins to complete the movement, as we
have said before.* Flat fish use two fins, and the flat of
their body as a substitute for the absent pair of fins.®
Quite flat fish, like the Ray,® produce their swimming
movement with the actual fins and with the two extremes
or semicircles of their body, bending and straightening
themselves alternately.

4
σι

20 A difficulty might perhaps be raised about birds. How,
it may be said, can they, either when they fly or when they
walk, be said to move at four points? Now we did not say
that all Sanguinea move at four points, but merely at not
more than four. Moreover, they cannot as a fact fly if

1 Cf. supra, 705 12.

2 A. nowhere in this treatise’ recognizes the use of the tail in swim-
ming ; he treats the tail as a rudder throughout (cf. 7108 1); by fins
he means the pectoral and ventral fins, and these he considers the sole
organs of locomotion in the normal fish (cf. 709” 9 and note).

5.ΟΥ A.A: 489" 24.

4 Cf. 70847 and note.

5 A. seems to think that fish like the plaice use their flat edges for
swimming, as the rays do. Correct about the rays, he is wrong about
these flat fish.

6 Cf. H. A. 489 32; P.A. 696926. A. gives there a remarkably
accurate account of the Rays, distinguishing those that have no obvious
fins from the Torpedo fish which has two (regarded by A. as pectorals)
on the tail. It is this fish which uses ἑκατέρῳ τῷ ἡμικυκλίῳ, to supply
the other two points of movement. This is what he is describing here,
patel he does not realize that these processes are the true pectoral

ns.

ANIMALIUM τὸ

their legs be removed, nor walk without their wings. Even
a man does not walk without moving his shoulders. Every-
thing indeed, as we have said, makes a change of place by
flexion and straightening, for all things progress by pressing
upon! what being beneath them up to a point? gives
way as it were gradually; accordingly, even if there be no
flexion in another member, there must be at least in the
point whence motion begins, that is in feathered ὃ (flying)
insects at the base of the ‘scale-wing’,* in birds at the
base of the wing, in others at the base of the corresponding
member, the fins, for instance, in fishes. In others, for
example snakes, the flexion begins in the joints of the body.

In winged creatures the tail ® serves, like a ship’s rudder,
to keep the flying thing in its course. The tail then must
like other limbs be able to bend at the point of attachment.®
And so flying insects, and birds (Schizoptera) whose tails are
ill-adapted for the use in question, for example peacocks,
and domestic cocks, and generally birds that hardly fly,’ can-
not steer a straight course. Flying insects have absolutely
no tail, and so drift along like a rudderless? vessel, and

1 ἀποστηριζόμενα or a similar word must be supplied, and has perhaps

dropped out after yap. Cf. supra, 705* 7 (reading of Z).

2 Cf. 70529 and de Motu 69815; up to a point, because in the
case of water and air the resisting medium is not regarded as quite
stationary like the earth.

A. does not discuss the results upon flying and swimming creatures
of the fact that the medium is all round them.

8 Holoptera, lit. with whole feathers (viz. what we call wings in
Lepidoptera, &c.), in contrast with birds which have wings divided
into feathers (Schizoptera, 7108 5).

4 Leg. πτιλοῦ Z (szc), cf. ζη7γα, 713% το.

5 οὐροπύγιον (cf. H.A. 504232; P.A. 69711), viz. the tail with
the tail feathers.

5 πρόσφυσις, viz. the caudal vertebrae, which, as A. says, are freely
movable, and do not anchylose like those of the trunk.

7 Lit. that are not made for flight.

8 A. does not recognize the function of the tail in keeping the flying
body horizontal, and in helping the bird to rise and sink. He thinks
of it apparently only as subserving a direct course. Contrast A. M. ix.
Ρ- 296.

® A. did not detect the uses of the abdomen in an insect’s flight.
Movements to right and left are governed primarily by deflexion of the
abdomen. The drifting flight (e. g. of butterflies) is perhaps protective,
and in the case of the chafers, &c., is due less to the causes A. suggests
than to the imperfect balance produced by the relatively excessive
weight of the hind parts. We may compare the erect flight of moor-
hens and coots, among birds, where the wings are set too far forward.

709

710%

σι

710° DE INCESSU

beat against anything they happen upon; and this applies
το equally to sharded ? insects, like the scarab-beetle? and the
chafer,? and to unsharded, like bees and wasps. Further,
birds that are not made for flight have a tail that is of no
use; for instance the purple coot* and the heron® and
all water-fowl. These fly stretching out their feet® as
15 a substitute for a tail, and use their legs instead of a tail
to direct their flight. The flight of insects is slow and frail
because the character of their feathery wings” is not pro-
portionate to the bulk of their body; this is heavy, their
wings small and frail, and so the flight they use is like
20a cargo boat attempting to make its voyage with oars;
now the frailty both of the actual wings and of the out-
growths ὃ upon them contributes in a measure to the flight
described. Among birds, the peacock’s tail is at one time
useless because of its size, at another because it is shed.°
But birds are in general at the opposite pole to flying
25 insects as regards their feathers, but especially the swiftest
flyers among them. (These are the birds with curved
talons,!° for swiftness of wing is useful to their mode of
life.) The rest of their bodily structure is in harmony with
30 their peculiar movement, the small head, the slight 1? neck,

1 Coleoptera.

2. Cf. WV. H. 552717; P. A. 682» 26, perhaps Scarabaeus pilularius.

3 Cf. IV. H. 490714; P.A.682>14. The kind is uncertain, but the
descriptions tally with our May-bug or cockchafer.

* Or Purple Gallinule, a bird akin to our water-hen (Porphyrio
hyacinthus or coeruleus), This is Dr. Thompson’s identification
(Glossary of Greek Birds). Bonitz, with Aubert, thinks it may be the
Flamingo (Phoenicopterus rvoseus), and certainly the remark about its
legs would then be more pointed. Why should it not be the Purple
Heron (Ardea Purpurea)?

° Gilbert White remarks (Se/dornme, Letter xlii) ‘herons seem en-
cumbered with too much sail for their light bodies’.

6 Cf. P. A. 694" 20. τ Cf. supra, 709° 30.

8 Omit ἡ, Z. ἔκφυσις seems here to refer to the scales which form
the surface of the wings; cf. P..A. 6585 where the word is used for
hair growing as a covering.

9. Cf. H. A. 564 32. This so-called tail is not a true tail, the feathers
in the οὐροπύγιον are only about 6 in. long.

10 1.6. Raptores.

1 Cf. P.A. 694%2 πλῆθος ἔχουσι πτερῶν and διὰ τὸν βίον.

12. Leon. omits ov, but A. is now speaking of birds generally, not of
Raptores. The head and neck are relatively small and light; cf. P. 4.
659" 8, 692» 20 (rerapévos). In P. A. 694% 26 he is speaking of
a relatively thick neck.

ANIMALIUM τὸ

the strong and acute breastbone (acute? like the prow of
a clipper-built vessel, so as to be well-girt,? and strong by
dint of its mass of flesh *), in order to be able to push away
the air that beats against it,‘ and that easily and without
exhaustion. The hind-quarters, too, are light and taper again,
in order to conform to the movement of the front and not by
their breadth to suck ὅ the air.

So much then for these questions. But why an animal
that is to stand erect must necessarily be not only a biped,
but must also have the superior parts of the body lighter,
and those that lie under these heavier, is plain.€ Only if
situated like this could it possibly carry itself easily. And
so man, the only erect animal, has legs longer and stouter
relatively to the upper parts of his body than any other
animal with legs. What we observe in children also is
evidence of this. Children® cannot walk erect because
they are always dwarf-like, the upper parts of their bodies
being longer and stouter than the lower. With advancing

1 Referring to the sternal crest or £ee/ of Carinate Birds; cf. P. A.
659” 9, 693" 16.

? εὔτονον, well-girt, cf. Prod. 835° 6 θέοντες εὐτόνως. Lucian, Anach.
R. ii. 906, κοῦφα καὶ εὔτονα kal τὰ αὐτὰ βαρέα. (Leon. translates εὔπορον,
ut bene viam paret.)

3 περιφύσει, if correct (φύσει PSUY and Mich.), seems to be an
instance of the Principle of Compensation (cf. P. A. 689” 30, 695» 7,
and note to 704? 12).

A.’s language describes the great mass of pectoral muscles in a bird,
but he does not realize the function of muscles, nor the use of these to
support the wings.

In P.A. 69318 he gives a different explanation, ‘to protect the breast-

: bone,’ Just as heexplains a man’s breasts and pectoral muscles inthat way.

4 ἵν᾿ ἀπωθεῖν δύνηται, &c., depends upon both adjectives, cf. P. A.
69316; the intermediate words are parenthetic.

Ρ This word was used by a rustic in conversation with me to
explain the lumbering flight of a heavy bird. The Greek means ‘to
draw the air’, and is a similarly popular explanation. Cf. P. A. (loc.
cit.) τὰ πλατέα πολὺν ἀέρα ὠθοῦντα δυσκίνητά ἐστι. The first airships
were wrongly constructed with the greatest width in the centre; the
later have, like a bird, a blunt forecastle from which the lines gradually
taper to the stern.

° Cf. the interesting discussion in P. A. iv. το.

7 Cf. £..A. 6003 27.

8 Cf. P. A. 686 8, where children are contrasted with colts, calves,
and other young, and Parv. Nat. 453°6; H.A. 500» 33. Birds are said
to be not erect because of their dwarfishness, P. A. 686° 21, 695% 8.

For the subject generally, and its connexion with A.’s embryology,
vid. G.A. 741° 27, 742” 14, 7795 24.

710%

710°

710° DE INCESSU

years the lower increase disproportionately, until the children
get their appropriate size, and then and not till then they
succeed in walking erect. Birds are hunchbacked? yet
stand on two legs because their weight is set back, after
the principle of horses fashioned in bronze with their fore-
20 legs prancing. But their being bipeds and able to stand
is above all due to their having the hip-bone shaped like

a thigh, and so large that it looks as if they had two
thighs,® one in the leg before the knee-joint, the other joining
this part to the fundament. Really this is not a thigh but
25a hip, and if it were not so large the bird could not be a
biped. As in a man or a quadruped, the thigh and the
rest of the leg would be attached immediately to quite
a small hip; consequently the whole body would be tilted
forward. As it is, however, the hip is long and extends
right along to the middle of the belly, so that the legs are
80 attached at that point and carry as supports the whole
frame. It is also evident from these considerations that —
a bird cannot possibly be erect in the sense in which man
is. For as it holds its body now the wings are naturally
711° useful to it, but if it were erect they would be as useless
as the wings of Cupids* we see in pictures. It must have
been clear as soon as we spoke that the form of no human
nor any similar being permits of wings; not only because

5 it would, though Sanguineous, be moved at more than four

1 Leg. κυφοί Z (cf. 707" 21 note). The spine of a bird is hunched,
and this gives it a top-heavy appearance (dwarfish) ; in spite of this
Nature sets the weight back like a skilful statuary.

2 Cf. 711° 2 (note).

3 A. intends by ἰσχίον the true femur, by the ‘ other bone’ the tibia
and fibula. Cf. H.A. ii. 12 and P. A. 69429. In his note to the
latter passage Dr. Ogle expresses the opinion that A. correctly identi-
fied the ἰσχίον with the elongated pelvis of a bird. This is certainly
favoured by the language of 7. A., and in that case A. may have been
writing with a bird’s skeleton before him; here and in A.A. he cer-
tainly seems to take his normal view of the segments of the limb,
a view which is incorrect.

* The language suggests that Greek artists gave their Cupids long
wings, like those of Love in Watts’s pictures. Perhaps, however, the
stress is merely on the incorrect anatomy of six points of movement.
The question is part of a favourite quarrel between the natural philo-
sopher and the artist, in which Galen takes a share (Galen, de Usu
Part. iii, ch. 1; Aristotle, JZeteor. 3400 1; de Motu, 69825). Bell’s

criticism (Bridgewater Treatise, ed. 4, p. 324) is similarly directed to
the relations between structure and locomotion.

ANIMALIUM 1

points, but also because to have wings would be useless to
it when moving naturally. And Nature makes nothing
contrary to her own nature.

We have stated above? that without flexion in the legs
or shoulders and hips no Sanguineous animal with feet
could progress, and that flexion is impossible except some
point be at rest, and that men and birds, both bipeds, bend
their legs in opposite directions, and further that quadru-
peds bend theirs in opposite directions, and each pair in
the opposite way to a man’s limbs. For men bend their
arms backwards,” their legs forwards; quadrupeds their
forelegs forwards, their back legs backwards, and in like
manner also birds bend theirs. The reason is that Nature’s
workmanship is never purposeless, as we said above, but
everything for the best possible in the circumstances.
Inasmuch, therefore, as all creatures which naturally have
the power of changing position by the use of limbs, must
have one leg stationary with the weight of the body on it,
and when they move forward the leg which has the leading
position must be unencumbered, and the progression con-
tinuing the weight must shift and be taken off on this
leading leg, it is evidently necessary for the back leg from
being bent to become straight again,® while the point of
movement of the leg thrust forward and its lower part
remain still. And so the legs must be jointed. And it is
possible for this to take place and at the same time for the
animal to go forward, if the leading leg has its articulation
forwards, impossible if it be backwards. For, if it be for-
wards, the stretching out of the leg will be while the body
is going forwards, but, if the other way, while it is going
backwards. And again, if the flexion were backwards, the
placing of the foot would be made by two movements and
those contrary to one another, one, that is, backwards and
one forwards; for in the bending together of the limb

Cf. ch. 9, swpra.

Lit. ‘concavely’. Cf. note on 7047 19.

Om. τε after αὖθις with YZ (Mich.’s text had it), cf. 709% 20, supra.
This is the suppressed conclusion, the next paragraph shows which
way the joints must bend in order to progression.

1
2
3
4

ΙΝ

τὸ

qu?

qu? DE INCESSU

the lower end of the thigh would go backwards, and the
shin would move the foot forwards away from the flexion ;

5 whereas, with the flexion forwards, the progression described
will be performed not with contrary motions, but with one
forward motion.

Now man, being a biped and making his change of
position in the natural way with his two legs, bends them
forward for the reasons set forth, but his arms bend back-

το wards reasonably? enough. If they bent the opposite way
they would be useless for the work of the hands,? and for
taking food. But quadrupeds which are also viviparous
necessarily bend their front legs forwards. For these lead
off first ? when they move, and are also in the fore-part of
15 their body. The reason that they bend forward is the same
as in the case of man, for in this respect * they are like
mankind. And so quadrupeds as well as men bend these
legs forward in the manner described. Moreover, if the
flexion is like this, they are enabled to lift their feet high ;
20 if they bent them in the opposite way they would only lift
them a little way from the ground, because the whole thigh
and the joint from which the shin-bone springs would lie
under the belly as the beast moved forward. If, however,
the flexion of the hind legs were forwards the lifting of
these feet would be similar to that of the forefeet (for the
25 hind legs, too, would in this case have only a little room
for their lifting inasmuch as both the thigh and the knee-
joint would fall under the position of the belly); but the
flexion being backwards, as in fact it is, nothing comes in
the way of their progression with this mode of moving the
30 feet. Moreover, it is necessary or at least better® for

1 Cf. P. A. 6878 6, &c., for a remarkable discussion of the hand as
a mark of humanity.

2 Cf. P. A. 68731, where A. recognizes the secondary uses of the
forelimbs in some quadrupeds for manual purposes.

5. ἡγεῖται ; or ‘govern their movement’, because the front is superior
to the back.

4 Viz. the forelegs play the chief part in movement (cf. a bird’s
wings, 712» 27), and so are analogous in function (and in curvature) to
man’s legs.

In truth the hind legs play the chief part in quadruped progression,

and this is recognized in ?. A. 685220 where theory is not involved.
5 A. shows often how a secondary purpose affects Nature’s handi-

ANIMALIUM 12 ps ta

their legs to bend thus when they are suckling their young,
with a view to such ministrations. If the flexion were
inwards it would be difficult to keep their young under
them and to shelter them.!

13 Now there are four modes of flexion if we take the 712°
combinations in pairs.2 Fore and hind may bend either
both backwards, as the figures? marked A, or in the
opposite way both forwards, as in B, or in converse ways 5
and not in the same direction, as in C where the fore
bend forwards and the hind bend backwards, or as in D,
the opposite way to C, where the convexities are turned
towards one another * and the concavities outwards. Now
no biped or quadruped bends his limbs like the figures
A or B, but the quadrupeds like C, and like D only the τὸ
elephant ὅ among quadrupeds and man if you consider his
arms as well as his legs. For he bends his arms concavely
and his legs convexly.

In man, too, the flexions of the limbs are always alter-
nately ὁ opposite, for example the elbow bends back, but

work, just as a part (in spite of the Platonic principle of Ὁ ano)
is sometimes adapted to secondary uses. Cf. P. A. 688% 2

1 A somewhat different solution is offered in P. 4, (688 I 5, 688% 31)
of the problem of the position of the lacteal glands in the animal
creation. There A. thinks that the lateral attachment of man’ 5. arms
enables his chest to be broad, and so furnishes room to the breasts ;
the forelegs of a quadruped, on the other hand, dictate a narrow chest
and have no room for udders. The considerations here put forward
would have explained very well the forward position of the elephant’s
udder (cf. 27. 4. 4985 1, 500*19) since his hind legs bend forward in
Av’s view. A. gives a farfetched @ Zriorz explanation of the fact in
P. A. 6880 6.

2 Leg. κατὰ τοὺς συνδυασμούς ZT (cf. Pol.
1290” 35, 131771), the other reading seems ye τ Sa
to have arisen from the loss of τῆς κάμψεως
(cf. Mich.’s τρόπων κατὰ τοὺς συνδέσμου:).

$ Mich. gives the figures which are lacking δ » ee Ὁ β
in the text of our MSS.

* The full expression is used in H.A.
4985 7 τὰ κοῖλα τῆς περιφερείας πρὸς ἄλληλα τ εἰ Ps x γ
ἀντεστραμμένα ; lit. are conversely related to
one another, ἀντιστροφή being used of geo-
metrical as well as of logical ganvetsion. ἢ << i > ἐς ὃ

> Does not the elephant bend like B? Cf.
HT, A. 498% 12. The MSS. are much confused.

® Elsewhere A. explains that similarly man has his flexions alternate
and opposite to those of an animal throughout.

In the above diagram a and y are alternate and opposite, and so

V. AR. I. A. E

712" DE INCESSU

15 the wrist of the hand forwards, and again the shoulder
forwards. In like fashion, too, in the case of the legs, the
hip backwards, the knee forwards, the ankle in the oppo-
site way backwards. And plainly the lower limbs are
opposed in this respect to the upper, because the first?
joints are opposites, the shoulder bending forwards, the

20 hip backwards; wherefore also the ankle bends backwards,
and the wrist of the hand forwards.

This is the way then the limbs bend, and for the reasons 14

25 given. But the hind limbs move criss-cross with the fore
limbs ; after the off fore they move the near hind, then the
near fore, and then the off hind. The reason is that (a) if
they moved the forelegs together and first, the animal
would be wrenched, and the progression would be a
stumbling forwards with the hind parts as it were dragged
30 after. Again, that would not be walking but jumping,
and it is hard to make a continuous change of place,
jumping all the time. Here is evidence of what I say;
even as it is, all horses that move in this way soon begin
to refuse,? for example the horses in a religious procession.?
712” For these reasons the fore limbs and the hind limbs move
in this separate way.* Again, (4) if they moved both the
right legs first the weight ° would be outside the supporting
limbs and they would fall. If then it is necessary to move
in one or other of these ways or criss-cross fashion, and
neither of these two is satisfactory, they must move criss-

5 cross; for moving in the way we have said they cannot
possibly experience either of these untoward results. And
this is why horses and such-like animals stand still with

pee the remaining joints which follow in succession (cp. H. A.
498° 24).

1 ἀρχή : SC. τῆς κινήσεως, principle of motion. The superior joint in
each limb is regarded as the initial point in animal progression.

2 ἀπαγορεύουσι. It is remarkable that A. says nothing of hopping
birds in this treatise. After a few hops, they have recourse to a short
flight.

3 i.e. prancing, caracoling, Xen. ἔφη. xi. Admirably expressed by
the artists of the Parthenon frieze. I can find only one genuine trot
there represented. * Del. od with ZUSYT.

° Lit. ‘they would be’. In later terminology, the centre of gravity
would lie outside the limbs, and so produce unstable equilibrium.

ANIMALIUM 14 712?

their legs put forward criss-cross, not with the right or the
left put forward together at once. In the same fashion
animals with more than four legs make their movements ; 10
if you take two consecutive pairs of legs the hind move
criss-cross with the forelegs ; you can see this if you watch
them moving slowly. Even crabs move in this way, and
they are polypods. They, too, always move criss-cross in
whichever! direction they are making progress. For in 15
direction this animal has a movement all its own; it is the
only animal that moves not forwards, but obliquely.2 Yet
since forwards is a distinction relative to the line of vision,®
Nature has made its eyes able to conform to its limbs, for
its eyes can move themselves obliquely,* and therefore after 25
a fashion crabs are no exception but in this sense move
forwards.

15 Birds bend their legs in the same way as quadrupeds.®
For their natural construction is broadly speaking nearly
the same.® That is, in birds the wings are a substitute
for the forelegs;7 and so they are bent in the same way
as the forelegs® of a quadruped, since when they move zs
to progress the natural beginning® of change is from the
wings {as in quadrupeds from the forelegs). Flight in
fact is their appropriate’? movement. And so if the wings
be cut off a bird can neither stand still nor go forwards.

Again, the bird though a biped is not erect," and has the
forward parts of the body lighter than the hind, and so it
is necessary (or at least preferable for the standing posture)
to have the thigh so placed below the body as it actually is,

1 Leg. ἐφ᾽ ὁπότερ᾽ ἄν Z (szc).

2 Cf. supra, 706” 30 and note.

3 Cf. 705 12 and note (vision is here taken as the typical sense).

4 Cf. H. A. 526% το, 5278, 52927; a different reason is given in
PLA. 6588 2.

5 Viz. as quadrupeds bend their hind legs; perhaps τὰ ὄπισθεν has
dropped out, though the sense is made certain by the context.

δ Leg. τοῖς τετράποσι (YZ) ai yap (Z) a reading which may be traced
by the side of Bekker’s in Mich. (p. 166.26). So also reads I.

® Cio PA. 693” 12. ΘΟΕ 0:

8. Cf, H. A. 498828 ; P.A. 693” 5.

® Cf. supra, 711» 13 and note.

10 Cf. P. A. 693” 14.
τ ΟἹ, P.A..695% 3;

712” DE INCESSU

I mean growing towards the back.! If then it must have
this situation the flexion of the leg must be backwards, as

713° in the hind legs of quadrupeds. The reasons are the same
as those given in the case of viviparous quadrupeds.

If now we survey generally birds and winged insects,*

5 and animals which swim in a watery medium, all I mean
that make their progress in water by dint of organs of
movement, it is not difficult to see that it is better to have
the attachment of the parts in question oblique to the frame,
exactly as in fact we see it to be both in birds and insects.
And this same arrangement obtains also among fishes.

το Among birds the wings are attached obliquely ; so are the
fins ὃ in water animals, and the feather-like wings of insects.
In this way they divide the air or water most quickly * and
with most force and so effect their movement. For the
hinder ® parts in this way would follow forwards as they

15 are carried along in the yielding medium, fish in the water,
birds in the air.

Of oviparous quadrupeds all those that live in holes, like
crocodiles, lizards, spotted lizards,° freshwater tortoises,"
and turtles,? have their legs attached obliquely® as their
whole body sprawls over the ground,!®? and bend them

1 Cf. P. A. 695° 11 εἰς μέσον.

2 Holoptera.

$ Put a comma for the full stop after πτερύγια.

A. nowhere grasps the mechanical purpose of the forwards-upwards,
backwards-downwards movement of the wings. His description of the
movements themselves is only superficial.

5 Leg. καὶ τὰ ὄπισθεν μόρια Y, cf. supra, 710” 3. The MSS. are much
confused, and the argument not satisfactory. Mich. has the Bekker
reading, but gives a ludicrous explanation. I do not know whether
there may not be concealed a reference to the patent fact that the
motion of a bird’s wings as of the fins of a fish is simultaneous. It is
extraordinary that A. nowhere refers to this except sud silentio, It was
adverted to by the mediaeval naturalist Albertus Magnus, de motébus
An. ii. 2, ch. 3.

° i.e. Lacerta mauretanica; the ocellated lizard or gecko (tarantula)
of S. Europe and N. Africa.

Tie. Emys lutaria,

8 i.e. Sea tortoises. There are two kinds in the Mediterranean ;
Dermochelys coriacea and Thatassochelys caretta (Tartaruga de mart,
Sardinia; Zartuca de mart, Sicily).

® Cf. H.A. 4988 15 though there the joints are differently described.
We may add the chameleon (227. A. 503 21).

10 Leg. ἔχει, ἐπὶ τῇ γῇ κατατεταμένα ὅλα (καί om. YZ, κατεταγμένα ὅλα Z
ordinata tota Π). Mich. has τεταμένα (p. 166. 27), the loss of κατά

ANIMALIUM 15 17132

obliquely. The reason is that this is useful for ease in 20
creeping into holes, and for sitting upon their eggs! and
guarding them. And as they are splayed outwards? they
must of necessity tuck in® their thighs and put them
under them in order to achieve the lifting of the whole
body. In view of this they cannot bend them otherwise than 25
outwards.

16 We have already stated the fact* that non-sanguineous
animals with limbs are polypods and none of them quadru-
peds. And the reason why their legs, except the extreme
pairs, were necessarily attached obliquely and had their
flexions upwards, and the legs themselves were somewhat
turned under (bandy-shape)° and backwards is plain. In 30
all such creatures the intermediate legs both lead and
follow.” If then they lay under them, they must have 713°
had their flexion both forwards and backwards; on account
of leading, forwards; and on account of following, back-

accounting for the καί in 5 and U. He explains ‘let down to the
ground’ as compared with birds’ wings !

Sh 774A. Vv. 33:

2. Not as Mich. takes it ‘when they are out of their holes’, cf. zxfra,
7138 25. YZ add the explanatory gloss (or true reading) αὐτῶν {τοῦ
σώματος).

5 Τιερ. προσστέλλοντα, as Mich.’s words indicate, and the sense demands,

ΞΘ γα, 704" 11.

5 There are three several characters correctly described from nature:

(a) the intermediate legs are attached laterally, cf. H. A. 52525;
P. A. 683° 33 ;

(4) the principal flexion is upwards (as in a fly’s legs) ;

In the text as it stands no explanation is offered of the upward bend-
ing, while the phrase ‘bend laterally ’ is used as equivalent to ‘ laterally
attached’ (quite a different feature), that is the plane of the bent limb is
oblique to the plane of progression and vision. His examples are cray-
fish, &c., and again flying insects, not centipedes, millipedes, &c.

5 The interpretation of βλαισότης is very difficult, and the various uses
not consistent. The word means ‘bandiness’, and sometimes expresses
an actual curvature of a bone or segment of a limb, sometimes the general
lie of a whole limb. For example the elbow-joint (in A.’s sense) normally
lies further outside the line of progression than the hand or shoulder,
and so a man’s arms are bandied as they hang normally. εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν
seems to mean here that. the foot is also behind a plane drawn through
the knee at right angles to the plane or axis of progression (unless it
could mean that the elbow is up and back, cf. 27. «41. 4988 21). L. and
S. seem wrongly to take βλαισότης to mean ‘bent inwards at the joint’,
through misinterpretation of Hippocrates, de art. 53 (L. iv. 234).

7 Cf. H. A. 498917 τὰ μεταξὺ τῶν ἐσχάτων ἀεὶ ἐπαμφοτερίζει καὶ τὴν
καμπὴν ἔχει εἰς τὸ πλάγιον μᾶλλον. (Not, certainly, true of centipedes.)

713° DE INCESSU

wards. Now since they have to do both, for this reason

5 their limbs are turned under? and bent obliquely, except
the two extreme pairs. (These two are more natural in
their movement, the front leading and the back following.?)
Another reason for this kind of flexion is the number of
their legs; arranged in this way they would interfere less
with one another in progression and not knock together.

το But the reason that they are bandy 3 is that all of them or
most of them live in holes, for creatures living so cannot
possibly be high above the ground.*

But crabs are in nature the oddest ὃ of all polypods; they
do not progress forwards except in the sense explained
above,® and they are the only animals which have more

15 than one pair of leading limbs.” The explanation of this
is the hardness of their limbs, and the fact that they use
them not for swimming but for walking ; they always keep
on the ground. However, the flexion of the limbs of all
polypods is oblique, like that οἵ the quadrupeds which live
in holes—for example lizards and crocodiles and most of

20 the oviparous quadrupeds. And the explanation is that
some of them in their breeding periods, and some all their
life, live in holes.

Now the rest® have bandy legs because they are soft- 17
skinned, but the crayfish is hard-skinned and its limbs are

* The explanation is of the oblique bending, clearly not of the
bandiness ; of the latter an explanation is attempted in 713” 9.

7 i.e. the leading feet bend forwards, the hind backwards (with a
slight turn outwards, 27. A. 498* 16).

° Infra, Ὁ 20, this troglodyte habit is used to explain the lateral
situation of the limbs.

* Leg. τὰ ζῶντα τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον(Ζ) as Mich. evidently read p, 168. 20,
p- 169.9. So also Τ' reads.

° Leg. περιττότατοι YZ, Mich. The passage looks like a dittograph
of 24 seq. zzfra. In» 26 the hardness is used to explain why crabs are
not bandy.

6 Supra, 712» 20.

7 It has four front legs, two pairs. Cf. 27. «1. 490? 6.

δ The argument seems to have been that, by contrast with other
polypods, crayfish and crabs are not bandy; crayfish both because
their skin is hard, and because they would swim worse if bandy; crabs
because of their hard skin, even though they live on the ground and
in holes (?. A. 6845 5). I think that the true text is lost beyond
recovery.

ANIMALIUM 17 713°

for swimming and not for walking (and so are not bandy).!
Crabs, too, have their limbs bent obliquely, but not bandy ? 25
like oviparous quadrupeds and non-sanguineous polypods,
because their limbs have a hard and shell-like skin , although
they don’t swim but live in holes; they live in fact on the
ground. Moreover, their shape is like a disk,? as compared
with the crayfish which is elongated, and they haven't
a tail* like the crayfish ; a tail is useful to the crayfish 30
for swimming, but the crab is not a swimming creature.
Further, it alone has its side equivalent to a hinder part,®
because it has many leading feet. The explanation of this

is that its flexions are not forward nor its legs turned in 714?
under (bandy). We have given above the reason why its
legs are not turned in under, that is the hardness and shell-
like character of its integument.

For these reasons then it must lead off with more than
one limb,® and move obliquely; obliquely, because the 5
flexion is oblique ;7 and with more than one limb, because
otherwise the limbs that were still would have got in the
way of those that were moving.

1 These words, καὶ διὰ ταῦτα ov βεβλαίσωται, are necessary to the
sense (Mich. διὰ ταῦτα οὐ βλαισοῦνται, p. 169.14) and were perhaps in the
MSS. which Mich. used.

2 The MSS. evidently are confused through a desire to omit οὐ; that
the negative is correct is shown by 71491. Mich.’s reading was equiva-
lent in sense though he gives an absurd explanation by which A. is
made to mean that crabs were born bandy and do not (like soft-skinned
creatures) bend bandy as they walk (cf. 7.4. 498821). Can the ex-
planation be that since a crab is odd enough to walk sideways, its
legs are not bandy as they appear to be if you take the line of
progression to be through the eyes?

3 Cf, H. A. 525” 33 where στρογγύλον and πρόμηκες are contrasted.

CE HA, ἘΖΡ3 τ: PA: 684%2.

5 This obscure remark seems to mean that since a crab progresses
εἰς τὸ πλάγιον, its hind pairs of legs lie on its πλάγια, and thus its πλάγιον
or flank is equivalent to a hinder part (cf. for πλάγιον in this sense
P. A. 657° 21, 670% 14).

“Leg. τς place of the repeated πᾶσι (κάμψις πλεῖον Z, πλείοσι
Y). It leads with two pairs criss-cross with the relatively hinder pairs
(supra, 7120 13). The sense may have been originally that this leading
makes it go sideways, as is the truth, I think, apart from deeper
grounds ; or that its going sideways demands this leading, otherwise
the legs would obstruct one another. IT embodied both, ‘pluribus
omnibus.’

7 This lateral bending would according to A.’s normal theory
be oo as an arrangement to prevent obstruction (cf. supra,
713” δ).

714° DE INCESSU

Fishes of the flat kind swim with their heads twisted,
as one-eyed men walk; they have their natural shape
distorted. Web-footed birds swim with their feet ; because

1othey breathe the air and have lungs? they are bipeds,?
but because they have their home in the water they are
webbed ;* by this arrangement their feet serve them
instead of fins They have their legs too, not like the rest
of birds in the centre of their body, but rather set back.
Their legs are short, and being set back are serviceable for

15swimming. The reason for their having short legs is that
nature® has added to their feet by subtracting from the
length of their limbs; instead of length she gives stoutness
to the legs and breadth to the feet. Broad feet ° are more
useful than long for pushing away the water when they are
swimming.

20 There is reason, too, for winged creatures having feet, but 18
fish none. The former have their home in the dry medium,
and cannot remain always in mid air; they must there-
fore have feet. Fish on the contrary live inthe wet medium,”

714” and take in water, not air. Fins ὃ are useful for swimming,
but feet not. And if they had both they would be non-
sanguineous. There is a broad similarity between birds
and fishes in the organs of locomotion. Birds have their

5 wings on the superior part, similarly fish have two pectoral
fins; again, birds have legs on their under parts and near

1 Lit. ‘respire’; πάντα τὰ ἀναπνέοντα ἔχει πλεύμονα, P. A. 669% 6.

? Because they must not have more than a quaternion of points of
motion, cf. P. A. 693" 5.

8 Cf. 2A.693*6, 694° 1.

4 CEP A. 694” τὸ:

5 According to the natural principle of organic equivalents, cf. P. A.
694227, > 18; supra, 710*32; and note to 704? 12.

5 Leg. πλατεῖς Z as the concord requires; cf. P..A. 694” 5.

7 A. does not pause to ask why a fish can remain balanced in the
watery medium whereas a bird cannot so remain in the air. He
accepts the fact that a fish floats at any chosen point. Again, he says
nothing of the surface presented to the water by the fish, though he
has touched on the parallel question in respect of birds (sura,
710°1). In P.A. 695"4 he states that he has raised this question
elsewhere, so that perhaps it is missing here by some mischance.

8. Cf. P. A. 69521. (Strictly of course these are feet, cf. ch. 5.)

ANIMALIUM 18 714

the wings; similarly, most? fish have two fins? on the
under parts and near the pectorals. Birds, too, have a tail
and fish a tail-fin.

19 A difficulty may be suggested as to the movements of
molluscs,* that is, as to where that movement originates ;
for they have no distinction of left and right. Now observa- 10
tion shows them moving. We must, I think, treat all this
class as mutilated,? and as moving in the way in which
limbed creatures do when one cuts off their legs, or as
analogous with the seal and the bat. Both the latter are
quadrupeds but misshapen. Now molluscs do move, but
move in a manner contrary to nature. They are not 15
moving things, but are moving if as sedentary creatures ®
they are compared with zoophytes,’ and sedentary if classed
with progressing animals.

As to right and left, crabs, too, show the distinction
poorly, still they do show it. You can see it in the claw ;
the right ὃ claw is larger and stronger, as though the right
and left sides were trying ὃ to get distinguished.1°

1 Leg. καὶ τοῖς μὲν οἱ πόδες Ev τε τοῖς ὑπτίοις καὶ ἐγγὺς (τῶν πτερύγων)
τοῖς δὲ τὰ πτερύγια ἐγγὺς τῶν πρανῶν τοῖς πλείστοις (Z except the words
τῶν πτερύγων). I think Z preserves the original words. The point is:
(a) the external similarity of the positions of the bird’s limbs and the
fish’s paired fins (by contrast with quadrupeds) ; (6) that ost fish have
ventral fins, and those near the pectorals, cf. P. 4. 696° 3. A. might
have added the lateral attachment of both wings and fins (supra,
7138 10). Bacon refers to the passage with approval, ον. Org. ii. 27.

For a bird’s legs cf. P. A. 695911 ; supra, 714212; for πρανῶν (sc.
πτερυγίων) cf. H.A. 51422. T is mutilated but confirms Z.

2 Cf. H. A. 489 24, 504 30; 2. A. 696%3, 21; supra, 707 31, 708? 3.

8 Viz. the ventral fins. A. uses mrepvyia only for the paired fins.

4 i.e. Mollusca, excluding Cephalopoda.

5 Cf. the discussion of Seals and Bats as intermediate and mutilated
species in H. A. 498% 31; P.A.697?1 et seq.

δ Leg. ὡς μὲν μόνιμα καὶ πρὸς τὰ πεφυκότα. SUZ have πεφυκότα.
Mich. has ὡς μὲν τὰ μόνιμα καὶ πεφυκότα, and πρὸς τὰ π. κινητικά.

7 Lit. ‘ growing things’ (or if προσπεφυκότα be kept, cf. H. A. 487° 8,
5318 32; G. A. 71517, ‘attached things’), of which the sponge is the
typical species (cf. 2. A. 681216). In A.A. 5480 ὃ φυόμενα, usually
equivalent to ra φυτά (plants) is by a natural extension made to include
sponges, the lowest of animals.

8 Cf. H.A. 527°5, 590% 25; P..A. 684226, 6919 16; Darwin’s Descent
of Man, i. 330.

® βούλεσθαι. A. says ‘intend’ where the modern says ‘tend’.
Nature is often spoken of as trying without necessarily succeeding (cf.
P. A. 665» 22).

70 A.’s speculations upon the commensal habits of some of the so-called

714°

DE INCESSU ANIMALIUM 19

The structure of animals, both in their other parts,
and especially in those which concern progression and
any movement in place, is as we have now described. It
remains, after determining these questions, to investigate
the problems of Life and Death.!

lower forms of life would be very different from those of a modern
naturalist ; he would not admire such adaptations.

1 Leg. περὶ ζωῆς καὶ θανάτου (mepi....- Ζ, in margin ζωῆς). In Z, as
we have it, G. A. follows ; but as the place of de Motu at least in the
Collections of A.’s works was not seldom after the former group of
Parva Naturalia, and before the group known broadly as ‘On Life and
Death’, this transitional paragraph may have run ‘it follows to speak of
Life and Death’, preluding the final discussions of Parva Naturalia
and the treatise on Reproduction (G.A.). All MSS. (except Z) and
Mich. have ‘the de Azima is our next topic’, a remark due perhaps
to a rearrangement followed by the antigua uersio (cf. reference to
William of Brabant, Dittmeyer, Aristotle H. A. (1907), p. xviii). In

_all our Greek MSS. de Anima precedes Parv. Nat. Cf. Parv. Nat.

464” 20, 32, 480 21; and the remarks of Wendland in Comm. in A™.
Graeca, vol. xxii. i (Preface).

In P. A. 696% 12 the two treatises are grouped together as ἐν τοῖς περὶ
πορείας καὶ κινήσεως τῶν ζῴων, and perhaps they were arranged thus in
the archetype of Z.

INDEX

98"—99° = 6989—699”

Οὗ etc. = 7007 etc.

+ refers to a series of

remarks extending through several sections.

In the Index, the matter contained between two consecutive figures,
e. g. 5 and 10, is treated as a section, and each such section is referred to
by the figure at its beginning. Anything, 6. g. between 701? 5 and 7018 Io

is referred to as 18 5.

Absolute, the eternal beautiful, the
truly and primarily good οὔ 30;
not relative to anything beside
eh ac.

Abstinence from act like act is
conclusion ofa practical syllogism
1715. wv. Action.

Accidental )( by itself = moved by
another )( self-moved 4° 20.

Act, last in chain of causes and
effects 191. wv. Potency.

Action )( Thought, practical and
speculative syllogism [18 ΤΟ;
thought sometimes followed by
act, sometimes not 125; minor
premiseas in speculative syllogism
may be suppressed, if obvious
17 25; action = conclusion of sy]-
logism 1 20; action or abstinence
may be prevented 17 15 ; involves
a series going back to first step
120; unreflective is rapid, rea-
son being that minor is suppressed
1*25; suppression of reflexion or
inquiry by action of desire 1° 30;
ideomotor 17 30; immediateness
due to physiological automatism
2915.

Active )( Passive 5225; natural
correspondence of 2715; how
related to organism 2? Lo,

Aether, force of movement of 99?

20:

Affections, related to heat and cold
125; corporeal, blind courage,
panic, erotic2*1; causeof physio-
logical change 1? 20,

Air, serves as fulcrum for wing of
birds 98° 15. wv. Flight.

Alteration, a movement = change

Vv. AR. M. A. I. A.

References to notes are rarely given.

of quality 15; incidental to
movement 1” 5; characteristic of
life 1? 10; produced by heat and
cold 1515; in heart produces
alteration in members 2” 20; pre-
cedes involuntary movements
3015 connatural spirit not sub-
ject to 3225. wv. Movement.

Alternate opposition of flexion of
man’s limbs 12° Io.

Ambidexterity, man only ambidex-
trous animal 6? 20 (note).

Analogy of function, webbed feet
)( fins of fish 14* το.

Animal, parts of, compared to parts
of automata 1° 1, bones = levers,
sinews = strings 1 5 ; movement
of, difficult in sand or grain (?)
98” 15 ; must originate in definite
part 2%20; kneeless animal (viz.
seal) 921. wv. Movement.

Ankle, flexion of 12 15.

Apoda, include caterpillars, earth-
worms 5°25; why limbs absent
715; have superior and front
identical 6 30; their superior cor-
responds with middle of universe
61; not erect 65 ; if Sanguine-
ous, move at 4 points 795; move-
ment of, compared with tall man’s
gait 7° 20.

Appetite v. Faculty ; how related to
action 18. 30+.

Arc greater than chord οὗ 30.

Aristotle, refers to his other works :
de Anima, 98* 10, ΟΡ 5, οὔ 20, 4°1;
de Caelo 99° 30; de Incessu 98" 1 ;
de Partibus 98% 1, 4» 1, 6 1,
1420; G.A.4>1; AH. N. 4” το,
6° 1 ; Metaphysics 98" 10; Parva

INDEX

Nat. 4°1, 1420; Physics 98 10,
99” 30, οὗ 25; (?) lost work de
Nutrimento 2* to.

Arms, flexion of, adapted to second-
ary uses 11 103; treated ex. hyp.
as an organism 2* 30.

Art, syllogism of = Practical 18 20
(note), 12 35; stimulated by appe-
tite, impulse, desire, wish 1 35.

Athletes, jump with dumb-bells 5?
15; Swing arms in running 5715;
reasons why 5715.

Atlas, fable of in physicists’ theories
99 25; a radius twirling the
Heavens 99% 30; stands on earth
99” 1; force exerted by 99? I.

Automata,compared with organisms
11; strings and levers of )( sinews
and bones 125; mechanism de-
scribed 1° 1; how different from
living organisms 1° 10; not sub-
ject to alteration 1 to.

Automatism of body 27 15; chain of
connexion, imagination — desire
—affection—organic change 2°15.

Back, centre of bony system 2? 20.

Bandiness, related to troglodyte
habits 13 10; crayfish not char-
acterized by 13” 20; nor crab 13?
a5

Bat, a quadruped but misshapen
14” Io.

Batos v. Ray.

Beautiful, the absolutely = prime
good oP 35.

Bees, drifting flight of τοῦ Io; un-
sharded το Io.

Beetle v. Scarabaeus.

Before )( Behind v. Dimension.

Beginning (ἀρχή) = first step in
series of acts 1°20. v. Original.

Best possible v. ature.

Bipeds, defined by distinction of
superior from front in movement
68 25; superior of = superior
part of universe 6? 1; are erect
6° 5; man and bird 42 15; man
is most natural of 6° 5; birds,
how constructed in order to be
to’ 15; peculiar ischia of birds
10? 20.

Birds (Schizoptera), general struc-
ture of τοῦ 30; bipeds for erect
posture Io? 5; superiorlighterthan
inferior parts 10” 5 ; forward part
lighter than hind 12> 30; wings

= quadruped’s forelegs 12” 203
analogy with Fish 148 20; cannot
fly without legs, nor walk without
wings 9 25, 12» 25; hunch-
backed τοῦ 15 ; how able to stand
erect 10? 15; not erect like man
10” 30; compared with Eques-
trian Statue 10 15; structure
adapted to movement through air
10” 1; limb flexions 11215; flexion
at wing base 9? 30; lateral attach-
ment of wings 137 15; pectoral
muscles, explanation of 10? 1;
breast bone 10? 30; wings dif-
ferent from those of holoptera
Io* 15; peculiar ischia 12 30,
10? 20; ground birds τοῦ το; fly
badly, using legs for tail 107 5;
ill-developed tail 10* 10; Raptores,
strength of wing 107 25; swim-
ming-birds, webbed feet, why? 14
10; have lungs 145 10; legs set
back, why? 148 10; short legs,
wide feet 14715. wv. Purple Coot,
Fleron, Water-fowl.

Bloodless animals, aggregates not
single wholes like Sanguinea 7 1;
can live long divided, and preserve
power of locomotion (insects) 7%
25. wv. Vvon-Sanguineous.

Blushing due to change of tempera-
ture 1° 30.

Body, none can be infinite 99” 25.

Boreas, artist’s representation of
g8? 25.

Boundary v. Dimension.

Boxing, men guard with right hand
63

Breast bone of birds 10% 30.

Breeding habits of polypods and
oviparous quadrupeds 13? 20.

Burdens, why carried on _ left
shoulder 5” 30.

Cantharus v. Scarabaeus.

Caterpillars, treated as Apoda 5?
25; have right and left 5” 25;
undulatory-vertical movement 9*
25.

Centipede, can walk on odd number
of limbs 80 5; lives when divided
7* 30; divided parts continue to
progress 7* 30.

Centre, of organism = heart 1° 25 ;
how related to parts and viceversa
3 25; potentially multiple 3 30.

INDEX

Cephalopods (Mollusca) have front
and back identical insituation6? 1.

Ceryx (Trumpet-shell) 68 15.

Cestreus, finless species of in lake
of Siphae, 8* 5.

Chafer, drifting flight τοῦ fo.

Children, why they cannot stand
erect Io? 10; growth of τοῦ 15;
dwarf-like 10” Io.

Classification of animals according
to Dimensions 5* 25.

Claw of crab, right larger 14° 15.

Cold v. Temperature.

Coleoptera v. Scarabaeus, Chafer.

Combinations of various flexures
τ τ.

Compensation, a principle of Nature
148 15.

Conception, like Imagination, pro-
duces effect = perceived object
1» 15; creates forms therefore
affections 3 20; affects body’s
temperature 1? 35 ; same concep-
tions not always issue in same
involuntary reflexes 3° 35.

Conclusion = end of syllogism =
truth seen or act or creation 17 Io.

Congers, movement of 7° 25; two
fins only 84 1.

Consciousness, minute changes be-
low threshold of 28 1.

Contraction due to cold 1° 15.

Convex and Concave v. Limbs,
Curvature of; in flexions 12° 15.

Coughing = moving a small weight,
comes under general mechanical
laws οὗ 25.

Crab, shape disk-like 13” 25 ; oddest
of polypods 12 15, 13 10; ob-
lique walk of 12” 15, 13” 10, 14°
5; more than one pair of leaders
13” 10, 145; walks in a sense
forwards 12” 20; a pedestrian not
a swimmer 13? Io, 13” 15, 13?
30; reasons for quaint movements
13> το, 14 5; troglodyte habit
13> 25 ; keeps on ground 13" 25 ;
absence of tail 13 25; peduncu-
lar eyes 12 15; distinguishes
right from left in claws 14°15;
side of = hinder part, why? 13»
20; why not bandy-legged 13? 5,
1421; hard integument 13? Io.

Crawling, of children 9% 10; of
wrestlers in palaestra 9% Io.

Crayfish, elongated in shape 13° 25 ;
tail used in swimming 13> 25;

not bandy because a swimmer
13° 20.
Criss-cross movement of limbs ex-
plained 12% 25. wv. Movement.
Crocodile, oviparous 13% 15; trog-
lodyte 13 15; legs set obliquely
13° 15.

Crustacea v. Crabs, Crayfish.

Cupid (Eros), artists falsely give
wings to 151.

Custom )( Nature 3* 35.

Cylinders (? part of automata) 1” 5.

Definition gives cause 331.

Desire, formal cause of movement
38 5; middle term or cause 38 5 ;
moves being moved 17 I ; causes
animal to move on occasion of
sensation or imagination 1? 5 ;
medium between object and ac-
tion 12 1; related to act and art
impulse τῷ 35; no control over

sleep, waking, or respiration
ΞΡ ΤΟΣ
Dexterity, all animals dextrous

6* 15; man more so than other
animals 6% 20. v. Aight.

Diagrams used by author 2” 25,
2h 305 70.25, 127 1b.

Diameter, movement of radius about
centre 1» 5; effect of small move-
ment at centre 1225. wv. Afdas.

Differentiation, of animals bydimen-
sion 6? 1; into parts necessary
for animal movement 5% 20;
Cephalopods and Testacea have
front and back identical 6° 1.

Dimensions, 3 pairs of 6” 25; su-
perior )( inferior, fore )( hind,
right )( left 4% 20; determined by
Junction not spatial position 5?
30, 6 15; animals classified by
5* 25; apply to all organisms
4> 20; six in number 5 25; 2
pairs require common original
to link them 7” 5; life always
involves superior and inferior 5*
25; sovereignty of 6 15; deter-
mined by function in movement
6” 15; superior related to nutri-
ment, inferior = excremental
parts 5> 1, 6 5; superior that
from which food and develop-
ment flow 5? 1; animals have 2
pairs, superior, inferior, fore and
hind 5» 10; fore )( hind determined
by sense perception 5° 10, 12°

INDEX

15; not distinctions relatively to
movement 6” 25; right and left
determined by self-movement 5?
15; in movement right and left
first to appear, next superior and
inferior 72 1; bipeds distinct as
to superior and fore 6% 25; of
man dimensions more clear and
distinct 62 25; superior and fore
identical in quadrupeds, polypods,
and apoda 68 30 ; in molluscs left
and right not distinct 14 5 ; front
and back identical in Testacea
6» 1; crabs distinguish right and
left 14> 15 ; hind in crabs = side
13> 20; of plants superior the
root 6 5; superior and inferior
inverted 5° 1.

Divine nature of primum movens
oP 535:

Domestic cock, tail of τοῦ 5; bad
flier 107 5.

Dwarf-like, meaning of term 10” 15;
children so termed 10? Io.

Earth, difficulties concerning im-
mobility of 99? 1+; problem
postponed 99? 30 ; finite 99? 15 ;
weight of 99° 15; = ground, ful-
crum for walking and jumping
98? Io.

Earthworms (lit. earth - entrails),
movement of οὗ 25; have right
and left 5° 25.

Eels, movement of 7 25; two fins
only δὰ 1, 9" Io.

Elbow, a local original 2” 10 ; joint
28 or. oP ft.

Elements, how related in compound
38 25.

Elephant, flexion of legs 127 10;
popular error about 9* Io.

End wv. Limét.

Erect posture, mechanics of 10? 5;
involves knee joint 9% 10+;
man’s upper part long, involves
long leg 9215; bird not truly
erect like man 10? 30, 12? 30.

Eros v. Cupid.

Essence of living creature 4? 15.

Essentially )( accidentally = by
itself 4» 20.

Evenness in limbs, why necessary
8? 20+.

Excrement determines inferior part
sh 1. wv. Dimension.

Expansion due to heat 1? 15.

Experience appealed to 3? 5.

Experiment, on living animals 8" 5,
14 10; on birds οὔ 25; shadow
on wall οὗ 5.

Facts )( theory based on or a priori
4° 5.

Faculties, grouped under mind and
desire οὐ 15; purpose equivocal
o> 15; judgement o? 20; mind
includes sensation, imagination,
purpose oP 15; desire includes
will, impulse, appetite, purpose
oP 20,

Feather wings (of flying insects)
laterally attached 13 15.

Feet v. Limbs.

Fins, function of 9? 10, 14° 1; usually
four (viz. the paired fins) 9> 10;
laterally attached 13215; flexion
at base 9” 30; absence of, in some
marine animals 8? 1+, 9” 10;
eel, conger, and cestreus have
two only ΟΡ 10; two only in flatfish
9” 10; analogous to wings 14 20.

Fire, force of movement of 99? 25.

Hirst Philosophy = Metaphysics
os.

Fish, sanguineous, do not respire
14> τ; why apoda 14° 1; fins
laterally attached 138 15 ; flexion
at base of fins 9» 30; Flatfish use
two fins 9 10; compensate for
missing two 915; have head on
one side 1475; distorted contra
naturam 148 5.

Flexion, defined 8 20; necessary
to movement 118 κὶ ; mechanical
reasons for 118 25 - ; four com-
binations two by two 121; mini-
mum flexion at least necessary
to movement 9g? 25; undulation
a kind of 9225 ; alternate opposi-
tion of 122 10; of limbs in man
)( bird, man )( vivipara 11% 10;
hip, knee, ankle, shoulder, wrist
12% 15; of legs in elephant excep-
tional 128 10; in birds 9” 30, 12
20; reason for flexion of birds’ legs
12» 30; of oviparous troglodytes
138 15+; reasons for 139 1+;
in polypods oblique 13% 25+3 of
extreme limbs 135; in flying
insects 9” 30; in apoda, a sub-
stitute for limbs 7” to; four
flexions = four points of motion
7> 10; in fish 9” 30; of eels fewer

INDEX

flexions in water than on shore,
cf. snakes 8? 5.

Flight, air yields yet resists 120 15;
involves flexion 9? 5.

Foot, used technically as = motor
limb 6? 30; etymology of 68 30.
Force (Power), vis inertiae 99? 35;
no loss of 995; what moves
Heavens must lie beyond gg? το:
possessed by connatural spirit 38 5.

Form, conceived represents object
1> 20; = image created by con-
ception and imagination 3? 20.

Forwards, relative to line of vision
12" 75.

Fulcrum, for movement relatively
fixed ον 25; necessary to all
movement de Motu ch. 1, de
Incessu chs. 3 and 9, 5? 5.

Function, determines dimensions 5
5+; of webbed feet=fins 14° Io.

Galop 12? 30.

Gecko 13°15. wv. Sfotted Lizard.

Generation v. Movement.

Geometry used for illustration and
proof ΟἿ I, 15, 20, 30.

Good, absolute )( relative οὔ 35;
theoretical )( practical οὔ 20; ac-
tual )( apparent οὔ 25 ; apparent
= pleasant oP 25; in realm of
practice is a kind of primum mo-
vens 171 ; moves being unmoved
18 1; good or possible, premiss
of practical syllogism 1% 20.

Goose-skin due to change of tem-
perature in heart 1° 30.

Grain slips under feet of mice
98? 15.

Gravity )( Levity 3725.

Growth v. Movement.

Hand, relation to wrist and to stick
2» 5, 12% 20; determines flexion
of elbow 11? το.

Head, small in birds τοῦ 30.

Heart, seat of soul but distinct from
it 3*1; centre of organism 3710;
situated centrally relatively to
sense and bony system 2? 15;
seat of senses 3°20; correspond-
ing part in Bloodless animals 3°
15; change of temperature in,
related to affections 281 : small
change in, produces great effect,
cf. rudder and prow of ship 1”
25; must have acentral part 371;

an individual organism 3” 20;
contains vital moisture 3° 25; in-
voluntary movement of 3? 5.

Heat v. Temperature.

Heavens = Universe, eternity of
99 20; destructible according to
some theorists 99? 20; mytholo-
gical account of movement of
99* 25; cannot be moved from
inside 99” 10; Homer as witness
to movement of οϑ 1.

Heron, poor flier Io? 10; uses feet
as substitute for tail 10 15.

Hip, flexion of 12°15; in crawling
9° 10; tall men’s left hip and
right shoulder 7” 20.

Holoptera (flying insects), flight of
9» 30; flexion at base of scale
wing 9? 30.

Homer cited as witness in physics
o* I,

Homology, of Birds, Insects, and
Fish 132 1; of wings to forelegs
12> 20; of wings and fins οὔ 30;
in Birds and Fish of wings )( fins
pectoral, legs )( fins ventral, tail
and tail fin 14° 5.

Hop, easier on left leg 5° 30.

Horse, galop 128 30; in religious
processions 12° 30.

Hymenoptera v. Bees and Wasps.

Idea produces change in organism
120:

Illustration from two men _ back
to back 3° I.

Images, of pleasant and painful
objects reflected in mind 27 5;
related to memory and anticipa-
tion 2? 5.

Imagination, grouped with Percep-
tion and Conception in relation
to Desire 1% 25; equivalent to
Perception in effect 1° 15; pro-
duces effect of object imaged 1°
15 ; like sensation producesaltera-
tionandsomovement 1*5; creates
images and therefore affections 3”
20; by vivid presentation causes
alteration 1°15; reflects pleasure
and pain and so causes tempera-
ture changes 2? 5, 1° 35; effect
upon heart and membrum virile
30 5; not mistress of sleep or
breathing 3? 10. wv. Faculty.

Immovable, as fulcrum not con-
tinuous with the moved 98” 15.

INDEX

Impossible, necessarily )( contin-
gently 99” 15 ; to dissolve universe
Οὗ 5.
Impulse related to action and
artistic creation 1935. v. faculty.
Incubation related to structure of
oviparous quadrupeds 13% 20.
Inference follows immediately on
conception of premisses 1 Io,
Inorganic bodies, cannot move
themselves οὐ 5; moved by or-
ganisms ΟΡ 10; by mutual impact
Οὔ το; fire, earth, etc. οὗ Io.
Insects, flying (Holoptera), are tail-
less 107 5 ; lateral attachment of
wings 138 15; sharded (Coleo-
ptera) τοῦ 10; frail drifting flight
of τοῦ 10+; insects )(birds 1o* 20.
Intellect v. Faculty.
Intermediate in place of universe
6 τ (and note).
Iron used in toys or automata 1? 5.
Isosceles triangle used to illustrate
walking 9# 20.

Joint, function of, in movement 98#
15, de /ucessu chs. 3 and 9; me-
chanism of 2225; involves juxta-
position of two material points
98* 20; one potentially, divided
nact 98* 25, 2% 20; a beginn ng
and end 2% 20; compared to
centre of diameter 98° 20; pres-
sure exerted at 5% 15; athletes
press against 5° 15. wv. Elbow,
Knee, Hip, Shoulder.

Judgement o? 20.

Jumping, involves articulation 520;
pressure against upper and lower
5* 10; a horse’s galop is a jump
12 30; animals need no limbs
88 20; whole moves at once 88
25+. wv. Movement, Animal.

Knee, flexion of 98 1, 12°15; bent
to walk 9? 1.

Lampreys, move in water like snakes
7> 25; finless 88 1.

Leech, movement of 9% 25.

Left v. Right, Dimension, Move-
ment.

Legs, one or three impossible 8? 1 ;
form isosceles triangle 9% 20.

Levers v. Automata.

Light )( Heavy, in nature 3? 25.

Limbs (= feet, techn.), organ of
locomotion in animals, why some
polypods, some apoda? 45 10+;
obliquely attached in birds, fish
and insects 13% 15; curvature of:
man’s legs convex )( bird’s con-
cave 4* 20; laterally and outwards
in oviparous quadrupeds 48 20,
4> 1; fore and hind opposed in
man 4* 20; man’s )( viviparous
quadruped’s 42 20. v. Flexion.

Limit (or term), necessary to organic
movement o? 10; to all inorganic
motion oP 10; = object or end
in organic movement o? 15.

Lines divided into straight, curved,
zigzag 9® 5.

Living things, classified by Dimen-
sions 5% 25+.

Lizard, oviparous troglodyte 13° 15;
legs attached and bend obliquely
13215; two kinds mentioned 13%
ΤΕ:

Long jump vw. A¢hlezes.

Mammae, relation to leg-flexion 11
30.

Man, legs relatively stouter and
longer 10? 10; mechanism of legs
and arms 11” 5; functional ex-
planation of elbow 11” 10; flexion
of limbs 118 15; most natural
biped 6” 5 ; moves shoulders when
walking 9°25; has left more de-
tached, movable, and natural than
any animal 68 15 ; better differen-
tiated in all motor organs and
dimensions 6® 25; tall man’s
figure 7°15; one-eyed man’s gait
14? 5.

Marine animals, serpentine move-
ment like Apoda ashore 7” 25.
Mathematics, illustration from 98*
20; motion in, a fiction 98% 25 ;

point has no magnitude 2° 30.

Means )( end οὔ 25.

Mechanics of erect posture 10? 5 ;
of flight τοῦ 1; of movement 88 30,
8 25.

Membrum virile, an _ individual
organism 320; contains mois-
ture of life 3°20; involuntary
motions of 3? 5 ; affections cause
temperature change in 2 1.

Memory, psychology of 2 5.

Mice walking in grain 98? I5.

Middle, term of both ends 2? 15.

INDEX

Minute parts, changes in, are below
threshold of consciousness 2° I.

Moisture, life-giving, in heart and
other member 3? 20.

Mollusca, equivocal classification of,
between sessile and progressive
animals 14 15 ; are seen to move
14> 20; do not differentiate right
and left 145; contra naturam
14515. wv. Cephalopods.

Movement, general principles of:
a point at rest which is ground
or original 984 15, 1, 9% 25 ; this
without the mover and the moved
99° 5; three terms, unmoved
mover, moved mover, unmoving
moved 99° 5; of Heavens by
primum movens 98 Io, 99% 25+;
primum movens or supreme good
immovable 98% Io; transcends
relation οὔ 35 +; a fiction in
Geometry 98% 253; objects of
science immovable 1°10; illustra-
tions 98* 20, 20 1+, 95 1; single
not initiated by twofold 99° 20;
kinds of, are Translation, Altera-
tion, Growth οὗ 25; Generation
and Decay hypothetically treated
as movements οὗ 30; primary
movement is translation οὗ 30;
of translation primary kind is
thrust and pull 4» 20, 38 20; of
inorganic things depends (1) on
primary causes Οὗ 15, (2) on or-
ganic bodies οὗ 15 ; small central
movement makes great movement
at circumference, e.g. rudder and
ship 1) 1, 18 25; circular, of toy-
wagon ΡΟ; of automata 1? 1.

animal movement, definition of,
and formal cause = desire 3 I, or
purpose 1% 5, 35; final cause
object of desire or intellect =
practical end οὔ 20; good, real
or apparent (pleasure) 0 25, 1°30;
material cause=connatural spirit
a
psychology of, sense, imagina-
tion or intellect cause alteration,
this causes desire or purpose οὐ
15,125; involves alteration 1? 5 ;
desire, the immediate cause 1 35;
chain of causation 1% 30; same
conception not always issuing in
action 3° 35; how inhibited 421;
definitely limited by ends οὐ το:
contrast with movement of Uni-
V. AR. M. A. I, A.

verse oP 30; kinds of, voluntary,
involuntary, non-voluntary 3” 5 ;
illustrations 3° 15; sleep, walking,
breathing, non-voluntary by-pro-
ducts 315; heart and membrum
virile move involuntarily 3? 5.
psychophysical mechanism of;
common centre necessary 7% I0 ;
the heart the organ of soul 37 I ;
series of changes 2° 20 ; sensation
and alteration 2” 20; connatural
spirit and its behaviour 375+.
mechanics of, general problem
stated 4 10, 87 30, 11 20, ΟΣ Io;
involves differentiation into parts
or members, 5% 20; fixed point
98415 +, 98” 10, 075, 5°5, de Inc.
chs. 3 and 9; an active and a
passive 5% 20; illustration 2% 30;
flexion necessary 8 25+, 9°15,
925, 9815, 11225 ; hence articu-
lation 98215; varieties of, knee,
shoulder, hip, elbow, wrist, wing-
base, ankle, tail-base (v. Flexion)
οὔϑι, 8625+, 9915, 1175; need of
centre or common original (heart)
6°20, 215 ; involves Dimensions
(q.v.) viz. Right and Left 515 ;
original and active=right, passive
or moved = left 621; alternation
8> 15 quaternion or four local
points of movement 4* Io, 125 15
et passim; kinds of, jumping
525, 8220, 9°53; crawling 9°10;
walking = alternate recovery of
former shape 8" 15,525; in biped
involves shoulder action, in bird
presence of wings 9° 25; galop =
a jump 12° 30; flight 8% 25, 9? 5,
de Inc. ch. 10, 98» 15 ; swimming
98 15, 138 τ, 9» 10; undulation
9225; two kinds, horizontal and
vertical οὗ 25, 9? 15; telescopic
9225; belongsto 5. par excellence
7*15; of Sanguinea at four points
45 10, 6°25, 781, 12915; bipeds
no exception 9° 20; why even
number necessary 47 10, δᾶ 25;
diagonal or criss-cross 8 15+,
4>5, 7> 15, 1225+ ; of Apoda
ae Ine. chs? 7. and 8; 7” 5337 of
Birds de Jnc. ch. 10, 9 30, 12 25
(flight is proprium), tail = rudder
Io? 1; webbed feet 1425; of
Insects de Jnc. ch. 10, 9” 30;
better on even limbs 8* 30; more
than four points 85; of Fish,

INDEX

g” 30, 7° 5; four flexions, or two
fins and two flexions, or four fins
85; of flatfish 99 15,147 5; fins’
function 145 1 ; of Centipede and
Polypods 8» 5; of Crab 12°15,
13” 10; of Mollusca (proved by
observation) 14 10; contrary to
Nature 14> 15; Respiration,
Coughing, Spitting οὗ 20. vw.
Dimensions, Flexion, Right and
Left.

Moon, men in, invisible to us 99? 15.

Motion, eternal, of universe 98% το;
origin of all movement 98" 10. wv.
Movement, Primum Movens.

Mouth = root of plant 5° 5.

Murex (Purpura), 68 15.

Mutilated animals, flatfish 14? 5;
mollusca, seals, bats 14” το.

Mythologists, their fable of Atlas

Object, if imagined or conceived

acts like real object 115 ; reasons
1» 20.

Observation )( Theory 988 10, 7220;

appealed to 98°15, ro? ro, 5? 30,
7% 20, 7° 15, 14 5, 14° Lo, ὅδ:

One-eyed men have head twisted

14? 5.

Organisms, a kind of commonwealth

3830 ; symmetry of 2» 10; cen-
tralized and differentiated 3% 35 ;
nature of, like man’s custom 3°35 ;
effect on, of mere idea 120; how
originally moved o? Io; structure
changed by affections 1» 20;
automatism of 3? 10; affected by
active and passive elements 4° I,
2°15; alteration in, produced by
temperature changes 1? 30, 2215;
change from moist to solid, hard

995 25.

Natation, of snakes 841; of eels,
lampreys, etc. 7° 30. v. Swimming.
Natural, man more than other
animals 62 20; man most of
bipeds 6° 5; right superior to
left and separate from it natur-
ally 6* 20; right naturally same
in all creatures 62 10; Sanguinea
more than non-sanguineous 7? 5.
Sanguinea naturally move at four
points 75; no movement natur-
ally backward 6? 30.

Nature, reasonableness of 3? 25,
2>20; purposeful 88 10, 4915, 112
15 ; Nature )( custom 3° 35; an
artificer with purpose 27 5, 11715;
principles of, de Inc. ch. 2 (note) :
best of possibles relatively to
essence 4215, 8% 10; economy
10* 30,14" 15, 16215 ; secondary
purpose 11” 30, 14210; Bilateral
symmetry 10" 1 ; specialization 6*
15; utility 107 25, 10> 20, 11} 30,
13> 25+ ; homology g? 30, 1401:
serial homology 71; analogy
5> 1; sovereignty 6? 10; is not
self-contradictory 1125; attempts
or tends, not always successfully
1415; orders the parts of an
organism 3) 1.

Necessity and impossibility 99? 15.
Neck of birds 10? 30.
Non-sanguineous animals, are poly-
pods 138 25; have part analogous
_ to heart 3815. wv. Bloodless.

to soft and vice versa 22 10; cause
motion of inorganic bodies ΟΡ 10;
illustrations of automatism of 25
30, 1 25, 12 1+,

Original (or origin), ἀρχή, of move-
ment always at rest 98 1; of
movement in organic body o? Io ;
centrally situate to four points
7%5-+ ; in a common part 6? 20;
in superior parts 6°10; of move-
ment, the right 6°15; more
honourable 6 10 ; determines
sovereignty of dimensions 6? 15 ;
local originals, how related to
true centre 7°15 ; in pairs diagon-
ally and coordinately arranged
7* 10; lie in juncture 6°25; in
birds original of movement from
wings 12° 25.

Outgrowth upon feather-wings of
insects 10% 20.

Pain causes changes of body’s
temperature 2° TI,

Palaestra 9? 10.

Pallor due to change of temperature
in heart 1” 30.

Palpitation 3? 5.

Panathenaic procession 12* 30.

Parts, necessary division into, for
movement 58 20.

Passive )( Active 5*25 ; relation to
organism 4° 1; must have requi-
site quantity and quality 481.

Peacock, bad flier τοῦ 5; big tail
10* 5, 20; moults tail 10% 20.

Perception, innate in front, so deter-

INDEX

mines front and back 5” 10; )(
imagination 1» 15; )( self-actua-
lization 1225 ; psychologically =
imagination and conception 18 25;
followed by desire τὸ 35; effect
on heart 2 20.

Periphery, changes at, due to minute
heart changes 125; blushing,
pallor, shivers, &c. 1° 30.

Perpendicular used to explain move-
ment 8? 30.

Place, tripartite division of 6” 1.

Plants, their superior=inferior part
of universe 65; no power of
locomotion 6° 5; their root =
mouth of animal 5° 25, 5° 5;
root = superior 5" 1, 6” 5.

Pleasure = apparent good oP 25;
effect on body’s temperature 2° I.

Point, mathematical, has no parts
2> 303 in a joint is a magnitude
2 30, 2» 30; in potency one, in
act two 2> 30; in joint )( con-
natural spirit 2 Io.

Poles, two in number 992 20 ; insub-
stantial 99% 20; of sphere of fixed
stars conceived in some theories
asmere points, resultant absurdity
998 20.

Polypods, non-sanguineous 13° 25 ;
have superior and front identical
6 30; superior of, parallel to
middle of universe 6° 1; not erect
65; intermediate legs attached
obliquely, flexion upwards 13% 25 ;
legs more criss-cross 12° 10; legs
bandied backwards 1325 ; flexion
of two extreme legs 135 ; some
always, others when breeding,
troglodyte 13 20; can progress
onoddnumberoflimbs 8? 5; expla-
nation of flexion of limbs 13? 20.

Popular, error about elephant 9* 10;
explanation of mechanics of flight
fo" 1

Possible (or good), premiss of prac-
tical syllogism 12203 best of
possibles v. Mature.

Potency )( Act, of heart 2» 25; of
limbs 2 20 ; of joint 98 25, 2% 30.

Power v. Force.

Premiss, conclusion follows at once
on conception of two premisses 1
10; minor suppressed in action
as in speculation 1% 25; of prac-
tical syllogism may be the good
or possible 14 20.

Primum mobile, manner of move-
ment οὔ 5; moved by primum
movens o? 5,

Primum movens, at rest and immov=
able 98% 10, 99” 5, 99” 30; how it
moves primum mobile explained
in JJZet. 98% το, οΟ 5; force of,
greater than inertia of universe
995; is it part of Heavens de
Motu ch. 3; discussion of, post-
poned ο 20; analogy with object
of desire or practical reason 1* 1.

Principles, general, in Natural
Science v. Vature, Original; no
Sanguinea moved at more than
four points 88 Io.

Prior, mover to moved 9? 1 ; begetter
to child o® 1; nothing prior to
itself οὔ 1.

Problems, of boat movement 98?
20; of wind moving boat 98° 20;
solutions 995; of movement of
universe de Motu chs. 3 and 4.

Procession, horses in religious 12%
30.

Prow, swerves through wide arc )(
extremities of organism 1° 25.

Psychology, divisions of soul, viz.
(a) judgement, (b) desire οὐ 15.

Pull )( Thrust v. AZovement,

Puppets v. Automata.

Purple Coot, bad flyer 105 Io;
characteristic tail 10 15; uses
legs as rudder 10715.

Purpura 68 15.

Purpose, partly intellect, partly appe-
tite ΟΡ 20; moves organism 1 5 ;
connexion with sense and imagi-
nation 195. wv. Faculty.

Pythagoras’s theorem 9* I, 9* 20.

Quadrupeds, not erect 6 5; have
superior and front identical 68 30 ;
superior of = middle of universe
6> 1; viviparous, flexions of
limbs 4220, 11415, 11P 10; ex-
planation of 11> 10+ ; are San-
guineous7*20; movement of, com-
pared with Apoda 7? 20; limbs
more criss-cross 4” 1, 12% 25+ ;
stand with legs criss-cross 12” 5;
seal and bat 14 10; suckling and
sheltering young 1130; ovi-
parous, lateral attachment of
limbs 4? 1, 132 15, 1315; flexion
of limbs 12% 10; bandy-legged
13°20; troglodytes for breeding

INDEX

and shelter 13215+. uv. Crocodile,
Lizard, Tortoise, Turtle.

Radius v. Diameter.

Raptores v. Birds.

Ray (Batos), two fins 9° 15 ; undula-
tion of 9) 15.

Reason not involved in non-volun-
tary and involuntary movements
3P 5, 3215. v. Movement.

Respiration, a non-voluntary move-
ment 35 5; requires external
fulcrum οὗ 20; involves move-
ment of weight 0* 25.

Rest, prerequisite of movement 98?
15; point at rest distinct from
what moves or is moved 98? 15 ;
rest-point in animal =joint 98715,
98> 5, 525; vis inertiae balances
opposed motion 99* 35.

Right )( Left determined by function
515; depends on articulation
into two 79" 5; right = original of
source of movement 5°15 ; proved
empirically 5» 30, 62 1+; identical
in all animals 6% 10; sovereign
even in apoda 7°15; more de-
tached in higher animals, viz. by
differentiation of special motor
organs 5” 20; distinction seen in
crabs 140 15; absent in molluscs
14°5 ; right and left symmetrical,
and moved simultaneously 2” Io;
therefore original of movement not
in either 2°15. v. Demensions.

Roots, in plants the superior 5 5 ;
= mouth in animals 5} 5.

Rudder, comparison of heart with
ship’s 1° 25.

Sand, feet give way in 98? 15.

Sanguinea, four points of movement
and no more 7 20, 118 5 ; there-
fore cannot have wings and arms
118 5; apoda no exception 7” 5 ;
die quickly if dismembered 7°20;
lose power of locomotion 7% 20;
unlike insects 7220.

Scale-wing in holoptera 9? 30.

Schizoptera v. Birds.

Seal, a misshapen quadruped 14? to.

Sedentary )( Progressive animals
14°15.

Semen, a potency 3” 20; an indi-
vidual organism 3? 20.

Sensations, seated in heart 2” 15;
produce alteration in body 1°15.

Sense v. Perception. Σ

Sensorium seated in heart 2” 20.

Ship, rudder of, compared to tail
10° I,

Shivers due to change of tempera-
ture in heart 1? 30.

Shoulder, flexion of 124153; in
crawling 9210; right forward in
tall men 7 15; burdens carried
on left 5» 30, 68 1.

Siphae, kind of cestreus found there
87 5.

Sleep, a non-voluntary movement

Snake, disproportionate length de-
termines limblessness 8% 5 +;
Sanguineous 8215 ; movement of,
de Inc. chs. 7 and 8, 92 25; by
flexion at four points 7? 10; criss-
cross 7° 15, οὔ 1+ flexion in
joints of body 10*1; move in
alternate curves, concave and
convex 7°20; have right and left
in body 525 ; mode of swimming
Ser.

Soul, distinct from yet located in
heart 38 1; original cause of move-
ment 381; is it moved? oP 1;
how it moves body o® lo; com-
pared to monarch in centre of his
city 3735; not diffused through
members 3? 35.

Sound, necessarily impossible to be
seen 99? 15.

Sovereignty, principle of, of supe-
rior over inferior, right over left,
front over back 6" το. vw. Dimen-
SONS.

Spinal column and bony system
related to heart 2" 20.

Spirit, connatural de Motu ch. 10;
moves being moved 325; related
to soul as end point of limb to
original point of joint 2 10; active
and passive at once 375; heavy
compared with fire, light with
other elements 3% 20; how main-
tained 325; causes movement
without alteration 325; both
pulls and thrusts 3% 20; excites
movement and exerts power 32
I5 ; permanent or everchanging ?
3% 15 ; expands and contracts
naturally 38 20.

Spitting = moving a weight οὗ 25;
no exception to law of movement
Οὗ 25.

INDEX

Spotted Lizard (Gecko), oviparous
troglodyte 13°15; legs attached
laterally and bend obliquely 13°
ΠΣ

Stars, sphere of fixed, moves in
circle 99% 15; continuous 998 15.

Starting-point)(end 5° 1. v.Original,
Movement.

Statuary, problem of prancing horses
Io 15,

Sternal crest of birds 10% 30.

Stick, compared to detached mem-
ber 2» 5; mechanical illustration
abit.

Straightening defined 8” 20.

Strings, move limbs of puppets 1” 1 ;
compared with tendons 1° 5. v.
Automata.

Structure, of oviparous quadrupeds
related to breeding 13220; of
birds )( quadrupeds 12° 20.

Superior )( Inferior v. Dimension.

Swimming, kind of progression 98*
5, 98 15; water yields as well as
resists 1215; involves flexion
ΩΡ 5; of apoda 81+ ; of fish
135 5, 141; of flatfish 9°15; of
crayfish 13? 30. wv. Vatation.

Syllogism, practical )( speculative
1*10 ; examples of practical 1°
I5+. v. Action.

Symmetry of left and right sides in
organisms 2? Io.

Tail, function of τοῦ 1 ; bends at
point of attachment 10# I; com-
pared with tail fin 14> 5 ; use of,
to crayfish 13? 25.

Tall men, hollowed back of 7” 20;
peculiar gait 7°15; throw back
left hip 7° 15.

Telescopic movement of earthworms
and leeches 9* 25.

Temperature of body, changes from
without and from within 315;
affected by conception and imagi-
nation 1° 35, 275; related to
pleasant and painful 271; pro-
duces alteration 1° 15, 1% 25;
effects blushing, shivers, &c. 1? 30;
causes non-voluntary and in-
voluntary movements 3? 15.

Testacea, spiral-shaped, have front
and back identically situated 6° 1 ;
movement of, related to spire 6%
15; carry shell to right 62 10;
direction of spire 63 Lo.

Theory )( Experience 987 10; must
agree with empirical data 98* Io.

Thigh of birds ro? 20, 12” 30.

Thought )( Action de Motu ch. 7.
Ὁ. Action.

Thrust )( Pull v. ovement.

Tityus, the giant, used to illustrate
98> 20.

Tortoises, freshwater, legs laterally
attached and bend obliquely,
Oviparous, troglodytes 137 15.

Toys, child’s wagon 11+. wv.
Automata.

Translation, the primary movement
οὔ 30 ; cause of growth and altera-
tion οὗ 30; last in chain of causes
and effects 121; caused by con-
natural spirit 3% 25.

Troglodyte habits of oviparous
quadrupeds 138 15 +, of crab 13?
As

Trot, normal movement of horse
12? 30.

Trumpet-shell (Ceryx) 67 15.

Turtles, legs laterally attached, bend
obliquely, oviparous, troglodytes
132. τῷ.

Undulation, mode of movement,
explained geometrically 9° 1; used
by eels and ray 9? 15; tall men
7515; snakes 79 5 +, 9% 25; cater-
pillars οὗ 25 ; water animals 7? 25.

Universe, movement of 98? το;
eternal οὔ 30; from without 99° 30;
dissolution of 99? 20; difficulty
resolved οὗ 5; determining di-
mension )( function 55, 6>1 +.

Vessel, clipper built (felucca), prow
of compared to sternal crest 10°
30; rudderless, course of, com-
pared to drift of insect’s flight τοῦ
5; cargo boat using oars 10* 20.

Vivisection 8” 5, οὔ 25, 14” 10.

Wasps, drifting flight of τοῦ 1o; un-
sharded τοῦ Io.
Water, fulcrum for swimming 98?

ΤΡ,

Waterfowl, poor flyers, character-
istic tail 10710; use legs as rudder
TOMES:

Will v. Faculty. -

Winged animals, why footed 14% 20.

INDEX

Wings )( arms 6* 25; laterally | Wrist, flexion of 12*15; relation to

attached 13215; )( fins 14% 20; hand 2? 1, 5°15; to elbow 2°10;

laterally attached 13% 5; how leaned upon by running athletes

used 910; why impossible to 53. 15.

man 1121; )( feather wings of :

holoptera 107 15. Zigzag, kind of line 925; shadow
Wish related to action and art on wall 9? 5.

impulse 1° 35. Zoophytes (?), sedentary 14” 15;

Wrestlers, crawling in sand 9° Ito. compared with Molluscs 14° 15.

Pe GENERATIONE
ANIMALIUM

ARTHUR. PLATT: M.A.

PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON
LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE CAMBRIDGE

OXFORD
Ar THE CEARENDON PRESS

IgIo

HENRY FROWDE, M.A.
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK
TORONTO AND MELBOURNE

ΤΟ

WiIbLIAM-OGEE M.D.

μετὰ δὲ τριτάτοισιν ἀνάσσει

ΕΙΠΕ PACE

THIS translation has been made from Bekker’s octavo
text, Oxford, 1837. I have also used Aubert and Wimmer’s
edition, with German translation and notes, Leipzig, 1860,
referred to by me as ‘AW.’. I must confess to finding this
work somewhat disappointing ; the translation often fails to
make the connexion of thought intelligible, and the notes
are very scanty and sometimes incorrect. Much greater is
my debt to Dr. Ogle’s Aristotle on the Parts of Animals,
London, 1882; without this model before me I should never
have ventured on so hazardous an enterprise. References
to his Introduction are given with his name and the Roman
numeral of the page (e.g. ‘see Ogle, p. xxix’), to his notes
with the pages and lines of the Berlin edition (e.g. ‘Ogle on
641" 17’). References to the work of G. H. Lewes,
named Aristotle, are given as ‘ Lewes’ with the sections
of the book, which I take this opportunity of remarking
to be full of scandalous blunders and thoroughly untrust-
worthy, at least where Aristotle’s meaning is concerned.
The Greek medical writers are referred to by the volume
and page of Kiihn’s edition, the question of their exact
authorship being of course left open. My endeavour has
been throughout to represent as exactly as possible what
Aristotle said or meant to say; to this I have sacrificed
all graces of style, comforted a little by knowing that the
author himself would have been the last man in the world
to complain.

Whenever Bekker’s reading has been deserted the reading
preferred is given ina note; if it has MS. authority I say
e.g. ‘reading ἄλλο᾽, if it is a conjecture by another scholar
the name of the author is added, if it be a new conjecture
I say ‘ Read’ or ‘I read’ whatever it may be.

The pleasant duty remains of thanking many friends and
others who have assisted me in various ways. In particular

vi PRERACE

Professor J. P. Hill has read through the proofs and
helped me on zoological questions, Dr. George Blacker
made me several communications on medical points, and
Dr. Ogle has made me still further his debtor by talking
over some passages with me and correcting some errors.
My obligations to others are acknowledged in the proper
places in the notes. From the Aristotelian point of view
Mr. W. D. Ross has gone through the translation minutely
and caused me to improve it in many places. The Index
has been made by Mr. A. W. Kappel.

With regard to the information in the notes, I have been
thankful to get it wherever I could. If some of it is not
exactly up to date, it is all at any rate two thousand years
later than Aristotle, and compared to that interval of time
what are a few years more or less? And, should any man
of science come fresh to the reading of this treatise, he will,
I think, be amazed and delighted to see what grasp and
insight Aristotle displays in handling questions which still
absorb us after all that time. If we smile at some parts,
and those very considerable parts, of the discussion, especi-
ally at all the importance attached to ‘form’ and ‘ matter’,
and at the curious depreciation of the female sex, let us
remember that most of these oddities were accepted by no
less a man than William Harvey, and that Darwin wrote
with generous enthusiasm concerning another of the zoologi-
cal works: ‘Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods,
though in very different ways, but they were mere school-
boys to old Aristotle’ (Life and Letters, vol. iii, p. 252).

CONTENTS

The arrangement of this treatise is somewhat confused and there is
much repetition in it. But the following table may give the reader a
view of the course of the discussion and of the more important subjects
discussed.

There are four main parts :—

PART I (Books I, II down to 73724)

General view of the subject.
Section I. The generative organs.
11, The generative secretions, and the Aristotelian theory of
sex-generation.

III. Miscellaneous, partly developing questions already raised,
partly introductory to Part II.

PaRT II (Book II 73725 to end of Book III)
Detailed account of generation in the different classes of animals.

PART III (Book IV)
Essays On various questions connected with generation.

PaRT IV (Book V)

Development after birth, and distinctions between individuals of the
same species.

These four parts are laid out as follows :—

PART I
SECTION I

Book I. ch. i. Introduction.
ii. The sexes and sexual parts.
iii. Testes and uterus in different classes of animals.
iv-vii. Male organs in various classes of vertebrates (sav-
guinea).
viii-xi. Female organs and methods of producing young in
the vertebrata.
xii, xiii. Further remarks on the organs of the vertebrata.
xiv-xvi. Generative organs, sexual and spontaneous genera-
tion, in the invertebrata.

SECTION II
BOoKI.xvii,xviii. Semen. Criticism of the Hippocratic theory of
pangenesis.

xix, xx. The catamenia.
xxi, xxil, The Aristotelian theory of sexual generation,
xxiii, Conclusion to this Section,

Vili CONTENTS

SECTION III

Book II. ch. i. (731" 18) Reason for the existence of sexes.
(732% 25) Classification of animals in relation to
generation.
(73323) Development of the embryo. Praeforma-
tion and epigenesis.
ii. The nature of semen.
iii. ‘Soul’ in the semen and the fertilized germ.
iv. (7370 8) Note (misplaced ?) on various classes of
animals.

PART II

Book II. ch. iv. (73725) Generation in man and other vivipara.
(739 33) Development and nutrition of the embryo.
v. Digression on the necessity of fertilization by the
male.
vi. Development of the embryo continued. -
vii. (745% 22) Nutrition of the embryo continued.
(746% 29) Hybrids and sterility.
viii. Mules.

BOOKIII.ch.i,ii. Birds.
ili-v. Fish.
vi, vii. Miscellaneous observations.
vili. Cephalopoda, &c.
ix. Insects.
x. Bees.
xi. Testacea. Note on the origin of man and quad-
rupeds.

PART III

Book IV.ch.i,ii. Causes of sex in the embryo.
ili. (767% 36) Heredity.
(76910) Teratology.

v. Teratology continued. Number of young produced
at a birth.

v. Superfoetation.

vi. Varying state of development in the young at birth.
Regeneration.

vil. Mola uteri.

Book IV. ch. viii. Milk.
ix. Why animals are born head foremost.
x. The period of gestation.

PART IV

Book V. ch.i. Distinction between characters that exist for a final
cause and those that exist by ‘ Necessity’. Con-
dition of the embryo and of the infant. Differences
inthe eye. Sight.

ii. Hearing.
lii-v. Hair.
vi. Colours of animals.
vii. The voice.
viii. Teeth,

BOOK Ἢ

1 WE have now discussed the other parts! of animals, both 7155
generally and with reference to the peculiarities of each
kind,? explaining how each part exists on account of such
a cause, and I mean by this the final cause.®

There are four causes underlying everything: first, the
final cause, that for the sake of which a thing exists ;
secondly, the formal cause, the definition of its essence (and
these two we may regard pretty much as one and the
same) *; thirdly, the material; and fourthly, the moving
principle or efficient cause.

We have then already discussed the other three causes,
for the definition and the final cause are the same, and the
material of animals is their parts—of the whole animal the
non-homogeneous parts, of these again the homogeneous, τὸ
and of these last the so-called elements of all matter.° It
remains to speak of those parts which contribute to the
generation of animals and of which nothing definite has
yet been said,® and to explain what is the moving or
efficient cause. To inquire into this last and to inquire into
the generation of each animal is in a way the same thing ; 15
and, therefore, my plan has united them together, arranging

' i.e. the parts not concerned in generation.

21. 6. each kind of animals (see de Partzbus, ad fin.), kind meaning
sometimes what we should now calla species, sometimes a class of any
wider extent.

5 This is equal to saying: ‘the final cause corresponding to each
part.’

* The final and formal causes are the same in an animal since its
final cause is simply to exist in the most perfect form possible.

5 A. assumes all parts to be homogeneous which appear such to the
naked eye. His division into homogeneous and non-homogeneous
corresponds to Bichat’s distinction of tissues and organs. Bonee.g. is
homogeneous; a hand is composed of the homogeneous parts, flesh,
sinew, bone, &c., and is thus itself heterogeneous.

° Much has been said of them in 7. A. however.

ARG. Ac B

715° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the discussion of these parts last,! and the beginning of the
question of generation next to them.
Now some animals come into being from the union of
male and female, i.e. all those kinds of animal which possess
ao the two sexes. This is not the case with all of them; though
in the sanguinea? with few exceptions the creature, when
its growth is complete, is either male or female, and though
some bloodless animals have sexes so that they generate
offspring of the same kind, yet other bloodless animals
generate indeed, but not offspring of the same kind ; such
are all that come into being not from a union of the sexes,
25 but from decaying earth and excrements. To speak gener-
ally, if we take all animals which change their locality,
some by swimming, others by flying, others by walking, we
find in these the two sexes,® not only in the sanguinea but
also in some of the bloodless animals ; and this applies in
the case of the latter sometimes to the whole class, as the
cephalopoda and crustacea, but in the class of insects only
to the majority. Of these, all which are produced by union
of animals of the same kind generate also after their kind,
but all which are not produced by animals, but from decay-
ing matter, generate indeed, but produce another kind, and
the offspring is neither male nor female ; such are some of
the insects.1. This is what might have been expected, for if
those animals which are not produced by parents had
themselves united and produced others, then their offspring
must have been either like or unlike to themselves. If
10 like, then their parents ought to have come into being
in the same way; this is only a reasonable postulate
to make, for it is plainly the case with other animals.
If unlike, and yet able to copulate, then there would
have come into being again from them another kind
of creature and again another from these, and this would

σ'

715

σι

‘i.e. after the other parts, discussed in the de Jucessu and de

Partibus,

? Animals with red blood. If we exclude red-blooded worms, the
modern term vertebrates exactly corresponds to the Aristotelian class.
See Ogle, pp. xxvi, xxvii. The ‘few exceptions’ are some fishes which
will be discussed later.

* The text is corrupt; I give what Aristotle must have meant.

* See Ogle, pp. xxvii, xxviii, and ii. 1, iii. 9 of this treatise.

BOOK I x 715°

have gone on to infinity. But Nature flies from the infinite, 15
for the infinite is unending or imperfect, and Nature ever
seeks an end.

But all those creatures which do not move, as the testacea
and animals that live by clinging to something else,’ inas-
much as their nature resembles that of plants, have no sex
any more than plants have, but as applied to them the word
is only used in virtue of a similarity and analogy. For 20
there is a slight distinction of this sort, since even in plants
we find in the same kind some trees which bear fruit and
others which, while bearing none themselves, yet contribute
to the ripening of the fruits of those which do, as in the
case of the fig-tree and caprifig.? 25

The same holds good also in plants, some coming into
being from seed and others, as it were, by the spontaneous
action of Nature, arising either from decomposition of the
earth or of some parts in other plants, for some are not
formed by themselves separately but are produced upon
other trees, as the mistletoe. Plants, however, must be 716#
investigated separately.

2 Of the generation of animals we must speak as various
questions arise in order in the case of each, and we must
connect our account with what has been said. For, as we
said above, the male and female principles? may be put 5
down first and foremost as origins of generation, the former
as containing the efficient cause of generation,* the latter
the material of it. The most conclusive proof of this is

1 Sponges, sessile ascidians, barnacles, &c.

2 For the fascinating phenomena connected with ‘ caprification’ see
e.g. Kerner and Oliver, Natural History of Plants, vol. ii, pp. 160-2 ;
for the little known or guessed about the sexes of plants before
Camerarius (1665-1721), Sachs, History of Botany, pp. 376-85 (Eng-
lish translation, Oxford, 1890). That the palm in particular was male
and female was a familiar notion, though not resting on any exact
basis ; a quaint reference to this which has escaped the notice of the
historian is to be found in Nonnus, Dionystaca, i ili. 142 καὶ ἄρσενα φύλλα
πετάσσας] θηλυτέρῳ φοίνικι πόθον πιστώσατο φοῖνιξ.

8. ‘The male’ and ‘the female’ are throughout in the neuter, and it
is impossible to convey their force precisely ἢ in English.

* Lit. ‘the beginning of the movement and of the generation.’ The
female contributes the matter which is set in motion and so put into
form by the semen of the male.

168 DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

drawn from considering how and whence comes the semen ;
for there is no doubt that it is out of this that those
creatures are formed which are produced in the ordinary
to course of Nature!; but we must observe carefully the way
in which this semen actually comes into being from the
male and female. For it is just because the semen is
secreted from the two sexes, the secretion taking place
in them and from them, that they are first principles of
generation. For by a male animal we mean that which
generates in another, and by a female that which generates
15 in itself; wherefore men apply these terms to the macro-
cosm also, naming? Earth mother as being female, but
addressing Heaven and the Sun and other like entities as
fathers, as causing generation.®
Male and female differ in their essence* by each having
a separate ability or faculty, and anatomically ° by certain
20 parts; essentially the male is that which is able to generate
in another, as.said above; the female is that which is able
to generate in itself and out of which comes into being the
offspring previously existing in the parent. And since
they are differentiated by an ability or faculty and by their
function, and since instruments or organs are needed for all
functioning, and since the bodily parts are the instruments
or organs to serve the faculties, it follows that certain parts
must exist for union of parents and production of offspring.
And these must differ from each other, so that consequently
the male will differ from the female. (For even though we

"»
σι

1Ὰ5 opposed to spontaneous generation and parthenogenesis. A.
speaks here very loosely, not having yet developed his own view. We
shall see presently that animals are not formed ‘ out of’ the semen at
all. If we construed σπέρμα by ‘seed’ and took it to mean the
fertilized germ, we should correct the meaning in this sentence, but only
to wreck upon the next.

2 Reading ὀνομάζουσιν.

5 The influence of the Sun and other heavenly bodies was supposed
to cause generation of plants, &c.,in the earth. Thus the Sun generates
in another, Earth in herself, and A. supposes that this accounts for poets
and others calling them father and mother.

* λόγον, their definition, which is also their final cause or vatson
a’étre, the law of their being. This is the important thing, the varia-
tion of parts being only consequent upon it.

® Lit. ‘according to sense-perception.’ The λόγος is not visible or
tangible, but the organ, which corresponds to it, is.

BOOK I. 2 7162

speak of the animal as a whole as male or female, yet really
it is not male or female in virtue of the whole of itself.) but
only in virtue of a certain faculty and a certain part—just 30
as with the part used for sight or locomotion—which part is
also plain to sense-perception.)

Now as a matter of fact such parts are in the female the
so-called uterus, in the male the testes and the penis,” in all
the sanguinea ; for some of them have testes and others the
corresponding passages. There are corresponding differences
of male and female in all the bloodless animals also which 716°
have this division into opposite sexes. But if in the
sanguinea it is the parts concerned in copulation that differ
primarily in their forms, we must observe that a small change
in a first principle is often attended by changes in other
things depending on it.? This is plain in the case of castrated 5
animals, for, though only the generative part is disabled,
yet pretty well the whole form of the animal changes in
consequence so much that it seems to be female or not far
short of it, and thus it is clear that an animal is not male or
female in virtue of an isolated part or an isolated faculty.
Clearly, then, the distinction of sex is a first principle; at
any rate, when that which distinguishes male and female
suffers change, many other changes accompany it, as would
be the case if a first principle is changed.*

3 The sanguinea are not all alike as regards testes and
uterus. Taking the former first, we find that some of them

1 The text is corrupt. Qu. κατὰ πᾶν ye τὸ αὑτοῦ ζσῶμαλ for κατὰ πᾶν
ye τὸ αὐτόν

2 περίνεος. Liddell and Scott need correction on this word.

3 Lit. ‘a small principle being changed, many of the things after
the principle are wont to change with it.’ We see here stated
clearly enough the distinction between primary and secondary sexual
characteristics.

4 Turning Aristotle’s phraseology about ‘first principles’ into
modern language, we should say that the phenomenon of secondary
sex-characteristics varying in consequence of injury to the primary
proves that the primary sex-distinction is deeply rooted in the
organism, and that the secondary characteristics have been acquired
later in consequence of and in connexion with it. The physical cause
of the secondary characteristics is probably certain chemical substances
called ‘hormones’ which are secreted by the testes and getting into the
blood act as a stimulus upon the other parts concerned, making the
beard to grow, ἅς.

716° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

15 have not testes at all, as the classes of fish and of serpents,
but only two spermatic ducts.! Others have testes indeed,
but internally by the loin in the region of the kidneys, and
from each of these a duct, as in the case of those animals

20 which have no testes at all; these ducts unite also as with
those animals; this applies (among animals breathing air
and having a lung) to all birds and oviparous quadrupeds.?
For all these have their testes internal near the loin, and
two ducts from these in the same way as serpents; I mean

25 the lizards and tortoises and all the scaly reptiles. But all
the vivipara have their testes in front ὃ; some of them inside
at the end of the abdomen, as the dolphin,‘ not with ducts
but with a penis projecting externally from them®; others

30 outside, either pendent as in man or towards the fundament
as in swine.© They have been discriminated more accu-
rately in the Exquiries about Animals."

The uterus ὃ is always double, just as the testes are always
two in the male. It is situated either near the pudendum
(as in women, and all those animals which bring forth alive

7172 not only externally but also internally, and all fish that

1 These spermatic ducts or tubes (πόροι) really are testes, but A.
refuses to call them so, ‘ because of their shape and their being hollow,’
see Ogle, note on de Partibus, iv. 697% 9. And cf. next chapter of this
work. It is clear, however, that A. knew nothing of the testes of
the cartilaginous fish, which are not simple hollow tubes but oval firm
bodies.

2. By oviparous quadrupeds are meant Reptilia and Amphibia, which
A. does not separate from each other. (It is a curious thing, however,
that in this work he never says a word which suggests any reference to
amphibia, though he must surely have known that frog’s eggs are
altogether different from those of reptiles; in this respect (as in
others) the amphibia must be classed with the fishes. Of the ovi-
parous monotremes, duck-bill and echidna, he was naturally ignorant.)

ὅν 6. they would be in front if the creature stood up like a man.

* *Tls restent constamment dans l’abdomen, placés ἃ cété des reins,
dans... les '\Cétacés.’, Cuvier, Zecoms, xxx, a77. 128:

> I omit the corrupt or interpolated words καθάπερ οἱ βύες.

® “IIs sont serrés sous la peau du périnée ... chez les Pachy-
dermes’. Cuvier, ibid.

8 This term in A. includes the oviducts. He is wrong in regarding
either oviduct or true uterus as analogous to the testes, and of the
ovaries he knew nothing. The uterus (in the modern sense) is single
in the higher mammalia and in some of the Edentates, but as the
oviducts are included in the Aristotelian conception of the word the
statement in the text is verbally correct.

ee ———————— Oee το τον

BOOK I. 3 717°

lay eggs externally) or up towards the hypozoma!? (as in
all birds and in viviparous fishes). The uterus is also
double in the crustacea and the cephalopoda, for the mem-
branes which include their so-called eggs are of the nature 5
ofa uterus. It is particularly hard to distinguish in the
case of the poulps, so that it seems to be single, but the
reason of this is that the bulk of the body is everywhere
similar.? 10
It is double also in the larger insects ; in the smaller the
question is uncertain owing to the small size of the body.
Such is the description of the aforesaid parts of animals.

4 With regard to the difference ὅ of the spermatic organs
in males, if we are to investigate the causes of their exist-
ence, we must first grasp the final cause of the testes.‘ 15
Now if Nature makes everything either because it is neces-
sary or because it is better so, this part also must be for
one of these two reasons. But that it is not necessary for
generation is plain; else had it been possessed by all

1 The hypozoma is the division between the thorax and the abdomen,
equivalent to the diaphragm in the mammalia, its analogue in other
vertebrates, the waist of insects, and so on. In fish, however, it would
be only an imaginary line.

* Cf. de Partibus, ii. 654% 13, ‘ the mass of the body consists of a soft
flesh-like substance.’ A. means that the parts are difficult to make
out, because the whole body is comparatively homogeneous. The
cephalopoda have only one ovary, but the poulps (octopods) and some
calamaries have two oviducts; the sepia and common calamary have,
however, only one oviduct. For their eggs ‘on sait que les ceufs du
poulpe et du calmar sont rassemblés en petits boudins, par une matiére
gélatineuse, et ceux de la seiche en grosses grappes comparables ἃ
celles des raisins, par une matiére ductile’. Cuvier, Zegoms, xxxvi,
art. 1.

5 This means the difference observed between males of various kinds,
especially in that some have testes and others not.

4 Lit. ‘of the systasis of the testes,’ which I think is only a
periphrasis. Lewes (§ 425) sneeringly remarks of this that ‘ Aristotle’s
anatomical knowledge was imperfect ; this imperfection stimulated his
readiness to explain phenomena by final causes’. A. is so far
absolutely right, and as Lewes published five years after the Origin of
Sfecies there is really no excuse for him. It is true that A. 15
amusingly wrong in this case; I have seen his theory ascribed to
Hippocrates, but have failed to find any reference to it in him; Lewes
says it comes from Plato’s 7zmaeus, which it does not; Galen (vol. iv,
Ῥ. 564) attributes it entirely to Aristotle himself. Harvey told Boyle
that he was led to his discovery of the circulation by considering the
jinal cause of the valves in the veins.

17 DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

creatures that generate, but as it is neither serpents have
testes nor have fish ; for’ they have been seen uniting and
20 with their ducts full of milt.2 It remains then that it must
be because it is somehow better so. Now it is true that
the business of most animals is, you may say, nothing else
than to produce young,’ as the business of a plant is to
produce seed and fruit. But still as,t in the case of nutri-
ment, animals with straight intestines are more violent in
their desire for food,’ so those which have not testes but only

25 ducts, or which have them indeed but internally, are all
quicker in accomplishing copulation. But those which
are to be more temperate® in the one case have not
straight intestines, and in the other have their ducts
twisted to prevent their desire being too violent and hasty.
30 It is for this that the testes are contrived ; for they make
the movement of the spermatic secretion steadier, preserv-
ing the folding back of the passages’ in the vivipara, as
horses and the like, and in man. (For details see the
Enquiries about Animals.®) For the testes are no part of
35 the ducts but are only attached to them, as women fasten
stones to the loom when weaving’; if they are removed
717° the ducts are drawn up internally, so that castrated animals
are unable to generate ; if they were not drawn up they
would be able, and before now a bull mounting immedi-

τ The connexion of thought is: ‘nor have fish, and fish do generate
sexually (though some deny this), for,’ &c.

* These ducts ave the testes; see above on chap. 3, and for the
serpent, on chap. 7. On the alleged copulation of all fishes see note
on chap. 6.

3 So says Harvey: ‘The egg is the terminus from which all fowls
have sprung and to which all their lives tend—it is the result which
nature has proposed to herself in their being.’

4 The connexion is: ‘still it 1s advisable that there should be some
check upon this process, and as,’ &c.

5 This is true (Ogle, pp. 215, 216), but the analogy is hardly
convincing.

® That A. should ascribe ‘ temperance’ to an animal is startling, but
on the virtues of animals see 77. A. i. 1, ad fin., a passage clearly
written with Plato’s Zaches xxv in mind. And cf. de Partibus,
iii, 675 22.

7 i.e. they keep the duct down in a bent and twisted state, thus
retarding the passage of semen. Cf. Galen, vol. iv, p. 575. The ducts
are the epididymis and vasa deferentia.

8 H. A. iii. 1, which was illustrated by A. with a diagram.

* In order to keep the warp steady.

BOOK I. 4 717°

ately after castration has caused conception in the cow’
because the ducts had not yet been drawn up. In birds
and oviparous quadrupeds the testes receive the spermatic
secretion, so that its expulsion is slower than in fishes.
This is clear in the case of birds, for their testes are much
enlarged at the time of copulation, and all those which pair
at one season of the year have them so small when this
time is past that they are almost indiscernible, but during
the season they are very large.2_ When the testes are in-
ternal the act of copulation is quicker than when they are
external, for even in the latter case the semen is not emitted
before the testes are drawn up.

μι

fo)

5 Besides, quadrupeds have the organ of copulation, since
it is possible for them to have it,® but for birds and the foot-
less animals it is not possible,* because the former have their
legs under the middle of the abdomen and the latter have
no legs at all; now the penis depends from that region
and is situated there. (Wherefore also the legs are strained
in intercourse, both the penis and the legs being sinewy.)
So that, since it is not possible for them to have this organ,
they must necessarily either have no testes also, or at any
rate not have them there, as those animals that have both
penis and testes have them in the same situation.

Further, with those animals at any rate that have ex-
ternal testes, the semen is collected together before emission,
and emission is due to the penis being heated by its move-
ment; it is not ready for emission at immediate contact as 25
in fishes.®

μι
σι

τὸ

1 This is perfectly possible for a week or two after castration, as
Prof. Starling tells me. Was it not this unlucky observation which
led A. to deny the testes their true function?

2 e.g. ‘chez le moineau, son diamétre longitudinal est douze fois
aussi grand a l’époque du rut qu’avant cette époque.’ Cuvier,
Legons, xxiil, art. i. C.

* And Nature always provides means to an end if it is possible.

4 This is wrong; some birds have a penis, e.g. the goose, and on
serpents see chapter 7. A. himself had correctly ascribed a penis
to the goose in H. A. iii. 509» 30, but apparently had either forgotten
about it or changed his mind.

δ᾽ Apparently A. means that it is an advantage for some reason
to have the semen collected first, and that this is another final cause

717°

718%

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

All the vivipara have their testes in front, internally or
externally, except the hedgehog; he alone has them near
the loin. ‘This is for the same reason as with birds, because
their union must be quick, for the hedgehog does not, like
the other quadrupeds, mount upon the back of the female,
but they conjugate standing upright because of their spines.’

So much for the reasons why those animals have testes
which have them, and why they are sometimes external
and sometimes internal.

All those animals which have no testes are deficient in 6

this part, as has been said, not because it is better to be so
but simply because of necessity,? and secondly because it
is necessary that their copulation should be speedy. Such
is the nature of fish and serpents. Fish copulate throwing
themselves alongside of the females and separating again
quickly.2 For as men and all such creatures * must hold
their breath before emitting the semen, so fish at such
times must cease taking in the sea-water, and then they
perish easily. Therefore they must not mature the semen
during copulation, as viviparous land-animals do, but they
have it all matured together before the time,° so as not to
be maturing it® while in contact but to emit it ready
matured. So they have no testes, and the ducts are

of the existence of testes. The theory that emission is due to heat
and the movement of the body is Hippocratic (vol. i, p. 321). A. held
wrongly that fish copulate by throwing themselves alongside of one
another. See chap. 6.

1 It is true that the testes of a hedgehog, as of several other
insectivora, which have no spines, are ‘near the loin.’ I do not know
whether the statement about the hedgehog’s attitude is true; from
Dobson’s Monograph of the Insectivora it appears that nobody
knows very much about their breeding; Professor Hill, however, tells
me that the spiny echidna is believed to copulate ventre a ventre,
and it seems probable that this is true also of the hedgehog. Cf.
HT. A.v.2. See Addenda.

2 Referring to the first argument in chap. 5.

5 A. often repeats this, but it is of course totally untrue of the great
majority of fish, in which the female deposits the eggs unfertilized and
the male fertilizes them afterwards by shedding his milt upon them.
A. knew of this latter process, but regarded it as merely supplementary
to the supposed original copulation.

* i.e. air-breathers.

5 Qu. ἀλλὰ πρὸ τῆς ὥρας for ἀλλ᾽ ὑπὸ τῆς ὥρας ὃ

® Reading πέττειν for ποιεῖν (AW.).

— ) =a,

BOOK Tf) 6 718%

straight and simple. There is a small part similar to this
connected with the testes in the system of quadrupeds, for
part of the reflected duct is sanguineous and part is not;
the fluid is already semen when it is received by and
passes through this latter part, so that once it has arrived
there it is soon emitted in these quadrupeds also.! Now
in fishes the whole passage resembles the last section of the
reflected part of the duct in man and similar animals.

μι

7 Serpents copulate twining round one another, and, as
said above, have neither testes nor penis,” the latter because
they have no legs, the former because of their length,® but
they have ducts like fish; for on account of their ex- 20
treme length the seminal fluid would take too long in its
passage and be cooled if it were further delayed by testes.
(This happens also if the penis is large; such men are less
fertile than when it is smaller because the semen, if cold, is
not generative, and that which is carried too far is cooled.)
So much for the reason why some animals have testes and
others not. Serpents intertwine because of their inaptitude
to cast themselves alongside of one another. For they are
too long to unite closely with so small a part and have no
organs of attachment, so they make use of the suppleness 30
of their bodies, intertwining. Wherefore also they seem to
be slower in copulation than fish, not only on account of
the length of the ducts but also of this elaborate arrange-
ment in uniting.

[Ὁ

8 It is not easy to state the facts about the uterus in 35
female animals, for there are many points of difference.
The vivipara are not all alike in this part ; women and all

1 This is more clearly expressed in 1. A. iii. 1 ‘ The liquid is still
sanguineous in the duct adhering to the testis, though less so than in
the passages above from the aorta, but in the ducts reflected into the
channel of the penis the liquid is white.’

? So far from having none, they have fwo. Cuvier, Legons,
xxxiv, Sect. 3, art. 1. Treviranus took them to be urinary vessels
in the chamaeleon ; perhaps A. made some similar mistake.

3 The testis of course is elongated along with the rest of the body,
and, as it was just because of this elongation that A. refused to
recognize it as a testis, his statement is in a sort of way correct.

718%

718°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the vivipara with feet have the uterus low down by the
pudendum, but the cartilaginous viviparous fish have it
higher up near the hypozoma. In the ovipara, again, it is
low in fish (as in women and the viviparous quadrupeds),
high in birds and all oviparous quadrupeds.’ Yet even
these differences are on a principle. To begin with the
ovipara, they differ in the manner of laying their eggs,
for some produce them imperfect, as fishes whose eggs
increase and are finally developed outside of them.? The
reason is that they produce many young, and this is their
function as it is with plants. If then they perfected the
egg in themselves they must needs be few in number, but
as it is, they have so many that each uterus seems to be an
egg, at any rate in the small fishes.* For these are the
most productive, just as with the other animals and plants
whose nature is analogous to theirs,* for the increase of
size turns with them to seed.°

But the eggs of birds and the quadrupedal ovipara ® are
perfect when produced. In order that these may be pre-
served they must have a hard covering (for their envelope
is soft so long as they are increasing in size), and the shell
is made by heat squeezing out the moisture from the earthy
material ; consequently the place must be hot in which this
is to happen. But the part about the hypozoma zs hot, as
is shown by that being the part which concocts the food.
If then the eggs must be within the uterus, then the uterus
must be near the hypozoma in those creatures which pro-
duce their eggs in a perfect form. Similarly it must be low
down in those which produce them imperfect, for it is
profitable that it should be so. And it is more natural for
the uterus to be low down than high up, when Nature has

+ High and dow in A. generally mean towards the head and away
Te The eggs do increase after oviposition, but it is only due to
imbibition of water.

3 i.e. each oviduct is so filled with roe that it seems a solid mass.

4 This means ‘small compared with other members of the same
class’. Cp. iv. 771» 25.

° i.e. that which goes to increase the bulk of the larger is diverted to
producing seed in the smaller. An instance of the so-called ‘law of

organic equivalents’; see Ogle, p. xvi.
° True of Reptilia. As usual A. ignores Amphibia.

BOOK 8 718°

no other business in hand to hinder it; for its end is low
down, and where is the end, there is the function, and the
uterus itself is naturally where the function is.!

9 We find differences in the vivipara also as compared with
one another. Some produce their young alive, not only
externally, but also internally,? as men, horses, dogs, and all 30
those which have hair,? and among aquatic animals, dol-
phins, whales, and such cetacea.*

10 ~=6 But the cartilaginous fish and the vipers produce their
young alive externally, but first produce eggs internally.
The egg is perfect,° for so only can an animal be generated
from an egg, and nothing comes from an imperfect one.
It is because they are of a cold nature, not hot as some 35
assert,® that they do not lay their eggs externally.

wr At least they certainly produce their eggs in a soft
envelope, the reason being that they have but little heat
and so their nature does not complete the process of drying

1 j.e. the function of the uterus is to give birth to young, but this
function is performed low down in the body; therefore naturally the
uterus is low. But if Nature finds it desirable to cover the egg with
a hard shell, she moves the uterus or oviducts higher up to secure the
heat required for this purpose. Therefore the uterus of fish may
remain low in its natural position, but with birds and reptiles it must
go higher up.

‘End,’ πέρας. Does A. mean ‘end’ in a physical sense or does
he mean ‘aim and object’? He appears to be quibbling on both
meanings.

? This odd phrase is often used to denote animals which are
viviparous without first producing an egg internally.

3 i.e. all mammalia except the cetacea,

* δελφῖνές re καὶ φάλαιναι καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα κήτη. Cf. H. A. vi. 5662. The
exact meaning is uncertain; the obvious thing is to suppose that
δελφῖνες is a generic term for the smaller, @adawa for the larger
cetaceans ; but then what are the others, ra toatra? As a specific
term, it is agreed that δελφίς is Delphinus delphis, but φάλαινα is
supposed by AW. to be Delphinus tursiops, by Ogle the sperm-whale,
while Sundevall declines to decide on anything definite.

5 j.e. does not increase after oviposition.

® No doubt somebody had said the cartilaginous fishes (sharks and
rays) were hot decause they were viviparous. A. liked to test theory
by fact, though he may leave much to be desired himself. His own
views on the heat and cold of various animals are excessively strange ;
see Ogle, pp. xxii seqq.

718° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the egg-shell. Because, then, they are cold they produce

719* soft-shelled eggs, and because the eggs are soft they do not
produce them externally ; for that would have caused their
destruction.

The process is for the most part the same as in birds, for
the egg descends and the young is hatched from it near the
vagina, where the young is produced in those animals which

5 are viviparous from the beginning. Therefore in such
animals the uterus is dissimilar to that of both the vivipara
and ovipara, because they participate in both classes ; for it
is at once near the hypozoma and also stretching along
downwards in all the cartilaginous fishes. But the facts
about this and the other kinds of uterus must be gathered

10 from inspection of the drawings of dissections and from the
Linquiries.*. Thus, because they are oviparous, laying
perfect eggs, they have the uterus placed high, but, as being
viviparous, low, participating in both classes.

Animals that are viviparous from the beginning all have
it low, Nature here having no other business to interfere
with her, and their production having no double character.
Besides this, it is impossible for animals to be produced

15 alive near the hypozoma, for the foetus must needs be heavy
and move, and that region in the mother is vital and would
not be able to bear the weight and the movement. Thirdly,
parturition would be difficult because of the length of the
passage to be traversed; even as it is there is difficulty
with women if they draw up the uterus in parturition by

20 yawning or anything of the kind, and even when empty it
causes a feeling of suffocation if moved upwards. For if
a uterus is to hold a living animal it must be stronger than
in ovipara, and therefore in all the vivipara it is fleshy,
whereas when the uterus is near the hypozoma it is mem-

25 branous. And this is clear also in the case of the animals
which produce young by the mixed method, for their eggs
are high up and sideways, but the living young are produced
in the lower part of the uterus.

1 i.e. which produce young without any egg at all. A. of course

knew nothing of the mammalian ovum.
2 ἢ. A. iil. 1, where we are again referred to the drawing.

ΒΟΟΚΊ. πὶ 719*

So much for the reason why differences are found in the
uterus of various animals, and generally why it is low in
some and high in others near the hypozoma. 30

12 Why is the uterus always internal, but the testes some-
times internal, sometimes external? The reason for the
uterus always being internal is that in this is contained the

egg or foetus,! which needs guarding, shelter, and matura-
tion by concoction, while the outer surface of the body is
easily injured and cold. Thetestes vary in position ? because
they also need shelter and a covering to preserve them and 719°
to mature the semen; for it would be impossible for them,
if chilled and stiffened, to be drawn up and discharge it.
Therefore, whenever the testes are visible, they have a cuti-
cular covering known as the scrotum. If the nature of the 5
skin is opposed to this, being too hard to be adapted for
enclosing them or for being soft like a true ‘skin’, as with
the scaly integument of fish and reptiles, then the testes
must needs be internal. Therefore they are so in dolphins
and all the cetacea which have them,’ and in the oviparous
quadrupeds among the scaly animals. The skin of birds
also is hard so that it will not conform to the size of
anything and enclose it neatly. (This is another reason
with all these animals for their testes being internal besides
those previously mentioned * as arising necessarily from the
details of copulation.) For the same reason they are 15
internal in the elephant and hedgehog, for the skin of these,
too, is not well suited to keep the protective part separate.°
[The position ® of the uterus differs in animals viviparous
within themselves and those externally oviparous, and in
the latter class again it differs in those which have the
uterus low and those which have it near the hypozoma, as 20

Leal

1 τὸ γινόμενον, lit. ‘the thing that is coming into being’.

? Supply ‘but if external are specially provided for’.

3 A. seems not to be certain whether all cetacea have testes;
perhaps he only knew of them in the dolphin and thought it unsafe to
generalize.

* See chap. 5 of this book.

° Another reason has been already given for the hedgehog, chap. 5.

6 This paragraph is an incorrect reminiscence of preceding chapters,
and should be ejected.

719° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

in fishes compared with birds and oviparous quadrupeds.
And it is different again in those which produce young in
both ways, being oviparous internally and viviparous ex-
ternally. For those which are viviparous both internally

25 and externally have the uterus placed on the abdomen, as
men, cattle, dogs, and the like, since it is expedient for the
safety and growth of the foetus that no weight should be
upon the uterus. |

The passages also are different through which the solid 18
30 and liquid excreta pass out in all the vivipara. Wherefore
both males and females in this class all have a part whereby
the urine is voided, and this serves also for the issue of the
semen in males, of the offspring in females. This passage is
situated above! and in front of the passage of the solid
720° excreta.?- The passage is the same as that of the solid
nutriment? in all those animals that have no penis, in all
5 the ovipara, even those of them that have a bladder, as the
tortoises.* For it is for the sake of generation, not for the
evacuation of the urine, that the passages are double; but
because the semen is naturally liquid, the liquid excretion
also shares the same passage.® This is clear from the fact

1 Perhaps this means that the bladder is nearer the head than is the
anus. But I suspect confusion of the text in all this passage.

2 Reading (rod) τῆς ξηρᾶς τροφῆς with the Aldine (AW.). Here
follows in the MSS. another interpolation connected with that at the
end of chap. 12. ‘Ovipara laying imperfect eggs, as the oviparous
fishes, have the uterus not under the abdomen but near the loin. For
the growth of the egg does not hinder this, because the growing
creature is perfected and develops externally.’

5. Omitting καί and reading τῴ (AW.).

* A. held wrongly that no animals have a bladder except mammals
and tortoises. Therefore he would expect the tortoises to have a
separate urinary passage, like the mammals, and is surprised that they
have not.

δ See Flower and Lydekker, J/ammals, p. 118. ‘The canal,’ of
the penis in the monotremata or lowest mammalia, ‘is open at the
base and brought only temporarily in contact with the termination of
the vasa deferentia, so as to form a seminal urethra when required ;
but zt never transmits the urinary secretion. This condition is a
distinct advance on that of the Sauropsida’ (birds and reptiles) ‘in the
direction of the more compiex development of these parts in most of
the other mammalia’, i.e. the penis has been developed ‘for the sake
of generation’ and only took on the transmission of the urine as an
afterthought. Though the reason A. gives for his statement in the

BOOK I. 13 720°

that all animals produce semen,! but all do not void liquid τὸ
excrement. Now the spermatic passages of the male must
be fixed and must not wander, and the same applies to the
uterus of the female, and this fixing must take place at either
the front or the back of the body. To take the uterus first, it
is in the front of the body in vivipara because of the foetus,
but at the loin and the back in ovipara. All animals which
are internally oviparous and externally viviparous are in
an intermediate condition because they participate in both
classes, being at once oviparous and viviparous. For the
upper part of the uterus, where the eggs are produced, 15 20
under the hypozoma by the loin and the back, but as it
advances is low at the abdomen ; for it is in that part that
the animal is viviparous. In these also the passage for solid
excrement and for copulation is the same, for none of these,
as has been said already, has a separate pudendum.

The same applies to the passages in the male, whether 25
they have testes or no, as to the uterus of the ovipara. For
in all of them, not only in the ovipara, the ducts adhere to
the back and the region of the spine. For they must not
wander but be settled, and that is the character of the
region of the back, which gives continuity and _ stability. 30
Now in those which have internal testes, the ducts are
fixed from the first, and they are fixed in like manner ® if
the testes are external;* then they meet together towards
the region of the penis.

The like applies to the ducts in the dolphins, but they

have their testes hidden under the abdominal cavity. 35
We have now discussed the situation of the parts con-
tributing to generation, and the causes thereof. 720°

14 The bloodless animals do not agree either with the
sanguinea or with each other in the fashion of the parts

next sentence is quaint enough, yet how astonishing that he should
have hit upon the truth !

1 A. is here thinking of the higher animals.

2 The text appears corrupt. Qu. προϊοῦσα or προϊόντων for προϊούσης ὃ

3 Only not from the first.

* By omitting ἅμα τοῖς πόροις I hope I have restored sense to
Aristotle ; to combine Greek and sense in the received text would
puzzle Diels himself.

AR. G. A. Ὁ

720° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

contributing to generation. There are four classes still left
5 to deal with, first the crustacea, secondly the cephalopoda,
thirdly the insects, and fourthly the testacea. We cannot
be certain about all of them, but that most of them copu-
late! is plain; in what manner they unite must be stated
later.
το Thecrustacea copulate like the retromingent quadrupeds,?
fitting their tails to one another, the one supine and the
other prone. For the flaps attached to the sides of the tail ®
being long prevent them from uniting with the belly against
the back. The males have fine spermatic ducts, the females
15a membranous uterus alongside the intestine, cloven on
each side, in which the egg is produced.*

The cephalopoda entwine together at the mouth, pushing 15
against one another and enfolding their arms. This atti-
tude is necessary, because Nature has bent backwards the
end of the intestine and brought it round near the mouth,

20 as has been said before in the treatise on the parts of
animals.© The female has a part corresponding to the
uterus, plainly to be seen in each of these animals, for it
contains an egg which is at first indivisible to the eye ® but
afterwards splits up into many; each of these eggs is im-
perfect when deposited, as with the oviparous fishes. In

25 the cephalopoda (as also in the crustacea) the same passage
serves to void the excrement and leads to the part likea
uterus, for the male discharges the seminal fluid through
this passage.’? And it is on the lower surface of the body,
where the mantle is open and the sea-water enters the

1 Reading ὅτι συνδυάζεται.

2 Cf. H. A. vi. 31, 33. But the statement there made about retro-
mingent quadrupeds is neither true nor, if it were, does it illustrate the
crustacea,s For A. did not hold that one of these quadrupeds is
supine and the other prone.

3 i.e. in the female. Cf. de Parizbus, iv. 684% 20.

* This description applies only to the macrurous crustacea; of the
crabs a separate account is given in 1. A. v. 7.

δ de Partibus, iv. 9.

®° The eggs of the poulps and calamaries are compacted together
in the ovary so that they look like a homogeneous mass (J. P. Hill).
Similarly A. speaks elsewhere of the roe of a fish as an egg.

7 Reading provisionally τὸ yap ἄρρεν τὸν θορὸν ἀφίησι διὰ τοῦ πόρου
τούτου, ἐστὶ δ᾽ (AW.).

BOOK I. 15

cavity. Hence the union of the male with the female
takes place at this point, for it is necessary, if the male dis-
charges either semen or a part of himself or any other
force, that he should unite with her at the uterine passage.
But the insertion, in the case of the poulps, of the arm of
the male into the funnel of the female, by which arm the
fishermen say the male copulates with her, is only for the
sake of attachment, and it is not an organ useful for genera-
tion, for it is outside the passage in the male and indeed
outside the body of the male altogether.!

1 This passage refers to one of the most astonishing phenomena in
zoology, the so-called ‘ hectocotylization’ of the di-branchiate cephalo-
poda. The fishermen were right and Aristotle is wrong. The male has
one arm modified to form a generative organ, which is charged with
spermatophores and thrust into the funnel of the female; in three
genera of the Octopodidae (poulps) it actually comes off from the male
altogether and remains within the mantle of the female. See Lewes,
pp- 197-201 ; Cambridge Natural History, vol. ili, pp. 137-40. Lewes
has an easy task in demolishing the moderns who asserted that A.
knew all about the hectocotylus, but he knew nothing of this decisive
passage in which A. definitely says the fishermen are wrong. The
Cambridge Nat. Hist. is also misleading on this point.

Aristotle’s argument against the fishermen, however, is apparently
conclusive, and he seems justified on the evidence before him. To this
day it is not known how the spermatophores ever get into the arm
(Arnold Lang, Zextbook of Comparative Anatomy, Eng. ed., Pt. ii,
Ρ- 242). A. saw the apparent impossibility involved ; the arm does not
connect with the vasa deferentia or with the funnel of the male through
which the generative product must pass, and it is no wonder that he
thought this decisive against the theory of the fishermen. He only
deserves credit for doing so.

It will be seen that several important words have to be supplied in
the last sentence of the translation. The obvious meaning would be
that the arm is outside the ‘uterine passage’ or body of the femade.
But A. does not deny that it is thrust into the funnel of the
female; he knows that it zs but thinks this is only to attach the
male to the female. His position is this: the male and female
unite by embracing mouth to mouth; in this position the funnels
of both come in contact and the generative fluid passes from
the vasa deferentia through the funnel of the male into that of
the female and then into her oviducts. But the hectocotylus
arm is outside this passage altogether, it does not connect with the
funnel of the male, and therefore though it is thrust into the funnel of
the female it cannot convey the fluid into it, because, as he means to
say, it is not in the funnel or passage of the ma/e nor in the male éody
at all but only an outgrowth from the ead.

The words ‘ or a part of himself’ certainly seem to imply the actual
detachment of the hectocotylized arm, the ‘ peculiar marvel’ which
Lewes denies that A. had ever heard of. The loss of the arm accounts
for the fact that ancient representations of octopods sometimes have
only seven arms.

ς 2

720°

720° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

Sometimes also cephalopoda unite by the male mounting
7212 on the back of the female, but whether for generation or
some other cause has not yet been observed.

Some insects copulate and the offspring are produced 16
from animals of the same name, just as with the san-
guinea ; such are the locusts, cicadae, spiders,! wasps, and
ants. Others unite indeed and generate; but the result is
not a creature of the same kind, but only a scolex,? and
these insects do not come into being from animals but from
putrefying matter, liquid or solid; such are fleas, flies, and
cantharides. Others again are neither produced from ani-
ro mals nor unite with each other ; such are gnats, ‘ conopes ’,®

and many similar kinds. In most of those which unite

the female is larger than the male. The males do not
appear to have spermatic passages. In most cases the
male does not insert any part into the female, but the
female from below upwards into the male; this has
15 been observed in many cases* (as also that the male
mounts the female), the opposite in few cases; but
observations are not yet comprehensive enough to enable
us to make a distinction of classes. And generally it is
the rule with most of the oviparous fish and oviparous
quadrupeds that the female is larger than the male because
20 this is expedient in view of the increase of bulk in con-
ception by reason of the eggs. In the female the part
analogous to the uterus is cleft and extends along the
intestine, as with the other animals; in this are produced
the results of conception.. This is clear in locusts and all
25 other large insects whose nature it is to unite; most insects
are too small to be observed in this respect.
Such is the character of the generative organs in animals

σι

1 Spiders were included among insects until the time of Lamarck
(1800).

2 See iii. 9 and notes.

8. ἐμπίδες τε kal κώνωπες. One cannot say exactly what insects are
meant.

* Though A. often insists on this, it is scarcely necessary to say that
there is not a word of truth in it, any more than in the statements
about spontaneous generation of insects. All insects copulate in the
usual way, and the males have ‘ spermatic passages’ which A. could not
make out.

BOOK I. 16 721%

which were not spoken of before.! It remains now to speak
of the homogeneous parts concerned, the seminal fluid and
milk. We will take the former first, and treat of milk
afterwards.”

17 Some animals manifestly emit semen, as all the san- 30
guinea, but whether the insects and cephalopoda do so is
uncertain. Therefore this is a question to be considered,
whether all males do so, or not all; and if not all, why
some do and some not; and whether the female also con-
tributes any semen or not; and, if not semen, whether she 721
does not contribute anything else either, or whether she
contributes something else which is not semen. We must
also inquire what those animals which emit semen con-
tribute by means of it to generation, and generally what is
the nature of semen, and of the so-called catamenia in all 5
animals which discharge this liquid.

Now it is thought that all animals are generated out of
semen, and that the semen comes from the parents. Where-
fore it is part of the same inquiry to ask whether both
male and female produce it or only one of them, and to ask
whether it comes from the whole of the body ® or not from
the whole ; for if the latter is true it is reasonable to sup- 10
pose that it does not come from both parents either.*

1 j.e.in the de Partibus. 2 ἵν. 8:

5. This was the Hippocratic view, held also by Democritus, and very
similar to Darwin’s famous ‘pangenesis’. (See his Varzation, chap. 27,
especially note 42 in the second edition.) It is particularly interesting
to observe that Hippocrates like Darwin accounted by this theory for
the oe inheritance of acquired characteristics. (Hipp., vol. i,
Ρ. 551).

* This does not follow rigorously, but as the Hippocratic view com-
bines two distinct theories, of which A. accepts neither the one nor the
other, he thinks that if he can overset the one it will afford a presump-
tion that the other is wrong also.

His arguments against pangenesis, if we may adopt the Darwinian
term for the similar though not identical theory, are of varying validity,
but he is certainly right in the main ; see e.g. Wilson, Ced/ in Develop-
ment and Inheritance, chap. 9; Poulton, Essays on Evolution, p. 127.
On the other hand, when A. denies that the female contributes semen,
though he may be right in a certain sense, he is in truth fundamentally
wrong, for his position is that the mother does not contribute anything
resembling the semen of the male, whereas the ovum is just as
important as the spermatozoon and carries inheritance equally with it.

721° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

Accordingly, since some say that it comes from the whole
of the body, we must investigate this question first.
The proofs from which it can be argued that the semen
comes from each and every part of the body may be
15 reduced to four. First, the intensity of the pleasure of
coition; for the same state of feeling is more pleasant if
multiplied, and that which affects all the parts is multiplied
as compared with that which affects only one or a few.
Secondly, the alleged fact that mutilations are inherited,
for they argue that since the parent is deficient in this part
the semen does not come from thence, and the result is
20 that the corresponding part is not formed in the offspring.
Thirdly, the resemblances to the parents, for the young are
born like them part for part as well as in the whole body;
if then the coming of the semen from the whole body is
cause of the resemblance of the whole, so the parts would
be like because it comes from each of the parts. Fourthly,
2g it would seem to be reasonable to say that as there is some
first thing from which the whole arises, so it is also with
each of the parts, and therefore if semen or seed is cause of
the whole so each of the parts would have a seed peculiar
to itself. And these opinions are plausibly supported by
such evidence as that children are born with a likeness to
40 their parents, not only in congenital but also in acquired
characteristics ;1 for before now, when the parents have
had scars, the children have been born with a mark in the
form of the scar in the same place, and there was a case at
Chalcedon where the father had a brand on his arm and
the letter was marked on the child, only confused and not
clearly articulated.2 That is pretty much the evidence on
7222 which some believe that the semen comes from all the

body.
1 Lest I should be suspected of modernizing the language unduly, I
give the Greek words: οὐ μόνον ra σύμφυτα mpoceotkdres ... ἀλλὰ καὶ Ta

ἐπίκτητα. The distinction between congenital and acquired characters
was evidently perfectly familiar to A.

2. Legends of this sort have always been popular; Mrs. Harris’s
husband’s brother was ‘marked with a mad bull in Wellington boots
upon his left arm on account of his precious mother havin’ been
worrited by one into a shoemaker’s shop’ (Martin Chuzzlewit, chap.
xlvi). Hippocrates, however, held such inheritance to come direct
from the father.

BOOK I. 18 7227

18 On examining the question, however, the opposite appears
more likely, for it is not hard to refute the above arguments
and the view involves impossibilities. First, then, the re-
semblance of children to parents is no proof that the semen
comes from the. whole body, because the resemblance is 5
found also in voice, nails, hair, and way of moving, from
which nothing comes." And men generate before they yet
have certain characters, such as a beard or grey hair.
Further, children are like their more remote ancestors from
whom nothing has come, for the resemblances recur at an
interval of many generations, as in the case of the woman
in Elis who had intercourse with the Aethiop; her daughter τὸ
was not an Aethiop but the son of that daughter was.?
The same thing applies also to plants, for it is clear that if
this theory were true the seed would come from all parts of
plants also; but often a plant does not possess one part,
and another part may be removed, and a third grows after-
wards.* Besides, the seed does not come from the pericarp,* 15
and yet this also comes into being with the same form as
in the parent plant.

We may also ask whether the semen comes from each of
the homogeneous parts only, such as flesh and bone and
sinew, or also from the heterogeneous, such as face and
hands. For if (1) from the former only, we object that the
resemblance exists rather in the heterogeneous parts, such 20
as face and hands and feet ; if then it is not because of the

1 A. assumes this for hair and nails because they have no blood-
vessels, I suppose.

2. It is possible that this story #zay be true; see Lawrence, Lectures on
Physiology, &c., 1822, pp. 260,261. In the absence of details we can-
not even say exactly what is meant here; the daughter, for instance,
might have been an albino and her son a quadroon, which would be
enough to start the story, and then there would be nothing remarkable
about it. But such tales are recklessly invented in America to this day.

Granting it to be true in its obvious and strongest meaning, it would
not be acase of Mendelism. For if black were the dominant character,
how could the daughter be white? And if white were dominant how
could her son be black? (It is obvious that A. supposes the daughter
mated with a white man, and it would be asking too much of the
goddess of probabilities to postulate a black ‘ allelomorph’ in him also.)

Plutarch’s similar story (de sera numinis vindicta, cap. 21) seems to
be another version of this of Aristotle’s.

5 And yet the new plant is like its parent in all these parts.

* 1,6. the material of the pericarp contributes nothing to the seed.

7229

coe

722»

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

semen coming from all parts that children resemble their
parents in ziese, what is there to stop the homogeneous parts
also from being like for some other reason than this? If
(2) the semen comes from the heterogeneous alone, then it
does not come from all parts; but it is more fitting that it
should come from the homogeneous parts, for they are prior
to the heterogeneous which are composed of them ; and as
children are born like their parents in face and hands, so
they are, necessarily, in flesh and nails.’ If (3) the semen
comes from both, what would be the manner of generation ?
For the heterogeneous parts are composed of the homo-
geneous, so that to come from the former would be to come
from the latter and from their composition. To make this
clearer by an illustration, take a written name; if anything
came from the whole of it, it would be from each of the syl-
lables, and if from these, from the letters 2 and their composi-
tion. So that if really flesh and bones are composed of fire
and the like elements, the semen would come rather from the
elements than anything else, for how can it come from their
composition? Yet without this composition there would
be no resemblance. If again something creates this com-
position later, it would be ¢izs that would be the cause of
the resemblance, not the coming of the semen from every
part of the βοάν."

Further, if the parts of the future animal are separated
in the semen, how do they live? and if they are connected,
they would form a small animal.*

And what about the generative parts? For that which
comes from the male is not similar to what comes from the
female.°

1 Since face and hands are composed of flesh and nails and other
homogeneous parts.

2 The word for /e¢¢er and e/ement is the same in the Greek.

3 This something which creates the composition of the elements so
as to cause the resemblance remains as great a mystery now as it was
then. But how profound is Aristotle’s analysis !

* Which is absurd. It is true that we call the carrier of the genera-
tive element in the semen the spermatozoon, but the spermatozoon of a
rhinoceros is not a little rhinoceros.

Ὁ This objection means, I think, that we can understand how germs
from the hand or foot of both mother and father (being alike) may
combine to form the hand or foot of the child, but that we cannot

BOOK I: 38

Again, if the semen comes from all parts of both parents
alike, the result is ¢zo animals, for the offspring will have
all the parts of both. Wherefore Empedocles seems to say
what agrees pretty well with this view (if we are to adopt
it),! to a certain extent at any rate, but to be wrong if
we think otherwise. What he says agrees with it when
he declares that there is a sort of tally in the male and
female, and that the whole offspring does not come from
either, ‘but sundered is the fashion of limbs, some in
man’s...” For why does not the female generate from
herself if the semen comes from all parts alike and she has
a receptacle ready in the uterus? But, it seems, either it
does not come from all the parts, or if it does it is in the
way Empedocles says, not the same parts coming from each
parent, which is why they need intercourse with each other.

Yet this also is impossible, just as much as it is impossible
for the parts when full grown to survive and have life in
them when torn apart, as Empedocles accounts for the
creation of animals; in the time of his ‘Reign of Love’,
says he, ‘many heads sprang up without necks,’ and later
on these isolated parts combined into animals. Now that
this is impossible is plain, for neither would the separate
parts be able to survive without having any soul or life in
them, nor if they were living things, so to say, could several
of them combine so as to become one animal again. Yet
those who say that semen comes from the whole of the
body really have to talk in that way, and as it happened
then in the earth during the ‘ Reign of Love’, so it happens
according to them in the body. Now it is impossible that

understand how germs from the generative parts of both parents (being
unlike) can combine to form a part which is only male or only female.
The pangenesists would have answered that there is a conflict and one
or other sex prevails.

1 i.e. if we are to say that semen comes from all parts, and that is
why e.g. the hand of a son is like his father’s, we must understand it to
mean that each part in the offspring comes from a corresponding part
in either male or female parent. Your hand may come from the
father, your foot from the mother, or vice versa. But we must not say
that all parts come from both parents, or we shall get a double animal
with two pairs of hands and feet, &c.

2 Empedocles said something like ‘some in the semen of the man,
some in that of the woman.’ And so Diels restores the fragment.

722°

722° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the parts should be united together when they come into
being and should come from different parts of the parent,
meeting together in one place.1 Then how can the upper
and lower, right and left, front and back parts have been
30 ‘sundered’? ΑἹ] these points are unintelligible. Further,
some parts are distinguished by possessing a faculty,
others by being in certain states or conditions; the hetero-
geneous, as tongue and hand, by the faculty of doing
something, the homogeneous by hardness and softness and
the other similar states. Blood, then, will not be blood, nor
flesh flesh, in any and every state.2 It is clear, then, that
that which comes from any part, as blood from blood or
723° flesh from flesh, will not be identical with that part. But
if it is something different from which the blood of the
offspring comes, the coming of the semen from all the parts
will not be the cause of the resemblance, as is held by the
supporters of this theory. For if blood is formed from
5 something which is not blood, it is enough that the semen
come from one part only, for why should not all the other
parts of the offspring as well as blood be formed from one
part of the parent? Indeed, this theory seems to be the
same as that of Anaxagoras, that none of the homogeneous
parts come into being, except that these theorists assume,
in the case of the generation of animals, what he assumed
of the universe.®

Then, again, how will these parts that came from all the

10 body of the parent be increased or grow? It is true that
Anaxagoras plausibly says that particles of flesh out of the
food are added to the flesh.t But if we do not say this

1 This seems to mean that we cannot suppose as an alternative that
the separate parts are somehow united, defore they come together, in
the semen of each parent.

* Because they, being homogeneous substances, are defined by a
particular state. And that particular state does not exist in the
semen.

$ Anaxagoras postulated an infinite number of particles homogeneous
in themselves, atoms of flesh, blood, &c., which by their combination
make the things we see. These particles do not ‘come into being’
because they exist eternally. Aristotle evidently is not serious in this
parallel.

4 So if we accepted this theory we might say that once the foetus

is formed it will grow by addition of such particles without the added
matter undergoing any change.

BOOK I. 18

(while saying that semen comes from all parts of the body),
how will the foetus become greater by the addition of some-
thing else if that which is added remain unchanged? But
if that which is added caz change,’ then why not say that
the semen from the very first is of such a kind that blood
and flesh can be made out of it,? instead of saying that it
itself zs blood and flesh? Nor is there any other alterna-
tive, for surely we cannot say that it is increased later by
a process of mixing, as wine when water is poured into it.
For in that case each element of the mixture would be
itself αὐ first while still unmixed, but the fact rather is that
flesh and bone and each of the other parts zs such /ater.
And to say that some part of the semen is sinew and bone
is quite above us, as the saying is.

Besides all this there is a difficulty if the sex is deter-
mined in conception (as Empedocles says: ‘it is shed
in clean vessels; some wax female, if they fall in with
cold’). Anyhow, it is plain that both men and women
change not only from infertile to fertile, but also from
bearing female to bearing male offspring, which looks as if
the cause does not lie in the semen coming from all the
parent or not, but in the mutual proportion or disproportion
of that which comes from the woman and the man, or in
something of this kind. It is clear, then, if we are to put
this down as being so, that the female sex is not determined
by the semen coming from any particular part, and conse-
quently neither is the special sexual part so determined (if
really the same semen can become either a male or female
child, which shows that the sexual part does not exist in
the semen). Why, then, should we assert this of ¢izs part
any more than of the others? For if semen does not come
from this part, the uterus, the same account may be given
of the others.

Again, some creatures come into being neither from

1 As the pangenesists, unlike Anaxagoras, hold that it can.

? Just as they are made out of the food later on.

8 According to Empedocles, if the embryo began developing on the
left or cold side of the uterus it became female, if on the right or hot
side male. Parmenides held the same view. See Emp. frag. 67
(Diels), and my note on iv. 765* 19.

723°

μι
υ

723° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

parents of the same kind nor from parents of a different
kind,! as flies and the various kinds of what are called
5 fleas;* from these are produced animals indeed, but not
in this case of similar nature, but a kind of scolex. It
is plain in this case that the young of a different kind are
not produced by semen coming from all parts of the parent,
for they would then resemble them, if indeed resemblance
is a sign of its coming from all parts.
Further, even among animals some produce many young
10 from a single coition (and something like this is universal
among plants, for it is plain that they bear all the fruit of
a whole season from a single movement *). And yet how
would this be possible if the semen were secreted from all
the body? For from a single coition and a single segrega-
tion of the semen scattered throughout the body must needs
follow only a single secretion. Nor is it possible for it
to be separated in the uterus, for this would no longer be
15 ἃ Mere separation of semen, but, as it were, a severance
from a new plant or animal.4
Again, the cuttings from a plant bear seed; clearly,
therefore, even before they were cut from the parent plant,
they bore their fruit from their own mass alone,> and the
seed did not come from αὐ the plant.
But the greatest proof of all is derived from observations
20 we have sufficiently established on insects.° For, if not in
all, at least in most of these, the female in the act of copu-
lation inserts a part of herself into the male. This, as we
said before, is the way they copulate, for the females mani-
festly insert this from below into the males above, not in all
25 cases, but in most of those observed. Hence it seems clear
that, when the males do emit semen, then also the cause of
the generation’ is not its coming from all the body, but

1 But by spontaneous generation. 2. Reading ψυλλῶν.

> A. does not mean that one plant is fertilized by another as a single
act, for he knew nothing about their fertilization. He can only mean
that the plant as a whole produces fruit all over itself in consequence
of a single impulse at its heart, so to say.

* This argument is repeated in chap. 20, where see note.

° Lit. ‘from the same size’. 5 See above on chap. 16,

7 Sic; but what have we to doin this argument with the cause of
generation? Should it not be the cause of the vasemblance?

BOOK I. 18 723°

something else which must be investigated hereafter. For
even if it were true that it comes from all the dody, as
they say, they ought not to claim that it comes from
all parts of it, but only from the creative part—from the
workman, so to say, not the material he works in. Instead
of that, they talk as if one were to say that the semen
comes from the shoes, for, generally speaking, if a son is
like his father, the shoes he wears are like his father’s
shoes.?

As to the vehemence of pleasure in sexual intercourse, it
is not because the semen comes from all the body, but
because there is a strong friction (wherefore if this inter-
course is often repeated the pleasure is diminished in the 724?
persons concerned). Moreover, the pleasure is at the end
of the act, but it ought, on the theory, to be in each of the
parts, and not at the same time, but sooner in some and
later in others.”

If mutilated young are born of mutilated parents, it is
for the same reason as that for which they are like them.
And the young of mutilated parents are not always muti- 5
lated, just as they are not always like their parents; the
cause of this must be inquired into later, for this problem is
the same as that.

Again, if the female does not produce semen, it is reason-
able to suppose it does not come from all the body of the
male either. Conversely, if it does not come from all
the male it is not unreasonable to suppose that it does not
come from the female,® but that the female is cause of the τὸ
generation in some other way. Into this we must next
inquire, since it is plain that the semen is not secreted from
all the parts.

In this investigation and those which follow from it, the

(SS)
ο

1 In modern language, the germ-cell creates the body which it wears.
This body clothes the germ-cells, as shoes again clothe the body. A.’s
insight in all this passage is miraculous.

* Because the semen would have further to travel from some than
from others.

3 Modern science simply denies the fact 27 ¢ofo.

* Because the young resemble the mother as well as the father.

5.1 do not follow this argument.

7247 DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

15 first thing to do is to understand what semen is, for then it
will be easier to inquire into its operations and the phe-
nomena connected with it. Now the object of semen is to
be of such a nature that from it as their origin come into
being those things which are naturally formed, not because
there is any agent which makes them from it as... but

20 simply because this is the semen.! Now we speak of one
thing coming from another in many senses; it is one thing
when we say that night comes from day or a man becomes
man from boy, meaning that A follows B; it is another if
we say that a statue is made from bronze and a bed from
wood, and so on in all the other cases where we say that

25 the thing made is made from a material, meaning that the
whole is formed from something pre-existing which is only
put into shape. Ina third sense a man becomes unmusical
from being musical, sick from being well, and generally in
this sense contraries arise from contraries. Fourthly, as in
the ‘climax’ of Epicharmus;? thus from slander comes

30 railing and from this fighting, and all these are from some-
thing in the sense that it is the efficient cause.’ In this last
class sometimes the efficient cause is in the things them-
selves, as in the last mentioned (for the slander is a part of
the whole trouble), and sometimes external, as the art is
external to the work of art or the torch to the burning

35 house.*

Now the offspring comes from the semen, and it is plainly
in one of the two following senses that it does so—either
the semen is the material from which it is made, or it is the

724» first efficient cause. For assuredly it is not in the sense of
A being after B, as the voyage® comes from, i.e. after, the
Panathenaea ; nor yet as contraries come from contraries,
for then one of the two contraries ceases to be, and a third
substance must exist as an immediate underlying basis from

ΤΑ corrupt passage. ἀλλ᾽ is printed before ὅτι τοῦτό ἐστι τὸ σπέρμα in
the Basle edition.

2 See Lorenz’s Epicharmus, p. 271.

3 Read ἔκ τινος 7 ἀρχή.

* The work of art comes from the art which makes it, and the
burning house from the torch which sets it afire.

5 Of the sacred ship to Delos.

BOOK I. 18

which the new thing comes into being.' We must discover,
then, in which of the two other classes the semen is to be put,
whether it is to be regarded as matter, and therefore acted
upon by something else, or as a form, and therefore acting
upon something else,” or as both at once. For perhaps at
the same time we shall see clearly also how all the products
of semen come into being from contraries, since coming
into being from contraries is also a natural process, for
some animals do so, i.e. from male and female, others from
only one parent, as is the case with plants and all those
animals in which male and female are not separately dif-
ferentiated. Now that which comes from? the generating
parent is called the seminal fluid, being that which first has
in it a principle of generation, in the case of all animals
whose nature it is to unite; semen is that which has in it
the principles from doth united parents,‘ as the first mixture
which arises from the union of male and female. be it
a foetus or an ovum,’ for these already have in them that
which comes from both. (Semen, or seed, and grain differ
only in the one being earlier and the other later, grain in
that it comes from something else, i.e. the seed, and seed
in that something else, the grain, comes from 7¢, for both
are really the same thing.) δ

1 e.g. the unmusical man comes into being from the musical. Then
the musical man as such ceases to exist. But for the unmusical man
to come into being there must exist the substratum az, of which
musical and unmusical are attributes. So, if the offspring came into
being from the semen as opposite from opposite, the semen would
cease to exist. What then would the offspring come from? We shall
have to assume some third substance.

2 Matter is inert and incapable by itself, it is acted upon by the
efficient or the formal cause, which are often identified as here. But
A. goes rather far when he speaks of semen as merely ‘form’, even
though qualified by the word τι.

3 Reading ἀπιόν.

* After this come inthe MSS. the words οἷον τά τε τῶν φυτῶν καὶ
ἐνίων ζῴων, ἐν ols μὴ κεχώρισται τὸ θῆλυ καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν, a repetition from
above in almost identical words and here utterly out of place.

® Read dv. Observe that A. here defines the semen as what
we should now call the fertilized ovum, though generally he means by
it the same as we do. Lewes, ὃ 443, remarks that the ‘moderns call
both the impregnated and unimpregnated egg an ov’ in like manner.
‘Foetus or ovum’, because A. was naturally unacquainted with the
mammalian ovum.

5 This sentence is exceedingly irrelevant and probably interpolated.

724

μι

724”

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

We must again take up the question what the primary
nature of what is called semen is. Needs must everything
which we find in the body either be (1) one of the natural
parts, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, or (2) an
unnatural part such as a growth, or (3) a secretion or
excretion, or (4) waste-product,? or (5) nutriment. (By
secretion or excretion I mean the residue of the nutriment,
by waste-product that which is given off from the tissues ὃ
by an unnatural decomposition.)

Now that semen cannot be a part of the body is plain,
for it is homogeneous, and from the homogeneous nothing
is composed, e.g. from only sinew or only flesh; nor is it
separated as are all the other parts. But neither is it con-
trary to Nature nor a defect, for it exists in all alike, and
the development of the young animal comes from it.
Nutriment, again, is obviously introduced from without.

It remains, then, that it must be either a waste-product
or a secretion or excretion. Now the ancients* seem to
think that it is a waste-product, for when they say that it
comes from all the body by reason of the heat of the move-
ment of the body in copulation, they imply that it is a kind
of waste-product. But these are contrary to Nature, and
from such arises nothing according to Nature. So then it
must be a secretion or excretion.

But, to go further into it, every secretion or excretion is
either of useless or useful nutriment; by ‘useless’ I mean
that from which nothing further is contributed to natural
growth, but which is particularly mischievous to the body
if too much of it is consumed; by ‘useful’ I mean the
opposite. Now it is evident that it cannot be of the former
character, for such is most abundant in persons of the
worst condition of body through age or sickness ; semen,
on the contrary, is least abundant in them, for either they

1o have none at all or it is not fertile, because a useless and

morbid secretion is mingled with it.
Semen, then, is part of a useful secretion. But the most

1 περίττωμα, a word which will have to be translated in many ways.
2 σύντηγμα. See Addenda.

8 αὐξήματος, ‘den zum Wachsthum aufgenommenen Stoffen,’ AW.

* See Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 371.

BOOK I. 18 725°

useful is the last and that from which finally is formed each
of the parts of the body. For secretions are either earlier
or later;1 of the nutriment in the first stage the secretion
is phlegm? and the like, for phlegm also is a secretion of
the useful nutriment, an indication of this being that if it
is mixed with pure nutriment it is nourishing,® and that
it is used up in cases of illness. The final secretion is
the smallest in proportion to the quantity of nutriment,
But we must reflect that the daily nutriment by which
animals and plants grow is but small, for if a very little be
added continually to the same thing the size of it will
become excessive.*

So we must say the opposite of what the ancients said.
For whereas ¢/ey said that semen is that which comes from
all the body, we shall say it is that whose nature is to go fo
all of it,° and what they thought a waste-product seems rather
to be a secretion. For it is more reasonable to suppose
that the last extract of the nutriment which goes to all
parts resembles that which is left over from it, just as part of
a painter’s colour is often left over resembling that which he
has used up. Waste-products, on the contrary, are always
due to corruption or decay and to a departure from Nature.

A further proof that it is not a waste-product, but rather
a secretion, is the fact that the large animals have few
young, the small many. For the large must have more 3°
waste and less secretion, since the great size of the body
causes most of the nutriment to be used up, so that the
residue or secretion is small.

Again, no place has been set apart by Nature for waste-
products but they flow wherever they can find an easy

--
σι

[9]

' In the digestive process.

2 Phlegm is to be understood here as the second of the four famous
‘humours’ of Hippocrates.

3 ¢ All the phlegm that is carried in the veins, Jeng useful, needs not
to be evacuated. We must recognize the fact that some phlegm in
animals is useful and according to Nature, some useless and contrary
to Nature.’ Galen, vol. xv, p. 326.

61 read τῷ καθ᾽ ἡμέραν᾽ παμμικροῦ yap ἂν προστιθεμένου τῷ αὐτῳ
ὑπερβάλλοι, partly from conjectures by AW. and myself.

5 Because semen is derived from the nutriment which is conveyed by
the blood-vessels 20 every part of the body. Though it does not itself
go to every part it is a sort of quintessence of that which does.

AR. G. A. D

725° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

passage in the body, but a place has been set apart for all
725° the natural secretions ; thus the lower intestine serves for the
excretion of the solid nutriment, the bladder for that of
the liquid ; for the useful part of the nutriment we have the
upper intestine, for the spermatic secretions the uterus and
pudenda and breasts,’ for it is collected and flows together
into them.
And the resulting phenomena are evidence that semen is
5 what we have said, and these result because such is the
nature of the secretion. For the exhaustion consequent on
the loss of even a very little of the semen is conspicuous
because the body is deprived of the ultimate gain drawn
from the nutriment. With some few persons, it is true,
during a short time in the flower of their youth the loss of
10 it, if it be excessive in quantity, is an alleviation (just as in
the case of the nutriment in its first stage, if too much have
been taken, since getting rid of this also makes the body
more comfortable), and so it may be also when other
secretions come away with it, for in that case it is not only
semen that is lost but also other influences come away
15 mingled with it,2 and these are morbid. Wherefore, with
some men at least, that which comes from them proves
sometimes incapable of procreation because the seminal
element in it is so small. But still in most men and as
a general rule the result of intercourse is exhaustion and
weakness rather than relief, for the reason given. Moreover,
semen does not exist in them either in childhood or in old
20 age or in sickness—in the last case because of weakness;
in old age because they do not sufficiently concoct their
food, and in childhood because they are growing and so all
the nutriment is used up too soon, for in about five years,
in the case of human beings at any rate, the body seems
a5 to gain half the height that is gained in all the rest of life.®
In many animals and plants we find a difference in this
connexion not only between kinds as compared with kinds,
1 For milk is a spermatic secretion, iv. 777% 3-15.
2 Read τούτῳ.
8 Sic; of course A. means in the wAo/e of life. AW. refer to

Quetelet to show that as a matter of fact half the adult height is
reached in the ¢Azrd year.

BOOK Tf. 18 725°

but also between similar individuals of the same kind as
compared with each other, e.g. man with man or vine with
vine. Some have much semen, others little, others again
none at all, not through weakness but the contrary, at any 30
rate in some cases. This is because the nutriment is used
up to form the body, as with some human beings, who,
being in good condition and developing much flesh! or
getting rather too fat,? produce less semen and are less
desirous of intercourse. Like this is what happens with
those vines which ‘play the goat’, that is, luxuriate wan-
tonly through too much nutrition, for he-goats when fat 726
are less inclined to mount the female ; for which reason they
thin them before breeding from them, and say that the
vines ‘play the goat’, so calling it from the condition of
the goats. And fat people, women as well as men, appear
to be less fertile than others from the fact that the secretion
when in process of concoction turns to fat * with those who 5
are too well-nourished. _ For fat also is a healthy secretion
due to good living.*

In some cases no semen is produced at all, as by the
willow and poplar.’ This condition is due to each® of
the two causes, weakness and strength ; the former prevents
-concoction of the nutriment, the latter causes it to be all
consumed, as:said above. In like manner other animals 10
produce much semen’ through weakness as well as through

1 i.e. muscle.

? For μᾶλλον with comparatives in A. see Cope on Rhetoric il. 11.

* A. distinguishes between πιμελή and στέαρ in de Partibus, ii. 5,
but a comparison of that chapter will show that he uses πιμελή here in
a general sense.

4 ‘That over-fat animals are bad breeders is known to every farmer.
So also it is well known that castrated animals grow fat. These and
similar facts led Bichat (Azar. Gen. i. 55) to express an opinion much
the same as that of Aristotle. ‘‘On dirait qu'il y a un rapport constant
et rigoureux entre la sécrétion de la semence et l’exhalation de la
graissé; que ces deux fluides sont en raison inverse l’un de I’autre.”’
Ogle on de Partibus, ii. αὶ ad fin.

*’ A popular delusion among the ancients. This is why the trees
are connected with the dead—iréa ὠλεσίκαρποι, Odyssey x. 510.

δ Reading ἑ ἑκάτεραι (AW. ).

7 καὶ πολύχοά ἐστι καὶ πολύσπερμα. Elsewhere πολύχοα means prolific,
but that plainly cannot be the meaning here; apparently it = πολὺ
σπέρμα χέοντα. But another reading is πολυχρόνια and: possibly the
word is corrupt.

D 2

726° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

strength, when a great quantity of a useless secretion is
mixed with it; this sometimes results in actual disease
when a passage is not found to carry off the impurity, and
though some recover of this, others actually die of it. For

15 corrupt humours collect here as in the urine, which also has
been known to cause disease.

[Further, the same passage serves for urine and semen ;
and whatever animals have both kinds of excrement, that
of liquid and that of solid nutriment, discharge the semen
by the same passage as the liquid excrement (for it is
a secretion of a liquid, since the nutriment of all animals

20 is rather liquid than solid), but those which have no liquid
excrement discharge it at the passage of the solid residua.
Moreover, waste-products are always morbid, but the removal
of the secretion is useful; now the discharge of the semen
participates in both characteristics because it takes up
some of the non-useful nutriment. But if it were a waste-

25 product it would be always harmful; as it is, it is not so.’ ]

From what has been said, it is clear that semen is a secre-
tion of useful nutriment, and that in its last stage, whether
it is produced by all? or no.

After this we must distinguish of what sort of nutriment 19
it is a secretion, and must discuss the catamenia which occur
30 in certain of the vivipara. For thus we shall make it clear
(1) whether the female also produces semen like the male
and the foetus is a single mixture of two semens, or whether
no semen is secreted by the female, and, (2) if not, whether
she contributes nothing else either to generation but only
provides a receptacle, or whether she does contribute some-
726” thing, and, if so, how and in what manner she does so.

We have previously stated that the final nutriment is
the blood in the sanguinea and the analogous fluid in the
other animals. Since the semen is also a secretion of the
nutriment, and that in its final stage, it follows that it will

1 This incoherent and disorderly paragraph has no connexion of
any sort with the context; it is a fricassee of reminiscences from what
has been said before, and should be rejected from the text.

2 ¢ All’ here seems to mean doth sexes.

BOOK I. 19 726°

be either (1) blood or that which is analogous to blood, or
(2) something formed from this. But since it is from the 5
blood, when concocted and somehow divided up, that each
part of the body is made, and since the semen if properly
concocted is quite of a different character from the blood
when it is separated from it, but if not properly concocted
has been known in some cases to issue in a bloody condition

if one forces oneself too often to coition,! therefore it is -
plain that semen will be a secretion of the nutriment when τὸ
reduced to blood, being that which is finally distributed to
the parts of the body. And this is the reason why it has so
great power,” for the loss of the pure and healthy blood is
an exhausting thing; for this reason also it is natural that
the offspring should resemble the parents, for that which goes
to all the parts of the body * resembles that which is left
over.* So that the semen which is to form the hand or the
᾿ face or the whole animal is already the hand or face or whole
animal undifferentiated, and what each of them is actually
such is the semen potentially, either in virtue of its own
mass or because it has a certain power in itself. I mention
these alternatives here because we have not yet made it
clear from the distinctions drawn hitherto whether it is the 20
matter of the semen that is the cause of generation, or
whether it has in it some faculty and efficient cause thereof,
for the hand also or any other bodily part is not hand
or other part in a true sense if it be without soul or some
other power, but is only called by the same name as the
living hand.°

=
ΌὉ

1 Hippocrates (vol. ii, p. 512) mentions λάγνευμα ὕφαιμον ὑποπέλιδνον
as a symptom of an internal disease. Dr. Blacker tells me that ‘un-
doubtedly excessive coitus may lead to bleeding from the prostate gland
and so the semen may contain blood.’

? As is shown by the exhaustion consequent upon coition.

5 i.e. the blood. ‘ i.e. the semen.

5 Soul (ψυχή) is the truth and reality of an organism according to
A., and a dead hand, or a hand of stone, is only called hand by a
sort of analogy. The essence of a hand is that it shall be able to
grasp, which the dead hand cannot do, and it is able to grasp because
it has ψυχή (or we should say 2776) in it.

The MSS. proceed with a passage which AW. have bracketed as
out of place, but which to me is totally unintelligible anywhere. The
literal translation runs thus:

And itis plain that in all cases where a spermatic humour occurs

726° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

30 On this subject, then, so much may be laid down.! But
since it is necessary (1) that the weaker animal also should
have a secretion greater in quantity and less concocted,
and (2) that being of such a nature it should be a mass of
sanguineous liquid,” and (3) since that which Nature endows
with a smaller portion of heat is weaker, and (4) since it
has already been stated that such is the character of the
female *—putting all these considerations together we see
that the sanguineous matter discharged by the female is

727* also a secretion. And such is the pipes of the so- ~called
catamenia. 4

It is plain, then, that the catamenia are a secretion, and

that they are pipiosene in females to the semen in males.

The circumstances connected with them are evidence that

5 this view is correct. For the semen begins to appear

this also is a secretion. This happens when it ts dissolved into that
which has come to tt, just as when the coating falls away at once from
stucco, for that which has come away ts the same as that which was
applied first. In the same way also the last secretion is the same as
the first humour.

1"And we can now proceed to consider the question of what is
contributed to generation by the female.

2 The final concoction of the blood is semen, which does not appear
sanguineous, but if the concoction is less thorough, as in women, it will
naturally be sanguineous. For the same reason it will be greater in
quantity, the weaker animal being less able to reduce it to a small and
perfect form.

3 A. held that vital heat was a-sign of superiority and that man was
hotter than woman. To put his argument here in a simpler form:

Woman has less vital heat than man.
οἷν woman is inferior to man. :
᾿ς the concoction is less thorough in woman.
*, the secretion will be still sanguineous.

But we do find such a sanguineous discharge in the female.

*. we may conclude that the catamenia are a secretion.

For A. is very anxious to prove that both the male and female
discharges are secretions, not waste-products.

* ¢True menstruation is only found in women and certain monkeys.
There is, however, a slight discharge corresponding to it in other
mammals at the rutting period’ (G. Blacker). Blundell expresses
his surprise that A. should have attempted ‘to explain what. is
common to all animals by a circumstance peculiar to one class’
(Midwifery, 1840, p. 903), and certainly A. made a hazardous leap
when he argued from women to all vertebrata. But he several times
observes that women alone have any suferfluous catamenia, and
his great mistake was rather in taking this attendant phenomenon for
the important essential in generation; in assuming that the ‘ material
contributed’ by all female vertebrates was analogous he was right, but
he should have called it anovum. (In de Somno, 455» 33, he lays down
the principle that we should argue from man to other animals.)

BOOK I. 19

in males and to be emitted at the same time of life that the
catamenia begin to flow in females, and that they change
their voice and their breasts begin to develop. So, too, in
the decline of life the generative power fails in the one sex
and the catamenia in the other.

The following signs also indicate that this discharge in
females is a secretion. Generally speaking women suffer
neither from haemorrhoids nor bleeding at the nose nor
anything else of the sort except when the catamenia are
ceasing,’ and if anything of the kind occurs the flow is
interfered with because the discharge is diverted to it.?

Further, the blood-vessels of women stand out less than
those of men, and women are rounder and smoother because
the secretion which in men goes to these vessels is drained
away with the catamenia. We must suppose, too, that the
same cause accounts for the fact that the bulk of the body
is smaller in females than in males among the vivipara,
since this is the only class in which the catamenia are dis-
charged from the body.* And in this class the fact is
clearest in women, for the discharge is greater in women
than in the other animals. Wherefore her pallor and the

1 ἱσταμένων is the medical word; cf. Luke, Evang. viii. 44 ἔστη
ἡ ῥύσις, Harnack, Luke the Physician, p. 186. We should have expected
at first sight the aorist here, but A. has in mind the aphorism of
Hippocrates (vol. ili, p. 743): γυναικὶ τῶν καταμηνίων ἐκλειπόντων αἷμα
ἐκ τῶν ῥινῶν ῥυῆναι ἀγαθόν. And the present must be explained by say-
ing that A. does not mean to say that such bleeding does not also occur at
other times but only that it does not occur along with the catamenia
except when they are ceasing.

I believe that αἱμορροΐδες means haemorrhoids here, not haemorrhages
in general ; cf. Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 325. Indeed, the wording of this
passage is enough to show this. As to the fact, Dr. Blacker informs
me that it is ‘no doubt to some extent true. Women do not as a rule
suffer from nose-bleeding &c. at their periods’.

3 Reading μεθισταμένης.

3 The explanation is ingenious though wrong. The facts are correct
indeed, for the rule in the animal kingdom is that the male is smaller
than the female, often as in spiders, rotifers, cirrhipedes, &c.,
ridiculously so, and the mammalia form the only exception. But this
is due to the fighting of the males of mammals with one another for
the females, in which the bigger and stronger prevail. The male of
some of the eared seals may be six times as big as the female.

The pallor of women, as compared with men, was much more con-
spicuous among the Greeks than among us, as the women stayed at
home mostly, while the men were sunburnt by constant exposure in the
gymnasium.

727%

727° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

absence of prominent blood-vessels is most conspicuous,
23 and the deficient development of her body compared with
a man’s is obvious.

Now since this is what corresponds in the female to the
semen in the male, and since it is not possible that two
such discharges should be found together,! it is plain that
the female does not contribute semen to the generation
of the offspring. For if she had semen she would not have
the catamenia ; but, as it is, because she has the latter she

30 has not the former.

It has been stated then that the catamenia are a secretion
as the semen is, and confirmation of this view may be
drawn from some of the phenomena of animals. For fat
creatures produce less semen than lean ones, as observed
before. The reason is that fat also, like semen, is a secre-

35 tion, is in fact concocted blood, only not concocted in

the same way as the semen. Thus, if the secretion is

727» consumed to form fat the semen is naturally deficient.

And so among the bloodless animals the cephalopoda

and crustacea are in best condition about the time of

producing eggs, for, because they are bloodless and no

fat is formed in them, that which is analogous in them

sto fat is at that season drawn off to form the spermatic
secretion.

And a proof that the female does not emit similar semen
to the male, and that the offspring is not formed by a
mixture of both, as some say, is that often the female
conceives without the sensation of pleasure in intercourse,
and if again the pleasure is experienced by her no less

1 Why is this ‘not possible’? Because A. had found that every-
where Nature is economical, and does not use superfluous methods; it
is in fact the ‘law of the physiological division of labour’. And if the
catamenia really were analogous to the semen it really would follow that
the female did not produce semen also. The truth, however, is that
the catamenia are a discharge connected with the maturation and
liberation of the ovum from the Graafian vesicle. The ovum is the
important factor in generation, and this does correspond to the
semen; to that limited extent, therefore, A.’s doctrine is correct.
Whether we are to say that the female produces semen or not depends
simply on the verbal question whether we are to call the ovum semen
or not. Nobody ever did, but it would not be absurd to do so, con-

sidering that the word σπέρμα means any kind of ‘seed’, and the
ovum might as well come under that head as the semen does.

BOOK I. 19

than by the male and the two sexes reach their goal
together,! yet often no conception takes place unless the
liquid of the so-called catamenia is present in a right pro-
portion. Hence the female does not produce young if
the catamenia are absent altogether, nor often when, they
being present, the efflux still continues; but she does so
after the purgation. For in the one case she has not the
nutriment or material from which the foetus can be framed
by the power coming from the male and inherent in the
semen, and in the other it is washed away with the cata-
menia because of their abundance. But when after their
occurrence the greater part has been evacuated, the re-
mainder is formed into a foetus. Cases of conception
when the catamenia do not occur at all, or of conception
during their discharge instead of after it, are due to the
fact that in the former instance there is only so much
liquid to begin with as remains behind after the discharge
in fertile women,? and no greater quantity is secreted
so as to come away from the body, while in the latter
instance the mouth of the uterus closes after the discharge.
When, therefore, the quantity already expelled from the
body is great but the discharge still continues, only not
on such a scale as to wash away the semen, then it is that
conception accompanies coition.? Nor is it at all strange
that the catamenia should still continue after conception
(for even after it they recur to some extent, but are scanty
and do not last during all the period of gestation ; this, how-
ever, is a morbid phenomenon, wherefore it is found only
in a few cases and then seldom, whereas it is that which
happens as a regular thing that is according to Nature).

It is clear then that the female contributes the material
for generation, and that this is in the substance of the
catamenia, and that they are a secretion.

1 Omit παρά after ἰσοδρομησάντων. Cf. Ovid, Ars Am. 11. 727.

2 Sic, but the context shows that A. means ordinary women who
have catamenia, for he is not opposing barren to fertile, but the rave
case of conception without catamenia to the ordinary case of conception
with them.

8 Omitting πάλιν, which possibly should go somewhere in the next
sentence.

-
σι

is)
or

727°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

Some think that the female contributes semen in coition 20

35 because the pleasure she experiences is sometimes similar

728%

"
en

to that of the male, and also is attended by a liquid dis-
charge. But this discharge is not seminal; it is merely
proper to the part concerned in each case, for there is
a discharge from the uterus’ which occurs in some women
but not in others. It is found in those who are fair-skinned
and of a feminine type generally, but not in those who
are dark and of a masculine appearance. The amount
of this discharge, when it occurs, is sometimes on a different
scale from the emission of semen and far exceeds it.
Moreover, different kinds of food cause a great difference
in the quantity of such discharges; for instance some
pungently-flavoured foods cause them to be conspicuously
increased. And as to the pleasure which accompanies
coition it is due to emission not only of semen, but also
of a spiritus,” the coming together of which precedes the
emission. This is plain in the case of boys who are not
yet able to emit semen, but are near the proper age, and of
men who are impotent, for all these are capable of pleasure
by attrition. And those who have been injured in the
generative organs * sometimes suffer from diarrhoea because
the secretion, which they are not able to concoct and turn
into semen, is diverted into the intestine. Now a boy is
like a woman? in form, and the woman is as it were an

' It seems clear that A. here refers to the vulvo-vaginal discharge

(Playfair, AZidwifery®, vol. i, p. 28). This however, as its name
denotes, does not take place ‘from the uterus’. In ii. 739237 A. says
more correctly ‘ the region in front of the uterus’.

A. goes on however to say that this discharge may be very large ;

Dr. Blacker tells me that this is never true of the vulvo-vaginal secre-
tion, but that it suggests ‘leucorrhoea or whites, which at times is
present in very large amount’. This also suits the statement about
brunettes and blondes to some extent, as Blacker suggests, because
leucorrhoea ‘is present in greater quantity in anaemic women’. But
again A. elsewhere speaks of leucorrhoea (738 25) in quite a distinct
manner. On the whole I am driven to conclude that there is some
confusion in this passage between the two discharges.

2 πνεῦμα. See il. 3. That the semen is expelled by a πνεῦμα is a

Hippocratic doctrine (Hipp., vol. iii, p. 748.)

3 διεφθαρμένοις τὴν γένεσιν.
* The secretion which is turned into semen is blood. Consequently

by ‘diarrhoea’ here A. means a flow of blood.

BOOK I. 20 728%

impotent male, for it is through a certain incapacity that
the female is female, being incapable of concocting the
nutriment in its last stage into semen (and this is either 20
blood or that which is analogous to it in animals which
are bloodless owing to the coldness of their nature). As
then diarrhoea is caused in the bowels by the insufficient
concoction of the blood, so are caused in the blood-vessels
all discharges of blood, including that of the catamenia, for
this also is such a discharge, only it is natural whereas the
others are morbid.

Thus it is clear that it is reasonable to suppose that 25
generation comes from this.!. For the catamenia are semen
not in a pure state but in need of working up, just as in
the formation of fruits the nutriment is present, when it
is not yet sifted thoroughly,” but needs working up to purify
it. Thus the catamenia cause generation by mixture with
the semen, as this impure nutriment in plants is nutritious 3°
when mixed with pure nutriment.

And a sign that the female does not emit semen is the
fact that the pleasure of intercourse is caused by touch in
the same region of the female as of the male; and yet
is it not from thence that this flow proceeds. Further,
it is not all females that have it at all, but only the 35
sanguinea, and not all even of these, but only those whose
uterus is not near the hypozoma and which do not lay
eggs ; itis not found in the animals which have no blood 728°
but only the analogous fluid (for what is blood in the
former*® is represented by another fluid in the latter).
The reason why neither the latter nor those sanguinea
mentioned (i.e. those whose uterus is low and which do
not lay eggs) have this effluxion is the dryness of their 5
bodies; this allows but little matter to be secreted, only
enough for generation but not enough to be discharged
from the body. All animals that are viviparous without
producing eggs first (such are man and all quadrupeds

l i.e. that the catamenia contain the element contributed ‘to

generation by the female.

2. Reading διηττημένη. The meaning is that all the material is present
in an unripe fruit before it is sweetened.

5 Read ἐν ἐκείνοις for ἐνίοις or ἐν ἐνίοις.

728° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

which bend their hind-legs outwards,! for all these are

10 viviparous without producing eggs)—all these have the
catamenia, unless they are defective in development as the
mule, only the efflux is not abundant as in women. Details
of the facts in each animal have been given in the Exguiries
concerning animals.*

The catamenia are more abundant in women than in the

15 other animals,*? and men emit the most semen in proportion
to their size. The reason is that the composition of their
bodies is liquid and hot compared to others, for more
matter must be secreted in such a case. Further, man
has no such parts in his body as those to which the super-

2c fluous matter is diverted in the other animals; for he has
no great quantity of hair in proportion to his body, nor
outgrowths of bones, horns, and teeth.

There is. evidence that the semen is in the catamenia,*
for, as said before, this secretion appears in the male at the
same time of life as the catamenia in the female ; this indi-

25 cates that the parts destined to receive each of these
secretions are differentiated at the same time in both
sexes; and as the neighbouring parts in both become
swollen the hair of puberty springs forth in both alike.
As the parts in question are on the point of differentiating
they are distended by the spiritus; this is clearer in males

30in the testes, but appears also about the breasts; in
females it is more marked in the breasts, for it is when
they have risen two fingers’ breadth that the catamenia
generally begin.

Now, in all living things in which the male and female
are not separated the semen (or seed) is a sort of embryo;
by embryo I mean the first mixture of male and female; ὃ

35 hence, from one semen comes one body,—for example, one
stalk of wheat from one grain, as one animal from one egg

1 Reading ἐκτός (= ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον, de Incessu, 7044 &c.). The
quadrupedal mammalia are meant.

2 See H. A. vi. 18, where, however, only a few animals are men-
tioned.

5 See note on 727° 2.

4 Sic, but if A. wrote this he only means that the material in question

is semen not ‘ purified ’.
5 i.e. in the generation of the higher animals.

BOOK I. 20

(for twin eggs are really two eggs). But in whatever kinds
the sexes are distinguished, in these many animals may
come from one emission of semen, showing that the semen
differs in its nature in plants and animals. A proof of this
is that animals which can bear more than one young one
at a time do so in consequence of only one coition.
Whereby, too, it is plain that the semen does not come
from the whole of the body; for neither would the dif-
ferent parts of the semen already be separated as soon
as discharged from’ the same part, nor could they be
separated in the uterus if they had once entered it all
together ;* but what does happen is just what one would
expect, since what the male contributes to generation is
the form and the efficient cause,? while the female con-
tributes the material. In fact, as in the coagulation of
milk, the milk being the material, the fig-juice οἵ
rennet is that which contains the curdling principle, so acts
the secretion of the male, being divided into parts in the
female. Why it is sometimes divided into more or fewer
parts, and sometimes not divided at all, will be the subject
of another discussion. But because it does not differ in
kind at any rate this does not matter, but what does
matter is only that each part should correspond to the
material, being neither too little to concoct it and fix it

1 This is a very difficult argument to follow and it is with diffidence
that I propose this explanation. On the Hippocratic theory of
pangenesis the resemblance of e. g. the nose of the son to the nose of
his father is due to part of the semen being drawn from the father’s
nose. But suppose an animal to produce a litter of six in consequence
of a single impregnation ; then it follows that six different ‘nose-germs’
(or whatever they might be called) have found their way to the six
different embryos. How could they be sorted out in this way? They
could not, says A., all be kept separate in the semen when emitted by
the male (six different bundles each carrying countless germs corre-
sponding to each separate part), because the semen is all discharged in
one mass from one and the same part and so is all mixed up together.
Nor can they be afterwards sorted out when once in the uterus,
because (according to chap. 18) that would be like splitting up a single
animal into several.

The latter argument is terribly inconclusive, and I imagine that
the pangenesists could have held their own against A. without very
great ingenuity being required. Darwin’s ‘gemmules’ certainly
suffice.

2 Or ‘ principle of motion’.

3 Reading ἢ ἡ. 4 See book iv. 771».

729°

σι

“
uo

205 DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

into form, nor too much so as to dry it up; it then gene-
rates a number of offspring. But from this first formative

20 semen, if it remains one, and is not divided, only one young
one comes into being.

That, then, the female does not contribute semen :to:
generation, but does contribute something, and that this.
is the matter of the catamenia, or that which is analogous
to it in bloodless animals, is clear from what has been said,
and also from a general and abstract survey of the question.

25 For there must needs be that which generates and that
from which it generates; even if these be one,! still they
must be distinct in form and their essence must be different ;
and in those animals that have these powers separate in
two sexes the body and nature of the active and the
passive sex must also differ. If, then, the male stands for
the effective and active, and. the female, considered as

30 female, for the passive, it follows that what the female
would contribute to the semen of the male would not be
semen but material for the semen to work upon. This
is just [what we find to be the case, for the catamenia
have in their nature an affinity to the primitive matter.

So much for the discussion of this question. At the 21
same time the answer to the next question we have to
investigate is clear from these considerations, I mean how

729° it is that the male contributes to generation and how it is
that the semen from the male is the cause of the offspring.
Does it exist in the body of the embryo as a part of it
from the first, mingling with the material which comes
5 from the female ? Or does the semen communicate nothing
to the material body of the embryo but only to the power
and movement in it? For this power is that which acts
and makes, while that which is made and receives the
form is the residue of the secretion in the female.2 Now
the latter alternative appears to be the right one both
a priort and in view of the facts. For, if we consider the
question on general grounds, we find that, whenever ‘one

1 i.e. if they are united in the same animal.
i.e, as much of the catamenia as is not discharged.

BOOK I. a1

thing is made from two of which one is active and the
other passive, the active agent does not exist in that which
is made ;! and, still more generally, the same applies when
one thing moves and another is moved; the moving thing
does not exist in that which is moved. But the female,
as female, is passive, and the male, as male, is active, and
the principle of the movement comes from him. There-
fore, if we take the highest genera under which they each
fall,? the one being active and motive and the other passive
and moved, that one thing which is produced comes from
them only in the sense in which a bed comes into being
from the carpenter and the wood, or in which a ball comes
into being from the wax and the form. It is plain then
that it is not necessary that anything at all should come
away from the male, and if anything does come away it
does not follow that this gives rise to the embryo as being
in the embryo, but only as that which imparts the motion
and as the form; so the medical art cures the patient.

This @ priort argument is confirmed by the facts. For
it is for this reason that some males which unite with the
female do not, it appears, insert any part of themselves into
the female, but on the contrary the female inserts a part

of herself into the male; this occurs in some insects.* For 2

the effect produced by the semen in the female (in the
case of those animals whose males do insert a part) is
produced in the case of these insects by the heat* and
power in the male animal itself when the female inserts
that part of herself which receives the secretion. And
therefore such animals remain united a long time, and
when they are separated the young are produced quickly.
For® the union lasts until that which is analogous to the
semen has done its work,® and when they separate the
female produces the embryo quickly; for the young is

1 e.g. a man, the active agent, makes a boat out of wood, the passive
material ; the man does not exist in the boat as a part of it.

2 τὰ ἄκρα ἑκατέρων. Active and fasstve are wider and more
important categories than made and femade,

5. See on chap. 16.

* Reading θερμότης. ° Reading συνδεδύασται yap.

δ Lit. ‘until it puts together, as the semen.’

729

-ι
uo

τυ

729° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

imperfect inasmuch as all such creatures give birth to
scoleces.
What occurs in birds and oviparous fishes is the greatest
proof that neither does the semen come from all parts
730° of the male nor does he emit anything of such a nature
as to exist within that which is generated, as part of the
material embryo, but that he only makes a living creature
by the power which resides in the semen (as we said in
the case of those insects whose females insert a part of
themselves into the male). For if a hen-bird is in process
3 of producing wind-eggs and is then trodden by the cock
before the egg has begun to whiten and while it is all still
yellow,! then they become fertile instead of being wind-
eggs. And if while it is still yellow she be trodden by
another cock, the whole brood of chicks turn out like the
second cock. Hence some of those who are anxious to
το rear fine birds act thus; they change the cocks for the
first and second treading, not as if they thought that the
semen is mingled with the egg or exists in it, or that it
comes from all parts of the cock; for if it did it would
have come from both cocks, so that the chick would have
all its parts doubled. But it is by its force that the semen
15 of the male gives a certain quality to the material and the
nutriment in the female, for the second semen added to
the first can produce this effect by heat and concoction, as
the egg acquires nutriment so long as it is growing.*
The same conclusion is to be drawn from the generation
of oviparous fishes. When the female has laid her eggs,
20 the male sprinkles the milt over them, and those eggs are
fertilized which it reaches, but not the others; this shows
that the male does not contribute anything to the quantity
but only to the quality of the embryo.

1 i.e. while the egg consists merely of the yolk in the vitelline
membrane, when it first begins its passage through the oviduct. The
‘white of egg’ is deposited round it as it gets further on in the.
oviduct. Ἢ

2 And this acquired nutriment is benefited by the semen of the
second cock.

Of course the chickens can only take after the second cock if the
first has failed to fertilize the ova. A. can hardly be mistaken about
the habits of Greek breeders, and such people have strange fancies,
but it is a very astonishing statement. Cf. 27. A. vi. 2.

BOOK I. 21 730°

From what has been said it is plain that the semen does
not come from the whole of the body of the male in those 25
animals which emit it, and that the contribution of the
female to the generative product is not the same as that
of the male, but the male contributes the principle of
movement and the female the material. This is why the
female does not produce offspring by herself, for she needs
a principle, i.e. something to begin the movement in the
embryo and to define the form it is to assume. Yet in 30
some animals, as birds, the nature of the female unassisted
can generate to a certain extent, for they do form some-
thing, only it is incomplete; I mean the so-called wind-

eggs.

For the same reason the development of the embryo
takes place in the female; neither the male himself nor the
female emits semen into the male,! but the female receives
within herself the share contributed by both, because in the 730°
female is the material from which is made the resulting
product. Not only must the mass of material exist there
from which the embryo is formed in the first instance, but
further material must constantly? be added that it may
increase in size. Therefore the birth must take place in 5
the female. For the carpenter must keep in close connexion
with his timber and the potter with his clay, and generally
all workmanship and the ultimate movement imparted to
matter must be connected with the material concerned, as,
for instance, architecture is zz the buildings it makes.

From these considerations we may also gather how it is
that the male contributes to generation. The male does
not emit semen at all in some animals, and where he does
this is no part of the resulting embryo; just so no material
part comes from the carpenter to the material, i.e. the wood
in which he works, nor does any part of the carpenter’s art
exist within what he makes, but the shape and the form
are imparted from him to the material by means of the
motion he sets up. It is his hands that move his tools, his

Leal

1 Reading ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ εἰς τὸ ἄρρεν οὔτ᾽ αὐτὸ τὸ ἄρρεν (Didot’s ed.)
2. Reading ἀεὶ τῆς ὕλης.
AR. 6. A. E

730° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

tools that move! the material; it is his knowledge of his
art, and his soul, in which is the form,? that move his hands
or any other part of him with a motion of some definite
kind, a motion varying with the varying nature of the object
made. In like manner, in the male of those animals which

20 emit semen, Nature? uses the semen as a tool and as pos-
sessing motion in actuality, just as tools are used in the
products of any art, for in them lies in a certain sense
the motion of the art. Such, then, is the way in which
these males contribute to generation. But when the male

25 does not emit semen, but the female inserts some part of
herself into the male, this is parallel to a case in which
a man should carry the material to the workman. For by
reason of weakness in such males Nature is not able ‘to do
anything by any secondary means, but the movements
imparted to the material are scarcely strong enough when
Nature herself watches over them. ‘Thus here she re-

30 sembles a modeller in clay rather than a carpenter, for she
does not touch the work she is forming by means of tools,
but, as it were, with her own hands.°®

In all animals which can move about, the sexes are 23

separated, one individual being male and one female, though
731° both are the same in species, as with man and horse.® But
in plants these powers are mingled, female not being
separated from male. Wherefore they generate out of
themselves, and do not emit semen but produce an embryo,
what is called the seed.?. Empedocles puts this well in the
line: ‘and thus the tall trees oviposit; first olives...’

5 For as the egg is an embryo, a certain part of it giving rise

1 Reading ai δὲ χεῖρες τὰ ὄργανα καὶ τὰ ὄργανα τὴν ὕλην.

3. For soul is the ‘place of forms’, containing them potentially (de
Anima, iii. 4). The carpenter’s mind contains the form of the chair,
into which form he seeks to bring the material wood.

5 Reading ἡ φύσις ἐν τῷ ἄρρενι.

* This is shown by the length of time required in such copulation.

5 Lit. ‘herself with the parts of herself.’

§ Reading ἄνθρωπος ἣ ἵππος.

7 An embryo is the ‘first mixture of male and female’ where the
sexes are differentiated. Plants, having no sexes according to A.,
produce a germ capable of developing without fertilization by any
other principle, and thus a sort of embryo ready made.

BOOK I. 23

to the animal and the rest being nutriment, so also from
a part of the seed! springs the growing plant, and the rest
is nutriment for the shoot and the first root.

In a certain sense the same thing? happens also in those
animals which have the sexes separate. For when there is
need for them to generate the sexes are no longer separated
any more than in plants, their nature desiring that they
shall become one; and this is plain to view when they
copulate and are united, that one animal is made out of
both.

It is the nature of those creatures which do not emit
semen to remain united a long time until the male element
has formed the embryo, as with those insects which copu-
late. The others so remain only until the male has dis-
charged from the parts of himself introduced something
which will form the embryo in a longer time, as among the
sanguinea. For the former remain paired some part of
a day, while the semen forms the embryo in several days.
And after emitting this 5 they cease their union.

And animals seem literally to be like divided plants, as
though one should separate and divide them, when they
bear seed, into the male and female existing in them.

In all this Nature acts like an intelligent workman. For
to the essence of plants belongs no other function or busi-
ness than the production of seed ; since, then, this is brought
about by the union of male and female, Nature has mixed
these and set them together in plants, so that the sexes are
not divided in them. Plants, however, have been inves-
tigated elsewhere. But the function of the animal is not
only to generate (which is common to all living things), but
they all of them participate also in a kind of knowledge,*
some more and some less, and some very little indeed.
For they have sense-perception, and this is a kind of know-
ledge. (If we consider the value of this we find that it is
of great importance compared with the class of lifeless
objects, but of little compared with the use of the intellect.

1 Reading καὶ ἐκ τοῦ σπέρματος μέρους. Modern botanists talk of the
‘egg’ of a plant.

* Reading ταὐτό (AW.) 3 Qu, προέμενα ἢ

* γνώσεως, lit. ‘ getting to know.’

731°

_
σι

731” DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

For against the latter the mere participation in touch and
taste seems to be practically nothing, but beside absolute
insensibility it seems most excellent; for it would seem
a treasure to gain even this kind of knowledge rather than
to lie in a state of death and non-existence.) Now it is by
sense-perception that an animal differs from those organisms
5 Which have only life. But since, if it is a living animal, it
must also live;' therefore, when it is necessary for it to
accomplish the function of that which has life,? it unites
and copulates, becoming like a plant, as we said before.
Testaceous animals, being intermediate between animals
and plants, perform the function of neither class as belong-
loing to both. As plants they have no sexes, and one does
not generate in another; as animals they do not bear fruit
from themselves like plants; but they are formed and
generated from a liquid and earthy concretion. However,
we must speak later of the generation of these animals.®

i.e. have the simple vital principle as well as sense.
2

i.e. to produce seed, as stated above.
ain
wee

POUOK “If

I THAT the male and female are the principles of generation 731”
has been previously stated, as also what is their power and
their essence. But why is it that one thing becomes and is 20
male, another female? It is the business of our discussion
as it proceeds to try and point out (1) that the sexes arise
from Necessity and the first efficient cause, (2) from what
sort of material they are formed. That (3) they exist
because it is better and on account of the final cause,
takes us back to a principle still further remote.

Now (1) some existing things are eternal and divine
whilst others admit of both existence and non-existence. 25
But (2) that which is noble and divine is always, in virtue
of its own nature, the cause of the better in such things as
admit of being better or worse, and what is not eternal does
admit of existence and non-existence,' and can partake in
the better and the worse. And (3) soul is better than body,
and the living, having soul, is thereby better than. the life-
less which has none, and being is better than not being,
living than not living. ‘These, then, are the reasons of the
generation of animals. For since it is impossible that such
a class of things as animals should be of an eternal nature,
therefore that which comes into being is eternal in the only
way possible. Now it is impossible for it to be eternal as
an individual (though of course the real essence of things
is in the individual)—were it such it would be eternal—but
it is possible for it as a species.2. This is why there is

1 Read εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι,

* Cf. ὧδ Anima, il, 415" 3-7, without which this passage would baffle
interpretation. I have corrected Bekker’s punctuation, ‘The paren-
thesis, the explanation of which I owe to Dr, Jackson, is a hit at
Plato.

732"

ee:

οι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

always a class of men and animals and plants.'' But since
the male and female essences are the first principles of
these, they will exist in the existing individuals for the sake
of generation. Again, as the first efficient or moving cause,
to which belong the definition and the form, is better and
more divine in its nature than the material on which it
works, it is better that the superior principle should be
separated from the inferior. Therefore, wherever it is
possible and so far as it is possible, the male is separated
from the female. For the first principle of the movement,
or efficient cause, whereby that which comes into being is
male, is better and more divine than the material whereby
it is female.2 The male, however, comes together and
mingles with the female for the work of generation, because
this is common to both.

A thing lives, then, in virtue of participating in the male
and female principles, wherefore even plants have some
kind of life; but the class of animals exists in virtue of
sense-perception. The sexes are divided in nearly all
of these that can move about, for the reasons already stated,°
and some of them, as said before,* emit semen in copulation,
others not. The reason of this is that the higher animals
are more independent in their nature, so that they have
greater size, and this cannot exist without vital heat ;° for
the greater body requires more force to move it, and heat
is a motive force. Therefore, taking a general view, we
may say that sanguinea are of greater size than bloodless
animals, and those which move about than those which
remain fixed. And these are just the animals which emit
semen on account of their heat and size.

So much for the cause of the existence of the two sexes.
Some animals bring to perfection and produce into the
world a creature like themselves, as all those which bring
their young into the world alive;® others produce some-

1 Not one individual of each species.

* Tread provisionally 7 τὸ ἄρρεν ὑπάρχει τοῖς γινομένοις ἢ ἡ ὕλη ἡ TO θῆλυ
for ἣ ἄρρεν ὑπάρχει τοῖς γινομένοις: ὕλη δὲ τὸ ἣ θῆλυ, partly on the
suggestion of Mr. Ross.

3.1 do not know where these reasons have been given or what they are.

407. 5 See Ogle, pp. xxii-xxiv.

ὃ The vivipara, including the cartilaginous fishes.

BOOK II. 1 7327

thing undeveloped which has not yet acquired its own
form ; in this latter division the sanguinea! lay eggs, the
bloodless animals either lay an egg or give birth to a scolex.?
The difference. between egg and scolex is this: an egg is
that from a part of which the young comes into being, the 30
rest being nutriment for it; but the whole of a scolex is
developed into the whole of the young animal.’ Of the
vivipara, which bring into the world an animal like them-
selves, some are internally viviparous (as men, horses, cattle,
and of marine animals dolphins and the other cetacea) ;
others first lay eggs within themselves, and only after this
are externally viviparous (as the cartilaginous fishes). 732°
Among the ovipara some produce the egg in a perfect con-
dition (as birds and all oviparous quadrupeds and footless
animals, e.g. lizards and tortoises and most snakes ;* for
the eggs of all these do not increase when once laid). The 5
eggs of others are imperfect; such are those of fishes,
crustaceans, and cephalopods, for their eggs increase after
being produced.°

All the vivipara® are sanguineous, and the sanguinea
are either viviparous or oviparous, except those which are
altogether infertile.’ Among bloodless animals the insects
produce a scolex, alike those that are generated by copula-
tion and those that copulate themselves though not so
generated. For there are some insects of this sort, which
though they come into being by spontaneous generation
are yet male and female; from their union something is
produced, only it is imperfect ; the reason of this has been
previously stated.

Loa)

1 Birds and reptiles.

2 Read τὰ δ᾽ ἄναιμα (ἢ φοτοκεῖ ἢ) σκωληκοτοκεῖ, Or something of the
sort. Α. could not have said, or at least could not have meant, that
all invertebrates produce a scolex ; over and over again he speaks of
the eggs of crustacea and cephalopoda.

a the modern distinction between meroblastic and holoblastic
yolks.

* The exception among the snakes is the viper.

5 The increase in size is however only due to imbibition of water;
there is no further development of the egg (AW.).

δ Omit the words ἢ @oroxodyra which are false to fact and to
Aristotle himself.

™ Mules.

732° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

15 These classes admit of much cross-division. Not all
bipeds are viviparous (for birds are oviparous), nor are
they all oviparous (for man is viviparous), nor are all
quadrupeds oviparous (for horses, cattle, and countless
others are viviparous), nor are they all viviparous (for

20 lizards, crocodiles, and many others lay eggs). Nor does
the presence or absence of feet make the difference between
them, for not only are some footless animals viviparous,
as vipers and the cartilaginous fishes, while others are ovi-
parous, as the other fishes and serpents, but also among
those which have feet many are oviparous and many vivi-
parous, as the quadrupeds above mentioned. And some

25 which have feet, as man, and some which have not, as the

whale and dolphin, are internally viviparous. By this

character then it is not possible to divide them,’ nor is
any of the locomotive organs the cause of this difference,
but it is those animals which are more perfect in their

nature and participate in a purer element? which are vivi-

parous, for nothing is internally viviparous unless it receive

and breathe out air. But the more perfect are those which
are hotter in their nature and have more moisture and are
not earthy in their composition. And the measure of
natural heat is the lung when it has blood in it, for gene-
rally those animals which have a lung are hotter than
those which have not, and in the former class again those
whose lung is not spongy nor solid nor containing only
733° a little blood, but soft and full of blood. And as the
animal is perfect but the egg and the scolex are imperfect,
so the perfect is naturally produced from the more perfect.
If animals are hotter as shown by their possessing a lung ὃ
but drier in their nature, or are colder but have more

1 A hit at Plato’s ‘dichotomy’ of animals which was based on this
character. Aristotle’s own test, the condition in which the young are
produced, is of course vastly superior, foreshadowing the doctrine that
embryology affords the most important evidence of affinities. And he
refuses to consider even that as the sole test. Cf. Ogle, p. xxv.

2 ἀρχῆς. The internally viviparous animals, including the cetacea,
are air-breathers; the cartilaginous or elasmobranch fishes are only
externally viviparous, laying eggs first within themselves.

5. Lit. ‘hotter on account of having a lung’, but this means what is
said in the text. The business of the lung is to cool, not to heat,
according to A,

BOOK II. 1 733"

moisture, then they either lay a perfect egg or are vivi- 5
parous after laying an egg within themselves. For birds
and scaly reptiles because of their heat produce a perfect
egg, but because of their dryness it is only an egg; the
cartilaginous fishes have less heat than these but more
moisture, so that they are intermediate, for they are both
oviparous and viviparous within themselves,! the former τὸ
because they are cold, the latter because of their moisture ;
for moisture is vivifying, whereas dryness is furthest removed
from what has life. Since they have neither feathers nor
scales such as either reptiles or other fishes have, all which
are signs rather of a dry and earthy nature, the egg they
produce is soft; for the earthy matter does not come to 15
the surface in their eggs any more than in themselves.
This is why they lay eggs in themselves, for if the egg
were laid externally it would be destroyed, having no
protection.

Animals that are cold and rather dry than moist also
lay eggs, but the egg is imperfect; at the same time,
because they are of an earthy nature and the egg they
produce is imperfect, therefore it has a hard integument
that it may be preserved by the protection of the shell-
like covering. Hence fishes, because they are scaly, and 20
crustacea, because they are of an earthy nature,” lay eggs
with a hard integument.

The cephalopods, having themselves bodies of a sticky
nature, preserve in the same way the imperfect eggs they
lay, for they deposit a quantity of sticky material about
the embryo.?

All insects produce a scolex. Now all the insects are 25
bloodless, wherefore all creatures that produce a scolex
from themselves are so. But we cannot say simply that

1 From comparison of i. ὃ it seems that this should mean ‘ oviparous
internally and viviparous externally’.

? οἱ ἰχθύες here means what are now called the teleosteans, the
vast majority of fish, opposed to the cartilaginous elasmobranchs.
The latter have no scales like those of the teleosteans. The crustacea
are ‘earthy’, as shown by their exo-skeletons. But ‘the eggs of all
teleosteans are soft-shelled’ (Giinther, Study of Fishes, p. 160).

8 j.e. about their eggs.

* Reading καὶ ra σκωληκοτοκοῦντα,

788" DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

-all bloodless animals produce a scolex, for the classes
overlap one another, (1) the insects, (2) the animals that
produce a scolex,! (3) those that lay their egg imperfect, as
the scaly fishes, the crustacea, and the cephalopoda.? I say

80 that these form a gradation, for the eggs of these latter
resemble a scolex, in that they increase after oviposition,
and the scolex of insects again as it develops resembles an
egg; how so we shall explain later.®

We must observe how rightly Nature orders generation

733” in regular gradation. The more perfect and hotter animals
produce their young perfect in respect of quality (in respect

of quantity this is so with no animal, for the young always
increase in size after birth), and these generate living
animals within themselves from the first. The second

5 class do not generate perfect animals within themselves
from the first (for they are only viviparous after first
laying eggs), but still they are externally viviparous. The
third class do not produce a perfect animal, but an egg,
and this egg is perfect. Those whose nature is still colder
than these produce an egg, but an imperfect one, which
is perfected outside the body, as the class of scaly fishes,

10 the crustacea, and the cephalopods. The fifth and coldest
class does not even lay an egg from itself;* but so far as
the young ever attain to this condition at all, it is outside
the body of the parent, as has been said already.® For

1 Inserting καὶ τὰ σκωληκοκοῦντα.

* The classes are (A) vertebrates, (Β) invertebrates, (X) laying
imperfect eggs, (Y) producing a scolex. All Y are B, but we cannot
convert and say all B are Y, because many B are X. The scaly fishes
take us up again into another class, being both X and A.

With his usual idea of a graduated scale of Nature in his mind,
Aristotle then proceeds to point out how the imperfect egg is a sort of
intermediate step between scolex and perfect egg. Nature approxi-
mates to the parallel arrangement :

1. Insects. Scolex.
2. Higher Invertebrates. Imperfect egg.
3. Lower Vertebrates. Perfect egg.
4. Higher Vertebrates. Perfect animal.
But unluckily the overlapping of the classes forbids our making this
neat scheme absolute. Bi. Ὁ:

4 “From itself’, because the scolex does later develop into an egg,
i.e. the pupa, according to A., but the parent does not lay this pupa
ἐξ αὑτοῦ.

5 The reference seems to be to 7338 31. τοῦ τοιοῦτον in the Berlin
edition is a misprint for τὸ τοιοῦτον.

BOOK II. 1

insects produce a scolex first; the scolex after developing
becomes egg-like (for the so-called chrysalis or pupa is
equivalent to an egg); then from this it is that a perfect
animal comes into being, reaching the end of its develop-
ment in the second change."

Some animals then, as said before, do not come into
being from semen, but all the sanguinea do so which are
generated by copulation, the male emitting semen into
the female; when this has entered into her the young
are formed and assume their peculiar character, some
within the animals themselves when they are viviparous,
others in eggs.”

There is a considerable difficulty in understanding how
the plant is formed out of the seed or any animal out
of the semen.* Everything that comes into being or is
made must (1) be made out of something, (2) be made
by the agency of something, and (3) must become some-
thing. Now that out of which it is made is the material ;
this some animals have in its first form within themselves,
taking it from the female parent, as all those which are
not born alive but produced as a scolex or an egg ;* others
receive it from the mother for a long time by sucking, as
the young of all those which are not only externally but

1 In the /Azrd change, literally, according to the Greek way of
counting.

7 I omit the words καὶ σπέρμασι kai τοιαύταις ἄλλαις ἀποκρίσεσιν.
They are obviously unintelligible when the question is only of
vertebrates. Either they are a senseless addition or Else something
considerable has dropped out before them.

3. The discussion which follows extorted the admiration οἱ even the
malignant Lewes (δὲ 457-63). The battle is between ‘ preformation’
and ‘ epigenesis’; the advocates of the former maintained that the
young animal already existed complete in the germ and grew out of it
by what was called ‘evolution’; the advocates of the latter maintained
that the separate parts were added one after another as Aristotle says.
Harvey declared for epigenesis, but Haller himself subsequently went
wrong. The preformationists were reduced to the absurdity of saying
that every germ contained packed away within itself not only one
perfect animal but all that animal’s descendants as well, and Aristotle
finally triumphed all along the line.

The controversy has, however, recently arisen again in a new and
very different form (Wilson, Zhe Cell in Development and Inheritance,
2nd ed., p. 432).

4 The egg has in it nourishment derived from the female parent,
to wit, the yolk; for the scolex see iii. 758” 36.

733

734°

΄σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

also internally viviparous.! Such, then, is the material out
of which things come into being, but we now are inquiring
not out of what the parts of an animal are made, but by
what agency. Either it is something external which makes
them, or else something existing in the seminal fluid and
the semen; and this must either be soul or a part of soul,
or something containing soul.?

Now it would appear irrational to suppose that any of
either the internal organs or the other parts is made by
something external, since one thing cannot set up a motion
in another without touching it, nor can a thing be affected
in any way by another if it does not set up a motion in
it. Something then of the sort we require exists in the
embryo itself, being either a part of it or separate from it.
To suppose that it should be something else separate from
it is irrational. For after the animal has been produced
does this something perish or does it remain in it? But
nothing of the kind appears to be in it, nothing which is
not a part of the whole plant or animal. Yet, on the other
hand, it is absurd to say that it perishes after making either
all the parts or only some of them. If it makes some of
the parts and then perishes, what is to make the rest
of them? Suppose this something makes the heart and
then perishes, and the heart makes another organ, by the
same argument either all the parts must perish or all must
remain. Therefore it is preserved and does not perish.
Therefore it is a part of the embryo itself which exists in
the semen from the beginning ; and if indeed there is no part
of the soul which does not exist in some part of the body,
it would also be a part containing soul in it from the
beginning.

How, then, does it make the other parts? Either all the
parts, as heart, lung, liver, eye, and all the rest, come into
being together or in succession, as is said in the verse

ascribed to Orpheus, for there he says that an animal
? αν 6. the mammalia suckle, but the cartilaginous fish do not.
* For soul is the form of body, and it is this form which the semen
imparts.
* For why should not the heart perish in its turn, and so with the
rest ?

BOOK II. 1

comes into being in the same way as the knitting of
a net.! That the former is not the fact is plain even to
the senses, for some of the parts are clearly visible
as already existing in the embryo while others are not;
that it is not because of their being too small that they
are not visible is clear, for the lung is of greater size than
the heart, and yet appears later than the heart in the
original development. Since, then, one is earlier and
another later, does the one make the other, and does the
later part exist on account of the part which is next to
it, or rather does the one come into being only after the
other? I mean, for instance, that it is not the fact that
the heart, having come into being first, then makes the
liver, and the liver again another organ, but that the liver
only comes into being after the heart, and not by the
agency of the heart, as a man becomes a man after being
a boy, not by his agency.” An explanation of this is that,
in all the productions of Nature or of art, what already
exists potentially is brought into being only by what exists
actually ; therefore if one organ formed another the form
and the character of the later organ would have to exist
in the earlier, e.g. the form of the liver in the heart. And
otherwise also the theory is strange and fictitious.

Yet again, if the whole animal or plant is formed from
semen or seed, it is impossible that any part of it should
exist ready made in the semen or seed, whether that part
be able to make the other parts or no. For it is plain that,
if it exists in it from the first, it was made by that which
made the semen. But semen must be made first, and that
is the function of the generating parent. So, then, it is not
possible that any part should exist in it, and therefore it
has not within itself that which makes the parts.°

? This metaphor of the net occurs repeatedly in modern works on
the subject.

? That is to say that one organ is formed later in time than another,
by epigenesis in modern language; A. cannot and does not mean that
one organ grows into another as a boy becomes a man, but the
illustration is very unluckily and badly chosen, and J trust the words
ὥσπερ μετὰ τὸ παῖς ἀνὴρ γίνεται may be an interpolation.

3. If all the parts are made dy the semen, it is evident that no part
can exist 7” it from the first.

734°

iS)
oO

734°

σι

—
σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

But neither can this agent be external, and yet it must
needs be one or other of thetwo. We must try, then, to
solve this difficulty, for perhaps some one of the statements
made cannot be made without qualification, e.g. the state-
ment that the parts cannot be made by what is external
to the semen. For if in a certain sense they cannot, yet in
another sense they can. (Now it makes no difference
whether we say ‘ the semen’ or ‘that from which the semen
comes’, in so far as the semen has in itself the movement
initiated by the other.) It is possible, then, that A should
move B, and B move C;; that, in fact, the case should be
the same as with the automatic machines shown as curiosi-
ties. For the parts of such machines while at rest have
a sort of potentiality of motion in them, and when any ex-
ternal force puts the first of them in motion, immediately the
next is moved ? in actuality. As, then, in these automatic
machines the external force moves the parts in a certain
sense (not by touching any part at the moment, but by
having touched one previously), in like manner also that from
which the semen comes, or in other words that which made
the semen, sets up the movement in the embryo and makes
the parts of it by having first touched something though
not continuing to touch [1.5 In a way it is the innate
motion that does this, as the act of building builds the
house. Plainly, then, while there is something which
makes the parts, this does not exist as a definite object,
nor does it exist in the semen at the first as a complete
part.

But how is each part formed? We must answer this by
starting in the first instance from the principle that, in all

1 As we proved before.

2 Lit. ‘comes to exist in actuality.’

5 i.e. the male parent makes the semen and somehow imparts to
it a potentiality of setting up movements in the embryo; this power
given to the semen is like the impulse given to a piece of clock-work
by pushing a wheel. Father = watch-maker, first wheel = semen,
other wheels moved by the first = the parts developed by the semen.
We cannot solve the riddle any better at the present day ; we can only
say that no sooner has the spermatozoon penetrated the ovum than
there is set up in the latter a series of movements which differentiate
it and develop the parts one after another. The whole of this
passage sounds amazingly modern; cf. e.g. the language of the
Presidential address to the British Association, 1908, asszm.

BOOK II. 1 734°

products of Nature or art, a thing is made by something
actually existing out of that which is potentially such as
the finished product. Now the semen is of such a nature,
and has in it such a principle of motion, that when the
motion is ceasing! each of the parts comes into being, and
that as a part having life or soul. For there is no such
thing as face or flesh without life or soul in it; it is only 25
equivocally that they will be called face or flesh if the life
has gone out of them,” just as if they had been made of
stone or wood. And the homogeneous parts and the
organic come into being together. And just as we should
not say that an axe or other instrument or organ was
made by the fire alone, so neither shall we say that foot or
hand were made by heat alone.* The same applies also 30
to flesh, for this too has a function. While, then, we may
allow that hardness and softness, stickiness and brittleness,
and whatever other qualities are found in the parts that
have life and soul, may be caused by mere heat and cold,
yet, when we come to the principle * in virtue of which flesh
is flesh and bone is bone, that is no longer so; what makes
them is the movement set up by the male parent, who is 35
in actuality what that out-of which the offspring is made
is in potentiality.© This is what we find in the products
of art; heat and cold may make the iron soft and hard,
but what makes a sword is the movement of the tools 735
employed, this movement containing the principle of the
art. For the art is the starting-point and form of the
product; only it exists in something else,® whereas the move-
ment of Nature exists in the product itself, issuing from
another nature’ which has the form in actuality.

Has the semen soul, or not? —The same argument applies 5

1 παυομένης, but is the text sound? Qu. λυομένης, ‘when the motion
is resolving’; cf. iv. 3 fassim, where the ‘motions’ which cause
resemblance to a parent are said to be often ‘resolved’ into other
motions causing resemblance to grandparents, &c.

? Lit. ‘being spoilt’, φθαρέντα. The essence of e.g. a hand is to
grasp; a dead hand or a stone hand cannot grasp, and therefore is
not a hand at all, strictly speaking, though still called a hand.

° As certain early philosophers asserted.
λόγος. ° Omitting ἡ after δυνάμει.

i.e. in the mind of the artist, and that potentially.

4
6
7 i.e. the parent,

735°

Ὁ

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

here as in the question concerning the parts. As no part,
if it participate not in soul, will be a part except in an
equivocal sense (as the eye of a dead man is still called
an ‘eye’), so no soul will exist in anything except that
of which it is soul; it is plain therefore that semen both
has soul, and is soul, potentially.

But a thing existing potentially may be nearer or further
from its realization in actuality, as e.g. a mathematician
when asleep is further from his realization in actuality as
engaged in mathematics than when he is awake, and when
awake again but not studying mathematics he is further
removed than when he is so studying. Accordingly it
is not any part that is the cause of the soul’s coming
into being, but it is the first moving cause from outside.
(For nothing generates itself, though when it has come
into being it thenceforward increases itself.) Hence it is
that only one part comes into being first and not all of
them together. But that must first come into being which
has a principle of increase (for this nutritive power exists
in all alike, whether animals or plants, and this is the same
as the power that enables an animal or plant to generate
another like itself, that being’ the function of them all
if naturally perfect). And this is necessary for the reason
that whenever a living thing is produced it must grow.
It is produced, then, by something else of the same name,
as e.g. man is produced by man, but it is increased by
means of itself. There is, then, something which increases
it.2, If this is a single part,? this must come into being
first. Therefore if the heart is first made in some animals,
and what is analogous to the heart in the others which

1 The argument is this. Every part being alive must have soul,
and all the parts are formed by the semen, and that in a living state.
The life or soul imparted to them must therefore come from the semen.
But that soul cannot exist zz the semen unless it is the soul of the
semen, for ‘no soul can exist in anything of which it is not the soul’.
.. the semen has soul, at least potentially. It is not itself actually
possessed of soul, because it is not a living animal. Modern science of
course says that the spermatozoa in the semen ave living matter.

2 And that something must be within it. Reading ἔστιν ἄρα ὃ αὔξει.

5 Omitting πρῶτον.

* And conversely that which comes into being first must be able to
increase the embryo.

BOOK II. 1 735°

have no heart, it is from this or its analogue that the first 25
principle of movement would arise.

We have thus discussed the difficulties previously raised
on the question what is the efficient cause of generation
in each case, as the first moving and formative power.

2 The next question to be mooted concerns the nature
of semen. For whereas when it issues from the animal 30
it is thick and white, yet on cooling it becomes liquid as
water, and its colour is that of water. This would appear
strange, for water is not thickened by heat; yet semen
is thick when it issues from within the animal’s body which
is hot, and becomes liquid on cooling. Again, watery fluids
freeze, but semen, if exposed in frosts to the open air, does 35
not freeze but liquefies, as if it was thickened by the
opposite of cold. Yet it is unreasonable, again, to suppose
that it is thickened by heat. For it is only substances
having a predominance of earth in their composition that 735°
coagulate and thicken on boiling, e.g. milk. It ought then
to solidify on cooling, but as a matter of fact it does not
become solid in any part but the whole of it goes like
water.

This then is the difficulty. If it is water, water evidently
does not thicken through heat, whereas the semen is thick 5
and both it and the body whence it issues are hot. If
it is made of earth or a mixture of earth and water, it
ought not to liquefy entirely and turn to water.

Perhaps, however, we have not discriminated all the
possibilities. It is not only the liquids composed of water
and earthy matter that thicken, but also those composed
of water and air; foam, for instance, becomes thicker and 10
white, and the smaller and less visible the bubbles in it,
the whiter and firmer does the mass appear. The same
thing happens also with oil; on mixing with air it thickens,
wherefore that which is whitening becomes thicker, the 15
watery part in it being separated off by the heat and turning
to air.t And if oxide of lead is mixed with water or even

' From this passage it appears that the Greeks made their oil
whiter by heating it; at least A. states the fact as if that was their

AR: G. A. F

735° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

with oil, the mass increases greatly and changes from liquid
and dark to firm and white, the reason being that air
20is mixed in with it which increases the mass and makes
the white shine through, as in foam and snow (for snow
is foam)! And water itself on mingling with oil becomes
thick and white, because air is entangled in it by the act
of pounding them together, and oil itself has much air in
25 it (for shininess is a property of air, not of earth or water).
This too is why it floats on the surface of the water, for the
air contained in it as in a vessel bears it up and makes
it float, being the cause of its lightness. So too oil is
thickened without freezing in cold weather and frosts ?;
it does not freeze because of its heat (for the air is hot
30 and will not freeze), but because the air is forced together
and compressed, as .. .,® by the cold, the oil becomes
thicker. These are the reasons why semen is firm and
white when it issues from within the animal; it has
a quantity of hot air in it because of the internal heat ;
35 afterwards, when the heat has evaporated and the air has
cooled, it turns liquid and dark; for the water, and any
small quantity of earthy matter there may be, remain in
semen as it dries, as they do in phlegm.

3865 Semen, then, is a compound of spirit (πνεῦμα) and water,
and the former is hot air (ἀήρ) ; hence semen is liquid in
its nature because it is made of water. What Ctesias the
Cnidian has asserted of the semen of elephants is mani-
festly untrue; he says that it hardens so much in drying
object. Sir W. Ramsay tells me that oil is whitened by exposure to
sunlight and air being blown through it, and that the same effect would
follow from simple exposure to sunlight, but would take longer owing
to the slowness of oxidation.

1 AW. deny this flatly, but A. is perfectly right. Snow is white, the
chemists tell me, because it is mixed with air ; indeed Professor Collie
says: ‘Snow zs frozen foam. The first chapter of the περὶ Χρωμάτων
shows that μέλαν may include any dark colour, and that λευκόν means
transparent as well as white. ‘Air is naturally white,’ and this
‘shines through’ when air is mixed with water, &c., but A. seems to
confound the two notions.

2 ‘Olive-oil coagulates some seven degrees above the freezing-point
of water, fish-oil remains fluid at a temperature considerably below’
this. Ogle on de Partibus, ii. 648» 32. A. seems, then, to be here
thinking of the latter.

3 The MSS. variations seem to point to some loss after ὥσπερ (which
is bracketed by AW., though they mark a lacuna in their translation).

BOOK II. 2 736°

that it becomes like amber.’ But this does not happen, 5
though it is true that one semen must be more earthy than
another, and especially so with animals that have much
earthy matter in them because of the bulk of their bodies.
And it is thick and white because it is mixed with spirit,
for it is also an invariable rule that it is white, and Hero- τὸ
dotus does not report the truth when he says that the
semen of the Aethiopians is black, as if everything must
needs be black in those who have a black skin, and that
too when he saw their teeth were white. The reason of
the whiteness of semen is that it is a foam, and foam is
white, especially that which is composed of the smallest τς
parts, small in the sense that each bubble is invisible,
which is what happens when water and oil are mixed and
shaken together, as said before. (Even the ancients seem
to have noticed that semen is of the nature of foam; at
least it was from this they named the goddess who presides 20
over union.’)

This then is the explanation of the problem proposed,
and it is plain too that this is why semen does not freeze ;
for air will not freeze.

3 The next question to raise and to answer is this. If, in
the case of those animals which emit semen into the female, 2;
that which enters makes no part of the resulting embryo,
where is the material part of it diverted if (as we have seen)
it acts by means of the power residing in it? It is not
only necessary to decide whether what is forming in the
female receives anything material, or not, from that which
has entered her, but also concerning the soul in virtue of
which an animal is so called (and this is in virtue of the 30
sensitive part of the soul)—does this exist originally in
the semen and in the unfertilized embryo ® or not, and if it
does whence does it come? For* nobody would put down

1 Ambergris zs an internal product of a huge animal, the sperm-
whale; can this be at the bottom of the statement of Ctesias ἢ

2 Aphrodite, the foam-born! Cf. Galen, vol. iv, p. 531.

3 κύημα throughout this passage must mean the unfertilized embryo
or germ, not as usual the ‘first mixture of male and female’.

* The connexion of thought is: ‘I raise this question about the

F 2

736°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the unfertilized embryo as soulless or in every sense bereft of
life (since both the semen and the embryo of an animal have
every bit as much life as a plant), and it is productive up
to a certain point.1. That then they possess the nutritive
soul is plain (and plain is it from the discussions elsewhere
about soul why this soul must be acquired first”), As they
develop they also acquire the sensitive soul in virtue of
which an animal is an animal. For?* e.g. an animal does
not become at the same time an animal and a man or
a horse or any other particular animal. For the end is
developed last, and the peculiar character of the species is
the end of the generation in each individual. Hence arises
a question of the greatest difficulty, which we must strive
to solve to the best of our ability and as far as possible.
When and how and whence is a share in reason acquired
by those animals that participate in this principle? It is
plain that the semen and the unfertilized embryo, while
still separate from each other, must be assumed to have
the nutritive soul potentially, but not actually, except that
(like those unfertilized embryos that are separated from the
mother) it absorbs nourishment and performs the function
of the nutritive soul.2 For at first all such embryos seem
to live the life of a plant. And it is clear that we must be
guided by this in speaking of the sensitive and the rational

sensitive soul because the vegetative (or nutritive) is certainly in the
embryo even before impregnation. For, &c.’

1 Referring to wind-eggs of fowls. 2 de Anima, ii. 4.

3 The connexion of thought is: ‘This is in accordance with the law
of development, the more general appearing first, the particular later.
For, ἄς;

4 This passage states clearly the famous law generally attributed to
von Baer, the law that in development the character, e. g., of the class,
is assumed before that of the genus, of the genus before that of the
species. Aristotle’s example may be otherwise stated thus: the
embryo assumes the character which marks it out as an animal, not a
plant, before it assumes the character which marks it out as a man or
horse, not some other animal. And therefore it must acquire the
sensitive soul before it is specialized as a member of a sub-kingdom of
animals.

® Read ὄντα χωριστά for τὰ χωριστά, and πλὴν εἰ for πρὶν ἤ (πλὴν ἢ
seems not to be used by A.). The parenthesis refers to wind-eggs, the
only ‘unfertilized embryos’ which are ‘separated from the mother’
(or laid as eggs), within Aristotle’s cognizance, by animals possessing
distinction of sex. This is the best I can make of this excessively
difficult passage.

BOOK i: 3

soul. For all three kinds of soul, not only the nutritive,
must be possessed potentially before they are possessed in
actuality. And it is necessary either (1) that they should all
come into being in the embryo without existing previously
outside it, or (2) that they should all exist previously, or
(3) that some should so exist and others not. Again, it is
necessary that they should either (1) come into being
in the material supplied by the female without entering
with the semen of the male, or (2) come from the male and
be imparted to the material in the female. If the latter,
then either all of them, or none, or some must come into
being in the male from outside.

Now that it is impossible for them all to pre-exist is clear
from this consideration. Plainly those principles whose
activity is bodily cannot exist without a body, e.g. walking
cannot exist without feet. For the same reason also they
cannot enter from outside. For neither is it possible for
them to enter by themselves, being inseparable from a body,
nor yet in a body, for the semen is only a secretion of the
nutriment in process of change.’ It remains, then,” for the
reason alone so to enter and alone to be divine, for no
bodily activity has any connexion with the activity of
reason. °

Now it is true that the faculty of all kinds of soul seems
to have a connexion with a matter different from and more
divine than the so-called elements; but as one soul differs
from another in honour and dishonour, so differs also the
nature of the corresponding matter. All have in their
semen that which causes it to be productive ; I mean what
is called vital heat. This is not fire nor any such force, but
it is the spiritus included in the semen and the foam-like,*
and the natural principle in the spiritus, being analogous to

736°

the element of the stars.5 Hence, whereas fire generates 737°

no animal and we do not find any living thing forming in
either solids or liquids under the influence of fire, the heat

1 Therefore the nutritive and sensitive souls, which require bodily
organs, do not enter from outside. 2 Read δή for δέ.

* The function of the brain being to cool the blood.

* For this spiritus is found in all water or liquid matter ; see iii. 11.

° The ether, or fifth element, in which the stars move.

737°

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

of the sun and that of animals does generate them. Not only
is this true of the heat that works through the semen, but
whatever other residuum of the animal nature there may
be, this also has still a vital principle in it? From such
considerations it is clear that the heat in animals neither is
fire nor derives its origin from fire.”

Let us return to the material of the semen, in and with
which comes away from the male the spiritus ὃ conveying
the principle of soul. Of this principle there are two kinds ;
the one is not connected with matter, and belongs to those
animals in which is included something divine (to wit,
what is called the reason), while the other is inseparable
from matter. This material® of the semen dissolves and
evaporates because it has a liquid and watery nature.
Therefore we ought not to expect it always to come out
again from the female or to form any part of the embryo
that has taken shape from it; the case resembles that of
the fig-juice which curdles milk, for this too changes
without becoming any part of the curdling masses.

It has been settled, then, in what sense the embryo and
the semen have soul, and in what sense they have not ; they
have it potentially but not actually.®

Now semen is a secretion and is moved with the same
movement as that in virtue of which the body increases
(this increase being due to subdivision of the nutriment in
its last stage). When it has entered the uterus it puts into
form the corresponding secretion of the female and moves it
with the same movement wherewith it is moved itself. For
the female’s contribution also is a secretion, and has all the

1 This appears 6. g. from the generation of worms in manure heaps.

* There seems to be here a considerable lacuna. We know now that
all three kinds of soul have vital heat, and we expect to hear of some
higher material element corresponding to the higher kinds of soul.
For the rest, we have now settled, more or less, how the three kinds of
soul arise in the embryo, and we return abruptly to the question raised
in the first words of the chapter: what happens to the material part
of the semen?

On the development of the soul, compare the most masterly résumé
of this discussion in Dante, Purgatorio, xxv.

5.1 read πνεῦμα for σπέρμα.

Reading τι. Theanimals are man and perhaps bees (iv. 10, ad fi7.).

Reading σῶμα for σπέρμα (AW.).

4
* This sentence is misplaced, but one cannot say where it should go.

BOOK II. 3 7515

parts in it potentially though none of them actually; it has
in it potentially even those parts which differentiate the a;
female from the male, for just as the young of mutilated
parents are sometimes born mutilated and sometimes not,
80. also the young born of a female are sometimes female
and sometimes male instead. For the female is, as it were,
a mutilated male, and the catamenia are semen, only not
pure'; for there is only one thing they have not in them,
the principle of soul. For this reason, whenever a wind-egg 30
is produced by any animal, the egg so forming has in it the
parts of both sexes potentially, but has not the principle in
question, so that it does not develop into a living creature,
for this is introduced by the semen of the male. When
such a principle has been imparted to the secretion of the
female it becomes an embryo.

Liquid but corporeal substances become surrounded by 3;
some kind of covering on heating, like the solid scum which
forms on boiled foods when cooling. All bodies are held 737°
together by the glutinous; this quality, as the embryo
develops and increases in size, is acquired by the sinewy
substance, which holds together the parts of animals, being
actual sinew in some and its analogue in others. To the
same class belong also skin, blood-vessels, membranes, and :
the like, for these differ in being more or less glutinous and
generally in excess and deficiency.’

4 In those animals whose nature is comparatively im-
perfect, when a perfect embryo (which, however, is not yet
a perfect animal) has been formed, it is cast out from the
mother, for reasons previously stated.2 An embryo is
then complete when it is either male or female,* in the case

i See i. 20:

* This paragraph is obviously misplaced, but there is no other place
in G. A. to which it belongs (AW.).

3 Chap. 1 of this book.

* From recent researches it appears that ‘the male or female
character is already fully developed in the fertilized egg’ from the very
beginning (Lock, Variation, Heredity, and Evolution, p. 259). ‘Sex
is predetermined in the fertilized ovum’ (Poulton, Assays on Evolu-
Zion, Ὁ. 133). Indeed it is probable that both ova and spermatozoa are
themselves both male and female, at least in the higher animals. For

737°

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

of those animals who possess this distinction, for some
(i.e. all those which are not themselves produced from
a male or female parent nor from a union of the two)
produce an offspring which is neither male nor female.
Of the generation of these we shall speak later.

The perfect animals, those internally viviparous, keep
the developing embryo within themselves and in close
connexion until they give birth to a complete animal and
bring it to light.

A third class is externally viviparous but first internally
oviparous ; they develop the egg into a perfect condition,
and then in some cases the egg is set free as with creatures
externally oviparous, and the animal is produced from the
egg within the mother’s body; in other cases, when the
nutriment from the egg is consumed, development is com-
pleted by connexion with the uterus, and therefore the egg
is not set free from the uterus. This character marks the
cartilaginous fish, of which we must speak later by them-
selves,?

Here we must make our first start from the first class ;
these are the perfect or viviparous animals, and of these
the first is man. Now the secretion of the semen takes
place in all of them just as does that of any other residual
matter. For each is conveyed to its proper place without
any force from the breath or compulsion of any other
cause, as some assert, saying that the generative parts
attract the semen like cupping-glasses, aided by the force
of the breath, as if it were possible for either this secretion
or* the residue of the solid and liquid nutriment to go
anywhere else than they do without the exertion of such
a force. Their reason is that the discharge of both is
attended by holding the breath, but this is a common
feature of all cases when it is necessary to move anything,

738° because strength arises through holding the breath. Why,

even without this force the secretions or excretions are
discharged in sleep if the parts concerned are full of them

evidence, however, against this in some lower animals see e. g. Wilson,
The Cell in Development and Inheritance ΞΡ: ae
ih: 2: * Reading ἢ ταύτην... ἢ τήν.

BOOK ἘΞ 4

and are relaxed. One might as well say that it is by the
breath that the seeds of plants are always segregated to
the places where they are wont to bear fruit. No, the real
cause, as has been stated already, is that there are special
parts for receiving all the secretions, alike the useless (as
the residues of the liquid and solid nutriment), and the
blood, which has the so-called blood-vessels.

To consider now the region of the uterus in the female—
the two blood-vessels, the great vessel and the aorta, divide
higher up, and many fine vessels from them terminate in
the uterus.' These become over-filled from the nourish-
ment they convey, nor is the female nature able to con-
coct it, because it is colder than man’s; so the blood is
excreted through very fine vessels into the uterus,’ these
being unable on account of their narrowness to receive the
excessive quantity, and the result is a sort of haemorrhage.
The period is not accurately defined in women, but tends
to return during the waning of the moon.’ This we
should expect, for the bodies of animals are colder when

738"

the environment happens to become so,* and the time of 20
Pp

change from one month to another is cold because of the
absence of the moon, whence also it results that this time
is stormier than the middle of the month. When then the
residue of the nourishment has changed into blood, the
catamenia tend to occur at the above-mentioned period,
but when it is not concocted a little matter at a time
is always coming away, and this is why ‘ whites’ appear in

1 By the great vessel A. means the veva cava and the whole venous
system, by the aorta he means the aorta and the whole arterial system.
He does not distinguish between their functions, holding that both
alike nourish the body by carrying the blood to all parts of it. The
fine vessels are the smallest veins and arteries visible to the naked eye,
not the capillaries, which were unknown even to Harvey.

* This was the theory of Coste, that ‘the blood transudes through
the capillaries’. But the precise nature of the process seems to be
still uncertain ; see Playfair, Mdw¢fery®, vol. i, p. 74.

° This of course is quite untrue, but the notion that the moon has
something to do with it has been renewed in modern times. ‘ Dr.
Mead was, I fancy, disposed to be a little merry, when he gravely
ascribed the tides and the catamenia equally to the influence of the
moon’ (Blundell, J/idwzfery, 1840, p. 632). Yet probably there really
is a connexion between them; see Darwin, Descent of Man, chap. vi,
note 32. Life of Huxley, vol. i, p. 359.

* This again is untrue of the temperature of warm-blooded animals.

η385

738°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

females while still small, in fact mere children. If both these
discharges of the secretions are moderate, the body remains
in good health, for they act as a purification of the secre-
tions which are the causes of a morbid state of body; if
they do not occur at all or if they are excessive, they are
injurious, either causing illness or pulling down the patient ;
hence whites, if continuous and excessive, prevent girls
from growing. This secretion then is necessarily discharged
by females for the reasons given; for, the female nature
being unable to concoct the nourishment thoroughly,
there must not only be left a residue of the useless nutri-
ment, but also there must be a residue in the blood-vessels,
and this filling! the channels of the finest vessels must
overflow. Then Nature, aiming at the best and the end,
uses it up in this place? for the sake of generation, that
another creature may come into being of the same kind
as the former was going to be, for the menstrual blood
is already potentially such as the body from which it is
discharged.

In all females, then, there must necessarily be such a
secretion, more indeed in those that have blood and of
these most of all in man, but in the others also some
matter must be collected in the uterine region. The reason
why there is more in those that have blood and most in
man has been already given, but why, if all females have
such a secretion, have not all males one to correspond?
For some of them do not emit semen but, just as those
which do emit it? fashion by the movement in the semen
the mass forming from the material supplied by the female,
so do the animals in question bring the same to pass and
exert the same formative power by the movement * within
themselves in that part from whence the semen is secreted.°
This is the region about the diaphragm in all those animals
which have one,® for the heart or its analogue is the first
principle of a natural body, while the lower part is a mere

1 Reading πληθύοντα. 2 The uterus.

* Reading προιέμενα. * Omitting ἐν (AW.).
° The reference is to certain insects; see i. 16.

* Or the corresponding region in those which have not.

BOOK II. 4

addition for the sake of it.1 Now the reason why it is not
all males that have a generative secretion, while all females
do, is that the animal is a body with soul or life; the female
always provides the material, the male that which fashions
it, for this is the power that we say they each possess, and
this is what is meant by calling them male and female.
Thus while it is necessary for the female to provide a body
and a material mass, it is not necessary for the male,
because it is not within the work of art or the embryo that
the tools or the maker must exist. While the body is from
the female, it is the soul that is from the male,? for the
soul is the reality of a particular body.’ For this reason
if animals of a different kind are crossed (and this is
possible when the periods of gestation are equal and con-
ception takes place nearly at the same season and there is

no great difference in the size of the animals), the first cross :

has a common resemblance to both parents, as the hybrid
between fox and dog, partridge and domestic fowl, but as
time goes on and one generation springs from another, the
final result resembles the female in form, just as foreign
seeds produce plants varying in accordance with the

country in which they are sown.* For it is the soil that 2

gives to the seeds the material and the body of the plant.
And hence the part of the female which receives the semen
is not a mere passage, but the uterus has a considerable

1 The truth is the other way about in the order of evolution, for

some of the lowest animals have a digestive canal without a heart, but
rom A.’s point of view the heart as the seat of life is the end to which
everything else is subordinate; besides it is visible to the eye before
the canal in the embryo of higher animals.

* And it is this which gives reality to the body.

* A body which is not alive is not strictly speaking a body at all,
any more than a statue is really one. Hence soul makes a body really
to be one in the strict sense.

* e.g. if seed of a mountain plant is sown in a fertile plain it will
grow more luxuriantly. Despite AW. the astonishing statements
about dog and fox, partridge and fowl are totally wrong ; the experi-
ments of Flourens, to which they refer, only show that if you cross two
species and keep on crossing the hybrids with ove of the two original
Species the result will in a few generations be _ indistinguishable
from it.

A. thought that the Laconian hounds were descended from a cross
between dog and fox.

738°

vw
ο

ΠῚ
-σ

739° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

width, whereas the males that emit semen have only
passages for this purpose, and these are bloodless.’

Each of the secretions becomes such at the moment
when it is in its proper place; before that there is nothing
of the sort unless with much violence and contrary to
nature.”

5 We have thus stated the reason for which the generative
secretions are formed in animals. But when the semen
from the male (in those animals which emit semen) has
entered, it puts into form the purest part of the female
secretion (for the greater part of the catamenia also is
useless and fluid, as is the most fluid part of the male

το secretion, i.e. in a single emission, the earlier discharge
being in most cases apt to be infertile rather than the
later, having less vital heat through want of concoction,
whereas that which is concocted is thick and of a more
material nature).

If there is no external discharge, either in women or
other animals, on account of there not being much useless

1; and superfluous matter in the secretion, then the quantity
forming within the female altogether is as much as what
is retained within those animals which have an external
discharge; this is put into form by the power of the male
residing in the semen secreted by him, or, as is clearly
seen to happen in some insects, by the part in the female
analogous to the uterus being inserted into the male.

20 It has been previously stated that the discharge accom-
panying sexual pleasure in the female contributes nothing
to the embryo. The chief argument for the opposite view
is that what are called bad dreams occur by night with
women as with men; but this is no proof, for the same
thing happens to young men also who do not yet emit

25 semen, and to those who do emit semen but whose semen
is infertile.

It is impossible to conceive without the emission of the

1 See i. 6, ad fim. Stress is laid upon the bloodlessness of the ducts
because this contrasts with the material of the female.

2 e.g. the blood remains blood so long as it is in the blood-vessels,

but when it enters the testes semen is secreted from it, and not before
this.

BOOK II. 4

male in union and without the secretion of the correspond-
ing female material, whether it be discharged externally or
whether there is only enough within the body. Women
conceive, however, without experiencing the pleasure usual
in such intercourse, if the part chance to be in heat and
the uterus to have descended.'. But generally speaking
the opposite is the case, because the os uteri is not closed
when the discharge takes place which is usually accom-
panied by pleasure in women as well as men, and when
this is so there is a readier way for the semen of the male
to be drawn into the uterus.

The actual discharge does not take place within the
uterus as some think, the os uteri being too narrow, but
it is in the region in front of this, where the female dis-
charges the moisture found in some cases, that the male
emits the semen.2, Sometimes it remains in this place; ὃ
at other times, if the uterus chance to be conveniently
placed and hot on account of the purgation of the cata-
menia, it draws it within itself. A proof of this is that
pessaries,* though wet when applied, are removed dry.
Moreover, in all those animals which have the uterus near
the hypozoma, as birds and viviparous fishes, it is im-
possible that the semen should be so discharged as to
enter it; it must be drawn into it. This region, on
account of the heat which is in it, attracts the semen.
The discharge and collection of the catamenia also excite
heat in this part. Hence it acts like cone-shaped vessels
which, when they have been washed out with hot water,
their mouth being turned downwards, draw water into
themselves. And this is the way things are drawn up,

1 “The idea’, says Dr. Blacker, ‘that the uterus descends is not
proved, but probably some kind of movement takes place during coitus.’

2 Omitting ἐάν τις ἐξικμάσῃ (AW.)

5.1 read ἔχον with one MS. and τόπον for τρόπον by conjecture.

* Reading πρόσθετα.

5. It must be remembered that A. calls the ovarian passage of birds
and fishes ‘uterus’. ‘The semen is probably carried upwards chiefly
by the inherent mobility of the spermatozoa’ (Playfair, Widwifery’,
vol. i, p. 85).

δ For τὰ ἀκόνιτα 1 read τὰ κωνικά (cf. κωνίς). If a bottle be heated
and the neck thrust into water, as the air in the bottle cools a vacuum
will be formed and some water drawn up into the neck.

739°

739” DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

13 but some say that nothing of the kind happens with the
organic parts concerned in copulation. Precisely the
opposite is the case of those who say the woman emits
semen as well as the man, for if she emits it outside the
uterus this must then draw it back again into itself if it
is to be mixed with the semen of the male. But this is

20a superfluous proceeding, and Nature does nothing super-
fluous.

When the material secreted by the female in the uterus
has been fixed by the semen of the male (this acts in the
same way as rennet acts upon milk, for rennet is a kind of
milk containing vital heat, which brings into one mass and
fixes the similar material, and the relation of the semen

25to the catamenia is the same,! milk and the catamenia
being of the same nature)*—when, I say,’ the more solid
part * comes together, the liquid is separated off from it,
and as the earthy parts solidify membranes form all round
it; this is both a necessary result and for a final cause, the
former because the surface of a mass must solidify on heat-

30 ing as well as on cooling,® the latter because the foetus must
not be in a liquid but be separated from it. Some of these
are called membranes and others choria, the difference
being one of more or less, and they exist in ovipara and
vivipara alike.’

When the embryo is once formed, it acts like the seeds

35 of plants. For seeds also contain the first principle of

1 Reading ταὐτό.

* Because both are secretions of the nutriment in a late stage of its
transformations.

5 Reading δή (AW.) * τοῦ σωματώδους.

° Cf. Hippocrates, vol.i, p. 385, where the formation of the membrane
is compared to the crust on bread. ξηραίνεσθαι is rather sol/édify than
ary.

® This is an unlucky speculation, for the first membrane which forms
round the embryo, what is called the ‘amnion ’, is filled with ‘ amniotic
fluid’. In the chick this fluid appears on the fifth day of incubation,
and A. may have been misled by examining embryos in an earlier
stage.

7 The difference, &c.’, i.e. the choria are thicker than the other
membranes. A comparison of //. A. vi. 3, shows pretty clearly that
by the ‘ chorion of the ovipara’ A. means the allantois, and as this does
actually unite with the chorion in mammalia he is quite accurate
enough.

BOOK II. 4 739°

growth in themselves, and when this (which previously
exists in them only potentially) has been differentiated,

the shoot and the root are sent off from it, and it is by

the root that the plant gets nourishment; for it needs 740
growth. So also in the embryo all the parts exist poten-
tially in a way at the same time, but the first principle is
furthest on the road to realization. Therefore the heart

is first differentiated in actuality. This is clear not only

to the senses (for it is so) but also on theoretical grounds.! 5
For whenever the young animal has been separated from
both parents it must be able to manage itself, like a son
who has set up house away from his father. Hence it
must have a first principle from which comes the ordering of

the body at a later stage also,” for if it is to come in from
outside at a later period to dwell in it, not only may the τὸ
question be asked at what time it is to do so, but also we
may object that, when each of the parts is separating from
the rest, it is necessary that this principle should exist
first from which comes growth and movement to the other
parts. (Wherefore all who say, as did Democritus, that
the external parts of animals are first differentiated and
the internal later, are much mistaken; it is as if they were
talking of animals of stone or wood. For such as these
have no principle of growth at all, but all animals have,
and have it within themselves.) Therefore it is that the
heart appears first distinctly marked off in all the san-
guinea, for this is the first principle or origin of both
homogeneous and heterogeneous parts, since from the
moment that the animal or organism needs nourishment, 20
from that moment does this deserve to be called its
principle or origin. For the animal ὃ grows, and the nutri-
ment, in its final stage, of an animal is the blood or its
analogue, and of this the blood-vessels are the receptacle,

-
or

1 The heart may be the organ first visible to the naked eye, and A.
himself so observed it (de /uv. 3), but the microscope shows that the
vertebral column really begins to develop earlier. In theory, however,
it ought not to do so, for it was certainly evolved later in the history
of the vertebrates.

? And this principle must be in the embryo before separation from
the mother. ® Reading ζῷον,

740% DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

wherefore the heart is the principle or origin of these also.
(This is clear from the Azguiries' and the anatomical
drawings.)

Since the embryo is already potentially an animal but

25 an imperfect one, it must obtain its nourishment from else-

where ; accordingly it makes use of the uterus and the
mother, as a plant does of the earth, to get nourishment,
until it is perfected to the point of being now an animal
potentially locomotive. So Nature has first designed the
two blood-vessels from the heart, and from these smaller
30 vessels branch off to the uterus.?, These are what is called
the umbilicus, for this is a blood-vessel, consisting of one
or more vessels in different animals.? Round these is a
skin-like integument,* because the weakness of the vessels
needs protection and shelter. The vessels join on to the
uterus like the roots of plants, and through them the

35 embryo receives its nourishment. This is why the animal

remains in the uterus, not, as Democritus says, that the

parts of the embryo may be moulded in conformity with
740° those of the mother. This is plain in the ovipara, for they
have their parts differentiated in the egg after separation
from the matrix.

Here a difficulty may be raised. If the blood is the
nourishment, and if the heart, which first comes into being,
already contains blood,’ and the nourishment comes from
outside, whence did the first nourishment ὃ enter? Perhaps

1 H. A. iii. 3. The argument here is very obscurely stated and
should rather run thus :—

The heart is the ἀρχή of the blood-vessels.

These vessels carry blood through the body.

The parts are nourished by the blood, and the animal grows
because of this.

*. the heart is the first cause of the growth of the animal and the

formation of the parts.

*. the heart must itself come into being first.

2 The description shows that a comparatively late stage of growth is
here in question, when the allanto-chorion is already united to the wall
of the uterus. The two vessels from the heart accordingly can hardly
mean anything but the circulatory system of the umbilical vesicle
(corresponding to the yolk-sac in birds), and of the united allantois
and placenta. Cf. H. A. vi. 561» 5-10, where the two φλέβες are
certainly the οτος of the yolk-sac and allantois.

3 See note on 745» 27; * Omitting ὁ καλούμενος ὀμφαλός.

5 Omitting τὸ δ᾽ αἷμα τροφή (AW.) δ 6, the blood in the heart.

BOOK II. 4

it is not true that a// of it comes from outside. Just as in
the seeds of plants there is something of this nature,! the
substance which at first appears milky,? so also in the
material of the animal embryo the superfluous matter of
which it is formed 3 is its nourishment from the first.

The embryo, then, grows by means of the umbilicus in
the same way as a plant by its root, or as animals them-
selves when separated from the nutriment within the
mother,* of which we must speak later at the time
appropriate for discussing them. But the parts are not
differentiated, as some suppose, because like is naturally
carried to like.®° Besides many other difficulties involved in
this theory, it results from it that the homogeneous parts
ought to come into being each one separate from the rest,
as bones and sinews by themselves, and flesh by itself,
if one should accept this cause. The real cause why each
of them comes into being is that the secretion of the female
is potentially such as the animal is naturally, and all the
parts are potentially present in it, but none actually. It
is also because when the active and the passive come in
contact with each other in that way in which the one
is active and the other passive (I mean in the right
manner, in the right place, and at the right time), straight-
way the one acts and the other is acted upon. The female,
then, provides matter, the male the principle of motion.®
And as the products of art are made by means of the tools
of the artist, or to put it more truly by means of their
movement, and this is the activity of the art, and the art
is the form of what is made in something else, so is it with
the power of the nutritive soul. As later on in the case
of mature animals and plants this soul causes growth from
the nutriment, using heat and cold as its tools (for in these

1 i.e. nutritive.

* The cotyledons, 6. g. the white substance in the bean.

5.1, 6. that part of the matter which is superfluous in the sense that
it is not used up in making the animal,

* Lit. ‘within themselves’. ἐν αὑτοῖς is probably corrupt. It seems
impossible to explain the words here by connexion with the previous
paragraph. Qu. ἐν ταῖς ὑστέραις or the like?

® See Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 390.

δ And the former is passive, the latter active.

AR. G. A, G

740”

μι
uo

740° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

is the movement of the soul), and each thing comes into
being in accordance with a certain formula, so also from the
beginning does it form the product of nature.t For the
material by which. this latter grows is the same as that
35 from which it is constituted at first ; consequently also
the power which acts upon it is identical with that which
originally generated it ;? if then this acting power is the
nutritive soul, this is also the generative soul, and this is
741° the nature of every organism, existing in all animals and
plants. [But the other parts of the soul exist in some
animals, not in others.*] In plants, then, the female is
not separated from the male, but in those animals in which
it is separated the male needs the female besides.‘

σι

And yet the question may be raised why it is that, if 5
indeed the female possesses the same soul and if it is the
secretion of the female which is the material of the embryo,
she needs the male besides instead of generating entirely
from herself. The reason is that the animal differs from
10 the plant by having sense-perception ; if the sensitive soul
is not present, either actually or potentially, and either
with or without qualification, it is impossible for face, hand,
flesh, or any other part to exist ; it will be no better than
a corpse or part of a corpse. If then, when the sexes are
separated, it is the male that has the power of making
the sensitive soul, it is impossible for the female to generate
an animal from itself alone, for the process in question was
seen to involve the male quality. Certainly that there is

1 This passage is ‘like a tangled chain, nothing impaired but all
disordered’, The meaning is this. The artist makes the product of
art (e. g. a statue) in material other than himself, by a movement of his
tools in which his activity is manifested ; he does this in accordance
with a form or idea in his mind which is realized in the statue. The
soul makes the product of nature (the animal) in material other than
itself by movement of heat and cold (i. e. by physical forces), which it
uses like tools, and in which its activity is manifested ; it does this in
accordance with a principle or formula or definition within it (λόγῳ τινι),
which is realized in the animal.

2 Reading ταὐτὸ τῴ ἐξ ἀρχῆς γεννήσαντί ἐστιν (AW.).

5. This is absurd, for it implies that some animals are devoid of sense-
perception. The words in brackets are either spurious or very corrupt.

* This sentence is also wrong, for it ought to be ‘ the female needs

the male’.
© τὸ yap εἰρημένον ἢν τὸ ἄρρενι εἶναι. Reading ἄρρενι with one MS. for

σι

BOOK II. 5 741°

a good deal in the difficulty stated is plain in the case of
the birds that lay wind-eggs, showing that the female can
generate up to a certain point unaided. But this still
involves a difficulty ; in what way are we to say that their
eggs live? It is neither possible that they should live in 20
the same way as fertile eggs (for then they would produce
a chick actually alive), nor yet can they be called eggs only
in the sense in which an egg of wood or stone is so called,
for the fact that these eggs go bad shows that they previously
participate in some way in life. It is plain, then, that they
have some soul potentially. What sort of soul will this be?
It must be the lowest surely, and this is the nutritive, for 25
this exists in all animals and plants alike. Why then does
it not perfect the parts and the animal? Because they
must have a sensitive soul, for the parts of animals are not
like those of a plant. And so the female animal needs the
help of the male, for in these animals we are speaking of
the male is separate. This is exactly what we find, for the
wind-eggs become fertile if the male tread the female in 3°
a certain space of time. About the cause of these things,
however, we shall enter into detail later.

If there is any kind of animal which is female and has no
male separate from it, it is possible that this may generate
a young one from itself without copulation. No instance
of this worthy of credit has been observed up to the present
at any rate, but one case in the class of fishes makes us 35
hesitate. No male of the so-called erythrinus 2 has ever yet
been seen, but females, and specimens full of roe, have been
seen. Of this, however, we have as yet no proof worthy of
credit. Again, some members of the class of fishes are
neither male nor female, as eels and a kind of mullets found 741°
in stagnant waters.? But whenever the sexes are separate

ἄρρεν, it may be possible to extract the translation in the text. AW.
give the words up as hopeless.

1 Reading τοῦτο ἄνευ ὀχείας ζῷον.

2 Probably the .567γγαι1έ5 anthias, a kind of sea-perch. This fish is
hermaphrodite, and the male organs are difficult to make out, as may
be judged from the fact that the riddle was not solved till near the end
of the eighteenth century, and then the solution was much disputed
(AW. p. 32).

3 The truth about eels has only been quite recently discovered ;

G 2

741°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the female cannot generate perfectly by herself alone, for
then the male would exist in vain, and Nature makes
nothing in vain. Hence in such animals the male always
perfects the work of generation, for he imparts the sensitive
soul, either by means of the semen or without [1.1 Now
the parts of the embryo already exist potentially in the
material, and so when once the principle of movement has
been imparted to them they develop in a chain one after
another, as the wheels are moved one by another in the
automatic machines. When some of the natural philo-
sophers say that like is brought to like,? this must be
understood, not in the sense that the parts are moved as
changing place, but that they stay where they are and the
movement is a change of quality (such as softness, hard-
ness, colour, and the other differences of the homogeneous
parts) ; thus they become in actuality what they previously
were in potentiality. And what comes into being first is
the first principle; this is the heart in the sanguinea and
its analogue in the rest, as has been often said already.
This is plain not only to the senses (that it is first to come
into being), but also in view of its end; for life fails in the
heart last of all, and it happens in all cases that what
comes into being last fails first, and the first last,? Nature
running a double course, so to say, and turning back to the
point from whence she started. For the process of becom-
ing is from the non-existent to the existent, and that of
perishing is back again from the existent to the non-
existent.

they do not develop generative organs except in the deep sea (about
500 fathoms), and consequently no sexes are to be observed in any fresh-
water eels. (See e.g. ature, vol. 75, p. 252.) There is no explanation
forthcoming of the statement about the mullets, which have sexes in
the usual way.

1 Lit. dy means of himself. The reference is to certain insects ;
see i. 16.

2. And that is how the parts are developed. See Hippocrates, vol. i,
Pp. 390.

* Here again A. states a law which is fully recognized in modern
times, that (generally speaking) the order of appearance and disappear-
ance of organs or characters varies inversely. Life, however, does not
necessarily disappear from the heart last, and indeed A. himself knew
this to be so in the tortoise (de Juv. 46815, de Respir. 4798 5). Nor,
as already said, does it begin to develop first.

BOOK II. 6 741°

6 After this, as said already, the internal parts come into 25
being before the external. The greater become visible
before the less, even if some of them do not come into
being before them. First the parts above the hypozoma
are differentiated and are superior in size; the part below
is both smaller and less differentiated. This happens in all 30
animals in which exists the distinction of upper and lower)!
except in the insects; the growth of those that produce
a scolex is towards the upper part,? for this is smaller in
the beginning. The cephalopoda are the only locomotive
animals in which the distinction of upper and lower does
not exist.? What has been said applies to plants also, that 35
the upper portion is earlier in development than the lower,
for the roots push out from the seed before the shoots.*

The agency by which the parts of animals are dif-
ferentiated is air, not however that of the mother nor yet of
the embryo itself, as some of the physicists say. This is 742°
manifest in birds, fishes, and insects. For some of these
are separated from the mother and produced from an egg,
within which the differentiation takes place; other animals
do not breathe at all, but are produced as a scolex or an
egg; those which do breathe and whose parts are dif-
ferentiated within the mother’s uterus yet do not breathe
until the lung is perfected, and the lung and the preceding
parts are differentiated before they breathe. Moreover,

ἔσι

1 For the difference between upper and lower in plants and animals
see de Incessu, 704%29 seqq. That part is wpper by which they take
nourishment and which consequently causes growth, that is Jower
which is the other extremity. A. was led to this view by his assump-
tion that ‘ of all animals man is most according to Nature’, and so his
upright attitude is the most natural, towards which other organisms
approximate more or less in proportion to their dignity. Hence the
roots of a plant are the upper part of it, strange as it sounds to us.

For the rest the statement in the text is correct, as may be seen by
looking at any drawing of an embryo in an early stage.

2 i.e. the head and thorax.

5 Because the intestinal canal of a cephalopod is twisted round so
that the excreta are discharged near the head.

4 This contradicts Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 406.

δ. See Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 383, &c.

6 The proof is this. (1) Birds are developed within an egg, and so
their development is not due to the mother’s breathing {nor yet to
their own, because they do not breathe till the lung is complete).
(2) Insects and fish do not breathe, and their development is from

742°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

all polydactylous quadrupeds,! as dog, lion, wolf, fox,

10 jackal, produce their young blind, and the eyelids do not

separate till after birth. Manifestly the same holds also in all
the other parts; as the qualitative, so also the quantitative
differentia comes into being, pre-existing potentially but
being actualized later by the same causes by which the
qualitative distinction is produced, and so the eyelids become
two instead of one. Of course air must be present, because

15 heat and moisture are present, the former acting and the

latter being acted upon.?

Some of the ancient nature-philosophers made an attempt
to state which part comes into being after which, but were
not sufficiently acquainted with the facts. It is with the
parts as with other things; one naturally exists prior to
another. But the word ‘prior’ is used in more senses than
one. For there is a difference between the end or final
cause and that which exists for the sake of it; the latter is
prior in order of development, the former is prior in reality.
Again, that which exists for the sake of the end * admits of
division into two classes, (1) the origin of the movement,
(2) that which is used by the end; I mean, for instance,
(1) that which can generate, (2) that which serves as an
instrument to what is generated,* for the one of these, that
which makes, must exist first, as the teacher before the
learner, and the other later, as the pipes are later than he
who learns to play upon them, for it is superfluous that

a scolex or egg, and so outside the mother; therefore they also are
not developed by the breathing of either the mother or themselves.
(3) The mammalian embryo does not breathe till the parts are all
formed—but A. gives no proof that the mother’s breathing has nothing
to do with their formation in Z/zs case.

The author of the treatise περὶ φύσιος παιδίου (Hippocrates, vol. i,
p. 419) had already contemplated the case of the egg and said that the
young bird breathed through the shell, and in this he was right enough.
The shell ‘is sufficiently porous to allow of the interchange of gases
between its interior and the external air, and thus the chemical pro-
cesses of respiration . . . are carried on during the whole period of
incubation’. Foster and Balfour, Evements of Embryology”, p. 1.

1 Sic, but A. is not thinking of reptiles ; he obviously contemplates
no class even of mammals except the fissiped carnivora.

2 The heat is the vital heat in the semen, the moisture or liquid is
that of the catamenia. Heat and moisture give rise to air (de Gen. et
Cor. ii. 331» 16), and therefore air necessarily exists in the embryo.

8. Reading τὸ τούτου ἕνεκα. * Reading γεννωμένῳ.

BOOK II. 6 7427

men who do not know how to play should have pipes.
Thus there are three things: first, the end, by which we
mean that for the sake of which something else exists ;
secondly, the principle of movement and of generation,
existing for the sake of the end (for that which can make 30
and generate, considered simply as such, exists only in
relation to what is made and generated); thirdly, the useful,

that is to say what the end uses. Accordingly, there must

first exist some part in which is the principle of movement

(I say a part because this is from the first one part of the end

and the most important part too) ;! next after this the whole 35
and the end ;” thirdly and lastly, the organic parts serving
these for certain uses. Hence if there is anything of this
sort which must exist in animals, containing the principle 742°
and end of all their nature, this must be the first to come
into being—first, that is, considered as the moving power, but
simultaneous with the whole embryo if considered as a part
of the end. Therefore all the organic parts whose nature
is to bring others into being must always themselves exist
before them, for they are for the sake of something else, as
the beginning for the sake of the end ; all those parts which
are for the sake of something else but are not of the nature
of beginnings must come into being later. So it is not
easy to distinguish which of the parts are prior, those which
are for the sake of another or that for the sake of which are
the former. For the parts which cause the movement,
being prior to the end in order of development, come in to
cause confusion, and it is not easy to distinguish these
as compared with the organic parts.® And yet it is in
accordance with this method that we must inquire what
comes into being after what ; for the end is later than some
parts and earlier than others. And for this reason that
part which contains the first principle* comes into being
first, next to this the upper half of the body. This is
why the parts about the head, and particularly the eyes,

σι

[9]

Τα, 6, the heart must first exist, and this is from the first a part of the

embryo, not something outside it.
21, e. the upper half of the animal.
5. Which are used only as instruments by the organism.
* The heart.

742° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

15 appear largest in the embryo at an early stage, while the
parts below the umbilicus, as the legs, are small; for the
lower parts are for the sake of the upper, and are neither
parts of the end? nor able to form it.

But they do not say well nor do they assign a necessary
cause who say simply that ‘it always happens so’, and
imagine that this is a first principle in these cases. Thus

20 Democritus of Abdera says that ‘there is no beginning ? of
the infinite; now the cause is a beginning, and the eternal
is infinite ; in consequence, to ask the cause of anything of
this kind is to seek for a beginning of the infinite’. Yet
according to this argument, which forbids us to seek the

25 cause, there will be no proof of any eternal truth whatever ;
but we see that there is a proof of many such, whether by
‘eternal’ we mean what always happens or what exists
eternally ; it is an eternal truth that the angles of a triangle
are always equal to two right angles, or that the diagonal
of a square is incommensurable with the side, and never-
theless a cause and a proof can be given for these truths.

30 While, then, it is well said that we must not take on us to
seek a beginning (or first principle) of all things, yet this is
not well said of all things whatever that always are or
always happen, but only of those which really are first
principles of the eternal things; for it is by another method,
not by proof, that we acquire knowledge of the first
principle. Now in that which is immovable and unchanging
the first principle is simply the essence of the thing,® but
when we come to those things which come into being the
principles are more than one, varying in kind and not all of

35 the same kind ; one of this number is the principle of move-
ment, and therefore in all the sanguinea the heart is formed

1 The lower parts of the body are a part of the body indeed as a
whole, but they only exist to subserve the upper part where all the
important functions of life are performed. It is this upper part then
that is the true end (réAos) of Nature, and thus the lower parts are not
‘ parts of the end’, but fall into the third class of mere instruments for
the use of the end.

2 The word for deg¢unzng in the original is the same as that for firs¢
principle, but it seems impossible to use the same word throughout in
English. I omit the words dei καί, which throw the argument of

Democritus into confusion.
3 e.g. the definition of a triangle.

BOOK II. 6 : 742°

first, as was said at the beginning, and in the other animals
that which is analogous to the heart. 743°
From the heart the blood-vessels extend throughout the
body as in the anatomical diagrams which are represented
on the walls,’ for the parts lie round these because they are
formed out of them. The homogeneous parts? are formed
by heat and cold, for some are put together and solidified 5
by the one and some by the other. The difference between
these has already been discussed elsewhere, and it has been
stated what kinds of things are soluble by liquid and fire,
and what are not soluble by liquid and cannot be melted
by ἥτε" The nutriment then oozes through the blood-
vessels and the passages in each of the parts, like water in
unbaked pottery, and thus is formed the flesh or its ana- 10
logues, being solidified by cold, which is why it is also
dissolved by fire. But all the particles given off which are
too earthy, having but little moisture and heat, cool as the
moisture evaporates along with the heat; so they become
hard and earthy in character, as nails, horns, hoofs, and
beaks, and therefore they are softened by fire but none of
them is melted by it, while some of them, as egg-shells, are
soluble in liquids The sinews and bones are formed by
the internal heat as the moisture dries, and hence the bones
are insoluble by fire like pottery, for like it they have been
as it were baked in an oven by the heat in the process of 29
development. But it is not anything whatever that is
made into flesh or bone by the heat, but only something
naturally fitted for the purpose; nor is it made in any place
or time whatever, but only in a place and time naturally so
fitted.2 For neither will that which exists potentially be
made except by that moving agent which possesses the
actuality, nor will that which possesses the actuality make
anything out of anything whatever; the carpenter would 25

“"

1 καθάπερ of τοὺς κανάβους γράφοντες ἐν τοῖς τοίχοις. The reference
apparently is to drawings on the walls of a lecture-room, showing the
course of the blood-vessels.

2 Omitting ἐκ. 3 Meteorologica, iv. 7-10.

* Egg-shell is soluble in some liquids, as acetic acid.

> Reading οὔθ᾽ ὅπου ἔτυχεν οὔθ᾽ ὅποτε ἔτυχεν ἀλλὰ τὸ πεφυκὸς Kal οὗ
πέφυκε κτλ.

743° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

not make a box except out of wood, nor will a box be made
out of the wood without the carpenter. The heat exists in
the seminal secretion, and the movement and activity in it
is sufficient in kind and in quantity to correspond to each of
30 the parts. In so far as there is any deficiency or excess, the
resulting product is in worse condition or physically de-
fective, in like manner as in the case of external substances!
which are thickened by boiling that they may be more
palatable or for any other purpose. But in the latter case
it is we who apply the heat in due measure for the motion
required ; in the former it is the nature of the male parent
35 that gives it, or with animals spontaneously generated it is
the movement and heat imparted by the right season of
the year that it is the cause.
Cooling, again, is mere deprivation of heat. Nature
makes use of both; they have of necessity the power of
743° bringing about different results,?2 but in the development
of the embryo we find that the one cools and the other
heats for some definite purpose, and so each of the parts
is formed ; thus it is in one sense by necessity, in another
5 for a final cause, that they make the flesh soft, the sinews
solid and elastic, the bones solid and brittle. The skin,
again, is formed by the drying of the flesh, like the scum
upon boiled substances ; it is so formed not only because
it is on the outside, but also because what is glutinous,
being unable to evaporate, remains on the surface. While
το in other animals the glutinous is dry, for which reason the
covering of the invertebrates is testaceous or crustaceous,
in the vertebrates it is rather of the nature of fat. In all
of these which are not of too earthy a nature the fat is
collected under the covering of the skin, a fact which points
15 to the skin being formed out of such a glutinous substance,
for fat is somewhat glutinous. As we said, all these things
must be understood to be formed in one sense of necessity,
but in another sense not of necessity but for a final cause.
The upper half of the body, then, is first marked out in

* External as contrasted with the embryo within the mother.
? Lit. ‘making one thing ¢47s and another ¢hat’. Necessity gives
the fundamental properties of matter, Nature makes use of them.

BOOK II. 6 743°

the order of development ; as time goes on the lower also
reaches its full size in the sanguinea. All the parts are 20
first marked out in their outlines and acquire later on their
colour and softness or hardness, exactly as if Nature were
a painter producing a work of art, for painters, too, first
sketch in the animal! with lines and only after that put in
the colours. 25

Because the source of the sensations is in the heart,
therefore this is the part first formed in the whole animal,’
and because of the heat of this organ the cold forms the
brain, where the blood-vessels terminate above, correspond-
ing to the heat of the heart. Hence the parts about the
head begin to form next in order after the heart, and 3°
surpass the other parts in size, for the brain is from the
first large and fluid.

There is a difficulty about what happens with the eyes
of animals. Though from the beginning they appear very
large in all creatures, whether they walk or swim or fly,
yet they are the last of the parts to be formed completely,
for in the intervening time they collapse.* The reason is 35
this. The sense-organ of the eyes is set upon certain
passages, as are the other sense-organs.° Whereas those
of touch and taste are simply the body itself or some part 744*
of the body® of animals, those of smell and hearing are

1 ζῷον. This would include the human subject; cf. Plato, Ref. iv.
420 C.

2 Since sensation is the characteristic of animal life.

3 Heat and cold being the physical agents of development, the former
makes the heart, the latter the brain. A. thought the brain was cold
and its office was to cool the blood. It is placed where the blood-
vessels from the heart terminate ‘ above’, i. e. anteriorly, in the embryo.
It is formed next after the heart because it is to correct the heart’s
excessive heat, and what is to correct will naturally come after what is
to be corrected. In reality the brain begins to form before the heart,
but this could not be discovered by the naked eye.

4 The eyes are said to be last finished because the eyelids are
reckoned a part of them, and these are not separated in many animals
until after birth, all the other parts being complete before them. They
shrink relatively to the other parts in course of development, but A.
seems to think that they also shrink absolutely.

° This seems a strange statement; it is difficult to see how the
sense-organ of touch or of taste can be said to be ‘set upon’ any
‘passage’. The best MS. reads πολλά for ra ἄλλα, but that is equally
difficult.

° i.e. the tongue.

744° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

passages connecting with the external air and full them-
selves of innate spiritus ;! these passages end at the small
blood-vessels about the brain which run thither from the
5 heart. But the eye is the only sense-organ that has a bodily
constitution peculiar to itself. It is fluid and cold, and
does not exist from the first in the place which it occupies
later in the same way as the other parts do, for they exist
potentially to begin with and actually come into being
later, but the eye is the purest part of the liquidity about
το the brain drained off through the passages which are visible
running from them to the membrane round the brain.?
A proof of this is that, apart from the brain, there is no
other part in the head that is cold and fluid except the
eye. Of necessity therefore this region is large at first
15 but falls in later. For the same thing happens with the
brain; at first it is liquid and large, but in course of
evaporation and concoction it becomes more solid and falls
‘in; this applies both to the brain and the eyes.? The
head is very large at first, on account of the brain, and
the eyes appear large because of the liquid in them. They
are the last organs to reach completion because the brain
is formed with difficulty ; for it is at a late period that
it gets rid of its coldness and fluidity ; this applies to all
animals possessing a brain,* but especially to man. For

1 συμφύτου πνεύματος. Thisis not ordinary air, but ἃ sort of ‘ vital air’
of a mysterious nature nowhere satisfactorily explained. The passages
are the nostrils and (probably) the Eustachian tube. The spiritus in
them, communicating with the air, transmits an impression to the
blood-vessels, which pass it on to the heart, the seat of sensation.

3 These passages (πόροι) can hardly be anything but the optic
nerves. A. considers the eye continuous with the brain and made of
the same material in its purest form; the eye is not developed 27 sz¢u,
therefore, like the heart, &c., or the brain itself, but it is an offshoot
from the brain. Consequently it does not exist potentially from the first
in the part of the embryo where it is to be formed, as the heart, &c., do.

It is supposed that A. was actually the first man to discover any, if
only the optic, nerves, though he had no notion what they were.

3 Read καὶ τὰ ὄμματα, and omit καὶ τὸ μέγεθος τὸ τῶν ὀμμάτων. ‘The
brain completely fills the brain-case in embryonic fishes, but in the
adult only occupies a small part of it’ (Ogle on de Partibus, ii. 656” 13).
Hence, thinks Ogle, the statement about it in the text, which is untrue
of other vertebrates.

* Reading πάντων μὲν τῶν ἐχόντων. A. does not allow that any
animals ws εἰπεῖν except vertebrates have a brain, though he admits
that the cephalopoda have something analogous to it (de Partibus,

BOOK II. 6

this reason the ‘bregma’! is the last of the bones to be
formed ; even after birth this bone is still soft in children.
The cause of this being so with men more than with other
animals is the fact that their brain is the most fluid and
largest.2, This again is because the heat in man’s heart is
purest. His intellect shows how well he is tempered,* for
man is the wisest of animals. And children for a long
time have no control over their heads on account of the
heaviness of the brain; and the same applies to the parts
which it is necessary to move, for it is late that the prin-
ciple of motion gets control over the upper parts, and last

of all over those whose motion is not connected directly :

with it, as that of the legs is not. Now the eyelid is such
a part. But since Nature makes nothing superfluous nor
in vain, it is clear also that she makes nothing too late or
too soon, for if she did the result would be either in vain
or superfluous. Hence it is necessary that the eyelids
should be separated at the same time as the heart is able
to move them. So then the eyes of animals are perfected
late because of the amount of concoction required by the
brain, and last of all the parts because the motion must be
very strong before it can affect parts so far from the first
principle of motion and so cold. And it is plain that such
is the nature of the eyelids, for if the head is affected by

ii. 6525 25). The brain is always ‘cold and fluid’, and so the statement
here made must be understood to refer only to the extreme coldness
and fluidity which characterize it at first in the embryo ; in the adult it
is ‘the most consistent of all the animal fluids’ (Ogle on de Partzbus,
ii. 6521). ‘Especially to man,’ because A. held that in man alone
the βρέγμα solidifies late (de Partibus, 653% 34).

1 There is a space on the top of the skull which does not close up for
some months after birth. This space is known as the ‘anterior
fontanelle’, and is covered by a membrane, not a bone. It is closed
over finally by the bones growing over it from each side. This
appears to be what is referred to; the ‘bregma’ is thus, properly
speaking, not a bone at all, at least at first.

? ‘Largest in proportion to his size’ is what A. means probably ;
see de Partibus, ii. 653% 28. This isnot absolutely correct (Ogle, ad /oc.).

3 i,e. his temperature is highest. But in fact many birds and
mammals are hotter.

4 The extreme heat about the heart is tempered by the large brain.
Thus the brain with A, has some connexion with intellect after all.

5 j, 6. upper and not connected with the heart. Therefore the heart
is late in gaining control over the eyelids and moving them.

744°

oe)
σι

744°

744° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

never so little heaviness through sleepiness or drunkenness
or anything else of the kind, we cannot raise the eyelids
though their own weight is so small. So much for the

το question how the eyes come into being, and why and for
what cause they are the last to be fully developed.

Each of the other parts is formed out of the nutriment,
those most honourable and participating in the sovereign
principle? from the nutriment which is first and purest and
fully concocted,? those which are only necessary for the

15 Sake of the former parts from the inferior nutriment and
the residues left over from the other. For Nature, like
a good householder, is not in the habit of throwing away
anything from which it is possible to make anything useful.
Now in a household the best part of the food that comes
in is set apart for the free men, the inferior and the residue

20 of the best for the slaves, and the worst is given to the
animals that live with them. Just as the intellect acts thus
in the outside world with a view to the growth of the
persons concerned, so in the case of the embryo itself does
Nature form from the purest material the flesh and the
body of the other® sense-organs, and from the residues

25 thereof bones, sinews, hair, and also nails and hoofs and the
like ; hence these are last to assume their form, for they
have to wait till the time when Nature has some residue to
spare.

The bones, then, are made in the first conformation of
the parts from the seminal secretion or residue. As the

30 animal grows the bones also grow from the natural nourish-
ment, being the same as that of the sovereign parts,* but of
this they only take up the superfluous residues. For every-
where the nutriment may be divided into two kinds, the
first and the second;° the former is ‘nutritious’,® being

1 j,e. the sense-organs, which are concerned with the principle of
sense, the decisive principle of animal life.

2 i.e. from the blood in its first form as made by the heart. (Ina
later form this becomes the semen.)

5 Other, because the flesh also is a sense-organ, that of touch.

* i.e. the blood.

° Omitting καί before τῆς τροφῆς, but the sentence still seems
corrupt.

ὁ βρεπτικόν must here be understood as practically meaning ‘ forma-
tive’ or ‘creative’.

BOOK II. 6 744°

that which gives its essence both to the whole and to the
parts; the latter is concerned with growth, being that which 35
causes quantitative increase. But these must be distinguished
more fully later on. The sinews are formed in the same way

as the bones and out of the same materials, the seminal and
nutritious residue. Nails, hair, hoofs, horns, beaks, the 745°
spurs of cocks, and any other similar parts, are on the
contrary formed from the nutriment which is taken later!
and only concerned with growth, in other words that which
is derived from the mother, or from the outer world after
birth. For this reason the bones on the one hand only
grow up to a certain point (for there is a limit of size in all
animals, and therefore also of the growth of the bones; if
these had been always able to grow, all animals that have
bone or its analogue 2 would grow as long as they lived, for
these set the limit of size to animals. What is the reason
of their not always increasing in size must be stated later),
Hair, on the contrary, and growths akin to hair go on grow-
ing as long as they exist at all, and increase yet more in
diseases * and when the body is getting old and wasting,
because more residual matter is left over, as owing to old
age and disease less is expended on the important parts,
though when the residual matter also fails through age the
hair fails with it. But the contrary is the case with
the bones, for they waste away along with the body and
the other parts.° Hair actually goes on growing after
death ; it does not, however, begin growing then.®

Ὁ

1 j.e. drawn from the mother only after the initial impulse given by
the semen of the father has ceased to act.

2 The so-called bone of cuttle-fish and the cartilage of elasmobranchs,

* i.e. they are the framework of the body.

* Not true, say AW., but it is ¢tey who are wrong; it is notorious
and true that the hair grows more luxuriantly in consumption, and that
A. is thinking of consumption especially appears from H. A. ili. 518 20.
Moreover hair may ‘increase’ in connexion with an inflamed state of
the skin; see Darwin, Descent of Man, one vol. ed., p. 26; Erasmus
Wilson, Ox Healthy Skin*, pp. 105-6.

° The spinal column is contracted in old age, but this is due to
shrinkage of the connective tissue of the vertebrae, and the bones
themselves do not become smaller.

° i.e. if hair already exists, as the beard, it will grow longer after
death, but new hair will not be developed on a bald spot. That hair
can go on growing after death is a popular fallacy, nor is it true that
it grows more in old age. (In some rare cases ‘the hair has been

745°

745

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

About the teeth a difficulty may be raised. They have
actually the same nature as the bones, and are formed
out of the bones,! but nails, hair, horns, and the like
are formed out of the skin,” and that is why they change
in colour along with it, for they become white, black, and
all sorts of colours according to that of the skin. But
the teeth do nothing of the sort, for they are made out of
the bones in all animals that have both bones and teeth.®

5 Of all the bones they alone go on growing through life,*

as is plain with the teeth which grow out of the straight
line so as no longer to touch each other. The reason
for their growth, as a final cause, is their function, for they
would soon be worn down if there were not some means of
saving them; even as it is they are altogether worn down
in old age in some animals which eat much and have not
large teeth, their growth not being in proportion to their
detrition. And so Nature has contrived well to meet the
case in this also, for she causes the failure of the teeth to
synchronize with old age and death. If life lasted for
a thousand or ten thousand years the original teeth must
have been very large indeed, and many sets of them must
have been produced, for even if they had grown continuously
they would still have been worn smooth and become useless
for their work. The final cause of their growth has been
now stated, but besides this as a matter of fact the growth®
of the teeth is not the same as that of the other bones.
The latter all come into being in the first formation of the
embryo and none of them later, but the teeth do so later.

renewed in old age’ (Darwin, Variation", vol. ii, p. 327), and it is
possible that A. may have known of such a case.)

1 Neither of these statements is correct; the teeth are formed
from the mucous membrane (Foster and Balfour, Evements of
Embryology *, p. 421). 2 This is true.

3 This practically means all vertebrates except birds.

* This is so with the incisors of rodents and tusks of elephants;
A. extends the principle to all teeth; indeed I fear that he invented
his facts here on the grounds he proceeds to set forth. Probably
he may have seen a rat or some such animal one of whose incisors
had grown long owing to its no longer meeting that of the
opposite jaw.

ὃ φύσιν. A little way back, and again a little later, A. says the
teeth ave the same mature (φύσιν) as bones; it seems that he uses
φύσιν here in a different sense, development.

BOOK II. 6 745°

Therefore it is possible for them to grow again after the
first set falls out, for though they touch the bones! they are
not connate with them. They are formed, however, out of
the nutriment distributed to the bones, and so have the
same nature, even when the bones have their own number
complete.’

Other animals are born in possession of teeth or their 10
analogue (unless in cases contrary to Nature), because
when they are set free from the parent they are more
perfect than man; but man (also unless in cases contrary
to Nature) * is born without them.

The reason will be stated later why some teeth are
formed and fall out but others do not fall out.* 15
It is because such parts are formed from a residue that

man is the most naked in body of all animals and has the
smallest nails in proportion to his size; he has the least
amount of earthy residue, but that part of the blood which
is not concocted is the residue, and the earthy part in the
bodies of. all animals is the least concocted.2 We have 20
now stated how each of the parts is formed and what is
the cause of their generation.

7 In viviparous animals, as said before, the embryo gets
its growth through the umbilical cord. For since the
nutritive power of the soul, as well as the others, is present
in animals, it straightway sends off this cord like a root 25
to the uterus.’ The cord consists of blood-vessels in
a sheath, more numerous in the larger animals as cattle
and the like, one in the smallest, two in those of inter-

Of course they do not touch them at all really.

Sc. while the second set of teeth is still growing.

Cases of children born with teeth are pretty common. The
analogue to teeth means the beak of birds.

1
2
3

POs
5 Earthy matter is least concocted. .*. Earthy matter gives most
residuum. But man has least earthy matter. .. Man has least

residuum, hairs, nails, &c.

® *Straightway’ because the first thing a seed does is to send off
a root. But this quaint analogy has misled Aristotle ; and in point of
fact the mammalian ovum is attached to the wall of the uterus and
has begun developing long before the umbilical stalk begins to form
at all.

AR. G. A. Η

745°

7465

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

mediate size.1 Through this cord the embryo receives its Ὁ
nourishment in the form of blood, for the uterus is the
termination of many blood-vessels. All animals with no
front teeth in the upper jaw,” and all those which have
them in both jaws and whose uterus has not one great
blood-vessel running through it but many close together
instead—all these have in the uterus the so-called coty-
ledons® (with which the umbilical cord connects and is
closely united; for the vessels which pass through the
cord run backwards and forwards between embryo and
uterus and split up into smaller vessels all over the uterus ;
where they terminate, there are found the cotyledons).*
Their convexity is turned towards the uterus, the concavity
towards the embryo. Between uterus and embryo are
the chorion and the membranes.° As the embryo grows
and approaches perfection the cotyledons become smaller
and finally disappear when it is perfected.6 For Nature
sends the sanguineous nutriment for the embryo into this
part of the uterus as she sends milk into the breasts, and

’ In mammalia there are always two arteries and one, or rarely
two, veins (Foster and Balfour, -/ememts*, p. 348). Thus there are
never less than three blood-vessels. I suppose A. made out more in
large animals than in small ones because they are larger in the former.
Should we not read ἐλαχίστοις for ἐσχάτοις) Cf. H. A. vii. 586” 17
πάμπαν μικροῖς; but the author of that spurious book is mistaken
in thinking the reference is to birds, for A. is talking of vivipara
only.

3 Ruminants. But it is hard to see what A. means by the animals
he goes on to describe. Prof. Hill suggests that he may be thinking
of the horse.

8. The cotyledons are pits in the modified wall of the uterus into
which fit the villi of the outside membrane of the embryo. In modern
works the term is applied to the tufts of villi themselves, but A.
plainly uses it of the pits into which they fit, as one would expect from
the derivation. They were called ‘cotyledons’ from the suckers on
the arms of cuttle-fish (Galen, vol. iv, p. 537).

4 The passage in this parenthesis is inserted from one MS. It was
translated by Gaza. Read πρὸς ds at the beginning of it for πρὸς a.

° The chorion is the outside membrane of the embryo, which unites
with a modified part of the uterus of the mother to form the placenta.
The other membranes would be certainly the amnion, and perhaps, as
Professor Hill suggests, that part of the allantois which is not united
with the chorion.

δ In man the blood-vessels of the placenta increase during pregnancy
to such an extent that the other tissues do finally almost disappear.
But A. cannot be thinking of man.

BOOKOIT. 7 746°

because the cotyledons are gradually! aggregated from
many into a few the body of the cotyledon becomes like 5
an eruption or inflammation.* So long as the embryo is
comparatively small, being unable to receive much nutri-
ment, they are plain and large, but when it has increased
in size they fall in together.

But most of the animals which have front teeth in both
jaws and no horns? have no cotyledons* in the uterus, τὸ
but the umbilical cord runs to meet one blood-vessel, which
is large and extends throughout the uterus. Of such
animals some produce one young at a time, some more
than one, but the same description applies to both these
classes. (This should be studied with the aid of the
examples drawn in the Azatomy and the Exquirtes.)° For
the young, if numerous, are attached each to its umbilical
cord, and this to the blood-vessel of the mother ; they are
arranged next to one another along the stream of the
blood-vessel as along a canal ; and each embryo is enclosed
in its membranes and chorion.®

Those who say’ that children are nourished in the
uterus by sucking some lump of flesh or other are mistaken. 20
If so, the same would have been the case with other
animals, but as it is we do not find this (and this can easily
be observed by dissection). Secondly, all embryos alike,
whether of creatures that fly or swim or walk, are sur-

1 Omitting καί before κατὰ μικρόν.

By the ‘ body’ A. means the ‘caruncle’ or swelling in the wall of
the uterus, in which is the cotyledon. The ‘gradual aggregation’ is
unintelligible, but the caruncle does become ‘like an inflammation’
ΠΡ. Bill):

3 κολοβῶν certainly means ‘hornless’ here. A. insists often on the
inverse development of horns and teeth.

* Reading κοτυληδόνας.

5 H.A., but where? 586 15-23 is the only passage suitable, and
that is in the seventh book, which is spurious.

5 This description looks as if it were taken from the pig. That
animal has a very simple placenta, in which the cotyledons are very
little developed, though not entirely absent, as A. says. But there
is no decidua, a fact which explains his statement. Neither the pig,
however, nor any other animal has ‘ one great vessel running through
the uterus’.

7 Democritus? (see Plutarch, P/ac. Phil. v. 16). Censorinus (de Die
Natali,6) ascribes the theory to Diogenes and Hippo. But it was also
a medical view ; see Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 430, Galen, vol. xix, p. 166.

H 2

7465

σι

746"

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

rounded by fine membranes separating them from the
uterus and from the fluids which are formed in it; but
neither in these themselves is there anything of the kind,
nor is it possible for the embryo to take nourishment by
means of any of them. Thirdly, it is plain that all creatures
developed in eggs grow when separated from the uterus.
Natural intercourse takes place between animals of the
same kind. However, those also unite whose nature is near
akin and whose form is not very different, if their size is
much the same and if the periods of gestation are equal.
In other animals such cases are rare, but they occur with
dogs and foxes and wolves ;1 the Indian dogs also spring
from the union of a dog with some wild dog-like animal.?
A similar thing has been seen to take place in those birds
that are amative, as partridges and hens.? Among birds
of prey hawks of different form are thought to unite,
and the same applies to some other birds. Nothing worth
mentioning has been observed in the inhabitants of the sea,
but the so-called ‘rhinobates’ especially is thought to
spring from the union of the ‘rhine’ and ‘batus’.4 And

1 Dogs have been crossed with foxes and wolves, and the hybrids
are fertile both z#¢er se and with the parent stock. Dogs and wolves
cross zaturally in both hemispheres; see Darwin, Varzation'’, vol. i,
pp. 21-4. Various nearly allied species of birds have been known to
cross in a wild state, especially the black grouse and the common
pheasant ; for other cases see Suchetet, Des Hydrides a [état sauvage,
Lille, 1896.

2 The Indian dog was said by some to be descended from the union
of a bitch with a tiger! (71. A. vill.6072 4). AW. suggest that it was a
jackal, maintaining that θώς in A. is not a jackal, most improbably.
Others think the wild dog of India is meant, i.e. some or all of the species
of the genus Cyon, familiar to readers of Kipling as the ‘red dog’. At
one time I thought the cheetah a very likely animal, but on comparison
of de Partibus, i. 643 6, Xen. (71. ix. 1, x. 1, 1 must conclude that it was
none of those above mentioned, but probably a large brindled hound
imported from the East, perhaps such a one as we see in the Assyrian
bas-reliefs. See my note in the Classical Quarterly for 1909.

8 As the Greeks kept both these birds in domestication there is no
reason to doubt this. Pheasants and fowls will cross. The story about
the hawks is only some reckless guess like that about 7Azobates.

* The rhiné is probably some kind of shark, the batus a ray, the
former having a thick tail, the latter a thin one. Rhinobates was a
fish with thick tail but the forepart of the body like a batus (AW.
H. A.vol.i, p.147). It certainly did not belong to the modern genus of
that name; | incline to think it was the angel fish, Sguatina vulgarts.
Hybridism is supposed to be not uncommon among fish (Giinther,
Study of Fishes, p. 178).

BOOK UI, 7 746°

the proverb about Libya, that ‘ Libya is always producing
something new ’, is said to have originated from animals of
different species uniting with one another in that country,
for it is said that because of the want of water all meet at
the few places where springs are to be found, and that even
different kinds unite in consequence.

Of the animals that arise from such union all except
mules are found to copulate again with each other and to
be able to produce young of both sexes, but mules alone
are sterile, for they do not generate by union with one 18
another or with other animals. The problem why any
individual, whether male or female, is sterile is a general
one, for some men and women are sterile, and so are other
animals in their several kinds, as horses and sheep. But
this kind, that of mules, is universally so. The causes of 20
sterility in other animals are several. Both men and
women are sterile from birth when the parts useful for
union are imperfect, so that men never grow a beard but
remain like eunuchs, and women do not attain puberty ;
the same thing may befall others as their years advance,
sometimes on account of the body being too well nourished
(for in men who are in too good condition and women who
are too fat the seminal secretion? is taken up into the
body, and the former have no semen, the latter no cata-
menia); at other times by reason of sickness men emit the
semen in a cold and liquid state, and the discharges of 30
women are bad and full of morbid secretions. Often, too,
in both sexes this state is caused by injuries in the parts
and regions contributory to copulation. Some such cases are
curable, others incurable, but the subjects especially remain
sterile if anything of the sort has happened in the first
formation of the parts in the embryo, for then are pro-
duced women of a masculine and men of a feminine appear- 747°
ance, and in the former the catamenia do not occur, in the

τὸ
vu

1 It is to be observed that A. does not guarantee this. Cf. H. A. viii.
606” 18 seqq. From an obscure passage in Hippocrates (vol. i, p. 549)
I guess that Hippocrates originated the theory.

2 i. e. the semen of men and the catamenia of women; the latter have
no semen according to A. It is notorious that fat animals are bad
breeders. Cf. Hippocrates, vol. i, pp. 475, 560, &c.

747° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

latter the semen is thin and cold. Hence it is with good
reason that the semen of men is tested in water to find out
if it is infertile, for that which is thin and cold is quickly
5 spread out on the surface, but the fertile sinks to the
bottom, for that which is well concocted is hct indeed, but
that which is firm and thick is well concocted.1. They test
women by pessaries to see if the smells thereof permeate
from below upwards to the breath from the mouth,? and
10 by colours smeared upon the eyes to see if they colour the
saliva. If these results do not follow it is a sign that the
passages of the body, through which the catamenia are
secreted, are clogged and closed. For the region about
the eyes is, of all the head, that most nearly connected with
the generative secretions ; a proof of this is that it ® alone
15is visibly changed in sexual intercourse, and those who
indulge too much in this are seen to have their eyes sunken
in. The reason is that the nature of the semen is similar
to that of the brain,* for the material of it is watery (the
heat being acquired later).° And the seminal purgations
20 are from the region of the diaphragm, for the first principle
of nature is there, so that the movements from the pudenda
are communicated to the chest, and the smells from the
chest are perceived through the respiration.®

1 Tt floats because it is thin, it sinks because it is thick. It is true it
is hot, but well-concocted things must be hot, and therefore thick
semen is so; the thickness overcomes the heat and makes it heavy.
AW. appear to me to make nonsense of this by neglecting the μέν and
δέ. Heat and cold in animals are not the same as ordinary heat and
cold according to A.; see Ogle on de Partibus, ii. 652° 9. (Of course
A. could not have said that anything could sink because it is hot.)

? Cf. Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 468, iii. 6, 7,747. Recipes for various
pessaries given in the first of these treatises contain many fragrant
herbs such as myrrh, galbanum, &c. This passage of A. suggests
that men and women were tested before marriage to find out whether
they were capable of having children.

% Sic, but does not A. mean the eyes themselves? ‘ Adspicies oculos
tremulo fulgore micantes’ (Ovid, A.A. ii. 721).

4 This is after all no more absurd than the popular view that the
semen is connected with the ‘spinal marrow’, as in Shakespeare’s
‘spending his manly marrow in her arms’. Plato, Zimaeus, 91 A,
Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. ed.), vol. i, p. 548.

5 Both brain and semen are cold and watery when formed first ; the
former remains cold, the latter somehow acquires the vital heat at a
later period of development.

δ The pessary sets up movements which, like all movements in any
part, are passed on to the centre of the body as the seat of life. Asthe

BOOK II. 8 747°

8 In men, then, and in other kinds, as said before, such
deficiency occurs sporadically, but the whole of the mule 2;
kind is sterile. The reason has not been rightly given by
Empedocles and Democritus, of whom the former expresses
himself obscurely, the latter more intelligibly. For they
offer their demonstration in the case of all these animals
alike which unite against their affinities.1 Democritus says
that the genital passages of mules are spoilt in the mother’s 30
uterus because the animals from the first are not produced
from parents of the same kind. But we find that though
this is so with other animals they are none the less able to
generate ; yet, if this were the reason, all others that unite
in this manner ought to be barren. Empedocles assigns as
his reason that the mixture of the ‘ seeds’ becomes dense,
each of the two seminal fluids out of which it is made being 747°
soft, for the hollows in each fit into the densities of the other,
and in such cases a hard substance is formed out of soft ones,
like bronze mingled with tin. Now he does not give the
correct reason in the case of bronze and tin—(we have
spoken of them in the Prodlems*)—nor, to take general 5
ground, does he take his principles from the intelligible.
How do the ‘ hollows’ and ‘solids’ fit into one another to
make the mixing, e. g. in the case of wine and water? This
saying is quite beyond us; for how we are to understand
the ‘hollows’ of the wine and water is too far beyond our
perception. Again, when, as a matter of fact, horse is born
of horse, ass of ass, and mule of horse and ass in two ways
according as the parents are stallion and she-ass or jackass
and mare, why in the last case does there result something
so ‘dense’ that the offspring is sterile, whereas the offspring
of male and female horse, male and female ass, is not sterile?
And yet the generative fluid of the male and female horse
is soft. But both sexes of the horse cross with both sexes

“μι

Οο

“μ--

pessary is highly scented these scents pass up along with the move-
ments, and entering the cavity of the chest are then expelled with the
breath through the mouth.

1 Whereas they ought to have considered mules only. By proving
all hybrids barren they prove too much, for many hybrids are not
barren.

2 There is nothing about this in the existing collection of Problems.

° This is short for: ‘The fluid of both sexes both of the horse and of

747° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

of the ass, and the offspring of both crosses are barren,
according to Empedocles, because from both is produced
something ‘dense ’,” the ‘ seeds’ being ‘soft’. If so, the off-
20 spring of stallion and mare ought also to be sterile. If one
of them alone united with the ass, it might be said that the
cause of the mule’s being unable to generate was the unlike-
ness ® of that one to the generative fluid of the ass; but, as
it is, whatever be the character of that generative fluid with
which it unites in the ass, such it is also in the animal of its
own kind.*’ Then, again, the argument is intended to apply
25 to both male and female mules alike, but the male does
generate at seven years of age, it is said;° it is the female
alone® that is entirely sterile, and even she is so only
because she does not complete the development of the
embryo, for a female mule has been known to conceive.’
Perhaps an abstract proof might appear to be more
plausible than those already given ; I call it abstract because
the more general it is the further is it removed from the
30 special principles involved. It runs somewhat as follows.
From male and female of the same species there are born in
course of nature male and female of the same species as the
parents, e.g. male and female puppies from male and female
dog. From parents of different species is born a young one
different in species ; thus if a dog is different from a lion,

the ass is soft just as much when they are mated naturally as when
they are crossed’.

1 The ordinary mule is produced by crossing a jackass with a mare;
the hybrid of a stallion and a she-ass is called a jennet, but is much
less used. 2 Read πυκνόν τι for ἕν τι.

3. For γεννᾶν ὅμοιον read γεννᾶν ἀνόμοιον ὄν (ὄν is in one Μ98.).

* This sentence appears to be hopelessly corrupt, nor can I conjecture
what the argument may have been.

° ‘It is said’, but would A. have repeated it if he had not been
demolishing an opponent? Obviously the story was that it fertilized a
mare. ‘Neither the mule nor the jennet is fertile, either among
themselves or with other members of the horse family’, says Captain
Hayes afud Tegetmeier and Sunderland, Horses, Asses, Zebras, Mules,
p. 80, where is a discussion on the subject; no certain case is known
to them. ‘The stallion mule is absolutely sterile’, p. 150. Darwin
believed at one time that ‘even the mule has bred’ (Foundations of
the Origin, pp. 11, 97, 102), but apparently gave this up before 1859.

° I change μόνος to μόνη and transpose it to follow θήλεια.

7 *In warm climates it is stated that occasionally female mules
become pregnant’ (by a horse), ‘but that pregnancy is invariably
followed by abortion, and that at an early stage’ (Tegetmeier, ΖόΖα.).

BOOK Π. 8 747°

the offspring of male dog and lioness or of lion and bitch

will be different from both parents. If this is so, then since

(1) mules are produced of both sexes and are not different 748*
in species from one another, and (2) a mule is born of horse
and ass and these are different in species from mules, it is
impossible that anything should be produced from mules.
For (1) another kind cannot be, because the product of male
and female of the same species is also of the same species,
and (2) a mule cannot be, because that is the product of
horse and ass which are different in form, [and it was laid
down that from parents different in form is born a different
animal].!_ Now this theory is too general and empty. For
all theories not based on the special principles involved are
empty ; they only appear to be connected with the facts
without being so really. As geometrical arguments must τὸ
start from geometrical principles, so it is with the others ;
that which is empty may seem to be something, but is really
nothing. Now the basis of this particular theory is not true,
for many animals of different species are fertile with one
another, as was said before. So we must not inquire into
questions of natural science in this fashion any more than
any other questions; we shall be more likely to find the
reason by considering the facts peculiar to the two kinds
concerned, horse and ass. In the first place, each of them,
if mated with its own kind, bears only one young one;
secondly, the females are not always able to conceive from
the male (wherefore breeders put the horse to the mare
again at intervals”). Indeed, both the mare is deficient in 20
catamenia, discharging less than any other quadruped,’ and

_
σι

1 The argument seems to amount to this. As mules are of the same
‘species’, their offspring could not be any other species. But neither
can it be a mule, for a mule is born of a cross between different species,
and can only be so produced ; therefore it cannot be produced by two
mules, which are of the same species with one another! The words
in brackets plainly have nothing to do with the question and are
probably an addition.

2 The MSS. here add the foolish remark ‘because she cannot bear
him continuously’, which I have ejected altogether. A. states the fact
about breeders to show that mares do not conceive so very readily;
both this fact and the other, that she bears only one at a time, show
that we need not wonder if such animals are easily sterilized. What
follows is directed to the same end.

5. ‘Least in proportion to size,’ says A. in 7. A. vi. 573" 11, where AW.

7485

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the she-ass does not admit the impregnation, but ejects the
semen with her urine, wherefore men follow flogging her
after intercourse Again the ass is an animal of cold
nature,” and so is not wont to be produced in wintry regions
because it cannot bear cold, as in Scythia® and the neigh-
bouring country and among the Celts beyond Iberia,* for
this country also is cold. For this cause they do not put
the jackasses to the females at the equinox, as they do with
horses, but about the summer solstice, in order that the ass-
foals may be born in a warm season, for the mothers bear at
the same season as that in which they are impregnated, the
period of gestation in both horse and ass being one year.°
The animal, then, being, as has been said, of such a cold
nature, its semen also must be cold. A proof of this is that
ifa horse mount a female ὃ already impregnated by an ass
he does not destroy the impregnation of the ass, but if the
ass be the second to mount her he does destroy that of the
horse because of the coldness of his own semen.’ When,

748° therefore, they unite with each other, the generative elements

are preserved by the heat of the one of them, that con-
tributed by the horse being the hotter; for in the ass both
the semen of the male and the material contributed by the
female are cold, and those of the horse, in both sexes, are
hotter. Now when either hot is added to cold or cold to
hot so as to mix, the result is that the embryo itself arising
from these is preserved and thus these animals are fertile
when crossed with one another, but the animal produced by
them is no longer fertile but unable to produce perfect
offspring.®

refer to Numann as saying that they discharge ‘ nur eine schleimartige
Substanz’. ‘Quadruped’ here means mammal.

1 H. A. vi. 5778 22, where AW. say they do this in Germany.

2. Either omit τό before ζῷον or ὁ ὄνος as a gloss after it.

° Cf. Herodotus, iv. 28. * i.e. north of the Pyrenees.

° It is a common error to suppose the period of gestation to be the
same in both animals; in reality it is eleven months in the horse,
twelve or a little more in the ass (Tegetmeier, &c., pp. 2, 14).

δ From H, A. vi. 577713, 28 it appears that this means a mare, not
a she-ass.

1 This statement must be based on a very insufficient number of
observations.

® This explanation is very lame, though it is superior to those of A.’s

BOOK II. 8 748°

And in general each of these animals naturally tends
towards sterility. The ass has all the disadvantages already
mentioned, and if it should not begin to generate after the
first shedding of teeth,! it no longer generates at all; so near
is the constitution of the ass to being sterile.2, The horse is
much the same ; it tends naturally towards sterility, and to
make it entirely so it is only necessary that its generative
secretion should become colder; now this is what happens
to it when mixed with the corresponding secretion of the
ass.2 The ass in like manner comes very near generating a
sterile animal when mated with its own species. Thus when
the difficulty of a cross contrary to nature is added, (when
too even in the other case when united with their own species
they with difficulty produce a single young one), the result
of the cross, being still more sterile* and contrary to nature,
will need nothing further to make it sterile, but will be so of
necessity.

We find also that the bodies of female mules grow large ὅ 20
because the matter which is secreted in other animals to
form the catamenia is diverted to growth. But since the
period of gestation in such animals is a year, the mule must
not only conceive, if she is to be fertile, but must also
nourish the embryo till birth, and this is impossible if there
are no catamenia. But there are none in the mule; the
useless part of the nutriment is discharged with the excre-
tion from the bladder®—this is why male mules do
not smell to the pudenda of the females, as do the other

fo}

predecessors in the point he insists on; it applies only to mules, not to
all hybrids. Cf. Alcmaeon, frag. 3.

1 Ass (and horse) shed their first four teeth at thirty months,
H. A. vi. 577* 18. Flower, Zhe Horse, Ὁ. 131.

2 Reading τοῦ ἄγονον εἶναι.

8. This sentence can only be got to give this meaning by violence.
One would also expect the consequence to be that the cross of horse
and ass was infertile, instead of which it is only the result of the cross
that is so.

= Reading ἄγονον (ov).

5 This statement is intelligible if A. is thinking only of female mules
bred from jackass and mare, for ‘ both mule and jennet take after their
dam in size, and their sire in appearance and disposition’ (Capt.
Hayes, «bz supra). How beautifully this fits our theory that the mother
gives the material, the father the ‘form’ and ‘ soul’!

ὃ Instead of being converted into the catamenia as in other animals.

η48"

749°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

solid-hoofed ungulates, but only to the evacuation itself—
and the rest of the nutriment is used up to increase the size
of the body.'' Hence it is sometimes possible for the female
to conceive, as has been known to happen before now, but
it is impossible for her to complete the process of nourishing
the embryo and bringing it to birth.

The male, again, may sometimes generate, both because
the male sex is naturally hotter than the female and
because it does not contribute any material substance to
the mixture. The result in such cases is a ‘ ginnus ’,? that
is to say,a dwarf mule; for ‘ginni’ are produced also from
the crossing of horse and ass* when the embryo is diseased
in the uterus. The ginnus is in fact like the so-called
‘metachoera’ in swine, for a ‘metachoerum’ also is a pig
injured in the uterus; this may happen to any pig. The
origin of human dwarfs is similar, for these also have their
parts and their whole development injured during gesta-
tion, and resemble ginni and metachoera.

' Reading τὴν τοῦ σώματος αὔξησιν.

2. The ginnus is the offspring of a mule and a mare (27. A. vi. 577} 21).
But there is no such thing.

3 Lit. ‘also from the horse and the ass’, but this must mean what I
say. The cross of mule and mare produces a yivvos without disease ;
this is a dwarfed animal and is like a dwarf mule, i.e. like the ordinary
mule, only smaller; A. therefore calls it a dwarf mule, for, &c. It
would be absurd to suppose that the embryo of mule and mare, if there
were such, would be invariably diseased while in the uterus, despite
the confused statement in that disorderly compilation H. A. vi. 24.
Mules are fertile of fiction if of nothing else.

7495

BOOK _III

1 WE have now spoken about the sterility of mules, and 10
about those animals which are viviparous both externally
and within themselves. The generation of the oviparous
sanguinea is to a certain extent similar to that of the
animals that walk, and all may be embraced in the same
general statement ; but in other respects there are differ-
ences in them both as compared with each other and with
those that walk.! All alike are generated from sexual 15
union, the male emitting semen into the female. But
among the ovipara (1) birds produce a perfect hard-shelled
egg, unless it be injured by disease, and the eggs of birds
are all two-coloured.? (2) The cartilaginous fishes, as has
been often said already, are oviparous internally but pro-
duce the young alive, the egg changing previously from
one part of the uterus to another ; and their egg is soft-
shelled and of one colour. One of this class alone does
not produce the young from the egg within itself? the
so-called ‘frog’;* the reason of which must be stated
later.” (3) All other oviparous fishes produce an egg of
one colour, but this is imperfect, for its growth is com-
pleted outside the mother’s body by the same cause as
are those eggs which are perfected within.

Concerning the uterus of these classes of animals, what

τὸ

τὸ
on

1 The walking animals must here mean only land mammalia. The
ovipara are mostly flying or swimming animals, but A. seems to forget
all about the land reptiles and amphibia.

? This refers to the white and the yolk.

3 Lit. ‘is not viviparous within itself’,

* Some species of Lophius, either piscavorius or budegassa; perhaps
we should rather say that it includes both. The popular names are
‘Fishing-Frog’, ‘Angler’, or ‘Sea-Devil’. These fish are teleostean,
not cartilaginous, and spawn very abundantly. See Gunther, Study of
Fishes, p. 470. Ὁ 754° 25-31.

749°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

differences there are among them and for what reasons,
has been stated previously. For in some of the viviparous
creatures it is high up near the hypozoma, in others low
down by the pudenda ; the former in the cartilaginous fishes,
the latter in animals both internally and externally vivi-
parous, such as man and horse and the rest ; inthe ovipara
it is sometimes low, as in the oviparous fish, and some-
times high, as in birds.

Some embryos are formed in birds spontaneously, which
are called wind-eggs and ‘zephyria’ by some; these occur
in birds which are not given to flight nor rapine but which
produce many young, for these birds have much residual
matter, whereas in the birds of prey all such secretion is
diverted to the wings and wing-feathers, while the body
is small and dry and hot. (The secretion corresponding
in hen-birds to catamenia, and the semen of the cock, are
residues.) Since then both the wings and the semen are
made from residual matter, nature cannot afford to spend
much upon both. And for this same reason! the birds
of prey are neither given to treading much nor to laying
many eggs, as are the heavy birds and those flying birds
whose bodies are bulky, as the pigeon and so forth. For
such residual matter is secreted largely in the heavy birds
not given to flying, such as fowls, partridges, and so on,
wherefore their males tread often and their females produce
much material. Of such birds some lay many eggs at
a time and some lay often; for instance, the fowl, the
partridge, and the Libyan ostrich? lay many eggs, while
the pigeon family do not Jay many but lay often. For
these are between the birds of prey and the heavy ones;
they are flyers like the former, but have bulky bodies like
the latter ; hence, because they are flyers and the residue
is diverted that way, they lay few eggs, but they lay often
because of their having bulky bodies and their stomachs
being hot and very active in concoction, and because

1 Omit καί after αἰτίαν.

* The partridge is one of the most prolific of birds. The ostrich is
polygamous and all his wives pool their eggs, so that early observers
would probably exaggerate the number laid by a female, but as it is she
is believed to lay about ten.

BOOK III. 1 749”

moreover they can easily procure their food, whereas the 25
birds of prey do so with difficulty.}

Small birds also tread often and are very fertile,? as are
sometimes small plants, for what causes bodily growth in
others turns in them to a seminal residuum. Hence the
Adrianic fowls 5. lay most eggs, for because of the smallness
of their bodies the nutriment is used up in producing 30
young. And other birds are more fertile than game-fowl,*
for their bodies are more fluid and bulkier, whereas those
of game-fowl are leaner and drier, since a passionate spirit
is found rather in such bodies as the latter. Moreover the
thinness and weakness of the legs contribute to making the
former class of birds naturally inclined to tread and to be 750*
fertile, as we find also in the human species ; for the nourish-
ment which otherwise goes to the legs is turned in such into
a seminal secretion, what Nature takes from the one place
being added at the other. Birds of prey, on the contrary,
have a strong walk and their legs are thick owing to their 5
habits, so that for all these reasons they neither tread nor lay
much. The kestrel® is the most fertile; for this is nearly
the only bird of prey which drinks, and its moisture, both
innate and acquired, along with its heat is favourable to
generative products. Even this bird does not lay very
many eggs, but four at the outside.

The cuckoo, though not a bird of prey, lays few eggs,
because it is of a cold nature, as is shown by the cowardice
of the bird, whereas a generative animal should be hot

fe)

1 This last reason hits the mark. It has been suggested that the
number of eggs varies inversely to the dangers incurred by the species ;
see on the whole subject Beebe, 716 Bird, pp. 432-44.

2 e.g. the long-tailed tit may lay as many as twelve eggs.

Ὁ ΠΟ Vis, 1.

* This is no doubt because game-fowl have been bred for other
purposes.

° κεγχρίς, probably the kestrel, lays ‘usually four or five but some-
times six’ eggs. Among the accipitrines ‘the number of young
produced in a brood seldom exceeds four and is frequently less’
(Royal Nat. Hist. iv. 189, 176). The keepers at the Zoological
Gardens tell me that hawks, eagles, vultures, &c., scarcely drink at all,
not more than once a month, though plenty of water is provided them
to wash in, nor do kestrels differ from the rest. Cf. White, Vatural
History of Selborne, letter 53.

δ See de Partibus, ii. 650" 27 ὁ yap φόβος καταψύχει.

750° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

and moist. That it is cowardly is plain, for it is pursued
15 by all the birds and lays eggs in the nests of others.2

The pigeon family are in the habit of laying two for the
most part, for they neither lay one (no bird does except
the cuckoo,’ and even that sometimes lays two) nor yet
many, but they frequently produce two, or three at the most,

20 generally two, for this number lies between one and many.*

It is plain from the facts that with the birds that lay
many eggs the nutriment is diverted to the semen.* For
most trees, if they bear too much fruit, wither away after
the crop when nutriment is not reserved for themselves,”
and this seems to be what happens to annuals, as leguminous

25 plants, corn, and the like. For they consume all their
nutriment to make seed, their kind being prolific. And
some fowls after laying too much, so as even to lay two
eggs in a day, have died after this. For both the birds

30 and the plants become exhausted, and this condition is an
excess of secretion of residual matter. A similar condition
is the cause of the later sterility of the lioness, for at the
first birth® she produces five or six, then in the next year
four, and again three cubs, then the next number down
to one, then none at all, showing that the residue is being

750” used up and the generative secretion is failing along with
the advance of years.

We have now stated in which birds wind-eggs are found,

1 The cuckoo ‘with rare exceptions lays only one egg in a nest’
(Darwin, Ovigzn®, p. 213, and cf. 27. A. vi. 7), and hence it used to be
supposed that it laid but few ; it is now thought, however, that it lays a
considerable number in a season. Owing to its resemblance to a
hawk it is mobbed by small birds. A.’s remark, ‘ though not a bird of
prey,’ is perhaps directed against those who thought it was a hawk
(21: A. ibid.).

* This is not so; the Fulmar petrel, for instance, ‘lays but one egg,
yet it is believed to be the most numerous bird in the world’ (Darwin,
Origin®, p. 52), and many other sea-birds at any rate resemble it in
this.

5 Pigeons regularly lay two eggs with a day’s interval between the
first and second; the first almost invariably hatches out a male, the
second a female. Hence the phrase a ‘pigeon-pair’, of a family con-
sisting of a boy and girl.

* Sic, but A. means the ova. One MS. reads σῶμα. Did A. write
τὰ Od? 5 Lit. for their body.

® This fable is told of the Syrian lions in 47. A. vi. 31, and appears

again in this treatise, iii. 10. A. knew little about lions but a string of
foolish stories.

BOOK III. 1

and also what sort of birds lay many eggs or few, and for
what reasons. And wind-eggs, as said before, come into
being because while it is the material for generation that
exists in the female of all animals, birds have no discharge
of catamenia like viviparous sanguinea (for they occur in
all these latter, more in some, less in others, and in some
only enough in quantity just to mark the class).1 The
same applies to fish as to birds, and so in them as in birds
is found an embryonic formation without impregnation, but
it is less obvious because their nature is colder.? The
secretion corresponding to the catamenia of vivipara is
formed in birds at the appropriate season for the discharge
of superfluous matter, and, because the region near the
hypozoma is hot, it is perfected so far as size is concerned,
but in birds afd fishes alike it is imperfect for generation
without the seminal fluid of the male; the cause of this
has been previously.given. Wind-eggs are not formed in
the flying birds, for the same reason as prevents their
laying many eggs; for the residual matter in birds of prey
is small, and they need the male to give an impulse for the
discharge of it.2 The wind-eggs are produced in greater
numbers than the impregnated but smaller in size for one
and the same reason ; they are smaller in size because they
are imperfect, and because they are smaller in size they are
more in number.* They are less pleasant for food because
they are less concocted, for in all foods the concocted is
more agreeable. It has been sufficiently observed, then,
that neither birds’ nor fishes’ eggs are perfected for genera-
tion without the males. As for embryos being formed in
fish also (though in a less degree) without the males, the

1 ἐπισημαίνειν. If a character regularly marks a whole class of

animals we expect to find some ‘rudiment’, as it would be now called,
even in members of the class in which it is not properly developed; A.
calls such a rudiment a σημεῖον, e.g. the tail in apes (de Partibus,
iv. 689? 5).

2 A. thinks that the eggs of the female fish are impregnated by the
male before oviposition. This passage then means that even before
that impregnation rudimentary eggs may be found in them.

8 Reading τοῦ περιττώματος. Something seems to have fallen out in
the text, for πτητικά and γαμψώνυχα are not convertible.

Ἢ ΤᾺ eggs are in reality neither more numerous nor smaller

AR. G. A. I

750°

σι

Lond

750° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

30 fact has been observed! especially in river fish, for some
are seen to have eggs from the first, as has been written
in the Exguiries concerning them.? And generally speak-
ing in the case of birds even the impregnated eggs are not
wont for the most part to attain their full growth unless
the hen be trodden continually. The reason of this is that
just as with women intercourse with men draws down the

751° secretion of the catamenia (for the uterus being heated
attracts the moisture and the passages are opened), so this
happens also with birds; the residual matter corresponding
to the catamenia advances a little at a time, and is not
discharged externally, because its amount is small and the
5 uterus is high up by the hypozoma, but trickles together
into the uterus itself. For as the embryo of the vivipara
grows by means of the umbilical cord, so the egg grows
through this matter flowing to it through the uterus. For
when once the hens have been trodden, they all continue
to have eggs almost without intermission,? though very small

10 ones.*— Hence some are wont to speak of wind-eggs as not
coming into being independently but as mere relics from
a previous impregnation. But this is a false view, for suf-
ficient observations have been made of their arising without
impregnation in chickens and goslings. Also the female
partridges which are taken out to act as decoys, whether

15 they have ever been impregnated or not, immediately on
smelling the male and hearing his call, become filled with
eggs in the latter case and lay them in the former.® The
reason why this happens is the same as in men and quad-
rupeds, for if their bodies chance to be in rut they emit
semen at the mere sight of the female or at a slight touch.

zo And such birds are of a lascivious and fertile nature, so
that the impulse they need is but small when they are in

1 Reading ἑώραται τὸ συμβαῖνον for ἑώραται περὶ τοὺς ἐρυθρίνους
συμβαῖνον. That the erythrini have nothing to do here was pointed out
by Didot; they seem to have drifted hither from H. A. vi. 56727.

* H. A. 567% 30, where φοξῖνοι, whatever they were, are said to have
κυήματα as soon as they are hatched out os εἰπεῖν.

* This is stated as a proof that the drawing down of the matter is
due to copulation.

* i.e. they are small if the treading be not continued.

BOOK III. 1 7512

this excited condition, and the secreting activity takes
place quickly in them, wind-eggs forming in the un-
impregnated and the eggs in those which have been im-
pregnated growing and reaching perfection swiftly.

Among creatures that lay eggs externally birds produce 2
their ege perfect, fish imperfect, but the eggs of the latter
complete their growth outside as has been said before.
The reason is that the fish kind is very fertile; now it is
impossible for many eggs to reach completion within the
mother and therefore they lay them outside. They are
quickly discharged, for the uterus of externally oviparous 30
fishes is near the generative passage. While the eggs of
birds are two-coloured, those of all fish are one-coloured.
The cause of the double colour may be seen from con-
sidering the power of each of the two parts, the white and
the yolk. For the matter of the egg is secreted from the
blood [no bloodless animal lays eggs],1 and that the blood 751°
is the material of the body has been often said already. The
one part, then, of the egg is nearer the form” of the animal
coming into being, that is the hot ὃ part; the more earthy
part gives the substance of the body and is further removed.
Hence in all two-coloured eggs the animal receives the 5
first principle of generation from the white (for the vital
principle is in that which is hot), but the nutriment from
the yolk. Now in animals of a hotter nature the part
from which the first principle arises is separated off from
the part from which comes the nutriment, the one being

1 These words must be spurious, as AW. point out, for A. says over
and over again that many invertebrates lay eggs. (In their case the
matter would be secreted from the fluid analogous to blood.)

2 i.e. is more nearly related to the principle which gives the form.
A. gives this honour to the white, because the more fluid is hotter than
the more solid. Omitting μορίων. 5 Or white.

4 In reality the bird is developed from a spot on the surface of the
yolk, the ‘blastoderm’ or ‘cicatricula’. In development it absorbs
both the white and the yolk. Here A. retrogrades, for at least one of
his predecessors had said that ‘ the bird is formed from the yolk; the
white gives growth and nourishment; this is plain to every one who
has paid attention to it.’ The last remark looks as if there had been
disputes on the subject (Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 420). From 752" 25
it seems that Alcmraeon of Crotona perhaps first stated the Hippocratic
view. The great Harvey (Evercitationes de Generatione, xvii) seeks
to save A.’s credit on this point, I fear in vain.

I 2

751° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

10 white and the other yellow, and the white and pure is
always more than the yellow and earthy; but in the
moister and less hot the yolk is more in quantity and more
fluid. This is what we find in lake birds, for they are of
a moister nature and are colder than the land birds, so
that the so-called ‘lecithus’ or yolk in the eggs of such

15 birds is large and less yellow? because the white is less
separated off from it. But when we come to the ovipara
which are both of a cold nature and also moister (such
is the fish kind) we find the white not separated at all
because of the small size of the eggs and the quantity of
the cold and earthy matter; 2 therefore all fish eggs are

20 of one colour, and white compared with yellow, yellow
compared with white. Even the wind-eggs of birds have
this distinction of colour, for they contain that out of which
will come each of the two parts, alike that whence arises
the principle of life and that whence comes the nutriment ;
only both these are imperfect and need the influence of the
male in addition; for wind-eggs become fertile if im-

25 pregnated by the male within a certain period. The
difference in colour, however, is not due to any difference of
sex, as if the white came from the male, the yolk from
the female; both on the contrary come from the female,
but the one is cold, the other hot. In all cases then where
the hot part is considerable it is separated off, but where it

30 is little it cannot be so; hence the eggs of such animals,
as has been said, are of one colour. The semen of the
male only puts them into form;* and therefore at first
the egg in birds appears white and small, but as it
advances‘ it is all yellow as more of the sanguineous
material is continually mixed with it; finally as the hot
part is separated the white takes up a position all round

752° it and equally distributed on all sides, as when a liquid

1 This is certainly true of ducks’ eggs; I have found no more
information on the point.

2 I suppose A. thought the earthy nature of the yolk caused it to
condense in the middle of the white as the earth itself was in the centre
of the universe. The white is really deposited round the yolk in its
passage through the oviduct, and so far from being heavier, as he

seems to think, the yolk has less specific gravity than the white.
8 συνέστησε. * j,e. down the oviduct.

“

BOOK III. 1

boils; for the white is naturally liquid and contains in
itself the vital heat ;1 therefore it is separated off all round,
but the yellow and earthy part is inside. And if we
enclose many eggs together in a bladder or something of
the kind and boil them over a fire so as not to make the
movement of the heat quicker than the separation 3 of the
white and yolk in the eggs, then the same process takes
place in the whole mass of the eggs as in a single egg, all
the yellow part coming into the middle and the white
surrounding it.

We have thus stated why some eggs are of one colour
and others of two.

The principle of the male is separated off in eggs at the
point where the egg is attached to the uterus,® and the
reason why the shape of two-coloured eggs is unsymmetrical,
and not perfectly round but sharper at one end, is that the
part of the white in which is contained this principle must
differ from the rest. Therefore the egg is harder at this
point than below,” for it is necessary to shelter and protect

1 ¢ Boiling takes place when a liquid is aerated by heat’ (de Respir.
479» 31), and so the white is aerated by the vital heat in it and swells
up all round the yolk, which being earthy cannot ‘boil’ in the same
way. By ‘boiling’ A. does not necessarily imply anything like
evaporation at boiling-point ; his ideas about temperature were vague
enough.

2 | have translated this word for word, not being quite sure of the
exact sense. I think it means that the movement imparted by the
heat must not be imparted too quickly (that is, the temperature must
not be raised too fast), so as to stop the separation, as would happen
if the eggs were hard-boiled in a few minutes. The parallel passage,
ΤΠ. A. vi. 560% 30, does not help.

5 j.e. the cicatricula, the spot from which development proceeds, is
at the end of the egg which is attached to the ovary. A. supposes this
to be the sharper end. But the cicatricula is not at either end of the
egg, but at a point upon the equator of the yolk. See Addenda. Nor
can we say which part of the yolk in a mature egg corresponds to the
part attached to the ovary at the moment of separation.

4 The text looks decidedly corrupt, nor is any real reason given for
the shape of the egg. Gaza does not translate the words τοῦ λευκοῦ,
and Bekker’s stopping makes nonsense.

5 ‘Below’ means the blunter end, which A. supposes to be the lower
in the passage downwards, rightly according to Newton, Dictzonary of
Birds, s.vv., ‘Eggs, Embryology.’ This was quite unknown by modern
writers till recently ; Dalton, e.g. in his Physzology (5th ed. 1871),
assumes as a matter of course that the sharp end of the egg is foremost.

752°

“σι

ie)

752°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

this principle. And this is why the sharp end of the egg
comes out of the hen later than the blunt end ; for the part
attached to the uterus comes out later, and the egg is
attached at the point where is the said principle, and the
principle is in the sharp end. The same is the case also
in the seeds of plants; the principle of the seed is attached
sometimes to the twig, sometimes to the husk, sometimes
to the pericarp.! This is plain in the leguminous plants, for
where the two cotyledons? of beans and of similar seeds are
united, there is the seed attached to the parent plant, and
there is the principle of the seed.

A difficulty may be raised about the growth of the egg;

25 how is it derived from the uterus? For if animals derive

752°

their nutriment through the umbilical cord, through what do -
eggs derive it? They do not, like a scolex, acquire their
growth by their own means.’ If there is anything by which
they are attached to the uterus, what becomes of this when
the egg is perfected? It does not come out with the egg as
the cord does with animals; for when its egg is perfected
the shell forms all round it. This problem is rightly raised,
but it is not observed that the shell is at first only a soft
membrane, and that it is only after the egg is perfected
that it becomes hard and brittle ;* this is so nicely adjusted
that it is still soft when it comes out (for otherwise it would
cause pain in laying), but no sooner has it come out than it
is fixed hard by cooling, the moisture quickly evaporating
because there is but little of it, and the earthy part remain-
ing. Now at first a certain part of this membrane at the
sharp end of eggs resembles an umbilical cord, and projects

The blunt end is the softer, as A. says; this is because the young bird
is to break its way out there.

1 The germinal vesicle from which the young plant is developed is
near the point of attachment in the Leguminosae, and generally speak-
ing in other plants also. The seed is attached sometimes to the
‘twig’, as the acorn (which A. would have called a ‘ seed’), sometimes
to a ‘husk’ (κέλυφος), as a bean to its pod, sometimes to the pericarp,
as the pip of an apple.

2 τὸ δίθυρον, the cotyledons rather than the seed-coats, thinks Prof.
Oliver, to whom I am deeply indebted for help on this passage.

3 See note on chap. 9, ad fin.

* It is true that the outer membrane is soft at first, but it is made
hard and brittle by the addition of calcareous matter defore it is
discharged,

BOOK | ΜΙ

like a pipe from them while they are still small. It is
plainly visible in small aborted eggs, for if the bird be
drenched with water or suddenly chilled in any other way
and cast out the egg too soon, it appears still! sanguineous
and with a small tail? like an umbilical cord running
through it. As the egg becomes larger this? is more
twisted round and becomes smaller, and when the egg is
perfected this end is the sharp end. Under this is the inner
membrane which separates the white and the yolk from this.*
When the egg is perfected, the whole of it is set free, and
naturally the umbilical cord ὅ does not appear, for it is now
the extreme end of the egg itself.

The egg is discharged in the opposite way from the young
of vivipara; the latter are born head-first, the part where is
the first principle leading,® but the egg is discharged as it
were feet first; the reason of this being what has been
stated, that the egg is attached to the uterus at the point
where is the first principle.

The young bird is produced out of the egg by the
mother’s incubating and aiding the concoction, the creature
developing out of part of the egg, and receiving growth and
completion from the remaining part. For Nature not only
places the material of the creature in the egg but also
the nourishment sufficient for its growth; for since the
mother bird cannot perfect her young within herself she
produces the nourishment in the egg along with it. Whereas
the nourishment, what is called milk, is produced for the

1 “Still’ because A. thinks the egg is formed from the hen’s blood.

2 στόλον ὀμφαλώδη. Fabricius ab Aquapendente, approved by
Harvey (see his third -vercztatio), explained this as the pedunculus
by which the egg hangs from the ovary before it is discharged from
its follicle. But there are various difficulties fatal to this view. AW.
are plainly right in supposing the στόλος to be the chalazae (say
rather the hinder one of the two chalazae, for A. obviously does not
speak of both here). When A. says ‘through it’, he must mean ‘from
the vitelline membrane to the hinder end through the white’.

3.1, 6. the chalaza takes on more and more a spiral shape, which is
true ; but I do not understand why it is said to become smaller.

4 i.e. the membrane which lies outside the white and therefore
separates the white plus the yolk inside it from the sharp end of
the shell.

5 Or rather what corresponds to it.

51, 6, the upper part, in,whichtis the heart, is presented first.

752°

ταὶ

752°

753°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

young of vivipara in another part, in the breasts, Nature
does this for birds in the egg. The opposite, however, is
the case to what people think and what is asserted by
Alcmaeon of Crotona. For it is not the white that is the
milk, but the yolk, for it is this that is the nourishment of
the chick, whereas they think it is the white because of the
similarity of colour.?

The chick then, as has been said, comes into being by the
incubation of the mother; yet if the temperature of the
season is favourable, or if the place in which the eggs happen
to lie is warm, the eggs are sufficiently concocted without
incubation, both those of birds* and those of oviparous
quadrupeds. For these all lay their eggs upon the ground,
where they are concocted by the heat in the earth. Such
oviparous quadrupeds as do visit their eggs and incubate
do so rather for the sake of protecting them than of
incubation.*

The eggs of these quadrupeds are formed in the same
way as those of birds, for they are hard-shelled and two-
coloured, and they are formed near the hypozoma as are
those of birds, and in all other respects resemble them both
internally and externally, so that the inquiry into their
causes is the same for all. But whereas the eggs of quad-
rupeds are hatched out by the mere heat of the weather
owing to their strength, those of birds are more exposed to
destruction and need the mother-bird. Nature seems to
wish to implant in animals a° special sense of care for
their young: in the inferior animals this lasts only to the

1 As already observed, both yolk and white serve for nutrition, the
only non-nutritive part being a mere speck on the yolk.

2 In some birds (even of those known to A., as the ostrich) the
male does the incubation, and some (which he did not know, the
Australian Megapodiidae or brush-turkeys) do not incubate at all.

8. This happens to be true of the Megapodiidae, but is not true of any
bird known to A. Perhaps he thought, like the author of /vé, that the
ostrich did not incubate.

* A. means turtles and crocodiles, which bury their eggs in the sand
and in some cases sleep over them, in others keep near to protect
them; he is quite right in saying that they do not, strictly speaking,
incubate. (The males of some frogs also look after their eggs; some
serpents are the only reptiles which truly incubate, and they are not
quadrupeds.) Cf. H. A. v. 33.

> Omitting τήν.

BOOK III. 2

moment of giving birth to the incompletely developed
animal ; in others it continues till they are perfect ; in all that
are more intelligent, during the bringing up of the young
also. In those which have the greatest portion in in-
telligence we find familiarity and love shown also towards
the young when perfected, as with men and some quad-
rupeds ; with birds we find it till they have produced and
brought up their young, and therefore if the hens do not
incubate after laying they get into worse condition,! as if
deprived of something natural to them.

The young is perfected within the egg more quickly in
sunshiny weather,? the season aiding in the work, for con-
coction is a kind of heat. For the earth aids in the concoc-
tion by its heat, and the brooding hen does the same, for she
applies® the heat that is within her. And it is in the hot
season, as we should expect, that the eggs are more apt to be
spoilt and the so-called ‘uria’ or rotten eggs are produced ; *
for just as wines turn sour in the heats from the sediment
rising (for this is the cause of their being spoilt), so is it with
the yolk in eggs, for the sediment and yolk are the earthy
part in each case, wherefore the wine becomes turbid when
the sediment mixes with it, and the like applies to the eggs
that are spoiling because of the yolk. It is natural then that
such should be the case with the birds that lay many eggs,
for it is not easy to give the fitting amount of heat to all,
but (while some have too little) others have too much and
this makes them turbid, as it were by putrefaction. But
this happens none the less with the birds of prey though
they lay few eggs, for often one of the two becomes rotten,
and the third practically always,° for being of a hot nature
they make the moisture in the eggs to overboil so to say.
For the nature of the white is opposed to that of the yolk;
the yolk congeals in frosts but liquefies on heating, and

1 This is true (AW.).

* Whatever the weather, the chick emerges on the same day.

3 Reading προσέχει.

* Such eggs occur rarely owing to some diseased condition, whether
more often in hot weather I cannot discover.

δ Among many other absurd legends about the eagle, it was said to
lay three eggs, hatch two, and rear one; the same was said of the
hawk (D’Arcy Thompson’s Glossary of Greek Birds, p. 5).

753°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

therefore it liquefies on concoction in the earth or by reason
of incubation,! and becoming liquid serves as nutriment for
the developing chick. If exposed to heat and roasted it does
not become hard, because though earthy in nature it is only
so in the same way as wax is; accordingly on heating too
much the eggs become watery and rotten, [if they be not
from a liquid residue].2_ The white on the contrary is not
congealed by frost but rather liquefies (the reason of which
has been stated before),? but on exposure to heat becomes
solid. Therefore being concocted in the development of the
chick it is thickened. For it is from this that the young is
formed (whereas the yolk turns to nutriment) and it is from
this that the parts derive their growth as they are formed
one after another. This is why the white and the yolk are
separated by membranes, as being different in nature. The
precise details of the relation of the parts to one another
both at the beginning of generation and as the animals are
forming, and also the details of the membranes and
umbilical cords, must be learnt from what has been written
in the Luxquiries;* for the present investigation it is
sufficient to understand this much clearly, that, when the
heart has been first formed and the great blood-vessel has
been marked off from it, two umbilical cords run from the
vessel, the one to the membrane which encloses the yolk,
the other to the membrane resembling a chorion which
surrounds the whole embryo; this latter runs round on the
inside of the membrane of the shell.° Through the one of

1 AW. jeer at this and talk of hard-boiled eggs, but it is a fact that
the yolk does liquefy during incubation ; see note on 753? 25.

2 The words in brackets are corrupt and unintelligible.

5.1 do not know where, but cf. ii. 2, ad zzz.

* H.A.vi. 3. But there is no more there on the subject than in the
present work. Does γεγραμμένων perhaps mean ‘drawings’? Rather,
I think, the present passage is an early note, written before the whole
work had been expanded, and still retained when the reference to the
H. A. had become superfluous.

° This description seems to be that of a chick of about the sixth to
the tenth day. The great blood-vessel is the dorsal aorta running
from the heart towards the tail. The ‘umbilical cords’ are (1) the
‘umbilical stalk’ by which the yolk-sac hangs from the embryo, (2) the
stalk of the allantois, a sac which, growing out from the embryo,
‘lies close under the shell’ (Foster and Balfour, p. 279). But the
description of these as ‘running from the vessel’ is hardly correct.

BOOK III. ἃ 753°

these the embryo receives the nutriment from the yolk, and
the yolk becomes larger, for it becomes more liquid by 25
heating. This is because the nourishment, being of a
material character in its first form, must become liquid before

it can be absorbed, just as it is with plants, and at first this
embryo, whether in an egg or in the mother’s uterus, lives
the life of a plant, for it receives its first growth and
nourishment by being attached to something else.

The second umbilical cord runs to the surrounding 30
chorion. For we must understand that, in the case of
animals developed in eggs, the chick has the same relation
to the yolk as the embryo of the vivipara has to the mother
so long as it is within the mother (for since the nourishment
of the embryo of the ovipara is not completed within the
mother, the embryo takes part of it away from her).? So
also the relation of the chick to the outermost membrane,
the sanguineous one, is like that of the mammalian embryo
to the uterus.? At the same time the egg-shell surrounds 754*
both the yolk and the membrane analogous to the uterus,
just as if it should be put round both the embryo itself and
the whole of the mother, in the vivipara. This is so
because the embryo must be in the uterus and attached to
the mother. Now in the vivipara the uterus is within the
mother, but in the ovipara it is the other way about, as if
one should say that the mother was in the uterus, for that

1 Both these statements are correct. On the seventh day ‘the
yellow yolk has become quite fluid, and its bulk has increased owing
to its having absorbed much of the rapidly diminishing white of the
egg’ (Newton’s Dictionary of Birds, p. 211). These observations are
admirable, though the reasons given are wrong.

2 i.e. when the embryo in the egg leaves the mother, it takes away
the yolk with it. This yolk corresponds to the nourishment the
mammalian embryo continues to receive while remaining in the
mother.

3 The allantois of the chick can scarcely be compared to the uterus ;
the allantois serves mainly for respiration in both birds and mammals.
Naturally A. knew nothing of the true mammalian homology to the
yolk of birds, but how profound his insight is on this subject also may
be seen from the following quotation from Foster and Balfour, p. 327:
‘Tt is almost certain that the mammalia are descended from ancestors,
the embryos of which had large yolk-sacs, but that the yolk has
become reduced in quantity owing to the nutriment received from
the wall of the uterus taking the place of that originally supplied by
the yolk.’

754° ' DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

which comes from the mother, the nutriment, is the yolk.
The reason is that the process of nourishment is not com-
pleted within the mother.

As the creature grows the umbilicus running to the

10 chorion collapses first,? because it is here that the young is
to come out ; 3 what is left of the yolk, and the umbilical cord
running to the yolk, collapse later. For the young must
have nourishment as soon as it is hatched; it is not nursed
by the mother and cannot immediately procure its nourish-
ment for itself; therefore the yolk enters within it along

15 with its umbilicus and the flesh grows round it.

This then is the manner in which animals produced from
perfect* eggs are hatched in all those, whether birds or
quadrupeds, which lay the egg with a hard shell.® These
details*are plainer in the larger creatures ; in the smaller

20 they are obscure because of the smallness of the masses
concerned.

The class of fishes is also oviparous. Those among them 3
which have the uterus low down lay an imperfect egg for
the reason previously given,° but the so-called ‘selache’ or
cartilaginous fishes produce a perfect egg within them-

25 selves but are externally viviparous except one which they
call the ‘frog’;* this alone lays a perfect egg externally.
The reason is the nature of its body, for its head is many
times as large as the rest of the body and is spiny and very
rough. This is also why it does not receive its young again
within itself nor produce them alive to begin with, for as the

1 If the yolk stand for the mother, the allantois for the uterus, then
the mother is within the uterus!

* This is not correct ; the yolk-sac with its stalk is drawn into the
abdominal cavity of the chick on the nineteenth day, but the allantois
shrivels up and the umbilicus closes on the twentieth or thereabouts
(Foster and Balfour, pp. 280, 303).

8. This seems quite unintelligible; even if it means that the chick
cuts its way through the allantois (which is true), still that seems no
reason for the allantoic stalk collapsing first.

4 As contrasted with the imperfect eggs of fish.

5 Omit τό before σκληρόδερμον.

6 1. 7188.

7 On the frog-fish see note on 74923. Of the cartilaginous or
elasmobranch fishes (sharks and rays, &c.) some lay eggs and others
are viviparous ; A. has generalized too hastily.

BOOK III. 3 754°

size and roughness of the head prevents their entering so 30
it would prevent their exit. And while the egg of the
cartilaginous fishes is soft-shelled (for they cannot harden

and dry! its circumference, being colder than birds), the egg

of the frog-fish alone is solid and firm to protect it outside,

but those of the rest are of a moist and soft nature, for they

are sheltered within and by the body of the mother. 754”

The young are produced from the egg in the same way
both with those externally perfected (the frog-fishes) and
those internally, and the process in these eggs is partly
similar to, partly different from that in birds’ eggs. In the
first place they have not the second umbilicus which runs to
the chorion? under the surrounding shell. The reason of
this is that they have not the surrounding shell, for it is no
use to them since the mother shelters them, and the shell is
a protection to the eggs against external injury between
laying and hatching out. Secondly, the process in these
also begins on the surface of the egg but not where it is ro
attached to the uterus, as in birds, for the chick is developed
from the sharp end and that is where the egg was attached.
The reason is that the egg of birds is separated from the
uterus before it is perfected, but in most though not all
cartilaginous fishes the egg is still attached to the uterus
when perfect.2 While the young develops upon the surface
the egg is consumed by it just as in birds and the other
animals detached from the uterus, and at last the umbilicus
_ of the now perfect fish is left attached to the uterus. The
like is the case with all those whose eggs are detached from
the uterus, for in some of them the egg is so detached when
it is perfect.

The question may be raised why the development of 20
birds and cartilaginous fishes differs in this respect. The
reason is that in birds the white and yolk are separate, but
fish eggs are one-coloured, the corresponding matter being

σι

"᾿

1 Reading σκληρύνειν καὶ Enpatvecy.

2 Fish have a yolk-sac and the stalk attached to it, the ‘first
umbilicus’ of A., but they have no allantois and consequently no
‘second umbilicus ’.

3. Qu. τέλειον (ov) ὃ

4 A. is thinking of JZustelus laevis, as we shall see directly.

754

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

completely mixed, so that there is nothing to stop the first
principle being at the opposite end, for the egg is of the

25 Same nature both at the point of attachment and at the

755°

σι

opposite end, and it is easy 2 to draw the nourishment from
the uterus by passages running from this principle. This
is plain in the eggs which are not detached, for in some
of the cartilaginous fish the egg is not detached from the
uterus, but is still connected with it as it comes down-
wards with a view to the production of the young alive;
in these the young fish when perfected is still connected
by the umbilicus to the uterus when the egg has been
consumed.* From this it is clear that previously also,
while the egg was still round the young, the passages ὃ
ran to the uterus. This happens as we have said in the
‘smooth hound ’.? .

In these respects and for the reasons given the develop-
ment of cartilaginous fishes differs from that of birds, but
otherwise it takes place in the same way. For they have
the one umbilicus in like manner as that of birds connecting
with the yolk,—only in these fishes it connects: with the
whole egg (for it is not divided into white and yolk but
all one-coloured) —and get their nourishment from this, and
as it is being consumed the flesh in like manner encroaches
upon and grows round [1.8

Such is the process of development in those fish that
produce a perfect egg within themselves but are externally
Viviparous.

1 One may well ask, however, what there is to stop this in birds
either. * Reading ῥᾷδιον.

3 i.e. by blood-vessels running from the germinating vesicle through
the egg to the uterus, corresponding to the umbilical cord of mammals
and the allantoic stalk in birds.

* i.e. when the egg has been altogether taken up into the young fish.

° Blood-vessels. δ Through the egg.

τ Mustelus laevis. In this shark the young are connected with the
uterus by a kind of placenta. This extraordinary fact remained
unknown to modern science till Miiller reaffirmed it in 1840.

8 After the fish has left the egg the remains of the yolk-sac are still
attached to it below; in course of time (with many fish) ‘ the abdominal
walls gradually extend over it and crowd it back into the abdomen ’
(Dalton’s Physiology, 5th ed., p. 617). The words might be translated
from this passage of A.

BOOK III. 4 755°

4 Most of the other fish! are externally oviparous, all lay-
ing an imperfect egg except the frog-fish;* the reason
of this exception has been previously stated,®? and the
reason also why the others lay imperfect eggs.* In these τὸ
also the development from the egg runs on the same lines
as that of the cartilaginous and internally oviparous fishes,
except that the growth is quick and from small beginnings
and the outside of the egg is harder. The growth of the
egg° is like that of a scolex, for those animals which pro- 15
duce a scolex give birth to a small thing at first and this
grows by itself and not through any attachment to the
parent. The reason is similar to that of the growth of
yeast, for yeast also grows great from a small beginning
as the more solid part liquefies and the liquid is aerated.
This is effected in animals® by the nature of the vital
heat, in yeasts by the heat of the juice commingled with
them. The eggs then grow of necessity through this cause
(for they have in them superfluous yeasty matter), but also
for the sake of a final cause, for it is impossible for them
to attain their whole growth in the uterus because these 25
animals have so many eggs. Therefore are they very
small when set free and grow quickly,’ small because the
uterus is narrow for the multitude of the eggs, and growing
quickly that the race may not perish, as it would if much
of the time required for the whole development were spent
in this growth; even as it is most of those laid are 30
destroyed before hatching. Hence the class of fish is
prolific, for Nature makes up for the destruction by
numbers. Some fish actually burst because of the size

of the eggs, as the fish called ‘ beloné’,® for its eggs are

το
ο

ΠῚ

' The bony fishes or teleosteans, comprising all the ordinary fish.

* The frog-fish here seems to be counted among the teleosteans,
though before he was reckoned to be cartilaginous.

3 754% 26. 4 1. 7188.

® A. thinks erroneously that the egg of a teleostean grows after
oviposition before it hatches the young fish. For the scolex see
on 7588 31. ° Qu. read gots for ζῴοις ὃ

7 The egg swells up by imbibing water to many times its size in a
very short time.

® Some kind of pipe-fish, probably Syugnathus acus, called beloné
from its shape. In many of the Syngnathidae the males receive the
eggs in a pouch and retain them there till they are hatched; the

755°

155°

οι

1Ο

~
on

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

large instead of numerous, what Nature has taken away in
number being added in size.
So much for the growth of such eggs and its reason.

A proof that these fish also? are oviparous is the fact 5
that even viviparous fish, such as the cartilaginous, are first
internally oviparous, for hence it is plain that the whole
class of fishes is oviparous. Where, however, both sexes
exist and the eggs are produced in consequence of impreg-
nation,? the eggs do not arrive at completion unless the
male sprinkle his milt upon them. Some erroneously
assert that all fish are female except in the cartilaginous
fishes, for they think that the females of fish differ from
what are supposed to be males only in the same way as
in those plants where the one bears fruit but the other
is fruitless, as olive and oleaster, fig and caprifig. They
think the like applies to fish except the cartilaginous, for
they do not dispute the sexes in these. And yet there
is no difference in the males of cartilaginous fishes and
those belonging to the oviparous class in respect of the
organs for the milt,? and it is manifest that semen can
be squeezed out of males of both classes at the right
season. The female also has a uterus. But if the whole
class were females and some of them* unproductive (as
with mules in the class of bushy-tailed animals), then not
only should those which lay eggs have a uterus but also
the others, only the uterus of the latter should be different
pouch then bursts and the young escape. A. evidently took the male
for the female. Cf. H. A. vi. 567” 22, from which passage it appears
that A. knew that this pouch is distinct from the ‘uterus’ and that the
fish is none the worse for ‘ bursting’.

1 Apparently the teleosteans are meant, but it has been assumed
that they are oviparous throughout the work. This passage perhaps
is a relic of an early discussion of the subject retained here out of
place.

2 A. erroneously supposes copulation to take place in teleosteans
generally before oviposition, in spite of his knowing that the eggs have
to be influenced by the male element after it.

8 These are the ‘spermatic passages’ of i. 716 17, in fact the testes,
though A. declines to call them so.

* The supposed males.

5 The ‘bushy-tailed animals’ are the genus Zguwws. Cf. Suidas

S.V. μώνυχα. I transpose the parenthetic words hither from the end of
the sentence, where they were absurd.

BOOK III. 5 755°

from that of the former. But, as it is, some of them have 20
organs for milt and others have a uterus, and this dis-
tinction obtains in all except two, the erythrinus and the
channa,! some of them having the milt organs, others
a uterus. The difficulty which drives some thinkers to
this conclusion is easily solved if we look at the facts.
They say quite correctly? that no animal which copulates
produces many young, for of all those that generate from 25
themselves perfect animals or perfect eggs none is prolific
on the same scale as the oviparous fishes, for the number of
eggs in these is enormous. But they had overlooked the
fact that fish-eggs differ from those of birds in one circum-
stance. Birds and all oviparous quadrupeds, and any of 30
the cartilaginous fish that are oviparous,® produce a perfect
egg, and it does not increase outside of them, whereas the
eggs of fish are imperfect and do so complete their growth.
Moreover the same thing applies to cephalopods also and
crustacea,* yet these animals are actually seen copulating,
for their union lasts a long time, and it is plain in these
cases that the one is male and the other has a uterus.
Finally, it would be strange if this distinction® did not 756
exist in the whole class,° just as male and female in all
the vivipara. The cause of the ignorance of those who
make this statement is that the differences in the copula-
tion and generation of various animals are of all kinds and
not obvious, and so, speculating on a small induction, they 5
think the same must hold good in all cases.

So also those who assert that conception in female fishes
is caused by their swallowing the semen of the male have

1 For the erythrinus see on ii, 741 36. The channa is supposed to
be Serranus scriba (AW., p. 34).

2 It is obvious that their argument is not correctly repeated here ; it
should be something like this: Mammals, birds, and reptiles copulate
and produce few at a birth. Fish produce many. Therefore fish do
not copulate. The correctness does not go beyond the premisses.

* The frog-fish is meant.

=,e. they lay very many eggs. ἘΝ Litforce,

® Read παντὶ τῷ γένει ΟΥ̓ τῷ π. y. Without the article the words could
only mean every class, which would be absurd, for A. believes whole
classes to have no sex distinction. Even as it is he thinks some fish
are hermaphrodite. The class here seems to mean the ovipara.

AR. Ge A. K

7562 DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

not observed certain points when they say this. For the
males have their milt and the females their eggs at
about the same time of year, and the nearer the female
10 is to laying the more abundant and the more liquid is
the milt formed in the male. And just as the increase
of the milt in the male and of the roe in the female takes
place at the same time, so is it also with their emission,
for neither do the females lay all their eggs together, but
gradually, nor do the males emit all the milt at once. _ All
15 these facts are in accordance with reason. For just as the
class of birds in some cases has eggs without impregnation,
but few and seldom, impregnation being generally required,
so we find the same thing, though to a less degree, in fish.
But in both classes these spontaneous eggs are infertile
20 unless the male, in those kinds where the male exists, shed
his fluid upon them. Now in birds this must take place
while the eggs are still within the mother, because they are
perfect when discharged, but in fish, because the eggs are
imperfect and complete their growth outside the mother
in all cases, those outside are preserved by the sprinkling
of the milt over them, even if they come into being by
25 impregnation, and here it is that the milt of the males is
used up. Therefore it comes down the ducts and diminishes
in quantity at the same time as this happens to the eggs
of the females, for the males always attend them, shedding
- their milt upon the eggs as they are laid. Thus then they
are male and female, and all of them copulate (unless in any
kind? the distinction of sex does not exist), and without
30 the semen of the male no such animal comes into being.
What helps in the deception is also the fact that the
union of such fishes is brief, so that it is not observed even
by many of the fishermen, for none of them ever watches
anything of the sort for the sake of knowledge. Nevertheless
their copulation has been seen, for fish [when the tail part
756” does not prevent it2] copulate like the dolphins by throw-

1 i, e. certain sea-perch.

5 Read ὅσοις (un); cf. H.A. v. 540 το, but that passage shows that
the words are here interpolated, for there they make sense and here
they do not.

BOOK III. 5 756”

ing themselves alongside of one another.!_ But the dolphins
take longer to get free again, whereas such fishes do so
quickly. Hence, not seeing this, but seeing the swallowing
of the milt and the eggs, even the fishermen repeat the 5
same simple tale, so much noised abroad, as Herodotus
the story-teller,? as if fish were conceived by the mother’s
swallowing the milt,—not considering that this is impossible.
For the passage which enters by way of the mouth runs to
the intestines, not to the uterus, and what goes into the
intestines must be turned into nutriment, for it is con-
cocted ; the uterus, however, is plainly full of eggs, and
from whence did they enter it?

[9]

> A similar story is told also of the generation of birds.
For there are some who say that the raven and the ibis
unite at the mouth, and among quadrupeds that the weasel
brings forth its young by the mouth *; so say Anaxagoras
and some of the other physicists, speaking too super-
ficially and without consideration, Concerning the birds,
they are deceived by a false reasoning, because the copula-
tion of ravens is seldom seen, but they are often seen
uniting with one another with their beaks, as do all the
birds of the raven family; this is plain with domesticated
jackdaws. Birds of the pigeon kind do the same, but,
because they also plainly copulate, therefore they have
not had the same legend told of them. But the raven 25
family is not amorous, for they are birds that produce
few young, though this bird also has been seen copulating
before now. It is a strange thing, however, that these
theorists do not ask themselves how the semen enters the
uterus through the intestine, which always concocts what-
ever comes into it, as the nutriment ; and these birds have
a uterus like others, and eggs are found in them near the 30
hypozoma. And the weasel has a uterus in like manner

1 Viviparous teleosteans, it is supposed, must copulate, but there are
very few viviparous species.
2 Hidt, i1.:93. ;
® So Agnes in Δ᾽ Ecole des femmes (Act I, Sc. i) inquired,
Avec une innocence a nulle autre pareille,
Si les enfants qu’on fait se faisaient par l’oreille.

K 2

756? DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

to the other quadrupeds; by what passage is the embryo
to get from it to the mouth? But this opinion has
arisen because the young of the weasel are very small
like those of the other fissipeds, of which we shall speak

757° later, and because they often carry the young about in
their mouths.

Much deceived also are those who make a foolish state-
ment about the trochus! and the hyena.2~ Many say that
the hyena, and Herodorus the Heracleot says that the

5 trochus, has two pudenda, those of the male and of the
female, and that the trochus impregnates itself but the
hyena mounts and is mounted in alternate years. This
is untrue, for the hyena has been seen to have only one
pudendum, there being no lack of opportunity for observa-
tion in some districts, but hyenas have under the tail

το ἃ line like the pudendum of the female. Both male and
female have such a mark, but the males are taxen more
frequently ; this casual observation has given rise to this
opinion. But enough has been said of this.

Touching the generation of fish, the question may be»
15 raised, why it is that in the cartilaginous fish neither the
females are seen discharging ® their eggs nor the males their
milt, whereas in the non-viviparous fishes this is seen in
both sexes. The reason is that the whole cartilaginous
class do not produce much semen, and further the females
20 have their uterus near the hypozoma.* For the males and
females of the one class of fish differ from the males and
females of the other class in like manner, for the carti-

It is impossible to guess what this animal may have been.

* This would be the striped hyena (27. striata). The story told of
it probably arose from the fact that hyenas have ‘a large post-anal
median glandular pouch, into which the largely developed anal scent
glands pour their secretion’ (Flower and Lydekker, Mammals,
p. 541). Cf. H.A. vi. 32, where a more accurate statement is made
than here. With regard to the greater number of males caught, A.
says there that a hunter declared that out of eleven only one was
female, but the records of the Zoological Society show that the sexes
are about equal.

* This only means ‘ do not discharge ’.

* And therefore the eggs are perfected internally.

BOOK ΠῚ. 7

laginous are less productive of semen.' But in the ovi-
parous fish, as the females lay their eggs on account of
their number, so do the males shed their milt on account
of its abundance. For they have more milt than just what
is required for copulation, as Nature prefers to expend the
milt in helping to perfect the eggs, when the female has
deposited them, rather than in forming them at first. For
as has been said both further back and in our recent
discussions, the eggs of birds are perfected internally but
those of fish externally. The latter, indeed, resemble in
a way those animals which produce a scolex, for the pro-
duct discharged by them is still more imperfect than a fish’s
ege. It is the male that brings about the perfection of the
egg both of birds and of fishes, only in the former inter-
nally, as they are perfected internally, and in the latter
externally, because the egg is imperfect when deposited ;
but the result is the same in both cases.

In birds the wind-eggs become fertile,? and those pre-
viously impregnated by one kind of cock change their
nature to that of the later cock.* And if the eggs be
behindhand in growth, then, if the same cock treads the
hen again after leaving off treading for a time,* he causes
them to increase quickly, not, however, at any period whatever
of their development, but if the treading take place before
the egg changes so far that the white begins to separate
from the yolk. But in the eggs of fishes no such limit of
time has been laid down, but the males shed their milt
quickly upon them ἴο preserve them.® The reason is that
these eggs are not two-coloured, and hence there is no such
limit of time fixed with them as with those of birds. This
fact is what we should expect, for by the time that the
white and yolk are separated off from one another, the bird’s

' This sentence should mean that both male and female elasmo-
branchs have less generative secretions than teleosteans.

2 If impregnated in time.

S i.e. if afterwards the hen be trodden by a cock of another kind.
See on 1. 7307 8.

* Read ἂν διαλίπῃ τὴν ὀχείαν, ὅταν ὀχεύῃ OF ὀχεύσῃ πάλιν.

° Reading ἐπιρραίνουσιν.

° For if this does not happen the eggs would perish.

157°

5
-

LS)
(a)

757°

σι

51" DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

egg already contains the principle that comes from the
male parent! ... for the male contributes to this.
Wind-eggs, then, participate in generation so far as is
15 possible for them. That they should be perfected into an
animal is impossible, for an animal requires sense-percep-
tion ;? but the nutritive faculty of the soul is possessed by
females as well as males, and indeed by all living things, as
has been often said, wherefore the egg itself® is perfect
only as the embryo of a plant, but imperfect as that of an
20 animal. If, then, there had been no male sex in the class of
birds, the egg would have been produced as it is in some
fishes, if indeed there is any kind of fish of such a nature
as to generate without a male; but it has been said of
them before that this has not yet been satisfactorily
observed.’ But as it is both sexes exist in all birds, so
25 that, considered as a plant, the egg is perfect, but in so far
as it is not a plant it is not perfect, nor does anything else
result from it; for neither has it come into being simply
like a real plant nor from copulation like an animal.®? Eggs,
however, produced from copulation but already separated
into white and yolk take after the first cock;° for they
30 already contain both principles,’ which is why they do not
change again after the second impregnation.®

The young are produced in the same way also by the 8

1 And therefore a cock cannot influence them any longer after this.
The spermatozoon of the male fertilizes the egg of the female before the
white has begun forming round it in its passage down the oviduct.
Presumably the spermatozoon could not make its way through the
white, and therefore a wind-egg which had got some way down could
not be fertilized ; at any rate impregnation does actually occur only in
the upper part of the oviduct.

There seems to be here a gap in the text, which may be filled up as
follows: ‘(But with fish there is no such separation of white and yolk,
and the egg after being laid acquires further growth, and so needs help
from the male,) for the male contributes to this growth.’

2 And this comes from the male parent.

3 Read αὐτό for αὐτοῦ. 4 di, 7419 87, 37.

> Read φυτόν and ζῴον for φυτοῦ and ζῴου.

5 Even if the hen be trodden by a second cock before the egg is laid.

7 Not only the nutritive but also the sensitive soul.

* I have transposed the last clause to the end of this chapter from
its place in the MSS.‘a few lines back. The whole of this chapter looks
much mutilated.

BOOK III. 8 7

cephalopoda, e.g. sepias and the like, and by the crustacea,
e.g. carabi! and their kindred, for these also lay eggs in
consequence of copulation, and the male has often been
seen uniting with the female. Therefore those who say
that all fish are female and lay eggs without copulation are 758*
plainly speaking unscientifically from this point of view
also. For it is a wonderful thing to suppose that the
former animals lay eggs in consequence of copulation and
that fish do ποῖ; 3 if again they were unaware of this,® it is
a sign of ignorance. The union of all these creatures lasts
a considerable time, as in insects, and naturally so, for they 5
are bloodless and therefore of a cold nature.

In the sepias and calamaries or squids the eggs appear
to be two, because the uterus is divided and appears double,
but that of the poulps appears to be single The reason
is that the shape of the uterus in the poulp is round in form
and spherical, the cleavage being obscure when it is filled
with eggs. The uterus of the carabi is also bifid. All
these animals also lay an imperfect egg for the same reason
as fishes. In the carabi and their like the females produce.
their eggs so as to keep them attached to themselves,
which is why the side-flaps of the females are larger than
those of the males, to protect the eggs; the cephalopoda
lay them away from themselves. The males of the cepha-
lopoda sprinkle their milt over the females,’ as the male
fish do over the eggs, and it becomes a sticky and glutinous
mass, but in the carabi and their like nothing of the sort
has been seen or can be naturally expected, for the egg is
under the female and is hard-shelled. Both these eggs 29
and those of the cephalopoda grow after deposition ° like
those of fishes.

μή

al
13)

1 Properly the spiny lobsters, but A. uses the term also in a general
way for all the macrurous crustacea.

2 ‘Wonderful,’ because fish are higher in the scale of animals,
and copulation is a characteristic of higher animals. But the great
majority of fish are against A. for all that.

3 i.e. of the copulation of cephalopoda and crustacea.

* See i. 3 and note. A. seems to have confused his notes on this
point.

5.1 do not know what A. means by this.

6 j, e, they swell up in the water.

758° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

The sepia while developing is attached to the egg by
its front part, for here alone is it possible, because this
animal alone has its front and back part pointing in the
same direction. For the position and attitude of the young

25 while developing you must look at the Enquiries.

We have now spoken of the generation of other animals, 9
those that walk, fly, and swim; it remains to speak of
insects and testacea according to the plan laid down.? Let
us begin with the insects. It was observed previously that

30 some of these are generated by copulation, others spon-
taneously, and besides this that they produce a scolex, and
why this is so. For pretty mucli all creatures seem in
a certain way to produce a scolex ® first, since the most
imperfect embryo is of such a nature; and in all animals,

35 even the viviparous and those that lay a perfect egg, the
first embryo grows in size while still undifferentiated into
parts; now such is the nature of the scolex. After this
stage some of the ovipara produce the egg in a perfect

758° condition, others in an imperfect, but it is perfected outside
as has been often stated of fish. With animals internally
viviparous the embryo becomes egg-like in a certain sense
after its original formation, for the liquid is contained in
a fine membrane, just as if we should take away the shell
of the egg, wherefore they call the abortion of an embryo
at that stage an ‘efflux’.*

Those insects which generate at all generate a scolex,

σι

1 H. A. ν. 550% 17-26, which was illustrated. A.’s description is
correct ; the young cephalopod seems to swallow the yolk. The body
of these creatures is twisted round upon itself so that the head and the
‘funnel’ both point forward.

? Or ‘ the order of inquiry which has guided us’.

3 The scolex is of two kinds, either an egg (though A. does not call
it so) or a grub, which A. supposes to be produced from the mother
without anegg. This grows for some time and then ‘ becomes an egg’
by spinning its cocoon. Its escape from the cocoon corresponds to
that of the chick from the egg or the mammalian embryo from its
foetal membranes. Acurious fancy! See Ogle, p. xxvii.

* The liquid is that within the chorion, not the Zgwor amutz, for A.
thought the amnion kept the embryo apart from all liquid. If the egg-
shell were removed, the white, corresponding to the liquid, would be
contained in a membrane only, and so the egg would be parallel to the
chorion and its contents.

BOOK III. 9

and those which come into being spontaneously and not
from copulation do so at first from a formation of this
nature, I say that the former generate a scolex, for we
must put down caterpillars! also and the product of
spiders as a sort of scolex. And yet some even of these
and many of the others may be thought to resemble eggs
because of their round shape, but we must not judge by
shapes nor yet by softness and hardness (for what is pro-
duced by some is παι 5), but by the fact that the whole
of them is changed into the body of the creature and the
animal is not developed from a part of them.’ All these
products that are of the nature of a scolex, after progressing
and acquiring their full size, become a sort of egg,* for the
husk about them hardens and they are motionless during
this period. This is plain in the scolex of bees and wasps
and in caterpillars. The reason of this is that their nature,
because of its imperfection, oviposits as it were before the
right time, as if the scolex, while still growing in size, were
a soft egg. Similar to this is also what happens with all
other insects which come into being without copulation in
wool ® and other such materials and in water. For all of
them after the scolex-stage become immovable and their
integument dries round them, and after this the latter
bursts and there comes forth as from an egg an animal

1 | think that A. really means the eggs from which caterpillars come ;
it is certain from the next sentence that he was acquainted with the
eggs of insects. A. of course includes spiders among insects.

2 e.g. the eggs of lobsters.

8 This passage is very important for understanding the difference of
scolex and egg. ‘There is no essential distinction between them, but
the former has no supply of nutriment with it while the latter has. So
nowadays we speak of holoblastic and meroblastic yolks ; the whole
of the former develops into the body of the animal, in the latter only
a fraction does so, the rest serving for nutriment.

4 The pupa is like an egg because it is from it that the real insect is
developed, the differentiation into its final parts taking place within it.
Also its outside covering is like an egg-shell, and the insect is quiet
within it as a bird within the shell.

It is worth observing that what are known in the trade as ‘ants’ eggs’
are really the pupas of ants.

5 i,e. the metamorphoses of the larva correspond to the develop-
ment of the hen’s egg in its very early stage before it is surrounded
by the shell.

§ Clothes-moths ; see H. A. v. 32.

758°

τὸ
2)

758”

759°

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

perfected in its second metamorphosis,! most of those
which are not aquatic being winged.? ;

Another point is quite natural, which may be wondered
at by many. Caterpillars at first take nourishment, but
after this stage do so no longer, but what is called by some
the chrysalis is motionless. The same applies to the
scolex of wasps and bees, but after this comes into being
the so-called nymph?. Ξ Ξ : : : :
and have nothing of the kind. For an egg # is also of such
a nature that when it has reached perfection it grows no
more in size, but at first it grows and receives nourishment
until it is differentiated and becomes a perfect egg.° Some-
times the scolex contains in itself the material from which
it is nourished and obtains such an addition to its size,
e.g. in bees and wasps;° sometimes it gets its nourish-
ment from outside itself, as caterpillars and some others.

It has thus been stated why such animals go through
a double development and for what reason they become
immovable again after moving. And some of them come
into being by copulation, like birds and vivipara and most
fishes, others spontaneously, like some plants."

1 Lit. the third generation, second by our way of counting.

* The aquatic are winged also as a rule, 6. g. dragon-flies.

5 i.e. the pupa of wasps and bees. The text is in some confusion,
and there must be a considerable lacuna which may be filled up as
follows: ‘This nymph or pupa takes no nourishment. The difficulty
then is that we have here three stages, in the first and third of which
the animal is nourished, but not in the second. But this really corre-
sponds to the development of other animals, for the egg also first grows
to full size, then ceases growing and is motionless, and thirdly gives
rise to a creature which again takes nourishment. Now in birds the
mother supplies nourishment which makes the chick grow, and the egg
of fish is able to grow after oviposition, but the product of an insect
cannot get enough from the mother to develop in the same way because
insects are so imperfect and have nothing of the kind. For, &c.’

* i.e. of birds or fish.

5 So also a scolex grows until it gets to the egg stage, i.e. the pupa,
but then grows no more in size.

6 A. does not know then that these insects feed their larvae. I do
not see how he supposed the larva to have anything in itself that could
make it grow ; it could not be anything like the yolk of an egg, for his
criterion of the distinction between egg and scolex is just this, that only
part of the egg becomes the animal, whereas the whole of the scolex
does so. In chap. 11 he says the upper (i.e. front) part of a scolex
grows by taking into itself material from the lower part. But this
would only involve a rearrangement of the material, not an addition
in size. 7 e.g, mistletoe (i. 1, ad /i7.).

BOOK III. τὸ

There is much difficulty about the generation of bees.'
If it is really true that in the case of some fishes there is
such a method of generation that they produce eggs with-
out copulation,? this may well happen also with bees, to
judge from appearances. For they must (1) either bring the
young brood®* from elsewhere, as some say, and if so the
young must either be spontaneously generated or produced
by some other animal, or (2) they must generate them
themselves, or (3) they must bring some and generate
others, for this also is maintained by some, who say that
they bring the young of the drones only. Again, if they
generate them it must be either with or without copulation ;
if the former, then either (1) each kind+ must generate its
own kind, or (2) some one kind must generate the others,
or (3) one kind must unite with another for the purpose
(I mean for instance (1) that bees may be generated from
the union of bees, drones from that of drones, and kings
from that of kings, or (2) that all the others may be
generated from one, as from what are called kings and

1 The facts are briefly as follows. There are three kinds, (1) perfect
males or drones, (2) perfect females or queens, (3) undeveloped females
or workers. The queen lays eggs before she has been fertilized by a
drone ; this is known as parthenogenesis ; these eggs produce drones.
The fertilized eggs of the queen produce workers or queens, according
to the way the grub is fed by the workers (some think that drones
also may be sometimes produced from fertilized eggs). The workers
also, in spite of being sexually undeveloped, do occasionally lay
parthenogenetic eggs, which always produce drones.

It will be evident to any reader of this chapter that A. knew next to
nothing about the truth. He does indeed hit upon the fact that
workers may (but he says a/ways do) parthenogenetically produce
drones; he gets at this by hard thinking, and the whole chapter is
greatly to his credit. But it is not to the credit of any modern writer
that he should assert that the Greeks were well acquainted with the
internal economy of the hive.

It seems clear that A. had never heard of the alleged generation of
bees from the rotting carcases of oxen. He does indeed mention the
theory of their spontaneous generation, but it is in connexion not with
oxen but with flowers. On the so-called ‘ bugonia’ or ox-birth of bees
see C. R. Osten Sacken, On the Oxen-born Bees of the Ancients,
Heidelberg, 1894, who shows that the legend arose from confusion
of the bee with a dipterous insect resembling it, Evistalis tenax.

2 The reference is here, again, to the sea-perch. The right reading
of the first word in this sentence is, I think, εἴπερ, not ἐπεί.

ὃ τὸν γόνον, i.e. the scoleces.

* The three kinds are queens, drones, and workers. When A. says
bees he generally means the workers, and the queen he calls Aug or
leader.

759°

Lal

_
σι

759° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

leaders, or (3) from the union of drones and bees, for some
say that the former are male, the latter female, while

25 others? say that the bees are male and the drones female).
But all these views are impossible if we reason first upon
the facts peculiar to bees and secondly upon those which
apply more generally to other animals also.

For if they do not generate the young but bring them
from elsewhere, then bees ought to come into being also, if
the bees did not carry them off, in the places from which ?
the old bees carry the germs. For why, if new bees come
into existence when the germs are transported, should they

30 not do so if the germs are left there? They ought to do
so just as much, whether the germs are spontaneously
generated in the flowers or whether some animal generates
them. And if the germs were of some other animal, then
that animal ought to be produced from them instead of
bees. Again, that they should collect honey ® is reasonable,
for it is their food, but it is strange that they should collect

35 the young if they are neither their own offspring nor food.
With what object should they do so? for all animals that
trouble themselves about the young labour for what ap-

759° pears * to be their own offspring.

But, again, it is also unreasonable to suppose that the
bees are female and the drones male, for Nature does not
give weapons for fighting to any female, and while the
drones are stingless all the bees have a sting. Nor is

5 the opposite view reasonable, that the bees are male and
the drones female, for no males are in the habit of working
for their offspring, but as it is the bees do this.6 And
generally, since the brood of the drones is found coming

io into being among them even if there is no mature drone
present, but that of the bees is not so found without the
presence of the kings ® (which is why some say that the

1 Reading οἱ δέ. 2 Reading ἐν τοῖς τόποις ἐξ ὧν.

3 Strictly speaking they collect nectar and turn it into honey.

4 Perhaps A. is thinking of the foster mother of the cuckoo. (Some
ants, however, do carry off the pupas of other ants and bring them up.)

® This is an unlucky paragraph, for many female insects have offen-
sive weapons, and many males work for their offspring.

® Since the workers occasionally produce a drone by parthenogenesis,
but cannot produce another worker, this is true.

BOOK III. τὸ 759°

young of the drones alone is brought in from outside), it is
plain that they are not? produced from’ copulation, either
(1) of bee with bee or drone with drone or (2) of bees with
drones. (That they should import the brood of the drones
alone is impossible for the reasons already given, and
besides it is unreasonable that a similar state of things
should not prevail with all the three kinds if it prevails
with one.) Then, again, it is also impossible that the bees
themselves should be some of them male and some female,
for in all kinds of animals the two sexes differ. Besides
they would in that case generate their own kind, but as it
is their brood is not found to come into being if the
leaders are not among them, as men? say. And an argu- 20
ment against both theories, that the young are generated
by union of the bees with one another or with the drones,
separately or with one another,* is this: none of them has
ever yet been seen copulating, whereas this would have
often happened if the sexes had existed in them.* It
remains then, if they are generated by copulation at all,
that the kings shall unite to generate them.’ But the
drones are found to come into being even if no leaders are
present, and it is not possible that the bees should either
import their brood or themselves generate them by copula-
tion. It remains then, as appears to be the case in certain
fishes, that the bees should generate the drones without
copulation, being indeed female in respect of generative
power, but containing in themselves both sexes as plants
do. Hence also they have the instrument of offence, for ®
we ought not to call that female in which the male sex is
not separated. But if this is found to be the case with
drones, if they come into being without copulation, then

=
σι

iss)

' Reading οὐκ. * Presumably bee-keepers.

* i.e. bee with bee apart from drones, or bee with drone.

* Union occurs only once’in the life of the queen, in the so-called
‘marriage flight’. And as this is high in air, it was naturally not
observed.

° A. seems at first sight to overlook the possibility of (1) union of
queen and drone, (2) union of queen and worker. But the first seemed
to him to be barred by the fact that young are produced without the
presence of drones, the second by the fact stated in the next sentence.

" The connexion is: ‘ And this does not violate the rule that females
have none, for, &c.’

759” DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

35 it is necessary that the same account should be given of the
bees and the kings and that they also should be generated
without copulation. Now if the brood of the bees had been
found to come into being among them without the presence

760% of the kings, it would necessarily follow that the bees also
are produced from bees themselves without copulation, but
as it is, since those occupied with the tendance of these
creatures deny this, it remains that the kings must generate
both their own kind and the bees.

5 As bees are a peculiar and extraordinary kind of animal
so also their generation appears to be peculiar. That bees
should generate without copulation is a thing which may
be paralleled in other animals, but that what they generate
should not be of the same kind is peculiar to them, for the
erythrinus generates an erythrinus and the channa a channa.!

το The reason is that bees themselves are not generated like
flies and similar creatures, but from a kind different indeed
but akin to them, for they are produced from the leaders.
Hence in a sort of way their generation is analogous.? For
the leaders resemble the drones in size and the bees in

15 possessing a sting; so the bees are like them in this
respect, and the drones are like them in size. For there
must needs be some overlapping unless the same kind is
always to be produced from each; but this is impossible,
for at that rate the whole class would consist of leaders.®
The bees, then, are assimilated to them in their power of

20 generation,’ the drones in size; if the latter had had a sting
also they would have been leaders, but as it is this much
of the difficulty has been solved,* for the leaders are like
both kinds at once, like the bees in possessing a sting, like
the drones in size.

1 See on ii. 740% 36, iii. 755» 21.

? i.e. the different kinds of generation are analogous to the different
kinds of bees.

’ Since bees only exist because queens produce them, it follows
that if all creatures always produced their own kind only there would
be no bees, and consequently no drones either.

* Reading καὶ τὸ τίκτειν.

5.1 read λέλυται for λείπεται. One MS, adds a note on the words
τοῦτο λείπεται τῆς ἀπορίας running thus: καὶ ἤδη λέλυται" τὰ προειρημένα

γὰρ ἡ λύσις τῆς ἀπορίας. Perhaps we should assume a lacuna after
6 See)
as it is’.

BOOK III. το 760%

But the leaders also must be generated from something.
Since it is neither from the bees nor from the drones, it 25
must be from their own kind. The grubs of the kings are
produced last and are not many in number.!

Thus what happens is this: the leaders generate their
own kind but also another kind, that of the bees; the bees
again generate another kind, the drones, but do not also
generate their own kind, but this has been denied them. 30
And since what is according to Nature is always in due
order, therefore it is necessary that it should be denied
to the drones even to generate another kind than them-
selves. This is just what we find happening, for though
the drones are themselves generated, they generate nothing
else, but the process reaches its limit in the third stage.
And so beautifully is this arranged by Nature that the
three kinds always continue in existence and none of them 760°
fails, though they do not all generate.

Another fact is also natural, that in fine seasons
much honey is collected and many drones are produced,
but in rainy seasons a large brood of ordinary bees.”
For the wet causes more residual matter to be formed 5
in the bodies of the leaders, the fine weather in that of
the bees, for being smaller® in size they need the fine
weather more than the kings do. It is right also that
the kings, being as it were made with a view to producing
young,* should remain within, freed from the labour of
procuring necessaries, and also that they should be of
a considerable size, their bodies being, as it were, consti- 10
tuted with a view to bearing young, and that the drones
should be idle as having no weapon to fight for the food

1 This sentence is correct. After a great number of drones and
workers have been brought up, the workers build one or several larger
cells in each of which an egg, not differing from the usual egg in any
way so far as can be discerned, is laid by the queen. The grub is fed
upon ‘royal jelly’, and it seems that this special food causes it to
develop into a queen.

2 The reason why there are more drones in fine seasons is that in
wet seasons there is less honey to be had and the drones are killed
off early as ‘useless mouths’,

3 Reading ἐλάττω γὰρ ὄντα.

* | translate the vulgate, but suspect strongly that we should omit ὥσ-
περ πεποιημένους, and with one good MS. read ἐπὶ τῇ τεκνώσει ἔσω μένειν.

760° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

and because of the slowness of their bodies. But the bees
are intermediate in size between the two other kinds, for
this is useful for their work,! and they are workers as
15 having to support not only their young but also their
fathers.2 And it agrees with our views that the bees
attend upon their kings because they are their offspring
(for if nothing of the sort had been the case the facts
about their leadership would be unreasonable), and that,
while they suffer the kings to do no work as being their
20 parents, they punish the drones as their children, for it is
nobler to punish one’s children and those who have no
work to perform.? The fact that the leaders being few
generate the bees in large numbers seems to be similar
to what obtains in the generation of lions, which at first
produce five, afterwards a smaller number each time, at
25 last one and thereafter none.*' So the leaders at first pro-
duce a number of workers, afterwards a few of their own
kind; thus the brood of the latter is smaller in number
than that of the former, but where Nature has taken away
from them in number she has made it up again in size.
Such appears to be the truth about the generation of
bees, judging from theory and from what are believed to be
3° the facts about them ; the facts, however, have not yet been
sufficiently grasped ; if ever they are, then credit must be
given rather to observation® than to theories, and to
theories only if what they affirm agrees with the observed
facts.®

1 Because, I suppose, among men the most active and best workers
are neither unwieldy nor undersized. But A. has just said correctly
that bees are smaller than both kings and drones; either there is
something very wrong with the text or else this passage is the remains
of earlier notes on the subject, before A. had corrected his views.

* As the queens give birth to the bees ‘parthenogenetically’ it
follows that they are ‘like plants, containing both sexes within them-
selves’. Hence they might be called either ‘fathers’ or ‘mothers’.

° As the bees punish the drones by massacring them all at the end ἱ
of the summer, their φαΐγέα potestas seems to carry nobility to extreme
lengths.

* See above on 750* 32.

° αἰσθήσει, lit. sense-perception, or the evidence of the senses. Plato
had maintained that λόγος was more trustworthy than αἴσθησις.

° The translation of this sentence is deservedly printed by AW. in
conspicuous type. It should have been kept in mind by those bastard
Aristotelians who at the revival of learning refused to accept observed

BOOK III. 10 760°

A further indication that bees are produced without
opulation is the fact that the brood appears small in the
ells of the comb, whereas, whenever insects are generated
yy copulation, the parents remain united for a long time 761°
ut produce quickly something of the nature of a scolex
nd of a considerable size.!

Concerning the generation of animals akin to them, as
ornets and wasps,” the facts in all cases are similar to

certain extent, but are devoid of the extraordinary
satures which characterize bees; this we should expect,
or they have nothing divine about them as the bees have. 5
‘or the so-called ‘mothers’ generate the young? and
1ould the first part of the combs, but they generate by
opulation with one another, for their union has often
een observed. As for all the differences of each of these
inds from one another and from bees, they must be
westigated with the aid of the illustrations to the
puquiries.*

μι

fe)

Having spoken of the generation of all insects, we must
ow speak of the testacea. Here also the facts of genera-
on are partly like and partly unlike those in the other
lasses. And this is what might be expected. For com- 15
ared with animals they resemble plants, compared with
lants they resemble animals, so that in a sense they
ppear to come into being from semen, but in another
snse not so, and in one way they are spontaneously gene-
ited but in another from their own kind, or some of them
1 the latter way, others in the former. Because their

cts because they were supposed to contradict Aristotle’s statements
vhich they often did not).

1 This means in modern language, I think, that bees lay eggs whereas
cher insects which copulate produce a grub viviparously, e.g. flesh-
ies. But A. is quite mistaken in supposing this last to be true of all
sects that copulate. It seems evident that he was not altogether
appy in his own mind about the bees.

2 ἀνθρηνῶν te καὶ σφηκῶν. It is not quite certain exactly what is
ieant by each of these words.

5 So far resembling the kings of the bees; where they are less
sxtraordinary’ is in the absence of parthenogenesis. But in reality
is common in wasps also, and in very many other animals.

oe. A; ix, 41:

AR, G.A. 1L,

761°

τὸ

761°

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

nature answers to that of plants, therefore few or no kinds
of testacea come into being on land, e.g. the snails and
any others, few as they are, that resemble them; but in
the sea and similar waters there are many of all kinds of
forms. But the class of plants has but few and one may
say practically no representatives in the sea and such places,
all such growing on the land. For plants and testacea are
analogous ; and in proportion as liquid has more quickening
power than solid, water than earth, so much does the nature
of testacea differ from that of plants, since the object of
testacea is to be in such a relation to water as plants are
to earth, as if plants were, so to say, land-oysters, oysters
water-plants.

For such a reason also the testacea in the water vary
more in form than those on the land. For the nature
of liquid is more plastic than that of earth and yet not
much less material, and this is especially true of the
inhabitants of the sea, for fresh water, though sweet and
nutritious, is cold and less material. Wherefore animals
having no blood and not of a hot nature are not produced
in lakes nor in the fresher among brackish waters, but only
exceptionally, but it is in estuaries and at the mouths of
rivers that they come into being, as testacea and cephalo-
poda and crustacea, all these being bloodless and of a cold
nature. For they seek at the same time the warmth of
the sun and food; now the sea is not only water but much
more material than fresh water and hot in its nature;
it has a share in all the parts of the universe, water and
air and earth,’ so that it also has a share in all living
things which are produced in connexion with each of these
elements.” Plants may be assigned to land, the aquatic

1 In air because it is warmer than fresh water, and air carries
warmth with it according to A.; in earth because it is ‘more material’,
having more earthy matter dissolved in it. Cf. Simroth agua Gomperz,
Greek Thinkers (Eng. ed.), vol i, p. 534.

5.1 omit the unintelligible words ἐν τοῖς τόποις ζῴων. That ζῴων is
wrong is plain from the mention of plants directly after.

The sea has a population belonging to all three elements, sea-weed
to earth, fish to water, cetacea to air, as being air-breathers. Land
and fresh water have each only two of these classes (but this is not
exactly correct, for there are fresh-water cetacea).

BOOK ΤΠ τὶ

nimals to water, the land animals to air, but variations of
uantity and distance’ make a great and wonderful dif-
erence. The fourth class? must not be sought in these
esions, though there certainly ought to be some animal
orresponding to the element of fire,® for this is counted
1as the fourth of the elementary bodies. But the form
yhich fire assumes never appears to be peculiar to it,* but
- always exists in some other of the elements, for that
thich is ignited appears to be either air or smoke or
arth.2 Such a kind of animal must be sought in the
100n, for this appears to participate in the element
emoved in the third degree from earth. The discussion
f these things however belongs to another subject.

To return to testacea, some of them are formed spon-
ineously, some emit a sort of generative substance? from
hemselves, but these also often come into being from a
pontaneous formation. To understand this we must grasp
he different methods of generation in plants; some of
hese are produced from seed, some from slips, planted
ut, some by budding off alongside, as the class of onions.®
n the last way are produced mussels,’ for smaller ones
re always growing off alongside the original, but the
rhelks, the purple-fish, and those which are said to ‘spawn’!?

1 Lit. ‘the more and less, the nearer and further’. I confess
cannot attach any definite meaning to the words.

21. 6. a Class of animals living in fire.

5. Lit. ‘the post of fire,’ its position in the line of the elements, a
ilitary metaphor.

* At least in our world.

5 ¢ A. arrives thus at the right standpoint, that fire is not a body but
nly a condition of bodies.” AW.

δ The moon is mentioned as the nearest of the heavenly bodies,
hich are supposed to move in the region of fire, forming the envelope
f the universe between ether and air. A. plainly disbelieves in the
tories of the salamander and other strange inhabitants of fire, though
hey are mentioned in H/7.A. v. 19. We must never conclude too
astily that any of the facts in that miscellaneous storehouse are
uaranteed by A. himself.

7 Lit. ‘a sort of power’.

§ Bulbs often send off a little bulb from themselves, which being
reed from the parent grows into a new plant.

® μύες, probably the common edible mussel.

10 κηριάζειν, ‘make combs,’ because a mass of whelks’ eggs, such as are
nown to every one on our seashores, looks like a wasp-comb. A.
failed to see that these masses consist of a multitude of distinct ova,

L 2

761°

tb
ο

i>)
er

329

761° - DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

emit masses of a liquid slime as if originated by something
of a seminal nature. We must not, however, consider that
anything of the sort is real semen, but that these creatures
participate in the resemblance to plants in the manner
stated above. Hence when once one such creature has
762° been produced, then is produced a number of them. For
all these creatures are liable to be even spontaneously
generated, and so to be formed still more plentifully in
proportion if some are already existing. For it is natural
that each should have some superfluous residue attached
to it from the original, and from this? buds off each

5 of the creatures growing alongside of it. Again, since the
nutriment and its residue possess a like power,’ it is likely
that the product of those testacea which ‘spawn’ should
resemble the original formation,* and so it is natural that
a new animal of the same kind should come into being
from this also.

1o All those which do not bud off or ‘spawn’ are spon-
taneously generated. Now all things formed in this way,
whether in earth or water, manifestly come into being in
connexion with putrefaction and an admixture of rain-
water. For as the sweet is separated off into the matter
which is forming, the residue of the mixture takes such
a form.® Nothing comes into being by putrefying, but

15 by concocting ;°® putrefaction and the thing putrefied is
only a residue of that which is concocted. For nothing
comes into being out of the whole of anything,’ any more

yet in recognizing them as the generative products of testacea, he was
in advance of the naturalists of the eighteenth century, who described
these egg-masses as distinct species of animals and gave them separate
names.’ Ogle, p. xxviii.

1 i.e, this generative slime is not a distinct organic product like
semen but merely so much stuff homogeneous with the body of the
animal, like the cutting of a plant.

2 Read ἀφ᾽ οὗ for ἀφ᾽ ἧς.

8 The nutriment is that in the parent’s body; the spawn is a
residue of this; if then the nutriment builds up, say, a whelk, so the
spawn will give rise to another whelk.

4 The text is corrupt. Qu. {τὴν rapa) gpvow for οὐσίαν ὃ

5 i.e. putrefies.

6 Early philosophers had thought that living things arose out of
putrefaction.

7 An animal is made out of a selection of material ; thus only part

> νὰ.

— δι

BOOK «Hit. (1 762%

than in the products of art ; if it did art would have nothing
to do, but as it is in the one case art removes the useless
material, in the other Nature does so. Animals and plants
come into being in earth and in liquid because there is
water in earth, and air in water, and in all air is vital heat, 20
so that in a sense all things are full of soul. Therefore
living things form quickly whenever this air and vital heat
are enclosed in anything. When they are so enclosed, the
corporeal liquids! being heated, there arises as it were a
frothy bubble. Whether what is forming is to be more
or less honourable in kind depends on the embracing? of 25
the psychical principle; this again depends on the medium
in which the generation takes place and the material which

is included. Now in the sea the earthy matter is present in
large quantities, and consequently the testaceous animals
are formed from a concretion of this kind, the earthy
matter hardening round them and solidifying in the same 30
manner as bones and horns (for these cannot be melted by
fire), and the matter (or body) which contains the life being
included within it.

The class of snails is the only class of such creatures that
has been seen uniting, but it has never yet been sufficiently
observed whether their generation is the result of the union
or not.

It may be asked, if we wish to follow the right line of
investigation, what it is in such animals the formation 762°
of which corresponds to the material principle.* For in
the females this is a residual secretion of the animal,
potentially such as that from which it came,* by imparting
motion to which the principle derived from the male
perfects the animal. But here® what must be said to
of an egg turns into the animal, not the whole of it ; in the same way a
statue is not the whole of a block of marble; therefore when spontane-
ous generation takes place in anything it means that the best part of
the stuff has been drawn off, and consequently the rest goes bad. This
accounts for the mistake of the early philosophers.

1 σωματικῶν ὑγρῶν, liquids containing much earthy matter in solution.

2 This seems to mean ‘ depends on the question what sort of matter
catches the air and soul in its meshes’. But this whole sentence seems
corrupt and gives no good sense.

° i.e, the material principle in the higher animals.
* The mother. ° In animals generated spontaneously.

762° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

5 correspond to this, and whence comes or what is the
moving principle which corresponds to the male? We
must understand that even in animals which generate it is
from the incoming nourishment that the heat in the animal
makes the residue, the beginning of the conception, by
secretion and concoction. The like is the case also in

το plants, except that in these (and also in some animals)

there is no further need of the male principle, because they
have it mingled with the female principle within them-
selves, whereas the residual secretion in most animals does
need it. The nourishment again of some! is earth and
water, of others the more complicated combinations of
these, so that what the heat in animals produces from
their nutriment,’? this does the heat of the warm season
in the environment put together and combine by con-
coction out of the sea-water on the earth.? And the
portion of the psychical principle which is either included

along with it or separated off in the air makes an embryo ἢ

and puts motion into it.° Now in plants which are spon-

taneously generated the method of formation is uniform ;

20 they arise from a part of something,® and while some of it
is the starting-point of the plant, some is the first nourish-
ment of the young shoots,.”... Other animals are produced
in the form of a scolex, not only those bloodless animals
which are not generated from parents but even some
sanguinea, as a kind of mullet and some other river fishes
and also the eel kind.’ For all of these, though they have

σι

' i.e. of plants. ? i.e. the residual secretions.
* This compound corresponds to the female’s contribution to the
embryo.

* Where sexes exist the embryo or conception has been defined as
‘the first mixture of male and female’. So in cases of spontaneous
generation the embryo is the first mixture of the compound corre-
sponding to the female element and the psychical principle in the air
corresponding to the male element.

° i.e. sets up the motions which develop it.

e. g. mistletoe arises from part of an oak (according to A.) and draws
its nourishment from the oak.

* Plainly we expect after this to hear something about animals also
which are spontaneously generated. Moreover, the next sentence in
the Greek begins with a ‘ra δέ’ which is unconstruable as it stands.
I assume therefore a considerable lacuna.

8 See notes on ii. 5.

ee ae

BOOKS ΕΙΣ

but little blood by nature, are nevertheless sanguinea, and
have a heart with blood in it as the origin of the parts ;
and the so-called ‘entrails of earth’, in which comes into
being the body of the eel, have the nature of a scolex.!
Hence one might suppose, in connexion with the origin
of men and quadrupeds,” that, if ever they were really

762

‘earth-born’ as some® say, they came into being in one 30

of two ways; that either it was by the formation of a
scolex at first or else it was out of eggs. For either they
must have had in themselves the nutriment for growth
(and such a conception is a scolex) or they must have got
it from elsewhere, and that either from the mother‘ or
from part of the conception.® If then the former is im-
possible (I mean that nourishment should flow to them
from the earth as it does in animals® from the mother),
then they must have got it from some part of the con-
ception, and such generation we say is from an egg.’

It is plain then that, if there really was any such
beginning of the generation of all animals, it is reasonable
to suppose it to have been one of these two, scolex or egg.
But it is less reasonable to suppose that it was from eggs,

1 These ‘entrails of earth’ are earthworms almost certainly. A.
thinks they are spontaneously generated, and develop into eels.

2 This is, I believe, the only passage from which we can gather any-
thing about Aristotle’s views on evolution ; it appears to have strangely
escaped the notice of modern writers on the subject, at least I have
found no reference to it in any whom I have consulted. It is clear that,
though he refused to consider seriously the crude and absurd
suggestions of Empedocles, he had no objection to the gradual
development of man from some lowly organism, but also that he wisely
maintained an attitude of absolute agnosticism on the question.
Unluckily he gives no hint of any manner in which a scolex might
be supposed to develop into a mammal, but 1 think it certain that the
notion of transmutation of species in any modern sense no more
occurred to him than to Empedocles. He contemplates the possibility
that man’s ancestor was a scolex; he never thought that he might have
been a monkey. Each species would have a separate beginning by
spontaneous generation; they would not be related by descent from a
common ancestor.

’ Anaximander, who said the first animals sprang from the slime of
the sea, and a host of philosophers and poets after him.

* As in vivipara. 5 As in ovipara.

5 Omitting ἄλλοις.

7 Therefore if they got it from elsewhere at all they must have begun
in the form of an egg, not of a complete organism, but we shall see
directly that this view also is unlikely.

763°

763° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

- for we do not see such generation occurring with any
animal, but we do see the other both in the sanguinea
above mentioned ? and in the bloodless animals. Such are
some of the insects and such are the testacea which we
are discussing ; for they do not develop out of a part of

το something (as do animals from eggs), and they grow like
a scolex. For the scolex grows towards the upper part ὃ
and the first principle, since in the lower part is the
nourishment for the upper. And this resembles the de-
velopment of animals from eggs, except that these latter
consume the whole egg, whereas in the scolex, when the

15 upper part has grown by taking up into itself part of the
substance in the lower part, the lower part is then differ-
entiated out of the rest. The reason is that in later life
also the nourishment is absorbed by all animals in the
part below the hypozoma.

That the scolex grows in this way is plain in the case
of bees and the like, for at first the lower part is large in

20 them and the upper is smaller. The details of growth
in the testacea are similar. This is plain in * the whorls of
the turbinata, for always as the animal grows the whorls
become larger® towards the front and what is called the
head of the creature.

We have now pretty well described the manner of the

2; development of these and the other spontaneously gene-
rated animals. That all the testacea are formed spon-
taneously is clear from such facts as these. They come
into being on the side of boats when the frothy mud |
putrefies.© In many places where previously nothing of :

1 We do not see eggs spontaneously produced.

* Mullets and eels. Eels are actually developed from a scolex,
according to A., the earth-worm.

5 i.e. towards the head.

* Reading ἐν ταῖς ἑλίκαις (AW.)

Ὁ Read μείζους for πλείους, which is nonsense. The context and |
sense point plainly to μείζους. As a snail or any turbinate mollusc .
grows, he keeps on adding new and larger chambers to his shell,
leaving the smaller and older empty; thus the whole shell becomes
more or less conical in shape. As he moves along with the shell on his
back the apex of the cone points backwards away from his head, which
accounts for the odd statement in the text.

° These are evidently barnacles (which are really crustacea).

BOOK: fil. m 7637

the kind existed, the so-called limnostrea, a kind of oyster,
have come into being when the spot turned muddy through 30
want of water; thus when a naval armament cast anchor
at Rhodes a number of clay vessels were thrown out into
the sea, and after some time, when mud had collected
round them, oysters used to be found in them. Here is
another proof that such animals do not emit any generative
substance from themselves; when certain Chians carried 763°
some live oysters over from Pyrrha in Lesbos and placed
them in narrow straits of the sea where tides clash,! they
became no more numerous as time passed, but increased
greatly in size. The so-called eggs? contribute nothing to 5
generation but are only a sign of good condition, like fat in
the sanguinea, and therefore the oysters are savoury eating
at these periods. A proof that this substance is not really
eges is the fact that such ‘ eggs’ are always found in some
testacea, as in pinnae, whelks, and purple-fish; only they
are sometimes larger and sometimes smaller; in others, τὸ
as pectens, mussels, and the so-called limnostrea, they are
not always present but only in the spring; as the season
advances they dwindle and at last disappear altogether ;
the reason being that the spring is favourable to their
being in good condition. In others again, as the ascidians,*
nothing of the sort is visible. (The details concerning 15
these last, and the places in which they come into being,
must be learnt from the Zzquiry.)

1 Read épédppous for ὁμοίους or ὁμόρους.

* These are the ovaries and their contents, which A. wrongly denies
to be eggs; no invertebrate has fat, and so he held these to be the
analogue of fat.

3 ‘Namely spring and autumn’ (de Partibus, iv. 680 28).

4 The ascidians or sea-squirts are no longer included in the mollusca.
They have no shell but a leathery integument.

763”

BOOK: IV

20 WE have thus spoken of the generation of animals both I
generally and separately in all the different classes. But,
since male and female are distinct in the most perfect of
them, and since we say that the sexes are first principles
of all living things whether animals or plants, only in some

25 of them the sexes are separated and in others not, therefore
we must speak first of the origin of the sexes in the latter.
For! while the animal is still imperfect in its kind the dis-
tinction is already made between male and female.”

It is disputed, however, whether the embryo is male or
female, as the case may be, even before the distinction is
plain to our senses, and further whether it is thus differ-

30 entiated within the mother or even earlier. It is said by
some, as by Anaxagoras and other of the physicists, that
this antithesis exists from the beginning in the germs or
seeds ; for the germ, they say, comes from the male while
the female only provides the place in which it is to be
developed,’ and the male is from the right, the female from
the left testis, and so also that the male embryo is in the

764° right of the uterus, the female in the left. Others, as
Empedocles, say that the differentiation takes place in the
uterus ; for he says that if the uterus is hot or cold what
enters it becomes male or female, the cause of the heat

5 or cold being the flow of the catamenia, according as it is

1 The connexion is: ‘ That they are first principles, i.e. that they are
deeply rooted in the nature of the animal, is plain, for, &c.’

2. The difference between male and female begins to appear (to the
microscope) in the chick on about the sixth day. At that time it is
hardly possible to tell whether the embryo will develop into a bird at
all, much less is the animal ‘ perfect in its kind’, A. is therefore
justified in his statement.

* This theory seems to have been widely accepted ; it appears even
in the Zzmenides of Aeschylus. A. occupies a position between these
physicists and the medicals.

BOOK ΤΥ

colder or hotter, more ‘antique’ or more‘ recent’.' Demo-
critus of Abdera also says that the differentiation of sex
takes place within the mother; that however it is not
because of heat and cold that one embryo becomes female
and another male, but that it depends on the question
which parent it is whose semen prevails,—not the whole of
the semen, but that which has come from the part by which
male and female differ from one another.2. This is a better
theory, for certainly Empedocles has made a rather light-
hearted assumption in thinking that the difference between
them is due only to cold and heat, when he saw that there
was a great difference in the whole of the sexual parts, the
difference in fact between the male pudenda and the uterus.
For suppose two animals already moulded in embryo, the
one having all the parts of the female, the other those of
the male; suppose them then to be put into the uterus as
into an oven, the former when the oven is hot, the latter
when it is cold; then on the view of Empedocles that
which has no uterus will be female and that which has will
be male. But this is impossible. Thus the theory of
Democritus would be the better of the two, at least as far
as this goes,’ for he seeks for the origin of this difference *
and tries to set it forth ; whether he does so well or not is
another question.

Again, if heat and cold were® the cause of the difference
of the parts, this ought to have been stated by those who
maintain the view of Empedocles; for to explain the origin

1 The words in inverted commas look like quotations from Empe-
docles. As usual E. does not say clearly what he means, but presum-
ably it is or should be this: if the conception takes place directly after
the catamenia, the result is male, if later, female.

* Democritus held, somewhat like Hippocrates, that semen contains
‘atoms’ coming from all parts of both parents; these atoms corre-
spond very closely to the gemmules in Darwin’s theory of pangenesis.
Hence he could account easily for a child resembling one parent in one
feature and the other in another, according as the atoms drawn from
e.g. the hand of father or mother were ‘ pre-potent’. And so also this
accounts for the difference of sex. The most modern views on the
subject involvea very similar conflict between the constituents of the
‘chromosomes’, which are drawn equally from both parents.

5.1. 6. in that it accounts better for the difference of the whole of the
sexual parts. But the criticism of Empedocles is a gross caricature.

* Read τῆς διαφορᾶς τὴν γένεσιν for τῆς γενέσεως τὴν διαφοράν.
ἡ Reading κἂν εἰ.

764"

μι

Lael

τ
ie}

764° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

of male and female is practically the same thing as to
explain this, which is the manifest difference between them.!
And? it is no small matter, starting from temperature
as a principle, to collect the cause of the origin of these
parts, as if it were ® a necessary consequence for this part
30 which they call the uterus to be formed in the embryo
under the influence of cold but not under that of heat.
The same applies also to the parts which serve for inter-
course, since these also differ in the way stated previously.
Moreover male and female twins are often found together

in the same part of the uterus; this we have observed
35 sufficiently by dissection in all the vivipara, both land animals
and fish.t Now if Empedocles had not seen this it was only
natural for him to fall into error in assigning this cause of
764” his; but if he had seen it it is strange that he should still
think the heat or cold of the uterus to be the cause, since
on his theory both these twins would have become either
male or female, but as it is we do not see this to be the fact.
Again he says that the parts of the embryo are

5 ‘sundered ’, some being in the male and some in the female
parent, which is why they desire intercourse with one
another.® If so it is necessary that the sexual parts like the
rest should be separated from one another, already existing

1 This captious criticism of Empedocles amounts simply to this. E.
says heat and cold are the cause of male and female, but he does zo¢
say they are the cause of the difference of the sexual parts, which is
lat marks off male from female. As if he could have meant anything
else !

2 Qu. δέ for re? 8. Qu. ἀναγκαῖον (ov)?

* «Adi the vivipara’ means no more than ‘ both classes’, mammalia
and cartilaginous fishes. A. probably made these dissections on at
any rate the pig (see note on il. 746718), and A/ustelus laevis (see on
iii. 754" 33). I take it that the word ‘twins’ in this passage is to be
understood vaguely ; e.g. ina sow A. might find half a dozen embryos,
some male and some female, but two are enough for the purpose of his
argument.

° In order to account for the resemblance of the child to ‘both
parents, Empedocles assumed that some parts came from the father,
others from the mother. Hence it follows that, before the two sets
of parts are united in the embryo, they are ‘sundered’ from each
other, living a widowed life in the respective parents. Grotesque as
this theory appears, it does not need much alteration to be brought
into the form given it by modern science, that the conjugating cells exist
apart in the two parents and that it is the need for their conjugation
that brings about sexual union.

ee eee ee ee

BOOK IV. 1 764°

as masses of a certain size,! and that they should come into
being in the embryo on account of uniting with one another,”
not on account of cooling or heating of the semen.’ But
perhaps it would take too long to discuss thoroughly such
a cause as this which is stated by Empedocles, for its whole
character seems to be fanciful. If, however, the facts about τὸ
semen are such as we have actually stated, if it does not
come from the whole of the body of the male parent and if
the secretion of the male does not give any material at all
to the embryo, then we must make a stand against both
Empedocles and Democritus and any one else who argues on
the same lines.®° For then it is not possible that the body
of the embryo ® should exist ‘sundered’, part in the female
parent and part in the male, as Empedocles says in the
words: ‘ But the nature of the limbs hath been sundered,
part in the man’s. . .’;7 nor yet® that a whole embryo is
drawn off from each parent and the combination of the two
becomes male or female according as one part prevails over
another.?

And, to take a more general view, though it is better to
say that the one part makes the embryo female by prevail-
ing through some superiority 10 than to assign nothing but

fe)

1 Lit. ‘that the size of such parts also should be separated’, 1. 6. that
the sexual parts exist separately somehow in each parent (male in
male, female in female ?), and this not merely in potentiality but already
as actually formed parts. For Empedocles supposes that these parts
are already formed, though microscopically small, in the semen of
each parent before they unite in the embryo.

2 Read (61a) σύνοδον.

° I transpose τοῦ σπέρματος here from the next sentence. Perhaps it
should be omitted altogether.

* Because it is not based on a knowledge of what semen is.

ὃ Empedocles, Democritus, Hippocrates, and their followers all
assume both some sort of pangenesis (wrongly) and that the male
does contribute matter to the embryo (rightly).

δ Qu. omit τοῦ σπέρματος ὃ

7 The quotation is incomplete; Empedocles meant ‘part in the
man’s semen, part in the woman’s.’ § As Democritus says.

* Practically Democritus assumes a complete embryo zz fosse from
each parent. The two are mixed to form one compound, some parts
from each being dominant in the result and other parts receding and
disappearing. Substitute in his theory ‘characters borne by the germ-
cells’ for ‘parts derived from all parts of the parents’ and you have
one of the favourite modern theories.

*° i.e. the uterus derived from the mother prevails over the part
derived from the father.

764° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

heat as the cause without any reflection, yet, as the form of
the pudendum also varies along with the uterus from that of
the father, we need an explanation of the fact that both
these parts go along with each other.' If it is because they

25 are near each other, then each of the other parts also
ought to go with them, for one of the prevailing parts is
always near another part where the struggle is not yet
decided; thus the offspring would be not only female or
male but also like its mother or father respectively in all
other details.

Besides, it isabsurd to suppose that these parts should come
into being as something isolated, without the body as a whole
having changed along with them. Take first and foremost the

30 blood-vessels, round which the whole mass of the flesh lies
as round a frame-work. It is not reasonable that these
should become of a certain quality because of the uterus,”
but rather that the uterus should do so on account of them.
For though it is true that each is a receptacle of blood of
some kind,® still the system of the vessels is prior to the
other +; the moving principle must needs always be prior to .

35 that which it moves, and it is because it is itself of a certain
quality that it is the cause of the development.® The

> ὅνι»-ν

1 The objection to Democritus is this. According to him each of
the parts of the child is derived from one or other | parent, and each
part is independent of all other parts in this respect, e.g. a boy may
resemble his father in his nose, his mother in his eyes, So a child
may take after either parent in the sexual parts. But, says A., all
possible combinations of different parts ought to be expected on this
theory ; now the sexual part is not one but a number of correlated
parts; why then do all these correlated parts always go together
instead of varying in all sorts of.combinations?

2 Those parts of the vascular system which are connected with the
sexual organs vary with them in the two sexes. How can Democritus
account for this correlation ὃ

5 The uterus is a receptacle of the catamenia, the vascular system of
ordinary blood.

4 Prior in time, because the vessels are developed in the embryo
before the uterus; I do not think there is any reference here to
priority in any other sense.

5 The argument is this. The heart is the first principle, and next
after it are developed the blood-vessels, which in their turn become
moving principles in forming the rest of the embryo, including the
uterus. Therefore the vessels must exist before the uterus. And
if they, as active causes, make the uterus, it must be because they are
themselves of such and such a quality. Therefore the quality of the
uterus depends upon that of the blood-vessels, not vice versa.

BOOK IN. x 764°

difference, then, of these parts as compared with each other
in the two sexes is only a concomitant result ; not this but
something else must be held to be the first principle and the
cause of the development of an embryo as male or female ;! 765
this is so even if no semen is secreted by either male or
female, but the embryo? is formed in any way you please.*
The same argument as that with which we meet
Empedocles and Democritus will serve against those who
say that the male comes from the right and the female from
the left. If the male contributes no material to the embryo,
there can be nothing in this view. If, as they say, he does
contribute something of the sort, we must confront them in
the same way as we did the theory of Empedocles, which
accounts for the difference between male and female by the 10
heat and cold of the uterus. They make the same mistake
as he does, when they account for the difference by their
‘right and left’, though they see that the sexes differ
actually by the whole of the sexual parts; for what reason
then is the body of the uterus to exist in those embryos
which come from the left and not in those from the right ?
For if an embryo have come from the left but has not
acquired this part, it will be a female without a uterus, and
so too there is nothing to stop another from being a male
with a uterus! Besides, as has been said before, a female
embryo has been observed in the right part of the uterus, a
male in the left, or again both at once in the same part, and
this not only once but several times.* 20

σι

1 Democritus thinks that the sexual parts are the cause of sex; pre-
sumably he did not exactly say so, but his theory may be put in that
way. However plausible at first sight, this will not bear inspection. The
cause of a zebra is not his stripes. The sexual parts, like the stripes
of the zebra, are the concomitant results of a development which
starts from the very beginning of the life of the organism. In modern
language both stripes and sex are characters carried by the germ-cells.

2 Omit τὸ σπέρμα (for which AW. read τὸ κύημα).

3 i.e. even if A. has to give up his own theories and profess total
ignorance of the cause, still that cause must be something at the very
base of the development.

* I omit here the words ἢ τὸ ἄρρεν μὲν ἐν τοῖς δεξιοῖς, τὸ θῆλυ δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς
ἀριστεροῖς, as added by some one who did not see that πλεονάκις only
means ‘more than once’. Also the next phrase: οὐχ ἧττον δὲ ἀμφότερα
γίνεται ev τοῖς δεξιοῖς, which make no sense here at any rate.

The argument just brought forward is valid against Empedocles and
Parmenides, who said that sex depended on the side of the uterus in

765° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

Some again, persuaded of the truth of a view resembling
that of these philosophers, say that if a man copulates with
the right or left testis tied up the result is male or female

25 offspring respectively; so at least Leophanes! asserted.
And some say that the same happens in the case of those
who have one or other testis excised, not speaking truth but
vaticinating what will happen from probabilities and jump-
ing at the conclusion that it is so before seeing that it proves
to be so. Moreover, they know not that these parts of

830 animals contribute nothing to the production of one sex
rather than the other ; a proof of this is that many animals
in which the distinction of sex exists, and which produce
both male and female offspring, nevertheless have no testes,
as the footless animals; I mean the classes of fish and of
serpents.”

35 ΤῸ suppose, then, either that heat and cold are the causes
of male and female, or that the different sexes come from

765° the right and left,? is not altogether unreasonable in itself ;
for the right of the body is hotter than the left,* and the
concocted semen is hotter than the unconcocted ; again, the
thickened is concocted, and the more thickened is more
fertile.© Yet to put it in this way is to seek for the cause from

which the embryo developed. But it does not touch the theory which
ascribes the difference of sex to the different testes.

Galen (vol. iv, p. 633) asserts that males are found in the right side
of the uterus (though he admits that a female embryo σπανίως ὥφθη on
that side) and females on the left. Hippocrates says in the Aphorisms
ἔμβρυα τὰ μὲν ἄρσενα ev τοῖσι δεξιοῖσι, τὰ δὲ θήλεα ἐν τοῖσιν ἀριστεροῖσι
μᾶλλον. Some modern authors hold a similar theory, that ova from the
right and left ovaries produce boys and girls respectively.

1 Or Cleophanes; his very name has been disputed. But Κλεωφάνης
is not a Greek name at all.

2 See note on i. 71617. Galen μέ supra reverts to the theory in
spite of this passage.

8 Of either or both parents.

* This was A.’s constant opinion.

5 To put this more plainly:

The thicker semen is more fertile, and the more concocted is
thicker ;

.. The more concocted is more fertile.

But the more concocted is also hotter ;

.. The hotter is more fertile.

And the right is hotter than the left ;

οὖν It is reasonable to expect that semen from the right will be more
fertile than semen from the left.

And for A. it then follows that the right will produce males.

BOOK IV. 1 765°

too remote a starting-point; we must draw near the5
immediate causes in so far as it is possible for us.

We have, then, previously spoken elsewhere of both the
body as a whole and its parts,’ explaining what each part is
and for what reason it exists. But (1) the male and female
are distinguished by a certain capacity and incapacity.’
(For the male is that which can concoct the blood into
semen and which can form and secrete and discharge
a semen carrying with it the principle of form—by
‘principle’ I do not mean a material principle out of
which comes into being an offspring resembling the parent,
but I mean the first moving cause, whether it have power
to act as such in the thing itself or in something else ?>—
but the female is that which receives semen, indeed, but 15
cannot form it for itself or secrete or discharge it.) And
(2)* all concoction works by means of heat. Therefore the
males of animals® must needs be hotter than the females.
For it is by reason of cold and incapacity that the female is
more abundant in blood in certain parts of her anatomy, and
this abundance is an evidence of the exact opposite of what
some suppose, thinking that the female is hotter than the
male for this reason, i.e. the discharge of the catamenia.
It is true that blood is hot, and that which has more of it
is hotter than that which has less. But they assume that
this discharge occurs through excess of blood and of heat, as
if it could be taken for granted that all blood is equally blood
if only it be liquid and sanguineous in colour, and as if it might 25
not become less in quantity but purer in quality in those who
assimilate nourishment properly.® In fact they look upon
this residual discharge in the same light as that of the intes-
tines, when they think that a greater amount of it is a sign

μ᾿

τὸ

1 In the de Partibus and in the first book of this treatise.

* And therefore not by parts only.

* e.g. the heart is a moving cause acting in the embryo itself,
semen contains a moving cause acting upon something outside itself.

* Ou. ἐπεὶ δέ for ἔτι ef?

5 Omitting kat.

® Lit. ‘the well-nourished’. Man concocts his nourishment more
perfectly, turning it in the last stage into semen. Woman, not being
able to concoct it so well, has a residue left over which is not properly
concocted at all, or which at least remains in the penultimate stage.
This is a sign of want of heat and incapacity.

AR, G. A. M

165"

665

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

of a hotter nature, whereas the truth is just the opposite.
For consider the production of fruit; the nutriment in its
first stage is abundant, but the useful product derived from
it is small, indeed the final result is nothing at all compared
to the quantity in the first stage. So is it with the body ;
the various parts receive and work up the nutriment, from
the whole of which the final result is quite small. This is
blood in some animals, in some its analogue.! Now since
(1) the one sex is able and the other is unable to reduce the
residual secretion to a pure form, and (2) every capacity or
power in an organism has a certain corresponding organ,
whether the faculty produces the desired results in a lower
degree or in a higher degree,” and (3) the two sexes corre-
spond in this manner (the terms ‘able’ and ‘ unable’ being
used in more senses than one ®)—therefore * it is necessary
that both female and male should have organs. Accord-
ingly the one has the uterus, the other the male organs.
Again, Nature gives both the faculty and the organ to
each individual at the same time,’ for it is better so.
Hence each region comes into being along with the
secretions and the faculties, as e.g. the faculty of sight is
not perfected without the eye, nor the eye without the
faculty of sight ; and so too the intestine and bladder come
into being along with the faculty of forming the excreta.
And since that from which an organ comes into being and
that by which it is increased are the same (i.e. the nutri-

1 And blood in a still more advanced stage becomes semen. The
analogy with plants is not developed, but I conceive that we may
fairly put it thus. The plant turns its nutriment into leaves and
fruit; animals turn theirs into blood and (in males) semen. As
luxuriance of leafage without fruit is no sign of capacity in the
plant, so abundance of blood without semen is no sign of greater
heat in the female.

2 As do the female and male respectively.

3 The senses in which they are here used are ‘able and unable to do
a thing zwe//’.
~ 4 1 omit yap. AW. with some early editions read οὖν.

The argument may be otherwise stated thus. Male and female
differ in that the former concoct the nutriment into a purer form and
in a higher degree than the latter. But every function has a distinct
organ allotted to it, varying according to the amount of work to
be done. Therefore male and female must have organs varying
according to their powers.

BOOK TV. 1 7667

ment), each of the parts will be made out of such a material
and such residual matter as it is able to receive! In the
second place, again, it is formed, as we say, in a certain
sense, out of its opposite. Thirdly, we must understand
besides this that, if it is true that when a thing perishes
it becomes the opposite of what it was, it is necessary also 15
that what is not under the sway of that which made it
must change into its opposite. After these premisses it
will perhaps be now clearer for what reason one embryo
becomes female and another male. For when the first
principle? does not bear sway and cannot concoct the
nourishment through lack of heat nor bring it into its
proper form, but is defeated in this respect, then must 20
needs the material which it works on change into its
opposite. Now the female is opposite to the male, and
that in so far as the one is female and the other male.
And since it differs in its faculty, its organ also is different,
so that the embryo changes into this state.* And as one
part of first-rate importance changes, the whole system of 25
the animal differs greatly in form along with it. This may
be seen in the case of eunuchs, who, though mutilated in
one part alone, depart so much from their original appear-
‘ance and approximate closely * to the female form. The
reason of this is that some of the parts are principles, and
when a principle is moved or affected needs must many of
the parts that go along with it change with it.

If then (1) the male quality or essence is a principle and 30
a cause, and (2) the male is such in virtue of a certain
capacity and the female is such in virtue of an incapacity,
and (3) the essence or definition of the capacity and of the
incapacity is ability or inability to concoct the nourishment
in its ultimate stage, this being called blood in the san-

1 Any part of the body extracts from the residue of the nourish-
ment such material as it is its nature to receive, e.g. bone extracts
bone. And the bone was also formed out of that residue in the
beginning.

* The heart.

* Lit. ‘change into such’, i.e. the embryo becomes a creature of
such a kind, possessing the organ (the uterus) which corresponds to
its female character.

* Reading ἐλλείπουσι.

M 2

7667

766°

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

cuinea and the analogue of blood in the other anitnals, and
(4) the cause of this capacity is in the first principle and
in the part which contains the principle of natural heat—
therefore a heart must be formed in the sanguinea (and
the resulting animal will be either male or female), and in
the other kinds which possess the sexes must be formed
that which is analogous to the heart.1

This, then, is the first principle and cause of male and
female, and this is the part of the body in which it resides.
But the animal becomes definitely female or male by the
time when it possesses also the parts by which the female
differs from the male, for it is not in virtue of any part
you please that it is male or female, any more than it
is able to see or hear by possessing any part you please.

To recapitulate, we say that the semen, which is the
foundation of the embryo, is the ultimate secretion of the
nutriment.2, By ultimate I mean that which is carried to
every part of the body, and this is also the reason why
the offspring is like the parent.’ For it makes no dif-

1 1 read γένεσιν Cots) ὑπάρχει.

The argument is this. The sexes depend upon the heart (or its
analogue in invertebrata) which is formed first. For this gives
the vital heat which concocts the nutriment, and according to the
amount cf this heat the creature is either male or female, since the
difference between them is that the male can concoct the blood into
semen and the female cannot.

Absurd as some parts of it now appear, this passage is a truly
magnificent piece of analysis. By it A. has pushed back the determina-
tion of sex to the very beginning of embryonic development, and is
actually in advance of modern science up to the end of the nineteenth
century. It is only within the last few years that the determination has
been pushed back a little further still, and that upon his own lines, that
sex is an ἀρχή residing in the very germ. Any one who will read books
on the subject published even so lately as twenty years ago will be
astounded to see how firmly A. has grasped this in comparison with
those recent writers.

2 Lit. ‘the semen underlies being the last secretion of nourishment’.

3 The blood is secreted from the nourishment, and the semen from
the blood. But the blood runs to every part of the body from the
heart, and as the blood forms the parts we may say that the heart
forms them by means of the blood.

Thus the hand, e.g. of the parent, is of a certain shape because
it was formed by his heart by means of the blood. But from his
blood was also secreted his semen, and from that again is formed the
offspring. If the heart and blood of the parent were of such a quality
as to form the hand of the parent in a certain way, then the secretion
of the blood, which forms and sets in motion the heart and blood of

BOOK fV.1

ference whether we say that the semen comes from all
the parts or goes to all of them, but the latter is the
better." But the semen of the male differs from the corre-
sponding secretion of the female in that it contains a
principle within itself of such a kind as to set up move-
ments also in the embryo and to concoct thoroughly the
ultimate nourishment, whereas the secretion of the female
contains material alone.” If, then, the male element pre-
vails it draws the female element into itself, but if it is
prevailed over it changes into the opposite or is destroyed.?
But the female is opposite to the male, and is female
because of its inability to concoct and of the coldness
of the sanguineous nutriment.* And Nature assigns to
each of the secretions the part fitted to receive it. But
the semen is a secretion, and this in the hotter animals
with blood, i.e. the males, is moderate in quantity, where-

the offspring, will also be of such a quality. Accordingly the hand of
the offspring will resemble that of the parent.

When A. says, ‘ By ultimate I mean,’ &c., he appears to mean:
‘what I call the ultimate secretion is carried.’

1 A reference to the Hippocratic theory that resemblance was due
to the semen coming from all parts of the parent. A. has previously
shown this to be impossible. By the present sentence he means to say
that so far as accounting for the resemblance goes either his own or
the Hippocratic theory would sound equally well, but that as a matter
of fact his own is the right one.

2 This sentence looks badly corrupted. The general sense is that
the male semen differs from the catamenia in that the former contains
the soul and principle of motion, because (?) the male is able to
concoct thoroughly, while the latter only contains the material mass of
the embryo.

$ i.e. in the mixture of the germ-cells of both parents, one or other
gets the better in a sort of conflict. Ifthe male prevails in this, then
it causes the whole mixture to turn out a male, ‘ drawing into itself’
the female, or in other words so influencing the material contributed
by the female that the resulting embryo is male. In the other case, the
male element is itself so influenced by the female, and therefore either
‘changes into its opposite’, the total mixture becoming all female, or
else ‘is destroyed’, i.e. the principle carried by the male element dis-
appears from the embryo.

A. appears to assume, consciously or unconsciously, that the
element contributed by each parent would naturally produce an
embryo of its own sex, were it not overridden by the other. This is
quite wrong. In parthenogenesis the unimpregnated female often
produces a male (as bees) though in other cases she may produce
a female (as rotifers, aphides, &c.).

* This seems to mean no more than that the blood of the female is
not so hot as that of the male.

766°

766° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

fore the recipient parts of this secretion in males are only
passages. But the females, owing to inability to concoct,
have a great quantity of blood, for it cannot be worked
up into semen. Therefore they must also have a part to
receive this, and this part must be unlike the passages
of the male and of a considerable size. This is why the

25 uterus is of such a nature, this being the part by which
the female differs from the male.

We have thus stated for what reason the one becomes 2
female and the other male. Observed facts confirm what —
we have said.1 For more females are produced by the

30 young * and by those verging on old age than by those
in the prime of life; in the former the vital heat is not yet
perfect, in the latter it is failing. And those of a moister
and more feminine state of body are more wont to beget
females, and a liquid semen causes this more than a thicker;
now all these characteristics come of deficiency in natural
heat.

Again, more males are born if copulation takes place

33 When north than when south winds are blowing.®? For
in the latter case the animals produce more secretion, and
too much secretion is harder to concoct ; hence the semen

767° of the males is more liquid, and so is the discharge of the
catamenia.

Also the fact that the catamenia occur in the course
of nature * rather when the month is waning is due to the
same causes. For this time of the month is colder and

5 moister because of the waning and failure of the moon;
as the sun makes winter and summer in the year as a
whole, so does the moon in the month. This is not due
to the turning of the moon, but it grows warmer as the
light increases and colder as it wanes.

The shepherds also say that it not only makes a differ-

το ence in the production of males and females if copulation

1 The facts given in this chapter are unluckily all a mere string of
popular fables.

* The word young is in the neuter ; the male parent appears to be
meant.

8. For the air is moister when the wind is in the south.

* Omitting τά before κατὰ φύσιν. The fact is imaginary.

BOOK IV. 2 767°

takes place during northern or southerly winds, but even
if the animals while copulating look towards the south or
north; so small a thing will sometimes turn the scale and
cause cold or heat, and these again influence generation.

The male and female, then, are distinguished generally, as
compared with one another in connexion with the pro-
duction of male and female offspring, for the causes stated. 15
However, they also need a certain correspondence with
one another to produce at all, for all things that come
into being as products of art or of Nature exist in virtue
of a certain ratio. Now if the hot preponderates too much
it dries up the liquid; if it is very deficient it does not
solidify it ; for the artistic or natural product we need the
due mean between the extremes. Otherwise it will be as 20
in cooking ; too much fire burns the meat, too little does not
cook it, and in either case the process is a failure. So also
there is need of due proportion in the mixture of the male
and female elements. And for this cause it often happens
to many of both sexes that they do not generate with one
another, but if divorced and remarried to others do gene- 25
rate; and these oppositions show themselves sometimes in
youth, sometimes in advanced age, alike as concerns fertility
or infertility, and as concerns generation of male or female
offspring.

One country also differs from another in these respects,
and one water from another, for the same reasons. For
the nourishment and the medical condition of the body 30
are of such or such a kind because of the tempering of
the surrounding air and of the food entering the body,
especially the water; for men consume more of this than
of anything else, and this enters as nourishment into all
food, even solids. Hence hard waters cause infertility,’
and cold waters the birth of females. 35

3 The same causes must be held responsible for the follow-
ing groups of facts. (1) Some children resemble their
parents, while others do not; some being like the father

1 Cf. Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 529.

767”

se)

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

and others like the mother, both in the body as a whole
and in each part, male and female offspring resembling
father and mother respectively rather than the other way
about. (2) They resemble their parents more than remoter
ancestors, and resemble those ancestors more than any
chance individual. (3) Some, though resembling none of
their relations, yet do at any rate resemble a human being,
but others are not even like a human being but a mon-
strosity.! For even he who does not resemble his parents is
already in a certain sense a monstrosity ; for in these cases
Nature has in a way departed from the type. The first
departure indeed is that the offspring should become female
instead of male; this, however, is a natural necessity. (For
the class of animals divided into sexes must be preserved,
and as it is possible for the male sometimes not to prevail
over the female in the mixture of the two elements, either
through youth or age or some other such cause, it is neces-
sary that animals should produce female young). And the
monstrosity, though not necessary in regard of a final
cause and an end, yet is necessary accidentally. As for
the origin of it, we must look at it in this way. If the
generative secretion in the catamenia is properly con-
cocted, the movement imparted by the male will make the
form of the embryo in the likeness of itself. (Whether we
say that it is the semen or this movement that makes each
of the parts grow, makes no difference ; nor again whether
we say that it ‘makes them grow’ or ‘forms them from
the beginning’, for the formula of the movement is the
same in either case.) Thus if this movement prevail, it
will make the embryo male and not female, like the father
and not like the mother ; if it prevail not, the embryo is
deficient in that faculty in which it has not prevailed. By
‘each faculty’ I mean this. That which generates is not

11 have found it advisable to rearrange this sentence, which is a
confused heap in the original. The important point is that however
much offspring may vary from parents, even in monstrosities, we are
not to invoke any fresh cause to account for the fact. Presumably
Nature seeks to reproduce the parent exactly in the offspring, but fails
in different degrees. The ideal would be for male to produce male

only ; the first fall from this is the production of females, and thence we
can proceed by gentle gradations to ‘ freaks’.

BOOK IV. 3 767°

only male but also a particular male, e.g. Coriscus or 25
Socrates, and it is not only Coriscus but also a man, In
this way some of the characteristics of the father are more
near to him, others more remote from him considered
simply as a parent and not in reference to his accidental
qualities (as for instance if the parent is a scholar or the
neighbour of some particular person).! Now the peculiar
and individual has always more force in generation than 30
the more general and wider characteristics. Coriscus is
both a man and an animal, but his manhood 2 is nearer to
his individual existence than is his animal-hood. In genera-
tion both the individual and the class are operative, but
the individual is the more so of the two, for this is the only
true existence.* And the offspring* is produced indeed
of a certain quality,° but also as an individual, and this 35
latter is the true existence. Therefore it is from the forces
of all such existences ἢ that the efficient movements come
which exist in the semen; potentially from remoter
ancestors but in a higher degree and more nearly from
the individual (and by the individual I mean e. g. Coriscus 7684
or Socrates).’ Now since everything changes not into any-
thing haphazard but into its opposite, therefore also that
which is not prevailed over in generation® must change

1 Every parent, as a parent, has more peculiar and intimate
characteristics, those of the individual, such as brown or blue eyes; he
has also more remote and general characteristics, those common to the
human species. Accidental characteristics, as e. g. being a scholar, do
not concern us here, where we are considering him only as a parent.

2 Reading τὸ ἄνθρωπος.

8 Plato held, on the contrary, that the class or ‘idea’ of ‘ man’, ἅς.
was the only true existence, the individual only participating in existence
by participating in the class. A. says the individual is the truest reality,
the class only existing because the individuals exist of which it is
composed. Hence, though it is true that a species generates itself as
a species, yet in the truest sense it is the individual that generates
another individual. So the parent is more a parent considered as an
individual than considered as man, and more so when considered as
man than as animal.

Ξ Reading καὶ TO γιγνόμενον.

° ποιόν τι, 1. 6. belonging toa a species, a genus, a Class, &c.

® (1) the individual, (2 2) ‘the species, (3) the wider class, and so on.

7 This sentence seems corrupt ; I read provisionally δυνάμει μὲν Kat
τῶν προγόνων μᾶλλον δὲ καὶ ἐγγύτερον ἀεὶ τῶν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον.

δ i.e. the material which the paternal force ought to work upon and
turn into male ; if this material is not so mastered it will become the
opposite, female.

η685 DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

5 and become the opposite, in respect of that particular force
in which the paternal and efficient or moving element has
not prevailed. If then it has not prevailed in so far as it
is male, the offspring becomes female; if in so far as it is
Coriscus or Socrates, the offspring does not resemble the
father but the mother. For as ‘father’ and ‘ mother’ are
opposed as general terms,! so also the individual father is
opposed to the individual mother. The like applies also

το to the forces that come next in order, for the offspring
always changes rather into the likeness of the nearer
ancestor than the more remote, both in the paternal and
in the maternal line.

_ Some of the movements exist in the semen actually,
others potentially; actually, those of the father and the

. general type, as man and animal ; potentially those of the
female and the remoter ancestors.2, Thus the male and

15 efficient principle, if it lose its own nature, changes to its
opposites, but the movements which form the embryo
change into those nearly connected with them ; for instance,
if the movement of the male parent be resolved, it changes
by a very slight difference into that of his father, and in
the next instance into that of his grandfather ; and in this
way not only in the male but also in the female line the
movement of the female parent changes into that of her

20 mother, and, if not into this, then into that of her grand-
mother; and similarly also with the more remote
ancestors.®

1 Reading τῷ ὅλως πατρί.

2 The ‘movements’ are the movements which impart characteristics
to the embryo. Practically then they may be identified with them.
The characters, then, of the father exist actwa//y in the semen, for the
semen is in itself male and comes from the father alone. Moreover
the father belongs to classes, being a man and an animal; therefore the
characters of the classes man and animal also exist already actza/ly in
the semen. But if the semen cannot impress its male character upon
the embryo, it forms the embryo defectively into a female, and hence
the female character may be said to exist Jotentially in the semen.
The semen also may give characters which do not belong to the father
but toa remoter ancestor ; these are latent, as we say now, and may crop
up any day by reversion; these also then exist fotential/y in the semen.

5. This is equivalent to saying that if the combination of characters
which mark the father be lost in transmission to the offspring, then it
is most likely that they will be replaced by the characters of the grand-

BOOK IV. 3 7684

Naturally then it is most likely that the characteristics
of ‘male’ and of the individual father will go together,
whether they prevail or are prevailed over. For the
difference between them is small so that there is no difficulty
in both concurring, for Socrates is an individual man? with
certain characters. Hence for the most part the male 25
offspring resemble the father,’ and the female the mother.*
For in the latter case the loss of both characters* takes
place at once, and the change is into the two opposites ;
now female is opposed to male, and the individual mother
to the individual father.

But if the movement coming from the male principle
prevails while that coming from the individual Socrates
does not, or vice versa, then the result is that male children 30
are produced resembling the mother and female children
resembling the father.

If again the movements be resolved, if the male character
remain but the movement coming from the individual
Socrates be resolved into that of the father of Socrates, the
result will be a male child resembling its grandfather or
some other of its more remote ancestors in the male line
on the same principle. If the male principle be prevailed
over, the child will be female and resembling most probably 35
its mother, but, if the movement coming from the mother
also be resolved, it will resemble its mother’s mother or
the resemblance will be to some other of its more remote 768”
ancestors in the female line on the same principle.

The same applies also to the separate parts, for often
some of these take after the father, and others after the
mother, and yet others after some of the remoter ancestors.

father reappearing; the next most likely will be those of the great-
grandfather, and so on.

1 The individual father, e. g. Socrates, is ἃ #zaZe and also a particular
individual with e.g.asnub-nose. Therefore if the characters imparted
by Socrates prevail over those imparted by the mother, the child will
be both male and snub-nosed. We naturally expect the two to go
together.

* i.e. in other characters as well as sex.

8 This appears to be true of many peculiarities besides those
obviously connected with sex; see Darwin, Variation’, vol. 11, p. 72.

4 i.e. of ‘male’ and of special points of resemblance to the individual
father.

768°

οι

τὸ
σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

For, as has been often said already, some of the movements
which form the parts exist in the semen actually and others
potentially. We must grasp certain fundamental general
principles, not only that just mentioned (that some of the
movements exist potentially and others actually), but also
two others, that if a character be prevailed over it changes
into its opposite, and, if it be resolved, is resolved into the
movement next allied to it—if less, into that which is near,
if more, into that which is further removed. Finally, the
movements are so confused together that there is no re-
semblance to any of the family or kindred, but the only
character that remains is that common to the race, i. e. it
is a human being. The reason of this is that this is closely
knit up with the individual characteristics ; ‘human being’
is the general term, while Socrates, the father, and the
mother, whoever she may be, are individuals.

The reason why the movements are resolved is this.
The agent is itself acted upon by that on which it acts;
thus that which cuts is blunted by that which is cut by it,
that which heats is cooled by that which is heated by it,
and in general the moving or efficient cause (except in the
case of the first cause of all) does itself receive some motion
in return; e.g. what pushes is itself in a way pushed again
and what crushes is itself crushed again. Sometimes it is
altogether more acted upon than is the thing on which
it acts, so that what is heating or cooling something else is
itself cooled or heated; sometimes having produced no
effect, sometimes less than it has itself received. (This
question has been treated in the special discussion of action
and reaction, where it is laid down in what classes of things
action and reaction exist.) Now that which is acted on
escapes and is not mastered by the semen, either through
deficiency of power in the concocting and moving agent
or because what should be concocted and formed into
distinct parts is too cold and in too great quantity. Thus
the moving agent, mastering it in one part but not in

1 As AW. remark it is not clear what A. is thinking of, nor can the
statement be true. Action and reaction must be equal.
2. In the lost treatise περὶ τοῦ ποιεῖν καὶ πάσχειν.

BOOK IV. 3 768°

another, makes the embryo in formation to be multiform,
as happens with athletes because they eat so much. For
owing to the quantity of their food their nature is not able 30
to master it all, so as to increase and arrange? their form
symmetrically ; therefore their limbs develop irregularly,
sometimes indeed almost so much that no one of them
resembles what it was before.* Similar to this is also the
disease known as satyrism, in which the face appears like 35
that of a satyr * owing to a quantity of unconcocted humour
or wind being diverted into parts of the face.°

We have thus discussed the cause of all these phenomena, 769*
(1) why female and male offspring are produced, (2) why
some are similar to their parents, female to female and male
to male, and others the other way about, females being
similar to the father and males to the mother, and in general
why some are like their ancestors while others are like none
of them, and all this as concerns both the body as a whole
and each of the parts separately. Different accounts,® how-
ever, have been given of these phenomena by some of the
nature-philosophers; I mean why children are like or
unlike their parents. They give two versions of the reason.
Some say that the child is more like that parent of the two
from whom comes more semen, this applying equally both
to the body as a whole and to the separate parts, on the
assumption that semen comes from each part of both
parents; if an equal part comes from each, then, they say,
the child is like neither. But if this is false, if semen does
not come off from the whole body of the parents, it is clear

σι

μι

1 Hence one part will resemble the father, being properly controlled by
the action of the semen, another will escape control and turn out like
some other relation or even no relation at all. A. does not account in
all this for any resemblance on the mother’s side, so far as I can see.

2 Reading διανέμειν.

5 This sentence is probably corrupt, but cf. Galen, vol. i, p. 32. For
the exaggerated development of parts of the body in athletes see also
Xen. Conv. ii. 17. Japanese wrestlers are, or used:to be, truly
‘monstrous’ objects.

1 omit τοῦ ζῴου καί as unintelligible; to read ἄλλου ζῴου (AW,
with some authority) does not seem to mend matters.

° From Galen, vol. vii, p. 728, it appears that this disease is the early
stage of elephantiasis.

® Read ἕτερα for ἕτεροι. (€tepov τι, which AW. read with one MS.,
can hardly be right, as A. goes on to give /wo theories.)

769° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

15 that the reason assigned cannot be the cause of likeness
and unlikeness. Moreover, they are hard put to it to
explain how it is that a female child can be like the father
and a male like the mother. For (1) those who assign the
same cause of sex as Empedocles or Democritus say what
is on other grounds impossible, and (2) those who say that
it is determined by the greater or smaller amount of semen

20 coming from the male or female parent, and that this is
why one child is male and another female, cannot show
how the female is to resemble the father and the male the
mother, for it is impossible that more should come from
both at once! Again, for what reason is a child generally

25 like its ancestors, even the more remote? None of the
semen has come from ¢hem at any rate.”

But those who account for the similarity in the manner
which remains to be discussed, explain this point better, as
well as the others. For there are some who say that the
semen, though one, is as it were a common mixture
(panspermia) of many elements; just as, if one should mix

30 many juices in one liquid and then take some from it, it
would be possible® to take, not an equal quantity always
from each juice, but sometimes more of one and sometimes
more of another, sometimes some of one and none at all of
another, so they say it is with the generative fluid, which is
a mixture of many elements, for the offspring resembles

35 that parent from which it has derived most. Though this
theory is obscure and in many ways fictitious, it aims

769° at what is better expressed by saying that what is
called ‘panspermia’ exists potentially, not actually; it
cannot exist actually, but it can do so potentially. Also,

1 A boy is male because the father contributed more semen, and is

like his mother because the mother contributed more. .*. they both
contributed more, which is absurd.
* An answer might obviously be given to this question. And A. -

must mean ‘like its ancestors in some point or other’, not generally
speaking, or else his ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ is an expression due to the heat of
argument.

3. Omitting καί before δύναιτ᾽ ἄν (AW.).

* These panspermatists seem to have held that the seeds of each of
the parts existed separately in the generative fluids. A. has already
shown this to be impossible (i. 18). In modern language, the germ-
cells do not contain gemmules from the somatic cells. But the germ-

BOOK IV. 3

if we assign only one sort of cause, it is not easy to explain
all the phenomena, (1) the distinction of sex, (2) why the
female is often like the father and the male like the mother,
and again (3) the resemblance to remoter ancestors, and
further (4) the reason why the offspring is sometimes unlike
any of these but still a human being, but sometimes,
(5) proceeding further on these lines, appears finally to be
not even a human being but only some kind of animal,
what is called a monstrosity.

For, following what has been said, it remains to give the
reason for such monsters. If the movements imparted by
the semen are resolved and the material contributed by the
mother is not controlled by them, at last there remains
the most general substratum, that is to say the animal.'
Then people say that the child has the head of a ram or
a bull, and so on with other animals, as that a calf has the
head of a child or a sheep that of anox. All these monsters
result from the causes stated above, but they are none of
the things they are said to be; there is only some similarity,
such as may arise even where there is no defect of growth.
Hence often jesters compare some one who is not beautiful

to a ‘goat breathing fire’, or again to a ‘ram butting’, and :

a certain physiognomist reduced all faces to those of two
or three animals, and his arguments often prevailed on
people.

That, however, it is impossible for such a monstrosity to
come into existence—I mean one animal in another—is
shown by the great difference in the period of gestation
between man, sheep, dog, and ox, it being impossible for
each to be developed except in its proper time.

This is the description of some of the monsters talked

cells have the power of developing in all sorts of ways, so that the body
which they build up may become of any kind—within limits. There-
fore we may say with A. that the panspermia exists potentially but not
actually, i.e. the fertilized germ-cell may develop into a body with any
one combination of many parts resembling various ancestors, but does
not contain within itself gemmules separately existing drawn from the
different parts of the two parents.

1 j,e. if the embryo is not properly formed by the influence which
makes it develop into a human being, it will resemble a sort of
generalized type of animal, such as the foetus appears to be at an early
stage.

769°

σι

769

σι

770°

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

about ; others are such because certain parts of their form
are multiplied so that they are born with many feet or
many heads.

The account of the cause of monstrosities is very close
and similar in a way to that of the cause of animals being
born defective in any part, for monstrosity is also a kind of
deficiency.!

Democritus said that monstrosities arose because two
emissions of seminal fluid met together, the one succeeding
the other at an interval of time; that the later entering
into the uterus reinforced the earlier so that the parts of
the embryo grow together and get confused with one
another.2,— But in birds, he says, since copulation takes
place quickly, both the eggs and their colour always cross
one another.® But if it is the fact, as it manifestly is, that
several young are produced from one emission of semen and
a single act of intercourse, it 15: better not to desert the
short road to go a long way about, for in such cases it is
absolutely necessary that this should occur when the semen
is not separated but all enters the female at once.*

If, then, we must attribute the cause to the semen of the
male, this will be the way we shall have to state it, but we
must rather by all means suppose that the cause lies in the
material contributed by the female and in the embryo as it
is forming. Hence also such monstrosities appear very
rarely in animals producing only one young one, more

1 Both are produced by failure of the movements imparted by the
semen, and such failure resulting in monstrosity is therefore similar to
failure resulting in blindness or absence of a limb.

* This sentence is corrupt. As a partial remedy I read συμπίπτειν
for πίπτειν and ἐπελθοῦσαν for ἐξελθοῦσαν. Democritus seems to be
accounting for cases of ‘monstra per excessum’, children with two
heads and the like.

3 This sentence as it stands is obviously nonsense. I should expect
something like this: ‘As in birds copulation is brief and frequently
repeated, two eggs often grow together and produce double monsters
and the white and yolk in a single egg are often not properly separated
from each other.’

* i.e. when a single copulation produces many young, as in the pig,
it is obvious that all the semen enters at once. Therefore on the
theory of Democritus such pigs should never produce a monstrosity.

But they do, and the ‘short road’ or obvious conclusion is that the
cause 15 something else than that assigned by Democritus.

BOOK IV. 4 . 770°

frequently in those producing many, most of all in birds τὸ
and among birds in the common fowl.! For this bird pro-
duces many young, not only because it lays often like the
pigeon family, but also because it has many embryos at
once and copulates all the year round. Therefore it pro-
duces many double eggs, for the embryos grow together
because they are near one another,? as often happens with
many fruits.*- In such double eggs, when the yolks are
separated by the membrane,* two separate chickens are
produced with nothing abnormal about them; when the
yolks are continuous, with no division between them,
the chickens produced are monstrous, having one body and
head but four legs and four wings; this is because the
upper parts are formed earlier from the white,° their nourish-
ment being drawn from the yolk, whereas the lower part
comes into being later and its nourishment is one and
indivisible.®

μι
Ὁ

1 According to Vrolik monsters generally are commoner in the
higher than in the lower animals, much commoner in mammals than in
birds; double monsters in particular are commonest in man (Todd,
vol. iv, p. 946). But a double pair of legs is a monstrosity ‘rare chez
VYhomme et les mammiféres, mais commune chez les oiseaux, surtout
chez la poule’ (Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 7razté de Tératologie,
tom. ill, p. 264). St. Hilaire has also observed it in the goose, pigeon, and
duck. And this is the particular monstrosity which A. has in mind.
He mentions, however, also double wings; for this see Newton’s
Dictionary of Birds, p. 588: ‘supernumerary wings . . . occur, but
very rarely except the legs be also doubled, so that the monster
possesses eight limbs.’

2. This explanation is now exploded. ‘ Double monsters were formerly
thought to be formed by the union of two originally distinct embryos
developed upon distinct vitelli; but now it is admitted that “‘ their pro-
duction is due to the spontaneous divarication of the embryonic mass
into two halves”’ (Darwin, Variation’, vol. ii, p. 340, quoting Car-
penter.) Other monsters are due to the doubling of the parts ‘ inde-
pendently of the existence of two embryos’ (ibid.). The doubled legs
of chickens would come under the latter class.

3 περικαρπίων. Instances of meptxdpma in Problems, xx. 25, are
cucumbers and acorns.

* i.e. the vitelline membrane.

° As we have seen (iii. 751} 7) A. incorrectly supposes the chick to
be formed in the white of the egg, the yolk serving only for nutrition.

* An egg with double yolk is formed when two separate yolks
become accidentally enclosed in one layer of white; as the two yolks
have two separate blastoderms, they hatch out into two chickens. The
other case (of two yolks without dividing membrane) is a mere guess to
account for the doubling of the legs and wings, which is a phenomenon
parallel to polydactylism ; such a chicken would be developed froin a

AR. G. A. N

770°

770”

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

A snake has also been observed with two heads! for the
same reason, this class also being oviparous and producing
many young. Monstrosities, however, are rarer among
them owing to the shape of the uterus, for by reason of its
length the numerous eggs are set in a line.”

Nothing of the kind occurs with bees and wasps, because
their brood is in separate cells.®

But in the fowl the opposite is the case,* whereby it is
plain that we must hold the cause of such phenomena to lie
in the material. So, too, monstrosities are commoner in other
animals if they produce many young.’ Hence they are
less common in man, for he produces for the most part only
one young one and that perfect ; even in man monstrosities
occur more often in regions where the women give birth to
more than one at a time, as in Egypt. And they are
commoner in sheep and goats, since they produce more
young. Still more does this apply to the fissipeds, for
such animals produce many young and imperfect, as the
dog, the young of these creatures being generally blind.’

single blastoderm. (A single yolk however, according to Dareste, may
have two blastoderms, but A. anyhow does not contemplate this
possibility.) The last words are obscurely expressed but the argument
runs thus: ‘The head and body are formed from one spot in the white,
the yolk only serving as further nourishment to them ; hence the double
yolk does not cause the head and body to be doubled. But the limbs
are formed later, drawing their nourishment and material from the
yolk alone; hence, as there are two yolks, the limbs are doubled.’

1 Two-headed monsters are particularly common among serpents
(St. Hilaire, tom. iii, pp. 185, 192; cf. Bateson, Materials for the
Study of Variation, p. 561: ‘Of snakes having complete or partial
duplicity, nearly always of the head, some twenty cases are recorded.
Some of these were animals of good size, and must have had an
independent existence for some considerable time’).

* Whereas in birds, means A., they are placed anyhow all over the
surface of the ovary, and so become more easily joined to one another.

8 As a pupa, according to A., corresponds to the egg, it follows
that, if monstrosities are formed by combination of two eggs, a
monstrous bee would be formed by combination of two pupae. But
the pupae cannot be so combined because they are separated from one
another by the walls of the cells. But of course monsters ave found
among insects.

* i.e. the germs are so placed that they can grow together.

5 And this shows the same thing, for if the female produce many
germs at once they are liable to confusion with each other.

ὁ Hippocrates (vol. i, p. 548), apparently referring to Egypt and
Libya, speaks of domestic animals there being most fertile, τίκτειν
πυκνότατα.

7 And the animal is not perfect till its eyes are opened.

BOOK IV. 4 770”

Why this happens and why they produce many young
must be stated later,! but in them Nature has made an
advance towards the production of monstrosities in that
what they generate,? being imperfect, is so far unlike the
parent ; now monstrosities also belong to the class of things
unlike the parent. Therefore this accident also often
invades animals of such a nature.® So, too, it is in these
that the so-called ‘metachoera’* are most frequent, and the
condition of these also is in a way monstrous, since both
deficiency and excess are monstrous. For the monstrosity
belongs to the class of things contrary to Nature, not any τὸ
and every kind of Nature, but Nature in her usual opera-
tions ; nothing can happen contrary to Nature considered
as eternal and necessary, but we speak of things being con-
trary to her in those cases where things generally happen
in a certain way but may also happen in another way. In
fact, even in the case of monstrosities, whenever things
occur contrary indeed to the established order but still
always in a certain way and not at random, the result seems
to be less of a monstrosity because even that which is con-
trary to Nature is in a certain sense according to Nature,
whenever, that is, the formal nature has not mastered the
material nature.° Therefore they do not call such things
monstrosities any more than in the other cases where
a phenomenon occurs habitually, as in fruits; for instance,
there is a vine which some call ‘capneos’; if this bear
black grapes they do not judge it a monstrosity because it
is in the habit of doing this very often.° The reason is that
it is in its nature intermediate between white and black ;

σι

μι

τὸ

fe)

1 In this chapter. 3 Reading τῷ γεννᾶν.

5.126. it is in animals that produce imperfect young that we find
most instances of monstrosity.

4 This term properly applies to dwarfed pigs, but is here evidently
used in a general way for any dwarfed animal in a litter. Certain
monstrosities are however particularly common in pigs.

5 The meaning of this terrible sentence seems to be this. If in the
development of the embryo the form masters the material, the result
is the normal animal. Anything falling away from this is in a sense
a monstrosity. But such falling away may be either absolutely hap-
hazard, or may itself be in a certain sense normal, as e.g. when a child
is born with a hare-lip, for such cases occur ‘always in a certain way
and not at random’.

6 See similar cases in Darwin, Variation}, vol. i, p. 375. Cf. also

N 2

770° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

thus the change is not a violent one nor, so to say, contrary

to Nature; at least, it is not a change into another nature.

25 But in animals producing many young not only-do the

same phenomena occur, but also the numerous embryos

hinder one another from becoming perfect and interfere
with the generative motions imparted by the semen.?

A difficulty may be raised concerning (1) the production

of many young and the multiplication of the parts in

a single young one, and (2) the production of few young or

30 only one and the deficiency of the parts. Sometimes animals

are born with too many toes,” sometimes with one alone,’

and so on with the other parts, for they may be multiplied

or they may be absent. Again, they may have the genera-

tive parts doubled, the one being male, the other female;

35 this is known in men and especially in goats.4 For what

are called ‘tragaenae’ are such because they have both

male and female generative parts; there is a case also of

771° deficiencies are found also in the internal parts, animals

either not possessing some at all, or possessing them in

a rudimentary condition, or too numerous or in the wrong

place.6 No animal, indeed, has ever been born without

a heart, but they are born without a spleen or with two

spleens or with one kidney ; there is no case again of total

absence of the liver, but there are cases of its being incom-

the statement in Mandeville’s Zvavels, chap. iv, about the vines of
Cyprus ‘that first ben rede and aftre o yeer thei becomen white.’

1 Reading ἐμποδίζει.

2 Polydactylism; see Darwin, Variatioi}, vol. ii, p. 12.

8 Syndactylism, or ‘lobster-claw’, when the fingers or toes are
never properly separated, or such cases as that of solid-hoofed swine,
or again some of the fingers or toes may be absent altogether.

* St. Hilaire (tom. ii, p. 166) says of the horned ruminants: ‘famille
dans laquelle ’hermaphrodisme se montre plus fréquemment et sous
des formes plus variées que dans aucun autre groupe zoologique.
Aristote avait déjA remarqué que l’hermaphrodisme s’observe fré-
quemment chez les chévres’.

° If this is true it is not perhaps stranger than the apparently well-
authenticated instance of a small leg with three toes, interdigital
membrane, &c., growing on the head of a duck (St. Hilaire, tom. iii,
p. 272). More likely it was not a true horn but a horny growth such
as is occasionally met with on the human body; but indeed Erasmus
Wilson (Ox Healthy Skin*, p. 346) describes such a growth as
‘actually horn both in intimate and in coarser structure’.

° All these phenomena are common enough.

BOOK IV. 4

plete. And all these phenomena have been seen in animals
perfect and alive.’ Animals also which naturally have
a gall-bladder are found without one; others are found to
have more than one. Cases are known, too, of the organs
changing places, the liver being on the left, the spleen on
the right. These phenomena have been observed, as stated
above, in animals whose growth is perfected ; at the time of
birth great confusion of every kind has been found. Those
which only depart a little from Nature commonly live ;
not so those which depart further, when the unnatural
condition is in the parts which are sovereign over life.

The question then about all these cases is this. Are we
to suppose that a single cause is responsible for the pro-
duction of a single young one and for the deficiency of the
parts, and another but still a single cause for the production
of many young and the multiplication of parts, or not?

In the first place it seems only reasonable to wonder why
some animals produce many young, others only one. For
it is the largest animals that produce one, e.g. the elephant,
camel, horse, and the other solid-hoofed ungulates ; of these
some are larger than all other animals, while the others are
of a remarkable size. But the dog, the wolf, and prac-
tically all? the fissipeds produce many, even the small
members of the class, as the mouse family. The cloven-
footed animals again produce few, except the pig, which
belongs to those that produce many. This certainly seems
surprising, for we should expect the large animals to be
able to generate more young and to secrete more semen.*
But precisely what we wonder at is the reason for not
wondering ; it is just because of their size that they do
not produce many young, for the nutriment is expended in
such animals upon increasing the body. But in the smaller
animals Nature takes away from the size and adds the
excess so gained to the seminal secretion. Moreover, more
semen must needs be used in generation by the larger

1 i.e. they are found on inspection of animals which weve living in
this condition, not merely in embryos.

2 Reading πάντα σχεδὸν πολυτόκα. Fissipeds = carnivora, rodents,
and insectivora, roughly.

* Reading σπέρμα τ᾽ ἐκκρίνειν πλεῖον.

vy ha

7712 DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

animal, and little by the smaller. Therefore many small
ones may be produced together, but it is hard for many
large ones to be so, and to those intermediate in size Nature
35 has assigned the intermediate number. We have formerly
given the reason why some animals are large, some smaller,
771° and some between the two, and speaking generally, with
regard to the number of young produced, the solid-hoofed
produce one, the cloven-footed few, the many-toed many.
(The reason of this is that, generally speaking, their sizes
5 correspond to this difference.) It is not so, however, in all
cases; for it is the largeness and smallness of the body
that is cause of few or many young being born, not the fact
that the kind of animal has one, two, or many toes. A proof
of this is that the elephant is the largest of animals and yet
το is many-toed, and the camel, the next largest, is cloven-
footed. And not only in animals that walk but also in
those that fly or swim the large ones produce few, the small
many, for the same reason. In like manner also it is not
the largest plants that bear most fruit.
We have explained then why some animals naturally
15 produce many young, some but few, and some only one ;?
in the difficulty now stated we may rather be surprised with
reason? at those which produce many, since such animals
are often seen to conceive from a single copulation.
Whether the semen of the male contributes to the material
20 of the embryo by itself becoming a part of it and mixing
with the semen of the female, or whether, as zve say, it does
not act in this way but brings together and fashions the
material within the female and the generative secretion as
the fig-juice does the liquid substance of milk, what is the
reason why it does not form a single animal of considerable
25 size? For certainly in the parallel case the fig-juice is not
separated if it has to curdle a large quantity of milk, but the
more the milk and the more the fig-juice put into it, so much
the greater is the curdled mass.*? Now it is no use to say
that the several regions of the uterus attract the semen and

1 Reading ra δὲ μονοτόκα after ὀλιγοτόκα.

? Reading εὐλόγως after ἄν τις.

8 The text of this sentence is somewhat uncertain. We should
expect the argument to run thus: As fig-juice does not curdle several

BOOK IV. 4 771°

therefore more young than one are formed, because the
regions are many and the cotyledons are more than one.

For two embryos are often formed in the same region of the 30
uterus, and they may be seen lying in a row in animals that
produce many, when the uterus is filled with the embryos.!
(This is plain from the dissections.) Rather the truth is this.

As animals complete their growth there are certain limits

to their size, both upwards and downwards, beyond which
they cannot go, but it is in the space between these limits 35
that they exceed or fall short of one another in size, and

it is within these limits that one man (or any other animal) 772°
is larger or smaller than another. So also the generative
material from which each animal is formed is not without a
quantitative limit in both directions, nor can it be formed
from any quantity you please. Whenever then an animal,
for the cause assigned, discharges more of the female secre-
tion than is needed for beginning the existence of a single
animal, it is not possible that only one should be formed out
of all this, but a number limited by the appropriate size in each
case ; nor will*® the semen of the male, or the power residing
in the semen, form anything either more or less than what is
according to Nature. In like manner, if the male emits to
more semen than is necessary, or more powers in different
parts of the semen as it is divided, however much it is it
will not make anything greater ;* on the contrary it will
dry up the material of the female and destroy [{. So fire
also does not continue to make water hotter in proportion
as it is itself increased, but there is a fixed limit to the heat
of which water is capable; if that is once reached and the
fire is then increased, the water no longer gets hotter but
rather evaporates and at last disappears and is dried up.
Now since it appears that the secretion of the female and

σι

--
13]

separate masses of milk, so semen would not be expected to form
several embryos out of the material in the female.

' Probably A. is thinking of the pig.

2 Reading συστήσει.

* i.e. exceeding the limits fixed by the nature of the particular
animal.

* The material contributed by the female is fluid and shapeless ;
the male influence solidifies and forms it, making it less fluid. If then
there is too much semen, it will carry this process too far and may dry
it up altogether.

qa" DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

that from the male need to stand in some proportionate
relation to one another (I mean in animals of which the
male emits semen), what happens in those that produce

20 many young is this: from the very first’ the semen emitted
by the male has power, being divided, to form several
embryos, and the material contributed by the female is so
much that several can be formed out of it. (The parallel
of curdling milk, which we spoke of before, is no longer in
point here, for what is formed by the heat of the semen is not
only ofa certain quantity but also of a certain quality, where-

25 as with fig-juice and rennet quantity alone is concerned.) This
then is just the reason why in such animals the embryos
formed are numerous and do not all unite into one whole; it
is because an embryo is not formed out of any quantity you
please, but whether there is too much or too little, in either
case there will be no result, for there is a limit set alike to
the power of the heat which acts on the material and to
the material so acted upon.

30 On the same principle many embryos are not formed,
though the secretion is much, in the large animals which pro-
duce only one young one, for in them also both the material
and that which works upon it are of a certain quantity. So
then they do not secrete such material in too great quantity
for the reason previously stated, and what they do secrete

35 is naturally just enough for one embryo alone to be formed
from it. If ever too much is secreted, then twins are born.
Hence such cases seem to be more portentous, because they
are contrary to the general and customary rule.

772 Man belongs to all three classes, for he produces one only
and sometimes many or few”, though naturally he almost
always produces one. Because of the moisture and heat of
his body he may produce many [for semen is naturally

1 These words are inserted by A. because he has to account for
several embryos forming in consequence of a single copulation.

? It is quite plain that we have hitherto been discussing the number
of young produced at one birth. A. then cannot be here talking of
large familes; apparently he is thinking of triplets (#zazy) or still
more being born together; few may mean twins. (The author of the
spurious seventh book of the 27. A. says that ‘five at a birth are the
most that have been produced’ and this seems to be true.) Read
more after πολυτοκεῖ.

BOOK IV. 4 772”

fluid and hot],! but because of his size he produces few or 5
one. On account of this it results that in man alone among
animals the period of gestation is irregular; whereas the
period is fixed in the rest, there are several periods in man,
for children are born at seven months and at ten months
and at the times between, for even those of eight months do τὸ
live though less often than the rest. The reason may be
gathered from what has just been said, and the question has
been discussed in the Problems. Let this explanation
suffice for these points.

The cause why the parts may be multiplied contrary to
Nature is the same as the cause of the birth of twins. For
the reason exists already in the embryo, whenever it 15
aggregates? more material at any point of itself than is
required by the nature of the part. The result is then that
either one of its parts is larger than the others, as a finger
or hand or foot or any of the other extremities or limbs;
or again if the embryo is cleft there may come into being
more than one such part, as eddies do in rivers; as the
water in these is carried along with a certain motion, if it 20
dash against anything two systems or eddies come into
being out of one, each retaining the same motion ; the same
thing happens also with the embryos.* The abnormal
parts generally are attached near those they resemble,’ but
sometimes at a distance because of the movement taking
place in the embryo, and especially because of the excess of

1 The bracketed words seem to be a foolish interpolation, nor will it
mend matters if we translate τοῦ σπέρματος as ‘fis semen’. If we
were to read τοῦ σώματος we might keep the words.

* Not in the extant collection.

3 It seems an extraordinary thing to say that the embryo brings
material together. Should we perhaps read πλείων ὕλη συστῇ for
πλείω ὕλην συστήσῃ ὃ

* Suppose the water in an eddy to be whirling round the same way
as the hands of a clock; if this eddy strike a stick standing up in the
river it will be split into two new smaller eddies still whirling the same
way. The movements which take place in the embryo are like such
an eddy, and if e.g. the cells which are to form the little finger in the
embryo are ‘split’, they will form two such fingers, the same move-
ment going on in each set of cells. Cf. de Sommnizs, 4618 8; and for
the metaphor J. A. Thomson, Heredity, p. 270: ‘those particularly
constant forms of whirlpool which we call the germ-cells, which repeat
themselves and propagate themselves.’

5 Lit. ‘they mostly grow on near one another.’

772°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

material returning to that place whence it was taken away
while retaining the form of that part whence it arose as a
superfluity.'

In certain cases we find a double set of generative organs
[one male and the other female].2_ When such duplication
occurs the one is always functional but not the other,?
because it is always insufficiently supplied with nourish-
ment as being contrary to Nature; it is attached like a
growth ὁ (for such growths also receive nourishment though
they are a later development than the body proper and con-
trary to Nature). If the formative power prevails, both are
similar ; if it is altogether vanquished, both are similar °; but
if it prevail here and be vanquished there, then the one is
female and the other male. (For whether we consider the
reason why the whole animal is male or female, or why the
parts are so, makes no difference.*)

When we meet with deficiency in such parts, e.g. an
extremity or one of the other members, we must assume

‘ If too much material is drawn to what is going to develop
into a finger, we may get two fingers instead of one. But this super-
fluous material must have been drawn from somewhere else, say from
the wrist; then it tends to return to the wrist and so a superfluous
finger may be found there, instead of its being attached to the hand at
the same point as the normal finger. As it was developed alongside of
the normal finger, it will still retain the form of one. ‘The movement
taking place in the embryo’ apparently enables these astonishing
migrations to occur. Darwin’s ‘gemmules’ were supposed to
wander about the body with the same freedom, and had to account
for strange growths in a somewhat similar way.

2 The bracketed words must be interpolated, as appears from con-
sidering this paragraph as a whole.

5 τὸ μὲν κύριον τὸ δ᾽ ἄκυρον.

* “Quelques auteurs rapportent des cas dans lesquels il existait deux
pénis, non plus placés l’un a cété de autre, ce qui est le cas le plus
ordinaire, mais superposés l’un a l’autre’ (St. Hilaire, tom. i, p. 731).
It seems that A. is thinking of a case of this kind. As for duplication
of the female organs, I suppose he is alluding to a double uterus, in
which one of the two halves may be smaller than the other.

° i.e. if the semen prevails, both are male, if it does not, both are
female.

° i.e. the theory that the organism as a whole is male if the male
formative element prevails, female if that element is overcome by the
female element, may be equally well applied to the development of the
parts considered by themselves. Hence hermaphroditism is to be
explained by saying that the male element prevails in one part of the
developing tissue but not in the other.

πος

BOOK IV. 4 ry

the same cause as! when the embryo is altogether aborted
(abortion of embryos happens frequently).

Outgrowths differ from the production of many young
in the manner stated before ;? monsters differ from these
in that most ® of them are due to embryos growing together.
Some however are also of the following kind, when the
monstrosity affects greater and more sovereign parts, as
for instance some monsters have two spleens or more than
two kidneys. Further, the parts may migrate, the move-
ments which form the embryo being diverted and the
material changing its place. We must decide whether the
monstrous animal is one or is composed of several grown
together by considering the vital principle; thus, if the
heart is a part of such a kind* then that which has one
heart will be one animal, the multiplied parts being mere
outgrowths, but those which have more than one heart
will be two animals grown together through their embryos
having been confused.°

It also often happens even in many animals that do not
seem to be defective and whose growth is now complete,
that some of their passages may have grown together or
others may have been diverted from the normal course.
Thus in some women before now the os uteri has remained
closed, so that when the time for the catamenia has arrived
pain has attacked them,‘ till either the passage has burst

σι

—

[9]

μ
σι

1 Reading αἰτίαν ἥνπερ καὶ ἐὰν ὅλον.

51. 6. the cause of multiplication of parts differs from the cause
of birth of many young in that the multiplication of parts is due to an
excess of material in some part of a single embryo, whereas many
young are produced if the laws of growth enable the female material
to be divided up into many embryos.

* Reading τῷ τὰ πολλά, The meaning is that ‘Siamese’ monsters
differ from monstra per excessum in that the former are due to
confusion of distinct embryos. By ‘monsters’ in this sentence A.
only means the class of ‘Siamese’ monsters, but he has previously
been using the term to include all classes, and in the next sentence
again uses it of monstra per excessum. The whole of this discussion
is however in dreadful confusion.

* i.e. a vital principle.

> But there is the possibility of the formation of a double heart
in development, which sometimes happens (Panum, U7tersuchung tuber
die Entstehung der Missbildungen, 1860, p. 81). And all double
monsters are in reality developed from the splitting of a single germ.

ἢ Reading ἐπιγιγνομένων.

Tis DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

open of its own accord or the physicians have removed the
impediment; some such cases have ended in death if the
rupture has been made too violently or if it has been

20 impossible to make it at all. In some boys on the other
hand the end of the penis has not coincided with the end
of the passage where the urine is voided, but the passage
has ended below, so that they crouch sitting to void it, and
if the testes are drawn up they appear from a distance to
have both male and female generative organs. The

25 passage of the solid food also has been closed before now
in sheep and some other animals; there was a cow in
Perinthus which passed fine matter, as if it were sifted,
through the bladder, and when the anus was cut open it
quickly closed up again nor could they succeed in keeping
it open.”

30 We have now spoken of the production of few and many
young, and of the outgrowth of superfluous parts or of
their deficiency, and also of monstrosities.

Superfoetation * does not occur at all in some animals but 5
does in others; of the former some are able to bring the
later formed embryo to birth, while others can only do so
sometimes. The reason why it does not occur in some is

773” that they produce only one young one, for it is not found in
solid-hoofed animals and those larger than these, as owing

1 *L’hypospadias est l’ouverture anomale de l’uréthre ἃ la partie
inférieure du pénis’ (St. Hilaire, tom. 1, p. 607). ‘La fissure du
périnée qui simule quelquefois chez les males une vulve’ (ibid.).

2 Such congenital malformation is known as a¢resta ant. In one
form of this there is ‘no anus, but the rectum has opened into, and its
contents escaped either by the urethra in the male, or by the vagina
in the female. .. . Life may continue under such an arrangement,
particularly in the female’ (Todd, vol. i, p. 182). When an operation
is performed to rectify this state of things, ‘the channel is to be kept
carefully dilated, in order to oppose the natural tendency in the parts
to close’ (ibid.).

* There are two kinds of superfoetation ; either ova produced at the
same period may be fertilized by two different impregnations, or the
ova may themselves be produced at two different periods and the
earlier and later ova may then be fertilized by earlier and later impreg-
nations. A. speaks only of the latter (the former is now generally
called superfecundation). It seems impossible to deny that superfoeta-
tion in the Aristotelian sense occurs occasionally in man; see
Playfair, 1Zidwifery ὃ, vol. i, p. 189.

BOOK IV. 5 773°

to their size the secretion of the female is all used up for
the one embryo. For all these have large bodies, and
when an animal is large its foetus is large in proportion, 5
e.g. the foetus of the elephant is as big as a calf. But
superfoetation occurs in those which produce many young
because the production of more than one at a birth is itself
a sort of superfoetation, one being added to another. Of
these all that are large, as man, bring to birth the later
embryo, if the second impregnation takes place soon after
the first, for such an event has been observed before now. 10
The reason is that given above, for even ina single act of
intercourse the semen discharged is more than enough for
one embryo, and this being divided causes more than one
child to be born, the one of which is later than the other.
But when the embryo has already grown to some size and
it so happens that copulation occurs again, superfoetation
sometimes takes place, but rarely, since the uterus generally
closes in women during the period of gestation. If this
ever happens (for this also has occurred) the mother cannot
bring the second embryo to perfection, but it is cast out in
a state like what are called abortions. For just as, in those
animals that bear only one, all the secretion of the female
is converted to the first formed embryo because of its size,
so it is here also; the only difference is that in the former 20
case this happens at once, in the latter when the foetus has
attained to some size, for then they are in the same state
as those that bear only one.’ In like manner—since man
naturally would produce many young, and since the size
of the uterus and the quantity of the female secretion are
both greater than is necessary for one embryo, only not so
much so as to bring to birth a second *—therefore women 25

"πὶ
σι

1 In a horse, e.g., all the female material goes to form one foal, and
thus it produces only one. Man would naturally produce many,
indeed sometimes does so, but if one foetus of some size already exists,
it draws to itself any other material, and thus the woman resembles
the mare in being only able to produce one child. This seems to be
the meaning, but why should the already existing foetus prevent
another being formed if twins do not prevent one another? Besides
the fact is that cases of superfoetation of this kind are known in man.

2 i.e. if the second starts life later than the first. But again what
about twins?

773°

774°

IE)

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

and mares are the only animals which admit the male
during gestation, the former for the reason stated, and
mares both because of the barrenness of their nature! and
because their uterus is of superfluous size, too large for one
but too small to allow a second embryo to be brought to
perfection by superfoetation. And the mare is naturally
inclined to sexual intercourse because she is in the same
case as the barren among women ; these latter are barren
because they have no monthly discharge (which corre-
sponds to the act of intercourse in males) and mares have
exceedingly little. And in all the vivipara the barren
females are so inclined, because they resemble the males
when the semen has collected in the testes but is not being
got rid of. For the discharge of the catamenia is in females
a sort of emission of semen, they being unconcocted semen
as has been said before. Hence it is that those women
also who are incontinent in regard to such intercourse cease
from their passion for it when they have borne many
children, for, the seminal secretion being then drained off,
they no longer desire this intercourse. And among birds
the hens are less disposed that way than the cocks, because
the uterus of the hen-bird is up near the hypozoma; but
with the cock-birds it is the other way, for their testes are
drawn up within them so that, if any? kind of such birds
has much semen naturally, it is always in need of this inter-
course. In females then it encourages copulation to have
the uterus low down, but in males to have the testes
drawn ἀρ.

It has been now stated why superfoetation is not found
in some animals at all, why it is found in others which
sometimes bring the later embryos to birth and sometimes
not, and why some such animals are inclined to sexual
intercourse while others are not.

Some of those animals in which superfoetation occurs can
bring the embryos to birth even if a long time elapses

1 See ii. 8. The explanation of Philoponus (quoted by AW.) is
altogether mistaken.

2. Reading τι for τό.

5. Why is this supposed to be so? A. does not give any reason ;
perhaps he means simply that it is observed to be so.

BOOK IV. 5

between the two impregnations, if their kind is spermatic,!

if their body is not of a large size, and if they bear many 2

young. For because they bear many their uterus is
Spacious, because they are spermatic the generative dis-
charge is copious, and because the body is not large but
the discharge is excessive and in greater measure than is
required for the nourishment wanted for the embryo, there-
fore they can not only form animals but also bring them
to birth later on. Further, the uterus in such animals does
not close up during gestation because there is a quantity
of the residual discharge left over.2. This has happened
before now even in women, for in some of them the dis-
charge continues during all the time of pregnancy. In
women, however, this is contrary to Nature, so that the

embryo suffers, but in such animals it is according to:

Nature, for their body is so formed from the beginning, as
with hares.’ For superfoetation occurs in these animals,
since they are not large and they bear many young (for
they have many toes and the many-toed animals bear
many), and they are spermatic. This is shown by their
hairiness, for the quantity of their hair is excessive, these
animals alone having hair under the feet and within the
jaws. Now hairiness is a sign of abundance of residual
matter, wherefore among men also the hairy are given to
sexual intercourse and have much semen rather than

1 By ‘spermatic’ A. means that both sexes produce large quantities
of residual matter, which is worked up into semen by the male and
remains in a sanguineous condition in the female.

2 i.e. it is still left over after the formation of the first embryos, and
as it continues to flow it must find a way out.

ὅ The Greeks knew two kinds of hare, a eben and a smaller
(Xen. Cyz. v. 22-4.) These were not hares and rabbits, for the
rabbit had not then spread so far East as even Italy, nor Lepus timidus
and L. variabilis, for the latter does not come so far south, but two
varieties of Z. ¢/médus, (1) the ordinary brown hare of central Europe
and England, (2) the smaller variety confined to the Mediterranean
sub-region, which does not scale more than five or six pounds.

For superfoetation in the hare cf. Xen. Cyz. v. 13. ‘Beim Hasen
ist die Superfoetation nicht so sehr Regel wie der Verfasser glaubt, soll
sich aber doch finden’ (Sundevall, 7hzerarten des Aristoteles, p. 56).

* This is true of the whole genus Zefuws (Flower and Lydekker,
Mammals, p. 492). But A. adds in H. A. iil. 519223 that a certain
whale also 55 hair in its mouth, i.e. the fibres of the whalebone
(AZammats, p. 235).

774°

774?

774°

τι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the smooth. In the hare it often happens that some
of the embryos are imperfect while others of its young are
produced perfect.

Some of the vivipara produce their young imperfect, ¢
others perfect; the one-hoofed and cloven-footed perfect,
most! of the many-toed imperfect. The reason of this is
that the one-hoofed produce one young one, and the cloven-
footed either one or two generally speaking ; now it is easy
to bring the few to perfection. All the many-toed animals
that bear their young imperfect give birth tomany. Hence,
though they are able to nourish * the embryos while newly
formed, their bodies are unable to complete the process_
when the embryos have grown and acquired some size. So
they produce them imperfect, like those animals which
generate a scolex, for some of them when born are scarcely
brought into form at all, as the fox, bear, and lion, and
some of the rest in like manner; and nearly all of them are
blind, as not only the animals mentioned but also the dog,
wolf, and jackal. The pig alone produces both many and
perfect young, and thus here alone we find any overlapping ;
it produces many as do the many-toed animals, but is
cloven-footed or solid-hoofed (for there certainly are solid-
hoofed swine).? They bear, then, many young because the
nutriment which would otherwise go to increase their size is
diverted to the generative secretion (for considered as a
solid-hoofed animal the pig is not a large one), and also it is
more often cloven-hoofed, striving as it were with the nature
of the solid-hoofed animals. For this reason it produces
sometimes only one, sometimes* two, but generally many,
and brings them to perfection before birth because of the
good condition of its body, being like a rich soil which has
sufficient and abundant nutriment for plants.

The young of some birds also are hatched imperfect, that
is to say blind; this applies to all small birds which lay
1 Reading τὰ πολλά. * Reading τρέφειν.

8 In H. A. ii. 499» 12 such swine are said to exist ‘in Illyria, Paeonia,
and elsewhere’. This abnormal condition is found in many races of

domestic swine (AW.), and see Darwin, Variation’, vol. i, p. 75.
4 Reading ποτέ after πολυτοκεῖ.

BOOK IV. 6 774°

many eggs, as crows and rooks,! jays, sparrows, swallows,
and to all those which lay few eggs without producing
abundant nourishment along with the young,? as_ ring- 30
doves, turtle-doves, and pigeons.* Hence if the eyes of
swallows while still young be put out they recover their
sight again, for the birds are still developing, not yet
developed, when the injury is inflicted, so that the eyes grow
and sprout afresh. And in general the production of young
before they are perfect is owing to inability to continue 35
nourishing them, and they are born imperfect because they
are born too soon. This is plain also with seven-months
children, for since they are not perfected it often happens 775*
that even the passages, e. g. of the ears and nostrils, are not
yet opened in some of them at birth, but only open later as
they are growing, and many such infants survive.

In man males are more often born defective than females,’ 5
but in the other animals this is not the case. The reason
is that in man the male is much superior to the female in

1 κορώνη seems to include both these birds; see D’Arcy Thompson’s
Glossary, p.97. All young birds which remain in the nest some time
after hatching are born blind; these would include all or nearly all
small birds and also some large ones, 6. g. owls ; all birds which leave
the nest at once are born in possession of sight. Every one of the
birds mentioned here by A. as born blind is correctly given. See
Newton’s Dictionary of Birds, svv. Nidicolae, Nidifugae.

2 i.e. eggs with but little yolk.

8 φάττα, τρυγών, περιστερά. 1 follow D’Arcy Thompson. The
περιστερά in a specific sense, as here, is the domestic pigeon, in a
general sense it includes the whole family.

4 AW. say simply that modern experiments confirm this, but we
must look a little more deeply into the matter. Redi (Ofuscula, pars
secunda, ed. 1729, p. 16) does indeed confirm the statement that the
young swallow can recover its sight, ‘id quod cuivis manifestum esse
poterit, cui placuerit oculos hirundinum, aut alterius cuiuscunque
aviculae, acu vel scalpro solerter terebrare” And he says that he made
the experiment himself on many birds. But Professor Morgan, of
Columbia University, whom I consulted on this point, has kindly
written to say ‘if the eyes were “‘ put out ”, 1. e. injured, they might heal
and regain their function, but if by “ put out” one means “removed”,
then there can be no question of renewal.’ Consequently when A.
says that the eyes φύονται καὶ βλαστάνουσιν ἐξ ἀρχῆς he greatly
exaggerates.

Observe how admirably A. has grasped the principle that regenera-
tion is a phenomenon of embryonic growth, ‘ while the bird is develop-
ing but not developed.’ Cf. Darwin, Variation", vol. ii, p. 15.

δ Vrolik says just the opposite: ‘In impeded development the
malformed children are more frequently female’ (Todd, vol. iv,
Ῥ. 495):

ἈΞ ΟΣ ἊΣ O

715° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

natural heat, and so the male foetus moves about more
than the female, and on account of moving is more liable to
injury, for what is young is easily injured since it is weak.
το For this same reason also the female foetus is not perfected
equally with the male in man’ (but they are so in the
other animals, for in them the female is not later in develop-
ing than the male). For while within the mother the
female takes longer in developing, but after birth every-
thing is perfected more quickly in females than in males ;
I mean, for instance, puberty, the prime of life, and old age.
15 For females are weaker and colder in nature, and we must
look upon the female character as being a sort of natural
deficiency. Accordingly while it is within the mother it
develops slowly because of its coldness (for development is
concoction, and it is heat that concocts, and what is hotter
is easily concocted); but after birth it quickly arrives at
20 maturity and old age on account of its weakness, for all
inferior things come sooner to their perfection or end, and |
as this is true of works of art so it is of what is formed by
Nature. For the reason just given also twins are less likely
to survive in man if one be male and one female, but this is
not at all so in the other animals ; for in man it is contrary
25 to Nature that they should run an equal course, as their
development does not take place in equal periods, but the
male must needs be too late or the female too early ;? in the
other animals, however, it is not contrary to Nature. A
difference is also found between man and the other animals
in respect of gestation, for animals are in better bodily con-
30 dition most of the time, whereas in most women gestation
is attended with discomfort. Their way of life is partly
responsible for this,? for being sedentary they are full of
more residual matter; among nations where the women
live a laborious life gestation is not equally conspicuous and

1 Read ἐν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις for ἐν ταῖς γυναιξίν, ‘in genere hominum,’
Gaza. The sentence following in parenthesis was added by Schneider
from the old Latin versions.

2 If the male took less time to form than the female, this would
follow. A. seems to think that the period of gestation differs for the
two sexes. Cf. H.A. vii. 583} 23.

5 Qu. τούτου for τούτων ἢ

BOOK IV. 6 17S"

those who are accustomed to work bear children easily both 35
there and elsewhere ; for work consumes the residual matter,

but those who are sedentary have a great deal of it in them
because not only is there no monthly discharge during
pregnancy but also they do no work ; therefore their travail

is painful. But work exercises them so that they can hold 775°
their breath, upon which depends the ease or difficulty of
child-birth.1 These circumstances then, as we have said,
contribute to cause the difference between women and the
other animals in this state, but the most important thing is 5
this: in some animals the discharge corresponding to the
catamenia is but small, and in some not visible at all, but in
women it is greater than in any other animal, so that when
this discharge ceases owing to pregnancy they are troubled
(for if they are not pregnant they are afflicted with ailments
whenever the catamenia do not occur); and they are more
troubled as a rule at the beginning of pregnancy,” for the
embryo is able indeed to stop the catamenia but is too
small at first to consume any quantity of the secretion ;
later on it takes up some of it and so alleviates the mother.
In the other animals, on the contrary, the residual matter is
but small and so corresponds with the growth of the foetus,
and as the secretions which hinder nourishment are being
consumed by the foetus the mother is in better bodily con-
dition than usual. The same holds good also with aquatic
animals and birds.* If it ever happens that the body of the
mother is no longer in good condition when the foetus is
now becoming large, the reason is that its growth needs 20
more nourishment than the residual matter supplies. (In
some few women it happens that the body is in a better
state during pregnancy ; these are women in whose body

μι

1 “Holding the breath is of no consequence at all, or at any rate of
very little’ (AW.). A. thought that ‘holding the breath produces
strength’ (de Somno, 456 16).

2. Reading συλλαβοῦσαι.

3 This appears unintelligible. That the discharge should hinder the
nourishment of an animal is a reasonable view, for the matter which
might go to nourishing it is wasted, but if the same matter is used up
to increase the growth of the foetus, how can this help the mother?

4 A. means that cephalopoda and crustacea (i. 727" 2) and birds
(7. A. vi. 564% 3) are in better condition when breeding.

O 2

775°

σι

7165

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the residual matter is small so that it is all used up along
with the nourishment that goes to the foetus.)

We must also speak of what is known as mola uteri) 7
which occurs rarely in women but still is found sometimes
during pregnancy. For they produce what is called a mola;
it has happened before now to a woman, after she had had
intercourse with her husband and supposed she had con-
ceived, that at first the size of her belly increased and
everything else happened accordingly, but yet when the
time for birth came on, she neither bore a child nor was her
size reduced, but she continued thus for three or four years
until dysentery came on, endangering her life, and she pro-
duced a lump of flesh which is called #zo/a.2,_ Moreover this
condition may continue till old age and death. Such
masses when expelled from the body become so hard that
they can hardly be cut through even by iron. Concerning
the cause of this phenomenon we have spoken in the
Problems ;* the same thing happens to the embryo in the
womb as to meats half cooked in roasting, and it is not due
to heat, as some say, but rather to the weakness of the
maternal heat. (For their nature seems to be incapable, and
unable to perfect or to put the last touches to the process of
generation. Hence it is that the 7zo/a remains in them till
old age or at any rate for a long time, for in its nature it is
neither perfect nor altogether a foreign body.®) It is want
of concoction that is the reason of its hardness, as with half-
cooked meat, for this half-dressing of meat is also a sort of
want of concoction.

’ If the foetus die during pregnancy and is not cast forth, part of the
placenta or membranes may continue to be nourished, causing the
formation of a ‘mola’ or ‘mole’. This is finally ‘cast off in the form
of a thick fleshy mass’ (Playfair, A/idwifery®, vol. i, p. 286).

? “The longest authentic case of a true uterine mole is about eighteen
months. But an extra-uterine mole may be retained in the body for
many years’ (G. Blacker).

3 ‘An extra-uterine mole or a body of similar nature may become
calcified and be of stony hardness’ (Blacker, who also remarks that a
calcified ‘ fibroid’ might be confused with a mole).

* Not in our present collection.

° If it were perfect it would be brought to birth as a child at the

right time; if it were a foreign body it would soon be expelled, like a
noxious humour.

BOOK IV. 7 776°

A difficulty is raised as to why this does not occur in
other animals, unless indeed it does occur and has entirely
escaped observation. We must suppose the reason to be 19
that woman alone among animals is subject to troubles of
the uterus, and alone has a superfluous amount of catamenia
and is unable to concoct them ; when, then, the embryo has
been formed of a liquid hard to concoct, then comes the
so-called mola into being, and this happens naturally in
women alone or at any rate more than in other animals.

μι
σι

8 Milk is formed in the females of all internally viviparous
animals, becoming useful for the time of birth. For Nature
has made it for the sake of the nourishment of animals after
birth, so that it may neither fail at this time at all nor yet
be at all superfluous; this is just what we find happening,
unless anything chance contrary to Nature. In the other 20
animals the period of gestation does not vary, and so the
milk is concocted in time to suit this moment, but in man,
since there are several times of birth, it must be ready at the
first of these ; hence in women the milk is useless before the
seventh month and only then becomes useful. That it is 25
only concocted at the last stages is what we should expect
to happen also as being due to a necessary cause.’ For at
first such residual matter when secreted is used up for the
development of the embryo ; now the nutritious part in all
things is the sweetest and the most concocted, and thus
when all such elements are removed what remains must
become of necessity bitter and _ ill-flavoured.*? As the
embryo is perfecting, the residual matter left over increases
in quantity because the part consumed by the embryo is

ς."

1 As well as to the final cause.

2 Milk is a residual secretion of the blood, and as A. says presently
‘ of the same nature as the matter of which the embryo is made’. If
the embryo consumes most of this matter as nourishment at an early
stage, then, since nourishment is the sweetest part of it, it follows that
what is left over will be sour, for the embryo will extract all the sweet
part. When the embryo ceases doing so the sweet part will be
included in the rest of what goes to form the milk. Hence it is a
necessary result that milk will be sour in the first months of pregnancy
and sweet at the end, besides which there is also a final cause sub-
served. We should now, I suppose, lay more stress on the final cause
than A. does.

776% DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

less ; it is also sweeter since the easily concocted part is less

drawn away from it. For it is no longer expended on

moulding the embryo but only on slightly increasing its

growth, it being now fixed because it has reached perfection
776” (for in a sense there is a perfection even of an embryo).
Therefore it comes forth from the mother and changes its
mode of development, as now possessing what belongs to it ;
and no longer takes that which does not belong to it; and
it is at this season that the milk becomes useful.

The milk collects in the upper part of the body and
the breasts because of the original plan of the organism.
For the part above the hypozoma is the sovereign part
of the animal, while that below is concerned with nourish-
ment and residual matter, in order that all animals which
move about may contain within themselves nourishment
enough to make them independent when they move from
one place to another.? From this upper part also is produced
10 the generative secretion for the ‘reason mentioned in the

opening of our discussion.*? But both the secretion of the

male and the catamenia of the female are of a sanguineous
nature, and the first principle of this blood and of the blood-
vessels is the heart, and the heart is in this part of the body.

Therefore it is here that the change of such a secretion
15 must first become plain.t This is why the voice changes in

both sexes when they begin to bear seed°® (for the first

σι

1 In the ordinary sense the animal is not perfect until it is adult, but
in a certain sense it may be regarded as being perfect when the time
comes for it to be born.

* Non-locomotive animals, such as sponges, have indeed the dis-
tinction of ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ but are not definitely differentiated in
their parts as the higher animals are, and in particular are not divided
into two halves by a diaphragm, as mammalia, or by any correspond-
ing division like the waist of insects. The lower part in locomotive
animals is like the commissariat of an army, enabling the upper part to
move away from its base of supplies.

5 This may mean either the beginning of this treatise, or the H7storia
Animalium, but I cannot find any passage to the point.

* It is true, says A., that semen and catamenia are discharged low in
the body, but yet they both (being residues of the blood) come
originally from the centre of life in the upper part. Therefore we
should expect any change connected with them to show itself first in the
upper part, as we do find in the case of milk, breaking of the voice, &c.

> σπέρμα φέρειν, a phrase properly used of plants and oddly applied
to men. As applied to women, indeed, it is quite incorrect except
metaphorically, for A. denies σπέρμα to them.

BOOK IV. 8 776°

principle of the voice resides there, and is itself changed
when its moving cause changes). At the same time the
parts about the breasts are raised visibly even in males but
still more in females, for the region of the breasts becomes
empty and spongy in them because so much material is
drained away below. This is so not only in women but
also in those animals which have the mammae low down.”

This change in the voice and the parts about the mammae
is plain even in other creatures to those who have expe-
rience of each kind of animal,’ but is most remarkable in
man. The reason is that in man the production of secretion
is greatest in both sexes in proportion to their size as com-
pared with other animals; I mean that of the catamenia
in women and the emission of semen in men. When,
therefore, the embryo‘ no longer takes up the secretion in
question but yet prevents its being discharged from the
mother, it is necessary that all the residual matter should 30
collect in all those empty parts which are set upon the same
passages. And such is the position of the mammae in
each kind of animals for both causes; it is so both for the
sake of what is best and of necessity.

It is here, then, that the nourishment in animals is now °
formed and becomes thoroughly concocted. As for the
cause of concoction, we may take that already given,’ or we
may take the opposite, for it is a reasonable view also that 777*

τὸ

ῶ

1 The efficient cause is the heart. As the centre of life the heart
must be responsible for the changes of puberty. ‘ The principle of the
voice resides’ in the thorax near the heart, and is changed along with
the other changes. In modern language, this principle is the larynx,
which is elongated at puberty and so lowers the voice.

2 The discharge of matter at puberty may perhaps account with some
reason for the breasts becoming spongy, but how does A. suppose that
it can cause them to swell? If the region is ‘empty’ it ought to
collapse.

’ Shepherds, grooms and so on.

4 At the end of pregnancy.

5 The ‘ passages’ here mean of course blood-vessels, but it is not
clear why A. should say that the vessels of the breasts and of the uterus
are ‘the same’, in any sense which would not apply equally well to the
vessels of almost any other two parts of the body. But it was a doc-
trine of the medicals ; see Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 402.

δ i.e. at the time of giving birth.

7 i.e. that the embryo takes less nourishment from the mother
towards the end of pregnancy.

Ti: DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

the embryo being larger takes more nourishment, so that less
is left over about this time, and the less is concocted more
quickly.

That milk has the same nature as the secretion from
which each animal is formed is plain, and has been stated
previously. For the material which nourishes is the same
as that from which Nature forms the animal in generation.
Now this is the sanguineous liquid in the sanguinea, and
milk is blood concocted (not corrupted ; Empedocles either
mistook the fact or made a bad metaphor when he com-
10 posed the line: ‘On the tenth day of the eighth month the
milk comes into being, a white pus,’ for putrefaction and con-
coction are opposite things, and pus is a kind of putrefaction
but milk is concocted). While women are suckling children
the catamenia do not occur according to Nature,! nor do
they conceive ; if they do conceive, the milk dries up. This
is because the nature of the milk and of the catamenia is
the same, and Nature cannot be so productive as to supply
both at once ; if the secretion is diverted in the one direction
it must needs cease in the other, unless some violence is
done contrary to the general rule. But this is as much as
to say that it is contrary to Nature, for in all cases where
20 it is not impossible for things to be otherwise than they

generally are but where they may so happen, still what is

the general rule is what is ‘according to Nature’.

The time also at which the young animal is born has
been well arranged. For when the nourishment coming
through the umbilical cord is no longer sufficient for the
foetus because of its size, then at the same time? the milk
becomes useful for the nourishment of the newly-borr

25 animal,® and the blood-vessels round which the so-called
umbilical cord lies asa coat collapse as the nourishment is
no longer passing through it; for these reasons it is at that
time also that the young animal enters into the world.

σι

The natural birth of all animals is head-foremost, because 9
the parts above the umbilical cord are larger than those

1 Though they may do so exceptionally.
2 Read dua for ἀλλά.
5 Reading τὴν τοῦ γενομένου τροφήν, as suggested by AW.

BOOK IV. 9 Vii?

below. The body then, being suspended from the cord as 30
‘ina balance, inclines towards the heavy end, and the larger
parts are the heavier.

10 ©The period of gestation is, as a matter of fact, deter-
mined generally in each animal in proportion to the length
of its life. This we should expect, for it is reasonable that
the development of the long-lived animals should take
a longer time. Yet this is not the cause of it, but the
periods only correspond accidentally for the most part ; for
though the larger and more perfect sanguinea do live 777°
a long time, yet the larger are not all longer-lived. Man
lives a longer time than any animal of which we have any
credible experience except the elephant,! and yet the
human kind is smaller than that of the bushy-tailed
animals? and many others. The real cause of long life in
any animal is its being tempered in a manner resembling
the environing air,® along with certain other circumstances
of its nature,* of which we will speak later; but the cause
of the time of gestation is the size of the offspring.® For it
is not easy for large masses to arrive at their perfection in 10

σι

‘1 Obviously A. is here thinking only of mammalia, as the period of
gestation can only apply to them. Hence his statement is correct ;
we have no credible experience of the cetacea. He is probably
thinking of the stag, which was fabled to be very long lived.

2 The genus Zguus.

* This ‘tempering’ requires some explanation. The heart and blood
are hot; the office of the brain is to cool the blood. Why then, it may
be asked, should Nature first make a thing hot and then add an
apparatus to cool it again? The answer is that the heat of the heart is
necessary to all the higher functions of life; compare the vitality of a
mammal with that of a tortoise. Man is the most intellectual and
most vigorous of animals because he is the hottest, and therefore he
has the largest brain in order to keep him properly ‘tempered’.
(While we should say that man is most intellectual because he has the
largest brain, A. says he has the largest brain because he is most
intellectual.)

What A. means by the words ‘in a manner resembling the air’ is
not so clear. Probably, I think, his idea is that the surface of the body
should be at the same temperature as the air, or at any rate not too far
from it.

* συμπτώματα φυσικά, perhaps ‘accidents’ or ‘ coincident character-
istics’ rather than ‘ circumstances’, A. means the character of the
liver; see de Partzbus, iv. 677% 36; and other reasons are given in the
fifth chapter of the treatise de Longitudine Vitae. Perhaps this is what
he has in mind when he promises to speak later on the subject.

Ὁ This is true roughly, but not exactly.

777° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

a small time, whether they be animals or, one may say,
anything else whatever. That is why horses and animals
akin to them, though living a shorter time than man, yet
carry their young longer; for the time in the former is
a year,’ but in the latter ten months? at the outside. For

15 the same reason also the time is long in elephants; they
carry their young two years® on account of their excessive
size.

We find, as we might expect, that in all animals the time
of gestation and development and the length of life aims at
being measured by naturally complete periods.t By a
natural period I mean, e.g., a day and night,® a month,

20a year, and the greater times measured by these, and also
the periods of the moon, that is to say, the full moon and
her disappearance and the halves of the times between
these,® for it is by these that the moon’s orbit fits in with
that of the sun [the month being a period common to
both ].7

The moon is a first principle ® because of her connexion

25 with the sun and her participation in his light, being as it
were a second smaller sun, and therefore she contributes
to all generation and development. For heat and cold
varying within certain limits make things to come into
being and after this to perish, and it is the motions of the

30 sun and moon that fix the limit both of the beginning and
of the end of these processes. Just as we see the sea and
all bodies of water® settling and changing !° according to
the movement or rest of the winds, and the air and winds

1 See note on ii. 7488 30. 21, 6. lunar months.

* An exaggeration; it should be about twenty-one months.

* Reading περιόδοις ὅλαις. It seems necessary to the sense to take
κατὰ φύσιν with these words.

° It is not clear whether ‘ day and night’ are to be taken together as
one period, or whether they are two.

° i.e. the whole period of a month is divided into the four quarters,
each being a subordinate period.

7 The bracketed words give no sense. A period common to both
sun and moon would be one which contained both the solar and lunar
periods exactly. The form peis is also very suspicious, not being found
elsewhere in Aristotle.

8 i.e. the moon is one of the primary causes affecting life on earth.
Cf. Darwin, Descent of Man, chap. vi, note 32.

* Lit. ‘ all the nature of liquids’. 10 j,e. calm or moving.

BOOK IV. 10 477°

again according to the course of the sun and moon, so also

the things which grow out of these or are in these’ must
needs follow suit. For it is reasonable that the periods of 778*
the less important should follow those of the more im-
portant. For? in a sense a wind, too, has a life and birth

and death.

As for the revolutions of the sun and moon, they may
perhaps depend on other principles.*

It is the aim, then, of Nature to measure the coming into 5
being and the end of animals by the measure of these
higher periods, but she does not bring this to pass accu-
rately because matter cannot be easily brought under rule
and because there are many principles which hinder genera-
tion and decay from being according to Nature, and often
cause things to fall out contrary to Nature.

We have now spoken of the nourishment of animals τὸ
within the mother and of their birth into the world, both of
each kind separately and of all in common.

1 What are ‘these’? Air and water apparently; all plants and
animals are ‘in’ these, and to some extent ‘grow out of’ them; at
least they all have both air and liquid in their composition.

2 The connexion is: ‘Therefore the life-periods of plants and
animals follow those of winds, &c. For...’

3 Which will be higher still.

778°

BOOK "V

WE must now investigate the qualities by which thel
parts of animals differ. I mean such qualities of the parts
as blueness and blackness in the eyes, height and depth of
pitch in the voice, and differences! in colour whether of the

20 skin or of hair and feathers.2, Some such qualities are
found to characterize the whole of a kind of animals some-
times, while in other kinds they occur at random, as is
especially the case in man.* Further, in connexion with
the changes in the time of life, all animals are alike in some
points, but are opposed in others* as in the case of the

25 voice and the colour of the hair, for some do not grow grey

visibly in old age, while man is subject to this more than
any other animal. And some of these affections appear
immediately after birth, while others become plain as age
advances or in old age.

Now’ we must no longer® suppose that the cause of
these and all such phenomena is the same. For whenever
things are not the product of Nature working upon the

1 Reading διαφοράς.

* This passage has some error in the text. I read provisionally ἢ
δέρματος ἢ τριχῶν καὶ πτερῶν, for what A. deals with later is the colour
of skin, &c. The MSS. give ἢ σώματος καὶ τριχῶν ἢ (or ἣ Kal) πτερῶν.

* e.g. the hair of all lions is tawny; this colour characterizes the
whole lion kind. But the hair of man may be of almost any colour.

* e.g. all animals alike change by becoming dimmer sighted in
old age, but the voice does not always become deeper in the adult nor
the hair always greyer in old age.

° Reading δή.

° “No longer’, because hitherto we have assumed the causes of
development to be the same for each individual in any given ‘kind’.
The laws of development cause every normal chicken to grow a heart,
kidneys, legs, feathers, &c., in the same way; even an abnormal
chicken with four legs is only due to some accident, not to any ‘ cause’
in the sense of what we now call a ‘law’. But when we come to such
differences among individuals as blue and brown eyes, we cannot any
longer say that these are due to the law of development common to the
species.

BOOK V. 1

animal kingdom as a whole, nor yet characteristic of each
separate kind, then none of these things is such as it is or

778°

is so developed for any final cause.'| The eye for instance

exists for a final cause, but it is not blue for a final cause
unless this condition be characteristic of the kind of animal.*
In fact in some cases this condition has no connexion with
the essence of the animal’s being, but we must refer the
causes to the material and the motive principle or efficient
cause, on the view that these things come into being by
Necessity.’ For, as was said originally in the outset of our
discussion, when we are dealing with definite and ordered
products of Nature, we must not say that each zs of
a certain quality because it becomes so, but rather that they
become so and so because they ave so and so, for the process
of Becoming or development attends upon Being and is for
the sake of Being, not vice versa.*

' In modern language ‘if a character is common to all animals or to
all the members of a group or species, then it exists and is developed
for some definite purpose, but fluctuating characters are not so
developed.’ This is precisely the position of Darwin and Wallace.
When A. proceeds from these characters to others which differ within
the species, as blue and brown eyes, he may be said to be taking the
step from the subject-matter of Darwin to that of Mendel. There are
few if any passages even in Aristotle which strike one with greater
astonishment and admiration than this.

2 If a character is constant, it is the ‘work of Nature’, for by
‘natural ’ we mean whatever is regularly of such or such a kind. And
as ‘Nature makes nothing in vain’ such a character must exist for
some final cause. Thus the eye of a lion is always brown, and
accordingly we say that this is a protective colour, like that of his coat.
But when we find that in man some eyes are blue and some brown we
can no longer say that this is a work of Nature in exactly the same
sense, or that the colours are for a final cause.

3 Ahorse isa horse because Nature has so handled the material horse-
flesh, &c., that it is put into the proper form, which is the essence of
horse-nature, and fulfils its purpose or the fal cause of its existence.
The formal and final causes are the same thing in the case of an
animal, and with them is concerned the workmanship of Nature. But
Nature cannot always control her material, and hence arise variations
from the perfect type, which A. puts down to Necessity. Apparently
the material and efficient causes are to be reckoned here as practically
identical with Necessity. Matter is always recalcitrant and hinders
Nature from her purpose because of its inherent deficiency. The
efficient cause also (the semen in the case of an animal) may fail to
carry out Nature’s intention.

* These metaphysics may be interpreted into science by saying that
the process of development is not an end in itself but has only been
evolved for the sake of continuing the race. In particular the foetal
membranes, for instance, have been evolved as an afterthought simply

778°

σι

778° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

The ancient Nature-philosophers however took the
opposite view. The reason of this is that they did not see
that the causes were numerous, but only saw the material
and efficient and did not distinguish even these, while they

το made no inquiry at all into the formal and final causes.

Everything then exists for a final cause, and all those
things which are included in the definition of each animal,
or which either are means to an end or are ends in them-
selves, come into being both through this cause and the
rest.1 But when we come to those things which come
into being without falling under the heads just mentioned,”

15 their course must be sought in the movement or process
of coming into being, on the view that the differences which
mark them arise in the actual formation of the animal.
An eye, for instance, the animal must have of necessity (for
the fundamental idea of the animal is of such a kind),® but
it will have an eye of a particular kind * of necessity in
another sense, not the sense mentioned just above, because
it is its nature to act or be acted on in this or that way.®

to aid in bringing the foetus to its perfection as a member of the
species, which is the important thing. Hence we may still agree with
A. that the ‘becoming’ is for the sake of ‘ being’.

1 j,e. through the final and also through the formal, material, and
efficient causes. The horse exists for his final cause, simply that he
may be a horse; included in his essence are also four solid hoofs,
which we may look upon either as means to an end or as ends in
themselves ; these come into being not only for the final cause, but
also through the material cause, since a certain quantity of matter goes
to them, through the formal cause, since that matter must be put into
the proper shape, and through the efficient cause, which is the move-
ments in the embryo that cause the hoofs to develop.

2 i.e. without being included in the essence of the animal and
without being either means to an end or an end in themselves. Such
are, for instance, blue and brown colour in the human eye. When
A. goes on to say that such differences arise in the process of
development, &c., he seems to be wrapping up the confession that he
can only put them down to chance—or Necessity if you prefer to call
it so.

3 Of course A. did not believe a// animals to have eyes; he is
thinking of particular kinds, which alone concern his argument.

* i.e. colour.

° The meaning seems to be that eyes may be e.g. blue or brown
indifferently ; some necessity doubtless causes them to be one or
other, but it is not a law of Nature like that which compels an eye
to exist in man. The eye may thus vary because it is the nature of the
eye so to ‘act or be acted on’ in development that it may turn out
either of this colour or of that.

——

BOOK V. 1 778°

These distinctions being drawn let us speak of what 2°
comes next in order. As soon then as the offspring of all
animals are born, especially those born imperfect,’ they are
in the habit of sleeping, because they continue sleeping also
within the mother when they first acquire sensation.” But
there is a difficulty about the earliest period of develop-
ment, whether the state of wakefulness exists in animals
first, or that of sleep. Since they plainly wake up more 25
as they grow older, it is reasonable to suppose that the
opposite state, that of sleep, exists in the first stages of
development. Moreover the change from not being to
being must pass through the intermediate condition, and
sleep seems to be in its nature such a condition, being as it
were a boundary between living and not living, and the 30
sleeper being neither altogether non-existent nor yet
existent. For life most of all appertains to wakefulness,
on account of sensation.? But on the other hand, if it is
necessary that the animal should have sensation and if it is
then first an animal when it has acquired sensation, we
ought to consider the original condition to be not sleep but
only something resembling sleep, such a condition as we
find also in plants, for indeed at this time animals do 7795
actually live the life of a plant. But it is impossible that
plants should sleep,°® for there is no sleep which cannot be
broken, and the condition in plants which is analogous to
sleep cannot be broken.

It is necessary then for the embryo animal to sleep °

1 The Greek is corrupt; for the sense cf. 779% 24.

? As all sensation has its origin in the heart (ii. 743 25) we may
assume that A. supposes the embryo to possess sensation from the
time that the heart is first formed.

* By ‘life? here A. means animal life. The distinguishing mark of
this as compared with plant-life is sensation, but sensation is suspended
during sleep, and so animal life in a strict sense implies wakefulness.

* That the embryo lives the life of a plant we have heard before
(ii. 736° 13). If so, it follows that the embryo does not sleep (for plants
do not), at any rate till it has acquired sensation and so become truly
an animal.

° The botanists now talk of the ‘sleep’ of plants, but they do not
mean the same thing as A. does here. His ‘condition analogous
to sleep’ means nothing but the ordinary state of a plant in which the
life of growth and nutrition continues but nothing higher.

° A. suddenly concludes that the state of the embryo zs sleep as
a rule, giving a new reason apparently as an afterthought.

779° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

5 most of the time because the growth takes place in the
upper part of the body,’ which is consequently heavier (and
we have stated elsewhere that such is the cause of sleep).
But nevertheless they are found to wake even in the womb
(this is clear in dissections and in the ovipara),? and then

το they immediately fall into a sleep again.t This is why
after birth also they spend most of their time in sleep.
When awake infants do not laugh, but while asleep they
both laugh and cry. For animals have sensations even
while asleep, not only what are called dreams but also
15 others besides dreams, as those persons who arise while
sleeping and do® many things without dreaming. For
there are some who get up while sleeping and walk about
seeing just like those who are awake; these have per-
ception of what is happening, and though they are not
awake, yet this perception is not like a dream. So infants
20 presumably have sense-perception and live in their sleep
owing to previous habit, being as it were without know-
ledge of the waking state. As time goes on and their
growth is transferred to the lower part of the body,® they
now wake up more and spend most of their time in that
condition. Children continue asleep at first more than
25 other animals, for they are born in a more imperfect con-
dition than other animals that are produced in anything
like a perfect state,’ and their growth has taken place more
in the upper part of the body.

1 The upper part being far more developed than the lower in the
early stages.

2 de Somno, 456» 26.

8 A. means that the embryo may be extracted in a wakeful condition
from the eggs of ovipara or by being cut out from the mother in
mammalia.

4 καθεύίδουσι καὶ καταφέρονται. The latter word is extremely common
in the medical writers in the sense of ‘falling asleep’. Is καθεύδουσι a
gloss upon it? Or does A. add the medical after the vulgar term as
illustrating by its derivation his theory that sleep is caused by heavi-
ness?

5 Read πράττουσιν for πράττειν.

ὁ The head is at first out of all proportion to the lower part of the
body, especially the legs. The growth is diverted more towards the
lower part in proportion as children grow up.

“ «Lit. ‘for they are born most imperfect of the perfected’ animals,
i.e. they are more removed from the adult state than any other
animals which are produced viviparously and not as an egg or a
scolex.

BOOK V. 1 719°

The eyes of all children are bluish! immediately after
birth ;* later on they change to the colour which is to be
theirs permanently. But in the case of other animals this
is not visible. The reason of this is that the eyes of other 39
animals are more apt to have only one colour for each kind
of animal ; e.g. cattle are dark-eyed, the eye of all sheep is
pale, of others again the whole kind is blue or grey-eyed,
and some are yellow (goat-eyed), as the majority of goats
themselves, whereas the eyes of men happen to be of many
colours, for they are blue or grey or dark in some cases
and yellow in others. Hence, as the individuals in other 779°
kinds of animals do not differ from one another in the colour,
so neither do they differ from themselves,‘ for they are not
of a nature to have more than one colour.? Of the other
animals the horse has the greatest variety of colour in the
eye, for some of them are actually heteroglaucous ;°® this

1 γλαυκότερα. One cannot be sure of the right translation of colour
terms in A. I take it that γλαυκός means blue or green, χαροπός grey,
ὑδαρής a pale yellow or perhaps greenish, αἰγωπός (goat-eyed) yellow or
yellow-brown, μέλας dark brown. Familiar as black eyes are in poetry,
the iris is never actually black, not even in negroes (Lawrence, Lectures
on Physiology, &c., 1822, p. 280). In translating, I shall use the words
blue, grey, pale, yellow, and dark respectively.

AW. give αἰγωπός up as unintelligible. But why did they not
look at a goat? The eyes of goats vary from a brownish yellow
to very light yellow, almost white. Yellow eyes are common enough
inman. Cf. Hudson, /d/e Days in Patagonia, p. 205, ‘the yellowish
tint resembling that of the sheep’s iris.’ I do not understand why
Lawrence describes the colour as ‘an obscure orange’ (Lectures on
Phystology, &c., p. 279).

Practically A. only speaks of light and dark eyes in the following
discussion. The important question is whether they have or have not
pigment in the stroma of the iris. If both uvea and stroma are pig-
mented, the eye is dark, if only the former it is light. If neither iris
nor retina is pigmented the result is the pink eye of the albino (Juler,
Ophthalmic Science and Practice*, p. 172).

2 Reading γενομένων. AW. say that children are occasionally born
with a brown iris, but even negroes are normally born with blue
eyes.

5. An odd statement.

* 1. 6. the colour of the eye does not vary at different ages in the
individual.

® Read πλείους μιᾶς ἴσχειν χρόας.

δ, 6. with one eye blue (or some light colour), the other dark. This
condition obtains occasionally in man and the horse, and AW. say it
is also found in dogs. A. evidently considers the occurrence of two

AR. G, A. P

719" DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

phenomenon is not to be seen in any of the other animals,
but man is sometimes heteroglaucous.

Why then is it that there is no visible change in the
other animals if we compare their condition when newly born
with their condition at a more advanced age, but that there
is such a change in children? We must consider just this
to be a sufficient cause, that the part concerned has only

το one colour in the former but several colours in the latter.
And the reason why the eyes of infants are bluish and have
no other colour is that the parts are weaker in the newly
born and blueness is a sort of weakness.!

We must also gain a general notion about the difference
in eyes, for what reason some are blue, some grey, some

15 yellow, and some dark. To suppose that the blue are fiery,
as Empedocles says, while the dark have more water than fire
in them, and that this is why the former, the blue, have not
keen sight by day, viz. owing to deficiency of water in their
composition, and the latter are in like condition by night, viz.
owing to deficiency of fire *—this is not well said if indeed

20 we are to assume sight to be connected with water, not fire,
in all cases. Moreover it is possible to render another
account of the cause of the colours, but if indeed the fact is
as was stated before in the treatise on the senses, and still
earlier than that in the investigations concerning soul +—if
this sense organ is composed of water and if we were right
in saying for what reason it is composed of water and not of

25 air or fire -then we must assume the water to be the cause
of the colours mentioned. For some eyes have too much

colours in one individual to be a sign of greater colour-variability than
the occurrence of two colours in two distinct individuals.

1 As blueness is due to deficiency of pigment, this may be considered
to be true. The eye of man’s arboreal ancestor was no doubt brown,
and lightness of colour is a ‘fall of man’.

? It is always said that the unpigmented eyes of albinos see better
than a normal eye in the dark. Dr. Spearman and myself have
carried out experiments to test the statements in the text; we found
that the light eye certainly had a small advantage over the dark eye
in a bad light, but did not find that the dark eye had any advantage in
a good light ; in fact the light eye was better in both good and bad.

* “If indeed’ as usual introduces Aristotle’s own theory. He
assumes that he has proved all sight to be due to water in the eye,
and this if true is fatal to the theory of Empedocles.

* de Sensu, 2; de Anima, iii. 425% 4.

ΒΟΟΚΝ.ὕω: 779°

liquid to be adapted to the movement,! others have too
little, others the due amount. Those eyes therefore in which
there is much liquid are dark because much liquid is not
transparent, those which have little are blue ; (so we find in 30
the sea that the transparent part of it appears light blue, the
less transparent watery, and the unfathomable water is
dark or deep-blue on account of its depth).”, When we come
to the eyes between these, they differ only in degree.

We must suppose the same cause also to be responsible
for the fact that blue eyes are not keen-sighted by day nor
dark eyes by night. Blue eyes, because there is little liquid 780*
in them, are too much moved by the light and by visible
objects in respect of their liquidity as well as their trans-
parency, but sight is the movement of this part in so far as
it is transparent, not in so far as it is liquid. Dark eyes are
less moved because of the quantity of liquid in them.®
And so they see less well in the dusk, for the nocturnal
light is weak; at the same time also liquid is in general
hard to move in the night.* But if the eye is to see, it must
neither not be moved at all nor yet more than in so far as
it is transparent,° for the stronger movement drives out the
weaker. Hence it is that on changing from strong colours,°®
or on going out of the sun into the dark, men cannot see,
for the motion already existing in the eye, being strong,

σι

μι

1 i.e. the movement imparted to them by the shock of the light
falling upon them.

* This description is correct though it sounds strange. On some
beaches when the waves are breaking in gentle ripples, one sees the
water a bluish or greenish grey on the sand or shingle, just beyond the
break it may be more turbid and yellowish, which is what A. must
mean by ‘ watery’, and further out again it will be dark blue.

° Sight is the movement caused by the rays of light striking a
transparent liquid. The eye cannot be too transparent for its purpose,
and the movement cannot perturb it in so far as it is transparent, but
if the liquid is too little it will be too much shaken by the excess
of light. The same impact will produce less effect on a dark eye
because the liquid is deeper. Such is A’s account.

* I do not see what these words mean, but cf. de Div. per Somnum,
464% 14.

δ If there is too much light, it not only passes through the trans-
parent liquid but also throws the liquid itself into confusion.

* i.e. bright colours, which set up a strong movement in the eye.

P 2

780° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

stops that from outside,’ and in general neither a strong
nor a weak sight can see bright things because the liquid
is acted upon and moved too much.?

The same thing is shown? also by the morbid affections

15 of each kind of sight. Cataract* attacks the blue-eyed
more, but what is called ‘ nyctalopia ’® the dark-eyed. Now
cataract is a sort of dryness of the eyes ὃ and therefore it is
found more in the aged, for this part also like the rest of the

20 body gets dry towards old age; but nyctalopia is an excess
of liquidity and so is found more in the younger, for their
brain is more liquid.

The sight of the eye which is intermediate between too
much and too little liquid is the best, for it has neither too
little so as to be disturbed and hinder the movement of the

25 colours,’ nor too much so as to cause difficulty of movement.

Not only the above-mentioned facts are causes of seeing
keenly or the reverse, but also the nature of the skin upon
what is called the pupil.2 This ought to be transparent,
and it is necessary that the transparent should be thin and
white® and even, thin that the movement coming from
without may pass straight through it, even that it may not

3o cast a shade upon the liquid behind it by wrinkling (for this
also is a reason why old men have not keen sight, the skin
of the eye like the rest of the skin wrinkling and becoming

1 i.e. prevents any further movement, caused by rays of light from
an external object, from producing any sensible effect. Such further
movement ex hypothest will be a weak one.

? The meaning seems to be that not only a weak sight cannot stand
a bright light, but even a strong one cannot do so if the light be bright
enough, as that of the sun.

* Namely that the liquid theory is the right one.

* γλαύκωμα. It is not certain what is meant exactly, but it is clearly
not what is now called glaucoma.

ὃ Nyctalopia is now (or was recently) used to mean a condition
in which the eye sees better in twilight than in daylight. But A.,
like Galen, means by it exactly the opposite, a condition in which
a great deal of light is required.

° Omitting μᾶλλον (AW.).

7 i.e. the movement set up in the eye by the colours of visible
things, for colour is the true object of sight according to Aristotle and
Plato.

8 The cornea, or rather that part of the cornea which is in front of
the pupil.

* By ‘white’ A. sometimes means transparent, but what he means
here is very obscure.

BOOK V. 1 780%

thicker in old age), and white because black is not trans-
parent, for that is just what is meant by ‘ black’, what is not
shone through, and that is why lanterns cannot give light if
they be made of black skin. It is for these reasons then
that the sight is not keen in old age nor in the diseases in 780°
question, but it is because of the small amount of liquid that

the eyes of children appear blue at first.

And the reason why men especially and horses occasion-
ally are heteroglaucous is the same as the reason why man
alone grows grey and the horse is the only other animal 5
whose hairs whiten visibly in old age. For greyness is a
weakness of the fluid in the brain and an incapacity to
concoct properly, and so is blueness of the eyes ; excess of
thinness or of thickness produces the same effect, according
as this liquidity is too little or too much.2,_ Whenever then
Nature cannot make the eyes correspond exactly, either by 10
concocting or by not concocting the liquid in both,* but
concocts the one and not the other, then the result is
heteroglaucia.

The cause of some animals being keen-sighted and others
not so is not simple but double. For the word ‘keen’ has
pretty much a double sense (and this is the case in like 15
manner with hearing and smelling). In one sense keen
sight means the power of seeing at a distance, in another it
means the power of distinguishing as accurately as possible
the objects seen. These two faculties are not necessarily
combined in the same individual. For the same person, if
he shade his eyes with his hand or look through a tube, does
not distinguish the differences of colour either more or less 20
in any way, but he will see further; in fact, men in pits or

‘ It is strange that A. should not have known that dogs go grey.
Even sea-lions do.

* Grey hair, says A., is due to excess of liquid (784 5), blue eyes to
deficiency of it.

* If the liquid is properly concocted in both eyes, they are dark; if
not, they are light. But this theory does not seem to square with the
statement that blueness is due to want of liquid, not to its not being
concocted. To bring the two together we must suppose that what
causes the deficiency of liquid is want of concoction, in the brain, of the
material which is to go to the eyes.

Both the eyes and the hair of the head are formed from the brain,
according to A.

780°

781%

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

wells sometimes see the stars.1 Therefore if any animal’s
brows project far over the eye, but if the liquid in the pupil is
not pure nor suited to the movement coming from external
objects and if the skin over the surface is not thin, this
animal will not distinguish accurately the differences of the
colours but it will be able to see from a long distance (just
as it can from a short one) better than those in which
the liquid and the covering membrane are pure but which
have no brows projecting over the eyes. For the cause of
seeing keenly in the sense of distinguishing the differences
is in the eye itself; as on a clean garment even small stains
are visible, so also in a pure sight even small movements
are plain and cause sensation. But it is the position of the
eyes that is the cause of seeing things far off and of the
movements in the transparent medium coming to the eyes
from distant objects. A proof of this is that animals with
prominent eyes do not see well at a distance,” whereas those
which have their eyes lying deep in the head can see things
at a distance because the movement is not dispersed in
space but comes straight to the eye. For® it makes no
difference whether we say, as some do,‘ that seeing is caused
by the sight going forth from the eye—on that view, if there
is nothing projecting over the eyes, the sight must be
scattered and so less of it will fall on the objects of vision ὅ
and things at a distance will not be seen so well—or
whether we say that seeing is due to the movement coming
from the objects; for the sight also must see, in a manner
resembling the movement.° Things at a distance, then,

2 «Prominent eyes are not always short sighted..—AW. But they are
apt to be so because a prominent eye is probably too much elongated,
so that the light-rays come to a focus before reaching the retina, which
causes myopia. ‘Prominence of the globes’ is one of the signs of
myopia given by Juler, Ophthalmic Science and Practice*, p. 492.

3 The connexion is: ‘ This theory will hold good even if we give up
our theory of vision, for,’ &c.

1 Plato thought that sight was caused by a ray proceeding from the
eye and meeting rays from the objects.

5 Sight must here be taken to mean the rays from the eyes. How
these rays falling on objects outside the eye could cause sight within
the eye was never very satisfactorily explained so far as I know, and
A.’s own theory of sight is a vast advance upon it.

° If sight is caused by rays from an object striking the eye, it is

BOOK V. 1 7817

would be seen best if there were, so to say, a continuous
tube straight from the sight to its object, for the movement τὸ
from the object would not then be dissipated ; but, if that
is impossible, still the further the tube extends! the more
accurately must distant objects be seen.

Let these, then, be given as the causes of the difference
in eyes.

2 It is the same also with hearing and smell ; to hear and τς
smell accurately mean in one sense to perceive as precisely
as possible all the distinctions of the objects of perception,
in another sense to hear and smell far off. As with sight,
so here the sense-organ is the cause of judging well the
distinctions, if both that organ itself and the membrane 20
round it be pure. For the passages of all the sense-organs,
as has been said in the treatise on sensation,” run to the
heart, or to its analogue in creatures that have no heart.
The passage of the hearing, then, since this sense-organ is
of air,* ends at the place where the innate spiritus causes
in some animals the pulsation of the heart and in others 25
respiration ;* wherefore also it is that we are able to under-
stand what is said and repeat what we have heard, for as
was the movement which entered through the sense-organ,
such again is the movement which is caused by means of
the voice, being as it were of one and the same stamp, so
that a man can say what he has heard. And we hear less 30
well during a yawn or expiration than during inspiration,
because the starting-point of the sense-organ of hearing is
set upon the part concerned with breathing and is shaken

evident that it is better they should not be dissipated. If we suppose it
caused by rays going forth from the eye, it will still be better that they
should not be dissipated before meeting the rays from the object or
striking the object itself, for even if we accept that theory we shall be
dealing with rays in a medium; those of the sight will act like the
‘movement’ of those from the object.

1 Reading ἐπέχῃ for ἀπέχῃ.

2. Not in the existing de Semsu. What these passages were is uncer-
tain; see Ogle on de Partibus, ii. 656" 17.

3 See de Anima, ii. 8.

* Omitting καὶ εἰσπνοήν. But the passage is unintelligible ; no animal,
according to A., respires without having a heart ; see de Resfiratione,
21, 22. The words here must have been corrupted.

781°

σι

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

and moved as the organ moves the breath, for while setting
the breath in motion it is moved itself! The same thing
happens in wet weather or a damp atmosphere. ... And
the ears seemed to be filled with air because their starting-
point is near the region of breathing.”

Accuracy then in judging the differences of sounds and
smells 5 depends on the purity of the sense-organ and of
the membrane lying upon its surface, for then all the move-
ments become clear in such cases, as in the case of sight.
Perception and non-perception at a distance also depend
on the same things with hearing and smell as with sight.*
For those animals can perceive at a distance which have
channels, so to say, running through the parts concerned
and projecting far in front of the sense-organs. Therefore
all animals whose nostrils are long, as the Laconian hounds,
are keen-scented, for the sense-organ being above them,°
the movements from a distance ® are not dissipated but go
straight to the mark, just as the movements which cause
sight do with those who shadow the eyes with the hand.

1 The heart or some part about the heart is the starting-point or
rather terminus of the ear, because it is connected with it by its
passage. As the heart lies next the lungs, the terminus is affected by
the movement of the lungs in expiration, and so we hear worse. But
why not also in inspiration? And, to make things worse, yawning is
an inspiration, yet A. says we hear badly during yawning. Nor is it
true that we hear any better during inspiration ; he assumes it because
it suits his theory that we hear by means of the συμφυὴς ἀήρ in the ear,
and the ear-passage.

2 Two things seem clear to me about this passage. First that
something has dropped out, for there is no connexion between the
damp atmosphere and what follows. Secondly that we must read τὴν
ἀρχήν for τῇ ἀρχῇ, since it is absurd to say that ‘the ears are filled with
air because they are near the starting-point of the breathing region’.
What zs this starting-point ‘of a region’? And the ears are not near
it, whatever it may be. Also it seems that we must read τῷ πνευματικῷ
τύπος Cf. 781% 31.

3 Nothing has been said about smells; probably a passage dealing
with them has dropped out.

* The construction must be explained as being καὶ τὸ πόρρωθεν δὲ
{τὰ μὲν) αἰσθάνεσθαι, τὰ δὲ μή. One MS. (Z) omits ra δὲ μὴ αἰσθάνεσθαι,
but Z has many omissions due to homoioteleuton.

° The sensitive part of the nose being above the nostrils in man, A.
uses the term ‘above’ loosely for the position in any animal; he should
rather have said ‘behind’. Had he known the modern greyhound,
whose nostrils are longer than any other dog’s and who yet has quite
lost the sense of smell, he might have modified his opinion.

® Read ai πόρρωθεν κινήσεις.

BOOK V. 2 781

Similar is the case of animals whose ears are long and
project far like the eaves of a house, as in some quadrupeds,
with the internal spiral passage long ; these also catch the
movement from afar and pass it on to the sense-organ.

In respect of sense-perception at a distance, man is, one
may say, the worst of all animals in proportion to his size,
but in respect of judging the differences of quality in the
objects he is the best of all.!. The reason is that the sense- 20
organ in man is pure and least earthy and material, and
he is by nature the thinnest-skinned of all animals for
his size.”

The workmanship of Nature is admirable also in the
seal, for though a viviparous quadruped it has no ears but
only passages for hearing. This is because its life is
passed in the water; now the ear is a part added to the
passages to preserve the movement of the air at a distance;
therefore an ear is no use to it but would even bring about
the contrary result by receiving a mass of water into
itself.3

We have thus spoken of sight, hearing, and smell.

8 As for hair, men differ in this themselves at different
ages, and also from all other kinds of animals that have
hair. These are almost all which are internally viviparous,*
for even when the covering of such animals is spiny it must
be considered as a kind of hair,® as in the land hedge-

LSS)
ο

1 Dr. Spearman tells me that it is impossible to test this state-
ment.

2 And therefore the membranes on the sense organs are also thinnest.
It is impossible to be sure whether this paragraph applies to all the
senses or only hearing. In favour of the former view is the plural
αἰσθήσεων, and we should naturally expect A. not to confine an observa-
tion of this kind to a single sense. In favour of the latter view is the
singular αἰσθητήριον, and the position of the passage. For myself I
incline to the former and have translated and punctuated accordingly.

’ The only seals known to A. have no external ear. It has been lost
by cetacea and these seals probably because it would interfere (how-
ever slightly) with the passage of the animal through the water. This,
however, is not what A. means when he says the ear would ‘ receive
water into itself’; he means that this water would interfere with the
hearing when the seal has its head in the air.

* See notes on i. 9.

° ‘Such hairs assume various forms . . . the spines of the Hedge-

782° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

hog! and any other such animal among the vivipara. Hairs
differ in respect of hardness and softness, length and
shortness, straightness and curliness, quantity and scanti-
ness, and in addition to these qualities, in their colours,
5 whiteness and blackness and the intermediate shades.
They differ also in some of these respects according to
age, as they are young or growing old. This is especially
plain in man; the hair gets coarser as time goes on,? and
some go bald on the front of the head ; children indeed do
το not go bald, nor do women, but men do so by the time
their age is advancing. Human beings also go grey on the
head as they grow old, but this is not visible in practically
any other animal, though more so in the horse than others.

15 Men go bald on the front of the head, but turn grey first
on the temples; no one goes bald first on these or on the
back of the head. Some such affections occur in a corre-
sponding manner also in all animals which have not hair
but something analogous to it, as the feathers of birds and
scales in the class of fish.

20 For what purpose Nature has made hair in general ? for
animals has been previously stated in the work dealing
with the causes of the parts of animals ;* it is the business
of the present inquiry to show under what circumstances
and for what necessary causes each particular kind of hair
occurs. The principal cause then of thickness and thin-

25 ness is the skin, for this is thick in some animals and thin
in others, rare in some and dense in others.° The different
quality of the included moisture is also a helping cause,
for in some animals this is greasy and in others watery.
For generally speaking the substratum of the skin is of an
earthy nature ; being on the surface of the body it becomes
hog and Porcupine (are) modifications of the same structure.’ Flower
and Lydekker, JZammads, p. 7.

1 ‘Land’ to distinguish it from the sea hedgehog or Echinus.

2 “As a general rule the hair of children will be found finer than that
of adults.’ Erasmus Wilson, Ox Healthy Skin?, p. 87.

3 Lit. ‘the class of hair.’ Hair as a whole exists for a final cause;
the varieties are due to necessity.

* de Partibus, ii. 658° 18 ‘ For the sake of shelter.’

5 And the hair follows the skin. Cf. Darwin, Varzazzon}, vol. ii,

Ῥ. 327. Hippocrates (vol. iii, p. 598) refers to the quality of the hair on
parts of the body as proving the skin to be thinner.

—eo μὐοθνονμοάδι. μά πον μον Uh tae, οὐχ

BOOK V. 3 7822

solid and earthy as the moisture evaporates.1 Now the 30
hairs or their analogue? are not formed out of the flesh

but out of the skin, [the moisture evaporating and exhaling

in them, and therefore thick hairs arise from a thick skin

and thin from a thin].2 If then the skin is rarer and
thicker, the hairs are thick because of the quantity of
earthy matter and the size of the pores, but if it is denser 782”
they are thin because of the narrowness of the pores.
Further, if the moisture be watery it dries up quickly and

the hairs do not gain in size, but if it be greasy the opposite
happens, for the greasy is not easily dried up. Therefore 5
the thicker-skinned animals are as a general rule thicker-
haired for the causes mentioned; however, the thickest-
skinned are not more so than other thick-skinned ones,
as is shown by the class of swine compared to that of oxen
and to the elephant and many others. And for the same
reason also the hairs of the head in man are thickest, for
this part of his skin is thickest and lies over ὅ most moisture
and besides is very porous.

The cause of the hairs being long or short depends on
the evaporating moisture not being easily dried. Of this
there are two causes, quantity and quality; if the liquid
is much it does not dry up easily nor if it is greasy. And
for this reason the hairs of the head are longest in man,
for the brain, being fluid and cold, supplies great abundance
of moisture.

The hairs become straight or curly on account of the
vapour arising in them. If it be smoke-like, it is hot and 20

μι
σι

1 Compare Erasmus Wilson’s account of the growth of the outer skin:
“as by degrees the deep layers are gradually pushed upwards towards
the surface, the cells lose by evaporation their fluid contents and are
converted into dry, flattened and extremely thin scales.’ On Healthy
Skin, p. 6.

> Feathers and scales.

8 The bracketed words are partly unintelligible in themselves, and
do not fit on to what follows.

* This sentence is barely intelligible. The meaning seems to be
that though thick-skinned generally is thicker-haired than thin-
skinned, yet in the thick-skinned class itself the ratio is no longer
observed. Thus the bristles of swine are thicker (according to A.) than
those of elephants, though the elephant is the thicker-skinned of the
two.

5 Reading ἐπί. The ‘most moisture’ is that of the brain.

782» DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

dry and so makes the hair curly, for it is twisted as being
carried with a double motion, the earthy part tending
downwards and the hot upwards! Thus, being easily bent,
it is twisted owing to its weakness, and this is what is
meant by curliness in hair. It is possible then that this is
the cause, but it is also possible that, owing to its having but
25 little moisture and much earthy matter in it, it is dried by
the surrounding air and so coiled up together. For what
is straight becomes bent, if the moisture in it is evaporated,
and runs together as a hair? does when burning upon the
fire ; curliness will then be a contraction owing to deficiency
of moisture caused by the heat of the environment. A sign
30 of this is the fact that curly hair is harder than straight,
for the dry is hard. And animals with much moisture are
straight-haired ; for in these hairs the moisture advances
as a stream, not in drops. For this reason the Scythians
on the Black Sea and the Thracians are straight-haired,
for both they themselves and the environing air are moist,
whereas the Aethiopians and men in hot countries are
783° curly-haired, for their brains and the surrounding air
are dry.

Some, however, of the thick-skinned animals are fine-
haired for the cause previously stated, for the finer the
pores are the finer must the hairs be. Hence the class

5 of sheep have such hairs (for wool is only a multitude of
hairs).

There are some animals whose hair is soft and yet less
fine, as is the case with the class of hares compared with
that of sheep ; in such animals the hair is on the surface of
the skin, not deeply rooted in it, and so is not long but

το in much the same state as the scrapings from linen,’ for
these also are not long but are soft and do not admit of
weaving.*

The condition of sheep in cold climates is opposite to
that of man; the hair of the Scythians is soft but that of

1 The earthy part is the solid material of the hair, which would
naturally hang straight down; but the hot vapour tends upwards and
the conflict of the two tendencies curls the hair.

2 Omitting 7. 5. Qu. λινῶν for Awev?

* Because they are too short.

BOOK V. 3 783°

the Sauromatic sheep is hard. The reason of this is the
same as it is also in all wild animals. The cold hardens 15
and solidifies them by drying them, for as the heat is
pressed out the moisture evaporates, and both hair and
skin become earthy and hard. In wild animals then the
exposure to the cold is the cause of hardness in the hair, in
the others the nature of the climate is the cause. A proof of
this is also what happens in the sea-urchins which are used 20
as a remedy in stranguries.! For these, too, though small
themselves, have large and hard spines because: the sea in
which they live is cold on account of its depth (for they
are found in sixty fathoms and even more). The spines
are large because the growth of the body is diverted to 25
them, since having little heat in them they do not concoct
their nutriment and so have much residual matter and it is
from this that spines, hairs, and such things are formed;
they are hard and petrified through the congealing effect of
the cold. In the same way also plants are found to be 30
harder, more earthy, and stony, if the region in which they
grow looks to the north than if it looks to the south, and
those in windy places than those in sheltered, for they are
all more chilled and their moisture evaporates.

Hardening, then, comes of both heat and cold, for both
cause the moisture to evaporate, heat per se and cold fer 35
accidens (since the moisture goes out of things along with
the heat, there being no moisture without heat), but whereas
cold not only hardens but also condenses, heat makes 783°
a substance rarer.

For the same reason, as animals grow older, the hairs
become harder in those which have hairs, and the feathers
and scales in the feathered and scaly kinds. For their 5
skins become harder and thicker as they get older, for
they are dried up, and old age, as the word denotes,’ is
earthy because the heat fails and the moisture along
with it.

1 The eggs of sea-urchins were given as diuretics. Hippocrates,
vol. i, p.682 ; Dioscorides, vol. i, p. 167. Τὸ what kind does A. refer?
The ordinary edible sea-urchin is as large as an orange, and does not
live at so great a depth. Cf. H. A. iv. 530"7-10.

* γῆρας yenpov !

783° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

Men go bald visibly more than any other animal, but

ro still such a state is something general, for among plants
also some are evergreens while others are deciduous, and
birds which hibernate shed their feathers! Similar to this

is the condition of baldness in those human beings to whom

it is incident.2_ For leaves are shed by all plants, from one
15 part of the plant at a time, and so are feathers and hairs by
those animals that have them ; it is when they are all shed
together that the condition is described by the terms men-
tioned, for it is called ‘going bald’ and ‘the fall of the
leaf’ and ‘moulting’. The cause of the condition is de-
ficiency of hot moisture, such moisture being especially the
20 unctuous, and hence unctuous plants are more evergreen.®
(However we must elsewhere* state the cause of this
phenomena in plants, for other causes also contribute to it.)
It is in winter that this happens to plants (for the change
from summer to winter is more important to them than the
time of life), and to those animals which hibernate (for
25 these, too, are by nature less hot and moist than man); in
the latter it is the seasons of life that correspond to summer
and winter. Hence no one goes bald before the time of
sexual intercourse, and at that time it is in those naturally
inclined to such intercourse that baldness appears, for the
brain is naturally the coldest part of the body and sexual
3o intercourse makes men cold, being a loss of pure natural
heat. Thus we should expect the brain to feel the effect of
it first, for a little cause turns the scale where the thing con-
cerned is weak and in poor condition.? Thus if we reckon
up these points, that the brain itself has but little heat,

1 See H. A. viii. 26, where swallows are particularly mentioned ;
Gilbert White was haunted all his life with the notion that some
swallows may hibernate. But no bird does so in reality, though some
when they moult do slink out of the way. That birds moult in winter

was a popular idea, it seems ; see Aristoph. Bzrds, 105.

2 This qualification is put in to exclude women, children, and
eunuchs.

3 Prof. Oliver assents to this.

* Probably in the lost botanical treatise.

° Though the brain is a very important organ in the opinion of A.,
yet its importance is negative rather than positive. Heat is the
sovereign quality of life, and the brain exists mainly to cool the blood,
and is itself the coldest part. It is because of this cold that it is
described as ‘ weak and in poor condition’.

at,

ὐὖὐ * rhe

BOOK V. 3 783”

and further that the skin round it must needs have still
less, and again that the hair must have still less than the 35
skin inasmuch as it is the furthest removed from the brain,!
we should reasonably expect baldness to come about this
age upon those who have much semen. And it is for the
same reason that the front part of the head alone goes
bald? in man and that he is the only animal to do so; the 784*
front part goes bald because the brain is there,® and man is
the only animal to go bald because his brain is much the
largest and the moistest. Women do not go bald because
their nature is like that of children, both alike being 5
incapable of producing seminal secretion. Eunuchs do not
become bald,’ because they change into the female condition.
And as to the hair that comes later in life, eunuchs either
do not grow it at all, or lose it if they happen to have it,°
with the exception of the pubic hair; for women also grow
that though they have not the other, and this mutilation is 10
a change from the male to the female condition.

The reason why the hair does not grow again in cases of
baldness, although both hibernating animals recover their
feathers or hair and trees that have shed their leaves grow
leaves again, is this. The seasons of the year are the
turning-points of their lives, rather than their age, so that 15
when these seasons change they change with them by
growing and losing feathers, hairs, or leaves respectively.
But the winter and summer, spring and autumn of man are
defined by his age, so that, since® his ages do not return,’
neither do the conditions caused by them return, although 20
the cause of the change of condition is similar in man to
what it is in the animals and plants in question.

We have now spoken pretty much of all the other
conditions of hair.

* One would rather expect ‘from the heart’, but that can hardly be
supplied from the context. What little heat there is in the hair has to
come from the heart, passing through the cold brain, so that the hair
will be even colder than the brain itself.

2 €. at arst.

$ A. held that the brain was in the front part of the skull, the hinder
part being empty. See de Partibus, ii. 65612 and Ogle’s note.

‘ This is a medical tradition ; Hippocrates, vol. i, p. 400.

5 i.e. if castration is performed after puberty.

5 Reading ἐπειδή. 7 Lit. ‘ change’.

784° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

But as to their colour, it is the nature of the skin that is 4

the cause of this in other animals (and also of their being
25 unicoloured or varicoloured) ; but in man it is not the cause,
except of the hair going grey through disease (not through
old age), for in what is called leprosy the hairs become
white; on the contrary, if the hairs are white the whiteness
does not invade the skin. The reason is that the hairs
grow out of skin; if, then, the skin is diseased and white
30 the hair becomes diseased with it, and the disease of hair is
greyness. But the greyness of hair which is due to age
results from weakness and deficiency of heat. For as the
body declines in vigour we tend to cold at every time
of life, and especially in old age, this age being cold and
dry. We must remember that the nutriment coming to
each part of the body is concocted by the heat appropriate
784” to the part; if the heat is inadequate the part loses its
efficiency, and destruction or disease results. (We shall
speak more in detail of causes in the treatise on growth
and nutrition.') Whenever, then, the hair in man has

5 naturally little heat and too much moisture enters it, its
own proper heat is unable to concoct the moisture and so
it is decayed by the heat in the environing air. All decay
is caused by heat, not the innate heat but external heat, as
has been stated elsewhere.2. And as there is a decay
of water, of earth, and all such material bodies, so there is
10 also of the earthy vapour, for instance what is called mould
(for mould is a decay of earthy vapour). Thus also the
liquid nutriment in the hair decays because it is not con-
cocted, and what is called greyness results. It is white
because mould also, practically alone among decayed things,
is white. The reason of this is that it has much air in it,

1 This is lost.

2. Meteorologica, iv. 379% 18. The innate, or more literally connate,
heat is the same as the natural heat which plays so large a part in A.’s
physiology. Being natural it cannot cause decay in the body or part
in which it resides.

8 The earthy vapour is moisture evaporated from ‘earth’ in the
Aristotelian sense as one of the four elements. In this case it is the
vapour from the solid material of the hair. In reality, mould is a
fungoid growth, and so is in no way parallel to greyness of the hair

(though there is a fungus which causes baldness); greyness is due to
bubbles of air or absence of pigment.

BOOK V. 4

all earthy vapour being equivalent to thick air.1 For
mould is, as it were, the antithesis of hoar-frost; if the
ascending vapour be frozen it becomes hoar-frost, if it be
decayed, mould. Hence both are on the surface of things,
for vapour is superficial. And so the comic poets make
a good metaphor in jest when they call grey hairs ‘mould
of old age’ and ‘hoar-frost’. For the one is generically
the same as greyness, the other specifically; hoar-frost
generically (for both are a vapour), mould specifically (for
both are a form of decay). A proof that this is so is this:
grey hairs have often grown on men in consequence of
disease, and later on dark hairs instead of them after
restoration to health.? The reason is that in sickness the
whole * body is deficient in natural heat® and so the parts
besides, even the very small ones, participate in this weak-
ness; and again, much residual matter is formed in the
body and all its parts in illness, wherefore the incapacity in
the flesh to concoct the nutriment causes the grey hairs.
But when men have recovered health and strength again
they change, becoming as it were young again instead of
old; in consequence the states change also. Indeed, we
may rightly call disease an acquired old age, old age

1 It is true that whiteness in vapour, hoar-frost, foam, and the like is
caused by the presence of air between the particles.

2 We may represent the genus and species thus:
Vapour

decayed not decayed

mould greyness hoar-frost.

Thus greyness and hoar-frost both belong to the genus, but hoar-frost
is not in the same species ‘ decayed’.

* See instances of recovery of colour in grey hair in Erasmus Wilson,
On Healthy Skin*, p. 122.

* Reading ὅλον with the Aldine (AW.).

5 This is an interesting remark as showing how distinct is ‘ natural
heat’ from ordinary heat. A. knew very well that the body is often
hotter in illness, but natural heat could not cause this as being ‘against
Nature’; such unnatural heat must be ascribed to something else.
But what right has he to assume a deficiency in natural heat in all
cases of illness? Perhaps he argued that death is cold and all disease
is an approximation to death.

° i. e. the states of the body and of its parts change from age to youth,
from grey hair to dark.

AR, 6. As Q

784°

σι

784” DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

a natural disease; at any rate, some diseases produce the
same effects as old age.

Men go grey on the temples first, because the back of the
785° head is empty of moisture owing to its containing no brain,’
and the ‘bregma’? has a great deal of moisture,’ a large
quantity not being liable to decay ;* the hair on the temples
however has neither so little that it can concoct it nor so
much that it cannot decay, for this region of the head being
between the two extremes is exempt from both states.
The cause of greyness in man has now been stated.

σι

The reason why this change does not take place visibly 5
on account of age in other animals is the same as that
already given in the case of baldness; their brain is small
το and less fluid than in man, so that the heat required for
concoction does not altogether fail. Among them it is
most clear in horses of all animals that we know, because
the bone about the brain is thinner in them than in others
in proportion to their size. A sign of this is that a blow on
this spot is fatal to them, wherefore Homer also has said:
‘where the first hairs grow on the skull of horses, and a
wound is most fatal.’° As then the moisture easily flows to
these hairs because of the thinness of the bone, whilst the
heat fails on account of age, they go grey. The reddish
20 hairs go grey sooner than the black, redness also being a

sort of weakness of hair and all weak things ageing sooner.

It is said, however, that cranes become darker as they
grow old.® The reason of this would be, if it should prove

1 See above on 784° 2.

2 See on ii. 744224. Here the bregma evidently means the whole of
the front part of the crown.

5 This is doubtless owing to its being above the brain, the moisture
evaporating upwards. The word βρέγμα is actually derived from
βρέχω, Zo wet, because of the softness of this part in infancy.

4 A lake remains fresh when a small pool becomes stagnant.

5 Μία viii. 83, 84. It would be pertinent to the argument if A. had
shown that other animals could be knocked on the head with impunity.
Besides it was not for any thinness of the bone that Nestor’s horse was
killed. ‘Exactly where the mane begins, the bony shield of the skull
comes to an end, and the route to the brain, especially to a dart
coming like that of Paris from behind, lies comparatively open.’
Agnes Clerke, Familiar Studies in Homer, Ὁ. 114.

δ This may refer to the heron, which would easily be confused with the

ΒΟΟΚ ν. ς 785°

true, that their feathers are naturally moister! than others
and as they grow old the moisture in the feathers is too
much to decay easily.” 25

Greyness comes about by some sort of decay, and is not,
as some think, a withering. (1) A proof of the former
statement is the fact that hair protected by hats or other
coverings goes grey sooner (for the winds prevent decay
and the protection keeps off the winds), and the fact that it
is aided by anointing with a mixture of oil and water. 3°
For, though water cools things, the oil mingled with it pre-
vents the hair from drying quickly, water being easily dried
up. (2) That the process is not a withering, that the hair
does not whiten as grass does by withering, is shown by the
fact that some hairs grow grey from the first,*? whereas
nothing springs up in a withered state. Many hairs also 35
whiten at the tip, for there is least heat in the extremities
and thinnest parts.

When the hairs of other animals are white, this is caused 785°
by nature, not by any affection. The cause of the colours
in other animals is the skin; if they are white, the skin is
white, if they are dark it is dark, if they are piebald in con- 5
sequence of a mixture of the hairs, it is found to be white in
the one part and dark in the other. But in man the skin is
in no way the cause, for even white-skinned men have very
dark hair. The reason is that man has the thinnest skin of
all animals in proportion to his size* and therefore it has
not strength to change the hairs; on the contrary the skin 10
itself changes its colour through its weakness and _ is
darkened by sun and wind, while the hairs do not change
along with it at all. But in the other animals the skin,
owing to its thickness, has the influence belonging to the
soil in which a thing grows, wherefore the hairs change

crane. At least ‘the fine leaden-grey back’ is only found in the adult
heron (Newton’s Dict. of Birds, p. 418). The heron’s breast, however,
becomes whiter.

1 Reading ὑγροτέραν for λευκοτέραν (AW.).

2 Read εὔσηπτον for εὐσηπτότερον.

5.1 suppose this means that, if e.g. one shaves a white hair off,
a new white one springs up, whereas, if we cut off a withered blade of
grass, the new one is green.

* This can hardly be true of man as compared at any rate with birds.

Q 2

785° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

15 according to the skin but the skin does not change at all in
consequence of the winds and the sun.

Of animals some are uni-coloured (I mean by this term 6
those of which the kind as a whole has one colour, as all
lions are tawny ; and this condition exists also in birds, fish,
and the other classes of animals alike) ; others though many-

20 coloured are yet whole-coloured (I mean those whose body
as a whole has the same colour, as a bull is white as a whole
or dark as a whole); others are vari-coloured. This last
term is used in both ways; sometimes the whole kind is
vari-coloured, as leopards and peacocks, and some fish,
e. g. the so-called ‘thrattai’ ; sometimes the kind as a whole

25 is not so, but such individuals are found in it, as with cattle
and goats and, among birds, pigeons; the same applies also
to other kinds of birds. The whole-coloured change much
more than the uniformly coloured, both into the simple
colour of another individual of the same kind (as dark
changing into white and vice versa) and into both colours

30 mingled.! This is because it is a natural characteristic of the
kind as a whole not to have one colour only, the kind being
easily moved in both directions so that the colours both
change more into one another and are more varied. The
opposite holds with the uniformly coloured; they do not
change except by an affection of the colour, and that rarely ;
but still they do so change, for before now white individuals

35 have been observed among partridges, ravens, sparrows,
and bears.2 This happens when the course of development
is perverted, for what is small is easily spoilt and easily

786° moved, and what is developing is small, the beginning of all
such things being on a small scale.

Change is especially found in those animals of which by

1 e.g. white cattle may produce a black calf, or a piebald one, black
and white.

* This observation is true and profound. The white animals
mentioned are cases of albinism, which is an ‘affection’, as A. says,
due to absence of pigment. It is true that the whiteness of a calf is
also due to this absence, but the point is that while the whiteness of
the calf is normal, the whiteness of a normally brown bear (the only
sort known to A.) is abnormal and a πάθος,

ΒΟΟΚ ν. 6 7868

nature the individual is whole-coloured? but the kind many-
coloured. This is owing to the water which they drink, for
hot waters make the hair white, cold makes it dark, an 5
effect found also in plants. The reason is that the hot have
more air than water in them, and the air shining through
causes whiteness, as also in froth.2, As, then, skins which
are white by reason of some affection differ from those white
by nature, so also in the hair the whiteness due to disease 10
or age differs from that due to nature in that the cause is
different ; the latter are whitened by the natural heat, the
former by the external heat.* Whiteness is caused in all
things by the vaporous air imprisoned in them. Hence
also in all animals not uniformly coloured all the part
under the belly is whiter.4. For practically all white animals
are both hotter and better flavoured for the same reason ;
the concoction of their nutriment makes them well-flavoured,
and heat causes the concoction. The same cause holds for
those animals which are uniformly-coloured, but either
dark or white; heat and cold are the causes of the nature
of the skin and hair, each of the parts having its own
special heat.

The tongue also varies in colour in the simply coloured
as compared with the vari-coloured animals, and again in
the simply coloured which differ from one another, as white
and dark.° The reason is that assigned before, that the

τὸ

1 Reading ὁλόχροα with the Aldine and other authorities (AW.).

? As the hot waters, whatever they may be, are white owing to
imprisoned air, so this effect is somehow passed on to the creatures
that drink them.

3 The natural heat seems to be increased by the ‘hot waters’, the
external heat is that of the environment, which as we have seen above
turns hair unnaturally white.

4 The whiteness of the under part of animals is for the sake of
making them harder to see at a distance. See the elegant experi-
ments of Mr. Abbott Thayer on this point in birds, given by Beebe,
The Bird, p. 299. Exceptions, e.g. the ratel, are nocturnal animals or
live in holes, or, like the elephant, have no enemy to fear. A.’s argument
may be put thus: the under part of an animal is hotter, because it
contains more air. But what contains air is white. Therefore the
under part is white.

5 These seem to be the same as the ‘ whole-coloured’. The meaning
is that the tongue of a dark or white ox is dark or white respectively.
‘Every one knows that the colour of the skin and that of the hair
usually vary together; so that Virgil advises the shepherd to look

865 DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM '

skins of the vari-coloured are vari-coloured, and the skins of

25 the white-haired and dark-haired are white and dark in each
case. Now we must conceive of the tongue as one of the
external parts, not taking into account the fact that it is
covered by the mouth but looking on it as we do on the
hand or foot; thus since the skin of the vari-coloured
animals is not uniformly coloured, this is the cause of the
skin on the tongue being also vari-coloured.

30 Some birds and some wild quadrupeds change their
colour according to the seasons of the year. The reason is
that, as men change according to their age, so the same
thing happens to them according to the season; for this
makes a greater difference to them than the change of age.

The more omnivorous animals are more vari-coloured to |
speak generally, and this is what might be expected ;1 thus :
786” bees are more uniformly coloured than hornets and wasps.
For if the food is responsible for the change,? we should
expect varied food to increase the variety in the movements
which cause the development and so in the residual matter
of the food, from which come into being hairs and feathers

and skins.

5 So much for colours and hairs.

As to the voice, it is deep in some animals, high in others, 7
in others again well-pitched and in due proportion between
το both extremes. Again, in some it is loud, in others small,
and it differs in smoothness and roughness, flexibility and
inflexibility. We must inquire then into the causes of each
of these distinctions.
We must suppose then that the same cause is responsible
for high and deep voices as for the change which they undergo

15 in passing from youth to age. The voice is higher in all other

ark

whether the mouth and tongue of the ram are black, lest the lamb
shall not be purely white.’ Darwin, Variation ', vol. 11, p. 325.

* This is of course quite untrue; the case of bees and wasps is
in favour of A.’s theory no doubt, but on a general view there is nothing
whatever to be said for it.

* This is true to a great extent, but it is not dérectly responsible.
The coloration of lion, leopard, tiger, polar bear is what it is in order
that they may steal upon their prey unobserved, and so in a certain
sense is due to their food. A. puts it more correctly when he says
that their way of /ife is the cause of an animal being what it is.

BOOK V. ἢ

animals when younger, but in cattle that of calves is deeper.’
We find the same thing also in the male and female sexes ;
in the other kinds of animals the voice of the female is
higher than that of the male (this being especially plain in
man, for Nature has given this faculty to him in the highest
degree because he alone of animals makes use of speech and
the voice is the material of speech), but in cattle the opposite
obtains, for the voice of cows is deeper than that of bulls.”
Now the purpose for which animals have a voice, and
what is meant by ‘voice’ and by ‘sound’ generally, has
been stated partly in the treatise on sensation, partly in
that on the 501]. But since lowness of voice depends on the
movement of the air being slow and its highness on its being
quick, there is a difficulty in knowing whether it is that
which moves or that which is moved that is the cause of the
slowness or quickness.*_ For some say that what is much is
moved slowly, what is little quickly, and that the quantity
of the air is the cause of some animals having a deep and
others a high voice. Up to a certain point this is well said
(for it seems to be rightly said in a general way that the
depth depends on a certain amount of the air put in motion),
but not altogether, for if this were true it would not be easy
to speak both soft and deep at once, nor again both loud ὅ
and high. Again, the depth seems to belong to the nobler
nature, and in songs the deep note is better than the high-
pitched ones, the better lying in superiority, and depth of
tone being a sort of superiority. But then depth and height
in the voice are different from loudness and softness, and
some high-voiced animals are loud-voiced, and in like manner
some soft-voiced ones are deep-voiced, and the same applies
to the tones lying between these extremes. And by what
else can we define these (I mean loudness and softness of

Crea. ν᾿ 545% τὸ:

2 Cf. H. A. iv. 5380 14, ν. 545*19. ‘Bulls,’ says White, Vatural His-
tory of Selborne, letter 74, ‘though they mutter and grumble in a deep
tremendous tone, yet low in a shrill high key,’ whereas cows have
“hoarse voices when they low’.

3 de Anima, il. 8 ; cf. de Sensi, 440” 27.

* Omitting δέ before βραδέως.

5 Reading μέγα (AW. after the Latin versions).

° i.e. intermediate depth does not always go with intermediate
loudness, as it should on the theory.

786°

787°

7872 DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

voice) except by the large and small amount of the air put
in motion? If then height and depth are to be decided in
accordance with the distinction postulated, the result will be
that the same animals will be deep- and loud-voiced, and the
το same will be high- and not loud-voiced ; but this is false.
The reason of the difficulty is that the words ‘great’ and
‘small’, ‘much’ and ‘little’ are used sometimes absolutely,
sometimes relatively to one another. Whether an animal
has a great (or loud) voice depends on the air which is
moved being much absolutely, whether it has a small voice
depends on its being little absolutely ; but whether they
have a deep or high voice depends on their being thus
«5 differentiated in relation to one another. For if that
which is moved surpass the strength of that which moves
it, the air that is sent forth must go slowly; if the opposite,
quickly. The strong, then, on account of their strength,
sometimes move much air and make the movement slow,?
sometimes, having complete command over it, make the
20 movement swift.? On the same principle the weak either
move too much air for their strength and so make the
movement slow,‘ or if they make it swift move but little
because of their weakness.°
These, then, are the reasons of these contrarieties, that
neither are all young animals high-voiced nor all deep-
25 voiced, nor are all the older, nor yet are the two sexes
thus opposed, and again that not only the sick speak in a high
voice but also those in good bodily condition, and, further,
that as men verge on old age they become higher-voiced,
though this age is opposite to that of youth.
Most young animals, then, and most females set but little
air in motion because of their want of power, and are conse-
30 quently high-voiced, for a little air is carried along quickly,
and in the voice what is quick is high. But in calves and
cows, in the one case because of their age, in the other
because of their female nature, the part by which they set

1 A. must really mean: ‘ depends on the relation of what is moved
to that which moves it.’

So that the voice is both loud and deep.

8 So that the voice is both loud and high.

* And the voice is deep and weak.

° And the voice is high and weak.

BOOK V. 7 787°

the air in motion is not strong; at the same time they set
a great quantity in motion and so are deep-voiced ; for that 787°
which is borne along slowly is heavy, and much air is borne
along βίον νυν. And these animals set much in movement
whereas the others set but little, because the vessel through
which the breath is first borne has in them a large opening

and necessarily sets much air in motion, whereas in the rest 5
the air is better dispensed.2 As their age advances this
part which moves the air gains more strength in each
animal, so that they change into the opposite condition,

the high-voiced becoming deeper-voiced than they were,
and the deep-voiced higher-voiced, which is why bulls have

a higher voice than calves and cows. Now the strength of 10
all animals is in their sinews, and so those in the prime of

life are stronger, the young being weaker in the joints and
sinews ; moreover, in the young they are not yet tense, and

in those now growing old the tension relaxes, wherefore
both these ages are weak and powerless for movement.
And bulls are particularly sinewy, even their hearts, and 1;
therefore that part by which they set the air in motion ® is
in a tense state, like a sinewy string stretched tight. (That
the heart of bulls is of such a nature is shown by the fact
that a bone is actually found in some of them, and bones
are naturally connected with sinew.) *

All animals when castrated change to the female charac-
ter, and utter a voice like that of the females because the
sinewy strength in the principle of the voice is relaxed,
This relaxation is just as if one should stretch a string and
make it taut by hanging some weight on to it, as women
do who weave at the loom, for they stretch the warp by

τ
ο

τὸ
σι

1 We see here plainly that the equivocal meaning of the word βαρύς
underlies A.’s theory. It signifies both heavy and deep. A ‘heavy’
voice then moves slowly, because heavy things in general move slower
than light ones (a statement which may be taken as true in so far
as the same force will move a heavier thing more slowly than a
lighter one).

2 ‘Better dispensed,’ in that it is poured out gradually as from a
narrow-necked bottle. 5. The wind-pipe.

* Lit. ‘seek the nature of sinew’. This may mean that sinews are
regularly attached to bones, or that bones approximate to sinews
in nature. On the bone in the heart of bulls see Ogle on de Partibus,
ili. 666” 19.

787° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

attaching to it what are called ‘laiai’4 For in this way
are the testes attached to the seminal passages, and these
again to the blood-vessel which takes its origin in the heart
near the organ which sets the voice in motion.2— Hence as
the seminal passages change towards the age at which they
30 are now able to secrete the semen, this part also changes
along with them. As this changes, the voice again changes,
more indeed in males, but the same thing happens in
females too, only not so plainly, the result being what some
788° call ‘bleating’ when the voice is uneven. After this it —
settles into the deep or high voice of the succeeding time of
life. Ifthe testes are removed the tension of the passages
relaxes, as when the weight is taken off the string or the
5 warp; as this relaxes, the organ which moves the voice is
loosened in the same proportion. This, then, is the reason
why the voice and the form. generally changes to the
female character in castrated animals; it is because the
principle is relaxed upon which depends the tension of the
το body ; not that, as some suppose, the testes are themselves
a ganglion ὅ of many principles, but small changes are the
causes of great ones, not fer se but when it happens that
a principle changes with them.* For the principles, though
small in size, are great in potency ; this, indeed, is what is
15 meant by a principle, that it is itself the cause of many
things without anything else being higher than it for it to
depend upon.

The heat or cold also of their habitat contributes to make
some animals of such a character as to be deep-voiced, and
others high-voiced. For hot breath being thick causes

20 depth ὅ, cold breath being thin the opposite. This is clear
also in pipe-playing, for if the breath of the performer is

1 And should then remove this weight.

* This amazing theory assumes 7z/fer ala that the removal of the
weight will make the note of the string higher! Possibly A. confused
the tension of a string with the length.

3 σύναμμα, a knot of things tied up together.

4 i.e. the testes are small things comparatively in themselves, but
the whole principle of sexuality is so closely connected with them that
it all changes on their removal.

° Lit. ‘heaviness’; A. is again misled by the double meaning of
βαρύς. He also assumes hot air to be more condensed than cold.

BOOK: V..°7 788°

hotter, that is to say if it is expelled as by a groan’, the
note is deeper.

The cause of roughness and smoothness in the voice, and
of all similar inequality, is that the part or organ through
which the voice is conveyed is rough or smooth or generally 25
even or uneven. This is plain when there is any moisture
about the trachea”? or when it is roughened by any affec-
tion *, for then the voice also becomes uneven.

Flexibility depends on the softness or hardness of the
organ, for what is soft can be regulated and assume any 30°
form, while what is hard cannot; thus the soft organ can utter
a loud or a small note, and accordingly a high or a deep
one, since it easily regulates the breath, becoming itself
easily great or small. But hardness cannot be regulated.

Let this be enough on all those points concerning the
voice which have not been previously discussed in the 788°
treatise on sensation and in that on the soul.

8 With regard to the teeth it has been stated previously *
that they do not exist for a single purpose nor for the
same purpose in all animals, but in some for nutrition only, 5
in others also for fighting and for vocal speech. We must,
however, consider it not alien to the discussion of genera-
tion and development to inquire into the reason why the
front teeth are formed first and the grinders later, and why
the latter are not shed but the former are shed and grow
again.

Democritus has spoken of these questions but not well, τὸ
for he assigns the cause too generally without investigating
the facts in all cases. He says that the early teeth are
shed because they are formed in animals too early, for it is
when animals are practically in their prime that they

1 aia¢ovres. The idea is that if the breath is drawn deep it will be
hotter as coming from near the bodily centre of heat. A chest-note in
singing is deeper than a head-note; this, according to A., is because
the air from the chest is hotter. But then he speaks here not of
singing but of playing the pipe; and Mr. H. T. Clarke tells me that
no difference of the kind can be thus caused in any wind-instrument.

2.1, 6. if we have a cold in the throat.

3 e.g. sore throat.

* de Partibus, iii, 661% 34 et seqq.

788°

DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

grow. according to Nature,! and suckling is the cause he
assigns for their being found too early. Yet the pig also
suckles but does not shed its teeth,? and, further, all the
animals with carnivorous dentition® suckle, but some of
them do not shed any teeth except the canines, e.g. lions *.
This mistake, then, was due to his speaking generally
without examining what happens in all cases; but this is

20 what we ought to do, for any one who makes any general

statement must speak of all the particular cases.

Now we assume, basing our assumption upon what we
see, that Nature never fails nor does anything in vain so far
as is possible in each case. And it is necessary, if an
animal is to obtain food after the time of taking milk is
over, that it should have instruments for the treatment of
the food. If, then, as Democritus says, this happened
about the time of reaching maturity, Nature would fail in
something possible for her to do. And, besides, the opera-
tion of Nature would be contrary to Nature, for what is
done by violence is contrary to Nature, and it is by violence
that he says the formation of the first teeth is brought
about.° That this view then is not true is plain from
these and other similar considerations.

Now these teeth are developed before the flat teeth, in
the first place because their function is earlier (for dividing
comes before crushing, and the flat teeth are for crushing,
the others for dividing), in the second place because the
smaller is naturally developed quicker than the larger, even
if both start together, and these teeth are smaller in size

1 i.e. the only natural teeth, according to D., are those which grow
when the animal is practically mature. There is an untranslatable
play on the words φύεσθαι and φύσιν.

* The pig sheds its teeth just like any other mammal.

> καρχαρόδοντα, explained in 27. A. 11. 5017 18 to mean.‘ with the sharp
teeth fitting into one another’.

4 As usual, A. is wrong about the lion, which of course sheds all its
milk teeth. There is no animal which sheds only the canines.

5 By altering the punctuation I hope I have made sense of this
passage. The objections are (1) that if there were no first set of
teeth the animal could not get food between the period of suckling
and that of maturity, (2) that if these teeth were unnatural, as D. says
(or as A. puts it, to make it worse, formed ‘by violence’), Nature
would produce an unnatural thing, and this not as an occasional
monstrosity, such as teeth in a uterine tumour, but as a regular process.

BOOK V. 8 789°

than the grinders, because the bone of the jaw is flat in
that part but narrow towards the mouth.’ From the
greater part, therefore, must flow more nutriment to form
the teeth, and from the narrower part less.?

The act of sucking in itself contributes nothing to the
formation of the teeth, but the heat of the milk makes
them appear more quickly.2 A proof of this is that
even in suckling animals those young which enjoy
hotter milk grow their teeth quicker,* heat being conducive
to growth.

They are shed, after they have been formed, partly
because it is better so (for what is sharp is soon blunted,
so that a fresh relay is needed for the work, whereas the 10
flat teeth cannot be blunted but are only smoothed in
time by wearing down), partly from necessity because,
while the roots of the grinders are fixed where the jaw
is flat and the bone strong, those of the front teeth are
in a thin part, so that they are weak and easily moved.
They grow again because they are shed while the bone
is still growing and the animal is still young enough to
grow teeth. A proof of this is that even the flat teeth
grow for a long time, the last of them cutting the gum at
about twenty years of age; indeed in some cases the last
teeth have been grown in quite old age. This is because
there is much nutriment in the broad part of the bones,
whereas the front part being thin soon reaches perfection 789”
and no residual matter is found in it, the nutriment being
consumed in its own growth.

Democritus, however, neglecting the final cause, reduces
to necessity all the operations of Nature. Now they are
necessary, it is true, but yet they are for a final cause and 5
for the sake of what is best in each case. Thus nothing
prevents the teeth from being formed and being shed in

σι

“μι
uo

? Tread (r#) (AW.) τὸ ὀστοῦν and omit καί.

2 Read ἐκ δὲ τοῦ στενωτέρου ἐλάττω, or something of the sort, for ἐκ δὲ
τοῦ ἐλάττονος στενωτέραν.

5 The theory is quite different from that of Democritus, though
at first sight it may look very like it.

* This is unintelligible.

789° DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM

this way;! but it is not on account of these causes
but on account of the end (or final cause); these are
causes only in the sense of being the moving and efficient
instruments and the material. So it is reasonable that
Nature should perform most of her operations using breath
as an instrument, for as some instruments serve many

το uses in the arts, e.g. the hammer and anvil in the smith’s
art, so does breath in the living things formed by Nature.
But to say that necessity is the only cause” is much as if
we should think that the water has been drawn off from
a dropsical patient on account of the lancet, not on account

15 οἵ health, for the sake of which the lancet made the
incision.

We have thus spoken of the teeth, saying why some are
shed and grow again, and others not, and generally for
what cause they are formed. And we have spoken of
the other affections of the parts which are found to occur

20 not for any final end but of necessity and on account of the
motive or efficient cause.

1 ij,e. there is no reason why it may not be true that the teeth are
formed and shed in consequence of certain mechanical processes.
2 Lit. ‘to speak of the causes from necessity ’.

ADDENDA

71731. On the hedgehog compare Buffon: ‘Ils ne peuvent
s’'accoupler ἃ la maniére des autres quadrupédes ; il faut qu’ils soient
face ἃ face, debout ou couchés’ (ed. 1844, vol. iv, p. 68). Evidently
Buffon is only guessing, and probably A. is guessing too.

7240 27. σύντηγμα. The meaning of this word seems to be better
expressed by ‘ waste-product’ than by anything else. It isthe result of
the process called σύντηξις or ‘ colliquescence’. The most useful part
of the nutriment (τροφή) is turned into blood; from this again are
formed the most vital and important organs, such as heart and liver.
The superfluous but still useful residues again from the blood (περιττώ-
ματα, which in this sense 1 translate ‘secretions’) are used up to make
the less vital and important parts of the body, such as hair and nails.
The nutriment has also to maintain the body when fully formed at its
proper level. Thus the process of τροφή corresponds in modern lan-
guage to ‘anabolism’. But a process of waste, σύντηξις, is also
continually going on, and its products ‘flow wherever they happen
to find a passage’; sweat, for example, would be a σύντηγμα, I take
it. σύντηξις then corresponds in modern language to ‘ katabolism’.

Semen is plainly not ‘ katabolic’, or a ‘ waste-product’, but belongs
to the opposite process; it is a χρηστὸν περίττωμα, or ‘ useful residue’
of the blood and the nutriment, formed by Nature for a definite and
most important purpose. We should have expected A. to argue on
these lines, and it is somewhat disappointing to find him raising com-
paratively trifling objections to the Hippocratic view (which after all
he has put himself into the medical mouth), such as that semen has
a definite place assigned to it in the organism whereas a σύντηγμα
flows wherever it can.

In the spurious Prod/ems it is actually stated positively that semen
is a σύντηγμα (ν. 31), and again that ἡ σύντηξις περίττωμά ἐστι ! (ν. 7).

752*11. I could not imagine why A. supposed the chick to be
developed at the sharper end of the egg until at last this absurdly
simple explanation flashed upon me. In whatever position you place
a new laid egg the germ from which the chick is to come will float up
toward the surface. A. then was a ‘little-endian’; he put his eggs
in cups with the broad end downwards and opened them at the sharp
end; consequently he always found the chick there and supposed it
to be the natural place for it.

INDEX

154—89? = 715°—789»

Abortions 73" 20.

Acquired characters 21? 30.

Action and reaction, special dis-
cussion of 68? 15.

Activity of reason 36? 30.

Actuality, moved in 34? 15.

Adrianic fowls, lay most eggs

9" 30.

Aerated liquid 55% 20.

Aethiopians, semen of, not black
362 15.

Affinities, animals which unite
against their 47% 30.

Agent, active and passive 29? Io.

Air, better dispensed 87> 5;
environing of 77” 10; motion
of 87” 5.

Anatomical diagrams, _ blood-

vessels extend throughout the
body as in 43° 5.

Ancestors, child like 69 25; re-
moter 68 15, 25.

Animal, corresponding to the ele-
ment of fire 61 20; differs from
plants by sense-perception 418
10; egg nearer the form of the
515 ; formed out of semen 33?
25; function of, not only to
generate 318 30; generation of
31» 19; generated from egg
18> 30; generated by copula-
tion 33” 20; impossible to be
produced alive near the hypo-
zoma 19% 15; nutriment from
the yolk 51» 10; produced from
egg within mother’s body 37”
25; real cause of long life, in any
77 το; residual secretion of
62» 5; still imperfect 63> 30;
what kind of, must be sought
in the moon 61? 25; union of
AR. G. A.

male and female 15% 15; with
keen eyes 80? 15 ; with promi-
nent eyes 80? 35.

Animals in embryo live the life of
a plant 79% 5; all produce
semen 207 10; body of 44* 5;
born with too many toes, &c.
70» 35; bushy-tailed, unpro-
ductive 55? 20; business of all,
to produce young 17% 20;
castrated 16 5; have voice
like females 87> 25; castrated
unable to generate 17? 5; de-
velopment from eggs 53? 35,
63" 15 ; eyes of 43> 35; gene-
rated out of semen 21” 5;
generation of 612 5; generation
of, reasons of 310 30; have
sensation even while asleep 79?
10; heat in, produced from
their nutriment 62° 15 ; homo-
geneous parts of 15% 10; limit
to size of 45% 10; long-lived 772
35; many-toed, that bear their
young imperfect, give birth to
many 74” 10; able to nourish
the embryos while newly formed
7415; non-homogeneous part of
158 10; nourishment in, formed
and becomes concocted 76? 35 ;
peculiarities of each kind of
158 5; perfected in its second
metamorphosis 58? 30; posses-
sing a brain 44% 25 ; produced
from perfect eggs 54% 20;
semen of 17? 20, 26% 103 simply
and vari-coloured, tongue of
862 25; some, bring their young
into the world alive 328 25;
speedy copulation of 17” 30;
teeth in 88 15; testaceous,

INDEX

generation of 31» 10; that bear
one only, secretion of female is
converted to first embryo 73»
20; thicker-skinned 82? 10;
which move about, may contain
within themselves nourishment
enough to make them indepen-
dent when they move from one
place to another 76 15; which
unite against their affinities 47
30; whiteness of belly in 684
15; without horns 46% 10; with
carnivorous dentition 88> 20;
with deep or high voice 87 15 ;
with many eggs 55% 30; with
teeth in both jaws and no horns
have no cotyledons in the uterus
46* το; with twohearts 73715.

Animals and men, a class of 32%
1; and plants, nutriment of 252
20.

Ants, offspring of 21? 5.

Aorta 38? 15.

Ascidians, sessile 15 17n.

Ass, an animal of cold nature 485
25; first shedding of teeth 48»
15; generative fluid of 47” 25 ;
secretion of 48 15.

Athletes, eating of 68> 30; de-
velopment of 68” 35.

Barnacles 15” 17 ἢ,

Bears 85” 35.

Bees, attend their kings 60” 20;
generation of 59% 10, 60? 35;
growing of scolex of 63% 20;
large brood of ordinary, pro-
duced in rainy seasons 60! 5 ;
may generate from union of 59%
20; old, places from which they
carry germs 5908 30; produced
without copulation 76% 35;
punish the drones 60? 25;
pupa of 597 5; scolex of 58»
20; union of 59> 25; working
for their offspring 59> 10;
size of, useful for their work 60”
15; young brood of 598 15.

Bees and Wasps, no monstrosi-

ties occur among, because their
brood is in separate cells 70% 30.
‘Belone,’ fish called 55*35; eggs of,

are large instead of numerous
55° 35. ;

Birds 3255; amative 465; ducts
of 16> 20; eggs of, perfect when
produced 18> 15; generation of
56> 15; have no discharge of
catamenia 50° 5; hibernate,
shed their feathers 83> 15;
monstrosities of 70* 10; of prey,
procure their food with difficulty
49> 25; produce perfect egg
55> 30; small, are very fertile
49» 30; that lay many eggs,
nutriment is diverted to the
semen 50% 25 ; testes in, larger
in season 17? το; wind-eggs in
50» 5; young of, hatched im-
perfect 74> 30.

Birds and oviparous quadrupeds,
testes receive the spermatic
secretion 17” Io,

Birds and viviparous fishes, dis-
charge of semen 39? Io.

Birth of twins 72? 15.

Bladder, excretion from 48? 30.

‘ Bleating’ 88? 5.

Blood in the heart 409" 5 ; recept-
acle of some kind 64» 30;
vessels 38° τὸ, 43°" 53 ame
passages 43%10; from the heart
40* 30; more numerous in
larger animals 45” 30; residue
in 38? 35; small vessels, pas-
sages end in 443 5.

Bloodless animals, passages 39? 5.

Blueness of eye a sort of weakness

Οὗ 15.

Body, as a whole and its parts 65»
10; catamenia discharged from
27% 25; deficient in natural
heat 84 30; from female 38»
30; right of the, hotter than the
left 65> 5; nutriment used up
from 25 30; upper part of,
growth takes place 79? 5.

Bone homogeneous 154 11 ἢ.

Bones, growth of 45% 10; solid
and elastic 43” 10; wasting of
45% 20.

Boy like woman in form 28? 15.

Brain, cold forms the 43” 30;
effect of 83 25; formation of
44° 25; has little heat 83> 35;
heaviness of 447 35 ; membrane
round 445 15; most fluid and
largest 447 30.

Brain and eyes 44° 20.

INDEX

Breasts 25 5; become empty and
spongy, cause of this 76> 25.
Breath, hot, causes depth of voice
887 20.

Breathing, region of 81” 5.

‘Bregma’ 44° 25; moisture of
858 5.

Bull, mounting immediately after
castration, caused conception in
the cow 17 5; voice of 86° 25.

Calamaries or squids, eggs of 58*
1o. See ‘ Cephalopoda’.

Cantharides 21% 5.

Capacity and incapacity, male
and female, distinguished by
certain 65? το.

‘ Capneos’ 70? 20.

Caprifig 15 25.

Carabi, eggs of, grow after
deposition 58% 25; hard-shelled
8 20; uterus of 587 τὸ:
young produced by 57” 35.

Carnivorous dentition 88» 20.

Cartilaginous fish 37” 25; female
of, discharging of eggs 57% 20;
male of, discharging of milt
75 20: 1655
semen 57% 25.

Cartilaginous fishes 497 20, 35;
produce perfect egg 54% 25.

Catamenia 21” 5; a secretion 278
5 ; and milk of same nature 39?
25; birds have no discharge of
50>5; cause generation 28* 25 ;
ceasing of 27* 10; discharge of
277 5,65” 25, 672 5 ; discharge
and collection of 39” 15; dis-
charge of blood 287 15, 25;
flow of 64% 5; in certain vivi-
para 26% 25; is a secretion as
semen is 278 30; more abun-

dant in women, than in other |

animals 28? 10; present in right
proportion 27> 10; purgation of
39° 5; semen in 28° 20.

Cataract, attacks blue-eyed more
807 15.

Caterpillars 58> 10; first take |

nourishment &c. 58 35 ; scolex
of 58" 20.

productive of

Cattle 32% 30; dark-eyed 79% 35;
blood-vessels more numerous in
45° 30.

Cause, first moving 65” 15;
necessity 89” 15.

Cephalopoda 155; copulation of
20” 5, 15, 30, 55> 35; eggs of
20> 20, 32” 10; grow after
deposition 58% 25; seminal
fluid, discharges of 20> 25; in
best condition at time of pro-
ducing eggs 27” 5 ; insertion of
arm of male into funnel of
female 20 30; lay imperfect
eggs 33° 30; male, sprinkle
milt over female 58# 20; upper
and lower parts do not exist in
41» 35; uterusof 178 5; young
produced by 57” 35.

Cetacea 32% 30; produce young
alive 18” 30.

Channa, distinction in 55 25;
generates a channa 60? Io,

Character, specific, must exist for
some final cause 78% 35.

Characteristics, general and wider
67” 30; of parents 67” 30.

Characters, acquired 21” 30; con-
genital 21» 30; combination of
68% 25.

Chick, relation of, to outermost
membrane 53? 35.

Chicks, brood of 30° 5.

Chickens, produced with four
legs and four wings 70% 20.

Child, like its ancestors 69? 25.

Child-birth, difficulty of, 75” 5.

Children, born with likeness to
parents 21» 30; born withscars,
ἄς. 21» 30; nourished in the
uterus 46% 20; resemblance to
parents 22° 5.

Choria 39? 35.

Chorion and membranes 46? 5;
collapse of 54 Io.

Chrysalis 58” 35 ; or pupa equiva-
lent to an egg 33 I5.

Cicadae, offspring of 21* 5.

Cock, eggs produced from copula-
tion take after first 57 25.

Coition, conception accompanies
27> 25; does female contribute
semen in? 27” 30; too frequent
leads to bloody condition 26? 10,

Colour, changes of 80 15, 85° 25 ;
difference in 78* 20; variation
of 85> 25.

INDEX

Conception accompanies coition
27» 25; sex determined in 23?
20.

Concocting 627 15.

Concoction, cause of 76° 35; kind
of heat 53 20; works by means
of heat 65 20.

Concomitant results 64° 35.

Congenital malformation 73% 30.

Conopes 21* Io,

Copulation, animals generated by
17> 30, 33 20; details of 19>
15; eggs, produced from 57?
30; generated by 60> 35; of
fish 18 5; of hedgehog 17” 30.

Corn 50% 25.

Corporeal liquids 62% 25.

Cotyledons 52% 25; aggregated
468 5; body of 467 5; dis-
appearance of 46% 5 ; eruption
of 46% 10; inflammation of 46?
10; so-called 45” 35.

Cow, conception in, bull mount-
ing immediately after castration
17> 5; voice of 86" 25.

Cranes become darker as they
grow old 85° 25.

Crows 74” 30.

Crustacea 15” 5; copulation of 20
5, 55° 35; eggs of 32> 10; in
best condition in time of pro-
ducing eggs 27 5; lay imper-
fect eggs 33° 30; uterus of 17
5; young produced by 57? 35.

Cuckoo, is of cold nature 507 15 ;
is cowardly 507 15; lays eggs
in other birds’ nests 507 15.

Decay, caused by heat 84” 10;
greyness, a sort of 85% 30.
Deep and high-voiced animals 874

Democritus, remarks on monstro-
sities 69» 35 ; theory of 647 25.

Dentition, carnivorous 88° 20.

Developed for any final cause 78*

35"

Development, cause of 64> 35;
order of 43” 20.

Diaphragm in animals 38° 15.

Dogs, crossed with foxes 468 35;
with wolves 468 35.

Dolphins 328 30; copulation of
56° 5; ducts of 16 25, 204 35;
penis of 16> 25; produce young
alive 18 30; testes hidden
under abdominal cavity 20? 35.

Drones, brood of 59” 10; leaders
resembling 60% 15 ; may gener-
ate from union of drones 598
20 ; more in fine season 60? 5 ;
not produced from copulation
59> 15; punished by bees 60»
25; young of 598 20.

Dwarfs 49? 5.

Ears filled with air 81” 5.

Earth, aids in concoction, by its
heat 53% 20.

‘ Earth-born ’ 62 30.

Earthy matter least concocted 45°
20, 51° 20.

Earthy vapour equivalent to thick
air 84> 15; mould, decay of 84»
itn

Eddies, movement of 72? 25.

Eels 41° 5, 62» 25.

‘Efflux’ 58> 5; not abundant in
women 28? Io,

Egg 19? 30; attached to uterus
52° 15; acquires nutriment so
long as growing 30% 15; lower
part of 52% 15 ; blunt end of 528
20; bursting of 58% 30; con-
sumed 54” 35; not set free from
uterus 37> 25; point of 527 15;
sort of 58> 20; shells, soluble
in liquids 43% 20.

Egg andscolex, difference of 58° Io.

Eggs, animals produced from per-
fect 54% 20; of birdstwo-coloured
492 20; cast out too soon 52»
Io; change not after second
impregnation 57” 35 ; concocted
by heat in the earth 52” 35;
discharging of 52 15; double
70* 20; growing of 53715; to
perfection 58> 35; hard and
brittle. 527. 35, 54% 20; small,
grow quickly 552 30; imperfect
18> 30, 55% Io; impregnation
of 555 5; moisture in 53? 353
nourishment of 58” 35 ; perfect
when produced in birds and
oviparous quadrupeds 18° 15,

INDEX

30; produced from copulation
57 30; in soft envelope 18° 35 ;
rotten, more produced in hot
season 538 25; resemblance of
scolex to 58» 10; separation
of white and yolk in 525 10;
so-called 63 5 ; two-coloured,
shape of 52°15 ; why some eggs
of one colour and others of two
52% 10; with hard integument
33°25; size of 51» 20.

Elementary bodies 61” 20.

Elements 36? 30; of stars 377 1;
so-called 56” 35.

Elephants carry their young two
years 77> 20; hairs of 82 10;
live longer than man 77? 5;
semen of 36° 5.

Embryo animal, necessary for, to
sleep 79° 5; abortion of 58” 5.

Embryo and semen, in what sense
they have souls 37% 20; and
semen of an animal have as
much life as a plant 367 35;
body of 29» 5; ‘ sundered’ 64”
5, 20; brings material together
72> 20; development of 30% 30,
43” 5; development of an, as
male and female 65° 5; en-
closed in its membranes and
chorion 46% 20; formation of 65
5, 722 25; live the life of plant
36> 15; mixture of male and
female 28” 30; nourishment of
53 35; of vivipara 51% 10;
parts of 377 15; growing to-
gether 69” 35; perfect, cast out
by women 37? 10; perfection of
an 76* 35 ; quickly produced by
female 29? 30; receives nutri-
ment from yolk 53" 25 ; residual
matter used up for the develop-
ment of 76% 30; unfertilized 368
35; whole, drawn off from each
parent 64? 20.

Embryos, abortion 73 5 ; formed
in fish without males 50? 30;
growing together, result of 733
5 ; movement in 34? 20; like an
eddy 72° 25.

Emission of semen 28% 10; of
spiritus 28? Io.

Empedocles, view of 76% 25.

Entrails of earth 62? 30.

Epicharmus, ‘ climax’ of 245 30.

Erythrinus, no sex-distinction in
55> 25; females of, full of roe

419 35; generates an Erythrinus
60 10; no males ever seen of
41° 35.

Essence of things, is in the indi-
vidual 31° 30, 42° 35.

Eternal as an individual 31 30;
things 42? 35.

Eunuchs do not become bald 84?
ΤΟ.

Evaporation and concoction 445
20.

Excess and deficiency 37} 5.

Eye 342 20; movement set up in
the, by colours 80% 25 ; particu-
lar kind of 78> 20; variation of
78> 20.

Eyelid, motion of 445 35 ; nature
of 44” 5.

Eyes, all children’s, are bluish
immediately after birth 79% 30.

Eyes of animals 43? 35 ; forming of
43” 35; perfected 44> 5; dark,
are less moved because of quan-
tity of liquid in them 80% 5 ; dif-
ference in 79 15, 81215; liquid
properly concocted in both, 80?

15.

Father like son 23? 30.

Feathers, colour of 78% 20; hiberna-
ting birds shed their 83? 15.
Female cause of generation 24°
15; contributes no semen to
generation of offspring 278 25 ;
contributes material for genera-
tion 27> 30; discharge is a
secretion 27% 10; discharges
moisture 395; embryo ob-
served in the right part of
uterus 65° 20; foetus is not
perfected equally with the male
in man 753 15; increase of roe
in 56% 15 ; may generate young
without copulation 417 35;
material of, drying up, and
destruction of 72% 15; needs
male 41 5 ; offspring resemble
mother 68% 30; organs 66° 5 ;
passive, 29» 10; produces em-
bryo quickly 29> 30; principle
in 62 15; provides matter 40?
25; secretion in 29) 5, 38» 10;

INDEX

uterus in 384 10; whether pro-
duces semen like male 268 30.

Females, catamenia flow in 274 10;
more produced by young 66% 30;
not always able to conceive from
male 488 20; residual secretion
in 62» 5.

Fertile animals 48? 5.

Fig-juice 37% 15, 71> 25; and
curdled mass 71? 25.

Fig-tree 15> 25 ; fruits of 15” 25.

Final cause 78 35.

Fire, animal corresponding to the
element of 61 20; form of 61°
20.

Fish burst because of size of eggs
55* 35; cartilaginous, female of,
discharging their eggs 57% 20;
cartilaginous, less productive of
semen 57% 25; copulate lke
dolphins 56» 5 ; copulation of
184 5.

Fish-eggs are of one colour 51?
20; differ from birds’ eggs 55”
25; impregnation of 32? 10, 55?
5 preservation of 57” to.

Fish, embryos formed in, without
males 50” 30; ducts full of milt
17* 20; externally oviparous
55° 10; female of, have uterus
near hypozoma 578 20 ; genera-
tion of 572 15; have no testes
65* 35; male, discharging their
milt 57® 20; male, shedding
their milt quickly upon the
eggs to preserve them 57” 10;
produce perfect egg 55% 10;
(river) eggs of 50 30; sperma-
tic ducts of 16 15; uniting of
175 15; vari-coloured 85» 25;
young, connected by umbilicus
to uterus 54? 35.

Fish and birds, embryonic forma-
tion without impregnation found
in 50? 10.

Fishes, cartilaginous 32° 5, 49? 20,
35; produce perfect egg 548 25;
neither male nor female 41? 5 ;
semen in, ready for emission 17
25; in small fishes, uterus is
solid mass of eggs 18 10 ; some,
produce eggs without copula-
tion 598 Io.

Fissipeds, practically all, produce
many young 718 25.

Fleas 21° 5.

Flesh, function of 34” 35.

Flies 214 5. τ

Foam, nature of 368 20.

Foetus 19% 30, 24> 20; material of,
27» 15; mixture of two semens
268 30; must not be in a liquid
but separated from it 39” 30;
nourishment consumed by 75?
20 ; residual matter used up to
increase growth of 75 15. See
‘Embryo’,

Food, responsible for change 86?

5: :

Foot or hand not made by heat
alone 34? 30.

Footless animals have no testes
65° 35. ΞΕ

Fowl, common, monstrosities of
70* 10.

Foxes crossed with dogs 46% 35.

‘Frog’ so-called 49? 25.

Frog-fish, 542 10; lays perfect egg
externally 54* 30.

Fruit, production of 65 30.

Fruits, formation of 28% 25 ; mon-
strosities of 70% 20; nutriment
present in 288 25.

Game-fowl are less fertile than
others 49? 35.

Ganglion, testes are, of many prin-
ciples 88? 15.

Generating parent, function of 24>
15, 34? 5.

Generation, analogous 607 15 ; of
animals, reasons of 31 30; be-
ginning of, in all animals 638 5;
of bees 59% 10; cause of 16%
10, 45* 25; in plants τό 17n.;
different kinds of, are analogous
to different kinds of bees 607 15;
efficient cause of 35% 30 ; female
cause of 242 10; female contri-
butes materia! for 27% 30; first
principles of 16% 10, 51 10; in
each individual 36” 5 ; influence
in 67* 15; in plants 61> 30;
male contributes to 29% 10, 29”
5, 30 20; method of 59% 10;
of oviparous sanguinea 405 15;
parts not concerned in 154 In.;
power of, in bees 607 15 ; prin-
ciple of 24> 15 ; question of 15

INDEX

15, 1625; resemblance in, 22°
10; for the sake of 38 1 ; spon-
taneous 168 Ion., 32 15, 59%
35; work of 32° Io.

Generative animals should be hot
507 15; elements preserved by
heat 48? 5.

Generative motions imparted by
semen 70? 30.

Generative organs, double set of
72> 30; injured 28% 15; male
and female 73% 25.

Generative parts 22» 5; attract
the semen 37” 35; male and
female 70 35; secretions 478
15, 50? 5.

Germ comes from male 63? 35 ;
fertilized 167 Ion.

Gestation, cause of time of, is
the size of offspring 77> το;
irregular in man alone among
animals 72> 10; period of 27?
25, 46° 35; in horse and ass
485 35.

‘Ginnus’ 48° 35.

Gnats 21° 5.

Goat, born with horn upon its leg
70” 35.

Grain and seed, difference of 24?
20.

Great vessel and the aorta 388 15.

Grey hair, recovery of colour in
84? 30.

Greyness a weakness of fluid in
brain 80” 10; asort of decay 85
30.

Growth, of bones 453 10; takes
place in upper part of body 79?
5; of teeth, not the same as of
other bones 45 5; unnatural
part such as a growth 24? 30.

Grubs, of kings, produced last
60% 20; not many in numbers
60* 30.

Haemorrhage 388 20.
Hair, change of, according to
skin 85» 20; changing of, from

grey to dark 84» 35; colour of |

78* 20; conditions of 84° 25;
curliness of 82» 25; different
kind of 81% 30; diseases in 45
15; earthy part of 82> 25;
effects on, of drinking hot water

86" 5; growing after death 45%
20; growth of 45" 15; has less
heat than skin and brain 83?

35; in general, for what purpose

Nature has made 82° 20; liquid

nutriment in 84> 15; or its

analogue formed out of skin,

81% 35; particular kind of 81°

25; thick arises from thick

and thin from thin skin 82° 35.

| Hairiness sign of abundance of

| residual matter 74? 5.

Hairs differ in respect of hard-
ness and softness, ἄς. 82° 5.
Hand or foot not made by heat

alone 34? 30.

Hand, living 26° 25.

Hares 747 35; are spermatic 748
35 superfoetation occurs in
74* 35.

Hearing, passage of 81% 25;
sense-organ of 81% 35.

Heart 34* 20; organ analogous to
the 358 25 ; centre of life 76 20;
first made in some animals 35%
25; first principle of a natural
body 38> 20; heat of the 43»
30, in man’s 44 30; sensation
in 43° 30.

Hearts, animals with two 73 15.

Heat, external 84> 10; generative
elements preserved by 48" 5; in
man’s heart 44® 30 ; innate 84?
10.

Heat and moisture 42 15.

Hectocotylus 20? 30.

Hedgehog, spine of, must be con-
sidered a kind of hair 81> 35 ;
union of 17? 30.

Hen, brooding, applies heat that is
within her 53% 25; trodden by
another cock 57” 5.

Hen-bird producing wind-eggs
30" 5.

Hens, once trodden have eggs
always, though very small ones
i Ise

Heterogeneous parts 22% 15, 22»
30, 24> 25 ; resemblance in 223
20 ; semen from 22? 20.

Heteroglaucia 80? 15.

Heteroglaucous, horses are oc-
casionally 80> 5 ; man is some-
times 76? Io.

Hoar-frost, antithesis of 84> 15.

Holoblastic and meroblastic yolk
582 15 ἢ.

INDEX

Homogeneous parts 218 25, 22
15, 22> 30, 24° 25, 34P 30, 43%
5; difference of 41° 15; of
animals 15% Io.

Homogeneous and heterogeneous
parts 408 20.

Honey, much produced in fine
season 60? 5,

Hornets and wasps, generation
of Gi* 5:

Horse, bothsexesof,cross with both
sexes of ass 47° 20; has great-
est variety of colour in-the eye
79> 5; male and female, genera-
tive fluid of 47” 20.

Horses occasionally are hetero-
glaucous 80? 5.

Husk 52? 20.

Hybrid between fox and dog 38?
35; partridge and domestic
fowl 38> 25.

Hyena, foolish statement about

Hypozoma 17 5, 18> 5, 41> 30,
493 30, 51% 5, 637 20; animals
impossible to be produced alive
near 197 15; eggs are in uterus
near 56? 30; region near 50? 15;
uterus near 39? 10, 57° 20.

Impregnation, embryonic forma-
tion without 50° 10; no changes
in egg after second 57? 30.

Incubation of mother 52 30;
reason of 53? 5.

Indian dogs 46% 35.

Infertile 32 Io.

Infertility, hard water causes
infertility, cold water birth of
females 67% 35.

Infinite, no beginning of 42” 20.

Inflammation 46% fo.

Innate heat 84? το.

Insects 15” 5, 29> 25, 584 30, 638
10; copulation of 20° 5, 31915;
eggs of 58> το; generate a
scolex 58> 10; generation of
58> 10; observations on 23? 20;
oviducts of 172 10; produce a
scolex 33% 25, 33° 15; union of
58? 5; which come into being
without copulation in wool 58?
25.

Intercourse, she-ass flogged after
485. 25; why animals desire,
with one another 64» το.

Jackdaws, domesticated, copula-
tion of 56? 25.

Jaw, teeth in upper 45? 30.

Jays 74” 30.

Keen-sighted 80? 15.

Kestrel 50% Io.

Kings of bees may generate from
union of kings 592 20; resemble
drones 60? 15.

Laconian hounds, keen-scented
81” 10.

‘ Laiai’ 87” 30.

Lake-birds, yolk in the eggs of, is
large and less yellow 51? 15.

Leaves, falling of 83? 20.

Lecithus 51” 15.

Leguminous plants 50% 25, 522
215.

Leopards, vari-coloured 85? 25.

Libya, producing something new
46” το.

Life, changes in time of 78* 20;
long, real cause of 77? 10; most
of all appertains to wakefulness
on account of sensation 78? 35.

Likeness and unlikeness, cause of
41» 15, 69% 15.

Limnostrea, so-called 638 30.

Lioness, sterility of 50% 35.

Lions, generation of 60? 25.

Liquid is aerated 55% 20; con-
tained in fine membrane 58? 5;
nutriment in hair 84? 15; pro-
perly concocted in both eyes
80> 15; slime 61? 35.

Liquid and fire 438 Io.

Liquids, corporeal 62° 25.

Lizards 32” 5 ; ducts of 1625.

Locomotive organs 32? 30.

Locusts, offspring of 218 5.

Lung, liver, eye 33 5, 34% 20.

INDEX

Male, active 29” 10; change from,
to female condition 84% 15;
contributes to generation 29?
Io, 29” 5 ; element, if prevails
it draws female element into
itself, &c. 66” 20; foetus moves
about more than female 752 10;
neither himself nor female emits
semen into male 30° 35; increase
of milt in 56215; needs female
41* 5; offspring resemble father
68" 30; organs 66% 5; parent,
movement of 34> 35; principle
that comes from 57°15; principle
of 62> 15; provides principle of
motion 40? 30; secretion of 29*
Io, 64> 15; semen of 27% 25,
51> 35 ; emitting of 395; and
female, distinction between 63?
30; distinguished by certain
capacity and incapacity 65” 10 ;
it is necessary that both should
have organs 662 5; part by
which male differs from female
643 το.

Males contribute to generation
30> 20; more, of sheep, born if
copulation takes place when
north winds are blowing 66?
35; weakness in 30? 25.

Mammae, position of, in each kind
of animals, &c. 76” 35.

Mammalian embryo 53” 35.

Man, becomes a man after being
a boy, not by his agency 34?
30; produces one only, and
sometimes many 72? 5; if he,
copulates with right or left testis
tied up the result is male or
female offspring respectively
65" 25; is sometimes hetero-
glaucous 79? 10; males are more
often born defective than fe-
males, but in other animals it is
not the case 75* 5 ; sense-organ
in 81 20; thinnest-skinned of
all animals, 8125. See ‘Men’.

Manhood 67? 35.

Mares, barrenness of 73” 30; de-
ficient in catamenia 488 20,

Marine animals 32 30.

Material for generation 50” 5;
principle, formation of animals
which corresponds to the 62” 5;

of semen 372 Io; supplied by
female 38? 15.

Membrane, inner 52? 10; liquid
contained in fine 58” 5; of shell
53> 253; resembling a chorion
53 25; round the brain 445
15.

Membranes 39? 35 ; and chorion,
embryo enclosed in 46% 20;
and umbilical cord, details of
53? 20.

Men, blood-vessels of 27” 20; fat,
less fertile, 262 5; of feminine
appearance 47° 5; result of
intercourse in 25? 15; and
animals, a class of 328 5; and
quadrupeds, origin of 62> 30;
‘earth-born’ 62 30. See ‘Man’.

‘ Metachoera’, so-called 49% 5, 70”
10.

Metamorphosis, animal perfected
in its second 58? 30.

Milk, 21% 25; formation of 76%
15; and catamenia of same
nature 39? 25.

Milky substance 4o? Io.

Milt, organs of 55" 15, 25.

Mistletoe 16° 5.

Moisture, deficiency of 83> 20;
great deal of, in‘ bregma’ 85° 5.

Mola, lump of flesh called 75? 35 ;
so hard, that they can hardly
be cut through even by iron 75?
S55 ter 5} 28:

Monsters, reason for 69? 15.

Monstrosities, production of 70?
10; rarer among snakes 70? 30 ;
very rare in animals producing
one young only, but most fre-
quently in birds and common
fowl 70° Io.

Monstrosity 67> 10, 69" το, 25;
contrary to nature 70? 20;
human being not resembling
his parent is, in a certain sense,
a 67” 10; kind of deficiency 69”
30.

Moon, a first principle 77 25;
revolutions of 78% 5 ; what kind
of animal may be sought in the
61» 25 ; waning of 388 20.

Morbid affections of each kind of
sight 807 15.

Mother, blood-vessels of 468 20;
incubation of 52 30; nutriment
within 40? 15; perfect embryo
cast out from 37” Io.

INDEX

Mothers, so-called, generate the
young 61? Io.

Motion, principle of 34” 25, 40” 30;
varying 30? 15.

Mould, decay of earthy vapour
84> 15 ; decayed 84? 20.

‘Moulting ’ 83" 20.

Movements, some of, exist in
semen actually, others potenti-
ally 687 15.

Moving, first cause of 65? 15.

Mule, female, been known to con-
ceive 47? 30.

Mules, bodies of, grow large 46”
20 ; unable to generate 47” 25 ;
unproductive 55? 20.

Mullets 41> 5, 62» 25.

Mussels 83” 15 ; production of 61»
30.

Mustelus laevis 54” 35.

Mutilated male 37% 30; young are
born of mutilated parents 248 5.

Mutilations inherited 21” 15.

Natural heat, body deficient in
84> 30; intercourse 468 30;
principle 37? 5.

Nature, according to 72 10 ; acts
like intelligent workman 31° 20;
catamenia occur in the course
of 67% 5; contrary to 24> 30;
formal, has not mastered the
material Nature 70? 20; forms
from purest material the flesh
and the body of the other sense-
organs 44” 25 ; individual whole-
coloured by 868 5 , issuing from
another 352 5; of a scolex 612
5; movement of 352 5 ; products
of 34> 25, 40” 35; resembles a
modeller in clay 30 30; running
double course 41» 25; of semen
358 253 spontaneous action of
15> 25; use of 437 35; uses
semen as a tool 30? 20; work-
manship of 81? 25.

Necessity as a cause 89? 15;
things come into being by 78? 5.

Net, knitting of a 34? 25.

Non-homogeneous parts ofanimals
15 ΤΟ:

Nose, sensitive part of 81° 15.

Nourishment, assimilation of 65
30; drawn from uterus by
passages 54 30; organism
needs 408 20; process of 54 5;
whence did it come? 4o? 5.

Nutriment 317 5, 43% τὸς con-.
coction of 26% 5; diverted to
the semen 50% 25; process of,
change in 36? 30; residue of 24?
30 ; semen, a secretion of useful
268 25; two kinds of 44> 35;
used for producing young 49”
30; useful, a secretion of 25%
15; used to increase size of
body 48 30; various parts re-
ceive, and work up 65” 35;
from yolk 51 10 ; yolk turns to
53° 15.

‘Nutritious’ 44? 35.

Nutritive power of soul 45> 25;
straightway sends cord like a
root to the uterus 45? 25.

Nutritive soul 368 35, 40? 35.

‘ Nyctalopia ’ 807 15,

Nymph, so-called 58" 35.

Octopods (poulps) oviducts of 17%
5. See ‘Cephalopoda’.

Offspring, animals labour for their
own 59? 5; bees working for
their 59 10; born imperfect 78»
25; comes from semen 24* 35 ;
female does not contribute
semen to the generation of 27
25; male or female. 65% 25;
neither male nor female 15? 10;
number of 29% 15; production
of 16% 25; resemble parents 26°
15; will have parts of both
parents 22» 5 ; size of 77” Io.

Oil becomes thicker by cold 35?
35:

Omnivorous animals, more vari-
coloured 86% 35.

Onions, class of 61? 30.

Organ, flexibility of 88% 30; which
sets voice in motion 87? 25.

Organic parts 42? 15.

Organism needs nourishment 408
20.

Organs changing places 71% το;
duplication of 72» 30; female

INDEX

66 5 ; locomotive 32” 30; male
668 5; milt 55” 15; spermatic
in males 173 Io.

Origin of the sexes 63” 25.

Origin of man and quadrupeds
62» 30,

Ostrich, Libyan, lays many eggs
49? 20.

Os uteri 398 35; closed in some
women 73% 20.

Ovipara 32” 5 ; choria of 39 35.

Oviparous, animals, position of
uterus in 19” 15, 20% 25 ; fishes,
generation of 30% 15; quadru-
peds 32” 5, 52> 35; eggs of 18?
5,153 produce a perfect egg 55°
30; uterus of 18> 5; sanguinea,
generation of 497 15.

Oviparous and viviparous, laying
an egg within themselves 33° Io.

Oviposition 33% 30.

Oviposits before the right time
58> 25.

Ovum 24? 20.

Oxen, hair of 82 το.

Oyster, in good condition, periods
of 63” 10, 30.

Palm, male and female 15 25 ἢ.

Panathenaea 24” 5.

Panspermia 69° 30 ; exists potenti-
ally, not actually 69? 5.

Parent, generating function of 34?
5; plant 22% 20; plant, seed
attached to 52% 25; young born
of mutilated 24° 5.

Parents, characteristics of 67 30 ;

different in form, a different |
animal is born 48? 10; offspring |

of 22> 5 ; offspring resemble 26
15 ; semen comes from 21? 5, 10,
Parthenogenesis 16% Ion,
Partridges lay many eggs 49? 20;
white 85» 35.
Partridges and hens crossed 46? 5.
Passage of hearing 81° 25.
Passages 76 35 ; in ovipara 202 5 ;
spermatic, of male 20% 10; in
tortoises 20% 5; to uterus 54?
35 ; in vivipara 19? 30.
Peacocks, vari-coloured 85? 25.
Pecten 83? 15.
Penis, region of 20* 30,

Perception and non-perception at
a distance 81? Io.

Pericarp 52% 25; seed comes not
from 227 15.

Period tends to return during
waning of the moon 388 20.

Periods, naturally complete 77” 20.

Phlegm as a secretion of useful
nutriment 25° 15.

Pig does not shed its teeth 88? 20.

Pigeon family, laying two eggs
50* 20.

Pigeons 74? 35.

Plant, embryos actually live the
life of a 79% 5; formed out of
seed 33> 25; starting-point of
the 62 25.

Plants, business of, to produce
seed and fruit 172 20; class
of 32° 5; cuttings of 23> 15;
embryo of 57° 20; exhaustion
of 507 30; foreign seeds produce
38> 35; fruit of 23” 10; genera-
tion in 167 17n., 61” 30; im-
possible that, should sleep 79? 5;
movement of 23? 10; nourish-
ment of 62 15; nutriment in
288 30; parent 222 15 ; pheno-
mena in 83> 25; produce an
embryo 30? 30; seeds of 18 15,
22% 10, 30? 30, 31210; sexes of
15» 25 n.; spontaneously gene-
rated, formation is uniform 62?
20; unctuous 83? 20.

Plants and animals, nutriment of
25% 20.

Pleasure of intercourse 28 30.

Poplar and willow, no semen pro-
duced by 262? 5.

Poulps(octopods)oviducts of 172 5.
See ‘ Cephalopoda’.

Pregnancy, beginning of 75? 10.

Principle, first, of all things 42»
35; of Art 3525; of generation
24> 15; of increase 35% 103; of
motion 3425 ; of movement 328
5, 358 25, 42° 35 ; nothing to stop
first 54> 20; or origin 40% 25 ;
protection of 52° 15; tempera-
ture of 64% 30.

Principles, changes of 16” 10;
first, distinction of sex 16? το;
from doth united parents 24?
20; fundamental general 68? 5.

Production of young alive 54” 30.

Psychical principle, embracing of
62% 30; in the air makes an

INDEX

embryo 62? 20; and puts motion
into the embryo 62? 20.
Pudenda 25 5, 497 30; move-
ments from 478 25.
Pudendum, form of 64" 25.
Pupa, of bees and wasps 59° 5;
equivalent to an egg 33° 15.
Purple-fish 61” 35, 63" 10.
Putrefaction 53* 35, 62° 15.
Putrefies, frothy mud 638 30.
Putrefying, nothing comes into
being by, but by concocting
62" 15)

Quadrupeds, organ of copulation
of 17> 15; testes in system of
18 10; uterus of 18> 3.

Quadrupeds, oviparous, ducts, &c.
of 16> 20; eggs of 18> 15;
testes receive the spermatic
secretion 17? 10; uterus of 18” 5.

Quadrupeds, polydactylous, pro-
duce their young blind 425 fo.

Quadrupeds, retromingent, copu-
lation of 20? Io; viviparous,
uterus of 18 5.

Rainwater, admixture of 62 15.

Raven, copulation of 56” 20 ; white
85” 35.

Reaction, special discussion of
68? τς.

Reason, activity of 36” 30.

Reddish hairs, go grey sooner
than black 85% 20.

Regeneration 74” 35.

Reptiles, scaly, ducts of 16 25.

Resemblance exists in_hetero-
geneous parts 22% 20; in homo-
geneous parts 22% 20.

Resemblances recur at interval of
many generations 22 5.

Residual discharge 742 30; matter
used up to increase growth of
foetus 74> 5, 75> 15.

Residue of nutriment 24? 25.

Residuum of animal nature 37° 5.

Respiration, smells from chest
perceived through 478 25.

Revolutions of the sun and moon,
may perhaps depend on other
principles 78 5.

Rhinobates 46? το.

Ringdoves 74? 35.

River fish, eggs of 50” 30.

Rooks 74? 30.

Rotten eggs, more produced in
hot season 53% 25.

Sanguinea 33? 20, 638 10; blood
in 26 5; forming of embryo in
312 15; heart of 42” 35; in-
fertile 32% 10; larger and more
perfect, live a long time 77” 5 ;
not all alike as regards testes
and uterus 16 10; nutriment
in 26> 5; offspring of 15% 20;
sexes of 15% 20; some divisions
of, lay eggs 32 30.

Sanguineous liquid 26 30; ma-
terial 51 35; catamenia of
female 76? 15; nutriment, cold-
ness of 66% 20; secretion of
male 76> 15.

Satyrism, disease known as 68? 35.

Scaly fishes lay imperfect eggs
33* 30.

Scolex 2155) 32% 30, 52" 30,540
15; growing of, of bees 63% 20;
grows towards the upper part,
and the first principle 637 15; .
imperfect 33% 5; insects pro-
duce a 338 25, 30; kind of 23?
5; nature of a 58> 20, 35, 61%
5, 62> 30; of bees 58” 20, 35;
of caterpillars 58? 20; of wasps
58» 20, 35; product of spiders
as a sort of 58 10; production
of 58° 35; stage of 58" 25.

Scolex and egg, difference of 33°
30, 58” 10, 632 5.

Scythians, why straight-haired 82

35:

Sea and all bodies of water
settling and changing according
to movement or rest of winds,
&c. 77 353 colour of 79” 35 ;
population of 61? το.

Seasons, changes of 84% 20; of
year, turning-points of lives 84
15.

Sea-urchins used as a remedy in
stranguries 837 25.

Secretion, catamenia are a 27 30;

INDEX

earlier or later 252 10; healthy,
due to good living 268 5; in
proper place 39? 5; female
contains material alone 66? 15 ;
of Ass 48> 15; phlegm is a 25%
15; nature of 25» 10; of nutri-
ment 36 26; semen is a 27%
30 ; spermatic, movement of 17
30, 25 5; secretion or excretion
24» 30; or residue of solid and
liquid nutriment 37? 35.

Seed, plant formed out of 17° 20,
33° 25: principle of 52° 20;
and grain, difference of 24” 20.

*Selache. See ‘ Cartilaginous
fishes ’.

Semen, all animals produce semen
207 10; animals generated out
of 21» 5; becomes like amber
36% 5 ; blood and flesh can be
made out of 237 15 ; cannot bea
part of the body 24> 25 ; carti-
laginous fish, less productive of
57% 25; cases where no semen
produced 268 5 ; catamenia are
a secretion as 278 30; collected
before emission 17 25; comes
from the whole body 22 5, 66»
15; concocted, is hotter than
unconcocted 65” 5; cooling or
heating of 64? 10; differs in
nature in plants and animals
29% 5; discharge of 26% 20;
emission of 28? I0, 318 20;
emitted by male has power,
being divided, to form several
embryos 728 20; facts about
64» 15; female does not con-
tribute, to generation of off-
spring 272 25; fertile and in-
fertile 47 5 ; generative motions
imparted by 70? 30; has soul,
potentially 358 5, 10; if male
emits more, &c. than is neces-
sary 72% 15; if not separated,
all enters the female at once
70% 5; loss of 25» 10; object
of 247 15 ; material of 372 10;
maturing of 17° 5, 19 5 ; move-
ment in 67° 35; naturally fluid
and hot 72> 5; of the nature
of foam 35% 25, 368 20; nature
of, similar to brain 47% 20;
nutriment diverted to 50% 25;
of Aethiopians 36% 15; effect
of, on female element 51” 35,
72° 10; or seed, and grain,

difference of 24> 20; off-
spring comes from 247 35;
part of useful secretion 258 Io ;
power residing in 72 10; rela-
tion of, to catamenia 39? 25;
scattered throughout body 23?
10; secretion of useful nutri-
ment 26% 25, 36? 30, 662 20;
separation of 23 15; sinew and
bone 23% 20; thicker is more
fertile 65° 5.

Semen and embryo of an animal
have as much life as a plant
36° 35. ἡ

Seminal fluid 218 25, 24> 15;
fluid discharges of Cephalopods
20> 25; nature of 61> 35; se-
cretion taken up into body 46»

30.

Seminal and nutritious residue
45" 5.

Sensation, acquired 78> 25; life
most of all appertains to wake-
fulness, on account of 78> 35;
treatise on 81? 25.

Sense-organ 81% 20; in man 81?
20; of hearing 81° 35; purity
of 81> 5; starting-point of 813
35; of the eyes 43° 35.

Sense-organs, formation of 44»
25; passages of 817 25.

Sense-perception 16% 30, 31% 30,
41% to, 57» 20, 797-20; at a
distance 81» 20.

Sepia, position and attitude of
young while developing 58 25.
See ‘ Cephalopoda’.

Sepias, eggs of 58? Io.

Serpents, copulation of 187 15;
ducts full of milt 172 20; have
ducts like fish 18 20; have no
testes 65% 35; spermatic ducts
of 1615; uniting 178 15.

Sex, distinction of 56225; genera-
tive power fails in one, and cata-
menia fail in the other 27 Io.

Sexes arise from necessity 31” 20;
both of the horse cross with
both sexes of the ass, offspring
of both crosses are barren 47?
20; different, come from the
right and left 65% 35 ; origin of
63> 25.

Sexual parts should be separated
from one another 64” 10;
pleasure of intercourse 23” 30;
union, generated from 49% 20.

INDEX

She-ass flogged after intercourse
488 25.

Sheep, 66 35 ; eye 79 35.

Shell, membrane of 53” 25.

Sight connected with water, not
fire 79” 20; morbid affections
of each kind of 80% 15; must
see in a manner resembling
movement 81% 10; _ neither
strong nor weak sight can see
bright things because the liquid
is acted upon and moved too
much 807 15.

Sinews, nature of 87» 20; solid
and elastic 43? Io.

Sinews and bone formed by
internal heat 43% 20.

Size, limit of, to animals 458 10.

Skin, change of hair according to
85» 20; colour of 78% 20, 85>
15; hair, horns, nails, formed
out of 458 20; substratum of 814

30.

Sleep, cause of 797 10 ; necessary
for embryo animal, &c. 799 5;
there is no, which cannot be
broken 79° 5.

Slime liquid 61” 35.

Smell and hearing 44° 5.

‘Smooth hound’ 54° 35.

Snails have been seen uniting 62

35:

Snake with two heads 70? 20.

Snakes, 32? 5; monstrosities
rarer among 70* 30.

Snow is foam 35” 25.

Son like his father 23 30.

Soul, investigation concerning
79» 25; is from the male 38
30; is the reality of a particular
body 38” 30; of the semen 358
10; must be acquired first 36”
5; sensitive part of 36% 35.

Sounds and smells depend on
purity of sense-organ 81° 5.

Sparrows 74° 30, 85» 35.

‘Spawn’ 61° 35, 62 Io.

Spermatic ducts or tubes 16?
17n.; organs in males 17710;
secretion, movement of 17% 30,
o5P 5:

Spiders, offspring of 219 5; pro-
duct of, a sort of scolex 58? 10,

Spiritus, emission of 28* 10.

Spiritus, natural principle in the,
analogous to element of stars
37° 5.

Sponges, 15° 17 ἢ,

Spontaneous action of Nature 15
25; formation 61” 30; eggs
55% 20.

Spontaneous generation 32” 15,
59" 33; and parthenogenesis
16" Toa:

Squids, eggs of 58% Io.

Stars, element of 37? 5.

Sterile animals 48° 10, 15.

Sterility in animals 46? 25.

Stranguries 83% 25.

Sun, revolutions of 78% 5.

‘Sundered’ 64? 5, 20.

Superfluity 72° 30.

Superfluous matter 40? Io; resi-
dues 44° 35.

Superfoetation 738 35.

Swallows 740 30; if the eyes of,
while still young put out they
recover their sight again, &c.
74° 35.

Swine, hair of 82° 10; penis of
16 30; solid-hoofed 74° 20.

Teeth, analogue of 450 15 ; falling
out of 45 10, 15; first, forma-
tion of 88 30; first shedding
of, in ass and horse 48? 15;
formed out of bones 45% 15, 20;
forming and shedding of 89? 5;
growth of, not the same as of
other bones 45” 5; natural in
animals 88» 15; shedding and
growing of 88 5; upper jaw
45” 35.

Testacea 15” 15, 58% 30, 63? Io,
63» 10; copulation of 20? 5;
details of growth in 63% 25;
generation of 61915; generative
substance, emission of 61° 30;
spontaneously formed 61 25,
63% 30; which ‘spawn’ 62° Io.

Testaceous animals, generation of
31» 10; intermediate between
animals and plants 31? 5.

Testes drawn up 17? 10; external
20% 30; final cause of 179 15;
fish have no 65% 35; footless
animals have no 65° 35 ; gang-
lion of many principles 88 15 ;
internal 20% 30; position of 19
30; serpents have no 65° 35.

INDEX

Testis, male from right, female
from left, 63> 35.

Thracians, straight-haired, reason
of 82» 35.

‘ Thrattai’ 85 25.

Tongue varies in colour in simply
and vari-coloured animals 86%
25.

Tortoises 32” 5; ducts of 16” 25;
passage in 20? 5.

Touch and taste 448 5.

Trachea, moisture of 88 30,

‘Tragaena’ 7oP 35.

Transparent liquid 80% 5.

Trochus, foolish statement about
57° 5; impregnates itself 57 Io.

Turbinata, whorls of 638 25;
whorls become larger as animal
grows 638 25.

Turtle-doves 74? 35.

Twins, birth of, 72” 15.

Umbilical cord 45> 25, 46° 15,
52> 15; collapse of 54% 15;
details of 53” 20; young
attached to its 46% 20.

Umbilicus 40? 30, 54 35; parts
below the 42? 20.

Unctuous plants 83" 20.

Union, goddess who presides over
36% 20,

Universe, sea has a share in all
parts of the 61} 15.

Upper and lower parts of body
41 35, 420 20; do not exist in
Cephalopoda 41° 35.

Upper-jaw, teeth in 45? 30.

‘ Uria,’ so-called 53 25.

Uterus 25 5; always internal
19* 30; children nourished in
the 46* 20; contains egg or
foetus 19? 30; cord like root to
the 45 25, 30; discharge from
27 35; double 16” 30; female
embryo observed in right part
of 65% 20; filled with embryos
71> 35; fine vessels, many
terminate in 388 15; function
of 18 25; male and female
twins often found in the same
part of 64* 35; near hypozoma
18> 20, 39 10; nourishment
drawn from 54” 30; of Carabi
58 10; is bifid 58% 10; of the
Ovipara 20% 25; of small fish

solid mass of eggs 18” 10; per-
fect fish still attached to 54” 20;
position of 19 153; semen of
male drawn into 308 35 ; upper
part of 20 20.

Variation of parts 168 18 n.

Variations, quantity and distance
of 61° 15.

Vessels, system of, prior to the
uterus 64? 35.

Vine called ‘ capneos’ 70? 20,

Vision, objects of 812 5.

Vital heat 32% 15, 36" 35, 52°°5';
heat, nature 55% 20; principle
37" 5) 73% Io.

Vivipara 32% 30; all, are san-
guinea 32» 10; catamenia occur
in certain 268 25 ; choria of 39?
353 passages in 19? 30; pro-
duce young alive 18» 30; testes
in front in 16> 25, 17> 25;
some produce young imperfect,
others perfect 740 5; young
born of 52” 15.

Viviparous 33? 30.

Viviparous animals 32” 30; em-
bryo gets growth through
umbilical cord 45 25; uterus,
position of, in 19? 15.

Viviparous land animals, copula-
tion of 18? 5.

Viviparous quadrupeds, uterus of
Fo” 5.

Voice, change of 76 25, 86” 15,
87> 35; changes of, in both
sexes 76? 20; depth and height
in 8725; heavy, moves slowly
87> 5; organ which moves 888
5; roughness and smoothness
of, cause of 884 25.

Wakefulness, life most of all ap-
pertains to, on account of sensa-
tion 78? 35.

Walk, animals that 497 15.

Wasps, generation of 618 5; off-
spring of 2125; pupa of 5975 ;
scolex of 58% 20.

Waste-product 24? 30.

Water, unfathomable, is dark or
deep-blue on account of its
depth, 79? 35.

ΗΝ

¥)

INDEX

Water, cold, cause of birth of
females 672 35; hard, cause of
infertility 67* 35.

Weasel, brings forth its young by
the mouth 56? 20; carries young
about in its mouth 57° 5.

Whale produces young alive 18>

ο.

Whelks 61» 35, 63° τὸ.
Whiteness, causes of 86> 15;
under part of animals 86° 15.

Whorls 63% 25.

Willow and Poplar, no semen
produced by 26° 5.

Wind, in a sense, has a life, and
birth and death 78° 5.

Wind-eggs 37° 30, 49% 35; become
fertile if impregnated by male
within a certain period 50? 5,
51> 25, 57» 5; not formed in
flying birds 50> 20; produced
by hen-bird 30% Io.

Wolves crossed with dogs 46* 35.

Women, blood vessels of 278 20;
catamenia more abundant in,
than in other animals 28” 10;

discharge continues in some,
during pregnancy 74° 30; dis-
charge in fertile 27" 20; efflux not
abundant in women 28? 10; fat,
less fertile 262 5; impotent
male 282 15; of a masculine
appearance 47* 5; period not
accurately defined in 38% 20;
test of, by pessaries 47* Io.

Women and mares admit male
during gestation 73? 30.

Workers (bees) have to support
their young, also their fathers
60? 20.

Yolk, becomes liquid 53" 25.

Young, born of mutilated parents
24° 5, 378 30; no animal which
copulates produces many 55”
25; numerous, attached each
to its umbilical cord 468 20.

Z
‘Zephyria’ 498 35.

Oxford: Printed at the Clarendon Press by Horace Hart, M.A.

Date Due

Library Bureau Cat. No. 1137

AU NNN
3 5002 00333 6497

Aristotle.
The works of Aristotle,

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