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THE 



MODERN 




PICTORIAL 



COMPREHENSIVE 



In Twelve Volumes 



LD1TOR-IN-CH1EF 

M. V. O'SHEA 

PRO1ESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
MANAGING EDITOR 

ELLSWORTH D. FOSTER 

EDITOR FOR CANADA 

GEORGE H. LOCKE 

LIBRARIAN, PUBLIC LIBRARY, TORONTO 
ART DIRECTOR 

GORDON SAINT CLAIR 

ASSISTED BY Two HUNDRED FIFTY OUTSTANDING LEADERS IN 
THEIR RESPECTIVE FIELDS 



Volume Three 



ROACH-FOWLER COMPANY 

KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI 



THE WORLD BOOK 

Copyright 1917, 1918, icjuj, 19-21, 1922, 1923, 192,, 1926, 1927, 1928 
W. F Quarnc & Company 

THE WORLD BOOK ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Copyright: 1929, 1930 
W. F Quarrie & Company 



Printed in U. S. A. 



VOLUME 



THE 



MODERN 




OK 



PICTORIAL 



COMPREHENSIVE 



THREE 



CHALK, a soft, granular variety of limestone, 
consisting chiefly of the skeletons of minute 
animals that lived in shallow seas ages ago. 
When seen through the microscope, a piece 
of chalk shows hundreds of these tiny shells of 
different forms and sizes. Some resemble 
snail shells; others are circular and beautifully 
marked. There may also be present needlelike 
objects which came from sponges. Chalk is 
almost wholly carbonate of lime, with traces 
of silica and in some cases of magnesium car- 
bonate, ferric oxide, and alumina. It is 
whitish or yellowish in color. The great white 
cliffs in France and England, on each side of 
the Strait of Dover, are composed of chalk. 
Those on the English side were the reason for 
giving the name of " Albion" to England 
centuries ago, for Albion is derived from Gaelic 
words meaning white and hill. There are also 
extensive beds of chalk under the city of Lon- 
don. In the United States, there are minor 
chalk deposits in Arkansas, Texas, Iowa, and 




A CHALK MASS 



some other states. In geological classification, 
the chalk formations are characteristic of the 
European Cretaceous System (which sec). 

Though the crayons used for writing on 
blackboards in schools are called chalk, in 
America they are usually manufactured from 
magnesia. Chalk mixed with clay is used in 
the manufacture of portland cement. It is 
also used to make whiting. The latter enters 
into the preparation of rubber goods, paint, 
putty, silver-cleaning powders, and other prod- 
ucts. Chalk is sometimes used as a top 
dressing for soils, and when purified, it is an 
ingredient in tooth powders. French chalk, 
so-called, used by tailors, is a variety of talc. 
See LIMESTONE. A.J. 

CHALK SYSTEM. See CRETACEOUS SYS- 
TEM; CHALK. 

CHALONS, shah loN', BATTLE OF. See 
FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE WORLD. 

CHAMBERED NAUTILUS. See NAUTILUS. 




opment in a statesman- 
ship which was at first 
local, then national, and 
lastly imperial 

A* a Local Leader. 



CHAMBERLAIN, the family name of a 
father and son in English political life: 

Joseph Chamberlain (1836-1914), one of the lead- 
ing English statesmen of his day and frequently 
called the greatest Colonial Secretary England has 
ever had He began 
public life as a Radical; 
he ended it as a Unionist, 
exactly the opposite. 
Twice he deserted his 
political chief once 
Gladstone, the Liberal, 
once Balfour, the Con- 
servative and both 
times his withdrawal 
caused the defeat of the 
Ministry and the divi- 
sion of the party of which 
he had previously been 
a member. These 
changes of party repre- 
sented a gradual devel- 

JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN 

For more than a generation 
one of the leaders in Eng- 
lish political affairs. 

Chamberlain was born on 
July 8, i8.{6, in London, where his father was a pros- 
perous business man. At sixteen he began work in 
his father's office, but two years later went to Bir- 
mingham to assist in the management of a screw 
factory in which his father had an interest. At the 
age of thirty-eight, Chamberlain retired from active 
business with a fortune. Meanwhile, he had become 
prominent in the political as well as the business life 
of Birmingham, and in 1873 was elected mayor. 

A National Figure. Chamberlain's work in Bir- 
mingham gave him a national reputation, which was 
recognized by his election to the House of Commons 
in 1876, and only four years elapsed before his ability 
won him a place in Gladstone's Cabinet as President 
of the Board of Trade. In 1886 Gladstone appointed 
him President of the Local Government Board, but 
his opposition to Gladstone's Home Rule Bill led him 
to resign after two months With other Liberals who 
opposed this measure, he then organized the Liberal 
Unionist party, and succeeded in overthrowing the 
Ministry, but he returned to the more conservative 
fold in 1805, when he became Secretary of State for 
the Colonies in the Salisbury Cabinet. In 1888 he 
was one of the three delegates sent to the United 
States to settle the Canadian fisheries dispute, but 
the most important result of the visit, so far as 
Chamberlain himself was concerned, was his marriage 
to Miss Mary Endicott, the daughter of President 
Cleveland's Secretary of War. 

"Think Imperially!" The keynote of Chamber- 
lain's life from then until his death was expressed in 
this appeal to his countrymen. It was as Colonial 
Secretary, an office which he held for eight years, that 
his most important work was done. After i8gs the 
"economic necessities of a world-wide empire" were 



1297 



82 



CHAMBERLAIN LAKE 



1298 



CHAMBER OF COMMERCE 



his first care. He determined that the colonies, in- 
stead of being alternately neglected and exploited, 
should be steadily encouraged and given cooperation. 
It was during his term in office that the Australian 
colonies were united into a commonwealth. 

In 1003 Chamberlain introduced tariff reform as an 
issue in British politics, by proposing to give the 
colonies a preference in trade. Balfour, as Prime 
Minister and leader of the party, tried to keep the 
tariff out of politics. Chamberlain refused to compro- 
mise, resigned from the Cabinet, and finally, in 1905, 
forced the issue before the people. The Liberals won 
a sweeping victory, which was generally interpreted 
as the deathblow to tariff reform. In 1006 Chamber- 
lain's health began to fail, but he sat in Parliament 
until the year of his death, though his active leader- 
ship was at an end. 

Sir [Joseph] Austen Chamberlain (1803- ), the 
oldest son of Joseph Chamberlain, had already won 
honors before his father died He was educated at 
the University of Cambridge, and entered Parliament 
in 1802 From 1805 to 1005, he was a member of the 
Balfour Ministry, in which he held the posts of Civil 
Lord of the Admiralty, 
Financial Secretary to 
the Treasury, Post- 
master-General, and 
finally Chancellor of the 
Exchequer. After 1006, 
when his father retired 
from active leadership, 
Austen Chamberlain was 
the atk nowledged cham- 
pion of the tariff re- 
formers From 1 892 un- 
til 1914, he represented 
East Worcestershire in 
Parliament, but in 1014, 
after the death of his 
fathcr,he was elected by 
Birmingham West, the 
constituency which his 
father had represented 
for twenty-nine years. 
In May of the next year, he became Secretary of 
State for India in the coalition Cabinet headed by 
Asquith, which the World War made necessary. 
In the ensuing Lloyd George Cabinet, he became 
Chancellor of the Exchequer, and when Bonar Law 
retired, he was recognized as the head of his party. 
In the Baldwin Conservative Ministry, succeeding 
the MacDonald Labor Ministry, Chamberlain was 
given the post of Foreign Secretary. 

CHAMBERLAIN LAKE. See MAINE (Lakes 
and Rivers). 

CHAMBER MUSIC. See Music, subhead. 

CHAMBER OF COMMERCE (or ASSOCIA- 
TION OF COMMERCE), an organization of traders 
and merchants for their mutual benefit, or for 
the wider purpose of promoting the business 
and commercial interests of their community. 
Membership in these local organizations is 
voluntary, and their usefulness depends on the 
energy and ability of the members. The 
fundamental purpose is to increase the pros- 
perity of the community, and incidentally of 
its individual business interests. To this end 
a chamber of commerce may investigate 




Photo PA A 

AUSTEN CHAMBFRLAIN 



general business conditions at home and 
abroad, transportation facilities and their 
possible improvement, extension of credit, 
and any other business factors. The recom- 
mendations of such a body frequently influence 
local, state, or provincial, and occasionally 
even national, legislation. One of the most 
common activities of such chambers is the 
distribution of printed matter in which the 
advantages of the city or district are set forth 
to attract new industry. 

CHAMBER OF COMMERCE OF THE 
UNITED STATES, an organization in which 
membership is open to local chambers of com- 
merce and other associations of business men. 
It was organized at a national commercial 
conference called by President Taft and held 
in Washington, D/C., in 1012. Its purpose, 
roughly defined, is to do nationally what the 
individual chamber of commerce does locally 
(see CHAMBER OF COMMERCE). 

It studies and encourages the organization of 
associations of business men, and puts the re- 
sults of its investigations at the service of 
organizations which desire to add to their 
efficiency. It analyzes the statistics of com- 
merce and production, both at home and 
abroad, watches dangers which might retard 
commercial development, and makes note of 
opjK>rtunities which might result in expansion. 
One of its objects is to keep a close watch on 
Congressional legislation affecting the commer- 
cial interests of the countrv. In a general way, 
it aims to do for the commercial interests of 
the nation what the American Federation of 
Labor does for labor. It should be noted, 
however, that the methods of the two organi- 
zations are quite different; the Federation of 
Labor maintains agents in Washington and 
operates through a central organization, 
whereas the Chamber of Commerce maintains 
no lobby and operates through its constituent 
members and their influence upon the members 
of Congress. 

Unlike the chambers of commerce in France, 
Germany, and other European countries, the 
Chamber of Commerce of the United States 
has no official relation to the government. The 
government pays no part of its expenses, nor 
is an arbitrary tax levied for its support, as is 
done in some European countries. The cham- 
ber, however, acts voluntarily as an adviser, 
with respect to appropriations, executive orders, 
and legislation, and has exercised a considerable 
influence in the framing of paragraphs of new 
laws that relate directly to commercial and 
industrial operations. 

^ Membership. The membership of this na- 
tional Chamber of Commerce includes organiza- 
tions and individual persons or firms. Every 
commercial or manufacturers' association, not 
organized for private purposes, is eligible to 
membership. Such associations include or- 



CHAMBERS 



1 299 



CHAMELEON 




BUILDING OF THP CUAMDI.K OF COM11KRCK OF THE UNITED STATES, WASHINGTON, D. C. 



ganizations whose membership is confined to a 
single trade or group of trades, and also those 
local or state organizations whose chief pur- 
pose is the development of the commerical and 
industrial interests of a community. Indi- 
vidual persons or firms which belong to any 
association already a member of the Chamber 
of Commerce of the United States are eligible 
to individual membership. The number of in- 
dividual members is limited to 5,000, but there 
is no limit to the number of organization mem- 
bers. The national headquarters are at 
Washington, D. C., in the organization's own 
$3,000,000 building, dedicated in 1025. 

Control of Its Policy. One feature of the 
work of the Chamber of Commerce of the 
United States is unique the method by which 
its policy is framed. The board of directors 
has no right to commit the chamber to any 
project or policy. Expression of the chamber's 
opinion upon any public question can be made 
only after a referendum has been taken and the 
vote of the members recorded. The right to 
vote is restricted to organizations; individual 
members are required to express their opinions 
through their respective local bodies. This 
unique procedure, never before used to obtain 
an expression of public opinion either in the 
United States or in any other country, has 
been found effective in convincing legislative 
bodies when they would not be influenced by 
the action of a board of directors. 

CHAMBERS, ROBERT WILLIAM (1865- ), 
a popular American novelist and writer of short 
stories, born in Brooklyn, N. Y. Before he 
began his career as an author, he studied art in 



the Julien Academy at Paris, and for a time 
made illustrations for Life, Truth, Vogue, and 
other New York periodicals. In 1893 he pub- 
lished In the Quarter, 
beginning then a long 
and successful liter- 
ary career. 

Chambers has an 
undeniable gift for 
writing an interesting 
story, but has been 
criticized because of 
his fondness for un- 
pleasant themes and 
his frank treatment 
of them. Many of his 
stories have been 
made into moving 
pictures. 

Some of His Books. 

Among the best known 
of his numerous stones 
are lole, The Fighting Chance, The Firing Line, Ailsa 
Page, The Common Law, The Business of Life, Athalie, 
The Girl Philip pa, The Crimson Tide, The Slayer 
of Souls, Little Red Fool, Eris, The Hi-Jackers, The 
Rake and the hussy, Cardigan, The Maid-at-Arms, The 
Man They Hanged, The Sun Hawk, The Rogue's Moon. 

CHAMBERSBURG, PA. See PENNSYL- 
VANIA (back of map). 

CHAMBLY, J/WL/V bl 
LIEU RIVER. 

CHAMELEON, ka me' le un, a lizard remark- 
able for its ability to change its color. The 
true chameleons comprise a family of about 
fifty species found most commonly in Africa, 




ROBERT W. CHAMBERS 



', RIVER. See RICHE- 



CHAMELEON 



1300 



CHAMOIS 



but occurring also in some other parts of the 
Old World. They live in trees. The chame- 
leons are awkward and slow of foot, and their 
habitual changes of color serve to protect them 
from their enemies by enabling them to lose 
themselves in their sur- 
roundings (see PROTEC- 
TIVE COLORATION). 
This power of changing 
color has been carefully 
studied. The chame- 
leon does not arbitra- 
rily imitate the hue of 
the object on which it 
rests, nor is the proc- 
ess wholly under its 
control. The changes 
are reactions to certain 
conditions of light and 
temperature and to 
various emotional 
states, such as fear and 
anger. The physical 
cause may be traced to 
two differently colored 
layers of pigment under 
control of the nervous 
system. Thebest known 
species is ordinarily a 
greenish-gray, from 
which it changes to 
emerald-green or to dull black, sometimes 
showing reddish or yellowish spots. 

This lizard is six to seven inches in length, 
and has long, slender legs, a large head, and a 
long, prehensile tail. Its toes are so divided as 
to give all feet the power of grasping like a 




THE CHAMOIS 

. . . Like the wild chamois from her Alpine snow, 
Where hunters never climbed, secure from dread. 

HOOD: Ode to the Moon. 




A CHAMELEON 

(Photographed by the Section of Photography of 
the Field Museum of Natural History.) 

hand. Though slow and sluggish, the chame- 
leon catches insects with lightning rapidity, 
having a sticky tongue which it can shoot out 
as much as six inches. It is also aided by its 
great bulging eyes, which are set in sockets in 
such a way as to move independently of each 
other. Chameleons require much water and 
will die without it. They have the power of 
inflating themselves with air, a process that 



gave rise to the fable that they live on air. 

They are the only lizards that do not drag the 

body on the ground. 
AJI American species of this name, though 

not related to the Old World chameleons, has 
the same power to 
change its hue. Its 
most common colors 
are brown and green. 
This lizard has a body 
not over three and a 
half inches long. It is 
more active than the 
true chameleons. See 
LIZARD. L.H. 

Scientific Name. The 

true chameleons belong 
to the family Chamaeleon- 
tidae The common species 
of the Old World is Cha- 
maeleon vulgar is. The so- 
called American chameleon 
is Anolis carolinensis, of 
the family Iguanidae. 

CHAMINADE,5//a/f- 
mie nahd f , CECILF 
LOUISE STEPHANIE 
(1861- ), one of the 
best-known women 
musicians of modern 
times, was born in 
Paris. When only eight years of age, she com- 
posed sacred music that won the praise of 
Bizet, the composer of Carmen. She studied 
for several years under excellent teachers, began 
a successful career as a pianist at the age of 
eighteen, and became in time well known as a 
music conductor. Chaminade's fame, however, 
rests chiefly on her compositions, which include 
such familiar instrumental pieces as The Scarf 
Dance, The Flatterer, and Morning, and many 
charming, melodious songs. Among the latter 
are Madrigal, Rosamunde, Berceuse, and The 
Silver Ring. As a composer she is distinctly 
original, and her compositions are valuable ex- 
ercises for the piano student. 

CHAMOIS, sham' mih, a shy member of the 
goat antelope family, famed for its fleetness 
and its keenness of scent. It lives in the high 
mountains of Europe and Western Asia, and 
was once very common in the Swiss Alps. In 
the summer it is found near the snow line; in 
the winter, lower down, in the forests. It is a 
rather small animal, with a brownish summer 
coat that changes to fawn color in winter and 
gray in the spring. Its head is pale yellow, 
marked by a black band surrounding the eyes 
and extending from the nose to the ears. Its 
horns, which are about six or seven inches long, 
are round and almost smooth, and they grow 
straight upward until near the tip, where they 
suddenly end in a sharp hook that is bent 
backward. Both horns and tail are black. 



CHAMOMILB 



1301 



CHAMPLAIN 



During the feeding time, which is in the 
morning, one animal is always standing on 
guard in some prominent place, for the purpose 
of warning the rest of approaching danger. 
The pursuit of chamois is difficult and danger- 
ous, as they live in the steepest, roughest 
mountains, and are so quick and light that 
they can easily jump across a ravine fifteen 
feet wide. Though the flesh is highly prized 
as food, the chief value of a chamois lies in its 
skin, which is used to make the very soft, warm, 
flexible leather known as chamois skin. Most 
of the skin now sold as such, however, comes 
from the skin of sheep, and it lacks the velvety 
softness of the genuine chamois. See AN- 
TELOPE. W.N.H. 

Scientific Name. The chamois is a member of the 
family Bovidae, and its scientific name is Rupicapra 
rupicapra. 

CHAMOMILE, OR CAMOMILE, kam' o- 
mile (same pronunciation for both), the com- 
mon name of a genus of plants belonging to 
the composite family, some species of which 
have medicinal properties. The species most 
commonly cultivated is called common, or 
Roman chamomile. It is a perennial, with a 
slender, trailing, much-branched stem. The 
flowers have white rays and yellow centers. 
Flowers and leaves are bitter and aromatic, 
and are used as poultices to cure ailments such 
as toothache, and medicinally in the form of 
tea, as a tonic for the stomach. The common, 
troublesome, ill-smelling mayweed, with its 
small, white, yellow-centered flowers, is a 
related species. B.M.D. 

Scientific Names. The chamomiles belong to the 
family Composttae. Roman chamomile is Anlhcmis 
nobilis. The mayweed is A cotula. 

CHAMPAGNE, sham pane', an expensive 
wine, first made in France, white or red, spar- 
kling or "dry," sweet or acid. It originated in 
the department of Marne, in the former prov- 
ince of Champagne, although a similar wine 
is made elsewhere. A large trade in champagne 
made in California had been developed before 
the era of prohibition. 

The best qualities are made almost exclu- 
sively from black grapes. The creaming or 
slightly sparkling champagnes are more highly 
valued and are higher in price than the full- 
frothing wines. The small quantity of alcohol 
which the latter contain nearly all escapes from 
the froth as it rises to the surface, carrying 
with it the fragrance and leaving the liquor 
nearly tasteless. The property of creaming, 
or frothing, possessed by these wines is due 
to the fact that they are partly fermented in 
the bottle, carbonic acid being thereby pro- 
duced. Because this fermenting takes place 
under pressure, the bottles used must be of 
the strongest quality. Keeping champagne 
cool prevents too much frothing, and that is 



one reason why it is usually served from a 
bucket of ice. See WINE. 

CHAMPAIGN, ILL. See ILLINOIS (back of 
map). 

CHAMP DE MARS. See PARIS, FRANCE. 

CHAMPLAIN, sham plane', a lake 125 miles 
long and from one to fifteen miles wide, lying 
between the states of New York and Vermont, 
with its northern end in Quebec. It covers 
an area of about 600 square miles, contains 




LAKE CHAMPLAIN 

many islands, and is a beautiful and popular 
summer resort. Salmon, trout, and sturgeon 
abound, and the lake is navigated by large 
excursion steamers. In 1929 a bridge span- 
ning the lake was opened between Crown 
Point, N. Y., and Chimney Point, Vt., short- 
ening the traveler's road between the states. 

Battle of Lake Champlain. On September 11,1814, 
a naval engagement was fought between British and 
United States vessels in the harbor of Plattsburg, on 
Lake Champlain. The forces were almost evenly bal- 
anced, any superiority existing being on the side of 
the British. After severe fighting and heavy losses 
on both sides, the British were defeated. 

CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567-1635). This 
French explorer and colonial pioneer, the 
founder of Quebec, was known in history as 
the "Father of New France." He was the 
real creator of the French dominion in Amer- 
ica. Parkman, the great historian of the 
French in America, sketches him in these 
words: 

Of the pioneers of the North American forests, his 
name stands foremost on the list It w,as he who 
struck the deepest and boldest strokes into the heart 
of their pristine barbarism. His character belonged 
partly to the past, partly to the present. The preux 
chevalier, the crusader, the romance-loving explorer, 
the curious knowledge-seeking traveler, the practical 
navigator, all found their share in him. 

Champlain was born in Brouage, a little 
town on the Bay of Biscay. His father, a ship 



CHAMPLAIN 



1302 



CHANCERY 




CHAMPLAIN 

Who laid the foundations 

for a vast French domain 

in America. 



captain, taught him the principles of navi- 
gation, but the boy entered the army. His 
seaman's training stood him in good stead, 
however, in 1599, 
when he was offered 
the command of one 
of several vessels 
about to sail to the 
West Indies. During 
the next two years 
he visited all the prin- 
cipal ports of Mexico 
and the West Indies, 
and even traveled in- 
land to Mexico City. 
His account of this 
voyage, which 
brought him to the 
notice of King Henry 
IV of France, is note- 
worthy for one of 
the earliest sugges- 
tions, if not the first, 
for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. 

Champlain went to Canada in 1603, ex- 
ploring the Saint Lawrence River as far as 
the Lachine Rapids. In following years he 
returned, accompanied by his patron, the 
Sieur de Monts; they cruised along the New 
England coast to Cape Cod and founded Port 
Royal (Annapolis, Nova Scotia). This was 
unsuccessful, however, and with De Monts' 
permission, Champlain in 1608 established 
Quebec, which 
he gave its pres- 
ent name. On 
his previous ex- 
plorations he 
had maintained 
friendly rela- 
tions with the 
Algonquin and 
the Huron In- 
dians, and joined 
them in a suc- 
cessful raid 
against the Iro- 
quoisin 1609. In 
this expedition 
he discovered 
the beautiful 
lake which has 
since borne his 

name. Cham- " oto - u * u 

plain's help at STATUE AT ORILLA . ONTARIO 
this time won for the French the lasting friend- 
ship of the Algonquins, but also the hatred of 
the Iroquois, who were forced to make friends 
first with the Dutch and then with the English. 

After this exciting adventure, Champlain 
returned to France to tell his story and secure 
further aid. From then until 1629 he crossed 
the Atlantic every year. He was lieutenant 




governor of the colony, but more than that, 
he was the very life of New France. Yet he 
was not able to strengthen and protect Quebec 
as much as was necessary, and in 1629 was 
compelled to surrender his settlement to an 
English fleet. Taken a prisoner to England, 
he was soon released, and after Canada was 
restored to France, in 1632, he returned to 
Quebec as lieutenant governor. He died on 
Christmas day, 1635. See MONTS, SIEUR DE; 
CANADA (History) ; QUEBEC, the city. 

CHAMPLAINIAN, sham pla' ni an. See 
ORDOVICIAN PERIOD. 

CHAMPLEVfi, shamp leh va'. See ENAMEL. 

CHAMPOLLION, FRANCOIS. See HIERO- 
GLYPHICS. 

CHAMPS fiLYSfiES, shahN za le za', a 
Paris boulevard, one of the most beautiful in 
Europe, extending from the Place de la Con- 
corde to the Place de 1'Etoile. It is nearly 300 
feet wide, double the width of most American 
boulevards, and ii miles in length. At the 
end near the Place de 1'Etoile is the famous Arc 
de Triomphe, erected to celebrate the victories 
of Napoleon (see ARCH OF TRIUMPH). The 
boulevard is lined with trees and beautiful 
buildings. There are many cafes, before which 
those Frenchmen known as boulevardiers love 
to sit and partake of refreshments while watch- 
ing the passing stream of vehicles and pedes- 
trians. See PARIS. 

CHANCELLOR, chan' set ur y a word meaning 
originally doorkeeper, now used to designate 
various important officers of the government. 
In Germany, for instance, the chief adminis- 
trator, in England known as the Prime Min- 
ister, is called the Chancellor, Bismarck having 
been the first to hold the title. 

In England, the Lord High Chancellor is 
not an administrative but a judicial officer, 
the highest in the kingdom. He is the ad- 
viser of the Crown, the Keeper of the Great 
Seal, the official sign of royal authority, and is 
the highest civil officer of the realm, below the 
royal family. He is a member of the Cabinet 
and the presiding officer of the House of 
Lords. His duties are very numerous, chief 
among them being the supreme judgeship of 
the Court of Chancery. He is the official 
guardian of all infants, as well as of people of 
unsound mind. 

The Chancellor of the Exchequer is the British 
Minister of Finance, and a member of the 
Cabinet. 

In the United States and Canada, the term 
has no official meaning, but is sometimes used 
instead of president as the title of the head of 
a university. 

CHANCELLORSVTLLE, chan' sel urz ml, 
BATTLE OF. See WAR OF SECESSION. 

CHANCERY, chan' sur ie, COURT OF. The 
court of chancery was formerly the highest 
court of England, and second in authority 



CHANDLER 



1303 



CHAPLAIN 



only to Parliament. At present, it is a division 
of the High Court of Justice. It is presided 
over by the Lord High Chancellor, and from 
this circumstance it derived its name. The pur- 
pose of the court is to settle cases which do not 
fall under the common law. In the United 
States, the terms chancery and equity, court of 
chancery and court of equity, are practically 
synonymous. See EQUITY. 

CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH. See STATUARY 
HALL. 

CHANEY, cha' ne, LON. See MOVING PIC- 
TURES (list of players). 

CHANGA, chang' gah. See MOLE CRICKET. 

CHANNEL BASS. See REDFISH. 

CHANNEL ISLANDS, a group of islands 
in the English Channel, ten miles from the 
coast of France, representing all that remains 
to England of its once great possessions in 




LOCATION MAP 



France. Their combined area is seventy-five 
square miles. Although politically English, 
the islanders are typically French in manners 
and customs, and they pride themselves on 
belonging to the race which conquered England 
in the days of William I, the Conqueror. The 
islands are not bound by acts of the English 
Parliament unless specifically named in them. 
Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark are the 
only inhabited islands, but there are numerous 
rocks and islets, many of which are submerged 
at high tide. The climate is mild and healthful, 
and flowers and vegetables are grown in great 
quantities, reaching the London markets 
several weeks before the English crops. Stone 
for building purposes is exported, and the 
islands are famous for their dairy cattle, the 
Jerseys, Guernseys, and Alderneys. These 
breeds originated here. Population, 90,000. 

CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780-1842), 
one of the most famous American preachers, 
whose influence is still felt in social and political 
reforms, through his memory and his writings. 
He was born at Newport, R. I., and studied 
at Harvard College. His first appointment as 
a pastor was in 1803, when he was placed in 
charge of the congregation of the Federal 
Street Church in Boston. At first his sermons 
did not show strong denominational spirit, 
but gradually he became a decided Unitarian 




Photo. Brown Broa. 
WILLIAM E. CHANNING 



and taught the doctrines of that Church with 
great zeal and success. Noble and fearless, he 
was a strong advocate of temperance, in- 
ternational peace, 
and freedom. Cole- 
ridge said of him, "He 
has the love of wis- 
dom and the wisdom 
of love." See UNI- 
TARIANS. 

Worthy of Note. His 

most popular essays are 
those on National Litera- 
ture, John Milton, and 
Self -Culture. 

CHANSONS DE 
GESTB. See 
FRENCH LITER- 
ATURE. 

CHANUTE, cha- 
w00/',KAN. See KANSAS (back of map). 

CHANUTE, OCTAVE. See AIRCRAFT (Heav- 
ier than Air). 

CHAPALLA, chahpah'lah, LAKE. See 
MEXICO (Waters). 

CHAPARRAL, chaparal', a dense growth 
of rigid and often thorny shrubs or small trees 
that grow in poor soil on dry slopes in the 
Western states and Mexico. The word is 
derived from the Spanish chaparro, meaning 
evergreen oak, and was first used in the United 
States about 1846, during the Mexican War. 
References to chaparral occur in the writings 
of Bayard Taylor, Robert Louis Stevenson, 
Helen Hunt Jackson, Stewart Edward White, 
and others who have written of the Western 
country. Mrs. Jackson's description of this 
shrubby plant in her Glimpses of Three Coasts 
is often quoted: 

Nobody will ever, by pencil or brush or pen, fairly 
render the beauty of the mysterious, undefined, unde- 
finable chaparral. G M.S. 

CHAPARRAL COCK. See ROAD RUNNER. 

CHAPLAIN, chap' lin, a clergyman attached 
to an army or navy, or to any non-religious 
group, performing the duties a minister per- 
forms for his congregation. 

United States army chaplains are appointed 
by the President, with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, the Secretary of War making 
assignments and transfers. There are no re- 
strictions as to denomination; all churches are 
represented. Each regiment of cavalry, in- 
fantry, and field artillery has its chaplain; 
one is assigned to the corps of engineers and 
to the Military Academy, and there is a 
specified number, varying from time to time, 
for the coast artillery corps. The number 
allowed to the navy bears a definite relation 
to the total membership in the navy and 
marine corps. 

The rank, pay, and allowances of a chaplain 
in the United States army, after seven years' 



CHAPLIN 



1304 



CHARACTER TRAINING 



service, are those of a captain of infantry; 
until then his grade is that of a first lieutenant. 
Unusual ability is recognized by advancement 
to the rank of major, though there may be 
among the chaplains no more than fifteen 
majors at any one time. A chaplain in the 
navy begins as an acting chaplain, with the 
rank of junior-grade lieutenant, and after 
three years becomes chaplain, progressing 
through the various grades of lieutenant, lieu- 
tenant commander, commander, and captain. 
See RANK IN ARMY AND NAVY; PRISON. 

CHAPLIN, CHARLES. See MOVING PIC- 
TURES (list of players). 

CHAPMAN, GEORGE (1557 or 1559-1634), 
the poet and dramatist of Shakespeare's day 
who is remembered chiefly as having been the 
first to translate into English verse Homer's 
immortal epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Such 
critics as Pope, Lamb, and Coleridge greatly 
admired these translations for their lofty lan- 
guage and swiftness of action; and they in- 
spired one of the finest sonnets Keats ever 
wrote On First Looking into Chapman's 
Homer in which occur these oft-quoted lines: 

Oft of one wide expanse had I been told 

That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne; 

Yet did I never breathe its pure serene 

Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold: 

Then felt I like some watcher of the skies 

When a new planet swims into his ken. 

Chapman was born near the town of Hitchin, 
in Hertfordshire, and learned his Greek at 
Oxford. When he was about thirty-five he 
published his first long poem, The Shadow of 
Nighty and in 1598 his first play, a comedy, 
which bore the quaint title of The Blinde 
Beggar of Alexandria, Most Pleasantly Dis- 
coursing His Variable Humours. The Iliad and 
Odyssey translations were published in instal- 
ments, appearing at intervals throughout a 
period of nearly twenty years. It was not until 
1611 that the entire twenty-four books of the 
Iliad were completed, and not until 1616 that 
the Odyssey was published in its entirety. 

All this time, however, Chapman was writing 
successful plays, among the most popular being 
the comedies of Al Fooles, The Widow's Tears, 
and Monsieur d'Olive, and the tragedy of 
Bussy d^Ambois. A play called Eastward 'Hoe, 
written by Chapman in collaboration with Ben 
Jpnson and John Marston, led the Stuart 
king, James I, to send him to prison because 
of a satirical remark about the Scotch, and 
the play was ordered reprinted with the offend- 
ing passage omitted. As a writer for the stage, 
however, Chapman did not equal the other 
dramatists of the Elizabethan period, either 
in his handling of plot or of character. 

[He also wrote a number of long poems, made some 
translations from Latin literature, and completed the 
paraphrase called Hero and Leander which Christopher 
Marlowe had begun and left unfinished at his death.] 



CHAPTER HOUSE. See FRATERNITY. 

CHAPULTEPEC, chah pool' te pek, BATTLE 
or. See MEXICAN WAR. 

CHARACTER TRAINING. An eighth- 
grade boy who had been guilty of persistent 
pilfering in the school garden went to this 
same garden one morning to pick his own care- 
fully tended watermelon and found that it 
had disappeared during the night. Thereafter 
he took a very different attitude toward 
theft. He had been stealing repeatedly without 
the slightest compunction; but the minute he 
found himself the victim of another's disregard 
of property rights, a new light dawned on his 
mind. He went to his principal, voluntarily 
confessed the wrongs he had committed, and 
promised there should be no repetition a 
promise which he faithfully kept. "I never 
knew before how it felt to lose a thing you had 
worked for," was the explanation he gave of 
his change of heart. 

The Golden Rule. "Put yourself in the other 
fellow's place." This is the essence of right 
doing; he who can do this completely will no 
more wrong another than he will cut off his 
right arm. He will tell the truth to his neighbor 
because his neighbor wants and needs the 
facts, because human society cannot exist 
without mutual confidence, because by his 
example he inevitably does something either 
to increase or decrease the amount of truthful- 
ness in the world. He will keep his word and 
refuse to defraud or steal in any form, for the 
same reasons. He will be charitable in his 
judgments and as conscientious about injuring 
other people's reputations as he wishes them 
to be about his own. He will control his temper, 
will be helpful in his personal relations and 
generous to those whom he can help with his 
time, his energy, or his money In short, he 
will follow the Golden Rule. To develop this 
power to put self in the place of others, or 
rather to produce a character which will act in 
this spirit, is the aim of moral education. 

Unselfishness is Fundamental. This capacity 
to realize how other people feel is distributed 
through the race in very unequal degrees; 
but some germs of it will be found in every 
human being. It arises spontaneously in every 
home worthy of the name; but it extends far 
beyond these narrow limits. One evidence for 
this statement is the fact that it seldom fails 
to appear in a crisis. After the sinking of the 
Titanic, Mr. George Kennan, the celebrated 
traveler and authority on Russian affairs, 
wrote a letter to the Outlook, a part of which 
reads as follows: 

The courage and unselfishness shown by an over- 
whelming majority of the passengers on the ill-fated 
steamship Titanic have recalled to my mind the re- 
markable exhibition of the same heroic and generous 
characteristics by the citizens of San Francisco during 
the great earthquake and fire of 1906. I did not my- 



CHARACTER TRAINING 

self reach the city until some weeks after the disaster, 
but the remembrance of the events of that period of 
strain and suffering was still fresh in the mind of 
every observer or participant, and I was greatly im- 
pressed by the enthusiasm and deep feeling shown by 
everybody in speaking of the behavior of the popula- 
tion. One friend of mine in Oakland, a man not at all 
inclined to be "gushing" or effusive in speech, said to 
me: "I am glad that I lived to see the things that 
happened in the first ten days after that great catas- 
trophe. Those days were the best and most inspiring 
part of my life. Religious people talk about the 
'kingdom of heaven, ' but few of them expect to live 
long enough to see it realized on earth. I saw some- 
thing that very nearly approached it in San Fran- 
cisco, Berkeley, and Oakland in the week that 
followed the fire. Cowardice, selfishness, greed, and all 
the baser emotions and impulses of human character 
practically disappeared in the tremendous strain of 
that experience, and courage, fortitude, sympathy, 
generosity, and unbounded self-sacrifice took their 
place. Men became, and for a short time continued 
to be, all that we may suppose their Creator intended 
them to be, and it was a splendid and inspiring thing 
to witness. We imagine that we live in a selfish and 
materialistic age, and perhaps we do; but T know now 
of what human nature humanity as a whole is 
capable, and I can never again take a pessimistic view 
of the world's future." 

These crises arouse men out of their habitual 
moral sluggishness, because they force them to 
realize what deprivation and suffering mean, 
but they could not act unless there were some- 
thing to move them to action. This something 
we call altruism. It consists in direct regard for 
the good of others. It is present in great or less 
degree not merely in the ordinary men and 
women about us, but, however hidden, even 
in the worst criminals. 

A man by the name of Schunicht murdered a young 
woman in the most brutal manner and with an in- 
difference absolutely revolting. He had already left 
the apartment when it occurred to him that the body 
might remain undiscovered for weeks, and in that 
event, the canary belonging to the murdered woman 
would starve to death. Thereupon Schunicht re- 
traced his steps, scattered enough food upon the floor 
of the cage to last the bird for several days, and 
opened the cage-door and the window in the adjoining 
room so that in any event the bird could make its 
escape. (Lombroso ) 

In returning to the apartment where lay the dead 
body of the murdered woman, this brutal criminal 
risked his life in order to save a canary from starva- 
tion. 

Social Advancement Depends upon Char- 
acter. Progress depends largely upon the 
utilization of hitherto unused forces. Thus, our 
machinery is driven by coal and oil, which lay 
in the ground untouched for countless centuries. 
When we know more about the human mind 
than we do now, we shall be able in like manner 
to tap the half -sealed fountains of moral 
energy, and thereby transform society more 
completely than it has been transformed during 
the past one hundred and fifty years by steam 



CHARACTER TRAINING 



and electricity. We are still a long distance 
from this goal, but while we cannot yet ac- 
complish all we could wish, we can nevertheless 
do a great deal. And we are bound to put our 
best efforts into the attempt. Our children's 
own highest and permanent welfare demands 
it, while the society of which we are members 
could no more exist without character than the 
particles of matter which form our earth could 
hold together without gravitation. 

Value of the Imagination. From time to 
time great educators appear who know how to 
exercise an almost unbounded influence upon 
their pupils. Such was the most famous of 
English headmasters, Thomas Arnold of 
Rugby; such a man was and is our own Wil- 
liam George, of the Junior Republic. Their 
successes will be ours if we can catch their 
spirit and learn and apply their methods. 

From what has been said, it will be obvious 
that our first task must be to develop in our 
children the power to realize the feelings of 
others. This power we may call the imagi- 
nation. The imagination is developed by using 
it, like any other form of ability Consequently, 
what we must do is to supply our children with 
opportunities and incentives to put them- 
selves in the place of other people and help 
them to do so successfully. A child, for ex- 
ample, misjudges his mother. The father can 
often help him see why the mother is timid 
about his swimming, why she spoke crossly 
to him this morning, why she made him stay 
in the house and help her last Saturday when 
he wanted to go out and play with the boys. 
And if no complete justification can be found 
for her hasty temper, he can call attention 
to other traits in her character and thus help 
him to a proper perspective. In all this he 
has not merely helped the boy to understand 
and appreciate his mother; he has trained 
his powers of insight into other persons' lives. 
The mother, of course, can do the same for 
the father and for the sisters and brothers. 
If she will take a little trouble, she can perform 
the same service for those of his playmates 
whom he teases or bullies. 

A ten-year-old school boy was afflicted 
with pathological fears, and in consequence 
was very "queer" in his actions. His class- 
mates made his school day, as far as in them 
lay, one long horror, and were rapidly strength- 
ening the hold of the disease upon his nervous 
system. Thereupon, the able woman in charge 
of mental hygiene in the school told the entire 
story to the four leading boys of his class, 
and they passed it on to the others. In conse- 
quence, they all changed from enemies to 
helpful friends. Now, two years after this 
event, the boy is perfectly normal, while his 
classmates have risen to a distinctly higher 
level of thoughtfulness and consideration for 
others. 



CHARACTER TRAINING 



1306 



CHARACTER TRAINING 



Often pupils harass their teacher, and the 
parents, instead of trying to get the teacher's 
point of view and revealing it to the children, 
amuse themselves by tacit encouragement. To 
help the child to observe and reflect upon what 
goes on behind the mask which men wear, 
to see things somewhat as the wearer himself 
sees them, to feel something of what he feels 
this is one of the first steps in the moral edu- 
cation of children after they have reached 
school age. If the revelation is sometimes 
painful, it will not injure the child. On the 
contrary, the habit of thinking concretely 
about others will quicken his intelligence 
immensely, give him new interests, make 
certain of his school studies, such as history 
and literature, far more real, and render him 
eager to play his part in the life of the family 
and in the little community of boys and girls 
of which he is a member, instead of being a 
complainer or a shirk. 

In this work of developing the imagination, 
the right kind of books will be of very great 
assistance. The child should, therefore, be 
supplied with good stories, that is, those which 
represent life in concrete, vivid fashion. This 
condition, to be sure, excludes most of those 
of the current weekly and monthly periodicals, 
but there are plenty of others. Biographies 
are likely to offer more satisfactory material. 
One of the best for children of grade-school 
age is Miss Nicolay's Life of Lincoln', while for 
high-school children there is James Morgan's 
Abraham Lincoln, the Boy and the Man. This 
may profitably be followed by Booker T. 
Washington's Up from Slavery, a very inter- 
esting story, well told, which is calculated as 
are few others to develop the power of seeing 
and realizing how the other half of the world 
feels and lives. The effect of contact with such 
characters will ordinarily be greatly increased 
if the parents read these records of life with 
their children and discuss with them some of 
the issues which they raise. 

Thoughtfulness is Important. More often 
than not, the wrong we do others and the good 
we fail to do are the results of sheer ignorance 
and thoughtlessness on our part. No one can 
realize what he does not even think of. Moral 
education therefore involves training our chil- 
dren to trace out the effects of their actions, 
the effects upon their happiness and upon those 
of others, the effect upon their own character 
and that of others; the indirect, and often 
widely diffused effects, as well as the direct 
and obvious ones. For example, what are the 
effects of giving way to bad temper? Our 
biting words hurt our immediate victim, the 
object of our wrath. Well, that is precisely 
what we want. But there are other conse- 
quences: his temporary or permanent enmity; 
if he is someone who loves us, a slight and yet 
perhaps permanent cooling of that love. There 



are two great foes of friendship and love, in 
fact, of everything that binds men together 
in our too often lonely lives; one of these is 
selfishness, the other is bad temper. The 
effect upon our character of each outbreak 
of our temper is to make such outbreaks more 
difficult to control; we are strengthening a 
habit as dangerous in its own way as drunken- 
ness. The effects of anger frequently do not 
cease with hurt feelings on the part of the 
victim; for example, if he is my brother, our 
mother will suffer also. Generally, anger, in 
tending to produce ill-will and a sense of in- 
justice on the part of its victim, tends to mak% 
him bitter in his turn; tends not merely to 
arouse his ill-will against us, but also does its 
part to make him feel sour toward the world 
and thus tends to eat away the foundations 
of his good will toward his fellow men. These 
bare suggestions as to the results which may 
follow a single failure in self-control are only 
the beginnings of an all but limitless subject. 
The parent must not tell these things to the 
child. He must by questions and suggestions 
help the child to discover them for himself. 

There is a certain effect upon self resulting 
from the control of bad temper and similar 
feelings which must never be overlooked 
the joy of feeling your own moral fiber as a 
consequence of your conquest of your im- 
pulses. The admiration for power is at the 
basis of all the worship of athletes. Every 
boy desires, at some period of his life, to be an 
athlete. But there are other fields besides the 
gridiron where a good fight is demanded and 
strength is at a premium, and with the con- 
sciousness of strength goes the glow of victory. 

We may train our children in though tfulness, 
furthermore, by helping them to discover and 
work out possible modes of helpfulness 
for example, methods by which an overworked 
mother may be saved weary steps, methods 
by which some lonely classmate's life may be 
made a bit more happy, methods by which 
dishonest practices in school athletics, in class 
politics, in the care of the money of school 
organizations, and in class work, may be 
broken up. In sum, then, we must seek to 
develop in our children (i) what Thomas 
Arnold called "moral thoughtfulness," or the 
power and the habit of observing and re- 
flecting upon conduct, our own and others', 
so that we shall be aware of the effects of 
what they are doing; (2) we must develop 
the power, as far as possible, of realizing these 
effects. 

Doing Is As Essential As Feeling. Finally, 
we must not allow their interests and good in- 
tentions to evaporate, or we shall have on our 
hands the most hopeless specimen of the 
human race a sentimentalist. This means a 
being who knows what to do and feels great 
enthusiasm about doing it, but never actually 



CHARACTER TRAINING 



1307 



CHARACTER TRAINING 



does it. To avoid this fatality, we must see 
to it that knowing and feeling are followed 
by doing. It must be admitted, however, that 
this is largely a matter in the child's own hands, 
not ours. Much muddled thinking goes on 
about forming habits in other persons. I can 
create in my child a habit of keeping his room 
in order or getting to school on time by threat- 
ening him with punishment in case he fails. 
I can do the same thing for honesty and 
veracity, at least in his relations with me and 
perhaps with his teacher. But in all this I am 
simply developing a habit not of seeing and 
realizing the importance of truth-telling so 
that he is willing to suffer loss in order to be 
truthful, but simply the habit of being afraid 
of punishment. If that is all there is to it, 
when he gets out from the confines of the 
home he will usually drop the habit the minute 
he has turned his back on the door. 

All I can do for him in this particular phase 
of his moral life, then, is to protect him as 
far as possible from temptations clearly too 
strong for him to resist, surround him with 
opportunities to do the right thing where he is 
likely to rise to them, and counsel and en- 
courage him as best I can when he hesi- 
tates or is in doubt. This is not quite all, 
however. When I punish him for wrong doing, 
I may merely make him more wary about being 
caught the next time. But if I punish him, 
not in anger, but because I know, and he will 
sometimes see, its justice, I may accomplish 
something far more important. I may make 
him appreciate the seriousness of the wrong 
he has committed. He has inflicted a harm 
on someone else. He would not have done so 
had he realized how the other would feel under 
the blow. Punishment, wisely administered, 
may open his eyes as to how it feels to suffer; 
the evil he has inflicted upon others may come 
home to him, and this experience may create 
genuine repentance and with it a permanent 
change of attitude. 

Duties Owed to Others. We have obligations 
to individuals, such as members of our family, 
our neighbors, our employers; we have, in 
addition, public obligations, as to our native 
city, our country. A sense of these duties is 
harder to develop than a sense of the former 
class. It can, perhaps, best be produced by 
developing in the mind a vivid, concrete picture 
of the difference between a well-conducted 
and an ill-conducted society; for example, 
between a community, on the one hand, where 
all the drivers of cars habitually break every 
traffic rule they dare, cut in ahead of each 
other regardless of who has the right to the 
road, and run down without hesitation every 
passenger or every lighter car that does not 
keep out of the way; and a community, on 
the other hand, where mutual deference and 
regard for others' rights to the road are prac 



deed as a matter of course. Imagine a society 
where there is mutual respect for rights, and 
mutual aid where necessary, and mutual good- 
will everywhere; imagine again a society 
where everyone lives in constant danger of 
ruin through fraud or violence, where there 
is no chance of getting one's rights except 
through the courts, and no chance of getting 
one's rights in court except through bribery 
a society, in short, where "man is a wolf to 
man " If the difference between two such 
societies is brought home to a normal child, 
he will wish for the first, and be willing to do 
his part to create and maintain it. Under 
proper guidance, furthermore, he may be led 
to discover what kind of action this involves. 
It means, for example, business men who are 
willing to say, with the late W. H. Baldwin, 
Jr., when he went to Fargo as agent of the 
Northern Pacific: "1 will get freight honestly 
or not at all." 

The Home a Character Laboratory. If such 
pictures are to mean anything to a child, the 
society which he knows best, namely, the fam- 
ily, must exemplify the traits which he is ex- 
pected to embody in his conduct in the larger 
world. If the members of this smaller group 
exhibit good will, consideration for each other's 
interests, charity in their judgments of each 
other, willingness to help each other, evenness 
of temper, ability to count absolutely upon 
each other's loyalty in time of stress, here is 
the first step toward the' appreciation of the 
value of the qualities which are to be incor- 
porated into the life of the larger world about 
him; here it is that he really learns the mean- 
ing of such words as justice, loyalty, and good- 
will. For no one really understands a word, 
or at any rate, realizes its significance, unless 
it represents something which he has observed 
or experienced. 

The Idea of Progress. For the full liberation 
of the forces within the child which make him 
willing to do his part in maintaining the modes 
of action upon which society depends, not 
merely for its welfare but for its very existence, 
there must be a belief that this society is 
capable not merely of being preserved at its 
present level, but of rising to higher levels 
than it has yet attained. The best preparation 
for this view of life is an inborn spirit of hope- 
fulness which is most intimately associated 
with abounding physical vigor and thus with 
perfect health. Another is some actual knowl- 
edge of the slow but sure progress of the race. 
Many history teachers know nothing of these 
things; they know only names, dates, and 
changes in boundary lines and in dynasties. 
Therefore, the parent ought to be prepared to 
attend to this matter himself. He may, for 
instance, read with the child such historical 
books as Breasted's Ancient Times. Another 
suggestion: a study of the men of the Stone 



CHARACTER TRAINING 



1308 



CHARCOAL 



Age is likely to be especially attractive to 
twelve-year-old children and may leave upon 
their young minds an indelible impression 
of the distance which man has traveled on 
the road toward a worthy civilization, and 
may thus implant a fixed belief in the power 
of mankind to go the rest of the way. 

Team Work. The child, like the adult, must 
feel also that he has and has had co-workers 
in this field. The marvelous examples of de- 
votion which are strewn through the records 
of every great war are due in part to the feeling 
of each soldier that he is only doing what 
countless comrades are doing, and to the 
consequent determination that where everyone 
else is contributing his part, he himself will 
not play the shirk. The victories of peace 
and the devotion to duty which peace demands 
even more insistently, though not so loudly 
as war, require, in like manner, a sense of the 
solidarity of human effort. We often fail to 
find it even where it is present. It is necessary, 
therefore, to become acquainted as intimately 
as possible with some of those who have been 
leaders in this great work of bringing civili- 
zation to, and preserving its benefits for, a 
world descended from roving bands of naked 
savages. Here again we may get much through 
biography and sometimes from history; also, 
an appreciation of the work of our contem- 
poraries from certain journals and magazines. 

One aspect of our relation to society our 
children should never be allowed to miss is 
the fact that every unprincipled man is a 
parasite or a sponge. He defrauds, for example, 
by taking advantage of the confidence between 
man and man, built up by millions of honest 
and kind acts; or he takes advantage of forms 
of helpfulness that have grown up on- the 
supposition that they will not be misused, 
whether it be a lift on the road or the liberty 
to use a book in a school library paid for by 
the taxpayers. 

Our Social Inheritance. The fact is that 
almost everything we have which is worth 
having we owe to others, and very much of it 
to their devotion, their public spirit, and often 
to their courage. The right of habeas corpus 
(which see), which protects us from arbitrary 
imprisonment; freedom of conscience; repre- 
sentative government and democratic insti- 
tutions in general; our own national inde- 
pendence; the unity of our country; our system 
of free schools all these were toiled for with 
unbounded efforts, and most of them were 
fought for at the risk of property and life. 
All these advantages the sponge greedily 
appropriates, and does not even do his part 
toward keeping them going. Such persons 
need to be shown that the first principle of a 
gentleman's code of honor is to row your own 
weight, and that of all the various types of 
men, the parasite is the most disgusting. 



Character in Spirit of Action. What we 
have to do in character education is not to 
attempt to create a lot of isolated qualities 
such as obedience, truthfulness, honesty, and 
charity of judgment, as we attempt to teach 
a dog a lot of unrelated tricks. All virtues are 
the expressions under varying conditions of 
a single spirit. Accordingly, what we have to 
do as parents and teachers is, as far as in 
us lies, to awaken this spirit where it sleeps, 
to make it more fully alive, to strengthen it 
where it already exists, and to render it as 
farseeing, as consistent, and as intelligent 
as we possibly can. A man who has money in 
his pocket can use it to buy a great variety 
of goods and services. Similarly, he who has 
the altruistic spirit possesses that which will 
enable him to assume the right relations in 
the home, on the playground, in the school, 
in his associations with his neighbors, with his 
customers, with his competitors, and in his 
capacity as a citizen, both of his native country 
and the world. F.C.S. 

Related Subjects. Parents who desire to explore further 
into the problems confronting them in rearing children are 
referred in these volumes to the following allied articles 

Anger in Childhood 

Childhood, Behavior in 

Dishonesty in Children 

Habits in Childhood, Troublesome 

Heredity (Inheritance of Intellectual and Moral Traits) 

Mental Conflict, a Cause of Misconduct 

CHARADE, sha rode', a popular form of 
riddle, the answer to which is a word of several 
syllables, each of which alone is in itself a 
word. Each syllable, taken as a word, is de- 
scribed, and finally a puzzling definition of the 
whole word is given. The following is an 
example: "Someone threw my first and sec- 
ond at me, and it hit my third. It did not 
hurt me, for it was only a branch of my whole." 
The answer is Mistletoe. 

A pleasing charade requiring more thought 
is in the form of a rhyme, as 

My first is a circle, ray second a cross; 

If you meet with my whole, look out for a toss. 

The answer is Ox. Charades may be presented 
in tableau form, that is, by persons in positions 
suggesting the word. A girl sitting under a 
high table would suggest the word misunder- 
stand. When charades are presented in the 
form of little plays, each syllable represents 
a scene; they are then called acting charades. 
This form of amusement is much in vogue on 
social occasions, especially with children. 

Derivation. It is thought that the word comes 
from the French word charade, meaning idle talk, 
which in turn was derived from the Spanish char- 
rod a and charro, meaning speech and actions of a clown. 

CHARCOAL is the familiar brittle, coal- 
like material produced when wood burns 
incompletely, and hence often found in the 
ashes of a wood fire. Wood consists chiefly 



CHARCOAL 



1309 



CHARD 




Photo. Visual Education Sanrio* 



OLD AND NEW METHODS OF PRODUCTION 

An old-time pit, stacked for burning; a group of modern retorts, from which black oak is being pulled. 



of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Charcoal 
was formerly made in large quantities by cut- 
ting down trees, piling the logs into mounds or 
pyramids, covering these with earth, and setting 
the wood on fire. The earth restricted the 
draught, or supply of air, to the fire, and thus 
kept the wood from burning completely to 
ashes. In countries where hardwood is plentiful, 
charcoal is still made in ways similar to that 
described. Sometimes the heating is carried out 
in closed iron retorts, and the escaping gases 
are cooled so as to condense the acetic acid, 
wood alcohol, and acetone which they contain. 

Although hardwood charcoal is the most 
common variety, almost any plant or animal 
material can be charred. 

Commercial charcoal is carbon mixed with 
the impurities which remain as ashes when the 
charcoal is burned. After wood charcoal, the 
next most common commercial varieties are 
lampblack, and animal charcoal, or boneblack. 
Boneblack is made by charring bones; lamp- 
black, by burning oil and letting its yellow 
flame strike against a cold metal cylinder 
which turns slowly so that it will not become 
overheated in any one part. See BONEBLACK. 

Uses of Charcoal. Wood charcoal is used as 
a fuel, and to produce a smokeless fire. It was 
formerly the only fuel used in the smelting of 
iron ores, but for this purpose it has been 
almost completely replaced by coke, a form 
of carbon made from coal in much the same 
way as charcoal is made from wood. Large 
quantities are still used in the old-fashioned 
black gunpowder, which is a mixture of char- 
coal, sulphur, and saltpeter. For military pur- 
poses this kind of gunpowder has now been 
largely replaced by other explosives, which 
have the double advantage of being much more 
powerful and of yielding little or no smoke. 
Charcoal gunpowder, however, is cheaper than 
these smokeless powders, and is therefore com- 
monly used in blasting rocks, in clearing land 
of tree stumps, and in loosening soil in some 
places, so that the roots of trees and plants can 
grow to greater depths than would otherwise 
be possible. 



Charcoal has the property of absorbing large 
quantities of gases. Boxwood charcoal will 
absorb ninety times its own volume of am- 
monia gas, and coconut charcoal 170 times its 
own volume. Charcoal is sometimes used to 
sweeten the air of rooms. Lampblack is much 
used in paints and in printing and drawing 
inks. Carbon inks, such as India ink and 
printing inks, do not fade like ordinary writing 
inks. Animal charcoal is largely used in the 
sugar refinery and in the distillery. Black as 
it is, it has the power of removing the color 
from crude sugar, syrups, and crude liquors, 
leaving them as clear and colorless as water. 
See ABSORPTION; COAL. 

Derivation. The origin of the word char is doubt- 
ful, but some authorities derive it from the Anglo- 
Saxon c car dan, meaning to crackle. 

CHARD, SWISS CHARD, OR SEA KALE, a 

valuable but not extensively cultivated vege- 

table. It is a 

form of common 

garden beet, but 

its roots are 

small and woody. 

The central rib 

of the leaf and 

the enlarged 

stalk are pre- 

pared for the 

table in much 

the same way as 

asparagus, and 

the succulent 

leaves them- 

selves are cooked 

as greens or used 

as a salad. Swiss 

chard is culti- 

vated in about 

the same man- 

ner as the gar- 

den beet, and 

deserves a place 

in the home 

garden, for a continuous supply of greens 

may be had all summer by means of succes- 




SWISS CHARD 



CHARGfi D'AFFAIRES 



1310 



CHARIOT 



sive leaf cuttings and thinnings. Like other 
leafy vegetables, chard is valuable for its min- 
eral salts and vitamins. See BEET. B.M.D. 

CHARGfi D'AFFAIRES, shahr zha' da- 
fair', a French phrase meaning charged with 
affairs, now used generally to indicate a diplo- 
matic agent of inferior rank sent by one country 
to another. He takes rank after ambassadors, 
ministers, and resident ministers, and is given 
his credentials not by the ruler of his state 
but by the minister of foreign affairs. Nor 
is he accredited to the ruler of the state to 
which he goes, but to the minister of foreign 
affairs. When two nations are on the verge 
of a break and ambassadors and ministers have 
been withdrawn, special charges d'affaires may 
be appointed to carry on the necessary com- 
munication. At any time that an ambassador 
is absent from his post, a member of his staff 
is made charge d'affaires. See DIPLOMACY. 

CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE, a 
stirring, patriotic poem by Alfred Tennyson, 
written to celebrate the memory of the English 
brigade of light cavalry whose heroic charge 
against the Russian center, in the Battle of 
Balaklava, has won it undying fame. This bat- 
tle, one of the most important engagements 
of the Crimean War (see CRIMEA), was fought 
on October 25, 1854, with the Turkish, French, 
and English forces contending against the 
Russians. Through a mistake in issuing orders, 
the English cavalry brigade under Lord Car- 
digan, numbering about 600 men, was com- 
manded to charge the Russian guns at the end 
of a long valley. Though they knew "someone 
had blundered," they rode to the attack at the 
word of command, while, in the language of 
the poet 

Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon in front of them 
Volley 'd and thunder 'd. 

Storm *d at with shot and shell, 
Boldly they rode and well, 
Into the jaws of Death, 
Into the mouth of Hell 
Rode the six hundred. 

Only a remnant of the brave company re- 
turned from the ride into the "jaws of Death." 
A French officer who witnessed the charge said, 
"It is magnificent, but it is not war." Yet 
that splendid example of devotion to duty has 
been an inspiration to the world through all 
the years that have passed, and whoever reads 
the story of the "Charge of the Light Brigade" 
feels as Tennyson did when he wrote the closing 
words of the poem: 

When can their glory fade? 
O the wild charge they made! 

All the world wondr'd. 
Honor the charge they made! 
Honor the Light Brigade, 

Noble six hundred. 



Related Subjects. For additional information on the 
historical setting, see the articles BALAKLAVA; CRIMEA 
(Crimean War). 

CHARING CROSS. See LONDON (England). 

CHARIOT, the original of all modern 
wheeled vehicles. The chariot of ancient times 
had two wheels surmounted by a boxlike body 
in which the driver stood, and was probably 
first used in war. Two or four horses were used, 
and in many cases the axles of the wheels were 




Arms on armour clashing bray'd 
Horrible discord, and the madding wheels 
Of brazen chariots ray'd; dire was the noise 
Of conflict MILTON: Paradise Lo\t 

armed with scythelike blades with which to 
mow down the ranks of the enemy. The ancient 
Britons used chariots both in war and for state 
occasions, and the conquering Romans took 
back home with them many of these vehicles 
and used them in their triumphal processions. 
Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, and Romans vied 
with each other in the magnificence of their 
chariots, which were built for display and 
effectiveness and not for speed. 

The reins of the harness were sufficiently 
long to be tied round the waist of the driver, 
leaving his hands free for the use of weapons. 
The wheels had four, sometimes eight, spokes, 
and were cumbersome and heavy. Many noted 
groups of statuary exist which depict a chariot 
drawn by two horses urged on at full speed 
by a warrior whose spear and quiver of arrows 
are ready to his hand. In olden days, chariot 
races were common; what is regarded as the 
finest description of such an event is found in 
Lew Wallace's historical novel Ben Hur. 

Derivation. The word chariot is derived from the 
Latin car r us, from which also descend the words car 
and carriage 



CHARIOTEER 



13" 



CHARITY 



CHARIOTEER, a name applied to the con- 
stellation Auriga (which see). See also, PHAE- 
THON; MYTHOLOGY (The Story of Phaethon); 
ASTRONOMY. 

CHARIS. See VULCAN. 

CHARITIES AND CORRECTIONS, NA- 
TIONAL CONFERENCE OF, now known as 
Conference of Social Work. See SOCIOLOGY. 

CHARITY. In the word charity are sum- 
med up the acts of mercy that man performs 
for the relief of his fellow creatures who are 
suffering from poverty, sickness, or other ills. 
Charity is a practical working out of the 
doctrine of the Brotherhood of Man; it is an 
expression of man's love for humanity, and 
offers a common meeting ground for afi those 
who find it "more blessed to give than to 
receive," regardless of their faith or creed. 
In the words of Pope (from the Essay on 



For modes of faith let graceless zealots fight; 
His can't be wrong whose life is in the right 
In faith and hope the world will disagree, 
But all mankind's concern is chanty. 

Individual charity, the kind advocated in 
the Biblical parable of the Good Samaritan, 
where a wayfarer saw another in trouble and 
"had compassion on him," has always existed 
and always will exist as long as there is suffer- 
ing in the world. In modern times, however, 
charity has come to be especially identified 
with organization, and with groups of indi- 
viduals who are working together for perma- 
nent and not temporary results. When charity 
or relief is administered in this form, the term 
"charity" is now generally dropped from the 
titles of administrative agencies and the terms 
"welfare" and "social work" are substituted. 
The primary reason for this substitution of 
terms is that the words "charity" and 
"relief" have come to signify in the minds of 
the poor an unfavorable distinction between 
themselves and their benefactors. 

Regulated Charity. Relief work of an or- 
ganized character had its beginning in the 
early Christian Church, and the churches are 
still active agents in the field of charity. But 
religious bodies being numerous and varied, 
more united efforts were needed for widespread 
success. With the realization of this fact, there 
developed a more universal cooperation. First 
came the formation of relief societies whose 
purpose was to do away with haphazard 
methods of giving and to place the work on a 
systematic basis. Later the idea was extended 
to improving permanently the condition of 
the poor. Relief societies now are maintained in 
almost countless numbers in various parts of 
the world, including in their work the care of 
destitute, neglected, and delinquent children, 
impoverished families in fact, people of every 
description who are in need of a helping hand. 



Bureaus of Charities. The final step in 
systematized charity was the formation 01 
societies under various names, such as As- 
sociated Charities, United Charities, Boards 
and Bureaus of Charities, and, more recently, 
Family Welfare societies and associations. 
The first of these societies, and the one on 
which the others have been modeled, was 
started in London in 1869, receiving the 
support of such eminent men as Gladstone and 
Ruskin. Its founders stated that its main 
object was "cure, as distinguished from the 
mere alleviation of distress." Hardly less im- 
portant was the aim to bring about such co- 
operation between existing relief societies as 
would do away with any overlapping of their 
fields of effort. 

Societies of this character are now main- 
tained in nearly all the larger cities of the 
United States, Great Britain, Canada, and 
Australia. Various charitable organizations 
similar to these are also found on the conti- 
nent of Europe. The first American society 
was founded in Buffalo, N. Y., in 1877. 

All of these societies work on certain funda- 
mental principles. First of all, they investigate 
all cases that come to their attention. A rec- 
ord is made for each family and placed on file 
for reference. All possible information is ob- 
tained, and this is placed at the disposal of 
individuals or relief societies that are inter- 
ested. In this way the charity-organization 
society makes possible cooperation among all 
the philanthropic agencies of the city. 

A certain amount of personal service is con- 
ducted by voluntary workers called friendly 
visitors, and especially, more recently, by paid 
professional case workers. The purely al- 
truistic and sympathetic motive is giving way 
to the more constructive philanthropy of en- 
couraging self-help and assisting the individual 
to make his own adjustments. 

Indeed, a new note has been sounded 
throughout the entire field of charities. While 
the older type of social service, as typified by 
relief societies, was directed toward the needs of 
the individual, the emphasis is now placed 
increasingly upon community reorganization 
and control. The work of these organizations 
now includes the effort to bring about certain 
social reforms to mitigate poverty, immorality, 
inefficiency, and crime by endeavoring to 
interest the community in establishing play- 
grounds, public baths, swimming pools, and 
comfort stations, and in improving housing 
conditions and sanitary conditions in general. 

Social work is coming to be recognized as a 
profession, requiring men and women of edu- 
cation and high ability, and the necessity for 
scientific method in attacking social problems 
has led to the establishment of special training 
schools and departments in universities. More- 
over, increased attention is being given to 



CHARITY 



1312 



CHARLEMAGNE 



research and a scientific study of human be- 
havior. 

The chanty bureaus are supported by volun- 
tary contributions, and are administered by 
boards of directors chosen from among the 
contributors. See SOCIOLOGY. L.L.B. 

CHARITY, SISTERS or, also written SISTERS 
or MERCY, is the name given to a number of 
Orders of women in the Roman Catholic 
Church which are devoted to the care and edu- 
cation of the sick, the poor, the aged, or the 
orphaned. Each order is known by its special 
gown or habit, usually loose robes of black, 
relieved at the throat and about the face by 
a touch of white. The members of all the 
orders are forbidden to marry. The first or- 
ganization was established in France by Saint 
Vincent de Paul in 1629 and was approved by 
the Pope, after which it spread rapidly wherever 
the Roman Catholic Church was found. These 
orders have become one of the strongest, best- 
known, and generally appreciated organizations 
within the Church. Because of their self- 
sacrificing lives and their systematic devotion 
to assisting the needy, the members have been 
spared persecution many times during religious 
conflicts. They have been saved by opposing 
forces when cities in which they were estab- 
lished were besieged and nearly destroyed. 
There are now a number of orders in America 
which are popularly known as the Sisters of 
Charity. G.W.M. 

CHARLEMAGNE, shahr' le mane (742-814), 
the first of the Holy Roman Emperors and the 
only ruler of whose name the Great has been 
made a real part for Charlemagne means 
literally Charles the Great. His influence on 
the history of Europe is hard to overestimate, 
for he lived just at the close of the Dark Ages, 
and by his enlightened measures did much to 
hasten the dawn of a better civilization. 

He was the son of Pepin the Short and the 
grandson of the famous Charles Martel. On 
his father's death in 768, he became joint king 
of the Franks with his brother Carloman, but 
three years later Carloman died, and Charle- 
magne was recognized as sole king of the 
Franks. Desiderius, king of the Lombards, 
already angered because Charlemagne had mar- 
ried his daughter and divorced her, supported 
the claims of Carloman's children to their 
father's part of the kingdom, and against him 
Charlemagne undertook his first campaign. 
This being victoriously ended, he seized all 
the Lombard possessions and placed on his 
own head the famous Iron Crown of Lombardy. 
In 774, before leaving Italy, Charlemagne vis- 
ited Rome and formally approved the donation 
of certain lands made by his father to the 
Pope. This is looked upon as the beginning 
of the Papal claims to temporal power, which 
caused so much disturbance in Europe through- 
out medieval times. 



Campaigns. From this time on, his long 
reign was filled with wars; it is said that he 
made, in all, fifty-two campaigns. Lombards, 
Saracens, and Saxons especially were time after 
time forced to defend themselves against him, 
usually in vain. Yet despite his success, Charle- 




CHARLEMAGNE 

The inscription declares that "Charles the Great 
ruled as emperor for fourteen years'*; the sword 
and the orb represent, respectively, his might and 
his divine right, while the emblems above, the eagle 
of Germany and the fleur-de-lis of France, indicate 
that his empire marked the beginning of those 
two great states. [The original painting of the 
above was by Albert Durer; it is now in the National 
Museum at Nuremberg, Germany. J 

magne was not a great warrior. His genius lay 
rather in organization, and this helped him 
not only to win his victories but to weld his 
great empire with its unrelated peoples into 
something approaching unity. The religious 
motive was often strong in his wars. For this 
reason, he undertook, in 777, an expedition 
against the Saracens in Spain, and it was on 
his return march that his rear guard under 
Roland was attacked and cut to pieces by the 
wild peoples of the Pyrenees in the famous 
Pass of Roncesvalles. He was determined, too, 
to establish Christianity among the Saxons, 
and for almost thirty years waged intermittent 
war against them. During the struggle, after 
one of numerous revolts, Charlemagne had 
4,500 Saxon prisoners put to death at one time 



CHARLEMAGNE 



1313 



CHARLES 



all in air effort to force the Saxons to become 
Christians. In time they yielded to these 
forceful methods; Saxony became a part of 
Charlemagne's empire, and most of the Saxon 
leaders of the old regime were put to death. 

Holy Roman Empire. In 800 Pope Leo III 
called Charlemagne to Rome to ask his aid 




Photo Visual Education Service 
CORONATION OF CHAKLhMAGNE 

in a struggle against a hostile faction. After 
Charlemagne was victorious, the Pope rewarded 
him by placing upon his head a crown of gold 
and proclaiming him emperor of the Romans, 
the successor of Augustus and Constantine. 
Thus was established the Holy Roman Empire, 
that curious monarchy which played so large 
a part in the history of medieval Europe. 

Importance in History. It is not only or 
chiefly as a conqueror that Charlemagne was 
an important world figure. He was as well a 
statesman who bound together his empire and 




CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE 

As divided in 843- 

prevented the great nobles from becoming too 
powerful, by employing his missi dominici, or 
officials appointed by him and responsible to 
him. He protected commerce, punishing se- 

83 



verely the robbers who had made perilous the 
life of traveling merchants, and encouraged 
and improved agriculture. Then, too, he was 
an enthusiastic patron of learning. He formed 
at his court a school for nobles and their sons, 
with Alcuin as teacher, and he himself learned 
to read Latin and even Greek, though he could 
not write legibly. 

His great empire, which included not only 
modern France but Germany, Holland, Bel- 
gium, Switzerland, Hungary, most of Italy, and 
a part of Spain, was left to his son, Louis I, 
but the son was not as strong as the father, 
and the carefully built structure was in time 
torn apart. 

Related Subjects. For additional information connected 
with the life and work of Charlemagne, see these articles 
Charles (France) Franks 

Charles Muriel Holy Roman Empire 

Crown (Iron Crown) Pepin 

Dark Ages Roland 

CHARLEROI, shahr le roi' , PA. See PENN- 
SYLVANIA (back of map). 

CHARLES [England], the name of two Eng- 
lish sovereigns of the royal Scottish House of 




CHARLLS 1 

The famous triple portrait, by Van Dyck. 

Stuart, both of whom were firm believers in 
the doctrine of the "divine right of kings." 
The life of the first of the two was a sacrifice 
to this belief. 

Charles I (1600-1649), son of James 1, persisted in 
a course of tyranny throughout his reign that ended 
in his execution and the establishment of the Com- 
monwealth of England. He came to the throne of 
England in 1625, within the next four years he con- 
vened three Parliaments and dissolved each of them 
because they refused to submit to his arbitrary ways. 
To the famous Petition of Right, drawn up by the 
third Parliament, he at first agreed, but speedily 
violated its most important clauses by attempting to 
raise money by unlawful taxes and loans. Between 
1629 and 1640, Charles governed England without a 
Parliament, using the courts of the Star Chamber 
and High Commission to make his various methods 
of raising money seem legal. 



CHARLES 



1314 



CHARLES 




In 1639 the king's attempt to force Scotland to use 
English forms of worship led to a rebellion, and he 
was obliged to call a Parliament in order to have 
money voted to crush the insurrection. In 1640 the 
famous Long Parliament assembled (so-called because 
it remained in session twelve years), but Charles 
succeeded no better 
with this assembly 
than with the others, 
and civil war began 
when he attempted to 
seize five of its lead- 
ing members. The 
king had on his side 
the nobility, gentry, 
and clergy, while the 
Puritans and the 
people of the great 
trading towns sup- 
ported Parliament. 
In the course of the 
struggle the "man of 
the hour," Oliver 
Cromwell, came into i -v 
prominence, and his 
great victories at 
Marston Moor (1644) 
and Naseby (1645) marked the ruin of the king's 
cause. In 1646 Charles escaped to Scotland, but 
was delivered up to the English Parliament. In 
1649 he was tried, condemned as a public enemy of 
the nation, and beheaded. The private life of this 
unfortunate king was blameless. 

Charles II (1630-1685), son of Charles I, was the 
first of the restored Stuart line. In 1651 he was pro- 
claimed king by the Scotch, but his army was defeated 
by Cromwell at Worcester, and he fled to France 
The death of Cromwell in 1658 and the popular dis- 
satisfaction with the Commonwealth as a form of 
government opened the way for his return, and in 
1660 he was crowned as Charles II. His first Parlia- 
ment gave him all the privileges which earlier as- 
semblies had fought to keep his father from enjoying 
Among the important events of his reign were a war 
with the Dutch, the great plague and fire of London, 
the Rye House Plot, and the passage by Parliament 
in 1679 of the famous Habeas Corpus Act. 

The court of Charles II was accounted the most 
immoral in all English history, and the evil life of the 
king and his associates was reflected in the literature 
of the Restoration Period. 

Related Subjects. The reader is referred in these vol- 
umes to the following articles: 



CHARLES I ON HIS WAY TO EXECUTION 



Commonwealth of 

England 

Cromwell, Oliver 
Divine Right of Rings 
Habeas Corpus 
Hampden, John 



Long Parliament 
Naseby, Battle of 
Petition of Right 
Restoration, The 
Rye House Plot 
Star Chamber 



CHARLES [France], the name of ten sov- 
ereigns who have worn the crown of France. 
The first was Charles the Bald, youngest son 
of Charlemagne's son Louis, who received the 
western portion of his father's empire when it 
was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. 
The kingdom 'over which he ruled until 877 
was the nucleus of modern France, and he is 
therefore known as Charles I of France. 



Charles II, surnamed THE FAT, ruled from 885 
until 887, when his subjects, wearied by his 
cowardly method of defending the country 
from the attacks of the Northmen, deposed 
him; Charles III soon succeeded him. 

CharlesIII, called 
THE SIMPLE, came 
to the throne in 
893. During his 
reign the territory 
later known as Nor- 
mandy was ceded 
to the Northmen, 
and Lorraine was 
conquered. Im- 
prisoned during a 
revolt of his sub- 
jects, he died in 
captivity in Q2Q. 
Charles IV, known 
as THE FAIR, was 

Photo V^Educ.tioBS.rrice king flOTI \V* tO 

1328, the last of 
the Capetian line 
(see CAPETIAN DYNASTY) . His rule was marked 
by the strengthening of the royal power and 
the suppression of the lawless nobles in the 
kingdom. 

Charles V, surnamed THE WISE (1337-1380), was 
born in the same year in which the Hundred Years' 
War (which see) began When his father, John the 
Good, was taken captive by the English at the Battle 
of Poitiers, in 1356, Charles ruled in his stead and 
was crowned king in 1364. He fought England for 
several years, wresting from his enemies nearly all 
that they had won from his father, and was equally 
successful in establishing order in his own kingdom 
Charles was a patron of art and literature, and laid 
the foundations of the National Library of France 
(see BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALS). The famous prison 
known as the Bastille (which see) was built by him 
to keep the lawless citizens of Paris in order. 

Charles VI (1368-1422), son of Charles V, was a 
boy of twelve when his father died. Four of his 
uncles divided the kingly power among them, and 
their personal ambitions soon brought the country 
to a state of great disorder. Finally, in 1388, Charles 
took the governing power into his own hands and 
ruled wisely until 1392. In that year he suffered 
from an attack of insanity, and when it became evi- 
dent that his mind was permanently weakened, his 
uncles regained their power. 

The rivalry between two of these, the Duke of 
Burgundy and the Duke of Orleans, split the country 
into two warring factions. Henry V of England, 
making the weakness of France serve his own pur- 
poses, invaded the country, and in 1415 won a great 
victory at Agincourt (which see). Five years later, 
the Peace of Troyes was signed, by which Charles VI 
acknowledged Henry V as his successor and disin- 
herited his own son. When the king died, in 1422, 
nearly all of France was under the control of the 
English. 

Charles VII (1403-1461), who succeeded his father 
Charles VI in 1422, fell heir to a crown that was 
claimed by the English for their king, Henry VI. 



CHARLES 

With nearly all of his realm in the hands of the 
foreign foe, the young king looked on helplessly while 
the English continued their conquests, and when 
Orleans was besieged in 1428 the outlook for France 
was dark indeed. In 1429 came another terrible de- 




CROWNING OF CHARLES VII 

Behind the monarch stands Joan of Arc, the deliverer 

of France from the English. [Photograph from the 

painting by Jules Eugene Lencpveu 1 

feat, but in that year the deliverer of France ap- 
peared the heroic Joan of Arc (which see) Inspired 
by her faith and enthusiasm, the French raised the 
siege of Orleans, and on July 17, 1429, Charles was 
crowned at Rheims In the years that followed, the 
French drove the English from all their holdings in 
France except Calais. 

As soon as Charles knew that his claim to the 
throne was secure, he began to reorganize the govern- 
ment, and in the course of time peace and prosperity 
returned to France. He was, however, a timid and 
irresolute ruler, and it is to his lasting discredit that 
he made no effort to save Joan of Arc from her 
terrible fate. 

Charles VIII (1470-1498) succeeded his father, 
Louis XI, in 1483, when he was only thirteen years 
of age. For the next eight years, the kingdom was 
wisely governed by the boy king's sister, Anne of 
Beaujeu. In 1491 he married Anne, Duchess of 
Brittany, thereby adding the duchy to the French 
realm. Charles became king in fact as well as in 
name at the age of twenty-one, and his reign is 
memorable because of his invasion of Italy in I4Q4- 
This was an epoch-making event in European history, 



CHARLES 

for it was the beginning of four centuries of interfer- 
ence by the northern nations in the affairs of Italy. 
Charles accomplished the conquest of the kingdom 
of Naples in 1495, but a league was formed against 
him and his efforts came to nothing. 

Charles IX (1550-1574), son of Henry II and 
Catharine de' Medici (which see), succeeded his elder 
brother, Francis II, at the age of ten. Even after he 
was declared of age, his mother, who had acted as 
regent, was the real sovereign of the nation. His 
reign was one of the unhappiest in French history, 
disturbed continually by civil wars, intrigues, and 
strife between the Roman Catholics and Protestants 
Though not vicious, the young king was weak and 
easily influenced, and so was persuaded by his mother 
to permit the greatest outrage of his entire reign, the 
massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day (August 24, 
1572). Charles himself suffered terrible remorse for 
having given his consent to the massacre, and died 
two years later. See SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY. 

Charles X (1759-1836), younger brother of Louis 
XVI and Louis XVIII, and the last sovereign of the 
older Bourbon line of kings, was a striking example of 
the old saying, "A Bourbon never learns anything and 
never forgets anything" (sec BOURBONS). Succeeding 
his brother, Louis XVIII, in the year 1824, he began 
at once to revive the old despotic rule which had 
driven the French people to the Revolution of 1789 
(see FRENCH REVOLUTION). All liberal measures 
were disregarded, the clergy was restored to power, 
the Constitution was ignored, and laws were changed 
merely by the king's proclamation. In 1830 the 
people of Paris rose in revolt, and in August of that 
year Charles abdicated in favor of his grandson, 
Henry of Bordeaux. The French, however, chose 
Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, as their king. 
Charles escaped to England, and afterward took up 
his residence in Austria, where he died. See FRANCE 
(History). 

Related Subjects. Within each of the paragraphs de- 
tailing the lives of the above kings are references which 
should be consulted, to amplify the text. 

CHARLES I (1887-1922), popularly known 
as KARL I, was the last emperor of Austria 
and the last king of Hungary, succeeding his 
uncle, Francis Joseph, on the Austro-Hungarian 
throne, November 21, 1916. Before that date 
he was the Archduke Karl Franz Joseph. 
Before he became heir to the throne through the 
assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdi- 
nand, there were many at the Viennese court 
who had never seen him. In the World War he 
served at the front as nominal head of the army 
until German officers assumed the Austrian 
commands. Upon the defeat of his country, he 
fled to Switzerland. Later, he secluded him- 
self and family in the Madeira Islands, where 
he died. His wife, former Empress Zita of 
Parma, and the six former royal children were 
later permitted to return to Europe to live; 
they reside in Spain. See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

CHARLES [Sweden], the name of several 
Swedish monarchs. 

Charles IX (1550-1611), third son of Gustavus Vasa 
(see GUSTAVUS I), began his rule as regent of the 
kingdom in 1592, on the death of his brother John. 
In this position he gave his support to the establish- 



CHARLES 



1316 



CHARLES MARTEL 



meat of Protestantism in Sweden. He was crowned 
king in 1604, and during his reign engaged in wars 
with Poland, Russia, and Denmark. Charles was the 
founder of the University of Gothenburg and the 
author of a rhymed history of his war with Poland. 

Charles X, GUSTAVUS (1622-1660), who reigned 
from 1654 to 1660, was the nephew of the great 
Gustavus II Adolphus (which see), and successor of 
Queen Christina. Soon after his accession he invaded 
Poland, and having forced Frederick William, elector 
of Brandenburg, to give him aid, defeated the Poles 
in a famous battle at Warsaw (1656). During a war 
with Denmark, he secured for his own kingdom the 
Danish provinces of Scania and Holland, and laid 
siege to Copenhagen. The Dutch then came to the 
help of the Danes, and Frederick William turned 
against Charles so successfully that the Swedish forces 
were defeated both on land and on sea. 

Charles XI (1655-1604) succeeded his father, 
Charles X, in 1660, at the age of five, but the kingdom 
was ruled by his mother, Hedwig, until the boy had 
reached the age of seventeen. His reign began with 
wars against the Germans, the Dutch, and the Danes. 
After the restoration of peace, Charles began a period 
of reform. He diminished the power of the nobles, 
cut down the public debt, reorganized the army and 
navy and brought them to a high degree of excellence, 
and by his wise management of the public revenues, 
put the finances of the kingdom on a firm basis. 

Charles XII (1682-1718), one of the most remark- 
able kings of the middle period, was the eldest son of 
Charles XI, whom he succeeded in 1697. At that 
time Sweden was one of the great European powers, 
and the Baltic Sea was practically a Swedish lake. 
The growing power of the Scandinavian kingdom to 
the north was jealously watched by three European 
sovereigns Frederick IV of Denmark, Augustus of 
Poland, and Peter the Great of Russia. When the 
young king ascended the Swedish throne, these rulers 
decided that the time was ripe for them to strike for 
the control of the Baltic, and in 1700 the War of the 
North began 

Charles threw himself into the conflict with a reck- 
less daring that has won for him the name of "Mad- 
man of the North." Though he won several brilliant 
victories, in the end he overestimated his strength and 
made a foolhardy invasion of Russia. At Pultowa 
(1709) his army was nearly wiped out by the forces of 
Peter the Great, and he fled southward to Turkey. 
After spending five years in fruitless plots and schemes 
for revenge, which led to his imprisonment by the 
Turks, he escaped to Stralsund, a Swedish possession 
in Prussia. For a year he conducted a brilliant de- 
fense of the place, yielding finally to a combined force 
of Danes, Saxons, Prussians, and Russians. Soon 
after this, he invaded Norway, and was killed while 
besieging Frederikshald. 

CHARLES, in the history of the Holy Ro- 
man Empire, the name of seven monarchs who 
bore the title HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR. In 
theory the Holy Roman emperors were suc- 
cessors of Charlemagne, but in fact they ruled 
over the German dominions and Italy. Ex- 
cepting Charlemagne (Charles the Great), 
Charles V and Charles VI were the most im- 
portant of the emperors who bore the name 
of Charles. 

Charles V (1500-1558) was one of the most powerful 
sovereigns of the sixteenth century. Heir to the rich 



and populous provinces of the Netherlands and to the 
dominions of Spain and the Austrian House of Haps- 
burg, he became king of Spain as Charles I in 1516, 
and was crowned Emperor Charles V in 1520 as suc- 
cessor to Maximilian I. His reign was greatly dis- 
turbed by wars with Francis I of France and Solyman 
the Magnificent, sultan of Turkey. In his second war 
with Francis I, an imperial army plundered Rome and 
took the Pope prisoner. Charles and Francis ended 
their struggles in 1544, but in the meantime the great 
Reformation movement had developed in the German 
dominions of the emperor. 

Had Charles been able at the beginning of his reign 
to turn his attention to religious matters in Germany, 
he might have prevented the growth of Protestantism 
during his lifetime. When, in 1546, the year of 
Luther's death, he began serious efforts to suppress 
the movement, he found the Protestants too strong 
for him, and by the Peace of Augsburg (1555) it was 
agreed that the people of each German state should 
adopt the religion, whether Protestant or Roman 
Catholic, of the ruling prince of that state. Charles 
began, however, the persecution of the Protestants 
in Spain and the Netherlands that were continued by 
his son Philip II of Spain. 

Wearied by his years of warfare and saddened by 
his failure to make all of his subjects think alike in 
matters of religion, the emperor in 1555 and 1556 
gave up to his son, Philip, the crowns of the Nether- 
lands and Spain, and to his brother, Ferdinand, his 
imperial authority. 

Charles VI (1685-1740), the last of the direct male 
line of the House of Hapsburg, and the second son of 
the Emperor Leopold I, was Holy Roman emperor 
from 1711 to 1740. In 1700, on the death of Charles 
II of Spain, Charles of Hapsburg claimed the Spanish 
throne as the rival of Philip of Anjou. This brought 
on the War of the Spanish Succession, in which Great 
Britain and Holland aided Charles. When he became 
emperor of Germany in 1711, Charles was forced by 
his allies to give up his claim to the Spanish crown, 
but was permitted to retain the Spanish possessions 
in the Netherlands and in Italy. In 1713 he published 
the Pragmatic Sanction, by which his daughter Maria 
Theresa was to inherit all the possessions of the House 
of Austria. Charles spent more than twenty years 
of his reign trying to win the consent of the European 
powers to the Pragmatic Sanction. 

Related Subjects. The reader is referred to the following 
important articles. 

Charlemagne Pragmatic Sanction 

Hapsburg, House of Reformation 

Holy Roman Empire Spain (History) 

Maria Theresa Succession Wars 

Netherlands (History) Utrecht, Peace of 

CHARLES EDWARD, THE YOUNG PRE- 
TENDER. See STUART, CHARLES EDWARD. 

CHARLES' LAW. See HYDROSTATICS; 
GAS, subhead. 

CHARLES MARTEL, sharl mar id' (about 
688-741), a famous leader of the Franks, who 
won his title of Martel, meaning the hammer, 
by his celebrated defeat of the Arabs on the 
plain of Tours, in A.D. 732. It was this battle 
which saved the Christian civilization of West- 
ern Europe from being overwhelmed by the 
power of Mohammedanism. Under the last 
Merovingian kings, Charles held the position 
of mayor of the palace, but exercised real 



CHARLES RIVER 



1317 



CHARLESTON 



kingly authority. He thus prepared the way 
for his son Pepin. 

Related Subject!. The fight at Tours is considered as 
one of the few decisive battles of the world (see FIFTEEN 
DECISIVE BATTLES). See, also, MEROVINGIANS, PEPIN. 

CHARLES RIVER. See MASSACHUSETTS 
(Coast and Rivers). 

CHARLES THE BALD. See CAROLINGIANS; 
CHARLES (France) ; FRANCE. 

CHARLES THE BOLD. See BURGUNDY. 

CHARLES THE GREAT. See CHARLE- 
MAGNE. 

CHARLESTON, THE. See DANCING (The 
Sensational New Dances). 

CHARLESTON, S. C., the largest city of 
the state, and one of the most conspicuous 
historical cities in the South. In its harbor, 
in 1 86 1, the War of Secession began with the 
bombardment and capture of Fort Sumter, 
and it was the first Southern city to participate 
in the Revolutionary War. Charleston is the 
county seat of Charleston County. It is situ- 
ated on the southeastern coast of the state, on a 
tongue of land between the Ashley and Cooper 
rivers. These two rivers unite immediately 
below the town to form the spacious harbor 
which communicates with the Atlantic Ocean 
at Sullivan's Island, about seven miles below. 
Savannah is 130 miles southwest, and Colum- 
bia, the state capital, 124 miles northwest. 
Population, IQ28, 80,180 (Federal estimate). 

General Description. With its stately 
colonial mansions, its gardens of magnolias, 
camellias, jessamine, and azaleas, and its wide 
streets, with their borders of shade trees, 
Charleston has retained the Southern charm and 
leisurely spirit that are in sharp contrast with its 
thriving commercial aspect. Especially is it 
known for its gardens, which John Galsworthy 
called the most beautiful in the world. The 
loveliest of these are the Magnolia Gardens, on 
the old estate "Magnolia-on-the- Ashley." 
Created by the Reverend John Drayton. who 
was ordered by his physician to recuperate his 
health by life in the open, they arc a monument 
to his exquisite taste. Mr. Drayton planted, 
in 1843, the first Azalea indica grown in the 
United States. See full-page illustration of 
these gardens, in article MAGNOLIA. 

Charleston has nine miles of water front, 
and its harbor has been so improved by the 
construction of jetties as to admit large vessels. 
Fort Sumter, Fort Johnson, and Fort Moultrie, 
on Sullivan's Island, guard the harbor, but 
these defenses are now obsolete; the artil- 
lery post at Fort Moultrie is one of the best 
equipped in the United States. On the Cooper 
River, seven miles from the city, the govern- 
ment maintains the only navy yard on the 
South Atlantic coast. 

Transportation. The city is served by the Atlantic 
Coast Line Railroad, the Seaboard Air Line, and 



the Southern Railway system. The last-named 
was one of the first railroads in the United States 
to be operated by steam locomotives (1830); it 
extended from Charleston to Hamburg, and was 
called the South Carolina Railroad. Charleston is 
also a port of call for important lines of steamers. 

Commerce and Industry. The city is a great dis- 
tributing point and wholesale jobbing center for the 
Southeast. It is the only coal-export port on the 
South Atlantic coast; ships coal here for Cuba and 
South America. There are located in Charleston more 
than 150 industrial plants. The Standard Oil Com- 
pany operates an oil refinery here. The city has one 
of four "tobacco terminals" of the United States, and 
is the chief tobacco port on the Atlantic. It is also 
one of the chief shipping centers for commercial fer- 
tilizer, and has one of the largest asbestos plants in 
the world. The principal exports are cotton and cot- 
ton goods, oil, tobacco, coal, iron, and steel; leading 
imports are chemicals, lumber, ore, paper, and 
cement. 

Education. Besides the public-school system, the 
city has the College of Charleston, dating from 1788; 
the Citadel Military College, the Avery Normal 
Institute (colored); Porter Military Academy; and 
the Medical College of South Carolina There are 
also numerous academies and business schools. The 
library of Charleston is maintained by subscription 
and is the third oldest in the United States, having 
been established in 1743 Charleston Museum, 
founded in 1773, is the oldest in the United States 

History. Charleston is one of the oldest 
American cities. An English settlement, made 
here in 1670, was named Charles Town, for 
King Charles II. A company of Huguenots 
joined the settlement in 1685. By 1775 it had 
become the third seaport in importance in 
America. In 1776 the provincial congress of 
South Carolina met in Charles Town, and in the 
same year the first independent state consti- 
tution was adopted. In 1783 Charleston was 
incorporated, and until 1790 it was the capital 
of the state. Its conspicuous part in the 
War of Secession is told under that title in 
these volumes. 

The city was visited by the greatest earth- 
quake known in the history of the United 
States, in August, 1886; more than $8,000,000 
worth of property was destroyed, three-fourths 
of the homes were demolished or damaged, and 
many people were killed. Since that time the 
city has made steady progress, as is detailed 
above. C.C.M. 

CHARLESTON, W. VA., the state capital 
and the county seat of Kanawha County, is a 
prosperous industrial and residential city, 
located in the middle- western part of the state, 
midway between the northern and southern 
borders. The city occupies an attractive site 
in the western foothills of the Appalachians, 
at the junction of the Elk and Great Kanawha 
rivers, the latter navigable the year round. It 
is fifty miles east of Huntington, 272 miles 
west and south of Wheeling, and 211 miles east 
and south of Cincinnati, O. Population, 1928, 
55,000 (Federal estimate). 



CHARLBVOIX 1318 

Charleston lies between high hills a mile 
apart. A beautiful, tree-lined boulevard, ex- 
tending for miles along the banks of the Great 
Kanawha, is the center of the finest residential 
district, but everywhere there is a profusion of 
flowers and foliage. The city is named in 
honor of the son of Captain Charles Clenden- 
nin; the son, George Clendennin, erected a fort 
in the vicinity about 1789, and a settlement 
grew around it. The first industry was the 
exploitation of the salt-brine resources. The 
place was incorporated as a town in 1794, and 
as a city in 1870. Since the latter date, it has 
been the capital of the state, except during the 
decade 1875-1885, when Wheeling was the 
seat of government. 

Transportation. The city is served by four trunk- 
line railroads the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Baltimore 
& Ohio, the New York Central, and the Virginian; 
and there is steamboat connection with all the leading 
ports of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. 

Industry. Rich deposits of bituminous coal, salt, 
iron, oil, and timber in the vicinity have greatly 
furthered the industrial prosperity of the city, and 
the fine shipping facilities by rail and water have 
made it a distributing point for all these products. 
In addition to being open to shipping the year round, 
the Great Kanawha has an excellent system of locks 
and dams. Charleston is the center of a populous 
industrial district which includes the territory on 
both sides of the Great Kanawha from Gauley Bridge, 
on the east, to and including Scary and Nitro, on the 
west. More than 40,000,000 tons of coal are mined 
in one year within a radius of seventy-five miles, 
which gives employment to 12,000 miners. 

Within the city or district are more than 275 in- 
dustrial plants, including the largest ax factory, the 
largest sheet-glass factory, and the largest mine-car 
factory in the world. The Charleston area is a leading 
center for the production of anhydrous ammonia, 
amyl alcohol, and chlorine products, and has large 
railroad repair shops, boat-building yards, veneer 
works, and lumber mills. It is the location of the 
only government-owned armorplate factory in the 
United States. s P p. 

CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE. See CANADA (His- 
tory). 

CHARLOTTE, sahr' lot. See LUXEMBURG. 

CHARLOTTE, N. C., a city and the county 
seat of Mecklenburg County, is situated on 
Sugar Creek, near the southern state line, 
about midway between the eastern and western 
borders. Raleigh, the capital, is 174 miles 
northeast. Population, 1928, 82,100 (Federal 
estimate). 

industry. Charlotte is the trade center for an agri- 
cultural and cotton-growing section, and the kindred 
cotton industries claim its chief interest; these are 
cotton-weaving and the manufacture of cotton-mill 
machinery, cottonseed oil, and other by-products. In 
this locality there are several hundred textile mills, 
operating nearly one-third of the active spindles in 
America. Fertilizers, belting, saddlery, harness, 
drugs, cement, and various kinds of machinery are 
also made here. Gold deposits formerly occurred in 
this section of the state, and a branch mint was estab- 



CHARLOTTB 



lished here in 1838; at the beginning of the War of 
Secession it was closed, but was reopened as an assay 
office in i86q. 

This city is one of the largest hydroelectric centers 
in the United States, and the home of the Southern 
Power Company. 

Education. Educational requirements are met by 
Davidson College, outside the city limits, Queens 
College for Women, Presbyterian College, Saint 
Mary's Seminary, North Carolina Medical College, 
Elizabeth College, and Biddle University (Presby- 
terian). Johnston C. Smith University is for colored 
students. 

Railroads. The city has the service of the South- 
ern, the Piedmont & Northern, the Norfolk Southern, 
and the Seaboard Air Line railways. 

History. The place was settled in 1750, was 
incorporated in 1768, and in 1774 became the 
county seat. It was named for Princess 
Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, wife of 
George III. 

Here, on May 20, 1775, the Mecklenburg 
Declaration of Independence (which see) was 
adopted, and a monument has been erected 
to its signers. In September, 1780, Lord Corn- 
wallis occupied the city, and during his stay 
pronounced it a "hornet's nest," a name since 
then adopted by the city as its emblem. 
Charlotte was also the headquarters of Gen- 




THE BOATMAN OF THL STYX 

Old Charon by the Stygian coast, 
Takes toll of all the shades who land. 

ST. JOHN LUCAS. 

[Illustration is from a detail from a painting by 
Neide. See article, page 1319.] 

eral Gates in 1780, and here in the War of 
Secession the full Confederate Cabinet met for 
the last time. 



CHARLOTTE AMALIE 



1319 



CHARTER 




CHARLOTTE AMALIE, ah mah' le. See 
VIRGIN ISLANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

CHARLOTTETOWN, the capital of Prince 
Edward Island (which see). 

CHARMS, PROTECTION BY. See SUPER- 
STITION, subhead. 

CHARNOCK, JOB, founder of Calcutta 
(which see). 

CHARON, ka' ran. In Greek mythology, 
Charon is the ragged old ferryman of the 
Lower World. He 
is represented as 
the son of Erebus 
and Night, bent 
and old, with 
matted beard and 
tattered garments. 
Gloomily, with 
one oar, he ferried 
the shades of the 
dead across the 
rivers Styx and 
Acheron to the 
realm of Hades. 
But the mytho- 
logical story tells 
us that only those 
would he take 
who had had a 
proper burial, and in whose 
mouths was placed an obolus, 
the coin Charon exacted as his 
fee. All others were compelled 
to wander wearily on the shores 
of the river for a century; after 
that time, Charon would take 
them without charge to their 
final resting places. 

Charon appears frequently in 
literature and art. Homer does 
not mention him, but he is pic- 
tured in Vergil's Aeneid. The 
hero Aeneas is ferried across to 
Hades in the boat which had 
previously carried only shades. 
Though Charon for a long time 
refused to perform this service, 
he was finally persuaded to do 
it. The great painting by Pol- 
ygnotus, Odysseus in the Lower 
World, shows this ancient ferry- 
man. On some early Etruscan 
monuments he appears as an ugly, animal-faced 
demon of death, with tusks and pointed ears, 
carrying snakes or a large hammer. One of the 
best of the paintings [frustrating the myth of 
Charon is by Neide. See STYX; ACHERON. 

CHARR. See TROUT. 

CHART, a map or drawing made for a par- 
ticular purpose, in which accuracy of detail is 
the chief requirement. The one possibly in 
most common use is the mariner's, or hydro- 
graphic, chart. This shows a seacoast with 




THE CHARTER OAK 

Tradition points to the tree in the 
upper illustration as the Charter 
Oak. Below is the Charter Oak 
Monument, in Charter Oak Place, 
Hartford, on the spot where the 
tree stood. 



every detail of rock, shoal, depth, sounding, 
bank, channel, bay, and harbor so exactly 
located that a ship may be guided safely by 
it through the most dangerous seas. The 
topographic chart, also common, shows with 
similar accuracy the details of any land sur- 
face and is mainly for the guidance of mili- 
tary men and surveyors. Climatic charts 
present by outline and diagram the rainfall, 
temperature, and direction of the winds of cer- 

tain localities. 
These are pre- 
pared daily by the 
United States 
Weather Bureau 
and are designed 
to be of aid to 
navigation, by 
giving warning of 
storms, and also 
for the informa- 
tion of all people 
whose activities 
may depend upon 
weather condi- 
tions. There are 
celestial charts 
also, on which 
stars and constel- 
lations are correctly shown, and 
heliographic charts, which locate 
the spots on the sun's surface. 
A great variety of educational 
charts are used in teaching. R.H.W. 

Related Subjects. In these volumes 
almost every kind of chart is shown. 
See the article ASTRONOMY, for astro- 
nomical charts; UNITED STATES, for 
agricultural charts; WEATHER BUREAU, 
for those explaining storms and tem- 
perature; the various state articles, for 
production charts, etc. 

CHARTER, a written instru- 
ment or contract given by a 
government authorizing the 
holder, whether a person, cor- 
poration, or local government, 
to organize and conduct its 
business. Charters are granted 
by states to banks, corporations, 
and associations, authorizing 
them to conduct their business 
within specified limits. A state 
or province by charter authorizes the organiza- 
tion of a village or city government; the charter 
sets forth the powers and obligations of such 
a government. See CORPORATION. 

Most Famous Charter. The Magna Charta, or 
Great Charter, granted by King John of England in 
1215, is the world's most historic charter. It con- 
ferred on the English-speaking world the privileges 
which became the foundation of the liberty of Britain, 
Canada, Australia, South Africa, and the United 
States. See MAGNA CHARTA. 



CHARTERED ACCOUNTANT 



13*6 



CHATHAM 



CHARTERED ACCOUNTANT. See AC- 
COUNTANCY. 

CHARTERHOUSE. See CARTHUSIANS. 

CHARTER OAK. This historic tree is said 
to have concealed the charter of Connecticut 
for two years. Its age was computed at nearly 
a thousand years when it was blown down in 
August, 1856. A white marble monument 
now marks the spot in Charter Oak Place, in 
the city of Hartford. See page 1319. 

James II, having found Connecticut's 
charter a barrier to his plan to make that 
community a part of his New England, had, in 
1687, sent Sir Edmund Andros, the governor- 
general of New England, to Hartford to de- 
mand the delivery of the charter. Appearing 
to submit, the colonists went to the council 
chamber to carry out the ceremony, but while 
they were there the lights were snuffed out, and 
the document was carried to a hiding place in 
the hollow of a tree. There it remained until 
the deposition of Andros. Early reports of this 
incident referred to the tree as an elm. Some 
people declared that the paper was hidden in 
the home of a prominent colonist, but about 
1789 the belief became settled that this oak had 
concealed the famous charter. See ANDROS, 
SIR EDMUND. 

CHARTISM, char' tiz'm, which may be 
denned as the principles and practices of a 
group of political reformers in England, grew 
out of the oppressive conditions under which 
workingmen once lived, and was a movement 
which attempted to improve their condition. 
The Reform Bill of 1832 had bettered matters 
somewhat, but had not silenced the discontent, 
which by 1838 had become acute. From that 
date until 1848, the Chartist movement was at 
its height. A formal demand, known as the 
National People's Charter, called for six re- 
forms: (i) universal suffrage; (2) equal elec- 
toral districts; (3) vote by ballots; (4) annual 
Parliaments; (5) no property qualifications 
for members of Parliament; (6) salaries for 
members of Parliament. 

Monster meetings were held, and huge peti- 
tions were presented to Parliament. Directly, 
the movement accomplished nothing, though 
it left an influence on the people's trend of 
thought. The repeal of the odious Corn Laws 
brought improved conditions, and after 1848 
the movement languished. See CORN LAWS. 

CHARTREUSE, shahr truz'. See CAR- 
THUSIANS. 

CHARYBDIS, ka rib' dis. See SCYLLA. 

CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873), an 
eminent American statesman and jurist, who 
as Chief Justice of the United States Supreme 
Court presided over the impeachment trial of 
President Johnson. His greatest fame, how- 
ever, was achieved in the Cabinet of President 
Lincoln. He was born in Cornish, N. H., and 
was educated at Dartmouth College. After 




Photo Brown Brew 



SALMON P. CHASE 



studying law in Washington, D. C., he began to 
practice in Ohio, where he took part in the de- 
fense of so many runaway slaves that the slave- 
holders of Kentucky nicknamed him "the 
attorney-general of 
fugitive slaves." He 
became the recognized 
leader of the anti- 
slavery movement in 
Ohio, and throughout 
a term of office as 
United States Sena- 
tor, from 1849 to 1855, 
he vigorously opposed 
the extension of slav- 
ery into the new terri- 
tories and the passage 
of the Kansas-Nebras- 
ka Bill (which see). 
The Liberty party in 
1843, and the Free-Soil party in 1848, had called 
upon him to prepare their national platforms. 

Chase was elected governor of Ohio in 1855 
and again in 1857. He had by that time joined 
the new Republican party, and in 1860 was one 
of the candidates for the Presidential nomina- 
tion. Failing to secure this honor, he accepted 
the office of Secretary of the Treasury under 
Lincoln. His career as a Cabinet officer marks 
him as one of the great secretaries, for during 
the perilous years of the War of Secession the 
national credit was maintained, funds were 
secured to carry on the struggle, and a new 
national banking system was created. Differ- 
ences with Lincoln regarding war policies 
caused him to resign in 1864, and in the same 
year Lincoln appointed him to succeed Chief 
Justice Taney as head of the Supreme Court. 

CHASE, SAMUEL. See IMPEACHMENT. 

CHAT. The chats are small, lively birds of 
the wood-warbler family. During the mating 
season, the males perform many extraordinary 
twists and turns in the air, suggesting their 
common nickname of "clown among birds." 
Their song, which gave them the name chat, 
is a mixture of whistles, , wails, clucks, and 
chuckles. In the Eastern United States and 
Canada, the yellow-breasted, or polyglot, chat 
is a larger species, olive-green above and white 
below, with a yellow breast. It builds its 
nest in briary thickets, and eats insects chiefly. 
A subspecies, the long-tailed chat, is found in 
the West. D.L. 

Scientific Names. The chats belong to the family 
Mniottttidac. The yellow-breasted is Icteria virens. 
The long-tailed has, in addition, the distinguishing 
name longicauda 

CHATEAU, shah toh'. See FRANCE, illus- 
tration. 

CHATEAU THIERRY, shah toh' tyehre'. 
See WORLD WAR (1918). 

CHATHAM, EARL OF. See PITT, WILLIAM. 



CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER 



1321 



CHATTAHOOCHEE, chat a hoo' che, RIVER, 
a large muddy stream which forms about half 
of the boundary between Georgia and Alabama. 
It rises in Northern Georgia, in the Blue Ridge, 
flows southwest and then south, and after its 
junction with the Flint River, receives the 
name of Apalachicola. For two-fifths of its 
entire course of 500 miles, it is navigable. It 
furnishes water power to Columbus, Ga., by 
reason of its descent of 120 feet in three miles. 
See GEORGIA (Rivers); ALABAMA (Rivers). 

Derivation. The Creek Indians named the river 
Chattahoochec, which means pictured rock*, because of 
the vari-colored rocky banks. 

CHATTANOOGA, chat a noo' gah, BATTLE 
OF. See WAR or SECESSION. 

CHATTANOOGA, TENN., an historic city, 
the county seat of Hamilton County, is an im- 
portant railroad center and a rapidly develop- 
ing industrial city in the southeastern part of 
the state, near the Georgia line. The city is 150 
miles southeast of Nashville and 140 miles 
northwest of Atlanta. 

It is beautifully situated on the south bank 
of the winding Tennessee River, in a great 
natural amphitheater, surrounded by historic 
and picturesque hills. Southeast of the city 
is Lookout Mountain, from whose summit, 
2,126 feet above sea level, seven states are 
visible. East and south is Missionary Ridge; 
a short distance southeast in Georgia is the 
battlefield of Chickamauga, now a national 
military park comprising nine square miles. 
Throughout the grounds, monuments and 
historical tablets have been erected by the 
various states in honor of their soldier dead. 
Fort Oglethorpe, a brigade post of several 
thousand acres, adjoins the park. During 
the Spanish- American War, in 1898, Fort 
Oglethorpe was a mobilization camp; 60,000 
soldiers were encamped at one time on the 
Chickamauga battlefield. Immediately south- 
east of the city is one of the largest national 
cemeteries, containing 13,322 graves. Signal 
Mountain, north of the city, and Lookout 
Mountain are popular pleasure resorts. 

Industries. The city carries on a considerable 
trade in cotton, grain, coal, iron ore, and manufac- 
tured products, but is chiefly important as a manufac- 
turing center. Hydroelectric power is ample for more 
than 380 industries, which manufacture over 1,300 
articles. Among many large industrial plants are 
manufactories of iron and steel, textiles, boilers, ma- 
chinery, furniture, refrigerators, paper, and stoves. 

Transportation. The geographical location of 
Chattanooga, a natural gateway between the hills, 
has made the city an important railway center. It 
is on the Alabama Great Southern; the Central of 
Georgia, the Southern Railway system, the Nashville, 
Chattanooga & Saint Louis; the Cincinnati, New 
Orleans & Texas Pacific; the Tennessee, Alabama & 
Georgia; and the Western & Atlantic railroads. The 
Tennessee River is navigable to this point for eight 
months of the year. 



CHAUCER 

Education. Chattanooga is the seat of the Uni- 
versity of Chattanooga (Methodist Episcopal), the 
Chattanooga College of Law, Baylor School, Me Gallic 
School, the Girls' Preparatory School, and the Signal 
Mountain School for Girls. 

History. In the early days, river voyagers 
landed here to avoid the rapids of the Tennes- 
see River, and the locality, settled about 1835, 
was known as Ross's Landing. Ross was the 
name of a Cherokee chief whose people were 
moved west by the government in 1838. In 
1851, the town was incorporated as Chatta- 
nooga, and it became a city in 1866. During the 
War of Secession, it was one of the most im- 
portant strategic points in the Confederacy, and 
the struggle for its possession led to some of 
the severest battles of the war. In the course of 
the fighting, the city was almost destroyed. 
Immediately succeeding the war, the manufac- 
turing of iron was begun, to restore the ruined 
railroads; a long period of development and 
prosperity followed, and the city has become 
one of the important industrial centers of the 
South. In 19 1 1 the commission form of gov- 
ernment was adopted. The population in 1928 
was 73 '5 (Federal estimate). Close about 
the city are a dozen populous suburbs, increas- 
ing the number of people in the community 
to more than 148,000. C.J.K. 

CHATTEL, chat' V, a term closely akin to 
the word capital, used in law to mean almost 
the same thing as the phrase personal prop- 
erty (which see). There is, however, a slight 
difference technically, chattels being only such 
personal property as can be physically deliv- 
ered. Thus, money in hand is a chattel, but 
a claim for money due is not. 

Chattels may be personal or real, the former 
being all such movable articles as furniture, 
money, or clothes. A chattel real, on the other 
hand, is any interest in land less than actual 
ownership, as a lease or a mortgage. Grow- 
ing crops also come under this title. The term 
goods is narrower than chattel, meaning practi- 
cally the same as chattels personal, and the 
commonly used expression goods and chattels 
is thus a mere repetition for emphasis, as the 
first word adds nothing to the meaning. See 
MORTGAGE (Chattel Mortgage). 

CHAUCER, chaw' sur, GEOFFREY (about 
1340-1400). While we lack many details about 
the life of this first great poet of England, we are 
indebted to him for a remarkable picture of 
the life of his times. In the Prologue to his 
Canterbury Tales, known to every high-school 
student, Chaucer describes, with a vividness 
that makes them real persons after five cen- 
turies, the knight and the squire, the yeoman 
and the monk, the housewife and the nun, and 
many other types of English character. The 
bright humor and sprightliness of this great 
work, which the poet left uncompleted at his 
death, reveal his charm and keen interest in 



CHAUCER 



1322 



CHAUTAUQUA 



humanity, but never suggest the worries and 
troubles he had to bear. 

Chaucer was born in London, where his 
father was in the wine business. Of his boyhood 
or his education, little that is authentic is 
known. It is certain, 
however, that during 
the English invasion 
of France, 1350-1360. 
he was imprisoned, 
ransomed by the king, 
and taken into royal 
service as a squire. 
That he was an effi- 
cient servant is shown 
by the fact that he 
was sent on several 
important missions to 
the Continent, and to 
these journeys may be 
traced the French 
and Italian influences 
evident in his works. 
In 1374 he was made comptroller of cus- 
toms for London, and in 1386 he was 
elected to Parliament. At times during 
the latter part of his life, when the political 
party to which he belonged was not in power, 
he was very poor, and not until a year before 
his death was he given permanent financial 
relief by the king. 

Chaucer's Place in Literature. Chaucer has been 
called the "Father of English Poetry," and the passing 
years only strengthen our belief in the justice of this 
title There were writers of verse before him, some 
of more than average ability, but he was the first to 
show that poetry, masterly in technique as well as in 




GFOFFRhY CHAUCER 




I'hoto VI.UH! Kduc.tion San 
HOME OF CHAUCER 

content, could be written in the shifting, developing 
English language of his age. Because he chose the Mid- 
land dialect for his popular work, the other dialects then 
in common use Northumbrian and Mercian were 
destined to lapse into obscurity. Thus, he may be said 
to have fixed, in a large degree, the form of our present 
language. 

His first works were translations, or at least adap- 
tations, from the French, but later the Italian writers 
became his models, and under their domination he 
produced such poems as his beautiful Troylus and 
Cryscydc, Legende of Good Women, Palamon and 



Arctic, and The Parlcmcnt of Foults, In his third 
and greatest period, he was thoroughly English in 
theme and style, though the plan of his greatest work, 
the Canterbury Tales, was one which had been used 
before in Italy by Boccaccio. The dramatic ability 
shown in his descriptions of characters in this remark- 
able work has led many to speculate as to what 
Chaucer might have become in an age when the 
drama was the chief form of literature; but he lived 
in a story-telling age, and the ability to tell a story 
was perhaps the greatest of all his gifts. See CANTER- 
BURY TALLS, ENGLISH LITERATURE (The Age of 
Chaucer). 

CHAUDlfeRE, sho dyair', RIVER, a scenic 
stream of the province of Quebec, Canada, 
famed for its beautiful falls, which attract 
many visitors. Its steep, rocky banks and the 
many little wooded islands which obstruct its 
channel are most picturesque. The Chaudiere 
has its source in a number of small streams 
which flow into Lake Megantic near the border 
of Maine, and only a few miles from the source 
of the Kennebec. Issuing from Lake Megantic, 
the Chaudiere flows northward and then north- 
westward in a wide curve, and after a course 
of 1 20 miles empties into the Saint Lawrence 
about seven miles above the city of Quebec. 
The falls, which are two and one-half miles 
from its mouth, make it of little value for navi- 
gation. See QUEBEC (Rivers and Lakes); 
SAINT LAWRENCE, GULF OF. 

CHAULMOOGRA, chawl mo' grah, OIL. See 
LEPROSY. 

CHAUTAUQUA, sha lawk' wah, a name given 
to a remarkable system of popular education, 
which is the evolution of a Sunday-school 
assembly held at Chautauqua Lake, New York, 
in the summer of 1874, for the instruction of 
Sunday-school teachers. The movement was 
popular from the first, and has increased from 
year to year in scope until it has grown to 
large proportions. It now has more than fifteen 
departments in its summer schools, and an as- 
sembly attended by 40,000 to 50,00x5 persons 
annually; there is also a home reading circle 
with thousands of members, and it has property 
on Chautauqua Lake worth much more than a 
million dollars, with over 600 cottages and 
public buildings for its summer population. 

Chautauqua Institution. The plan of the 
founders of the movement Lewis Miller of 
Akron, O., and Rev. (afterward Bishop) John 
H. Vincent was for religious instruction only, 
but the scope of the work soon broadened until 
it aimed at an education that should be at 
once intellectual, ethical, and spiritual. In 1870 
a group of schools was established with graded 
courses of study covering four years, in which 
literature, art, history, and pedagogy were 
taught. This system now embraces courses 
in English, European, and ancient literature, 
history, pedagogy, and nearly all the arts and 
sciences. George Vincent, then president of 
the University of Minnesota, son of Bishop 



CHAUTAUQUA 



1323 



CHECK 



Vincent, became president in IQO;. His suc- 
cessor as president was Arthur E. Bestor See 
VINCENT, JOHN HEYL. 

The sessions of the schools are held dur- 
ing the months of July and August. An im- 
portant feature of the Chautauqua movement 
has always been the popular exercises of the 



JLake Ontario 




LOCATION OF CHAUTAUQUA 

summer assembly. They consist of talks on 
interesting topics, lectures by noted speakers 
from all over the world, concerts, and various 
recreations. These are free to visitors. 

Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, 
the name given to the home reading course, is 
the best-known branch of the Chautauqua 
work. Each course consists of four years of 
reading, known as American, English, Euro- 
pean, and Classical years, and includes history, 
art, travel, literature, and science The work 
of each year is complete in itself, and each 
member of the Circle reads the same books 
In addition, there are eighty-eight courses 
for those who wish to specialize. The books 
used are specially prepared for the courses. 
Diplomas are awarded. 

The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Cir- 
cle was organized in 1878 with the idea that it 
would meet a recognized want with persons 
who had been denied a liberal education, and 
would appeal to old and young alike. It proved 
amazingly popular, 7,000 enrolling the first 
year; 70,000 readers have completed at least 
one course. The idea pleased the English 
so well that they patterned their British Home 
Reading Union after it. Branches of the 
Chautauqua system have been established in 
Japan and South Africa. 



Local "Chautauquas." The idea of the 
Chautauqua Assembly spread through America, 
and local "Chautauquas" sprang up every- 
where, but they do not have any connection 
with the original Chautauqua. These assem- 
blies employ popular lecturers and other en- 
tertainers and hold sessions of several days, 
which are largely attended. There are 4,000 
of these "Chautauquas." 

CHEAHA, MOUNT. See ALABAMA (The 
Land). 

CHEBOYGAN, she hot' gan, RIVER. See 
MICHIGAN (Its Rivers). 

CHECK, OR CHEQUE, an order written 
by anyone who has money deposited in a 
bank, instructing the bank to pay a specified 
sum to a person named or to the bearer. Once 
a California lumberman was buying a section 
of timber land, in order not to lose his option, 
he was obliged to make a hurried payment, 
and, picking up a shingle, he wrote on it, 
Blank National Bank, San Francisco, pa\J. II . 
Sullivan ten thousand dollars, then added his 
name and the date. This order was just as 
much a check as though it had l>een written 
on the printed forms of his bank, and as such 
the bank treated it 

Very nearly all the business of the United 
States and Canada is carried on by means of 
checks, though in other countries they are 
less popular. The checking system, with 
its assistant, the clearing house, makes it 
possible for a community to transact many 
times as much business with a given amount 
of currency as it otherwise could carry on. 
Thus, in great cities, checks to the value of 
millions of dollars are drawn daily, yet only a 
small amount of cash changes hands. 

A Checking Account. When you deposit 
money in a checking account, you are required 
to sign your name on a card, which the bank 
preserves so that if any other person attempts 
to get money by writing your name, the forgery 
may be detected. The teller gives you a bank 
book and a check book The first shows the 
amount of your deposit, and every time you 
add money to your account, you take the book 
with you, so that the teller may record the 
deposit in it. Formerly, once a month the de- 
posit book was returned to the bank so that 
the bookkeeper could record the money which 
the bank paid out for you, but this system has 
been almost entirely superseded by a monthly 
"statement" from the bank. The check book 
contains blank checks; when you wish to pay 
out money, you fill out one of them; an ap- 
proved form is shown in the illustration. 

For each check there is a stub on which is 
space for a memorandum of the particulars of 
the check and for addition and subtraction of 
amounts deposited and withdrawn. It is a wise 
plan to number your checks and their stubs, 
so that at the end of the month, when the bank 



CHECK 



CHIOJ 



1324 



+trrPF^rt i rf^i ttS \ 



CHECK 



HO. 



UNION TRUST COMPANY 



FAY 

TO THE 

ORDKR or. 



^^ 




.DOLLARS 



IS SLIGHT CHANCE TO ALTER A CHECK THUS MADE 



returns to you your paid checks, you can 
quickly discover which ones are still unpaid. 
The balance shown in your bank book should 
be greater than that shown in your check book 
by the sum of the checks outstanding; if it is 
not, either you or the bookkeeper has made 
an error. If you wish to give a check when 
you do not have your check book with you, it 
is permissible to take another bank's blank 
check, cross out the name and substitute that 
of your own bank, but this is not advisable, 
because you may forget to record the amount 
later in your check book. 

Your signature on a check must always be 
like the copy given the bank; for instance, if 
the latter is John A. Low, you must not sign 
/. A. Low. 

Checks in the United States generally carry 

the words Pay to the, order of ; 

sometimes the form is Pav to 

or Bearer, but the latter is not recommended, 
for if a check payable to bearer is lost, anyone 
who finds it may cash it. The word order means 
that by endorsing (see below) the check the 
owner may order the money paid to another. 
If you yourself wish to draw cash from your 
account, you may write a check payable to 
AW/ or to 'Cash. 

An advisable step is to write the purpose of 
each check on its face. Thus, if you are pay- 
ing a bill you may write In full of account to 
date, and when vour creditor endorses and 
cashes the check, it becomes a receipt. A check 
does not, however, constitute a payment until 
the bank honors it, that is, pays out the money 
for which it calls, so it is never wise to give 
a receipt for an account paid by check unless 
the manner of its payment is stated on the 
receipt. 

Endorsing a Check. If you receive a check, 
you may get cash for it, transfer it to another 
person, or deposit it to the credit of your 
account in the bank. If you are cashing it, you 



merely sign your name on the back, across the 
left end. This form is called endorsement in 
blank, and you should not execute it until you 
reach the bank, for if you lose the endorsed 
check, anyone can present it for payment. If 
you are making the check over to another per- 
son, the correct form of endorsement is Pay to 
the order of (name), followed immediately by 
your signature. This is called endorsement in 
full\ it obliges the man to whom you trans- 
fer it to add his endorsement, thus admitting 
that he has received the value named; whereas 
a check endorsed in blank might be permitted 
carelessly to go through a dozen hands and re- 
ceive no signatures except that of the last 
possessor. 

Your signature to an endorsement should 
read exactly like your name as written on the 
face of the check by the drawer, even if he 
has misspelled it, but in the latter event you 
must write your correct bank signature imme- 
diately beneath the other. When you endorse 
a check you become responsible for its pay- 
ment if it proves to be worthless, so too much 
care cannot be exercised. 

Worthless Checks. Many people are care- 
less about keeping account of the checks they 
issue, and occasionally write one for more 
money than they have in the bank. If you re- 
ceive and dispose of a check for ten dollars 
and the drawer has only nine dollars and ninety 
cents in the bank, the check will be returned 
to you marked Insufficient Funds, or N. S. F., 
which stands for Not Sufficient Funds. Since 
a bank honors checks in the order in which 
they are presented, not the order in which 
they are made out, it is always wise to dispose 
of a check the same day it is received. 

If a check is returned to you for insufficient 
or no funds and there are endorsements on it 
above yours, you must protest the check at 
once, if you wish to hold the endorsers respon- 
sible. Protesting consists in giving a formal, 



CHECKERS 



1325 



CHECKERS 



legal, sworn notice of non-payment. A post- 
dated check, one issued before the date it 
bears, is not due until that date. 

Certified Checks. If someone has given you 
a check and you doubt its worth, it is a good 
plan to take it to his bank and have it marked 
Certified by the bookkeeper before depositing 
it in your own bank. The certification makes 
the bank responsible for payment. Sometimes 
you may wish to have a check of your oun 
certified, especially if you are sending it some 
distance. A certified check should not be con- 
fused with a cashier's check, which is a bank's 
own order to pay. 

Exchange. It is customary for a bank to 
charge a fee for accepting a check payable 
in another town, even if it is drawn on a branch 
of the same bank. This fee varies according 
to the amount of the check. When sending 
a check to a person in another place, you 
should add the presumable amount of the ex- 
change to the amount you are paying. Never 
write Forty Dollars am] exchange, for a check 
must indicate a definite amount. 

Stopping Payment. If after you have given 
out a check, you wish for any reason to pre- 
vent its payment, you may do so by giving 
written notice to the bank and releasing the 
bank from responsibility for error. This is the 
proper course to follow with a lost check; if 
a second one is then issued, it should be plainly 
marked Duplicate, in red ink. 

Protecting a Check. If a forged check is 
cashed, the bank is the loser, but the loss on 
a raised check (one on which the amount has 
been fraudulently increased), even though the 
signature be genuine, must be met by its maker. 
Tt is therefore wise to use extreme care, in 
making out a check, to leave no blank spaces 
in or after the statement of amount. A good 
form to follow is shown in the illustration 
There are a number of patent ''protectors" 
on the market, with which the amount for 
which a check is drawn may be indelibly in- 
dicated. ' F.H.E. 

CHECKERS, OR DRAUGHTS, drahfts. This 
game, for both young and old, is a battle of 
wooden "men" on a cardboard field, the players 
being the generals. The board has sixty-four 
alternating black and white, or black and red, 
squares, either black or white squares being 
used as the "line of march," or the spots upon 
which the "men" move. Each of the two 
players is given a set of twelve men, small 
round pieces of wood or bone. The two 
sets are of different colors, or "uniforms," 
usually black and white. These men are 
placed on the first three rows of black or 
white squares on each side of the board, leav- 
ing two open rows in the center. Each player 
in turn moves forward one man at a time and 
always diagonally, following the squares of the 
chosen color. 



The object of the game is to capture all the 
enemy's men or to move the men so skilfully 
that the progress of the opponent's men is 
blocked. If a man is moved next to an enemy's 
man and an open space is left behind him, 
the opposing man may jump over to the next 






D D D G 

D D D Q 
D a D 



BOARD SET FOR PLAY 



open square and so capture a man and get 
farther into the enemy's lines. More than one 
may be captured at a time if there are alternate 




A TEST PLAY 

In the illustration, a game has nearly reached its 
dose. The white plays next and should win the game. 

men and open spaces in a forward line. As 
each man is captured, it is removed from the 
board. If a man of one side gets across the 
board to the rear line of squares of the other 
side, he is crowned, or made a king. That is, 
the enemy gives up one of the men he has 



CHEDABUCTO BAY 



1326 



CHEESE 



captured and puts him on top of the man to 
be kinged. A king may move either backward 
or forward one square at a time, except when 
making a capture, so he has the advantage 
over all other men. The game is won when one 



be forced out. Sometimes all the butter fat 
of the milk is left in it; in this case the cheese 
is known as full-cream; sometimes but a 
part is left, and half-skim cheese results. Full- 
skim cheese, which contains no butter fat, is 



Protein, 2 5.9 
Ash 3.8 




oh yd rates, 24 




COMPOSITION OF CHEESE 

At left, full-cream cheese, at right, cottage cheese. 



side has captured all the men of the other side; 
or if a blockade is caused on the board where 
all the men of one side are hemmed in by the 
other and any move means capture. 

There are other rules in the game of check- 
ers, which some players observe and some do 
not. For instance, if one side fails to capture 
a man of the enemy, either through over- 
sight or because it would place his man in a 
dangerous position, the opponent may compel 
him to capture the man, or may remove the 
deliquent soldier from the board, and then has 
the privilege of the next move. 

Checkers is a very ancient game, known by 
the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It is 
said that the Egyptians played a similar game 
as early as 1600 B.C. It was played in Europe 
in the sixteenth century. An old form of 
checkers is known in China as "the game of 
circumvention." 

CHEDABUCTO BAY. See CAPE BRETON 
ISLAND. 

CHEESE, an important food, made chiefly 
from the "curds' 1 of milk, the product of a 
flourishing industry in every grazing and ag- 
ricultural section. 

Process. The simplest variety is the cot- 
tage cheese, or Dutch cheese, made by many 
housewives. To make this, the milk is allowed 
to curdle and then subjected to a very gentle 
heat, as great heat toughens the curd. The 
whey is then drained off, the curd is salted, and 
if desired, cream is mixed with it. By far the 
larger part of the commercial cheese is made 
in factories, and the process, though differing 
in details, is practically the same in its essen- 
tials for the various kinds. This process in- 
cludes curdling the milk with acid or rennet, 
separating the whey from the curd, grinding 
and salting the curd, and packing it in molds 
of various sizes and shapes. These are then 
subjected to pressure, that all the whey may 



in general hard, tasteless, and horny, and in 
some places its manufacture is forbidden. All 
except the cottage variety are the better for 
being ripened for several months in a cool place. 
Kinds. Some kinds of cheese are hard, some 
are soft, according to the method of ripening or 
the amount of water which is allowed to remain 
in them. Certain kinds, chiefly made in 
Europe, are famous and in great demand. 
These include Roquefort, a soft cheese which 
has been allowed to ripen until a harmless 
blue mold has formed through it; Edam, a 
hard, yellow cheese sold in red-painted balls; 



"" -.Wisconsin 
Z99 



(Ontario 
119 




Michigan California Minnesota 
13 12 10 



Oregon 
* 9 



Ohio 
5.6 



I llinois 
at 4.9 



Figures Represent 
Millions of Po-unds 

WHERF CHCESE IS MADE 

The figures given represent average production over 
a period of four years. 

Parmesan and Gorgonzola> hard cheese; Swiss, 
a hard cheese which is somewhat porous and 
filled with Swiss "eyes"; and Neufchdtel, Ca- 
membert, and Limburger, all soft cheese. The 



CHEETA 



13*7 



CHELSEA 



United States makes mostly Cheddar cheese, 
commonly known as American cream cheese, 
nine-tenths of its huge product being of that 
variety. 

Amount Produced. Canada and the United 
States are among the greatest cheese-producing 
countries in the world. In Canada the stand- 
ard has been kept high by the passage of laws 
forbidding the sale of skim-milk cheese, and 
the result has been great popularity for Ca- 
nadian varieties in other countries. Almost 
200,000,000 pounds are exported every year, 
Ontario alone exporting more than the en- 
tire United States sends abroad. 

In the United States, the production of 
cheese, including that made on the farms, 
amounts to over 465,000,000 pounds a year. 
Seventy-two per cent of America's cheese is 
produced in Wisconsin. The exports, approxi- 
mately 17,000,000 pounds, are greatly over- 
balanced by the 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 
pounds imported from Europe in normal years. 
Many foreign brands of cheese are now made 
with considerable success in the United States. 

Food Value. Cheese long had the name of 
being a very indigestible substance, and later a 
saying gained currency to the effect that 
"cheese digests everything but itself." But ex- 
periments have proved conclusively that by 
most people cheese is easily digested. Occasion- 
ally, there is a person who cannot eat it, but 
there is scarcely a food, however wholesome, of 
which the same may not be said. There are 
also highly nutritive qualities in cheese, which 
contains a large percentage of tissue-building 
and of energy-forming substances. As a heat- 
producer, cream cheese ranks high, and should 
therefore be used more in winter than in sum- 
mer. Its fuel value averages 2,000 calories per 
pound, or almost three times that of an equal 
weight of eggs. The older the cheese the more 
digestible it is, as aging and curing pepto- 
nizes the curd and helps to make it soluble. 
See CALORIE; FOOD (Chemistry of Food). E.H F. 

CHEETA, CHEETAH, che' tah, OR HUNT- 
ING LEOPARD, lep' ard, a large cat of the 
African jungles, three or four feet high, and 
about the length of a leopard. Its limbs are 
so slender and its body so long that it is 
the quickest animal known for running short 
distances. Because of this fact, it chases its 
prey, and does not crouch and steal upon it, 
like most of the cats. It differs from other 
cats, too, in having blunt daws that can be 
only partly drawn into the foot (see CAT). 
Tawny-colored, black-spotted, excepting on the 
throat, the skin of the cheeta is valued for 
wearing apparel by the chiefs of African tribes. 

The cheeta is also well known in India, 
where it is tamed and trained for hunting. 
Like a falcon, it is held in leash and kept 
blindfolded until the game is seen. Then, 
on being loosed, it makes a quick dash for 



the animal, which it holds down until the 
hunters come. The cheeta becomes very docile 
in captivity. MJ.H. 

Scientific Name. The cheeta belongs to the family 
Fclidae. It is classed as Cynadurus jubatus. 




TIIE CIXEETA 

CHEKHOV, ckeh' kawf, ANTON. See RUS- 
SIAN LITERATURE. 

CHELAN, LAKE. See WASHINGTON (state). 

CHELSEA, cheV se, MASS., in Suffolk 
County, is a residential suburb of Boston, three 
miles northeast of the city and connected with 
it by the Boston & Maine Railroad, electric 
and motorbus lines and steam ferries. The 
Mystic River, which separates Chelsea and 
Charlestown, a part of Boston, is crossed by a 
long bridge. Chelsea is the home of United 
States Naval and Marine hospitals and of the 
Massachusetts Soldier's Home. Ye Old Pratt 
House, a Revolutionary tavern, is of interest. 

The city was settled in 1626 as Winnisimmet. 
A part of Boston from 1634 to 1638, it was 
then incorporated as the town of Chelsea, and 
became a city in 1857. The city suffered a $17,- 
000,000 property loss by fire in 1908. Popula- 
tion, 1928, 49,800 (Federal estimate). 

Industry. Although principally a residential city, 
it has about 200 industries, large and small, including 
important manufactories of rubber and elastic goods, 
foundry and machine-shop products, stoves and 
furnaces, tiles, pottery, mucilage and paste, shoes, 
woolens, brass goods, wireless apparatus, lithographs, 
etc. 

Education. Chelsea maintains a Hebrew Free 
School, and recognizes its responsibility for aliens by 
providing Americanization classes and evening 
schools. H.K. 



CHEMICAL AFFINITY 



1328 



CHEMISTRY 



CHEMICAL AFFINITY. See ATTRACTION. 
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. See ANALYSIS. 
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS. See CHEMIS- 
TRY, subtitle. 



CHEMICAL ENERGY. See STORAGE BAT- 
TERY. 

CHEMICAL ENGINE. See FIRE DEPART- 
MENT. 




r HEMISTRY, kern 1 is trie. One of the 
most wonderful of the sciences, chemistry 
deals not with the appearance or the value of 
matter, but with its composition. In seeking 
to discover just what every substance is made 
of, it investigates both the seen and the unseen. 
One can define chemistry in seven words by 
describing it as "the science of the composi- 
tion of substances," but this definition does 
not reveal the romance and the glamour that 
invest it. It is chemistry that has made clear 
the fact that the flashing diamond, gritty, 
black charcoal, and soft, leadlike graphite are 
all composed of one substance carbon; it is 
chemistry that has proved that the rusting of 
iron is essentially the same kind of process as 
the burning of wood. These and thousands of 
other wonderful facts are revealed by chemistry, 
which enters, too, into our problems of every- 
day living (see below, Contributions to Human 
Welfare). 

Growth of the Science. It might seem as 
though, in the development of sciences, chem- 
istry would have been the very last one to 
appear, for much of that with which it deals can- 
not be handled and is invisible, and could never 
force itself upon the attention of anyone. For 
instance, water has always been one of the 
central substances about which man's life has 
grown up, and man has therefore needed to 
have considerable knowledge of water. But if 
he knew where it was to be found; that it 
would quench thirst, put out fires, and help all 
living things to grow; that it would not run 
uphill unless forced, and had a tendency to 
"seek its own level"; he had enough practical 
facts to live by. What mattered it to him 
whether water was an individual substance or a 
compound of other substances? 

Alchemy. But there was one substance in 
which, by reason of their greed, men early 
became especially interested. That was gold. 
If they could just find out how gold was made, 
they could have plenty of the precious metal 
without all the labor and expense of mining it. 
And thus, many centuries ago, men began to 
study into the composition of substances that 
they might find something which would turn 



less valuable metals into gold. This study be- 
came known as alchemy, probably from 
Chemia y an old name of Egypt, the country 
where the study first grew up. See ALCHEMY. 

Beginnings of a True Science. Needless to 
say, these alchemists, or philosophers, as they 
called themselves, never succeeded in making 
gold, but they did something quite as valuable, 
in leading the way to the science of chemistry: 
In their experiments they inevitably dis- 
covered many things for which they were not 
looking properties of matter, new substances 
and new ways of making old ones, and above 
all, the healing properties of drugs. Medi- 
cine in its modern sense grew up side by side 
with chemistry. 

Strange theories were formed from the half- 
known facts as they emerged, and one of these 
theories, common in the early years of the six- 
teenth century, concerned itself with the re- 
lation between medicine and chemistry. The 
body, said these early chemists, is made up of 
various chemicals and then each proceeded 
to make for himself a list of these body sub- 
stances. If one of the chemicals was present 
in excess, they argued, disease was certain 
to result, and many illnesses were labeled as 
growing out of too much or too little of some 
one substance. Paracelsus, the greatest of these 
doctor-chemists, really effected many cures and 
made discoveries that are of the utmost value 
to modern pharmacy. But men knew too little 
of anatomy and physiology, as well as of 
chemistry itself, to carry this really helpful 
phase of the science very far. 

Later Development. Finally, there arose men 
who realized that if this study of substances 
and their composition was to become a real 
science, it must be carried on for its own sake 
and not by reason of its relation to gold- 
making or to healing. Then real progress be- 
gan, though chemistry as an exact science can 
be said to date only from the latter half of the 
eighteenth century. Remarkable advance was 
made in the nineteenth century, which wit- 
nessed three momentous discoveries the elec- 
trical basis of matter, the X-ray, and 
radioactivity; with these clues, twentieth- 



CHEMISTRY 



1329 



CHEMISTRY 



century scientists have gone far from the old 
ideas of substances and their transformations, 
and have developed a new philosophy of the 
structure of matter and the nature of chemical 
change. The world is now on the verge of 
even greater dis- 
coveries, and " 
chemists, phys- r 
icists, astrono- 
mers, and other 
scientific leaders, 
with many of the 
old barriers down, 
are working to- 
gether to solve the 
riddle of the uni- 
verse. 

Modern re- 
search continually 
emphasizes the 
dependence of 
other sciences on 
chemistry, for the 
special problems 
of each, in the last 
analysis, are con- 
cerned with the 
nature of matter. 
The physicist 
strives to explain 
the natural phe- 
nomena he sees 
everywhere about 
him, but these are 
manifestations of 
matter. The as- 
tronomer finds the 
answers to many 
of his questions 
about the stars 
when he learns their chemical composition. 
The processes that interest the geologist are 
chemical changes of matter. Every discovery 
that leads men nearer to an understanding of 
matter brings to light the dose interlocking 
of all these sciences. 

Divisions of Matter. Looking about us, we 
see hundreds of different substances, materials, 
and objects, existing as forms of matter, and 
can think of countless others. From the stand- 
point of the chemist, however, there are two 
kinds of matter, the elements and the com- 
pounds. These are discussed in considerable 
detail in subsequent paragraphs. It is sufficient 
to say here that the elementary substances are 
those that man is unable to resolve into simpler 
substances by ordinary methods. Compounds 
are combinations of two or more elements. 
Water, a combination of hydrogen and oxygen, 
is an example of a compound; so, too, is sugar; 
which is composed of three elements carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen. Sulphur is an element; 
sulphuric acid is a compound. 




AN ALCHEMIST OF OLD IN HIS LABORATORY 



Chemically speaking, these two kinds of 
matter, the elements and compounds, make up 
all of our material universe all minerals, all 
plant and animal life. Even our sun and the 
stars in space contain most of the elements 

found in the earth. 
Matter Made 
up of Atoms. In 
their study of ele- 
ments and com- 
pounds, chemists 
long ago discov- 
ered that elements 
always combine in 
a pure compound 
in a definite ratio. 
From repeated ex- 
periments they 
derived the theory 
that the elements 
are made up of 
minute, indi- 
visible particles 
that cling to- 
gether in groups 
whenever ele- 
ments combine in 
compounds. 
These minute par- 
ticles were called 
atoms (from the 
Greek for not di- 
vided) by John 
Dalton, an Eng- 
lish chemist, who 
formulated the 
atomic theory as 
a scientific law 
early in the nine- 
teenth century. It 
is true that the ancients also conceived of 
matter as being discontinuous made up 
of invisible, indivisible grains but with them 
the hypothesis was purely speculative, and 
they made no attempt to prove or disprove 
it by experiment. The idea of the discon- 
tinuity of matter was forgotten or abandoned 
during the Middle Ages, was revived by 
Descartes and Boyle in the seventeenth cen- 
tury, and as formulated by Dalton became 
the foundation stone of modern chemistry. 
See ATOMIC THEORY, for a complete statement 
of this theory. 

Structure of the Atom. While the progress 
of chemistry is greatly indebted to Dalton's 
theory, our conception of the atom and its 
properties has undergone striking modification 
by reason of the newer knowledge concerning 
electricity and the study of radioactivity. 
Atoms are no longer regarded as the ultimate, 
indivisible particles of matter, but are known 
to be composed of still smaller particles, and, 
under certain conditions, to be capable of 



CHEMISTRY 



1330 



CHEMISTRY 



being split up. The minute constituents of 
the atom are units *of electricity, originally 
called electrons. In more recent nomenclature, 
particles representing negative electricity are 
known as electrons, while those representing 
positive electricity are 
called protons. (Some 
writers, however, pre- 
fer the names negative 
and positive electrons.) 
The theory of atom- 
ic structure most gen- 
erally accepted is that 
the atom is a minature 
solar system consisting 
of a central nucleus 
analogous to our sun, 
with several electrons 
revolving about it in 
planetary orbits, at 
high velocities. The 
nucleus of the hydro- 
gen atom, the simplest 
and lightest of all 
atoms, consists of a 
single proton; about it 
revolves one planetary 
electron. It is now 
accepted as a scien- 
tific fact that the pro- 
ton, in whatever ele- 
ment it is found, is 
identical with the hy- 
drogen nucleus. In 
the nuclei of more complex atoms, there are 
four or more protons associated with a smaller 
number of electrons. In the heaviest atom, 
that of uranium, there are 238 protons. Pro- 
tons are only found in the nuclei; electrons 
are also found there (except in the hydrogen 
atom), as well as in the space outside. 

In a neutral atom, one not electrically 
charged, the number of protons is exactly 
equal to the sum of the nuclear electrons and 
the revolving electrons. A neutral helium 
atom, for instance, has four protons in the 
nucleus, two nuclear electrons, and two re- 
volving electrons. Unlike kinds of electricity 
attract each other. Since every proton has an 
electric charge equal to the charge of any 
electron (though unlike in kind), die helium 
nucleus has a net positive charge of two, 
the difference between the number of pro- 
tons and nuclear electrons. But this nuclear 
charge of two is neutralized by the negative 
charge of two units derived from the two re- 
volving electrons. An atom becomes negatively 
charged by receiving additional electrons, and 
positively charged by losing electrons. Such 
charged atoms are known as ions. Chemical 
activity depends upon these facts. 

We are indebted to the English physicist 
Sir Ernest Rutherford for the generally ac- 




REPRESENTATION OF AN ATOM 

An atom of matter is composed of electrons which 
form a miniature solar system. There is a center 
nucleus of positive electricity, around which whirling 
electrons rotate at incredible speed. It would be 
impossible to hazard a guess as to the number of 
times the above representation has been magnified 
above the size of an atom in order to present the 
electron theory. 



cepted theory of nuclear structure. The proton 
is believed to be about 1,845 times as massive 
as the electron, and to have a radius ap- 
proximately that much less than the radius of 
the electron. That is, the proton is incon- 
ceivably minute, but 
relatively is very dense 
and heavy; in the nu- 
cleus of any atom prac- 
tically all of the mass 
or weight of the atom 
is centered. The sup- 
posed relative sizes of 
these units can be 
made clearer by the 
following comparison: 
If the hydrogen atom 
were enlarged until the 
electronic orbit were 
equal in size to that 
of the earth, the elec- 
tron would have a di- 
ameter of 6,900 miles, 
while that of the pro- 
ton would be less than 
four miles. In respect 
to size, then, the atom- 
ic nucleus is not anal- 
ogous to our sun, but 
it is in density. 

These statements 
are all the more star- 
tling when we remem- 
ber the infinitesimal 
size of the atom itself. On the surface of an 
ordinary pinhead there are over two quadrillion 
atoms. Furthermore, the external electrons 
revolve in orbits that relatively are as far 
from the nucleus as the planetary orbits are 
from the sun. The space in the atom, in other 
words, is as empty as astronomical space. 
Of course, these minute sizes and distances 
are beyond human comprehension. In at- 
tempting to visualize them, the imagination 
is as baffled as when the mind strives to 
picture the vast sizes and enormous distances 
with which the astronomer has to deal. 

Atoms and Molecules. The next step in the 
structure of matter is the combining of atoms 
to form molecules. Molecules may be defined 
as the smallest particles of any substance ex- 
isting in a free state. A molecule of an element 
consists of one, two, or more atoms of the same 
substance. A molecule of hydrogen, for 
example, consists of two atoms of hydrogen in 
chemical combination. A compound, on the 
other hapd, is an association of molecules each 
one of which is made up of atoms of different 
substances. Water is a compound of hydrogen 
and oxygen. Each of its molecules consists of 
two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. 
A molecule of water resolved into its constit- 
uents ceases to be water. Therefore, there is no 



CHEMISTRY 

such entity as an atom of water. In ordinary 
chemical reactions, atoms are not further de- 
composed, but this does not mean that they 
cannot be. The study of radioactive elements 
has taught us that the atoms of these elements 
are breaking up spontaneously by natural proc- 



esses. 



The Elements 



The theory that atoms are indivisible is 
closely connected with the idea that elementary 
substances cannot be decomposed into simpler 
substances nor resolved one into another. 
This latter theory was derived, naturally 
enough, from the failure of chemists to de- 
compose such substances by any methods at 
their command. It is still agreed that there 
are a few dozen substances ninety- two, to be 
exact that resist all ordinary chemical re- 
actions. Of these elements, all but two have 
been discovered (see table on page 1332). It is 
the radioactive elements that have disproved 
the theory that elements are universally stable. 
Radium, discovered by the Curies in i8q8, is 
one step in a long process of disintegration 
through which uranium, after billions of 
years, changes into a substance resembling 
lead. The chemical process here involved is a 
breaking-up of the nuclei of atoms, once con- 
sidered indivisible. But man cannot alter, 
hasten, or diminish the rate of disintegration, 
and so our statement that elements are sub- 
stances that cannot be decomposed by or- 
dinary chemical reactions holds good. (The 
subject of RADIOACTIVITY is explained more 
fully elsewhere in these volumes. See, also, 
in this article, the section on Transmutation of 
Elements.) 

Isotopes. Dalton's atomic theory states that 
all the atoms of a given element have the same 
weight. As commonly used, atomic weight does 
not mean the actual weight of an atom (such 
as fraction of a gram), but the relative weight 
of one atom compared with the atom of an- 
other element taken as a standard. Chemists 
have selected oxygen (atomic weight 16) as 
the standard upon which to base all atomic 
weights (see ATOMIC WEIGHTS, for detailed 
explanation of how atomic weight is calculated). 
The unit of the system of atomic weights is 
thus the sixteenth part of the atomic weight 
of oxygen. When we say, for instance, that 
the atomic weight of helium is 4, we mean that 
the helium atom is A, or i, as heavy as the 
oxygen atom. One of the many important 
discoveries resulting from the study of radio- 
active elements is that several elementary sub- 
stances can have identical chemical properties 
but different atomic weights, an apparent 
contradiction of Dalton's theory. Such sub- 
stances are known as isotopes. 

While radioactive isotopes were the ones first 
identified, subsequent research proved that 



CHEMISTRY 



many ordinary elements are mixtures of iso- 
topes. Chlorine, with atomic weight 35.46, is 
known to be a mixture of two other chlorines 
having atomic weights 35 and 37. The weight 
35.46 represents the average weight of the iso- 
topic atoms in the proportion in which they 
occur in nature. Bismuth has four radioactive 
isotopes; thorium has more. Carbon and 
oxygen also have iso topic forms. 

A question may occur to the reader at this 
point. If there are so many different isotopic 
elements, is it correct to say that there are only 
ninety- two elements? We can answer this 
question by saying that there are really ninety- 
two kinds of elementary substances, divided 
into two classes. The simple elements are those 
that consist of but one kind of atom, and the 
mixed elements are those formed by a mixture 
of several simple elements. With this distinc- 
tion in mind, the reader should have no difficulty 
in interpreting the meaning of the term element 
as used in subsequent paragraphs. 

The Periodic Law. The nineteenth-century 
chemists discovered certain important relation- 
ships among the elements, and in 1871 the 
Russian chemist Mendelyeev published an ex- 
position of the law underlying these relation- 
ships. This law he stated as follows: 

All the properties of the elements vary as a periodic 
function of their atomic weights. 

This means that when the elements are ar- 
ranged in the order of their atomic weights, 
they show a periodic recurrence of properties, 
like properties being repeated at regular inter- 
vals. Mendelyeev's table became the model 
for all subsequent tabulations. He included 
in it the sixty- three elements known in his day. 
and left gaps for the elements still to be dis- 
covered. It is further to his credit that he 
correctly foretold the discovery of three of 
these elements and forecast their properties. 

Atomic Number vs. Atomic Weight. It was 
long a puzzle to chemists that when the ele- 
ments were grouped according to recurring 
properties, the order of atomic weights was 
reversed at certain places in the periodic table. 
Some other determining factor was surmised 
to exist. When the nuclear theory of atomic 
structure was announced, it was suggested that 
there was a definite relation between the net 
positive charge on the nucleus and the position 
of the element in the periodic table, that is, 
the number representing its order in the series 
when all the elements were arranged according 
to properties. Henry Moseley, a brilliant 
young English physicist whose career was 
ended by the World War, investigated the 
X-ray spectra of a number of elements, each of 
which he bombarded with streams of electrons. 
Any element so excited emits a characteristic 
radiation consisting of two series of X-rays of 
very great intensity. Each of these series has 
definite wave-lengths, and, as Moseley discov- 



CHEMISTRY 



1332 



CHEMISTRY 



ered, they are such that certain numbers are 
inversely proportional to the square roots of 
the wave-lengths. These numbers vary by 
unity as we pass from one element to the next, 
and they have been found to be identical with 
the ordinal positions of the elements in the 
periodic system. In other words, it is the 
atomic number and not the atomic weight that 
is the real basis of the periodic law. 

The atomic number of any element is the 
number representing the excess of protons over 
electrons in the nucleus of the atom. Protons 
and electrons do not vary in character from 
atom to atom, but their arrangement varies in 
atoms of different substances. The hydrogen 
atom, with one proton and one electron, is 
probably the "common stuff" of matter. The 
elements are merely hydrogen atoms in different 
combinations, according to the modern theory. 
With the exception of properties depending on 
mass and radioactivity (or stability), the ordi- 
nary physical and chemical characters that dis- 
tinguish any element are determined by the 
number and arrangement of its planetary elec- 
trons. But the number, relative positions, and 
velocities of these electrons are controlled by 
the nuclear charge, the net positive charge on 
the atomic nucleus. The atomic number, there- 
fore, is the true index of the properties of an 
element. 

The atomic weight, on the other hand, indi- 
cates the number of protons in the nucleus, 
and is called the mass number of the atom. The 
reader will recall that the weight or mass of 
any atom is centered in the protons, which are 
always found in the nucleus. Theoretically, 
the oxygen atom with weight 16 should be 16 
times as heavy as the hydrogen atom, with its 
one proton. Actually, hydrogen has atomic 
weight 1.008; that is, the uncombined hydrogen 
proton is heavier than a proton in combination. 
In other words, the combined weight of the 16 
protons in the oxygen atom is slightly less than 
j 6 times the weight of the free hydrogen proton. 
(If a hydrogen standard of i should be used, 
the atomic weight of oxygen would be 15.88.) 
Chemists explain this loss of weight by assum- 
ing that when protons combine with electrons 
to form nuclei of more complex elements, the 
close packing of positive and negative units of 
electricity causes a small though actual loss of 
mass, indicated by loss of weight, which in- 
creases proportionately as the atoms grow 
heavier. The rule still holds, however, that the 
atomic weight (expressed in whole numbers) 
gives the number of positive units in the 
nucleus. 

The foregoing paragraphs should make it 
clear why the different isotopes of an element 
have the same chemical properties but different 
atomic weights. Take, for example, the forms 
of chlorine. There are two isotopes chlorine 
weight 35, and chlorine weight 37. The first 



has an atomic nucleus with 35 protons and 18 
electrons. The nuclear charge is thus +17, 
and there are 17 planetary electrons. The 
second has an atomic nucleus with 37 protons 
and 20 electrons. Its nuclear charge is also 
+ 17, and again there are 17 external electrons. 
Ordinary chlorine also has a nuclear charge of 
+ 17, but its atomic weight of 35.46 represents, 
of course, the average weight of its isotopic 
atoms. All three chlorines have the same 
chemical properties, the same nuclear charge, 
the same system of external electrons, and the 
same atomic number, 17. The varying atomic 
weights of the isotopes indicate that their 
nuclei are of different construction, the heavier 
having the greater number of protons. In the 
determining of properties, the atomic weight is 
thus a secondary factor. 

Table of Elements. The following table con- 
tains the names, symbols (see subhead Chemi- 
cal Symbols, below), atomic weights (where 
known), and atomic numbers of the ninety 
elements so far discovered. Numbers 85 and 
87 are still missing. 







ATOMIC 


ATOMIC 


NAME 


SYMBOL 


WEIGHT 


NUMBER 


Actinium 


Ac 


226.(?) 


89 


Aluminum 


Al 


26.97 


13 


Antimony 


Sb 


121.77 


51 


Argon 


A 


3091 


18 


Arsenic 


As 


74-o6 


33 


Barium 


Ba 


137-37 


56 


Bismuth 


Bi 


209.00 


83 


Boron 


B 


10 82 


5 


Bromine 


Br 


79.916 


35 


Cadmium 


Cd 


112.41 


48 


Caesium 


Cs 


132.81 


55 


Calcium 


Ca 


40.07 


20 


Carbon 


C 


12.000 


6 


Cerium 


Ce 


140 25 


58 


Chlorine 


Cl 


35-457 


17 


Chromium 


Cr 


52.OI 


24 


Cobalt 


Co 


58-94 


27 


Columbium 


Cb 


93 I 


4i 


Copper 


Cu 


63-57 


29 


Dysprosium 


Dy 


162.52 


66 


Erbium 


Er 


167 7 


68 


Europium 


Eu 


152.0 


63 


Fluorine 


F 


19.00 


9 


Gadolinium 


Gd 


157-26 


64 


Gallium 


Ga 


69 72 


31 


Germanium 


Ge 


72.60 


32 


Glucinum* 


Gl 


9.02 


4 


Gold 


Au 


197.2 


79 


Hafnium 


Ilf 


178.6 


72 


Helium 


He 


4.00 


2 


Holmium 


Ho 


163.4 


67 


Hydrogen 


H 


i. 008 


I 


Illinium 


11 




61 


Indium 


In 


114.8 


49 


Iodine 


I 


126.932 


53 


Iridium 


Ir 


193 i 


77 


Iron 


Fe 


55-84 


26 


Krypton 


Kr 


82.9 


36 


Lanthanum 


La 


138.90 


57 


Lead 


Pb 


207.20 


82 


* Also known 


as Beryllium, Be 







CHEMISTRY 



1333 



CHEMISTRY 



I CHEMISTRY AIDS COMMERCE 



Chemical knowledge has 
multiplied the strength of 
steel I: 



It has 
developed a 
great building 
material ~ 
concret 



It has 
rightened 
the world 
with paints, 
varnishes 

* and 

ikk enamels 



It has 
produced 
alluring and 
harmless colors 
forfoods.drinks 
and candies 



It has given us numerous 
commodities from crude 
oil alone 



It has made a thousand 



ii nas maoe a uiousana 
useful articles from imitation ivory 




CHEMISTRY 



1334 



CHEMISTRY 







ATOMIC 


ATOMIC 


NAME 


SYMBOL 


WEIGHT 


NUMBER 


Lithium 


Li 


6.940 


3 


Lutecium 


Lu 


175-00 


71 


Magnesium 


Mg 


24.32 


12 


Manganese 


Mn 


54-93 


25 


Masurium 


Ma 




43 


Mercury 


Hg 


2OO.6l 


80 


Molybdenum 


Mo 


Q6.0 


42 


Neodymium 


Nd 


144.27 


60 


Neon 


Ne 


2O 2 


IO 


Nickel 


Ni 


58.69 


28 


Nitrogen 


N 


14.008 


7 


Osmium 


Os 


1908 


76 


Oxygen 





I6.OOO 


8 


Palladium 


Pd 


106 7 


46 


Phosphorus 


P 


31-027 


15 


Platinum 


Pt 


195-23 


78 


Polonium 


Po 


210 


84 


Potassium 


K 


39 096 


19 


Praseodymium 


Pr 


140 92 


59 


Protoactinium 


Pa 


230 (?) 


91 


Radium 


Ra 


225 95 


88 


Radonf 


Rn 


222. 


86 


Rhenium 


Re 




75 


Rhodium 


Rh 


102 91 


45 


Rubidium 


Rb 


8544 


37 


Ruthenium 


Ru 


ioi 7 


44 


Samarium 


Sm 


150.43 


62 


Scandium 


Sc 


45.10 


21 


Selenium 


Se 


7Q 2 


34 


Silicon 


Si 


28 06 


14 


Silver 


Ag 


107 880 


47 


Sodium 


Na 


22 997 


II 


Strontium 


Sr 


87.63 


38 


Sulphur 


S 


32 064 


16 


Tantalum 


Ta 


181 5 


73 


Tellurium 


Te 


127.5 


52 


Terbium 


Tb 


159 2 


65 


Thallium 


Tl 


204 39 


81 


Thorium 


Th 


232 15 


90 


Thulium 


Tm 


169 4 


69 


Tin 


Sn 


n8 70 


50 


Titanium 


Ti 


481 


22 


Tungsten 


W 


184 o 


74 


Uranium 


U 


238 17 


92 


Vanadium 


V 


50.96 


23 


Xenon 


Xe 


I3O 2 


54 


Ytterbium 


Yb 


173 6 


70 


Yttrium 


Y 


889 


39 


Zinc 


Zn 


6538 


30 


Zirconium 


Zr 


91 


40 



t Also called niton, Nt 

Transmutation of Elements. In the disinte- 
gration of radioactive elements, we have na- 
ture's method of transmuting elements. The 
alchemists who sought to change the baser 
metals into gold were seeking the key to some 
such process, and now, after many centuries, 
chemists are again at work on this fascinating 
problem. The radiations sent out in radio- 
active processes are of three kinds, called alpha, 
beta, and gamma rays. The alpha rays are 
streams of positively charged helium atoms; 
the beta rays are streams of electrons moving 
with almost the velocity of light; and the 
gamma rays are identical with light rays of 
very short wave-length. Some radioactive ele- 



ments radiate all three rays; others give off one 
or two. 

Once the nature of these radiations was 
ascertained, transmutation by artificial means 
was theoretically possible. It could be brought 
about by causing a proton, an alpha particle, 
or an electron to enter or leave the nucleus of 
an atom, for such modification of the nucleus 
would change the nuclear charge, and so the 
identity of the atom. For example, if a proton 
could be ejected from the mercury nucleus 
(atomic number 80), the nuclear charge would 
be decreased by one unit, and the atom would 
be transmuted into gold (atomic number 79); 
or the same result would follow if an electron 
were caused to enter the mercury nucleus. 

There is considerable evidence that actual 
transmutation of elements has finally been ac- 
complished. Lead is reported to have been 
transmuted into mercury by means of a strong 
electric current. Professor Miethe of Germany 
is convinced that he has produced gold from 
mercury. Sir Ernest Rutherford has had defi- 
nite results in experiments with nitrogen and 
some of the other lighter elements. By bom- 
barding the atoms of these elements with alpha 
particles emitted from radium C, he caused 
the ejection of protons (hydrogen nuclei) that 
eventually became neutral hydrogen atoms 
through the capture of planetary electrons. All 
such transmutations are on so minute a scale 
that as yet only theoretical interest attaches 
to them. It is known that tremendous amounts 
of energy lie locked in the atoms, and if men 
could effect transmutation on a large scale and 
release this energy, they would have power to 
work miracles undreamed of now. But should 
this energy be released and should it be found 
uncontrollable, it would undoubtedly blow our 
planet into fragments. 

Quantum Theory. The planetary electrons 
are believed to revolve about the nucleus in 
elliptical orbits arranged in different planes. 
In 1913 the Danish physicist Niels Bohr an- 
nounced a new conception of the relation be- 
tween these revolving electrons and the energy 
which they emit. This theory may be de- 
scribed as an application of the older quantum 
theory (which see) to the structure of the atom. 
By quantum (plural, quanta) is meant the 
amount of energy liberated when a planetary 
electron jumps from one orbit to another. Bohr 
suggests that the atom of any element has a 
fixed number of orbital paths in which the 
planetary electrons may move, and that there 
is a particular and invariable speed for each 
orbit. The electron does not emit energy while 
moving around the nucleus, but only when it 
jumps from one orbit to another, or when 
knocked out of the orbital paths altogether. 
The quantity of energy emitted in a given 
position has a definite value, which can neither 
be diminished nor increased. This theory as- 



CHEMISTRY 



1335 



CHEMISTRY 



sumes that the orbit of an electron is a series 
of different positions, not a continuous line, 
and that the radiation of energy is a discontinu- 
ous process. Professor R. A. MiUikan has 
stated that the spectroscope is furnishing "as 
exacting proof of the orbital theory of electronic 
motions as the telescope furnished a century 
earlier for the orbital theory of the motions of 
heavenly bodies." 

Chemical Compounds 

If a small quantity of very fine iron filings 
be mixed thoroughly with a small quantity of 
powdered sulphur, the iron remains iron and 
the sulphur remains sulphur. They may be 
distinguished from each other when looked at 
through a microscope, and a magnet held over 
the mixture will quickly draw out the iron, 
leaving the sulphur. But if the mixture is 
placed in an iron spoon (or a glass test tube) 
and held over a hot flame, something is formed 
which is neither iron nor sulphur which is not 
like either iron or sulphur. The new substance 
may be pounded to a powder, but no magnet, 
however strong, can now draw out the iron, for 
the simple reason that, as iron, it is not there. 
The new substance is just as real and has just 
as distinct properties of its own as had the two 
elements which combined to make it, but there 
is one difference. Any person who knows the 
proper chemical means for decomposing the 
new substance could reduce it again to iron 
and sulphur, while no ordinary chemical process 
could have divided either of the original 
elements. 

The iron and sulphur before they were heated 
formed what is known as a mechanical mixture, 
each keeping its own properties; after they were 
heated they formed a chemical compound. 
Many of the very commonest things, which 
seem as simple as anything could well be, are 
really chemical compounds. Water and salt, 
for example, are of this nature. Air, on the 
other hand, is a mere mechanical mixture of 
gases. 

There are definite ways in which chemical 
compounds are made up. When a certain num- 
ber of atoms of one element are brought close 
to atoms of another element, various things 
may happen. They may remain exactly as 
they have been, neither substance showing the 
slightest interest in the other; one atom of one 
kind may seize upon one or more atoms of the 
other kind and unite with them to form a tiny 
particle of a new substance a chemical com- 
pound', or both kinds of atoms may wait until 
some force, as heat or electricity, puts them in 
such a condition that they can unite. 

Atoms which will thus unite with each other, 
either with or without aid, are said to have a 
chemical affinity for each other, and unless two 
substances have such affinity they cannot be 
forced to unite. No amount of mixing or melt- 



ing or heating will make of them anything but 
a mechanical mixture. In the experiment de- 
scribed above, the sulphur and iron filings 
united to form a new substance with properties 
of its own, not just because they were melted 
together, but because they also have a chemical 
affinity for each other. 

In the very simplest form of a chemical com- 
pound, one atom of one substance unites with 
one atom of another. But often one atom of 
one element will seize upon two or three or 
even four of another, or two atoms of one may 
combine with three of another. It is easier for 
some elements to enter into combination than 
for others, because some elements are gases 
and some are solids, and the latter are much 
more dependent on outside forces to make it 
possible for them to unite with substances for 
which they have even the strongest chemical 
affinity. 

From the standpoint of the new chemistry, 
chemical combination is explained in terms of 
electronic activity. Briefly, such power of com- 
bination is believed to be the ability of the 
atom to attract one or more electrons from 
another atom, or to yield electrons to such an 
atom. The movements of electrons outside 
the nucleus are supposed to effect chemical 
changes; more particularly, those in the outer 
orbits, which chemists call valence electrons. 
The theory is that the external electrons are 
arranged in so-called spheres, or shells, and that 
the valence electrons are in the outermost shell. 
The inert elements, those that do not enter 
into chemical combination, have no valence 
electrons. As the atomic numbers of the ele- 
ments in the periodic table increase by unity, 
the number of valence electrons held in the 
outside shell increases from o to 7. For ex- 
ample, starting with helium (no valence elec- 
tron) we have the following series: helium (o), 
lithium (i), glucinum (2), boron (3), carbon 
(4), nitrogen (5), oxygen (6), fluorine (7). Fol- 
lowing fluorine in the table is neon, another 
inert element (with no valence electron). It 
begins another series with valence electrons 
increasing by i until chlorine is reached, with 
7 valence electrons. The recurrence of prop- 
erties at regular intervals is thus explained. 

Chemical activity depends upon the valence 
electrons. The nucleus and remaining external 
electrons are said to form the kernel of the 
atom, and are thought to be beyond the reach 
of reagents. Chemical combination differs 
from transmutation in that transmutation in- 
volves a breaking up of nuclei. So long as the 
nucleus remains intact, an atom which has 
undergone chemical combination may be 
reconstituted. 

Chemical Symbols. It is customary to as- 
sign to each element a symbol representing an 
abbreviation of its common or Latin name. 
Examples are for oxygen, N for nitrogen, Li 



CHEMISTRY 



1336 



CHEMISTRY 



for lithium. The chemical compounds also are 
known by symbolic names. These indicate 
the elements of which the compounds are com- 
posed, and the number of atoms of each ele- 
ment entering into the combination. By this 
simple system, the symbols of the elements 
which make up a substance are written together 
as a, formula, thus NaCl. Na stands for so- 
dium, the Latin name for which is natrium, and 
Cl for chlorine, and the substance declares 
itself at once as a compound of sodium and 
chlorine a compound for which the common 
name is salt. 

In this instance, one atom of sodium com- 
bines with one atom of chlorine, but in cases 
where the number of atoms is not thus equal, 
figures must be used. These figures are made 
small and are written to the right of and below 
the letters, thusOb, which means three atoms 
of oxygen, combined into one molecule of ozone. 
Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen, two 
atoms of hydrogen uniting with one of oxygen, 
and the formula is therefore H 2 O. 

Branches of Chemistry 

The two great branches into which chemistry 
is divided are commonly known as organic and 
inorganic chemistry. The names may not be 
the best that could be devised, but they have 
been used so long that there is no thought of 
change. 

Organic chemistry is that division which treats 
of the carbon compounds. Hundreds of com- 
pounds of this element are found in living 
organisms plants and animals and indeed no 
living thing is known which does not contain 
carbon compounds. In the early days of chemi- 
cal study, it was believed that all the so-called 
organic substances existed in living plants and 
animals only in other words, that they could 
be produced only in living organisms. But in 
1828 a chemist produced in his laboratory an 
organic compound, called urea, from its ele- 
ments, and later, others were produced artifi- 
cially until the theory of a vital principle was 
given up. This branch is thus better described 
as the chemistry of the carbon compounds. 

Inorganic chemistry treats of those compounds 
which do not have carbon in their make-up. 
The dividing line is not, however, quite sharp, 
because carbon itself and some carbon com- 
pounds, especially those which are found as 
minerals, are commonly discussed in books on 
inorganic chemistry. 

Other special classifications exist, according 
to the differing purposes of chemical study, as 
follows: 

Biochemistry, or physiological chemistry, 
treats of the chemical changes which take place 
in living plants and animals. See BIOCHEMIS- 
TRY. 

Agricultural chemistry deals with the prob- 
lems of the farm and farm products. Although 



of comparatively recent development, it has 
already assumed great importance. See AGRI- 
CULTURE. 

Industrial chemistry treats of the application 
of chemical knowledge to the manufacturing 
of products. These two last-named branches 
are divisions of applied chemistry. T.B.J. 

Contributions of Chemistry 
to Human Welfare 

Concerned with the ninety-two elements 
and their thousands of combinations that make 
up the universe and the world, the chemist has 
the possibility of remaking the conditions of 
life. Dozens of new substances drugs, dyes, 
textiles, foods, fuels, and chemicals have been 
created by the skill and thought of the chemist 
and his associated scientists. Nature, master 
chemist herself, has been surpassed and outdone 
time and time again, although it is true that 
human knowledge has not penetrated or dupli- 
cated some of the syntheses and other chemical 
processes that make possible the cycle of life. 
The complete mechanism of photosynthesis 
the changing of the carbon dioxide of the air 
and the water of the soil into the starches and 
cellulose of growing plants has not yet been 
discovered, though much has been learned. 

Chemistry is more than the mere use of ma- 
terials. A barbarian can perform a chemical 
reaction, the making of carbon dioxide and 
water out of wood and oxygen, by the simple 
process of kindling a fire; but only a chemist 
can make artificial silklike material out of wood. 
Lightning can set fire to oil wells and obtain 
heat from the liquid fuel created by the chemi- 
cal conversion of ancient organic matter during 
long geologic ages; but chemistry is necessary 
to make gasoline out of crude oil, or, as is now 
possible, oil out of coal. 

In a single generation, chemists have begun 
to change the complexion of industry. Hardly 
a factory has remained unaffected by the new 
chemistry; every life has felt its influence; com- 
forts and necessities that no king could have 
had in olden days are now within the reach 
of all. 

Fuels, foods, raw and finished materials, 
drugs, metals, and many other commodities 
have passed through revolutions or are about 
to change under the influence of the discoveries 
of chemistry. 

Coal and oil are synonymous with fuel in 
the minds of most people. The time is coming 
when the burning of raw coal and crude oU 
will be looked upon as practically criminal. 
From coal it is possible to obtain thousands of 
products as far removed from the dirty black 
smudge of bituminous carbon as the rainbow 
is from night. Mere burning of coal in the 
furnace gives the three essentials of the great 
coking industry that, though young and quite 



CHEMISTRY 



1337 



CHEMISTRY 



CHEMISTRY FIGHTS DISEASE and CRIME 



Foods have been made 
more nourishing and palatable 



Modern 
diagnosis 
depends 4 
on the 



Chemical 
science is the 
of drugs and 
medicines 



are solved by chemical science 



Many police and crime problems 




CHEMISTRY 



1338 



CHBMISTRY 



modernistic compared with burning coal for 
power, promises to be superseded by the new 
coal processes that are now growing up in 
Europe. From the coal fire there arises gas, 
quickly burned, that is given off when the coal 
is heated. With it is also burned black, sticky 
tar, ill-smelling and despised until the chemist 
discovered a thousand dyes, drugs, flavors, and 
other chemicals hidden within its molecules. 
The spongy mass left behind is coke, the skele- 
ton of coal, so useful in making iron and steel 
and acceptable as a household fuel. Destruc- 
tive distillation of coal within air-free retorts 
prevents the gases from burning, allows them 
to be washed to remove .the valuable ammo- 
nium sulphate they contain, and then permits 
them to be piped to engines for power, or to 
cookstoves for heat. The oily and tarry matter 
condenses out of the gas, to be used in making 
carbolic acid, moth balls, benzene, toluene, 
anthracene, and other products, some of them 
halfway to the dyes that make this a brighter 
world to live in. 

Oil has revolutionized the transportation of 
the country; it drives merchant vessels and 
warships, warms houses, and provides power 
for factories. A world without liquid fuel 
would be unthinkable and unlivable to-day. 
The earth has provided lavishly a ready-made 
liquid fuel in the crude oil that flows out of 
wells at the rate of some 900,000,000 barrels a 
year. The chemist steps in to aid the oil in- 
dustry to supply light motor fuel out of the 
heavy petroleum that nature provides. Crack- 
ing, a process in which thick oils are broken 
into thin, supplies a third of the gasoline that 
runs our automobiles (see PETROLEUM). 

The day is coming when the earth will pro- 
vide no more oil. Germany and the rest of 
Europe are already afflicted with high-priced 
liquid fuel. It is natural that European chem- 
ists should have faced the problem of making 
liquid fuel from something besides petroleum. 
The German Bergius has liquefied coal by pul- 
verizing it and heating it with hydrogen at 
high temperature and high pressure. From the 
resulting oil and tar he has produced motor 
fuel, Diesel oils, lubricants, and heavy fuel oil 
at the rate of over a hundred gallons per ton 
of coal. Another German, Fischer, produces 
gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbons from 
water gas, the gas made from coal and water. 
Patart, a French chemist, has also perfected a 
process for converting water gas into acids, 
alcohols, and numerous other complex and 
useful chemicals. 

Wood alcohol has received its greatest pub- 
licity in connection with those bibulous unfor- 
tunates who mistook it for its sister chemical, 
ethyl alcohol. But methanol, as the chemists 
prefer to call wood alcohol, is an important 
chemical in the manufacture of many products, 
notably the new synthetic resins that enter 



into our radio sets, automobiles, and houses. 
Most of these new man-made resins, the most 
famed of which is bakelite, are the combination 
of two chemicals. Bakelite is made of two 
disinfectants, formaldehyde and phenol, better 
known as carbolic acid (see BAKELITE) . Meth- 
anol enters into the picture because formalde- 
hyde is made from it. Until a few years ago, 
every drop of methanol used meant the destruc- 
tion of hardwood, but now synthetic wood 
alcohol is made not from wood but from carbon 
monoxide and hydrogen, both derived from 
coal. Urea is now used to replace the phenol 
in making a synthetic resin that may rival glass 
itself. Even urea is now made from the hydro- 
genation of coal and air, and it is being used 
as a fertilizer as well as a raw chemical material. 
Since urea was the organic chemical whose 
synthesis inaugurated the chemist's imitation 
of compounds hitherto believed nature's exclu- 
sive property, it is not surprising that it is 
being built up out of cheap atomic units. 

There was a day when wood was simply 
wood, just as coal was coal. In those days 
wood was used for houses, furniture, and even 
for newspapers, but to-day wood makes not 
alone the things into which it enters in its 
natural state; it paints automobiles, makes silk- 
like stockings and underwear, coats sausages, 
substitutes for the hides of animals, and even 
rivals window glass. The constituent of wood 
that is valuable for these uses is cellulose 
(which see), one of the world's fundamental 
complex materials. Cellulose grows in cotton 
fiber, cornstalks, and in ah 1 other woody plants, 
as well as in trees. So the supply is practically 
unlimited. 

The silkworm's rivals, rayon and the other 
so-called artificial silks, have created a large 
new textile industry. Some 390,000,000 pounds 
of this cellulose product are now being made 
yearly to clothe those who cannot afford real 
silk and who want something prettier than 
calico. Rayon labors under a stigma from hav- 
ing been offered as a substitute for silk. In 
reality, it is a new textile, worthy of a place 
and name all its own. Cellulose, in the form of 
wood fiber or the short, cheap shreds from 
cottonseed, called linters, is dissolved in various 
ways, then precipitated after being passed 
through minute holes like so much solid spa- 
ghetti. The trick is to take one form of cellu- 
lose and so change it by dissolving and handling 
that it takes the shape of yarn suitable for 
spinning into cloth. The original process ni- 
trates the cellulose, and the resulting product 
would be guncotton if the process were carried 
a bit further. In another method, the cupram- 
monium silk process, the cellulose is dissolved 
in ammoniacal copper solution, while viscose 
uses soda lye and carbon disulphide. Celanese 
is first cousin to the non-inflammable motion- 
picture film, as it is made by the acetate process. 



CHEMISTRY 



1339 



CHEMISTRY 



Rayon and the other synthetic cellulose tex- 
tiles do not clothe human beings alone. Sau- 
sages wear a skin of viscose during manufacture 
in a new process that allows the consumer to 
eat skinless frankfurters instead of those en- 
closed in natural casing. Fabrikoid, the cellu- 
lose film famous as an artificial leather, also 
makes manufacturers independent of animal 
products. To use real leather for all the pur- 
poses to which this material is put, twice as 
many cattle as ever existed in America at any 
one time would have to be slaughtered. Candy 
and other tempting dainties now wear a show- 
case dress of transparent cellulose film, called 
cellophane. Thicker sheets of a similar material 
compete with glass in some uses. 

A revolution of the pain t-and- varnish in- 
dustry has begun through the use of cellulose 
lacquers. Born of the necessity of finishing 
automobiles in twenty-four hours instead of 
twenty-eight days, as was the practice in the 
pain t-and- varnish days of automobile finishing, 
cellulose lacquers are invading the fields of oil 
paints and varnishes, indoors and out. 

Wood pulp in its own right is finding many 
uses. And the waste cellulose of sugar cane 
(bagasse) now is made into artificial lumber. 
Wall board is being made from cornstalks and 
sawdust, and, after being hydrolyzed to change 
its starches to sugar, has been fed to cattle. 

Freedom from the food monopoly exercised 
by the long-accepted farm-and-ranch sources of 
foodstuffs is promised by the chemist. The 
sugar cane and sugar beet have rivals in corn 
and the Jerusalem artichoke. From the starch 
of common corn there are now being made 
thousands of pounds of corn sugar, or, to use 
other names, glucose and dextrose. From the 
despised artichoke there can be obtained a 
sugar, called levulose, that is fifty per cent 
sweeter than the sucrose of cane and beet 
sugar. Levulose is not yet available commer- 
cially, but it will soon be on our dinner tables. 

Fats from oils, a chemical achievement that 
involves the hydrogenation of the oil in the 
presence of a catalyst, promise to give edible 
fats to the larder without the aid of the pig or 
cow. Cottonseed oil by this method can be 
turned into solid fat, thus converting a low-cost 
material into a more expensive one. 

The chemist even manufactures vitamins. 
When ultra-violet light is allowed to shine on 
ergosterol, the effect of Vitamin D, which 
prevents rickets, seems to be produced. 

Meat as a source of protein food is still the 
standard, but chemists are anticipating a day 
when increasing population will make it more 
difficult for all of us to live in comparative 
plenty. It is estimated that a hundred pounds 
of foodstuffs are required to produce three 
pounds of beef, and that a given area can sup- 
port five times the population if the protein 
foods are obtained from sources other than 



meat. Yeast, popularized in the public mind 
as a source of one of the vitamins, may be the 
new meat of the future. Yeast can grow quickly 
on waste products; large quantities can be 
produced in limited space. Properly seasoned, 
yeast might be made as palatable as beefsteak. 

To make agriculture more efficient, fertilizers 
must be used on a larger scale than ever before. 
The three soil foods are phosphate, nitrogen, 
and potash. Phosphate is to be had in abun- 
dance in the phosphate rocks of Florida and 
elsewhere. Potash has largely been a monopoly 
of the German beds of that mineral, but test 
drillings in Texas show that similar minerals 
underlie parts of that state. Chile, until the 
World War, had a monopoly on the production 
and sale of nitrates which nature had deposited 
on her deserts and nowhere else in quantity. 
The air is three-fourths full of nitrogen, and 
the chemist has succeeded in fixing this free 
and uncombined nitrogen of the air so that it 
can be used by plants, for explosives, and for 
other productive commodities. The first suc- 
cessful method of extracting nitrogen from the 
air was the flashing of powerful electric arcs 
to cause small quantities of the nitrogen and 
oxygen of the air to unite. This arc process is 
now in use extensively only in Norway, where 
power is cheap. The most modern method, 
the one used by the Germans during the World 
War to supply their armies wjth explosives, is 
the synthetic-ammonia process, in which nitro- 
gen and hydrogen gas are made to combine to 
form ammonia. 

Another gas of the air, carbon dioxide, which 
is a product of combustion, has come into a 
new industrial application. Solidified in the 
form of carbon-dioxide snow, it is called car bice, 
or dry ice (see CARBICE). It produces cold 
without moisture, and there is no pan under 
the refrigerator to empty. 

Synthetic rubber has been achieved, but 
there seems to be little danger that the rubber 
plantations of the East Indies will lose their 
monopoly in the near future. Artificial rubber 
has not been produced cheaply enough, and its 
quality is not equal to natural latex, the sap 
of the rubber tree. Rubber, thanks to the 
chemist's work on vulcanizing agents, has 
been made tougher, better, and longer-lived. 
Methods of electroplating with rubber have 
been devised. 

Quartz, silicon dioxide, one of the earth's 
most plentiful materials, has been conquered 
and made into a superglass. Fused quartz 
allows the ultra-violet end of the spectrum to 
shine through where ordinary glass would be a 
barrier. Its cost has retarded its extensive use, 
but it has a future. Automatic machinery for 
glass bottle-blowing and sheet-glass rolling has 
revolutionized the glass industry. High- 
alumina portland cement, which gains in a day 
the usual cement's strength of a week, has 



CHEMISTRY 



1340 



CHEMISTRY 



added a new building material to the tools of 
the engineer and architect. 

Metals have contributed to modern industry 
largely in the last half-century, but new metal 
combinations and processes promise more ad- 
vance in the future. Rust, red and destructive, 
has been the relentless enemy of iron and steel. 
The metal chromium, when added to the extent 
of twelve to fourteen per cent to iron or steel, 
will make it rustless and stainless. As junior 
partners of iron and steel, many other metals 
form partnerships that for many purposes are 
superior to existing irons and steels. Chro- 
mium as a coating on metals, electro-deposited, 
rivals and surpasses nickel. Where light weight 
and strength are required, aluminum alloys 
are available. 

To pierce the dark and solid interiors of 
metals and other materials, the chemist has 
adopted the X-ray, a tool of the physicist. 
Flaws and blowholes can be detected in cast- 
ings, just as holes can be seen in Swiss cheese. 
But the X-ray looks even deeper. It can see 
the very atoms of which the metal is composed. 
Atomic and crystal arrangement as revealed by 
the X-ray allows the actual designing of new 
metallic alloys. 

Following in the paths of the great pioneers 
of synthetic chemistry who first showed that 
man's mind and skill could create element com- 
binations unknown to nature, chemists have 
added to the world's synthetic drugs, medici- 
nals, perfumes, and organic chemicals. Insulin, 
the hormone of the pancreas that prevents and 
cures diabetes, was analyzed after isolation by 
a chemist, and its composition determined. 
Dread African sleeping sickness is being fought 
with a new chemical descendant of Ehrlich's 
606. 

Even the poison gases used in the World 
War have found peace-time uses. Phosgene is 
necessary in the manufacture of violet perfume, 
and tear gas is used as a warning addition to 
deadly hydrocyanic-acid gas used in fumi- 
gating. 

The chemist is not yet independent of nature, 
and he will always be limited by the materials 
the earth furnishes him. But he is becoming 
expert in picking things apart and putting 
them together again in different ways. A single 
plentiful raw material, like corn, wood, coal, 
or air, can make a multitude of useful materials. 
The chemist is increasing the factor of safety 
of living; he may enable future generations to 
be fed, clothed, and sheltered from a grain 
field, a coal mine, or the air and sunlight above 
them. W.D. 



Related Subjects. The articles in these volumes which 
have to do with chemistry are numerous. To make refer- 
ence to them easy, the following index is given, which lists 
all of those closely related to the subject, except the ele- 
ments. A list of those is given in the article above, and 
all of the important elements are treated in separate articles. 



The reader who takes time to study the text matter of this 
list will have a good foundation knowledge of this very im- 
portant and complicated subject: 



Acetic Acid 

Acetylene 

Acid 

Affinity 

Air 

Albumen 

Alchemy 

Alcohol 

Alkali 

Alkaloids 

Allotropy 

Alloy 

Alum 

Alumina 

Amalgam 

Amber 

Ammonia 

Analysis 

Aniline 

Annealing 

Antidote 

Aqua Regia 

Assaying 

Atom 

Atomic Theory 

Atomic Weights 

Base 

Benzene 

Benzine 

Benzoate of Soda 

Biochemistry 

Blue Vitriol 

Boncblack 

Borax 

Brimstone 

Bromides 

Calcium Carbide 

Car bice 

Carbides 

Carbohydrates 

Carbolic Acid 

Carbonates 

Carbon Bisulphide 

Carbonic-acid Gas 

Carbon Monoxide 

Carborundum 

Catalysis 

Citric Acid 

Coal Tar 

Colloids 

Combustion 

Corrosive Sublimate 

Cosmic Rays 

Cream of Tartar 

Creosote 

Crookes Tubes 

Cryolite 

Crystallization 

Cyanogen 

Decomposition 

Dextrin 

Distillation 

Dust Explosions 

Dyeing and Dyestuffs 

Dynamite 

Electricity (with list) 

Electrochemistry 

Electrolysis 

Explosives 

Fermentation 

Fire Damp 



Curie, Pierre and Marie S. 
Davy, Sir Humphry 
Faraday, Michael 



Fire 

Flux 

Formaldehyde 

Fulmination 

Gas 

Greek Fire 

Guncotton 

Gunpowder 

Glauber's Salt 

Glycerine 

Halogens 

Hydrates 

Hydrocarbons 

Hydrofluoric Acid 

Hydrogen Chloride 

Hydrogen Peroxide 

lodoform 

Ion 

Kelp 

Lactic Acid 

Lime 

Limelight 

Liquid Air 

Litmus 

Lunar Caustic 

Magnesia 

Matter 

Metals (with list) 

Molecule 

Natural Gas 

Nitrates 

Nitric Acid 

Nitroglycerine 

Nitrous Oxide 

Oxalic Acid 

Oxidation 

Ozone 

Pans Green 

Pewter 

Phosphates 

Phosphoric Acid 

Picric Acid 

Poison 

Poison Gas 

Potash 

Prussic Acid 

Ptomaines 

Putrefaction 

Quantum Theory 

Radioactivity 

Reactions 

Roentgen Rays 

Rust 

Sal Ammoniac 

Saltpeter 

Salicylic Acid 

Smoke 

Soda 

Soot 

Stearic Acid 

Stearin 

Sulphates 

Sulphureted Hydrogen 

Sulphuric Acid 

Tannin 

Tartar 

Tartaric Acid 

Verdigris 

Water 

White Lead 

Wood Alcohol 



Gay-Lussac, Joseph I , 
Liebig, Baron von 
Pasteur, Louis 



CHEMISTRY 



CHEMISTRY 



OUTLINE AND QUESTIONS ON CHEMISTRY 



Outline 



I. What It Is 

(1) "The science of the composition of sub- 

stances" 

(2) Its wonderful achievements 

II. Its Development 

(1) Reasons for its beginning 

(2) Alchemy 

(a) Its purpose 

(b) Its methods 

(3) The real science 

(a) Its connection with medicine 

(b) Discovery of fundamental principles 

IU. Subject Matter 

(1) Divisions of matter 

(2) Made up of atoms 

(3) Structure of the atom 

(4) Atoms and molecules 

(5) The elements 

(a) Definition 

(b) Isotopes 

(c) The periodic law 

(d) Atomic number and weight 

(e) Table of elements 

(f) Transmutation of elements 



(g) Quantum theory 
(6) Chemical compounds 

(a) Distinguished from mechanical mix- 

ture 

(b) Chemical affinity 

(c) Combination affected by outside 

forces 

1. Heat 

2. Electricity 
3- Light 

4. Mechanical force 

(d) Combination explained in terms of 

electrons 

(e) Chemical symbols 

1. Method of naming elements 

2. Method of naming compounds 

IV. Branches of Chemistry 

(1) Organic chemistry 

(a) The carbon compounds 

(b) Not necessarily a study of living or- 

ganisms 

(2) Inorganic chemistry 

(a) Lack of sharp distinctions 

(3) Special classifications 

(a) Physiological chemistry 

(b) Agricultural chemistry 

(c) Industrial chemistry 



Questions 

Name ten of the contributions of chemistry to human welfare. 

Why is the study of chemistry of increasing importance to-day? 

From the point of view of chemistry, what is the difference between air and water? 

Mention two substances which are really compounds but seem like simple sub- 
stances. 

In the formula H 2 S0 4 , what do the small figures indicate? What can you tell 
about the composition of the substance for which the formula stands? 

What curious theory did old-time chemists hold as to the origin of disease? 

What is meant by a "chemical compound"? 

Give the chemical symbols for two inorganic substances commonly present on 
the dinner table. 

What extraordinary relationships has chemistry discovered between substances 
that are apparently widely separated? 

Why can brass be decomposed, while copper, which seems not unlike it, cannot be? 

If you heat iron filings and sulphur hi a test tube, can you then draw out the iron 
with a magnet? 

What element, in some compound or other, is present in every living thing, so 
far as is known? 

Under what conditions can elements be decomposed? What is an isotope? 

How does the modern theory of the atom differ from Dalton's? 

What is meant by atomic weight? Atomic number? 



CHEMISTRY 



1342 



CHERRY 



CHEMISTRY, BUREAU OF. See AGRICUL- 
TURE, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF. 

CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. See FOOD (Chem- 
istry of Foods) ; NUTRITION. 

CHEMNITZ, kem' nits. See GERMANY 
(Principal Cities). 

CHEMULPO, che mid' po, CHOSEN, a port on 
the Yellow Sea, population 28,000. See CHOSEN. 

CHENOPODIUM, ke nopo' dih urn. See 

GOOSEFOOT. 

CHEOPS, ke' ops, an r 
Egyptian king of the fourth 
dynasty, builder of the fa- 
mous Great Pyramid at 
Gizeh, near Cairo. He lived 
about 2900 B.C. According 
to Herodotus, the "Father of 
History," he was an oppres- 
sive ruler who stopped at 
nothing to secure funds to 
complete his pyramid, even 
sacrificing his daughter's 
honor. But other historians 
record their belief that he 
was considered a wise and 
powerful king. The Egyp- 
tians called him Khufu, and 
the pyramid "the glory of 
Khufu. " 1 1 took twenty years 
and i oo ,000 men at labor con- 
stantly to complete this work 
of wonder. See PYRAMIDS 

CHEQUE, chek. See 
CHECK. 

CHEPHREN. 
See PYRAMIDS. 

CHERBOURG, 
shehr boor'. See 
FRANCE (Interest- 
ing Cities). 

CHEROKEE. 
See INDIANS, 
AMERICAN. 

CHEROOT. See 
TOBACCO. 

CHERRY, a 
small stone fruit, 
one of the most 
popular tree fruits 





THE PYRAMID OF CHEOPS 



lightest snow." And who has not heard of, and 
in his mind's eye seen, the graceful branches 
of dainty pink cherry blossoms of Japan at 
Cherry Festival time trees so covered with 
soft bloom it would seem some fleecy pink 
clouds must have dropped down at sunset time! 
Cherries are now cultivated in nearly all 
countries of the temperate zones. The domesti- 
cated forms are derived from two basic species, 
the sweet cherry and the sour 
cherry, and there is also a 
third type intermediate be- 
tween the sweet and sour, 
known as the Duke. In cul- 
tivation hundreds of vari- 
eties have been developed 
Although practically every 
state in the Union produces 
some cherries, there are few 
large commercial orchards, 
and several other tree fruits 
show a much higher yield. 
The most favored sections 
are those of equable climate. 
Well-established cherry or- 
chards do not require the 
degree of skill in manage- 
ment that most other fruits 
demand, but the trees are 
difficult to transplant, and 
serious losses are frequently 
incurred by growers of young 
trees. The fruit must be 
harvested when 
mature, since it 
does not ripen after 
picking. Ripe 
cherries are easily 
injured, but with 
modern methods of 
packing it is pos- 
sible to ship con- 
signments from the 
Pacific coast to the 
Atlantic. 

The delicious 
flavor of cherries is 
known to every- 
one. The fruit is 
equally popular 
whether fresh or 



Photo*. O B C 



grown in home gar- It was originally 482 feet high, and its sides were 765 feet long 
dens. Because the at the base. Th corner shown is known as "The Pilgrim Way, 
birds are very fond f r here is the easiest ascent to the top. In the lower illustration canned, and is used 
nf rViArnV nnH can be n ted the great size and weight of the stones which m numerous wavs 
Ot C&erries ana wcre laid one another in this vast ancient monument. m numerous wa . vs 

drop the seeds far 

and wide, cherry trees grow wild in all countries 
where they are planted. Either wild or culti- 
vated, the trees are ornamental, with their 
satiny brown bark against the oval, dark-green 
leaves, dotted here and there with bunches of 
light, bright-red, or purplish-black fruit, feasts 



for birds as well as food for man. 

Before the leaves come, the wealth of white 
blossoms make the trees seem "covered with 



notably for pies, 

tarts and sauce, confectionery, frozen desserts, 
and soda-fountain concoctions. Cherry brandies 
and cordials are made from the fruit of the 
wild black cherry. See page 1344. B.M.D. 

Classification. Cherries belong to the rose family, 
Rosaccat, and to the genus that includes the peach 
and plum, Prunus. The cultivated sweet cherries and 
Dukes are derived from P. avium; the sour cherries 
are from P. cerasus. The wild black cherry (P. scro- 



CHERRY FRUIT-FLY 



1343 



CHERUB 



Una) is a handsome, spreading tree valued for shade, 
lumber, and fruit. The little wild chokecherry tree 
(P. virginiana) is sometimes mistaken for a young 
specimen of P. serotina, but one bite of a bitter, 
puckery chokecherry should teach the unwary to 
recognize the tree by its much broader leaves and the 
disagreeable odor of leaves and bark. Yet the birds 
strip the fruit from the chokecherry trees, and so 
their seed has been widely distributed. 



CHERSONESUS, kur so ne' sus, a name 
which the ancient Greeks applied to several 
peninsulas. Three of the most important of 
these were the Thracian Chersonesus, north- 
west of the Hellespont, corresponding to the 
peninsula of the Dardanelles; the Tauric Cher- 
sonesus, the peninsula formed by the Black 




Sweet is the air with the budding haws, and the 

valley stretching for miles below 
Is white with blossoming cherry-trees, as if just 

covered with lightest snow. 

The illustration shows form of tree, appearance 
of flowers, detail of leaves, and the ripened fruit. 

CHERRY FRUIT-FLY. See APPLE MAGGOT. 

CHERRY LAUREL, law' rel. The cherry 
laurels are ornamental shrubs or small trees 
belonging to the same genus as the cherry of 
horticulture. They bear evergreen leaves and 
clusters of small white flowers. Their rounded 
stone fruits have a very disagreeable taste, and 
the fruit kernels, as well as the leaves of the 
plants, are poisonous. From the leaves is ob- 
tained poison laurel-water, which is much like 
oil of almonds, and was formerly used in medi- 
cine. The common, or English, cherry laurel is 
a favorite ornamental in Europe, and is also 
planted to a considerable extent in California 
and the states south of Virginia. B.M.D. 

Scientific Name. The cherry laurels belong to the 
family Rosaceae. They are not true laurels. The 
botanical name of the English cherry laurel is Prunus 
lauroccrasus. 



Photo*. VUual EducAUoo ttorvic* 



TWO OF THE CHERRIES 

Wild cherry (above) and the chokecherry. 

Sea and the Sea of Azov, now called the 
Crimea; and the Cimbrian Chersonesus, the 
modern Jutland. 

Derivation. The word Chersonesus comes from 
the Greek chersos, meaning dry land, and nesos, 
meaning island. 

CHERUB, OR CHERUBIM, chehr' u bim. A 
cherub is one of an order of angelic beings 
ranking next to the order of seraphim. The 
cherubim (plural of cherub) are believed to 
excel in knowledge, the word cherub being de- 
rived from the Hebrew word to know. In art 



CHERUB 



1344 



CHERUBINI 




DESIGNS FOR BOOKLET 

Suggested designs for cover page of a school booklet 
devoted to the cherry 

they are usually represented by heads, with 
one, two, or three pairs of wings, and in the 
earliest religious paintings their faces are 
thoughtful and intelligent. The early painters 
also held strictly to a prescribed color scheme 
when representing cherubim in a Glory of 
Angels, a Glory being a portrayal of the several 
orders of angels in circles. The inner circle, 
that of the seraphim, is red, the symbol of love; 
the second, that of cherubim, is blue, emblem 
of light and knowledge. This law of color was 
observed in the oldest pictures, in illuminated 
manuscripts, and in stained glass. Later artists 
gave themselves more freedom in representing 
angelic beings, a change noticeable in such 
celebrated paintings as Raphael's remarkable 
Sistine Madonna and Perugino's Coronation of 
the Virgin. 

In the Raphael picture, the Madonna is de- 
scending from clouds composed of heads of 
thousands of cherubim, which are shown in a 
golden-tinted background. In the Perugino 
picture, the floating cherubim have wings of 
various colors, blending in an exquisite har- 
mony of tones. The aspect of serious medita- 
tion noticeable in the cherubic faces painted 
by the more reverent artists is beautifully ex- 
emplified in the two famous cherubim at the 
base of the Sistine Madonna, and in the cheru- 
bim in Perugino's Assumption of the Virgin. 
See MADONNA: reproduction of the ASSUMP- 
TION (page 450;. 



Figures Represent 
Thousands of.5u?heb 



^California 
655 

Michigan 1 
36(7 



Kansas 
178 





Wisconsin 
160 



Canada, 
115 



THE CHERKIhb THAT GROW IN A YEAR 

The figures are compiled from latest available govern- 
ment reports. 

CHERUBINI, ka roo be' ne, MARIA LUIGI 
CARLO ZENOBIO SALVATORE (1760-1842), an 
Italian musical composer, excelling especially 
in sacred music. He 
was born at Florence, 
and commenced his 
musical studies at the 
age of six, under his 
father's instruction. 
At nine he began to 
study under eminent 
masters and soon 
showed a genius for 
composition. Before 
he was sixteen he had 
produced his credit- 
able Mass and Credo 
in D y and a Te Deum 
for male voices, which 
is still often sung. 
His fame first became 
general in 1805, when 
he went to Vienna to compose an opera for the 
New Imperial Opera House. That production, 
Faniska, won him many friends, notably Haydn 
and Beethoven, who pronounced him the 
greatest composer of sacred music of the age. 
After 1809 he wrote sacred music almost ex- 
clusively. He made several visits to London, 
being appointed at one time composer to the 
king, and later superintendent of the king's 
chapel. In 1821 he became director of the 




CHERUBINI 



CHESANA RIVER 



1345 



CHESS 



Paris Conservatory, and during his adminis- 
tration of more than twenty years, he brought 
it to a high standard of excellence. His 
masterpiece is the opera Les Deux Journtes 
("The Water Carrier"). 
CHESANA RIVER. See YUKON RIVER. 
CHESAPEAKE, THE. See WAR or 1812. 
CHESAPEAKE, ches' a peek, AND OHIO 
CANAL, a waterway along the north side of 
the Potomac River from the former George- 
town, now a part of the city of Washington, to 
Cumberland, Md. This canal has an interest- 
ing history, for as far back as 1774 it was an 
idea of Washington's to make the Potomac 
navigable from tidewater to the Alleghenies. 
The scheme was interrupted by the Revolu- 
tionary War, but in 1784 a company was 
formed to revive it; Washington was the 
organization's head until he became President 
of the United States. The project was aban- 
doned in 1820, but was later taken up and 
completed in 1850 at a cost of over $1 1,000,000. 
The canal is 184 miles long, sixty feet wide, 
and six feet deep, with seventy -four locks 
having a total lift of 609 feet. Comparatively 
little traffic passes through it. See CANAL. 

CHESAPEAKE BAY, a large inlet on the 
Atlantic coast extending northward through 
the states of Virginia and Maryland, dividing 
the latter into two 
parts, called respec- 
tively, near the bay, 
the Eastern and the 
Western Shore. The 
channel at the en- 
trance is twelve miles 
wide, with Cape 
Henry and Cape 
Charles on either side. 
The bay, which the 
Indians called the 
Great Salt Water, is 
200 miles long, from 
four to forty miles 
wide, and has a depth 
of from thirty to sixty 
feet in the channel. 
The coast is very irregular, having many 
bays and inlets and large estuaries at the 
mouths of the numerous rivers which empty 
into it. The most important of the latter are 
the James, the York, the Rappahannock, and 
the Potomac, on the west; the Susquehanna, 
on the north; and the Elk, the Chester, and 
the Choptank, on the east. 

The shores are low and marshy and abound 
in wild waterfowl, while the shallow, brackish 
waters contain vast natural beds of the famous 
Chesapeake oysters. Oyster beds are also 
planted scientifically, and the oyster trade of 
the Maryland and Virginia beds is the largest 
in the world. (The details of the oyster in- 
dustry are given in these volumes under the 




LOCATION MAP 



title OYSTER.) As the bay is navigable for 
deep-sea vessels nearly its entire length, it 
has a large foreign as well as coastwise trade. 
The most important port is Baltimore, which 
is situated on the west shore, in Maryland, 
on the Patapsco River. Other large, busy ports 
are Norfolk and Portsmouth, in the eastern 
part of Virginia, at the southern end of the bay. 
These twin cities contain large naval and coal- 
ing stations. The United States Naval Acad- 
emy is at Annapolis, on the west shore of the 
bay, in Maryland, not far from Washington, 

CHESAPEAKE BAY DOG. See RE- 
TRIEVER. 

CHESS. This interesting and fascinating 
game is in no sense a game of chance, but is 
the most intellectual of all games of skill, for 
it not only trains the power of observation but 
is a mental contest which brings forth such 
qualities as foresight, resource, imagination, 
and ingenuity on the part of the players. Chess 
has often been compared to a game of strategy 
as played by two opposing generals on the 
battlefield, and it resembles war in the sense 
that it consists of attack and defense and has a 
definite object in view; that is, the surrender 
of the king, toward which all the moves of the 
game lead. 

The Board and the Pieces. The game of 
chess is played by two persons on a board 
which is divided into sixty-four squares, ar- 
ranged in eight rows of eight squares each, 
and colored alternately white and black. The 
same board is used in the game of checkers. 
Each player has a set of sixteen men; one set 
is colored white and the other black. Eight 
of each set are of the lowest grade and are 
named pawns; the other eight are of various 
grades and are named pieces. The pieces on 
each side consist of a king, queen, two bish- 
ops, two knights, and two rooks, or castles. 
The board must be placed so that each player 
shall have a white square at his. right hand. 

The Position of the Pieces. At the begin- 
ning of the game all the men are arranged 
upon the two rows of squares next to the play- 
ers, the pieces on the first, or nearest, row, and 
the pawns on the row immediately in front 
of the pieces. The king and queen occupy 
the two central squares facing the correspond- 
ing pieces on the opposite side. The rule to 
be remembered is that the queen always oc- 
cupies her own color, which means that the 
white queen is set on the light square and the 
black queen on the black square. The two 
bishops occupy the squares next to the king 
and queen; the two knights, the squares next 
the bishops; the castles occupy the last, or 
corner, squares. The illustration shows how 
the men are arranged when the game starts. 
The men standing on the king's or queen's 
side of the board are named, respectively, king's 



CHESS 



1346 



CHESS 



and queen's men. Thus, king's bishop or 
knight is the bishop or knight on the side of 
the king. The pawns are named from the 




Q K B Kt R 
VMTE 



CHESSBOARD AND MEN 

The position of the pieces at the beginning of the 
game. 

pieces in front of which they stand, such as 
king's pawn, queen's castle's pawn, and so on. 
The names of the men are abbreviated, as 
Mows: King, K\ King's Bishop, KB\ King's 
Knight, KKt\ King's Castle or Rook, KC or 
KR\ Queen, Q\ Queen's Bishop, QB\ Queen's 
Knight, QKt\ Queen's Castle, QC or QR; 
Pawns, P. 

The Moves of the Pieces. In chess, a man 
captures by occupying the position held by 
the captured man, who is then removed from 
the board. In this, the game differs from 
checkers, where the piece played is set one 
square beyond the man "jumped." The pawn 
moves straight forward one square at a time, 
with two exceptions: when it is moved first, 
in which case it may be advanced either one 
or two squares, at the discretion of the player; 
and when it captures a man, at which time it 
always moves diagonally one square, to the 
position of the captured man. A pawn never 
moves backward. A piece or another pawn 
directly in front of it stops its progress. When 
a pawn reaches the eighth row, or the extreme 
limit of the board, it may be exchanged for 
any piece previously lost which the player 
chooses. As a rule, the queen, the most val- 
uable piece, is chosen, if during the game that 
piece has been lost. This is called queening 
a pawn. 



The rook, or castle, moves for any distance 
in a straight line either forward, backward, or 
sidewise, but not diagonally. 

The bishop moves any distance either back- 
ward or forward, but only diagonally. It must 
be noted that a bishop always moves on 
squares of the same color. 

The queen is the most powerful piece on the 
board; she can move any distance in any 
straight line, either forward, backward, side- 
wise, or diagonally, as far as her path is clear. 
It is of course understood that one of her own 
men stops her progress, but she may capture 
an opponent exposed to direct approach. 

The king is at once the weakest and most 
valuable piece on the board. As regards di- 
rection, he is as free as the queen, but for 
distance he is limited to one square at a 
time. Standing on any central square, he com- 
mands the eight squares around him, and no 
more. 

Castling. Besides his ordinary move, the 
king has another, by special privilege, in which 
the castle participates. Once in the game, if 
the squares between king and castle are clear, 
if neither king nor castle has been moved, 
if the king has not been attacked by any hostile 
man, and if no hostile man has commanded 
the square over which the king has to pass, 
the king's or queen's castle can be placed next 
to the king and the king can be moved over 
the castle to the adjoining square. This move 
is called castling. 

The knight, unlike the other pieces, has a 
peculiar move. He moves over two squares 
at a time, one of which is diagonal and the 
other is straight. He may move in any direc- 
tion, and he can leap around any man occu- 
pying a square intermediate to that to which 
he intends to go. The knight always moves 
to a square of a different color. The knight, 
like the king, when on a central square on the 
board, commands eight squares, which are at 
two squares' distance, as shown in the third 
illustration. 

The Value of the Pieces. If the pawn is 
taken as the standard of unity, the relative 
value of the pieces is as follows: pawn, i; 
bishop or knight, 3; rook, 5; queen, 9. The 
knight or the bishop is usually known as a 
"minor piece." The value of the pieces also 
depends upon the state of the game. Thus, at 
the end of the game a pawn is much more 
valuable than at the beginning, and a knight 
is generally stronger than a bishop; on the 
other hand, two bishops at the end are more 
valuable than two knights. 

Check and Checkmate. The definite aim in 
chess is to force the surrender of the opposing 
king. The king in chess cannot be taken; he 
can only be in such a position that if it were 
any other piece he would be taken. When a 
piece or pawn attacks him, he is said to be 



CHESS 



1347 



CHESS 



in check', that is, he is in such a position that 
the next opposing move would capture him, 
and the opponent is bound to give notice by 




NAMi-S OF THL SQUAKLS 

saying "check." When the king is in check, 
all other plans must be abandoned and all 
other men sacrificed, if necessary, to save him 
from that situation. This is done either by 
removing him to an adjacent square not com- 
manded by any man of the adversary, or by 
interposing one of his own men, and so screen- 
ing him from check, or by capturing the at- 
tacking man. When the king can no longer be 
defended on being checked by the adversary, 
he is checkmated, and the game is ended. 

When neither of the players is able to check- 
mate the other, the result is a drawn game. 
When the player having the superior force, by 
oversight or want of skill, blocks his oppo- 
nent's king so that he cannot move without 
going into check and none of his other men 
can be moved, such a situation is known as 
stalemate, and the game is considered a draw. 

Opening, Middle, and End. A game of chess 
can be divided into three parts: the opening, 
the middle, and the end. In the opening, each 
player seeks to move his pieces in such a 
way as to secure the best strategic position for 
the actual battle which develops in the middle 
game. The various openings of a game are 
explained in all books of chess, and any player 
who wishes to gain proficiency must master 
the openings. A few broad principles govern- 
ing the opening are to play forth the minor 
pieces early, to castle the king in good time 
and not expect to establish a strong attack 
with half of one's forces at home. 

The actual battle takes place in the middle 
game and results in the capture of such a 
number of pawns and pieces as usually decides 



which side will eventually win the game. It 
is during the middle game, where such an 
endless variety of situations is to be found, 
that the players have the opportunity to dis- 
play all their ingenuity and power of combi- 
nation. A few simple hints which ought to 
guide a player during any part of the game 
are to try always to perceive the motive of 
the adversary before making the next move; 
to look over the board to see whether he can- 
not make a better move than the one he in- 
tended to make; to be careful not to play 
into his opponent's hand by being tempted to 
capture a piece which is only intended as a 
bait. 

Notation. The rows of squares running 
straight up and down the board are called 
files', those running from side to side are called 
lines. Each of the sixty-four squares of the 
chess board has a name and two numbers, as 
is shown in the second illustration. Each 
square is named after the piece which occupies 
it at the beginning of the game, and is called 
the king's square or the queen's square, and so 
on; the whole file has the same name. But 
each player counts from his own side, and it 
is easily seen that row number i for him is 
row number 8 of his adversary, and row num- 
ber 2 for him is row number 7 for his adver- 




THE MOVES OF THE KNIGHT 

The dotted lines show possible direction and distance 

in any one move; the dot shows where any of these 

moves will place him. 

sary, and so on. Other signs used in chess 
books or in the explanation of chess problems 
are: ( ), to\ (x), takes. 

The Scholar's Mate. We give below, as an 
example, a short game which has been prac- 
ticed upon young and inexperienced players 
and which never fails to cause such a player 
the greatest astonishment. It is called the 



CHEST 



1348 



CHESTERFIELD 



scholar's mate, and in this game checkmate is 
given in the first few opening moves. The 
movements can be followed on the diagram 
in the second illustration: 

WHITE BLACK 

1. P-K4 i- p - R 4 

2. KB-QB 4 2. KB-QB 4 
3 Q-KR 4 3- KKt-KB 3 
4. Q-KB 7 and checkmate 

History. The game of chess, which is the 
most cosmopolitan game and is played now 
in every part of the world, originated in Asia. 
It seems probable that it was invented in India, 
and from there it was introduced into Persia. 
The Arabs conquered Persia in the seventh 
century, learned the game, and introduced it 
into all the countries they conquered after- 
ward. In this way chess reached Spain, 
whence it spread all over Europe. Benjamin 
Franklin popularized the game in the United 
States. 

Derivation. The name in all the European lan- 
guages is derived from the Persian word shah, which 
means king, and indicates the aim of the game. 

CHEST, OR THORAX, tho' raks, the boxlike 
portion of the human body that lies between 
the neck and the abdomen. It is shaped some- 
what like a cone, with the narrower end up- 
ward. The ribs, which are attached to the 
breastbone in front and to the spinal column 
behind, form its sides. 

Within the thorax are the heart, the lungs, 
the great arterial and venous trunks, the wind- 
pipe, the bronchi, the oesophagus, the thoracic 
duct. There are several small openings at the 
top of the thorax through which pass the large 
arteries and veins, the important nerves sup- 
plying heart and lungs, the windpipe, and the 
oesophagus. The bottom of the thorax is 
formed by a large layer of muscle, known as 
the diaphragm, (which see) ; it completely sepa- 
rates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity. 
This layer of muscle is perforated by the aorta, 
vena cava, oesophagus, and thoracic duct 
those structures which pass from one cavity 
to the other. 

In the act of breathing, the muscles which 
connect and cover the ribs cause them to be 
drawn upward and outward, while the dia- 
phragm flattens downward. Thus, the chest 
can be increased in size in every direction; 
when one takes a deep breath, the volume 
of the chest cavity becomes greater, and the 
lungs, due to a slight vacuum which exists be- 
tween them and the chest wall, are stretched 
out to fill this greater space. In so doing, air is 
drawn into the lungs. In expiration, as the 
chest becomes smaller, the thoracic wall and 
diaphragm press lightly against the lungs, and 
the air is expelled. It is evident, therefore, 
that the lungs have no power to expand and 
contract, but that their movement within the 



thorax is entirely passive. In normal, quiet 
breathing, only one-seventh of the total capac- 
ity of the lungs is used. See BREATH AND 
BREATHING. K.A.E. 

CHESTER, ENGLAND. See ENGLAND (The 
Cities). 

CHESTER, GEORGE RANDOLPH (1869-1924), 
a popular American author of fiction dealing 
with everyday life. A breezy, entertaining 
style, brisk narrative, and unfailing humor won 
a steady market for his stories. Chester was 
born in Ohio, left home at an early age to make 
his own way in the world, and after holding 
a number of positions of a varied sort, he be- 
came a reporter on the Detroit News. From 
this position he advanced to that of Sunday 
editor of the Cincinnati Enquirer, and he soon 
became a regular contributor to leading mag- 
azines. He established his reputation with the 
Get- Rich-Quick Wallingford stories, from which 
a successful play was adapted, and followed the 
series with A Cash Intrigue, The Making of 
Bobby Burnit, Cordelia Blossom, The Jingo: 
A Tale of Red Roses, and others. At his death 
he was engaged in writing a series of tales 
about Hollywood, the chief center for the 
production of American moving pictures. 

CHESTER, PA., is the oldest city in the 
state, situated in Delaware County, in the 
extreme southeastern corner of the state, and 
on the Delaware River. Philadelphia is fifteen 
miles northeast, and Wilmington, Del., is 
fourteen miles southwest. The city has fine 
transportation service through the Pennsyl- 
vania, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Phila- 
delphia & Reading railroads. Population, 
1928, 74,200 (Federal estimate). 

Chester was settled by Swedes in 1643, and 
was known as Upland until 1682, when the 
name was changed to its present one by Wil- 
liam Perm. It was laid out in 1700, and became 
a city in 1866. Here, in 1777, Washington 
reassembled his troops after the Battle of the 
Brandy wine. 

The home of William Penn, founder of 
Pennsylvania colony, is a feature of historical 
interest. The locality is the seat of Pennsyl- 
vania Military College, Crozier Theological 
Seminary (Baptist), and Swarthmore College. 

Industry. Formerly, shipbuilding was the chief 
industry in Chester, several vessels of the United 
States navy were built in its immense shipyards, 
which were classed with the largest in the United 
States. But its good harbor and exceptional trans- 
portation facilities by water and rail have given va- 
riety to industry, and have made the city the trade 
center for a very prosperous section. Manufacturing 
interests are largely centered in silk, cotton, and 
woolen goods, shipbuilding materials; over 8,000 
people are employed in the 300 factories. 

CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STAN- 
HOPE, Earl of (1694-1773), an English writer 
and statesman whose political career means 



CHESTERTON 



1349 



CHESTNUT 




LORD CHESTERFIELD 



less to the world than does the influence of 
the remarkable grace and polish of his manners. 
His name has become a synonym for elegance 
of demeanor, and to 
say that a man has the 
manners of a Chester- 
field is to pay the high- 
est possible compli- 
ment to his good 
breeding. Chester- 
field's letters to his 
son, in which he gave 
him advice in matters 
of etiquette, are fa- 
mous, and are justly 
admired for their 
literary excellence. 

Lord Chesterfield 
succeeded his father, 
the third earl, in 1726. 
Two events stand out 
prominently in his political career his ap- 
pointment as ambassador to The Hague, in 
1728, and as lord-lieutenant of Ireland, in 
1745. Both positions he filled with ability. As 
a member of the House of Lords, he was an 
active and bitter opponent of Walpole (see 
WALPOLE, HORACE). Chesterfield was made 
Secretary of State in 1746; two years later 
he retired to private life. 

CHESTERTON, GILBERT KEITH (1874- ), 
an English poet, essayist, and novelist, one of 
the most original and forceful of the modern 
group of British 
writers. The out- 
standing feature of his 
work is an extreme 
fondness for paradox. 
He was educated at 
Saint Paul's School 
and later attended the 
classes of the Slade 
Art School. His first 
important publica- 
tion, a volume of 
poems collected under 
the title of The White 
Knight, appeared in 
1900, just after the 
outbreak of the South 
African War. During 
the next three years, 
Chesterton became widely known through his 
brilliant anti-imperialistic articles in the 
Speaker and the London Daily News, and at 
the close of the war he was asked by John 
Morley to write a sketch op Browning for the 
English Men of Letters series. His discussion 
of Browning and one of Dickens, which ap- 
peared later, are illuminating and sympathetic 
literary criticisms. 

Chesterton's philosophy, that of a man 
violently opposed to the attitude of the modern 




Photo. U 4 U 
GILBERT K. CHKJsTERTOtf 



age, is strikingly set forth in such volumes of 
essays as Heretics, Orthodoxy, and Outline of 
Sanity. 

His Stories. His fiction includes several collections 
of ingenious detective stories centered about the 
exploits of "Father Brown", and the novels Man alive, 
The Flying Inn, The New Jerusalem, Incredulity of 
Father Brown, The Everlasting Man, and The Return 
of Don Quixote. 

CHESTNUT, ches' nut. The chestnuts are 
a genus of valuable trees belonging to the 
beech family. But two species are native to 
North America the "spreading chestnut tree" 
of Longfellow's well-loved poem, and the 
smaller chinquapin, which is merely a shrub 
east of the Appalachian Mountains. The 
common chestnut is a beautiful tree that some- 
times grows to be 100 feet high. It is a joy to 
the eye the year round. In the spring appear 
the well-shaped, glossy, dark-green leaves; 
then come yellow, fragrant catkins, and in 




The chestnuts, lavish of their long-hid gold, 

To the faint Summer, beggared now and old, 

Pour back the sunshine hoarded 'neath her favor- 



ing eye. 

LOWELL: 



A n Indian- Summer Reverie. 



autumn, leaves of pure gold with borrowed 
summer sunshine. At last, we find it standing 
4 'knee-deep" in its own yellow leaves, and 
scattered all about are the velvet-lined burs, 
turned brown with frost, yielding their store 
of smooth, brown nuts. American chestnuts 
have the finest flavor, but those of Spain and 
Italy are the largest, and in those countries 
they are a staple food among the peasants. 

Ordinary chestnut trees bear nuts only 
after the tenth or twelfth year, but Luther 
Burbank produced a chestnut seedling which 
bears nuts in eighteen months. Chestnuts 
are eaten raw or boiled, baked or roasted, and 



CHBSUNCOOK LAKE 1350 

sometimes are dried and ground into flour 
for bread or cakes. They are often used with 
candy, desserts, and poultry dressing. Chestnut 



CHICAGO 



Water, 5.9 




Proiein,l0.7 
Fat, 70 
Ash, 2.2 



COMPOSITION OP CHESTNUTS 

bark is valued for tanning, and the timber is 
used for woodwork, furniture, railroad ties, 
fence posts, and fuel. 

It is a great misfortune that the American 
chestnut seems doomed to extinction because 
of the attacks of the chestnut-tree blight, a 
fungus disease imported from China. Since 
1 004, when the trouble was first noticed in New 
York Zoological Park, the disease has been 
spreading rapidly throughout the chestnut 
regions, from the Eastern states southward and 
westward. A nut-bearing, blight-resistant tree 
that may some day take the place of the 
original chestnut has been produced by 
the United States Department of Agriculture. 
This is a cross between the Japanese chestnut 
and the chinquapin. B.M.D. 

Scientific Names. Chestnuts belong to the family 
Fagaceae. The common American chestnut is Cas- 
tanea deniala. The chinquapin is C. pumila. 



CHBSUNCOOK, cAew' *<><>, LAKE. See 
MAINE (Lakes and Rivers). 

CHEVALIER BAYARD, shev a leer' ba yahr'. 
See BAYARD, PIERRE DU TERRAIL. 

CHEVIOT, chev' i ut, HILLS, a low moun- 
tain range lying partly in Northumberland, 
England, and partly in Roxburghshire, Scot- 
land, forming about thirty-five miles of the 
boundary line between the two countries. 
The hills extend from the River Tweed on the 
northeast to the sources of the Liddel on 
the southwest. They are smooth in contour and 
covered with grass, providing excellent grazing 
ground for the famous Cheviot shoep. The 
region is also noted for its grouse. During 
the Border wars, the hills were the scene of 
much of the romance and history of those 
troublous times, and they will always be asso- 
ciated with the old ballad, Chevy Chase. 

CHEVY CHASE. See above. 

CHEWING GUM. See GUM, CHEWING. 

CHEWINK. See FINCH. 

CHEYENNE, shi en', Wvo. See WYOMING 
(back of map). 

CHEYENNE INDIANS. See INDIANS, 
AMERICAN (Most Important Tribes). 

CHEYENNE RIVER. See SOUTH DAKOTA 
(Rivers and Lakes). 

CHIAROSCURO, ke ah ro skoo' ro. One of 
the most difficult things to master in painting 
is the handling of light and shade, or chiaro- 
scuro, as it is called, from Italian words mean- 
ing light and dark. Unless objects in the light 
stand out and those in the shadow are prop- 
erly subordinated, perspective seems to be 
lacking. Correggio and Rembrandt rank 
among the great masters of the art of chi- 
aroscuro. 

CHICA. See FERMENTED LIQUORS. 



The STOBY of CHICAGO 




ILL. While the site of Chi- 
cago was still a wilderness of marsh and forest 
roamed by Indians, the three cities of the world 
that surpass it in population were great centers 
of trade and industry, and two of these had 
many centuries of growth back of them. For 
only London, New York, and Berlin are larger 
than this metropolis of Illinois and of inland 
America. Quite as remarkable as its size and 



rapidity of growth is the restless energy which 
has characterized every step of its advance. 
William Vaughn Moody, a poet who spent 
many years in Chicago, described its domi- 
nant spirit in the lines 

And yonder where, gigantic, wilful, young, 
Chicago sitteth at the northwest gates, 
With restless, violent hands and casual tongue, 
Molding her mighty fates. 



CHICAGO 



1351 



CHICAGO 



IS 



Briefly Stated. A few of the many facts Size and Location. It is the popular belief 

relating to Chicago may be summarized that Chicago's area is greater than that of any 

briefly. Some of the figures are subject to con- other American city except New York, but it 

stant slight changes. - . 

Area, 210.5 square miles. 

Banks, national and state, in city 
and suburbs, 250. 

Boulevard mileage, 130. 

Building permits yearly, exceeding 
$360,000,000. 

Cemeteries, 61. 

Churches, 1,200. 

Dispensaries, 22. 

Elevation above sea level, 600 feet. 

Fire-engine companies, 128; hook 
and ladder companies, 38. 

Firemen, officers and men, 2,325. 

Golf courses within twenty-five 
miles of the business center, 180 

Homes, about 670,000. 

Hospitals, 84. 

Length of city, north to south, 
26 miles; width from east to west g 
miles. 

Libraries, 26 (including the public 
library and its many branches as i). 

MaiJL carriers, over 3,000. 

Medical schools, 29. 

Newspapers and periodicals, about 
800. 

Parks, area, 6,500 acres 

Police, officers and men, average 
6,100. 

Postoffice clerks, about 6,200 

Public schools, 340 

Pupils in public schools, about 
525,000. 

Street, longest (Western Avenue) 
23^ miles 

Street railway mileage, 1,350 

Streets and alleys, 5,160 miles. 




CHICAGO AVENUE WATER TOWER 

This beautiful structure escaped 
destruction in the great fire of 



York is second; 
the area within Los Angeles' 
corporate limits is greatest. The 
area of Greater New York is 
191,760 acres; of Los Angeles, 
262,896 acres; of Chicago, 133,- 
800 acres, or 210.5 square miles. 

Chicago has more than 5,000 
miles of streets and alleys more 
than the entire road mileage in 
some of the small states of the 
Union. The city proper has a 
frontage on Lake Michigan of 
twenty-six, and with compactly 
built suburbs, which are con- 
tinuous extensions of the city, 
of about thirty-three miles. The 
greatest east and west extent is 
nine and one-half miles. Densely 
populated suburbs extend more 
than two miles farther west. 

Chicago is in Cook County, of 
which it is the county seat. It 
lies along the southwestern shore 
of Lake Michigan, on a plain but 
fifteen feet or thereabouts above 
the level of the lake, or 596 feet 
above sea level, and much of the 
land along the shore has been 
built up from a flat beach. 

Though it is called a Western 
city, and is Western in spirit, 
Chicago is in reality well to the 
east of the center of the country; 



Teachers in public schools, more l8 7i; built in 1869 it remains it is 2,274 miles from San Fran- 

a landmark of earlier days. dsco> and bu t OII f ro m New 

York. Its marvelous growth in population and 
commercial and industrial impoitance has 
been largely due to its position at the head 
of Lake Michigan, where it formed for many 
years the only outlet for the products of the 
Middle West. 

Plan of the City. The original plan of the 
city was influenced very decidedly by the 
Chicago River, a little stream, but a very 
important one. It is formed by two branches, 
one from the northwest and one from the 
southwest, which unite less than a mile from 
the lake, meeting the lake nearly midway 
between the northern and southern limits 
of the city. This stream was once sluggish, 
unpicturesque, and very dirty, because it 
carried pollution into the lake, but it is now 
clear water, and it no longer flows into the 
lake. When the great Drainage Canal was 
completed, the water course was reversed; 
its flow is now from Lake Michigan, inland from 
its mouth, into the Drainage Canal and eventu- 
ally into the Illinois and Mississippi rivers. 
It is the only river in the world whose flow is 



than 12,500 

Theaters, including playhouses and moving-pic- 
ture theaters, about 330. Some of the latter group 
have seating capacities of 4,500 and 5,000. 

Voters, registered, exceed 1,250,000. 

Water used per day, about 900,000,000 gallons. 

Wage-earners, over 1,250,000. 

The People. Chicago has a greatly varied 
population, about seventy-seven per cent of 
its inhabitants being foreign-born or of foreign 
parentage; twenty-eight nationalities are repre- 
sented. By far the most numerous of these 
adopted citizens are the Poles, of whom there 
are over 358,000. That is, Chicago is a larger 
Polish city than is Vilna, one of the most im- 
portant cities of Poland. Germans rank next 
in number, then Russians, Czechoslovaks, 
Swedes, and Italians, in that order. News- 
papers are published regularly in at least 
ten languages, and within the confines of 
the city the church service is given in at 
least a score. The total population of Chicago 
in 1910 was 2,185,283; in 1920 it was 2,701,212; 
in 1929 the Census Bureau estimated it to be 
3,250,000. 



CHICAGO 



135* 




Photo. U A U 
FREIGHT TUNNELS RKDUCE TRAFFIC CONGESTION 

Freight trains are dashing past nearly every corner in the "Loop" at frequent intervals These trains are heavily 
loaded with merchandise which they discharge at the big department stores and at various other mercantile 
establishments. They handle so much freight that it is estimated that fully 5,000 trucks are taken off the streets 
that, otherwise, would be passing through the Loop. There are no collisions, for the trains use their tracks on 
a one-way system, guarded by block signals. The rolling stock now in use in the tunnels, 40 feet below Chicago's 
street surface, consists of 132 electric locomotives, of from 30 to 50 horse power each, and 3,000 freight cars of 
various types, each four feet wide and ten feet long, with a capacity of from one to six tons. 



away from its mouth. Most of the city's 
shipping centers now at the Navy Pier, at the 
mouth of the river, and thus the two-mile 
extent of the river within the industrial center 
is less congested than formerly. 

By the Chicago River and its branches, the 
city is divided into three well-recognized 
districts, or "sides": the South Side, including 
all the territory south and east of the river; 
the North Side, including all that to the north; 
and the West Side, much the greatest in area, 
to the west of the river's branches. Three 
great tunnels and no fewer than forty-nine 
bridges with movable spans connect the various 
parts of the city with each other. In the main 
the streets are regularly laid out, crossing each 
other at right angles. 

The Business Section. One feature very 
characteristic of Chicago is its "Loop," or 
business district, which is crowded into an 
area little more than one and one-half square 
miles in extent. Not all of its great business 



houses are within that space, but the larger 
proportion, and by far the more important, 
of them are there. In other cities a man may 
have to travel miles to consult his dentist, his 
oculist, and his physician, buy his clothing, and 
lunch at his favorite restaurant; in Chicago 
he can do it all within a very few blocks. 
This has its advantages, but it also has its 
disadvantages. The crush in the streets and 
the din from street cars, trucks, elevated trains, 
and automobiles are by no means soothing 
to the hardened resident, while to the stranger 
they are nerve-racking. During comparatively 
late years, the noise and the crowding have 
been greatly lessened by the construction of 
sixty miles of tunnels, forty feet below the 
surface, through which most of the heavy 
freight is carried; the tunnel company uses 
132 electric motors and 3,000 cars for freight, 
which run on tracks of 2-feet gauge. 

Within the business district, State Street 
stands as the center of the retail trade. Depart- 



CHICAGO 



1354 



CHICAGO 




THE BUCKINGHAM MEMORIAL FOUNTAIN 



From an intricate switchboard in a large room below the surface of the ground, multicolored lights illumine 
every spray of water. This is the largest fountain of the kind in the world. 



ment stores have been brought to a high state 
of efficiency in Chicago, and the group on State 
Street is the largest in the world. The great 
retail establishment of Marshall Field & Com- 
pany, covering more than an entire block, is 
unmatched elsewhere in the world in size and 
equipment. Wells Street is the center of the 
wholesale dry-goods trade; La Salle Street 
is the financial district, or "Wall Street of 
Chicago." 

The most notable street of the downtown 
district, and for a mile one of the finest vistas 
in the world, is Michigan Avenue, the first 
street west of the lake. With the grassy stretch 
of Grant Park to the east and many of the 
most substantial and striking buildings of the 
city on the west, and with its beautiful lighting 
system, it is probably unexcelled. In accord- 
ance with its "city beautiful" idea, Chicago has 
been devoting much attention to beautify- 
ing its lake front. Colonnades, the largest 
illuminated fountain in the world (the Bucking- 
ham Fountain), pillared terraces, Lincoln and 
Logan statues, and ornamental bridges have 
been added. At the south end of Grant Park, 
east of the Illinois Central Railroad tracks 
and close to the shore of the lake, are Field 



Museum of Natural History, the largest marble 
building in the world; Soldier Field, a great 
athletic concourse; the Shedd Aquarium; and a 
planetarium designed to show the relative 
positions of over 4,500 planets, planetoids, 
and stars. Facing Michigan Avenue, in Grant 
Park, is the Chicago Art Institute; it is the 
only building in the park along Michigan 
Avenue; the Goodman Memorial Theater, 
whose auditorium is nearly all underground, 
is east of the avenue. 

The Skyline. For many years, in order that 
the congested business district should not be 
deprived of light and air in its stores and 
offices, ordinances decreed that no building 
should exceed 200 feet in height; the limit was 
later raised to 260 feet. During those years 
the city's greatest buildings were four-square, 
boxlike structures, sixteen to eighteen stories 
in height. To-day ordinances permit buildings 
reaching skyward an indefinite number of 
stories, if placed where they will not deprive 
neighboring buildings of light and air, or 
where the set-back style of architecture is 
employed. The skyline no longer shows build- 
ings of practically uniform height; throughout 
the business district towering shafts rise above 




NEW BOARD OP TRADE BUILDING 

More than forty stories in height. 



Photo.: P ft A 
MATHER TOWER 

A modern Cleopatra's Needle. 
1355 



CHICAGO 



1356 



CHICAGO 



their neighbors, and Chicago is becoming 
known as "Tower Town." 

A City of Great Hotels. On Michigan 
Avenue, the world's largest hotel, the Stevens, 
rises twenty-five stories above the street level, 
and contains 3,000 rooms. The Palmer House, 
with 2,200 rooms, and the Morrison Hotel, 
with a tower reaching forty-two stories above 
the street, are within the Loop, as are also 
the lofty Sherman and the La Salle, both 
among the city's greatest hotels. On Michigan 
Avenue, also, are the Auditorium and the 
Congress hotels, older than any of the others 
named above. Newer and among the city's 
most famous hotels is the Drake, over a mile 
north of the Loop, facing the lake and the 
Lake Shore Drive. One of the greatest proper- 
ties of this class in America is the Edgewater 
Beach Hotel on the North Side. Scores of 
other hotels, for residential and transient 
guests, dot the city. 

Other Buildings. The newer business struc- 
tures reflect the most modern architectural 
designs. Possibly the most beautiful news- 
paper building in the world is the 35-story 
Gothic Tribune Tower, near the Michigan 
Avenue bridge. South of it, facing the river, 
is the 33-story "333 North Michigan Avenue." 
Also grouped near Michigan Avenue Bridge are 
the London Guarantee and the double Wrigley 
buildings. North of the Tribune Tower is the 
Medinah Athletic Club, a 42-story Shriners' 
club building. Within the Loop or near its 
borders are the needle-like Mather Tower, 
the Pittsfield, the Roanoke Tower, the Wil- 
loughby Tower, the Pure Oil, the Straus, the 
Bankers, the Steuben Club, largest in the world 
all thirty or more stories in height. The new 
Civic Opera building is one of the city's largest 
and most beautiful structures. Among bank 
buildings, the Continental- Commercial, Il- 
linois Merchants, the Federal Reserve Bank, 
and the new Foreman Banks building are 
notable. A Board of Trade building, reaching 
more than forty stories in height, was completed 
in 1930. (See, also, section below, Utilization 
of Air Rights.) A mile north of the Loop is the 
37-story Palmolive Building, completed in 1920. 

River-Front Improvement. Formerly the 
commission merchants of the city centered 
their activities for about four blocks on South 
Water Street, along the south bank of the 
river and west of Michigan Avenue. They 
agreed to abandon their desirable location 
and move to a new center on the West Side. 
This made possible one of the greatest civic 
enterprises ever undertaken by any city. 
South Water Street has become Wacker Drive, 
with a wide, double-decked roadway facing 
the river, both east and west of Michigan 
Avenue. Already some of the most stately of 
Chicago's business buildings are on the Drive; 
eventually its entire length will be lined with 



structures of striking architecture. The north 
bank of the river is to be developed some day 
in the same manner. 

Straightening the River. Southwest of the 
Loop the course of the Chicago River interfered 
with city planning. Railroads with terminals 




OLD MICHIGAN AVENUE 

This illustration dates from 1906 the "horse and 
buggy" period. Not one of these buildings now 
stands; they have been replaced by towering sky- 
scrapers from twenty to forty stories in height. 

south of the Loop spread their yards in a net- 
work east of the river and prevented develop- 
ment toward the south. By digging a new 
river bed for a distance of several blocks and 
thus changing the course of the stream, at a cost 
of many millions of dollars, there was provided 
room for rearrangement of railroad tracks 
and for expansion of the city's business inter- 
ests. New street outlets to the South Side 
were made possible. Work was begun on this 
project in the fall of 1028. 

Utilization of Air Rights. Railroads entering 
the city have networks of tracks penetrating 
to the business district. Though necessary, 
they are unsightly. Legal objections having 
been removed, the railroad companies may 
now sell air rights over their tracks for the 
construction of buildings. The first of such 
structures was completed over the tracks of 
the Chicago, Milwaukee, Saint Paul & Pacific 
in IQ2Q by the Chicago Daily News Company, 
involving an investment of $14,000,000. It 
faces the Chicago River, on its west bank. 
The same year the Marshall Field Estate 
finished a great Merchandise Mart on the north 
bank of the river, utilizing air rights secured 
from the Chicago & North Western Railway. 
This structure has 4,000,000 square feet of 
floor space. The Illinois Central Railroad, 
whose depressed yards skirt the lake front, 
offers exceptional opportunities for utilization 
of air rights, and great structures more than 
fifty stories in height are projected on sites 
owned by the railroad and facing Chicago 
River. One proposal, providing for a building 



par, 




CHICAGO 



1358 



CHICAGO 




THE WORLD'S LARGEST HOTEL 

If a person were to register as a permanent guest and ask the privilege of sleeping in a different room each night, 
he would be a resident for eight years and nearly three months before he could occupy all of the 3,000 guest 
rooms. Moreover, at the end of the period he could boast that he had slept on sixty carloads of mattresses 
Equipment of the several dining rooms required the purchase of 134,000 plates and fifty carloads of other 
chinaware, 138,000 tablecloths, 300,000 napkins, 48,000 drinking glasses, three carloads of silverware, and 
60,000 bath towels. The guest rooms contain 6,000 pictures paintings and etchings which required nearly 

seven lineal miles of picture frame. 

One of several dining rooms is so large that it comfortably seated 4,700 people on the occasion of a banquet 
given in honor of Colonel Charles A. Lindbergh. There are six halls in which dancing is provided; in the grand 
ballroom 3,000 people may dance comfortably at one time. To care for cases of sudden illness, there is on the 
roof a two-ward hospital, completely equipped. On lower floors there are a number of recreation rooms, where 
guests may check their children and leave them under competent supervision; a library of 10,000 volumes; a 
"menagerie" room, where a guest who travels with a pet animal from a cat or dog to a monkey or a bear may 

have it cared for, and the hotel supplies a chef, delegated to cook for it. 

The plant for generating electricity is large enough to meet the needs of 1 2,000 city homes, and the seven huge 
boilers in a sub-basement are sufficient to run, at full pressure, as many generators as would be required to 
supply street lighting for a city of 250,000 inhabitants. The refrigerating system can supply 300 tons of ice 
each day; if it is a question of heat, the 5,000 radiators have sufficient heating surface to make comfortable 

500 five-room bungalows. 



seventy-five stories in height and more floor 
space than that possessed by any other struc- 
ture in the world, indicates the possibilities 
offered by air rights. 

[In these volumes, see the article Aut RIGHTS, where will be 
found illustrations of two buildings mentioned above.] 

Construction Difficulties. Perhaps the most 
Impressive fact to builders in connection with 
the city's mammoth structures is the effort 
and expense necessary to make them firm and 



safe. The soil that underlies the city is an 
unstable mixture of sand, gravel, and blue 
clay, and it is necessary to sink great shafts 
of steel and concrete down to bed rock as 
far as no feet below the surface, in order 
to make the foundations secure. 

The Park System. Chicago is far from 
being the first city of the country in its pro- 
portion of park area to population, but it has 
an unusually well-planned system of beautiful 



CHICAGO 



1359 



CHICAGO 




PLAZA EXTENDING FROM MICHIGAN AVENUE TO THE LAKE 

The Buckingham Memorial Fountain is seen in the distance in the great central plaza; the Shedd Aquarium 
is shown in the upper right of the illustration. 



parks, in total area over 5, goo acres. Because 
of its large and small parks and general land- 
scape beautification, it is known as the "Garden 
City." 

Of the two score, or thereabouts^ of parks, 
seven are of considerable extent. Lincoln 
Park, on the North Side, has an area of 88 1 
acres, but is being largely added to by the 
creation of new land on the lake shore at its 
northern limit. This is the favorite park of 
the children, who are attracted not so much 
by the beautiful shaded drives, the conserva- 
tory, or the lagoon as by the zoological garden. 
About 1,700 animals, one of the finest col- 
lections in the country, are housed here, some 
of them in buildings which are models in 
their way. Most noteworthy of the statues 
with which Lincoln Park is liberally adorned 
are the equestrian statue of Grant and the 
famous Lincoln by Saint Gaudens. 

On the South Side the most important parks 
are Jackson, with 554 acres, and Washington, 
with 371 acres. The former, stretching for one 
and one-third miles along the lake, was the site 
of the World's Columbian Exposition. Beau- 
tiful drives, lagoons for boating, a rose garden, 
and excellent golf and tennis facilities have 
made this one of the city's most popular parks. 
A mile west of Jackson Park, and connected 
with it by the boulevard remembered as the 
Midway Plaisance of the World's Fair, is 
Washington Park, especially noted for its 
effective landscape gardening. The third large 
park on the South Side is Marquette, one of 
the newer playgrounds, with an area of 322 
acres, much frequented by reason of its long 
golf course. Downtown, between Michigan 
Avenue and the lake, is Grant Park, already 
mentioned, whose area is 303 acres. It was 
once known as Lake Front Park. The great 
central plaza is pictured on this page. 



The largest west side parks are Humboldt, 
1,057 acres; Garfield, 187 acres, noted for its 
conservatory, the largest in the country; and 
Douglas, 182 acres. Connecting the various 
parks is a splendid system of boulevards, aggre- 
gating over 130 miles and forming one of 
the finest drives in America. Most of these 
are lined with beautiful homes and some of 
them contain central grass plots decorated 
with trees and flowers. The people of Chicago 
also have the benefit of the natural parks or 
woodland regions which have been purchased 
and opened up by the Cook County forest 
preserve board. These lie in a semicircle about 
the city, and are all easy of access. 

The "Outer Drive." For many years the city 
ignored the possibilities of driveways along the 
lake front. In iq2o the Michigan Avenue 
bridge was opened and the avenue itself was 
widened, to connect the north park system 
with the Loop district. For about two miles 
along the lake on the North Side a driveway 
existed, and extensions have been added for 
several miles farther north. There now exists 
a fine, wide boulevard system from the Loop 
northward through the North Side and the 
lake-bordered suburbs to Waukegan, a distance 
of forty miles, and beyond that city, with roads 
nearly as wide, to the city of Milwaukee. Lake 
Michigan is visible for nearly the entire dis- 
tance. The greater part of this highway is 
known as Sheridan Road. 

In 1925 improvements were undertaken to 
construct as notable an outer drive on the 
South Side. This was named the Leif Ericsson 
Drive. It was completed along the east side 
of Grant Park, close to the shore of the lake, 
in 1926, extended to 23rd Street during the 
next year, and to Jackson Park in 1929. When 
fully completed, by the year 1932, the outer 
drive system in Chicago proper will extend 



CHICAGO 



1360 



CHICAGO 



from Evanston on the north to the Indiana 
state line on the south. Near the mouth of the 
river, a bridge costing $8,000,000 is the con- 
necting link between the outer drives. 

Playgrounds and Beaches. One of the things 
of which Chicago has most reason to be proud 
is its system of small parks. These are so 
located as to be accessible to the people who 
need them most those in the thickly settled 
districts; and they contain practically all that 
visitors of any age can demand for pleasure or 
relaxation. There are gymnasiums with trained 
instructors, swimming pools, fully equipped 
playgrounds for children of various ages, sand 
piles, wading pools, skating ponds, reading 
rooms, and club rooms, all free. In the sum- 
mer season, thousands seek the bathing beaches 
which may be found at intervals along the lake 
front, from the northern section of the city to 
the south end. 

Libraries. Of more than a score of libraries 
in Chicago, the largest and most popular is the 
Public Library, which dates from the years 
immediately following the great fire of 1871. 
It has over 1,500,000 volumes, and the annual 
circulation is over 12,000,000 volumes. One of 
the most beautiful and complete library build- 
ings in the country houses this collection, and 
there are more than forty branches in different 
parts of the city. The other two large libraries 
are the Newberry and the John Crerar, the 
former occupying an imposing granite building 
on the North Side, the latter housed in its own 
building on Michigan Avenue. These are both 
reference libraries, and their books are not for 
circulation. The Newberry collections are 
especially valuable on such subjects as litera- 
ture, history, music, and genealogy, while the 
John Crerar specializes in the natural, physical, 
and social sciences. 

Schools and Other Institutions. Chicago has 
a complete system of public schools, ranging 
from the kindergarten through the grammar 
grades and high schools to the Chicago Normal 
College, with its three practice schools for 
teachers. In the twenty-four high schools, 
fourteen junior high schools, and more than 
300 grammar schools there are enrolled almost 
525,000 pupils, and the teaching force numbers 
over 12,500. The regular school term is ten 
months, and during half of that time night 
schools are also conducted, their enrollment 
averaging about 40,000, for which there is an 
annual appropriation of nearly $500,000. 
There are schools for the blind, the deaf, and 
the crippled, and in certain schools special 
classes are held for sub-normal children. Many 
of the high schools and more than half of the 
grammar schools include manual training in 
their courses, and domestic science teaching is 
becoming increasingly important. 

Of institutions of higher learning, the Univer- 
sity of Chicago is the most prominent. This 



is one of the most heavily endowed universi- 
ties in the world. Northwestern University, 
one of America's greatest Methodist institu- 
tions, located at Evanston, has its professional 
departments of law, medicine, dentistry, and 
the college of commerce in the city, on the 
McKinlock Campus, at Chicago Avenue and 
the Lake Shore Drive; and there are, in addi- 
tion, Saint Ignatius College, Loyola University, 
Lewis Institute, twenty-nine medical schools, 
McCormick Seminary, and other excellent the- 
ological schools. Crane College, formerly the 
Crane Technical High School, is one of the 
few schools of college rank in the United 
States that are municipally supported. The 
Art Institute, which has in attendance upon 
its classes about 2,500 students each year, has 
been mentioned above. Few other art schools 
in the country offer as complete courses. 

There are about 1,200 churches of all de- 
nominations, and nearly ninety hospitals, the 
most noted being the Cook County, the 
Presbyterian, and Saint Luke's. In Hull 
House (which see) the city has one of the best- 
known social settlements in the world, with 
Miss Jane Addams at its head; others which 
have won a wide reputation are Chicago Com- 
mons, Northwestern University Settlement, 
and the University of Chicago Settlement. 
The United Charities and the Jewish Aid So- 
ciety maintain corps of trained investigators 
whose duty it is to discover the needs of the 
poor and unfortunate, and to see that aid is 
furnished them. There are also smaller char- 
itable organizations, many of which have spe- 
cialized in some particular field. 

Administration. A mayor, elected for a 
term of four years and paid $18,000, the sec- 
ond highest salary of any municipal officer in 
America, is the chief executive, and he is 
assisted by a council of one chamber, com- 
posed of fifty aldermen, one from each of 
as many wards. Certain department heads, 
as the chief of police and the fire chief, are 
appointed by the mayor and go out of office 
with him, but throughout the departments 
themselves, civil-service methods prevail. The 
total revenue and expenditures of the city 
amount to about $210,000,000 annually. 

How the City Gets Its Water. Lake 
Michigan furnishes an inexhaustible store of 
water. To bring into the city and distribute 
almost 000,000,000 gallons used daily, an in- 
tricate system of cribs, lake and land tunnels, 
and pumping stations has been constructed. 
From two to four miles out in the lake there 
are five cribs, with which connect nine tunnels 
well below the bottom of the lake, and these in 
their turn convey the water to ten main land 
tunnels. Some of the lake tunnels are fourteen 
feet in diameter. 

The most important thing about drinking 
water is that it shall be pure, and of course it 




Photo.: U * O 



Educational Monuments. Billings Memorial Hospital, on the campus of the University of Chicago, is shown 
above. Below, on McKinlock Campus, at Chicago Avenue and Lake Michigan, is this great group of pro- 
fessional buildings of Northwestern University. 1361 



CHICAGO 



1362 



CHICAGO 



the above, three high-speed electric systems 
run trains to Milwaukee on the north, Joliet 
and Aurora on the west, and to Gary and South 
Bend, in Indiana, from stations in Chicago. 



cannot be if impure matter in great quantity 
is dumped into the lake. Despite this fact, all 
the sewage of the city for a long time found 
its way into the lake, but by 1875 it became 
clear that some 
other method of 
sewage disposal 
must be found if 
the health of the 
city were not to 
suffer. Attempts 
were made to use 
the old Illinois and 
Michigan Canal, 
but this proved in- 
adequate, and be- 
tween 1892 and 
1000 the Chicago 
Drainage Canal, 
one of the finest 
sanitary works in 
the world, was 

built. By means THE UNION STATION 

of this the vast Botn buildings shown are units in the great station, which is 
^i,i mA ~t oottrofro one of the finest in the world. All trains are beneath the level 
volume or sewage of the stree t s . 

of the city finds 



The World's 




city 

its way through the Chicago River and the 
Illinois River to the Mississippi, and so to 
the Gulf of Mexico. 

Local Transportation. In so widely scattered 
a city, with its centralized business, transporta- 
tion is a big problem, and one which has been 
met in three ways. First, there are the elec- 
tric street railways, which have over 1,350 
miles of track, and connect all parts of the city. 
No city in the United States possesses a better 
street-railway system. In the management of 
the surface lines the city is a partner, receiving 
fifty-five per cent of the net profits; this sum 
now amounts to over $50,000,000, the accumu- 
lation of years, and it is being held to finance at 
no distant day a system of subway transporta- 
tion. A fine system of motorbus lines serves 
many parts of the city, and a dozen lines 
radiate from the city in interstate transporta- 
tion. 

There are four elevated roads, two to the 
West Side, one to the South, and one to the 
North; those which run west and north also 
serve suburban communities. In the downtown 
district these form a "loop" about the main 
business section, enclosing the streets from 
Lake to Van Buren and from Wabash to Wells 
Street, and it is this which gives the popular 
name "Loop" district to this section. The 
Loop encircles the great retail and wholesale 
stores. 

In addition to these purely local lines, most 
of the great railways entering the city have 
suburban divisions; in 1926 the Illinois Central 
suburban system was electrified. In all, it is 
estimated that the local lines collect daily an 
average of more than 1,500,000 fares. Besides 



Greatest Railway 
Center. Chicago 
stands supreme as 
a railroad center. 
No railroad passes 
through Chicago, 
for every train 
that runs into the 
city enters a ter- 
minal; and the 
twenty-seven main 
lines terminating 
there have a com- 
bined mileage 
which is half that 
of all the railroad 
systems of the 
United States. It 
is believed that 
the number of rail- 
ways centering in 

the city will never be increased, unless new 
roads lease right of way over lines already 
existing, as there is no room for another road- 
bed, except at such enormous cost as to be 
prohibitive. Most of those already entering 
the city are unpleasantly crowded in the hours 
when local traffic is heavy. Six large stations 
accommodate the passenger service; one of 
these, a great new Union Station, was opened 
for service in 1926, equaling any found else- 
where in the world. A belt line extends almost 
around three sides of the city, connecting the 
different roads and forming a complete freight- 
transfer system. 

The entrance into the city of so many great 
railways made necessary very dangerous grade 
crossings, but beginning in 1892 these were in 
large measure done away with by the elevation 
of tracks, at a cost of a million dollars a mile. 
To-day Chicago has within its limits more 
than twice as many miles of elevated track as 
have all the other cities of the United States 
together. 

America's Airport Center. Chicago is re- 
garded as the nation's gateway connecting 
the East and the West, although it is hundreds 
of miles east of the center of the continent. 
It is only about fifteen miles west and north of 
the country's center of industry. Naturally, 
then, the rapidly growing demand for airplane 
transportation of passengers, freight, and ex- 
press has brought the city rapidly to the 
front as an airport center, and it is destined 
to hold supremacy in airports and air trans- 
portation. 

Chicago has already seventeen permanent 
airports, of which the Municipal Airport, near 



CHICAGO 



1363 



CHICAGO 



the southwestern extremity of the city, is the 
largest. Its land value is $10,000,000, and 
nearly $250,000 has been added in buildings 
and improvements. 
The Maywood Flying 
Field is the center of 
air-mail activities. The 
Ford Airport, about 
twenty-five miles south 
of the Loop, is becom- 
ing more important ev- 
ery year. These are 
the largest and most 
important of the air 
terminals. 

The city has nearly 
twenty schools of avia- 
tion; it has more than 
fifteen air-taxi and 
sight-seeing services, 
and within the city 
limits are nine air- 
plane manufactories. 

Commerce and In- 
dustries. Naturally, a 
city that is the greatest 
railroad center in the 
world might be sup- 
posed to have a large 
rail commerce. It has 
that, and more; it is 
one of the greatest of 
inland ports, lines of 
steamers, both freight 
and passenger, connect- 
ing with all the other 
important lake ports. 
Over 6,000 ships a year 
enter and leave local 
harbors; these deposit 
14,500,000 tons of 
freight and bear away 
an equal amount. The 
city is a sort of clear- 
ing house; it does not 
keep all that is brought 
into it, but reships 
much of it. The iron, 
which constitutes over 
fifty per cent of the 
weight of its lake imports, it makes use of 
in its great suburban steel mills, but much 
of the lumber and grain that arrives is shipped 
again, Chicago ranking as one of the greatest 
grain markets in the world. It is also first in 
its export of packing-house products. Among 
the cities of the United States, only New York 
surpasses Chicago in the volume and value 
of its trade. 

Docking facilities for years were inadequate, 
and partly to remedy this condition, a great 
Municipal Pier, near the mouth of the river, 
was completed in 1916. In 1928 its name was 




CFNTRAL AERIAL BEACON 



In the heart of the "Loop," surmounting the 37- 
story Roanoke Tower The two beacons are of 8,000,- 
ooo candle-power each, and can be seen by aviators 
at a distance of 100 miles Below the beacons, in the 
pyramidal tower, are clusters of red neon lamps. 



changed to Navy Pier, to do honor to the Amer- 
ican boys who served in the navy during the 
World War. It is built of concrete and steel 
and extends over half a mile into Lake 
Michigan. At its farther end, there 
is space for a recreation center 660 
feet long and 300 feet wide, which has 
easily accommodated 100,000 people 
in a single day. The pier cost $4,500,- 
ooo. 

With the coal fields of Illinois so 
near and the raw materials from the 
great Middle West so easily available, 
Chicago has become an important 
manufacturing center. The total 
value of manufactured products is 
over $3,500,000,000 annually. Largest 
of the industries is that of slaughter- 
ing and meat-packing, carried on at 
the Union Stockyards, by far the 
greatest establishment of its kind in 
the world. To quote the popular 
statement, "Every part of the animal 
is used but the squeal," and to-day 
the by-products, made from parts 
that were formerly thrown away, 
reach a value of scores 
of millions of dollars 
each year; the entire 
value of the annual out- 
put of the stockyards is 
about $580,000,000. 
Iron and steel products, 
machine-shop and 
foundry products, elec- 
trical equipment, men's 
clothing, railroad cars, 
and lumber products 
are manufactured in 
vast quantities. Print- 
ing and publishing is an 
important industry, 
though in this regard 
Chicago is second to 
New York and above 
Philadelphia. It totals 
$400,000,000 a year, 
including the printing 
of newspapers. 

History. Interest in 
the history of Chicago centers in its growth, re- 
markable even among American cities. Other 
cities have had "booms," but Chicago's ex- 
pansion has been continuous. Attempts have 
been made to prove that the name Chicago is 
from an Indian word meaning mighty, or that it 
has some poetic or high moral significance, but 
the general opinion is that it is a form of 
the Indian name for the everywhere-present 
wild onion. The first white visitors to the 
site were Marquette and Joliet, who stopped 
there in 1673. I n J 779 a negro from San 
(Continued on page 1366.) 



CHICAGO 



1364 



CHICAGO 



OUTLINE AND QUESTIONS ON CHICAGO 



Outline 



I. Position and Size 

(1) Latitude, 41 53' 6" north 

(2) Longitude, 87 38' i" west 

(3) Situation on Lake Michigan 

(4) Distance from other large cities 

(5) Area 

(6) Population 

(7) Rapid growth 

II. Description 

(1) Plan of city 

(a) Determined by Chicago River 

(b) The business section or "Loop" 

(c) Important streets 

(2) Notable buildings 

(a) Public 

(b) Office buildings 

(c) Hotels 

(d) Theaters 

(3) The park system 

(a) "The garden city" 

(b) North Side parks 

(c) South Side parks 

(d) West Side parks 

(e) Playgrounds and beaches 

(f) The Outer Park plan 

(g) The "City Beautiful" 

(4) Educational institutions 

(5) Churches 

(6) Charitable institutions 



III. Water Supply and Sewage 

(1) Cribs 

(2) Tunnels 

(3) Amount of water used daily 

(4) Drainage Canal 

IV. Transportation 

(1) Railway systems 

(a) Greatest railway center 

(b) Elevation within city 

(2) Local transportation 

(a) Street railways 

(b) Elevated roads 

(c) Motorbus transportation 

V. Commerce and Industry 

(1) Rail commerce 

(2) Lake commerce 

(3) Docks 

(4) Manufactures 

VI. The People 

(i) Nationalities represented 

VII. Government and History 

(1) Departments of government 

(2) Revenue 

(3) History 

(a) Settlement 

(b) Growth to 1870 

(c) The great fire 

(d) Later growth 



Questions 

What great air beacon is located in the downtown district? 
What is the meaning of the name Chicago? 
How are "air rights" utilized? 

How many gallons of water are used in the city each day? 
What is the largest foreign-born element in the city? 
Show that Chicago is not geographically a Western city. 
How does it rank as to size among the world's cities? 
What was the greatest calamity that ever befell the city? 
What engineering project has changed the course of a river? 
How have architects overcome the former limitation in building heights? 
What is the "Loop"? Why is it so called? 

Why is it unlikely that any more railroads will ever terminate in Chicago? 
What building in the city is half a mile long? What double purpose does it 
serve? 

Mention three pieces of statuary of which the city may feel justly proud. 
What provision does the city make for the recreation of its people? 
What is the greatest industry? Do any cities surpass it in this? 
For what purpose was the Chicago Drainage Canal constructed? 





Photos: Vifloal Ednemtlon Sorrto 

In Earlier Days, (i) Wolf's Point in 1832. (2) Stage coaches arriving and leaving their headquarters before 
1850; the route was to Galena, (3) Chicago in 1845, viewed from the prairies on the west. (4) The old Kinzie 
House, on Chicago River, a few rods from the lake, in 1832. (5) Mrs. O'Leary's house; in her barn, in October, 

1871, the great Chicago fire started. 



CHICAGO 



1366 



CHICAGO 




SOUTH WATLR STREET IN 1834 



Domingo built a cabin on the north bank of 
the Chicago River, and in 1804 this came into 
the possession of John Kinzie, the first white 
man to make his home on the site of the city. 
The Federal government in 1804 built Fort 
Dearborn on the south bank of the river, 
and though this was abandoned when the 
Indian massacre of 1812 occurred, it was re- 
built four years later. In 1830 maps were 
made, definitely marking out the town of 
Chicago, which had a total area of three- 
eighths of a square mile and contained twenty- 
seven voters. When incorporated, three years 
later, the town had a slightly increased area 
and a population of 550, while its tax levy 
reached the total of $48.00. The first city 
water works, constructed in 1834, consisted of 
a well that cost $95. 

From this time on the growth was steady, if 
not particularly rapid. The Illinois and Mich- 
igan Canal, begun in 1836 and completed in 
1848, and the Chicago & Galena Union Rail- 
road, which later was the nucleus of the great 
Chicago & North Western system, brought 
the little city into touch with the territory to 
the west, the territory upon which its pros- 
perity was to depend; and the population in- 
creased from 4,480 in 1840 to almost 300,000 
in 1870. The city's first and greatest calamity 
occurred in 1871; a terrible fire broke out on 
October 8 on the 
West Side, ex- 
tended north and 
west, and raged 
for two days and 
nights, destroying 
property valued 
at $196,000,000 
and rendering 
100,000 persons 
homeless. With 
wonderful rapidity 
the city was re- 
built, the old wood- 
en structures being 
replaced in large 
measure by those 
of brick and stone. NAVY 

In its later history Chicago has suffered much 
from labor troubles. Out of these grew the 




Haymarket Riot of 1886, in which seven 
policemen were killed. Serious strikes have 
occurred at intervals in the stockyards, but 
most noteworthy of these movements were the 
railway strike in 1804, put down only with 
the aid of Federal troops, and the teamsters' 
strikes of iQ04-iqo5. An event of more pleasing 
character was the World's Columbian Expo- 
sition of 1893, the greatest world's fair held up 
to that time. On December 30, 1003, there 
occurred in the Iroquois Theater a fire in which 
572 lives were lost, and as a result of this 
disaster, theaters not only in Chicago but all 
over the world have been built and equipped 
with more thought of safety. 

In Chicago another world's fair will be held 
in 1933, to commemorate the hundredth anni- 
versary of its founding. The city has always 
been a favorite meeting place for conventions, 
and among others held there were the national 
conventions at which Lincoln, Grant, Garfield, 
Blaine, Cleveland, Harrison, Bryan, Roose- 
velt, Taft, Hughes, and Harding were nomi- 
nated for President of the United States. J.E.V 

Related Subjects. The reader is referred in these vol- 
umes to the following articles 

Chicago Drainage Cunul Fort Dearborn 
Dearborn, Henry Meat and Meat Packing 

World's Columbian Exposition 

CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the leading 
, institutions of 
! higher education 
in the United 
States. It is lo- 
cated in Chicago 
on the Midway 
Plaisance, and has 
over thirty build- 
ings in the Gothic 
style which are 
unsurpassed on 
any campus in the 
country. The total 
number of build- 
ings is over forty, 
including the 
Yerkes Astronom- 
PIRR ical Observatory 

at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. This is the new- 
est of the great universities, though in its 



CHICAGO 



1367 



CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL 



antecedents it dates from the middle of the 
nineteenth century. The old University of 
Chicago, a Baptist school of college rank, was 
opened in 1857, but was compelled through 
lack of funds to surrender its charter in 1886. 
Four years later, largely through the efforts 
of the American Baptist Educational Society, 
the new university was opened, and though it 
is in no sense a denominational institution 
and exacts no religious tests of students or 
teachers, its charter provides that two-thirds 
of the trustees must be Baptists. 

Organization. The university thus chartered 
in i8go is organized into four divisions: (i) 
schools and colleges, including the four-year 
undergraduate courses, as well as the graduate 
schools; (2) university libraries, laboratories, 
and museums; (3) the university press; (4) 
university extension, which directs the work 
of students unable to attend classes at the 
university. 

In arranging its courses, the university 
mapped out a plan differing from that of any 
other American school. The scholastic year 
is not the usual period of nine months, but is 
divided into four quarters, each of which is sub- 
divided into two terms. The summer quarter, 
at some universities a vacation period, is at 
the University of Chicago the busiest quarter 
of the year; students are attracted from all 
parts of the country, for in three summer 
quarters they can complete an ordinary year 
of college work. 

Growth. Though many benefactors have giv- 
en liberally to the university, its growth has 
been largely due to the bequests of John D. 
Rockefeller, who at various times contributed 
sums totaling about $35,000,000. William 
Rainey Harper, president from its foundation 
to iqo6, developed a policy which attracted 
students from every part of the Union. Un- 
der his successor, Harry Pratt Judson, who 
retired in 1923 (died in 1927), the student 
body largely increased in number, the material 
resources of the university more than doubled, 
several of the most beautiful buildings were 
erected, and its prestige and influence greatly 
enhanced. Judson's successor, Prof. Ernest 
DeWitt Burton, head of the Department of 
New Testament and Early Christian Literature, 
died in the month of May, 1(325. His succes- 
sor, Dr. Max Mason, formerly a professor at 
the University of Wisconsin, served but three 
years, when he joined the Rockefeller Founda- 
tion. Mason was succeeded by Robert May- 
nard llutchins in 1929. 

Some years ago plans were announced where- 
by the university would m the future possess 
one of the greatest medical departments in 
America. Rush Medical College, long affiliated 
with the university, and the Presbyterian 
Hospital, on Chicago's West Side, formed the 
nucleus of a great post-graduate department; 



a new graduate school of medicine was com- 
pleted on the Midway campus in 1927. In 1928 
the university received an endowment fund 
for the construction of dormitories. 

CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL, officially 
known as the CHICAGO SANITARY AND SHIP 
CANAL, a great sanitary project to provide 
pure water for the millions of that city. Ages 
ago the Great Lakes found an outlet to the 
ocean by way of the Illinois and Mississippi 
rivers, and the channel through which this 
great stream flowed forms the valley of the 
Illinois River. When Chicago discovered that 
it must protect Lake Michigan from the in- 
sanitary effect of its sewage, the city engineers 
turned their attention to the ancient water 
course. A brief examination showed that a 
canal connecting the lake with the Desplaines 
River could be constructed without engineer- 
ing difficulty. The necessary legislation was 
obtained, and the great channel, commonly 
known as the Chicago Drainage Canal, was 
begun September 3, 1892, and completed in 
January, IQOO, at a cost of about $50,000,000. 

The canal proper is twenty-eight miles long, 
and varies in width in different sections from 
1 10 feet at the bottom and 198 feet at the water 
line in the narrowest section to 202 feet and 
290 feet in the widest section. The sections cut 
through rock have a width of 160 feet at the 
bottom and 162 feet at the top. The depth 
of the cut varies from thirty to thirty-six feet; 
the depth of water is never less than twenty- 
two feet, and is usually about twenty-four feet 
six inches. By means of the controlling works 
at Lockport, twenty-nine miles inland, con- 
sisting of flood gates and a bear trap dam, the 
depth and flow of water are easily regulated. 
Ordinarily the flow is about 300,000 cubic feet 
per minute, but the full capacity of the canal 
is 600,000 cubic feet per minute. 

The Chicago Drainage Canal is one of the 
greatest engineering works in the world. It 
has changed the course of the Chicago River 
and made it an outlet of Lake Michigan, when 
formerly it flowed into the lake; it is the only 
river in the world whose flow is away from its 
mouth. In connection with the construction 
of the canal, the entire sewage system of Chi- 
cago had to be changed. Formerly, all sewers 
emptied into the lake; now they empty into 
the canal, and the water supply of the city 
has been saved from pollution. In the near 
future, the canal will doubtless form a link in 
a deep waterway between the Great Lakes and 
the Gulf of Mexico. 

In 1924 and 1925 states bordering on the 
Great Lakes joined the government of Canada 
in protesting that the Drainage Canal had 
lowered lake levels and seriously impaired 
navigation. When, in 1929, the level of the 
lakes rose more than two feet, it was shown 
that natural causes alone were responsible for 



CHICAGO HEIGHTS 



1368 



CHICORY 



various levels recorded. However, in 1929, 
the Supreme Court of the United States de- 
clared that within reasonable time the flow 
should be reduced to the requirements of 
navigation. This decision requires the city to 
provide vast sewage-disposal plants. 

CHICAGO HEIGHTS, ILL. See ILLINOIS 
(back of map). 

CHICAGO RIVER. See CHICAGO (111.). 

CHICAREE, chik' a re, the red squirrel. See 
SQUIRREL, subhead. 

CHICHAGOF, chik' ha gahf, an island off 
the coast of Alaska (which see). 

CHICKADEE, chik' a dc. See TITMOUSE. 

CHICKAMAUGA, chik a maw' gah, BATTLE 
OF. See WAR OF SECESSION. 

CHICKASAW. See INDIANS, AMERICAN 
(Most Important Tribes.) 

CHICKASHA, chik' a ska, OKLA. See OK- 
LAHOMA (back of map). 

CHICKEN HAWK. See GOSHAWK. 

CHICKEN POX, a contagious disease com- 
mon among children, characterized by an erup- 
tion somewhat like that of smallpox. The two 
diseases, however, are otherwise very different; 
chicken pox is rarely dangerous, and smallpox 
vaccination is not effective in preventing it. 
Fever is usually present twenty-four hours 
before the appearance of the eruption, and 
there may be vomiting, restlessness, and slight 
pains in the legs and back. 

Red pimples break out first upon the face, 
scalp, neck, and later upon the limbs and back. 
They come in "crops," new blotches appearing 
while the older ones are maturing. In from 
twelve to twenty-four hours these pimples arc 
filled with a thin fluid, which is not apt to 
become pus if kept from infection. By the 
fourth or fifth day crusts form, which fall off a 
few days later. The fever ranges from 100 F. 
to 1 02" F., falling to normal after the first two 
or three days. 

The body of the patient should be sponged 
each day, and the crusts should be kept oiled. 
A 1 140 solution of phenol is a good preparation 
for sponging. It may be obtained at a drug 
store. Scars will not form if rules of cleanliness 
are observed and scratching is prevented. The 
patient must be kept quarantined until all the 
crusts have disappeared, as the disease is very 
contagious. 

CHICLE, chik"l, the gumlike, milky juice 
of the sapota tree, or sapodilla (Achras sapota), 
an evergreen tree native to tropical America. 
Chicle is used extensively in the manufacture 
of chewing gums. It is secured by tapping 
the trunks of the trees, a process used also in 
obtaining sap from the sugar maple and a milky 
liquid from the rubber tree. The milky juice 
is coagulated by boiling, the coagulated mass 
then being kneaded to press out the water. The 
gum comes on the market in lumps weighing 
twenty to thirty pounds. 



Chicle is obtained only during the rainy 
season, when the sap is flowing. Trees, once 
tapped, require five years to recover from the 
injury, and a large percentage never recover. 
New areas are needed constantly to supply the 
demand. A large chicle-importing firm is 
supporting an investigation, hoping to find more 
effective methods of chicle production. 

The United States imports millions of pounds 
of chicle yearly. British Honduras and some 
parts of Mexico and of Guatemala are the chief 
sources of chicle. The finest quality comes from 
near Lake Hza, Guatemala. G.M.S. 

[The process of making chewing gum is described in 
these volumes under the title GUM, CHEWING ] 

CHICOPEE, chik' o pe, MASS. See MASSA- 
CHUSETTS (back of map). 

CHICORY, also called SUCCORY, is a weedy 
plant whose root is commonly used as a sub- 
stitute for coffee. Chicory is native to Europe 




Photo VlBUftl Education Service 



and Asia, but is now cultivated and found 
wild in the United States and Southern Canada. 
It has a fleshy root, spreading branches, coarse 
leaves, like those of the dandelion, and bright- 
blue, sometimes pink or white, flowers. The 
long, fleshy, milky root has for years been 
dried, roasted, and ground and used for adulter- 
ating coffee, but in the United States pure food 
laws forbid such use of chicory without proper 



CHIEF JUSTICE 



1369 



CHILD 



notification on the label. Chicory may easily 
be detected in coffee by putting a spoonful of 
the mixture into a glass of clear, cold water; 
the coffee will float on the surface and the 
chicory will separate and discolor the water as 
it precipitates. In Europe chicory is valued 
as a salad plant, and is also grown for fodder. 
In some sections the young, tender roots are 
cooked for table use. B.M.D. 

Scientific Name. Chicory belongs to the family 
Compositac. Its botanical name is Cichorium 
intybus 

CHIEF JUSTICE, the title given to the head 
of a court consisting of a number of justices or 
judges, such as the Supreme Court of the 
United States or a state supreme court. In the 
former, the Chief Justice receives his appoint- 
ment as such. In most states, the member 
of the court whose term expires first serves 
as chief of the court; if there are five judges, 
and the term of service is ten years, each 
judge is chief during his ninth and tenth 
years. 

CHIEF OF STAFF. See GENERAL STAFF. 

CHIFFON, shif on, a very soft, thin, gauzy 
material used for dresses, scarfs, veils, trim- 
mings, and various dainty garments for women. 
Made of fine, hard -twisted silk yarn, the 
better qualities of chiffon are beautiful for 
evening wear. Cotton chiffons are also made, 



and chiffon ribbons are popularly used by 
florists to decorate bouquets of flowers and 
plants. Chiffon lace is chiffon embroidered 
with silk, and chiffon velvet is a soft pile 
fabric with an extraordinary sheen. 

The name chiffon is French and means rag 
or flimsy cloth, and in that language is used 
to suggest anything decorative worn by women. 

CHIGGER, chig' ur, another name for jigger 
(which see). 

CHIGNECTO, shignck'toh, BAY, on the Bay 
of Fundy, the location of tides which sometimes 
rise more than fifty feet. See FUNDY. 

CHIGNON, shin 1 yahn (in English). See 
HAIRDRESSING. 

CHIGOE, chig' o, another name for jigger 
(which see). 

CHIHUAHUA, che wah' wah. See MEXICO 
(Principal Cities). 

CHILBLAIN, Ml' blane, a condition charac- 
terized by stinging, itching, and burning, and 
sometimes by redness. It affects particularly 
the skin of the feet. Induced primarily by 
exposure to cold, or cold and wet, the feet 
become sensitive to cold, and attacks recur 
on slight provocation. See FROSTBITE. 

Treatment. Avoid exposing the feet to cold 
and wet. Avoid light shoes. Heavy stockings 
should be worn in cold weather. Bathe 
the feet daily in cold salt water. Then apply 
kerosene. W.E.A. 



The STUDY of the CHILD 




' HILD, THE. Parents of the twentieth 
century take better care of their children than 
did the parents of preceding generations, 
simply because they know better how to do it. 
The rearing of children, together with every 
other field of human endeavor, has been in- 
vaded by the scientific spirit. By studying 
children individually and in groups, statistics 
and tables have been gathered which enable 
us to know with some accuracy what we have 
a right to expect of the normal child and how 
to go about to secure it. The facts so far 
assembled are not final, by any means; as more 
children are studied, modifications and changes 
are bound to be made. But the account of 
the development of the child which follows 
represents some of the knowledge which is now 
at hand. 

The Development of the Child. In the be- 
ginning the human body consists of a single 



cell. When this cell begins to grow, it divides 
into two cells; each of these divides in its 
turn into two more, and so on, until that ever- 
new marvel, a tiny human being, is formed. 
By weighing and measuring hundreds of thou- 
sands of babies, it has been found that the 
average baby boy, at birth, weighs about 7.3 
pounds; the average baby girl, 7.1 pounds. 
The boy baby should be about 19.68 inches 
tall; the girl baby, 19.48 inches. In six months 
the average baby doubles its weight; in a year 
he trebles it. So a year-old child should weigh 
about twenty-four pounds. By the sixth year 
the average boy weighs about forty-five 
pounds, the average girl about forty-three, and 
the boy should be just a trifle over, the girl 
just a trifle under, forty-four inches in height. 
The first table below shows a child's increase 
in weight and height from the age of six and 
one-half to sixteen and one-half years: 



CHILD 



1370 



CHILD 







BOYS 






GIRLS 




AGE 
















AVERAGE 


ANNUAL 


PER CENT OF 


AVERAGE 


ANNUAL 


PER CENT OF 




IN LBS. 


INCREASE 


INCREASE 


IN L1JS. 


INCREASE 


INCRFASE 


6^. 


45-2 






43-4 






7j^. ... 


40-S 


4-3 


0-5 


47-7 


4-3 


9.0 


gVZ 


54.5 


S-O 


IO.I 


42.5 


4 8 


IO.O 


oVl 


59.6 


5 i 


9.3 


57.4 


4.9 




I0 )^ 


05.4 


5-8 


0-7 


62.9 


5.5 


9.6 


11 \4) 


7O.7 


5 3 


8. T 


69 5 


6.6 


10 5 


I/ 


?6.y 


6.2 


8.7 


78 7 


9 2 


I $.2 


I ^ 


84.8 


7 


10.3 


88 7 


IO O 


12 7 


L/ 


95 2 


IO d 


1 2.3 


98 3 


9 6 


119 


15 1 A - 


107 4 


12 2 


12 8 


1 06 7 


84 


85 


ib% 


12T O 


U <> 


T2 7 


TI2 S 


5 ft 


5 2 



The second table, giving heights in inches, is 
made up from the measurements of America n- 
born children in three American cities; in com- 
mon with Canadian children, they are a little 
taller and heavier than the average English, 
Irish, German, or Scandinavian child: 



no way of measuring accurately how fast or 
how far a child progresses in these first years, 
but we do know that he is learning to use all 
of his senses, that he has a constant and in- 
sistent desire to touch, taste, and handle every- 
thing around him; that he is pleased with 



Years . . . 


6 





8 





10 


1 1 


I 2 


i \ 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


Boys . 
Girls.. . 


44 10 
4366 


46 21 
45 <J4 


48 1 6 
4807 


SO oq 
4g.6i 


52 21 
ST 78 


S40i 
53-7 l > 


5S 78 
S7 16 


58 17 

58 75 


61 08 
Oo 32 


62 96 
6r 30 


ft->.58 
61 72 


Of) 20 
61 go 



The Development of the Senses. In a well- 
known book called The Biography of a Baby, 
Miss M. W. Shinn describes the state of a 
new-born baby thus: 

She took in with vague comfort the gentle light 
that fell on her eyes, seeing without any sort of atten- 
tion or comprehension the moving blur of darkness 
that varied it. She felt motions and changes; she 
felt the action of her own muscles, and after the first 
three or four days disagreeable shocks of sound now 
and then broke through the silence, or perhaps 
through an unnoticed jumble of faint noises. She felt 
touches on her body from time to time, but without 
the least sense of the place of the touch . . From 
time to time sensations of hunger and thirst, and 
once or twice of pain, made themselves felt through 
all the others, and mounted until they became dis- 
tressing; from time to time a feeling of heightened 
comfort flowed over her as hunger or thirst was satis- 
fied. . . . For the rest, she lay empty-minded, neither 
consciously comfortable nor uncomfortable, yet on 
the whole pervaded with a dull sense of well-being. 
Of the people about her, of her mother's face, of her 
own existence, of desire or fear, she knew nothing. 

The preceding paragraph from Miss Shinn's 
book is only an imaginative way of saying 
that a baby, although it is not born with its 
eyes closed, like a kitten, does not see; it does 
not hear, or smell; it does not think; it feels 
only vaguely and unconsciously. And yet, in 
this animal-like little being all the elements 
of the future man or woman are present, and 
its growth and development during the first 
years of its life are truly marvelous. We have 



bright and beautiful colors; that he is alert 
to pleasant sounds and sensitive to harsh ones; 
that he acquires very positive likes and dislikes 
about the food he eats; and that he develops 
a liking for pleasant odors and a distaste for 
those that are unpleasant. 

This is exactly as it should be, for a child 
lives by his senses. They are his only way 
at first of acquiring knowledge of any sort. 
They furnish all the material his mind has to 
work with. If his senses are not satisfied, his 
mind will starve; if they are not developed, 
his mind will not develop. It is important, 
therefore, that from the second month on, 
when the senses begin to be active, plenty of 
material be furnished for stimulating and de- 
veloping each sense. 

Smell and Taste. It is practically impossible 
to test a baby's sense of smell, but it is quite 
probable that this sense does not develop 
rapidly. Tests made of a new-born baby seem 
to prove, however, that the sense of taste is ac- 
tive from the first that there is a dislike for 
sour and bitter things and a liking for sweets. 
It is very desirable that this sense of taste 
should be wisely developed, because a child's 
enjoyment of simple and wholesome food de- 
pends largely on it. As soon as a child begins 
eating solid food, he should be encouraged to 
like the things which are good for him and to 
dislike those which are unwholesome. It may 
be mentioned, too, that children should be 
encouraged to be thirsty, for their bodies need 



CHILD 



CHILD 



a great deal of water. Every baby should be 
given plenty of water to drink, and older 
children should be encouraged to drink large 
quantities of it. 

Hearing. A new-born baby is deaf, usually 
because the inner ear is full of mucus, and 
it remains deaf for several days. But if loud 
noises are not heard by a baby by the end 
of the fourth week, he should be taken to a 
physician. Ordinarily, after three or four days 
the baby becomes 
very sensitive to 
sound, and starts 
and trembles if a 
door is slammed or 
someone speaks 
loudly. A sneeze 
or a whistle will 
also cause a violent 
reaction. Music 
and sound are such 
important factors 
in the growth of 
children that no 
child ought to be 
brought up with- 
out having the op- 
portunity to hear 
soft, sweet sounds. 
His interest in such 
sounds should be 
encouraged and 
stimulated, and 
training in music 
should be begun 
early. The kinder- 
garten admirably 
provides both the 
music and the 
rhythm in which 
children delight. 

Dermal Senses. 
By dermal senses 
we mean the sensa- 
tions in the skin. 

Babies quickly THI-. PRAYLR 

note the difference Sculpture by Jean Dampt , in 
between things 

warm and cold. A baby a week old will cry 
if he is put into a bath that is a few degrees 
colder than the one to which he is accustomed. 
This should be remembered by the person who 
prepares his bath. The hand of an adult is not 
sensitive enough for testing the temperature 
of the water. A thermometer should be used, 
or, failing that, the elbow. The mucous mem- 
brane of a baby's mouth and throat is much 
more tender than that of a grown person. 
Food which is merely warm to an adult will 
seem disagreeably hot to a baby or small child. 
Anyone who has observed children will realize 
how indifferent the average child is as to 
whether his food is more than warm, and a 




mother's admonition, "Now eat your soup while 
it is nice and hot," is usually enough to make 
the child push his plate away and wait until it 
cools. 

Touch. Up to the third month, the average 
baby has done nothing but aimlessly grasp 
with his hands, which he holds habitually with 
the thumb inside the palm. But after the 
second month, he may be given every sort of 
object to handle which will not do him injury. 
As he grows older, 
the more objects 
he has hard and 
soft, rough and 
smooth to play 
with, the faster 
will his sense of 
touch develop. 
The ordinary toys 
babies are given 
may be supple- 
mented by the 
many objects the 
ordinary household 
provides - clothes- 
pins, empty spools, 
napkin rings, 
spoons, etc. If the 
baby cannot 
handle the objects 
he sees, his knowl- 
edge of them will 
be imperfect. 

Sight. The eyes 
of a new-born baby 
are closed most of 
the time. The 
reason that some 
babies are so wake- 
ful at night is un- 
doubtedly due to 
the fact" that the 
darkness is pleas- 
anter to their eyes 
than daylight. 
They prefer to 
sleep when it is 
light and to lie 



the Luxembourg Galleries, Paris. 



awake in the dark. The eyes of a tiny baby will 
close if a light is brought near them, but after 
a few days he will turn his head toward a 
window or a light, and after a few weeks, light 
will give him pleasure. By the end of two 
weeks the eyes, which do not at first cobrdinate, 
will begin to follow objects, and at the end 
of eight or nine weeks, a baby will stare at an 
object for minutes at a time. By the seventh 
month he will distinguish faces by staring at 
strangers and smiling at friends, will turn his 
head toward a person leaving the room, and 
follow with his eyes objects dropped from his 
hand. All of these developments are of interest 
to parents. 



CHILD 



1372 



CHILD 



Muscular Control. At birth a child ha*s no 
power to make voluntary movements of any 
sort. When he moves an arm or a leg, when 
his eyes close at a bright light, or when he 
starts at a loud sound, the movement is a 
total surprise to him something he can 
neither prevent nor repeat. But gradually all 
of his vague feelings become more distinct by 
being repeated, and as the connective fibers 
grow in his brain, the various feelings become 
associated with one another. The wonderful 
change in a baby usually occurs when he is 
about six months old, and is due to his dis- 
covery that he can move this way or that as 
he pleases, and can direct his movements with 
his eyes. Immediately he begins doing what 
he sees other people do. He begins to imitate 
sounds, facial expressions, and movements of 
all sorts. 

The age at which children begin walking 
varies so greatly that it is impossible to give 
any date for it. But since a baby learns by 
imitation, he is likely to begin walking at an 
earlier age if there are other children in the 
family. Some babies learn to walk before 
they are a year old; others do not walk until 
nearly the second year. Of course, the baby 
kicks and practices creeping before he begins 
to walk; otherwise he would not have sufficient 
muscular strength to master the art. Walking 
has a marked effect on most babies. They 
get a new view of things when they can see 
the world from a standing position, and as a 
rule they actually sleep better, eat more, and 
become better-natured and happier. 

In order that growth in muscular control may 
develop properly, children should be encour- 
aged to be active, to use all the large muscles 
of their bodies. All children should be free 
to run around, to romp, and to play as much 
as they wish. When they are a little older, 
they will be greatly assisted in learning con- 
trol of the smaller muscles by having plenty 
of tools to work with, and they should be 
encouraged to make their own toys, play- 
houses, doll clothes, and other things. 

Language. Tears, smiles, cries, and gestures 
are the baby's first means of expressing his 
emotions. A baby cries from the first; he 
will shed tears any time after the twenty-third 
day, and he sometimes smiles in the second 
week. By the fourth month, he will stretch out 
his hands toward the thing he wants, and still 
later he will put his hands together as if he 
wanted to grasp an object. Between the eighth 
and the twelfth month, he begins pointing at 
the thing he wants. He will begin in the 
sixth month to express affection through imi- 
tating the kisses, pats, and hugs of other people, 
and begin using a real gesture language. He 
will tug at his mother's dress if he is hungry, 
will stretch out his arms to be taken up, and 
learn to wave "bye-bye." A little later, all 



sorts of coaxing and begging gestures will 
appear. 

Even after he begins to speak, he will sup- 
plement his words with gestures, just as many 
savages do. A baby's greatest difficulty at 
first is learning to articulate. Once this ability 
has been acquired, his progress in learning to 
talk will be very rapid. Another obstacle is 
learning to walk. While he is doing this, ababy 
acquires no more speech and may even go 
backward, but afterward, the learning and 
understanding of words is very rapid. His 
progress at this stage will be greatly influenced 
by the people around him. It is only by ob- 
serving the language used by a baby and noting 
his mistakes that an adult begins to realize 
what an immensely complicated thing is 
speech. Surely the fact that most children by 
the fifth year have obtained a good working 
knowledge of the mother tongue would alone 
justify the claim that these are the years of 
most importance, the years of greatest develop- 
ment. 

The Pre-School Child. See, in these volumes, 
NURSERY SCHOOL. 

The Kindergarten Child. Froebel, the man 
who conceived the idea of the kindergarten, 
and Maria Montessori, one of the distinguished 
child educators of to-day, both set out with the 
idea of helping the child under six to develop 
to the height of his powers. The necessity for 
the normal development of the senses has 
already been shown. This development is 
bound to go on, whether it is encouraged or 
not, but if it is systematically fostered and 
stimulated, the child will be better equipped 
than if he has to acquire everything in a hap- 
hazard fashion. Such a system of child- training 
as is furnished by the kindergarten and the 
Montessori school goes still further. Tt not 
only helps a child to develop the senses, but 
it also trains him to associate his sensations 
with the spoken symbols, so that everything 
he learns is made more usable. It also helps 
him to acquire muscular control, teaches him 
to use the large muscles of his body, arms, 
and legs, and the smaller muscles of the hands 
and fingers. And hand in hand with this 
training goes the development of all the mental 
powers, imagination and reason, memory and 
perception (see PSYCHOLOGY). 

The School Child. Let us suppose that the 
child up to the age of six has lived in an en- 
vironment which has developed brain and 
body to its fullest capacity. Bubbling over 
with energy, alert, imaginative, eager, and 
curious, expressing himself spontaneously and 
exuberantly on every occasion, the six-year- 
old conies to the public school. Here every 
sense he has begun developing, every interest 
he has displayed, should be made use of; his 
curiosity must be stimulated and satisfied; his 
energy directed. He should go on acquiring 



CHILD 



1373 



CHILD 



more discrimination as to colors, more delicacy 
of touch, more sensitiveness of hearing, greater 
muscular control, and a larger appreciation of 
everything beautiful. And he must also go 
on learning to express himself more clearly and 
accurately, both in spoken and in written 
language. 

In this development, the school, the home, 
and the playground are almost equally im- 
portant. It is the duty of every parent and 
every teacher to 
see that all three 
are forces for prog- 
ress and not for 
retrogression. 
Under the head- 
ings EDUCATION, 
CHILD STUDY, and 
other related topics 
referred to at the 
close of this article, 
this phase of a 
normal child's edu- 
cation is treated in 
greater detail in 
these volumes. 
Space will be given 
here only to a brief 
treatment of some 
of the conditions 
which must be 
guarded against. 

Physically De- 
fective Children. It 
is rapidly becom- 
ing the practice 
to have physical 
inspection in all 
public schools. 
This is of prime im- 
portance, because 
it has been found 




In many rural sections, the "Old Oaken Bucket" is an irresistible 
attraction to children 



in many cases that 
children who are 
considered obsti- 
nate, stupid, or positively bad are partly blind 
or deaf, or are the victims of serious nervous 
trouble. The eyes and the ears are the prin- 
cipal channels through which knowledge conies; 
so the child who cannot hear and see perfectly 
is seriously handicapped. He may not know 
of his trouble, unless there is actual pain, and 
for this reason his parents and teachers should 
be alert for signs. Defective eyesight can be 
discovered by noting a child's position when 
he is reading or writing. If his eyes are either 
more or less than a foot from the book he 
is reading, he should be given special tests 
with a set of cards, which can be bought for 
ten cents, to determine what is the trouble. 
Nearsight, farsight, and astigmatism are the 
most common ailments (see EYE; BLINDNESS; 
ASTIGMATISM). 



A PHASF OF CHILD LIFE 



By first determining, by means of a watch, 
how far a normal child can hear, the standard 
for testing the child suspected of deafness may 
be fixed (see EAR). If a child is dull or does 
not pay attention, or if he asks constantly to 
have things repeated, he should at once be 
tested for ear trouble. And it should be re- 
membered that the purpose of testing children 
in these ways is always to discover whether 
a doctor's care is needed. 

Many communi- 
ties now provide 
special classes or 
schools for physi- 
cally handicapped 
children, such as 
those suffering 
from defects of 
hearing, sight, and 
speech. 

Fatigue. Com- 
plete fatigue, or 
nervous exhaus- 
tion, is almost as 
diflicult to recover 
from as a severe 
illness. For this 
reason, children 
must be watched 
carefully and 
guarded against 
overwork, too long 
hours of work, too 
great worry over 
their tasks, not 
enough work, or 
work that has not 
sufficient variety; 
for all these condi- 
tions bring about 
a state of fatigue 
which is likely to 
result in serious 
harm. The great 
trouble with many 



Photo. SI Glair 



public schools is that the classes are large and 
the teacher has not the time to give every 
child sufficient individual attention. This, 
then, must be the duty of parents. It is essen- 
tial that they be on the lookout for signs of 
nervous or bodily fatigue. 

In order to avoid excessive fatigue, a child 
must be interested in his work, and he must 
find a great deal of variety in it. His hours 
of work must not be too long; he must not 
do much outside work; he must get plenty of 
play, plenty of sleep, and plenty of good, 
nourishing food. It is the duty of parents, 
wherever possible, to cobperate with the 
teacher in securing the best working conditions 
within their power for the child light, well- 
ventilated school rooms, a comfortable desk 
and seat, adequate teaching equipment, and 



CHILDERMAS 



1374 



CHILDHOOD 



well-kept, spacious playgrounds. The com- 
fortable seat and desk are of vital importance, 
because the body of a growing child is very 
plastic, and a wrong sitting position held for 
several hours out of every day will change and 
deform the body. 

Signs of Fatigue. The signs of fatigue are 
inattention, restlessness, and irritability. Tests 
have shown that a person who is very tired is 
also not as sensitive to touch, that his eyes 
cannot distinguish colors as well as when he 
is rested, and that his muscular control is im- 
paired, for he will be more clumsy and awk- 
ward in moving about. He is more likely, too, 
to be impertinent and undisciplined than when 
he is rested. A good night's sleep and plenty 
of wholesome food ought always to restore a 
child's good temper and energy. If it does not, 
then the conditions under which he works and 
plays must be changed. 

The Exceptional Child. There is a large 
class of children who are constituted differently 
from the average child, and for whom inade- 
quate provision is made in the public schools. 
There is the exceptionally bright child; there is 
the eccentric child, who has marked individual- 
ity without being either inventive or original; 
there are the feeble-minded child, the backward 
child, and the wayward child. Of course all 
children vary a little from the average. There 
is actually no such individual person as the 
average child; it is simply a term given to a 
composite of all the statistics on children. 
Up to a certain point, this variation from the 
average has no significance, but beyond it 
we have the abnormal or exceptional child 
who is so great a problem in the schools. In- 
stitutions are now solving the problem of 
feeble-minded children and those difficult to 
manage, and in smaller classes and by special 
instruction, the problem of the exceptional and 
the backward child. All these exceptional chil- 
dren need an unusual amount of care. C.E.S. 

Related Subjects. The following articles in these vol- 
umes relating to children or to children's activities, will 
be of interest in connection with this topic* 



Anger in Children 
Baby 

Boys' and Girls' Clubs 
Boy Scouts 
Camp-Fire Girls 
Canning Clubs 
Child Labor 
Children, Societies for 
Children's Bureau 
Child Study 
Cruelty to Animals, So- 
ciety for Prevention of 
Doll 
Dress 
Education 



Eugenics 

Fear in Childhood 
Games and Plays 
George Junior Republic 
Habits in Childhood, 

Troublesome 
Heredity 
Industrial Art 
Kindergarten 
Montessori Method 
Nursery School 
Play 
Schools 
Story- Telling 
Toys 



CHILDERMAS. See INNOCENTS, FEAST OF 
HOLY. 

CHILD-GUIDANCE CLINICS. See MEN- 
TAL MEASUREMENT (In Child-Guidance Clinics). 



CHILDHOOD, BEHAVIOR IN, as affected by 
gland development. Behavioristic doctrine, 
making a clean sweep of all previously acquired 
conceptions, has devoted a good deal of its 
interest and attention to the fresh study of 
movements, secretions, and their association 
by conditioning. They have undoubtedly 
contributed greatly to a better understanding 
of behavior. Regarded from the endocrine 
standpoint, the behavior of the child is modified 
as the hormones, the internal secretions of the 
endocrine glands, modify (i) the amount of 
energy functioning in the nervous system, 
(2) the irritability of the nervous system, (3) 
the fatigability of the nervous and muscular 
systems, and (4) the recuperability of the 
nervous system. 

All these effects are important in the excita- 
tions and inhibitions involved in the learning 
process, which becomes responsible for so much 
of the child's emotional, intellectual,, and 
volitional behavior. We have to consider, as 
affecting all of these, the various ductless 
glands, the pituitaries, pre-pituitary, and post- 
pituitary, the pineal, the thyroid, and para- 
thyroids, the thymus, the adrenals (medullary 
and interrenal), and the gonads, or sex glands. 

To begin with the best studied of these, the 
thyroid: The well-known picture of the cretin, 
the idiotic dwarf, illustrates the results of 
complete or considerable degrees of thyroid 
deficiency, presenting themselves as dullness, 
laziness, fatigability, associated ill-health, and 
poor growth these types are called cretinoids. 
In the regions of the world known as goiter 
belts in the United States, for example, 
around the Great Lakes they are fairly com- 
mon. These behavioral characteristics may be 
associated with behavioral apathy and lethargy 
associated with nervousness a tendency to 
bite the nails and to flush easily, for instance. 
On the other hand, thyroid hyperactivity, the 
hyper-thyroid, presents the contrasting phe- 
nomena: liveliness, activity, restlessness, fidgeti- 
ness, ease in learning and doing, with emotional 
instability and a tendency toward ups and 
downs in the moods. 

The pituitary glands, the pre-pituitary in 
particular, influence mental as well as physi- 
cal growth. Children with hyperactive pre- 
pituitary are generally calm, cool, and collected, 
have good judgment in learning, and retain 
what they learn. They have what is called 
ability to concentrate, to focus attention or 
energy upon a situation. They are protected, 
in other words, against distraction. On the 
other hand, children with a sub-average pre- 
pituitary have difficulty in concentrating, are 
easily distractible, mentally fatigable, and 
have poor memories; they retain learned mate- 
rial poorly. 

The post-pituitary has relation to what may 
be called the dominant mood attitude in be- 



CHILDHOOD 



1375 



CHILD LABOR 



havior. Children with a hyperactive post-pi- 
tuitary tend to be thin, rathe'r moody, and what 
is called temperamental. At the same time, 
they are cold in their relation to human beings, 
egotistical, and self -centered. On the other 
hand, those with post-pituitary deficiency 
tend to be fat and affectionate, and even 
sentimental. The post-pituitary functions 
with the emotional centers in the floor of the 
third ventricle and the sub-thalamus in the 
brain. A certain balance between pre-pituitary 
and post-pituitary seems to determine the 
degree of development of the sense of humor, 
which must be distinguished from the sense of 
fun. 

As regards the pineal gland, sexual precocity 
in behavior may depend upon its proper func- 
tioning. 

The parathyroid glands, controlling as they 
do the history and metabolism of lime in the 
body, have a profound influence upon behavior. 
When they under-function, there is produced 
an overexcitability which may be associated 
with a repressed nervousness that may break 
out in tantrums and hysteria. The tendency 
of the child to indulge mild hallucinations 
occurs in the most marked form in those 
children in whom it may be either a curse or a 
blessing. Emotional misbehavior in the school- 
room has been changed by the treatment of 
parathyroid deficiency. 

The thymus gland in the chest is important 
in behavior, because it undergoes a certain 
amount of evolution and involution parallel 
with the development of the whole personality. 
If its involution or evolution is interfered 
with, there may result an interference with the 
evolution of the other glands, particularly 
the pituitary and the sex glands, with a con- 
sequent retardation in the normal evolution 
of the whole personality. The individual is 
tainted with a certain infantilism or juvenility 
in his behavior, reminding one of the habits 
of those much younger than himself, and 
characterized by an inability to lift himself to 
the right age of adaptation. 

The adrenals play a definite part in the 
behavior of children, according to clinical ex- 
perience. Children whose adrenals have been 
damaged tend to be timid, inactive, and 
fatigable. On the other hand, those with 
hyper-active adrenals tend to be positive, 
aggressive, pugnacious, active, and able to 
resist fatigue. 

In general practice among children, we 
often see the child whose adrenals have been 
damaged by one of the common infectious 
diseases, such as diphtheria or influenza. They 
are characteristically apathetic. Socially, how- 
ever, they are described as "sissies," when they 
are males, and they may tend toward introver- 
sion because of a developing social-inferiority 
complex. 



As regards the sex glands, children show in- 
dividual variations in behavior, both masculine 
and feminine, depending upon the degree of 
development of the internal secretions of the 
gonads, or reproductive organs. In relation 
with the thymus, there may be curious dis- 
tortions and mal-development of this func- 
tion of the sex glands, which may lead to all 
degrees of variability in sexual attitude and 
behavior. L.B. 

Related Subjects. The reader is referred in these vol- 
umes to a number of articles closely related to childhood: 



Anger in Childhood 
Character Training 
Dishonesty in Childhood 
Fatigue and Nervousness 
Habits in Childhood 



Heredity (Inheritance of 
Intellectual and Moral 
Traits) 

Mental Conflict, a 
Cause of Misconduct 



CHILD LABOR, a term relating to the em- 
ployment of children in industry. Children 
have been thus employed from the earliest 
days of recorded history, but the problem of 
child labor, as it is commonly understood, has 
developed with the modern factory system. 
In every country in which manufacturing in- 
dustries have reached a high state of develop- 
ment, competition is keen, and effort is 
constantly being made to keep the cost of 
production low. In such countries, child labor 
is a vital social and economic issue. 

The Development of the System. Under the 
conditions of labor which preceded the factory 
system, the employment of children was re- 
garded as a part of their education. Either 
as apprentices or in the workshops of their 
parents, they learned a trade and * 'habits of 
steady industry." While there were many cases 
of abuse under this system, there was a close 
personal relation between the master and the 
child, which usually checked the master's in- 
difference to the child's good. The factory 
system is characterized by two features which 
did not exist under any preceding system of 
labor: first, the employment of workmen in 
large numbers has tended to destroy per- 
sonal relations between master and workman; 
second, the operation of automatic machinery 
frequently requires quickness and deftness 
rather than physical strength. In England, 
where child labor first became a social menace, 
the demand for children to work in textile 
mills was supplied by a vicious system, using 
pauper children collected from the poorhouses. 
These children received as pay only their food 
and lodging. As competition became more in- 
tense, the working and living conditions of 
the children became worse, until they consti- 
tuted a form of slavery. Children five years 
of age were sometimes found in the mills. 
Hours of work were unregulated, and a day 
of twelve hours, or "from sunrise to sunset," 
was not uncommon. 

Such conditions existed in England during 
the first quarter of the nineteenth century. In 



CHILD LABOR 



1376 



CHILDREN'S BUREAU 



the United States, child labor did not involve 
great numbers of children until the period of 
industrial expansion which followed the War 
of Secession. In Belgium, Germany, and Italy, 
it began to trouble economists and sociologists 
about 1875 to 1880, and in Canada the problem 
is even more recent. 

The Regulation of Child Labor. All students 
of social welfare recognize the fact that child 
labor is an evil whose influence extends to 
succeeding generations, and that it must be 
controlled by legislation. 

The first law regulating child labor, in the 
modern sense, was passed by the British Parlia- 
ment in 1802. It applied to cotton mills only, 
forbade work between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M., limited 
the working day to twelve hours, and required 
elementary school instruction for apprentices. 
An important act of 1819 prohibited the em- 
ployment of children under nine years of age in 
establishments for the preparation and spinning 
of cotton. These early statutes were weakened, 
however, by failure to provide for their enforce- 
ment. Step by step, greater protection was 
given to the child, until now the minimum age 
for full-time work is fourteen. 

Following the lead of England, Germany 
passed its first law regulating child labor in 
1839, and nearly all European countries now 
give the child some degree of protection. 

In the United States, where the problem 
is newer, there is naturally a variety in the 
details of state child-labor laws. These laws 
all fix a minimum age below which children 
must not be employed, ranging from twelve in 
special cases in a few states to sixteen in others. 
The average age limit is fourteen. Many states 
fix a sixteen- or eighteen-year limit upon em- 
ployment in specified dangerous or hazardous 
occupations. Many of them regulate the 
length of the working day and prohibit night 
work. Most states require children to procure 
certificates showing their age and extent of 
schooling, and in these states employers who 
hire children without such certificates are 
liable to a penalty. An educational minimum 
and a certificate of physical fitness are required 
in a few states, in addition to a documentary 
proof of the child's age. 

The enactment by Congress of a national 
child-labor law has been agitated by various 
organizations and individuals for many years, 
and such a law was passed in 1916, prohibiting 
the interstate shipment of goods produced in 
factories which employed children in violation 
of certain age and hour restrictions. The bill, 
known as the Keating-Owen Act, was signed by 
President Wilson in September. However, it 
was declared unconstitutional in 1918. 

In the following year, another law designed 
to protect children was enacted by Congress. 
It placed a ten per cent tax upon the income 
of manufacturing establishments of the type 



mentioned above. This statute was declared 
unconstitutional by the United States Supreme 
Court in May, 1922. It was held that the law 
encroached upon the rights of the various 
states to conduct their internal affairs in their 
own way. A constitutional amendment to 
authorize Federal legislation was then proposed, 
which as the Twentieth Amendment was ap- 
proved by Congress in 1924; it was submitted 
to the state legislatures for ratification, but 
was not ratified by the required three-fourths 
of the states of the Union. L.L.B. 

CHILDREN, MENTALLY DEFICIENT. See 
MENTAL HANDICAPS, subhead. 

CHILDREN, SOCIETIES FOR. In all civilized 
countries there are organizations having for 
their purpose the protection and care of chil- 
dren who have become orphans, or who, for 
other reasons, have been deprived of suitable 
homes. In America the most widely known 
of these are the Society for the Prevention of 
Cruelty to Children, Saint Vincent's Aid So- 
ciety, the Jewish Relief Association, the Chil- 
dren's Aid Society, and the American Humane 
Association. The purpose of these societies is 
to protect children from evil associates and 
from cruelty on the part of those who employ 
them or have the care of them. Home-finding 
societies, whose purpose it is to place orphans 
in suitable homes, are formed in many prov- 
inces, states, and large cities. Juvenile courts 
(which see) have jurisdiction over all cases 
of dependent and delinquent children, and 
those conducted according to the most ad- 
vanced methods exercise the right of jurisdic- 
tion in regard to placing children outside the 
home. The administration of these courts is 
for purposes of guardianship, education, and 
protection, not for trial and punishment. The 
Children's Bureau (which see), in the Depart- 
ment of Labor, was organized by the United 
States government to conduct investigations 
and publish reports relating to the weSare of 
children. 

CHILDREN'S BUREAU, a bureau of the 
United States Department of Labor, created 
by act of Congress April 9, 1912, and directed 
to investigate and report upon "all matters 
pertaining to the welfare of children and of 
child life" among all classes of people. It was 
the first public agency in the world the func- 
tion of which was to consider as a whole the 
problems of childhood. The first director of 
the Bureau was Miss Julia Lathrop (born 
1858), who was succeeded in 1921 by Miss 
Grace Abbott (born 1878), the present chief. 

The Children's Bureau has seven major 
divisions, as follows: maternity and infant 
hygiene, child hygiene, industrial, social service, 
statistical, editorial, and general administra- 
tive. The maternity and infant-hygiene divi- 
sion conducts research into the causes of infant 
and maternal deaths, and is charged with the 



CHILDREN'S CRUSADE 



1377 



CHILE 



administration of the Federal maternity and 
infancy act, under which the welfare and hy- 
giene of mothers, babies, and prc-school chil- 
dren are promoted, in cooperation with the state 
agencies of forty-five states and the territory 
of Hawaii. The child-hygiene division is in 
charge of the Bureau's studies in the field of 
child health, and assists the other divisions in 
the preparation of reports in which child health 
is a factor. The social -service division has for 
its field dependency, delinquency, and neglect 
of children, and the industrial division is re- 
sponsible for studies relating to the employment 
of children, protective legislation for working 
children, and vocational guidance. The statis- 
tical, editorial, and general administrative 
divisions serve the other divisions of the Bu- 
reau. 

An important part of the Bureau's work is 
the answering of letters from parents asking 
questions about the care of children, and the 
distribution of literature, ranging from brief 
folders and popular bulletins on prenatal care, 
infant care, child care, and child manage- 
ment, to technical reports for professional 
child-welfare workers. K.F.L. 



CHILDREN'S CRUSADE. See CRUSADES, 
subhead. 

CHILDRESS, SARAH. See POLK, JAMES 
KNOX. 

CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1820-1804), one 
of the most notable of American publishers and 
philanthropists. He was born in Baltimore, but 
began his business career in Philadelphia, be- 
coming a partner in the publishing house of 
Childs & Peterson in 1840. In 1864 he pur- 
chased the Philadelphia Public Ledger, one of 
the earliest of the low-priced daily papers. 
Under his management, it became very influ- 
ential and made its owner a wealthy man. 
Mr. Childs' charities, both public and private, 
were numerous. Among the most noted of his 
public gifts were a memorial fountain at Strat- 
ford-on-Avon in England, a monument over 
the grave of Edgar Allan Poe, the presentation 
of a printers' cemetery - "Woodlawn"~-in Phil- 
adelphia, and a subscription which made possible 
the endowment of the home for union printers 
at Colorado Springs. His private benefactions 
were equally large, and included among many 
others the educating of 800 boys and girls and 
the pensioning of many old literary workers. 




r HILE, die' lay* a progressive republic 
in South America, extending ribbonlike along 
the Pacific coast for 2,700 miles. Its average 
width is but eighty-seven miles. If placed on 
the map of North America, this country 
(about thirty times as long as it is wide, and 
therefore sometimes called the shoestring 
republic) would stretch from Hudson Bay to 
about 200 miles south of Cuba. Another 
indication of its shoestring shape is the fact that 
the country is as long as from New York City 
to San Francisco, and as narrow as Lake Erie. 
Its total area is only 289,810 square miles. On 
the north, it touches Peru; on the northeast, 
Bolivia; along its eastern boundary stretches 
Argentina, and the Pacific Ocean washes the 
western shore; a large part of Tierra del Fuego 
(the Land of Fire) and the famous island of 
Cape Horn constitute the southern extremity 
of Chile; it is thus projected a thousand miles 
farther south than the southern point of Africa. 
The name Chile is Indian, but its origin is 
disputed. It was probably derived from an 
Indian word meaning cold, referring to the 
perpetual snow on many of the mountains. 

87 



The People. About four million people live 
in this peaceful republic, the great majority of 
whom are of European descent. About one- 
fourth of them are of pure Spanish stock, very 
largely from the more energetic and progressive 
element of Northern Spain, where the climate 
most closely resembles that of Central Chile. 

The language of the country is Spanish. 
Very many of the influential families have been 
settled in Chile for more than a century, and 
the social customs reflecting the high culture of 
old Spain are everywhere in evidence. Roman 
Catholicism prevails. 

The foreign population consists chiefly of 
Spanish, French, Germans, Italians, and 
British, who have been drawn thither generally 
for purposes of business. There are also 
50,000 Peruvians and Bolivians in the north. 

Of the ancient inhabitants of Chile, the 
Araucanian and Patagonian Indians, dwelling 
on the slopes of the Andes, only about 100,000 
of the former remain, and the latter are 
practically extinct. Noted for their intense 
love of liberty and their determined, war- 
like spirit, they were the last native tribe in all 



CHILE 



1378 



CHILE 



America to give up their independence; not 
until 1 88 1 did they actually recognize the 
authority of the Chilean government (see 
PATAGONIA). In the southernmost part of 
Chile is the remnant of another primitive race, 
the Yaghans, still uncivilized. 

The Cities. Santiago, the capital, and Val- 
paraiso, the most important seaport, are de- 
scribed in these volumes under their individual 
titles. In addition to Coquimbo, a small sea- 
jxsrt situated in the iron-ore district, the re- 
maining cities of importance are the following: 

Conception, kon sep' se ohn, a river port situated 
^oo miles south of Valparaiso, in a fertile agri- 
cultural district. The city was founded in 1^50, and 
in early Spanish days was the second largest city of 
Chile, l>ut it has twice been destroyed by earthquake. 
The present city is modern, clean, and progressive, 
with a imputation of about 05,000 The independence 
of Chile was declared here in 1818 

Iquique, e kr' kay, a seaport for the northern arid 
district, where the great nitrate fields abound It is 
imiK)rtant as an outlet to the sea for Bolivia The 
city has suffered as the scene of earthquakes and 
of conflicts over boundary disputes. Its population 
is about ^7,000 

Magallanes, prior to 1028 culled PUNTA ARENAS, 
the southernmost incorporated town in the world, 
almost pathetic in its loneliness and in its distance 
from other cities It is situated on the Strait of 
Magellan, at the south end of the continent of South 
America, and is the capital of the Chilean territory of 
Magallanes 

The city has been important chiefly as a coaling 
station for steamships, though its seal fisheries have 
considerable value It has many foreigners engaged 
in sheep-raising, farming, and lumbering, and it ex- 
ports meat and wool The city was founded in 1840, 
on the site of a former penal colony It has about 
2.$, ooo inhabitants; the territory of Magallanes has 
so.ooo people. 

The Land Surface and Climate. The mighty 
mountains of the Andes extend the length 
of the country, and among the lofty snow- 
crowned peaks of the range are numerous vol- 
canoes; earthquakes are very frequent in this 
region of the world. 

This long strip of country falls into three 
distinct zones. In the north is the arid desert 
of Atacama, a sub-tropical region rich in 
minerals. In the center is a rich valley 600 
miles long, watered by numerous small rivers 
rising in the Andes. This agricultural sec- 
tion of Chile, where the rain supply is fairly 
abundant, enjoys the delightful climate of 
perpetual spring; it is the granary of the coun- 
try, the heart of the nation, and the home of 
most of its people. 

Finally, in the southern portion is found a 
mountainous, heavily forested section, a cold 
region with almost continuous rains. Here, 
where the famous Strait of Magellan cuts 
through Chilean lands, the otherwise uniform 
coast line breaks into picturesque ruggedness. 
The fiords and islands and forest-covered 



mountains topped with glaciers remind one of 
the romantic scenery of Northern Europe. 

The rivers are of little importance for 
transportation, being short and turbulent, but 
several in the south, the Imperial, Bio-bio, Val- 
divia, and Bueno, 
are navigated by 
small steamboats for 
some distance. Un- 
like many South 
American countries, 
Chile has few birds, 
beasts, fish, or 
reptiles. 

Mineral Re- 
sources. The vast 
mineral wealth of 
Chile was the cause 
of early boundary 
disputes. In the 
northern desert of the 
country, a region in- 
hospitable in itself, 
lie the world 's great- 




LOCATION MAP 



Showing the position Chile 
occupies in the continent, 
and its si/.e <is compared 
with other South American 
republics 



est nitrate beds, sup- 
plying one of the 
finest fertilizers known. This whitish-looking 
mud, so easily obtained by a surface-scraping 
process, is Chile's chief export and source of 
revenue. Almost all of it is sent to Europe and 
the United States, Iquique being celebrated as 
the world's greatest nitrate port. This source 
of easy wealth, however, scientific men have 
estimated will be exhausted by the year 1040. 
Iodine, a by-product of nitrate of soda, is also 
a considerable article of export, especially to 
the United States. 

Copper ores are next to nitrates in impor- 
tance among the mineral resources. Chile is the 
world's second largest producer of copper. 
Immense iron-ore deposits are also found in 
the northern provinces, together with gold, 
silver, cobalt, nickel, and manganese. Valuable 
coal mines are situated south of Valparaiso. 

Agriculture. Most of Chile's agricultural 
activities are confined to its great central valley, 
where there are large estates owned by wealthy 
Chileans and by the Roman Catholic Church. 
These estates are worked with modern machin- 
ery. The poorer classes serve as laborers, for 
they cannot own farms, because of the high 
price of land. Sixty per cent of the agricultural 
land is owned by fewer than 600 proprietors. 
The most important cereal crops are wheat, 
barley, oats, maize, and beans. Mediterranean 
fruits, figs, olives, apricots, and grapes grow 
abundantly. Chile is noted for its production 
of excellent wines. Apple-growing has become 
very successful, especially in the southern 
portion. 

The shaggy slopes of the more southerly 
areas, and even the region of Tierra del Fuego, 
provide pasture for millions of cattle and sheep; 



CHILE 



1379 



CHILE 



dairy fanning and the production of butter and 
cheese are on the increase The extensive 
forests of these regions are important for lum- 




A STARTLING C OMI'ARISON 

Northern Chile is as far south of the equator as 
Haiti is north of "the line", its southern extremity 
is in a latitude comparable with Southern Hudson 
Bay The above map shows where Chile would lie 
could it be turned upon North America, with the 
equator as an axis 

bering industries. Immigration is small, and 
it is only by special inducements offered by the 
government that a number of Japanese farmers 
have settled in the country. 

Manufactures and Commerce. Manufactur- 
ing industries are unimportant. Soap, furni- 
ture, and shoes arc the chief products, except 
in a southern German settlement at Valdivia, 
where large breweries, distilleries, saw mills, and 
tanneries are found. Textiles, machinery, 
paper materials, animal products, and chemi- 
cals have for years been imported from Great 
Britain, Germany, and the United States, and 
sugar and petroleum from Peru. Most of 
Chile's agricultural products are consumed 
locally; the chief exports are nitrates, wool, 
hides, and leather. Chilean wines and beans 
find a market among the country's South 
American neighbors. 

Transportation and Communication. Chile 
was the first South American state to construct 
a railway, the oldest line having been opened in 
1852. By 1888 construction was begun on a 
large scale, and there are now more than 5,600 
miles of railway open for traffic, over 3,100 



miles of which belong to the state. One of the 
most famous in operation is the Trans-Andean 
Railway, connecting Valparaiso and Buenos 
Aires, Argentina, a distance of nearly 800 
miles. Chile has over 22,000 miles of public 
road, and about 850 miles of navigable rivers. 

Although harbors on the Chilean coast are 
not of the best, shipping from its ports exceeds 
that of any other South American country 
on the west coast. An excellent breakwater 
at the Valparaiso harbor has greatly improved 
that port and made anchorage safe. The chief 
ports ^re Valparaiso, Iquique, Talcahuano, 
and Antofagasta. The completion of the 
Panama Canal, greatly shortening the water 
route to Chile from New York and Europe, is 
vastly increasing the republic's commerce, 
especially notable in the mining industry. The 
ocean route from Valparaiso to New York has 
been shortened from 8,337 miles to 4,627 miles, 
and that from Valparaiso to Liverpool from 
8,747 miles to 7,185 miles 

Education. Until recently, public instruction 
was much neglected, and the illiteracy rate was 
very high; but rapid strides have been made, 
and through the efforts of teachers brought 
from Germany and the United States, modern 
methods and systems have been installed. 
Public schools are provided by the government, 
and education has been compulsory since 1020. 
Besides normal, secondary, and commercial 
schools, all public, there are agricultural and 
professional schools, schools of mines, music, 
arts, and trades, an institute for deaf-mutes, a 




A YAGHAN HUT 

school for the blind, public museums, and the 
National Library. There are two universities, 
one supported by the state, the other by the 
Roman Catholic Church. 

Government and Religion. By amendments 
in IQ25, the executive power is vested in a 
President, who is elected for a term of six 
years by direct popular vote; he is ineligible for 
immediate reelection. A Cabinet of Ministers 
aids the President. Voters must be twenty-one 
years old, and be able to read and write. 

Legislative power is vested in a National 
Congress, elected by direct popular vote, and 



CHUB 



1380 



CHILE 



consisting of a Senate with forty-five members, 
elected for a term of eight years, and a Chamber 
of Deputies, consisting of one member for every 
30,000 inhabitants. For local government, 
Chile is divided into provinces, which are 




Square with star, blue; lower half, red; plain 
surface, white 

divided in turn into departments. Police 
of the capitals of departments and of Santiago, 
the capital of the republic, are organized by 
the President at the expense of the Treasury. 

Besides a High Court of Justice in the capi- 
tal, there are courts of appeal throughout 
the republic, Tribunals of First Instance in 
department capitals, and smaller courts in 
districts. There are two central prisons, more 
than twenty penitentiaries, besides houses of 
correction, reformatories, and public hospitals, 
lunatic asylums, shelters, and dispensaries. 

Affairs of state are sHU largely controlled by 
great landholders, the poorer classes being 
largely illiterate, and therefore disqualified 
to vote. The Roman Catholic Church, sus- 
tained at public expense until 1025, is still 
powerful because of its numbers, but Roman 
Catholicism is no longer the state religion. All 
churches are tolerated. 

History. The real conquest of Chile began 
under the direction of Valdivia, in 1540. For 
more than two centuries, the brave and intelli- 
gent Araucanians struggled against the Spanish 
power. By 1810 Chile, tired of Spanish domi- 
nation, revolted, and gained independence 
eight years later. 

The Chileans being a peace-loving and patri- 
otic people, the country has been fairly free 
from internal revolutions such as have marked 
the history of most Spanish-American countries. 
Disagreements with outside countries have 
provoked most of Chile's troubles. 

The valuable deposits of nitrate in Northern 
Chile have caused many boundary disputes. 
Beginning in 1843, the question of * the Argen- 
tina boundary menaced peaceful relations, until 
in 1 88 1 a treaty was signed. But even after 
that, rumors of war caused a disturbed condi- 
tion hi both countries until 1002. A remarkable 



statue of Christ was erected in the heart of 
the Andes, on the boundary between the two 
countries, to celebrate ultimate peace. (There 
is an illustration of this monument under the 
title ARGENTINA.) 

In 1865 Chile and Peru were forced into a 
war with Spain, the most significant event 
being the bombardment of Valparaiso by a 
Spanish fleet, in 1866. Through the interven- 
tion of the United States, hostilities were ended 
in 1869, and ten years later peace was estab- 
lished. Then war commenced with Bolivia 
and Peru over nitrate deposits. In the war, 
Chile added to its possessions the province of 
Atacama from Bolivia and Tarapaca from 
Peru, and also secured control of two small 
Peruvian provinces, Tacna and Arica. It was 
agreed that after ten years a vote of the people 
of these two provinces should determine their 
future sovereignty, but Chile placed such re- 
strictions on this proposed vote that Peru 
steadfastly refused to concur in the plan. Fi- 
nally, in 1923, the matter was put up to the 
United States for arbitration, with the Presi- 
dent as umpire. General Pershing was ap- 
pointed as head of an arbitration committee 
in 1025, but months of bickering brought no 
results; the question was settled in iQ2q. 

From the adoption of constitutional govern- 
ment, in 1833, to 1871, Chile had but four 
Presidents, each serving for two terms. In 
1873 the Constitution was liberalized by amend- 
ments. In 1891 President Balmaceda ad- 
vocated a still more democratic government, 
and a civil war broke out, which resulted in 
defeat and suicide for the President. The 
belief that the United States favored the cause 
of Balmaceda led to a serious conflict at 
Valparaiso between some United States sailors 
and a crowd of Chileans; the immediate dis- 
patch of warships from the American republic 
brought apology, and since then a spirit of 
friendship between the two republics has 
steadily grown, with increasing intimacy of 
relations between them. Chile is one of the 
"A B C" powers (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile) 
which offered to medi?te in 1914 between 
Mexico and the United States. 

Chile remained neutral during the World 
War, but furnished the Allies with war mate- 
rials. Manufacturing has increased, and labor 
and social problems have been mitigated by 
law. In 1924 a group of army officers over- 
threw the government, substituting a military 
r6gime, which instituted necessary reforms. 
But the public soon began to demand a return 
to constitutional government. A greatly 
liberalized Constitution was adopted in Oc- 
tober, 1925; the President was recalled, and 
peace was restored. Late in 1928 Herbert 
Hoover, President-elect of the United States, 
paid a visit of friendship to the Chilean 
people. 



CHILE 



1381 



CHILE 



OUTLINE AND QUESTIONS ON CHILE 



Outline 



I. Location 

(1) Latitude, 17 57' to 55 58' 40" south 

(2) Longitude, about that of Boston 

(3) Boundaries 

(4) Distance from New York and London 

II. Size and Form 

(1) Length, 2,700 miles 

(2) Average breadth, 87 miles 
(j) Area 

(a) Comparative 

(b) Actual 

(4) "Shoestring republic" 

III. Physical Features 

(i) Surface regions 

(a) Northern desert section 

(b) Central valley 

(c) Southern mountainous section 
The Andes 

Rivers 



(2) 
(3) 



IV. Climate 



(1) Sub-tropical in north 

(2) Pleasant and healthful in central section 

(3) The cold southern region 

(4) Rainfall 

V. The People 

(T) Population 

(a) Actual 

(b) Comparative 

(c) Density 
(2) Natives 

(a) Origin 

(b) Characteristics 



(3) Foreigners 

(4) Ancient races 

(a) Araucamans 

(b) Patagonians 

(5) Religion 

(0) Education 

(a) Absence of compulsory education laws 

VI. Industries and Transportation 

(1) Mining 

(a) Nitrate of soda 

(b) Copper 

(c) Other minerals 

(2) Agriculture 

(a) Location in central valley 

(b) Stock-raising 

(3) Manufacturing 

(4) Communication 

(a) Railroads 

(b) Rivers 

(c) Roads 

(d) Coastwise trade 

(e) Connection with other countries 
i Influence of Panama Canal 

VII. Government 

fi) Republican form 

(2) Departments 

(3) Local government 

VIII. History 

(1) The conquest 

(2) Independence achieved 

( i) How its history has touched that of other 
countries in North and South America 

(4) Recent progress 



Questions 

What might be called the "ice-houses of the Strait of Magellan"? 

What metal was once mined in Chile in greater quantities than in any other 
country in the world? 

How does the country now rank in the production of that same metal? 

Why is it safer for vessels to anchor in the harbor of Valparaiso now than it was 
a few years ago? 

What class of the population has most to do with governmental affairs? 

Who were the Patagonians? Give some of their characteristics. How many of 
them remain? 

What is the great mineral product of the desert region? What is it used for? 

What distinction has this country among South American states in the matter 
of railway transportation? 

By whom are the policemen paid in Santiago? 



CHILE CON CARNE 1382 CHILL ON 



OUTLINE AND QUESTIONS ON CHILE-Continued 



Questions Continued 

How large a proportion of the inhabitants of the country are European -born? 
How many are from the South American countries to the north * 

How long do experts estimate that Chile's chief source of mineral wealth will 
last? 

Under what conditions do the few surviving primitive inhabitants of the coun- 
try live? 

How many prisons are there in Chile? 

What language does a Chilean speak? 

How does the country differ in its flora and fauna from most other states of the 
continent? 

What connection has one of Chile's outlying possessions with a famous English 
classic? 

What attitude does the government take toward immigration''* 

When did the United States intervene and bring about pence for Chile? 

How does this country differ in national character from those countries colonized 
by Spaniards from the south of Spain? 

What part of the Andes has the largest eternal snowfield? 

If South America were folded over upon North America, according to latitude, 
how far would Chile reach? 

What resource of great value has been the cause of numerous disputes between 
this country and its neighbors? 

How did Chile and Argentina celebrate the establishment of a lasting peace be- 
tween them? 

What was the probable origin of the country's name''' 

What resemblance is there between the far southern coast of this country and 
a certain far northern shore line? 

Why is this known as the "shoestring republic" "> 

What state of the American Union is nearest it in area? 

Are there any particulars in which Central Chile may be compared with Central 
California? How do the two compare in latitude? 

How large a proportion of the population makes its living by agriculture? 



Related Subjects. The following articles in these vol- teaspoonful salt, O7ie finely chopped onion, cloves 

limes will make more tUar crrtain phasrs of this general K arhc finely chopped, and the chicken, and cover wi 

ject boiling water Cook until chicken is tender Remo 

Andes Patagonia and thicken sauce with three tablespoonfuls each 

Argentina San Martin, Jose de butter and flour cooked together Canned pimcnt 

HornTcape Sheep** may be USCd in platC f red P l 'W )Crs - E v M 

Median (Strait of) Tierra del FUCRO CHILE SALTPETER. See SODIUM. 

Nltrate& Valparaiso CHILLICOTHE, chil i kolh' c, OHIO. S 

CHILE CON CARNE, chc ' lay kon kahr' nay, OHIO (back of map). 

a Spanish dish, now popular in the United CHILLON, shil Ion' or she yoN' , a cast 

States with those who enjoy 4 'hotly" seasoned fortress on a rock at the east end of La 

food. Chili, or Chilli, is the Spanish name for Geneva, Switzerland, reached from the ma 

red peppers, and chile con carne means peppers land by bridge. It has acquired inter 

with meat. The following is a recipe for from Byron's poem, The Prisoner of Chili 

enough to serve six or eight people : which tells the story of Francis Bonni va 

Clean, singe, and cut in pieces for serving, two P rior f ^ int Victor and Genevan patriot * 

young chickens Season with salt and pepper, and was cast into an underground dungeon of 

fry quickly in butter Remove seeds and veins from ^Stle by the counts of Savoy. From 1530 

eight red peppers, cover with boiling water, and cook 153$ he suffered there in the cause of religi 

until soft. Mash and rub through a sieve Add one The tale is not entirely true. See page i v - 



CHILLS AND FEVER 



1383 



CHIMNEY 




I'Luto OKOC 



CHILLON CASTLE DUNGEON 



CHILLS AND FEVER. See MALARIA. 

CHILON, che lahn' . See SEVEN WISE MEM 
OF GREECE. 

CHIMAERA, ki me' rah, in the stories of 
Homer, a fire-breathing female monster with 
the head of a lion, the body of a goat, and the 
tail of a serpent, that long laid waste the land 
of Lycia and Caria. The hero, Bellerophon, 
commissioned by the Lycian king, lobates, to 
destroy this creature, procured with the help 
of Minerva the winged steed Pegasus. Speed- 
ing through the air, he found the Chimaera 
and killed her. See BELLEROPHON. 

Modern Application. The word chimerical, derived 
from Chimaera, has come to be applied to any idea or 
plan that is wild or fantastic. 

CHIMBORAZO, chim bo rah' zo, an imposing 
mountain of the Andes, located in Ecuador, 
about 120 miles from the Pacific coast. Viewed 
from a distance, it is a magnificent sight, rising 
20,408 feet above the level of the sea, and 
perpetually snow-covered from the summit 
down half a mile. It is an extinct volcano, but 



has no crater. For a long time Chimborazo 

was thought to be the loftiest mountain in the 

New World, but there are eight higher peaks in 

South America; Aconcagua rises 23,080 feet 

above sea level. 

Many men at- 

tempted to reach 

Chimborazo's 

snow-capped 

peak, called Sil- 

ver Bell, before 

the first success- 

ful ascent was 

made in 1880. 

CHIMES. See 
BELL, subhead. 

CHIMNEY. 
Warm air, be- 
ing lighter than 
cold air, tends 
to rise. When 
warm air is con- 
fined within an 
enclosure open 
at the top and 
bottom, a strong 
upward current 

fills the Space. rhoto Vlaual Education Service 

As the warm air CHIMPANZEE 

rises, cold air rushes in through the opening as 
the bottom of the shaft; in this way a draft it 
created which supplies the fire at the foot of 





THE PET OF THE ZOO 



The chimpanzee named Hondo, in the garb of man, 
is an attraction in the San Diego (Calif.) Zoo. 

the chimney with the oxygen it needs to sup- 
port combustion. Chimneys, therefore, do 



CHIMNEY SWALLOW 



1384 



CHINA 



more than carry off the smoke from a burning 
mass of wood or coal. They are built for utility, 
and not for ornament; they must extend higher 





CHIMPANZEE HAND AND FOOT 

than the topmost part of the building, or counter 
drafts may blow down the chimney. 

CHIMNEY SWALLOW, an incorrect desig- 
nation for the chimney sv;i?t. See SWIFT. 

CHIMPANZEE, Mm pan' ze, or chim pan- 



ze f , a large African ape, of the same genus as 
the gorilla, the two being closest to man of 
the anthropoid apes (see APE; GORILLA). The 
face and hands of the chimpanzee are flesh- 
colored, or yellowish, the teeth beautifully 
white, the ears very large. The body is cov- 
ered with long, shining, dark-colored hair. In 
one species the crown of the head is bald. 
When full grown, the animal is sometimes five 
feet high. It does not often stand erect, but 
usually supports itself in an upright position 
by its long forearms. A wanderer in habit, 
the chimpanzee lives in dense jungles, where 
it climbs to the tops of the trees, eating soft 
fruits, insects, and birds' eggs. At night its 
loud, terrific, long-drawn cries can sometimes 
be heard for a mile or more. Chimpanzees 
are easily tamed, and are docile if kindly 
treated. Those seen in menageries, vaudeville, 
and moving pictures often show marvelous 
intelligence. In French West Africa, capture 
of chimpanzees is under government control. 
See illustrations, page 1383. MJ.H. 

Scientific Names. Chimpanzees belong to the 
family Simiidae. The several species constitute a 
genus which has been variously named Pan, Troglo- 
dytes, Mimctcs, and Anthropopithccus. 



The STORY or CHINA 




^HINA, the largest country of Asia, 
and one of the oldest on the globe that still 
exists as a nation. Long before Rome was 
founded, it is believed, China was a flourishing 
nation, with its arts, its government, and its 
peculiar family traditions well established. 
Through all the centuries until the nineteenth, 
it remained a shrouded nation, shut off from 
intercourse with other peoples; even to-day it 
is probably the least understood of all the 
nations, and most of the statistics which are 
given for it are little more than estimates. For 
thousands of years a monarchy of the absolute 
type, for nearly four years a republic, at least 
in name, then by a sharp reaction, a monarchy, 
then reverting to the republic again such has 
been the history of this country, which is called 
by its own people Chunghua, meaning Center 
of Civilization. 

China thinks in centuries. A man's life is a 
prolongation of that of his father and his count- 
less grandfathers, and he is certain that his 
own progeny will transmit the individual in 



him down through eternity. Countless ages 
he extends backward through his ancestry, and 
through countless ages he believes he will live 
in his posterity. 

Location and Size. China comprises most of 
eastern and southeastern Asia, and its area of 
4,278,000 square miles (estimated) comprises 
somewhat more than one-fourth of that vast 
continent. It is a million square miles larger 
than the United States; indeed, it is larger than 
the United States, Mexico, and Central Amer- 
ica combined. It is larger than all of Europe. 
These statements, however, are made on the 
assumption that China's title to Mongolia and 
Manchuria remains valid. Mongolia has de- 
clared its independence, and Russian and 
Japanese influence in Manchuria has put 
Chinese authority in jeopardy. In all the 
world, only Soviet Russia (which includes 
Siberia) and Great Britain and France with 
their colonial possessions surpass it in size. 
No census has ever made possible a statement 
of the exact population, but the Chinese Post- 



CHINA 



1385 



CHINA 



office Census places it at about 446,000,000-- a 
population greater than that of any other single 
nation on the globe, and actually twenty-six 
per cent of the world's population. Eighty-five 
per cent of the people live in one-third of the 




LOCA1JON MAP 

Showing, also, the proportion of the Asiatic continent 
occupied by China. 

area; the country is not over-populated, but 
distribution of the people is not even, owing 
to lack of transportation. In China proper, the 
people number 436,000,000. The entire popu- 
lation of the British Empire is greater, but it is 
scattered all over the world, and is of every 




COMPARATIVE AREAS 

China and the United States drawn to the same scale 

color, temperament, and language, while that 
of China is compact and almost a unit as to 
race; but in language there are hundreds of 
dialects. 

Of this vast population, over ninety-five per 
cent live in what is known as China proper, 
which comprises only about one-third of the 
entire Chinese republic. Between this compact 



southeastern portion and the other countries 
of Asia lie the great Chinese provinces of Tibet, 
Chinese Turkestan, Mongolia, and Manchuria, 
all of which are, either in their climate or in 
their soil, inhospitable enough to be real bar- 
riers against invasion. These buffer states ac- 
count in large measure for the degree to which 
China has been able to keep itself untouched 
by influences from the outside world. 

Physical Features. In no other country is 
the importance of rivers more evident than in 
China. PVom the mountainous inland regions 
they flow to the Pacific in roughly parallel 



SanFrancisco 5-Memphis TNevYork 
ver 6-NewOrleans 




AREA AND LATITUDE COMPARISONS 

China and the United States drawn to the same scale. 

courses, and in their fertile valleys is crowded 
together a large proportion of the inhabit- 
ants. Only two of these river basins that of 
the Yangtze, or "Great River," and that of the 
Hwang, or the "Yellow River "form great 
plains, the rest of China being largely moun- 
tainous. Both of these rivers, springing from 
the mountain section, where snow is heavy, are 
subject to floods which keep the near-by lands 
constantly fertile, but these floods have other 
and less beneficial results. Sometimes they are 
so vast that they sweep away the wonderful 
works built to hold the river in its course, 
bring death to thousands of people in their 
basins, and by widespread destruction of crops 
cause famine through the land. The Hwang, 
which in twenty-five centuries has altered its 
course eleven times, is especially treacherous, 



CHINA 



1386 



CHINA 



RICE 
China 
U.S. 



AREA-Mlhons of Acres 

10 20 30 40 50 



FRODUCTION-Millions of T6ns| 

10 20 30 40 50 



VHEAT 
China 
U.S. 



SORGHUMS 
China 
US. 




CEREAL PRODUCTION COMPARISONS 

The area and production of rice in the United States is insignificant compared with that of China The latter 
country produces less wheat, but more sorghums and millet, than the United States. 



and by its devastating floods has won for itself 
the name of "China's Sorrow." 

In the north, west, and south are mountains, 
those of the west being the highest. By no 
means all of this mountainous section is lost to 
cultivation, for the Chinese have shown marked 
ability in adapting them&lves to their environ- 
ment. The southeastern mountains, steep in 
their higher slopes, are cultivated only to a 
height of 2,000 feet or thereabouts, but in the 
north, where the valleys are filled with a pe- 
culiar fertile soil called loess, the mountains are 
often terraced to a height of 8,000 feet. This 
inland mountain region is almost unknown to 
travelers, except the most determined and en- 
terprising of them, and contains none of the 
great cities. These, for the most part, are 
situated along the coast, which is 2,500 miles 
in extent, or on the rivers; and the rivers near 
a great city present a remarkably busy and 
crowded aspect. 

Of lakes, China has a number, though none 
of great size or importance. Practically all of 
them are near the Yangtze, and most of them 
are shallow and in danger of being filled up 
with silt from the river floods. The Chinese 
are a most ingenious people, and in certain of 
the lakes they have fashioned artificial floating 
islands, which are among the sights that 
travelers flock to see. 

Climate. Nowhere is the statement that a 
"temperate climate is one which shows extreme 
heat in summer and extreme cold in winter" 
better illustrated than in China, for though 
almost the entire country lies within the north 
temperate zone, the extremes of heat and cold 
are great, except upon the seacoast. This is 
accounted for by the fact that it is part of a 
very large land mass, a "continental climate" 
always showing much greater variations than 
does one affected by great bodies of water. 
In the northern part of China, the average 
temperature for the year is about 51; in the 
south, about 79; and the annual range is 



twice as great in the north as in the south. 
The summer months throughout much of the 
country are very hot, while in the winter the 
rivers are frozen through a great part of their 
courses. 

Most of the rainfall occurs during the sum- 
mer season, but this is by no means evenly 
distributed over the country. In the south, 
near the coast, it is frequently 100 inches a 
year, while at Peking, in the north, it rarely 
reaches twenty-five inches. 

Plants and Animals. As might be expected 
in a country of such great size, the plant life 
of China is widely varied. The very name 
associates itself in the mind with certain plants 
tea, the opium poppy, the mulberry, and 
rice. These are widely cultivated, and are 
treated under the heading of Agriculture, be- 
low. Of the plants which the Chinaman finds 
ready to his hand by the gift of nature, by all 
means the most important is the bamboo, which 
he could no more do without than the people 
of the West could do without iron and its prod- 
ucts. But he uses bamboo in more ways than 
iron is used he eats the young sprouts, fash- 
ions a great deal of his furniture out of the 
full-grown reeds, builds houses and boats in 
which to live, and makes paper from it. 

Over large regions, however, the forests have 
been cut down, and vast, desolate stretches are 
clothed only with a tough grass. It is not 
that the Chinese do not appreciate the beauty 
of trees it is simply that they must use every 
resource at their command. Perhaps the land 
is capable of cultivation then assuredly the 
trees must come down; if not, wood is always 
good for burning, and the trees must come 
down, anyway. 

It might be surprising to learn how many of 
the commonly known fruits and flowers are 
Chinese in origin. Not only the various species 
of the azalea and the rhododendron, but the 
peach and the orange as well, have been intro- 
duced elsewhere from China. For centuries the 



CHINA 



1387 



CHINA 



Chinese have had their skilled gardeners, and 
no Western country has brought about more 
wonderful developments of flowers than has 
China, with the chrysanthemum, for instance. 
But it is only the wealthy who can have flower 
gardens; the poorer classes have no spot of 
ground, however tiny, which they can spare to 
grow anything that cannot be eaten. 

In the wild mountain regions, there are still 
to be found tigers, leopards, bears, and wolves, 
while in the southwestern extremity, near 
Burma, the elephant and the rhinoceros are 
frequently seen. Over much of the country, 
however, the large game has been driven out, 
but hares, rabbits, squirrels, rats, and mice are 
everywhere abundant, and the bird family is 
very numerous. Almost more important than 
the birds, which include geese, ducks, and other 
species used for food, are the fish, for China is 
one of the greatest fish countries of the world. 
Particularly interesting is the use made of cor- 
morants in fishing (see CORMORANT). 

Agriculture. For thousands of years the land 
of China has been cultivated, and during much 
of that time has supported a huge population, 
yet its fertility is not exhausted, and China is 
still primarily an agricultural nation. This tells 
much about the methods that are employed. 
Primitive they may be, but they tend to con- 
serve the elements of the soil. A Chinese city 
has no drainage system, no garbage-disposal 
problem. In the early morning hours, before 
dawn, the farmers' boats enter the canals of 



the city and glide here and there, collecting 
the refuse of every sort for fertilizing purposes. 

Farming is held in high honor. The govern- 
ment really owns the land, and has a right to 
eject any man from his holding if he does not 
till it carefully. Most of these holdings are 
small, comparatively few being over ten acres, 
but from these little patches excellent returns 
are received excellent, that is, from the view- 
point of the Chinese, who do not demand much 
beyond the necessities of life. No patch of 
ground is too small to claim attention. If a 
man has in his holding a rocky ledge, however 
small, which is level enough to retain earth, he 
will carry earth in a basket, cover the ledge, and 
there set out his plants. Thus he adds to the 
productivity of his bit of land. 

Nor are these their only space economies. 
Large rafts are built, covered with earth, and 
moored in the river. There the farmer plants 
his seed in early spring, and as the raft drifts 
slowly down the river, the crops grow and ripen. 
The picture is an attractive one to a person 
who has not seen the original, and gives the 
impression of a lazy, luxurious people who can- 
not even stay at home to grow their crops. But 
the truth is far otherwise. The Chinese peasant 
is the hardest-working man in the world, and 
only the dire necessity of finding a place to live 
and grow the things he needs for food forces 
him into such expedients. Hundreds of thou- 
sands of Chinese live on river boats, and have 
no other homes. 




Photo. U A V 
PLANTING CORN IN CHINA 

There is such a surplus of labor, such a scarcity of leather, and such dependence on traditional customs that 
in lieu of reins to guide the donkey, a boy leads him. 




Some Phases of Industry, (i) Converting timber into lumber (man power is cheaper than machinery). (2) 
Interior of a native bank; the strange material displayed is money. (3) A village mill, grain for the com- 
munity is ground into flour in this crude fashion. (4) A street restaurant. 1389 




Photo.: Viral Education*! Bwrlc*; O & < 

Some Phases of Industry, (i) Converting timber into lumber (man power is cheaper than machinery), i 

Interior of a native bank; the strange material displayed is money. (3) A village mill, grain for the co 

munity is ground into flour in this crude fashion. (4) A street restaurant. 



CHINA 



1390 



CHINA 



attempted to curtail still further the traffic 
in opium, without result. 

Of one phase of agriculture, China knows 
nothing, and that is stock-raising. Pigs and 
chickens may be seen, for they can subsist on 
refuse and live in the dooryard of the little 
thatched mud hut which shelters the family. 
But cows, sheep, and horses must have grazing 
land, and land is too valuable to be used for 
such purposes. There are no grassy commons 
on which the cows of the villagers may be 
tethered; no roadside stretches where they may 
crop the weeds, for every spot is under culti- 
vation. 

The effects of this lack of animals are many. 
Not only do the people have little meat to eat, 
but they know nothing of milk or of butter. 
And even more serious is the scarcity of draft 
animals, for it means that men must pull the 
carriages and bear the heavy burdens, thereby 
injuring their health and shortening their lives. 
A Chinese coolie can do draft work more swiftly 
and more easily than could an American or a 
European, but after all, he is a man and not a 
horse, and he inevitably pays the penalty with 
relatively short life for the too-hard work which 
is laid upon him. 

Manufactures. That the Chinese are not 
behind other races in their inventive faculty is 
proved by the fact that they were the first to 
use gunpowder, paper, silk, movable blocks for 
printing, porcelain, the n^gnetic needle, and 
many other things which were later introduced 
into Europe or independently discovered there. 
But in the later centuries, the inventive faculty 
has been hampered by the conservatism and 
ancestor worship so characteristic of China. 
No premium is placed on the discovery of new 
and simpler methods the acceptable thing is 
to carry on a process just as it has been carried 
on in ages past. Thus it happens that the 
Chinese have been slow to introduce machinery, 
and many of their products continue to be 
made in the homes of the people or in very 
small establishments. Even so, their silk is 
better than any made elsewhere, while their 
embroideries are marvels of beauty and skill. 
Cotton mills are multiplying rapidly, however, 
and at present there are 3,500,000 spindles in 
operation. 

Gold and silver filigree work, lacquer ware, 
wood and ivory carving, and 
bronze casting show not only the 
remarkable ability of the people, 
but their artistic sense as well. 
In recent years, great quantities 
of modern machinery have been 
introduced into factories in the 
cities, and some of the old hand- 
work, as the most intricate em- 
broidering and carving, has been 
forbidden by law because of its bad 
effect on the eyes. Certain stu- 



dents of economic questions have expressed the 
fear that the time may come when Chinese 
factories will be able to produce goods so cheaply 
that American and European products cannot 
compete with them, for the Chinese laborer has 
to be content with a wage of a few cents a day. 
Important Mineral Resources. That mineral 
deposits are enormous has long been known, 
but the research made has not been thorough 
enough to determine their exact extent. Of 
chief importance is coal. About twenty miles 
south of Mukden is the largest strip mine in 
the world. It is ten miles long and two miles 
wide, and the seams are from seventy-eight to 





Photo Viaual Education Service 
WHFRE MAN POWER IS CHLAP 

Chinese toolics pulling a vessel up-stream. 

480 feet thick; 7,000 tons of bituminous coal 
are taken from it daily. China produces 
seventy-five per cent of the world's antimony 
Iron, too, occurs in great quantities, some of 
it so near the coal fields that considerable iron 
industries have sprung up; but mining, like 
most of the other industries of China, has never 
reached a high stage of development because 
of a lack of transportation facili- 
ties. If metals exist near the great 
waterways, well and good they 
can be transported with ease and 
widely used; if not, they are of 
service only in the sections in 
which they are found. Apparently 
inexhaustible beds of kaolin, or 
porcelain clay, early gave rise to 
the china-making industry, and 
this clay still forms one of the 
most valuable mineral resources. 



Photo- Vwuml Education Service 
A YOUNG EXPERT WITH 
THE CHOP STICKS 



CHINA 

Some gold, silver, copper, and lead are mined by 
primitive or surface methods, but how rich the 
deposits may be has never been determined. 

Commerce and Transportation. Though 
China has long had commercial relations with 
foreign countries, it was only after the opening 
of the treaty ports, in 1842, that its foreign 
commerce became extensive. To-day its for- 
eign trade amounts to about $1,800,000,000 
annually, the imports making up nearly two- 
thirds of that amount. By far the largest ex- 
ports are silk, raw and manufactured, while 
cotton and cotton goods, kerosene, and tobacco 
constitute the chief imports. Everywhere in 
China are to be seen the blue cotton garments 
of the people. Though China is a million square 
miles larger than the United States and has 
four times as many people, it uses only one 
one hundred-eightieth as much steel and only 
one one hundred-fiftieth as much cement. The 
foreign trade is carried on in sixty-nine cities 
known as treaty ports, some of them on the 
coast, some hundreds of miles inland on the 
great rivers. There are also eleven voluntary 
open -trade marts. 

Of the vast interior trade of China, it is im- 
possible to make even a fair estimate, and it 
is carried on under difficulties. In the well- 
settled parts of the country, there are many 
roads, built centuries ago, but these are in very 
bad condition, for the Chinese expend no energy 
in repairing them. There are fewer than 10,000 
miles of roads on which automobiles can be run. 
Some of the towns have paved streets, but out 
on the plains and between the villages, espe- 
cially in the rice zone, the farmers have gradu- 
ally encroached upon the roads until to-day 
mere footpaths are left, wide enough for a man 
with a pack or with a wheelbarrow, but not for 
vehicles. The reason for this backwardness of 
transportation is that the Chinese believe that 
in isolation lies their safety. 

Railway-building has made but compara- 
tively slight headway, for the government from 
the first set itself strongly against it. The 
people, too, objected, for the desired right of 
way often ran through graveyards, and to dese- 
crate a grave is to the Chinese the height of 
impiety. But every line of railway built thus 
far has proved its value. Railroads connect 
the largest cities, but in the entire country the 
mileage is only 7,700. There is no other land in 
the world where the influence of transportation 
is so apparent as in China. Where railroads 
run, produce is easily distributed; elsewhere 
dire famine may abound because food cannot 
reach the people. 

The great highways of China are the rivers 
and canals, of which there is a network all 
over the country. On all the large rivers, but 
especially on the Yangtze, the volume of trade 
has steadily increased until the waterways 
literally swarm with boats, junks, and barges 



CHINA 

of all sizes. Probably there are as many boats 
in China as in all the rest of the world together. 
Thousands and thousands of people pass their 
lives in houseboats or sampans, and great 
stretches of the rivers are so crowded with these 
along the shore that no water shows between. 




Photo OROC 
ADVERTISING FOR A LOST MAN 

The town crier engages in a man hunt The relatives 
of a person who has disappeared employed a man to 
go through the city streets to read the message on 
the banner to the crowds whom the heating of the 
gong would attract. The message, loosely trans- 
lated, reads. Special Notice. Please pay attention. 
There is a man named Tung Kwei Hwang, belonging 
to the district of Lciyang (Hunan province), lie is 
a share broker, coming to Changsha for the first time 
a few days ago. He stayed at th*e Double Honor 
Hotel, Sin An Street, and went out on the 2ist inst , 
to buy more share certificates, when he was lost. 
Whoever has seen this man will please let me know. 

These are not luxurious houseboats, but have 
cabins of one small room, which are satisfactory 
enough in good weather, but leave much to be 
desired during the cold and the rainy seasons. 
The People and Their Mode of Life. The 
Chinese are a Mongolian people, with the yel- 
lowish skin, straight black hair, obliquely set, 
almond-shaped eyes, and high cheek bones 
characteristic of that race. In general they 
are of rather low stature and have small hands 
and feet, but variations in physical structure 



CHINA 



1392 



CHINA 



are to be seen in the different parts of the 
country. Many of their moral qualities are 
excellent. For example, they are unusually 
industrious, and they toil constantly for the 
support of their families; they are strongly at- 
tached to their homes; they hold age in great 
respect, and are capable of loyalty to the point 
of martyrdom. Gambling is common among 
them, and opium-smoking was long a dreadful 
curse, but it has been decidedly lessened 
through the efforts of the government. 

Family Life. Marriage is universal, and 
takes place at a far earlier average age than in 
any American or European country. A youth 
does not wait until he can support a wife. He 
simply brings her home to his father's house, 
and there she has her share, meager enough in 
the case of the poor, of the family rice. Families 
are large, for the number of his sons is the 
thing upon which a man most prides himself. 
And so long as the social system remains as it 
is, so long as China is "ruled more from the 
cemetery than from the palace," men will de- 
sire sons to live after them and honor them, 
and population will know no decrease. The 
death rate, however, is high. 

In general, the men and women of the house- 
hold are kept separate. In the interior, at 
least, the women have practically no social 
advantages. In the past, not one in a hundred 
after marriage traveled far from the house to 
which she was brought as a bride. In part, 
this was because it was so difficult for them to 
walk, owing to their bound feet. Lest a girl 
might not find a husband, her parents bound 
her feet while she was but a child, for tiny feet 
were considered a mark of beauty and aristoc- 
racy. This took place not only among the 
wealthy and fashionable, but among all classes. 
However, it may be positively stated, to-day 
the practice of foot-binding is over; penalties 
are now laid against any family permitting it. 

What the Chinese Eat. It is a common say- 
ing that a Chinese family could live on what 
an American family would not eat, and while 
it may not be literally true, it is most suggestive 
of the real condition of the people. Prof. E. A. 
Ross, author of The Changing Chinese, puts it 
graphically: 

The sea is raked and strained for edible plunder. 
Seaweed and kelp have a place in the larder. Great 
quantities of shellfish no bigger than one's finger nail 
are opened and made to yield a food that finds its way 
far inland. The fungus that springs up in the grass 
after a rain is eaten. Fried sweet potato vines furnish 
the poor man's table. The roadside ditches are bailed 
out for the sake of fishes no longer than one's finger 
. . . After their work is done, horses, donkeys, mules, 
and camels become butcher's meat. 

Tea is the universal drink, taken not with 
the meal, but just as water is drunk elsewhere. 
Nor is a love for tea the only reason for this 
large consumption. Where people are so 



crowded together and all care for sanitation is 
lacking, only boiled water is safe for drinking, 
and this the tea makes palatable. 

Language and Education. The Chinese lan- 
guage has no alphabet, for it is not a letter but 
a syllable language. Each written character 
represents not a sound, but a word of one 
syllable, for no Chinese word has more. Thus 
a Chinese child learning to read must learn not 
twenty-six letters, as in English, but characters 




PbotoT 
IN A NEWSPAPER OFFICE 

The type room of a native Shanghai newspaper. The 

man in what seems to be a pit is surrounded by type 

cases containing the thousands of characters in the 

Chinese language. 

standing for every word he ever hopes to use. 
Out of the 44,449 word-characters contained in 
the dictionaries, however, even a well-educated 
man needs fewer than 3,000. To-day, revisions 
of the vast list of characters have reduced the 
number of symbols to the above-mentioned 
3,000. As the same word may stand for a 
number of different ideas, according to its posi- 
tion in the sentence, and as each sound may 
be pronounced in a number of different tones, 
each of which has a different meaning, the 
language is one of the most difficult in the 
world for a foreigner to master. When written, 
the characters are placed in columns, not in 
lines, and are read from top to bottom, and 
from right to left. 

Education is held in high honor among the 
Chinese, but their ideas as to what constitutes 
education are steadily changing. In the old 
China, before it became tinged with the notions 
of Western peoples, there was a special class 
which devoted itself to study, with the object 
of passing the examinations which alone could 
admit to public office. These examinations 
were held throughout the country at stated 
times, and concerned themselves only with 
literature and philosophy subjects which did 
not necessarily fit men to discharge their official 
duties well. 

In 1905, however, the old formal examina- 
tions were abolished, and strenuous efforts are 
being made to introduce a system of education 
on a Western basis. Primary and secondary 
schools have been established, grading up to 



CHINA 



1393 



CHINA 



institutions of higher learning, the whole system 
culminating in the universities, of which there 
are about five or six. As yet, however, educa- 
tion is by no means widespread. Probably 
ninety-five per cent of the people have no 
knowledge of reading and writing, or just 
enough for actual necessities of life. All 
Chinese, however, are conversant with estab- 




IN THL HALL OF CLASSICS 

A few of the 300 stone steles (pillars with inscriptions) 

comprising the complete texts of the Nine Chinese 

Classics, in Peking 

lished chops (trade-marks), and by these they 
are able to distinguish one article from another. 
Only of late years have the Chinese been 
brought to look upon women in general as im- 
portant enough to deserve even to know how 
to read, but women of the better classes were 
taught to read and write even in old China. 

Religion. Religion plays a great part in the 
life of the Chinese, but it is a religion of super- 
stition rather than of spiritual appeal. Temples 
are numerous, shrines are in every house, but 
fear of demons and not love of deity is the 
dominant feeling. Mohammedanism has made 
about 20,000,000 converts, Christianity fewer 
than 1,500,000, and the rest of the people pro- 
fess Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, or a 
mixture of the three. In 1914 a strong effort 
was made to adopt the last-named as the state 
religion, but the attempt failed. Ancestor 
worship, growing out of Confucianism, is the 
controlling factor in Chinese life. It has led 
to lack of progressivcness, for only those things 
which were done in ancestral times are honor- 
able. 

History of China 

The Chinese claim for themselves a history 
that reaches back for fifty centuries or more, 
and the closest student can find nothing that 
absolutely denies the possibility of this. There 
are, however, no monuments or pyramids, as 
in Egypt, to prove conclusively the antiquity 
of the nation, and not until about 1125 B.C. 
can their history be regarded as really authen- 
tic. Confucius, it is true, begins his record 
with an emperor who is supposed to have 
reigned from 2357 to 2306 B.C., but Confucius 

88 



took his statement from earlier records which 
were far from being historically accurate. 

Early Historical Period. With the Chow 
dynasty, which began to reign in 1122 B.C., 
better times dawned for the country. The 
people changed from the wandering," or no- 
madic, life to a settled existence, and began 
that careful cultivation of the soil which has 
gone on unbrokenly until to-day. A feudal 
system grew up; the great land-holders acquired 
fiefs so large that they were practically separate 
states, and thus China became in effect a con- 
federation rather than an empire in the true 
sense of the word. The emperor, however, re- 
mained the real head, politically as well as 
religiously. 

The first date that is known with accuracy in 
Chinese history is during this Chow dynasty 
August 20, 776 B.C., according to "Western 
chronology; for on that day occurred an eclipse, 
the account of which a Chinese poet preserved. 
The great feudal states, each jealous of its 
rivals, kept up a constant strife which so dis- 
turbed the empire that finally, in the third cen- 
tury B.C., the Chow dynasty was overthrown 
by the Tsin, or Chin, dynasty, from which 
China takes its name. 

Though this dynasty ruled for less than half 
a century, it accomplished certain notable 
things. The Great Wall of China, which is the 
most stupendous structure ever built by man, 
was erected to keep out the Tartars, and the 
feudal system was abolished. The emperor 
who performed this latter service was so anxious 
that his own reign should go down in history 
as the beginning of the empire, and especially 
that none of the feudal heroes should be kept 
in mind, that he had all the literature dealing 
with previous ages destroyed, and put to death 
hundreds of learned men. After the overthrow 
of the Tsin rulers, dynasty after dynasty 
reigned, some of them doing much for the 
country, others fomenting strife and bloodshed. 
There were ages of invention, ages of literary 
activity, and occasional dealings with outside 
countries, as Japan, Persia, and Korea. 
Through them all, however, China was crystal- 
lizing into the conservative, tradition-loving 
nation, which, to a large extent, it still remains. 
Printing was invented in the tenth century A.D., 
and the practice of binding the feet of women 
was introduced about the same time. 

But a great change was coming to China. In 
the thirteenth century, the Mongols, under 
Genghis Khan, swept over the country, and 
under Kublai Khan, grandson of that con- 
queror, established a firm rule. Never before 
had China known such prosperity and splendor 
as it knew then. Marco Polo, a Venetian 
traveler who visited China, or, as he called it, 
Cathay, brought back glowing accounts of its 
high civilization, and Italy established certain 
commercial relations with its merchants (see 



CHINA 



1394 



CHINA 




GREAT WALL OF CHINA 

This is the most colossal line of defense in the world, a wall over 1,500 miles long, extending between Mongolia 
and China proper Jt is called in Mongolian the White Wall, and in Chinese The \\'all of io,uuu Li In the 
third century H c a crude earthwork was erected against the inroads of the Tartars; this was supplemented by 
the present wall, which recent investigations establish as dating only from the latter part of the fourteenth 
century The structure is about twenty-two feet high, and twenty feet broad, with towers at intervals of a 
few hundred yards The immensity of this engineering feat impresses one when it is realized that the wall is 
as long as from New York City to Omaha, or from the uty of Quebec to Winnipeg Tt is built of brick or 
dressed granite shell, filled with earth and covered with a very hard coating of bricks in lime It follows a 
winding course over mountains and through valleys, and is still in a fair state of preservation for hundreds of 
miles At a point near Kalgan it has been cut through to admit the railway line from Peking. 

POLO, MARCO). The Mongol dynasty, never strange mixture of advanced civilization and 
popular with the Chinese, was overthrown in skepticism about anything new. Unable en- 
1368 by the Ming dynasty, which reigned for tirely to avoid trade relations with Europe and 
almost 300 years, and permitted the Portuguese America, the Chinese submitted to them as 
and Spanish traders to enter the country and little as possible, and made it difficult and even 
settle at its ports. 

Early Modern Period. During the latter * 

part of the Ming rule, rebellion was rife, the 
very throne being menaced, and finally, in 1644, 
the Manchus were invited into the country to 
establish order. Their object accomplished, the 
Manchus refused to leave, but took Peking, 
proclaimed a Manchu prince emperor, and 
founded the last royal dynasty of China, which 
continued nearly 30x5 years, until the formation 
of the republic, in igi 2. For a time the Chinese 
refused to submit, but opposition gradually died 
out, and the conquerors were merged with the 
original inhabitants of the country. One sign 
there was of the subjection of the Chinese 
they were forced to adopt and to wear contin- 
ually the queue, or "pigtail," introduced by 
the Manchus. For two centuries internal prog- 
ress went on slowly, as progress has always 
taken place in China, and still the outside 
world knew little of the great nation with its 




fhoto CROC 
LEGATION WALL 

A section of the wall which surrounds the foreign 

diplomatic offices in Peking The Western world 

viewed with apprehension the removal of all Chinese 

government offices to Nanking. 

dangerous for "foreign devils" to enter the 
country. But the Western nations were not 
prepared to submit tamely to the regulations 
which restricted their trade, and before the 
middle of the nineteenth century, they had 



CHINA 



1395 



CHINA 



A Chinese Garden 



- - I Chinese Junk, f^^ 



Temple of Heaven, inPeking. Built in 1420 



Chinese Actor* 




and Child collate stud 

Pbotoi: ViiMl Education Scrrio*, O R O 



CHINA 



1396 



CHINA 



begun to show China that a change in attitude 
was expedient. 

Increased Intercourse with the World. Un- 
fortunately for the credit of the European na- 
tions, the first sharp dispute with China was 
over the opium question. Late in the eighteenth 
century, opium traffic had been declared illegal 
by the Chinese government, but the decrees 
were not really enforced until 1839, and then 
the attempts at enforcement met with protest 
from the British government. For the opium 
trade was worth millions of dollars annually to 
Great Britain, and could not lightly be relin- 
quished. Finally, in 1840, actual war broke 
out, and at its close China was compelled to 
surrender the island of Hong Kong, pay an 
indemnity of $21,000,000 and open to British 
trade five of its chief ports. The treaty made 
no mention of the opium trade. Two years 
later, the United States and France also made 
trade treaties with China. In 1856 China again 
roused the wrath of Great Britain by refusing 
to apologize for the seizure of a Chinese boat 
flying the British flag, and again war resulted. 
With France as its ally, Great Britain actually 
took Peking, and in 1860 secured by the treaty 
of peace increased trading privileges and the 
promise of toleration for the Christian re- 
ligion. 

In the meantime, China had been disturbed 
by a severe rebellion, which had grown out of 
the attempt of a half-mad fanatic schoolmaster 
to overthrow the Manchu dynasty and establish 
himself as the Heaven-sent head of the nation. 
Everybody who had a grievance flocked to his 
standard, and by 1853 the rebellion had reached 
great dimensions, Nanking having been seized 
as a capital and Hung-siu-tseuen proclaimed as 
the head of the Peace dynasty. From his 
watchword, Ping, or peace, and the word tai, or 
great, this upheaval is known as the Tai-Ping 
Rebellion. The Chinese government suppressed 
it, and in this struggle Frederick Townsend 
Ward and Charles George Gordon, or "Chi- 
nese" Gordon, greatly distinguished them- 
selves. See GORDON, CHARLKS GEORGE. 

Relations with Japan. Korea was always a 
debatable ground between China and Japan, 
and in 1894 the difficulties concerning it 
brought about open war between the two 
powers [see JAPAN, (History)]. From the first, 
Japan had the upper hand, and after a complete 
victory was able to wrest from China a treaty 
guaranteeing Korean independence, giving up 
to Japan the island of Formosa and the Liao- 
tung Peninsula, with the strong fort of Port 
Arthur, and promising a huge indemnity. 
Foreign powers intervened and made Japan 
relinquish much of its gains, but they also used 
the opportunity to secure from China increased 
commercial privileges, and it became evident 
that their aggressions were likely to go beyond 
this. 



The Era of Internal Reform. Sadly weak- 
ened by the war with Japan, China stood in 
need of thorough and immediate reform, but 
how this was to be secured remained uncertain. 
For a time it looked as though the young em- 
peror, Kwang-su, with the aid of the reform 
party, might bring China into closer relation- 
ship with other nations, but the reactionary 
influence of his aunt, the empress dowager, 
was too strong. Gradually she drew almost all 
the power into her own hands, and violent anti- 
foreign demonstrations were the immediate 
result. These culminated in the famous Boxer 
Rebellion, tacitly encouraged, at least, by the 
empress dowager. Even the empress dowager 
could not fail to derive some lesson from the 
disastrous effects of this rising and the attitude 
of the powers toward it; for the rest of her life 
she adopted a different attitude. 

But the need for reform was greater than 
ever, and wise statesmen began to see and 
declare the necessity of introducing Western 
methods. Somehow, just how is not clear, a 
new national spirit was awakened, and public 
opinion began to demand constitutional reform. 
The absolute monarchy which had served for 
forty centuries no longer satisfied, and at length 
a commission was appointed to study the repre- 
sentative forms of government in foreign 
countries with a view to determining the one 
best fitted for China. In 1008 an edict signed 
by Emperor Kwang-su outlined a constitution 
and promised a parliamentary government 
within nine years; but this was too slow to 
suit the public demands, and when, later in 
the same year, the emperor and the empress 
dowager both died and the infant Pu-yi suc- 
ceeded, discontent became outspoken. The 
provinces elected assemblies in IOOQ, and two 
years later, the government, which had been 
forced to submit to the establishment of a re- 
sponsible Ministry, promised a Parliament in 

1913- 

But a radical element which had grown up 
among the reformers refused to be satisfied 
with any such halfway measures, and de- 
manded the abdication of the emperor and 
the establishment of a republic. Rioting and 
later organized revolution resulted, and the 
revolutionists spurned the suggestions of Yuan 
Shi-kai, newly appointed Premier, for a consti- 
tutional monarchy. With Shanghai, Nanking, 
Hankow, and other cities in their hands, with 
Canton a self-proclaimed South Chinese repub- 
lic, and one province after another declaring 
its independence, the revolutionists were able 
to enforce their demands and bring about the 
organization, in December, IQII, of a provi- 
sional republican government. Dr. Sun Yat 
Sen was elected provisional President, and the 
child emperor was compelled to abdicate. In 
February of the following year, Yuan Shi-kai 
was elected first President, with powers to or- 



CHINA 



1397 



CHINA 



OUTLINE AND QUESTIONS ON CHINA 



Outline 



I. Location 

(1) Latitude, 18 50' to 53 25' north 

(2) Longitude, 74 to 135 east 

II. Size 

(1) Greatest length, east to west, 3,000 miles 

(2) Greatest breadth, 2,400 miles 

(3) Actual area, 4,278,000 square miles 

(4) Comparative area 

(a) Larger than all of Europe 

(b) Compared with Canada and United 

States 

(5) Distinction between Chinese republic and 

China proper 

III. Surface and Drainage 

(1) Mountainous sections 
(a) Cultivation 

(2) River basins 

(a) Parallel course 

(b) The two great rivers, the Yangtze 

and the Hwang 

(3) Destructivencss of rivers 

(4) Lakes 

(a) Floating islands 

IV. Climate 

(1) Extremes of heat and cold 

(2) Variations in temperature 

(3) Rainfall 

(a) Uneven distribution 

V. Vegetable and Animal Life 

(1) Best-known plants 

(2) Importance of bamboo 

(3) Forest areas 

(4) Absence of trees in certain localities 

(5) Fruits and flowers of Chinese origin 

(0) Game animals 

(7) Birds 

(8) Fish 

VI. Industries 

(1) Agriculture 

(a) Fertilization of soil 

(b) Irrigation 

(c) Intensive methods 

(d) Cultivation of hill country 

(e) Floating farms 

(f) Crops 

1. Rice 

2. Tea 

3 Mulberry 
4. Other plants 



(g) Absence of stock-growing 

(2) Fishing 

(3) Manufacturing 

(a) Introduction of machinery 

(b) Industries in the home 

(4) Mining 

(a) Coal 

(b) Iron 

(c) Kaolin 

(d) Other minerals 

VII. Communication 

(1) Navigable rivers 

(2) Canals 

(3) Railroads 

(4) Roads 

(5) Commerce 

(a) Imports and exports 

(b) Internal trade 

VIII. The People 

(1) Physical and mental characteristics 

(2) Family life 

(a) Effect of large population 

(b) Position of women 

(c) Food 

(3) Language 

(a) A "syllable," not an "alphabet," lan- 

guage 

(b) Written language 

(4) Education 

(a) Old style 

(b) New style 

(c) Education of women 

(5) Religion 

(a) The dominant faiths 

(b) Effects of ancestor worship 

IX. Government 

(1) Republican form 

(2) Extensive powers of President 

(3) The legislature 

(4) Local government 

X. History 

(T) Antiquity 

(2) Early historic times 

(3) Mongol invasion 

(4) The coming of the Manchus 

(5) The opening up of China to the outside 

world 

(6) The Chinese-Japanese War 

(7) Reform demands 

(8) The establishment of the republic 
(g) Later history 



CHINA 1398 CHINA 

OUTLINE AND QUESTIONS ON CHINA-Continued 

Questions 

Why does the climate exhibit greater extremes than would that of an island 
in the same latitude? 

How do the Chinese manage to produce crops on arid hillsides? 

What relation is there between the Chinese reverence for ancestors and the scar- 
city of railways in the country? 

Which has the easier task in learning to read, a Chinese schoolboy or an English 
schoolboy? Why? 

With what science is the first really authentic date in Chinese history connected? 

What is meant by the term ''Boxer," and what did the Boxer Rebellion hope to 
accomplish? 

How is it possible that some day China will have no lakes? 

What are the "floating farms"? Why are they necessary? 

What effect has the overcrowding of the country had on the roads in country 
districts? 

What does a Chinaman mean when he speaks of "golden lilies"? Of "a little 
insect"? 

Why is tea drunk so widely and so copiously? 

What third country was the occasion for war between China and Japan? 

To what height are the northern mountains terraced and cultivated? 

How is the garbage-disposal problem solved in a Chinese city? What effect 
has this on agriculture? 

What is ' "pidgin-English"? Give an example. 

Why would you not care to eat with a Chinese family of the poorest class? 

Does the government resemble that of Canada or that of the United States in 
the relative amount of power delegated to the central government and to the indi- 
vidual provinces or states? 

Why was Charles George Gordon known as " Chinese" Gordon? 

What is ''China's Sorrow"? Why is it so called? 

Of what bird do the people make use in one of their important industries? 

What has been the chief curse of the women of China? 

How did Great Britain gain possession of Hong Kong? 

Why was the country able to keep itself shut up, away from intercourse with 
other peoples, for so long a time? 

Name two fruits, very familiar in North America, which originated in this Ori- 
ental land. 

Why is the extremely fine, elaborate embroidery no longer made? 

What has religion to do with the overcrowding in China? 

How and when did a mode of hair-dressing become a symbol of subjection? 

How does China rank as to size among the countries of the world? As to pop- 
ulation? 

Name four ways in which the Chinese would miss the bamboo if they were de- 
prived of it. 

Why are there almost no cows or horses to be seen throughout the country? 

What great curse of the people has the government undertaken to abolish? 

What does religion chiefly mean to the Chinese? 

What do the Chinese call their country? 

What was the object of the famous examinations to which Chinese students 
were formerly subjected? 

What is the basis for the statement that man-power is cheaper than machinery? 

In what condition is the Great Wall of China at present? 



CHINA 



1399 



CHINA PAINTING 



ganize the republic, and it seemed that China 
had given up its monarchy forever. 

The Republic. The position of the new Presi- 
dent was by no means entirely pleasant, for the 
lack of money was a very serious embarrass- 
ment, and only with the greatest difficulty was 
a loan of $125,000,000 secured from five of the 
great powers. Yuan's method of securing this, 
without the consent of his Parliament, roused 
violent opposition, and a sharp rebellion, headed 
by Sun Yat Sen, was put down with some 
difficulty. 

The republic had been established, seemingly, 
too suddenly; the people were not ready for it 
after their centuries under absolutism, and they 
failed to grasp many of its main principles. In 
fact, while a republic in name, the new govern- 
ment was practically a monarchy, and attempts 
of a parliamentary party to take the power 
into its own hands and make of the President 
a mere figurehead, led in the end to a large 
increase in Yuan's power. Finally, in Novem- 
ber, 1015, an election was held by a specially 
constituted convention of "electors." The re- 
sult was overwhelmingly in favor of restored 
monarchical government, but the empire was 
not proclaimed at once, because the European 
powers convinced China that such change dur- 
ing the great European war might endanger 
the peace of the Orient. It was finally decided 
to continue the republican form of government. 
In June, iqi6, President Yuan Shi-kai died, 
and was succeeded by Vice-President Li Yuan 
Hung. 

China remained neutral in the World War 
until 1917, although its aid had been volun- 
teered earlier. Inspired, however, by the 
moral example of the United States in its dec- 
laration of a state of war, the Chinese republic 
declared war on Germany on August 14 of that 
year. The country sent no troops to Europe, 
but many thousand Chinese laborers went to 
France and labored with zeal, thus releasing an 
equal number of men from the allied armies 
for the fighting fronts. 

Moved by the threats of Japan to withdraw 
from the Peace Conference in IQIQ, the makers 
of the peace treaty gave to Japan occupation 
and virtual ownership of the Shantung penin- 
sula of China, where 40,000,000 Chinamen 
live. This section for a number of years had 
been dominated by Germany. Chinese en- 
voys at the Versailles peace table refused to 
sign the treaty containing that provision, but 
the conference retained it. The United States 
Senate announced its objection to Japan's 
plans; in the armament conference at Washing- 
ton (1921-1922), Shantung was given back to 
China. 

For several years following, China was torn 
by civil war waged among three war lords, 
governors of the strongest provinces. From 
1926 to 1928, Chang Tso-lin, war lord of Man- 



churia and leader of the armies of North 
China, held Peking against the attacks of the 
Nationalists, who favored a united country. 
In June, 1928, Chang Tso-lin evacuated Peking 
without a fight and fled to Mukden, Man- 
churia, but on the way he suffered fatal in- 
juries from a bomb explosion. Subsequently, 
the Nationalists gained control from Canton, 
in the south, to the Great Wall, beyond 
Peking, in the north. On June 15 Nanking 
was selected as the new capital, and the 
ancient name of the old capital was changed 
from Peking to Peiping (pronounced ba' ping). 
The Nationalist government was organized 
under ten executive departments, and Ameri- 
can and German advisers were engaged to 
assist the Chinese in the difficult reconstruc- 
tion problems that the country faced. The 
Nationalist President, Chiang Kai-shek, was 
inaugurated in October, 1928. In 1929 war 
with Russia over the Chinese Eastern Railway 
was narrowly averted. S.K.A.S. 

Related Subjects. The following classified list will 
simplify reference to articles in these volumes which relate 
to China- 

CITIES AND TOWNS 

Amoy Kiao-chau 

Canton Nanking 

Fu-chau Ning-po 

Hangchow Peking 

Hankow Shanghai 

Hong Kong Tien-tsin 

1IISTORY 

Boxer Rebellion Sun Yat Sen 

Yuan Shi-kai 



Hong Kong 



ISLANDS 





LEADING PRODUCTS 


Bamboo 


Opium 


Coal 


Poppy 


Cotton 


Rice 


Indigo 


Silk 


Iron 


Sugar Cane 


Kaolin 


Tea 


Mulberry 


Tobacco 




MOUNTAINS 


Altai 


Himalaya 




POLITICAL DIVISIONS 


Manchuria 


Tibet 


Mongolia 


Turkestan 




RELIGIONS 


Buddhism 


Mohammedanism 


Christianity 


Taoism 


Confucius 






RIVERS 


Amur 


Si-kiang 


Hwang 


Yalu 


Mekong 


Yangtze 



CHINA GRASS. See BOEHMERIA. 

CHINA PAINTING. The art of decorating 
china is a handicraft that makes its appeal 
not only to amateurs, but likewise to pro- 
fessionals. Due in part to the great advance 
made in materials and firing facilities, and in 
part to the vogue for the conventional in 
design, which has made it possible for very 
acceptable work to be done even by those 
unskilled in freehand drawing, its popularity 
has grown. 



CHINA PAINTING 



1400 



CHINA PAINTING 



Special Paints for China. The pigments 
used in china painting are called mineral 
paints, because their bases are metals; and they 
are said to be verifiable, which means that 
in the intense heat of the kiln they will fuse 
that is, attach themselves to the glaze of 
the china and thus become an inseparable 
part of it. They come both in powdered form, 
contained in small bottles, and as a prepared 
paint put up in collapsible twbes. The latter 
pigments are more convenient, since they need 
only to be diluted with spirits of turpentine as 
used; but as they tend to grow hard in the tube, 
they are not so economical as the powdered 
paints, which are good indefinitely. On the 
other hand, experience is required to prepare 
the powdered colors properly, for too much oil 
not only attracts the dust in the air, but may 
cause blistering and "bubbling" when the 
china undergoes the kiln test. 

Before applying the paint to the china, the 
brush is dipped lightly into what is called 
the medium, in order that the color may be 
smoothly worked. This medium is usually 
spirits of turpentine. 

Brushes and Pads. Brushes called square 
shaders are considered best for general use 
and should figure in the collection in small, 
medium, and large sizes. There are also 
blender, pointed, and tinting brushes, sable 
liners for putting in the delicate touches, and 
various other kinds. A pad, or pounce, made 
of cotton covered with soft China silk, is used 
for tinting large surfaces and to some extent 
in blending. Brushes are quickly cleaned for 
use with a different color by dipping them into 
turpentine or alcohol, but the special ones 
kept for gold, enamels, and India ink should 
never be used for the colors. 

Choosing the Design. The first essential of 
the design is appropriateness. It must harmo- 
nize both with the shape of the article and with 
its purpose. The design must also be adapted 
to the space it is to adorn. A small vase or jar 
decorated with an elaborate landscape looks 
overloaded and uninteresting, whereas a deli- 
cate spray of blossoms or leaves or an at- 
tractive conventional design would have made 
it a thing of beauty, artistic and harmonious. 

Drawing the Outline. After the design has 
been selected, the next thing is to decide how 
often it is to be repeated. If one is painting 
a plate whose border calls for five applications 
or "repeats" of the design, the rim of the plate 
on the under side is accurately marked off 
into fifths by means of a cardboard measuring 
device called a plate-divider. Next, the plate 
is washed perfectly clean and then rubbed over 
with a cloth moistened with spirits of turpen- 
tine, which gives a surface to which pencil lines 
will adhere. 

If the design is a simple one, it is frequently 
drawn freehand; if complicated, or if the 




A PORTABLE KILN 



worker is not skilful at drawing, a tracing from 
copy is generally made on transparent tracing 
paper and transferred to the china by going 
over the lines with some sharp point, such as 
that of a hard 
lead pencil or an 
ivory stylus. 
Most painters 
then secure the 
drawing by re- 
tracing with 
India ink, ap- 
plied with a pen 
or a very fine, 
pointed brush ; or, 
if the finished 
work is to show 
an outline, this 
is put in at once 
with the mineral 
paints in the de- 
sired color, after 
which the piece 
is fired in order 
to fix the lines. 
In either case, 
the outline is fundamental and must be care- 
fully and accurately drawn. 

The Actual Painting. The next step is to 
make up or "set" the palette with the colors 
needed for working out the design. The worker 
is then ready to fill the spaces with color and 
apply the gold, enamel, or luster called for by 
the design. Sure, firm strokes, making cor- 
rections unnecessary, are required in applying 
mineral paints; for, being transparent, they do 
not allow the same working over that is pos- 
sible with oils. One also must know which 
colors can be used together. A gold color, such 
as ruby, for in- 
stance, will "eat" 
an iron color, such 
as carnation, if 
painted over it, 
while yellows will 
eat almost any 
color over which 
they are applied. 

xi r v ^ , i STILTS 

When the 

painting is completed, the china is sent to the 
kiln, for its first firing. If there is gold in the 
design, it will need at least one more painting 
and then a second firing; and, in fact, the oftener 
the process is repeated, the heavier and richer 
the gold will look. It is not always necessary 
to go over the painting itself the second time, 
although this is generally done to enrich the 
color. After the china has had its last firing, 
the gold portions are polished with what is 
called a glass burnisher, which is a brush made 
of spun glass; less frequently, an agate bur- 
nisher is used, and sometimes burnishing 
sand 




CHINA SEA 



1401 



CHINCHILLA 



What a China Kiln Is Like. There are many 
different makes of china kilns on the market, 
but in general those adapted for home or 
studio use are similar to the portable kiln here 
illustrated. This is made of metal lined 
throughout with fire brick, and burns kerosene 
oil. Some kilns burn gas or gasoline and others 
employ charcoal, but the latter must be fired 
out-of-doors on account of the fumes. A kiln 
the size of the one illustrated, which is about 
four and one-half feet in height, requires from 
one and a half to two hours to fire and consumes 
two gallons of oil. 

The kiln is connected with the house chim- 
ney by means of an asbestos-lined stovepipe. 
From the tank at the side the oil is fed me- 
chanically into the burner the small pan 
shown directly below the fire box; the larger 
pan underneath contains sand, which absorbs 
any overflow. A match applied directly to a 
small wad of asbestos placed in the burner 
lights the kiln, and the heat is communicated 
to the lining tubes through an opening in the 
bottom of the fire box. Through these tubes 
the flames are drawn upward until they com- 
pletely surround the interior of the kiln. 

Regulating drafts in the burner make it 
possible to fire to the desired heat in any part 
of the kiln a great advantage, by reason of 
the fact that different kinds of paints and dif- 
ferent grades of china require varying treat- 
ment. The china is stacked in the kiln with due 
regard to these considerations In stacking, 
stilts of fire clay are placed between the pieces 
to keep them separate, and care is taken not to 
pack them too close, so that there may be 
sufficient room for expansion. 

The Firing Process. In the door of the kiln 
is a mica-covered "peep-hole," permitting the 
firer to watch the progress of the glazing and 
stop the firing at the proper time. When the 
china takes on a translucent appearance and 
begins to turn an ashy-red tint, it is time to 
stop the flow of oil and let the kiln begin to 
cool. Several hours must elapse before it is 
opened, however, lest the current of cold air 
admitted cause the china to break or "crackle." 
The china must never be removed until it has 
thoroughly cooled. 

CHINA SEA, the largest of the enclosed seas 
lying along the east coast of Asia. These seas 
are formed by the long chain of islands in the 
Pacific Ocean extending from Kamchatka to 
the end of the Malay Peninsula. Formosa 
Strait connects China Sea with the Eastern 
Sea on the north. The gulfs of Tonking and 
Siam are extensions of the China Sea on the 
west, and Manila Bay on the east. In the 
southern part it is very shallow, its average 
depth being less than 1,000 feet; farther north, 
however, it is 13,000 feet deep, off the Philippine 
island of Luzon. As it is situated entirely 
within the tropics, violent typhoons sweep 




CHINCH HUG 

About nine times actual 
size. 



over it and make navigation very danger- 
ous (see TYPHOON). The Mekong and the 
Menam are two large rivers emptying into it. 
The great ports of Canton, Hong Kong, Saigon, 
Bangkok, Singapore, and Manila all lie either 
directly on this sea or are near it. Hainan is 
the only important island. (See map of ASIA.) 

CHINA'S SORROW. See HWANG RIVER. 

CHINATOWN. See SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. 

CHINA WARE. See PORCELAIN. 

CHINCH BUG, a small, blackish bug with 
white wings, found all over the United States 
and in Canada, Central America, and the West 
Indies. It is one of the 
worst pests of corn, 
wheat, and other small 
grains. The adult in- 
sect, which is about 
one-sixth of an inch in 
length, spends the win- 
ter in old grass and 
rubbish. In the early 
spring, each female lays 
about 500 eggs on the 
roots and stems of 
grain, and soon the 
newly hatched insects, 
red in color, may be 
found in countless num- 
bers, feeding on grains 
and grasses, particularly 

wheat. Corn is usuafly attacked later in the 
season, after the grain is harvested. There 
are two generations each year, the second ap- 
pearing in late July or early August. The 
broods keep together at first, moving on foot 
in great masses as the food is exhausted, and 
scattering when the insects reach maturity. 
In dry seasons they multiply at an appalling 
rate. 

Control. Just before the bugs are ready to 
leave the small-grain fields for the corn fields, 
barriers in which they may be entrapped and 
destroyed should be constructed by plowing a 
furrow around the field and dragging a log 
back and forth in the furrow. The burning of 
waste grass and rubbish near the fields, in the 
fall, where the bugs are apt to hide through the 
winter, is also helpful. Bulletins on methods 
of extermination will be sent on request by the 
United States Department of Agriculture and 
by state experiment stations. w.j.s. 

Classification. The chinch bug is classed as Blissus 
leucopterus, of the family Lygaeidae, order Hemiptera 
(which see). 

CHINCHILLA, a squirrel-like animal of 
South America, one species of which is greatly 
valued for its beautiful pearly-gray fur. It 
is about fifteen inches long, with large ears, 
and a tail about one-half the length of its head 
and body. Chinchillas live in colonies in the 
high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, and Peru, make 



CHINCHILLETTE 



1402 



CHINOOK 



numerous and very deep burrows, and feed 
on roots and tough vegetable growths. These 




CHINCHILLA 

little animals are of a gentle, sportive nature, 
and very cleanly; when tamed, they make 
interesting house pets. Chinchilla fur is used 
for muffs, coats, and linings (see FUR AND FUR 
TRADE). W.N.H. 

Scientific Name. Chinchillas belong to the order 
of rodents and the family Chine hillidae The species 
described above is Chinchilla tamper a 

CHINCHILLETTE, chin chil et' ', a fur. See 
RABBIT. 

CHINCHONA. See CINCHONA. 

CHIN DYNASTY, a period of Chinese 
history that gave to China its present name. 
See CHINA (History). 

CHINE. See PORK. 

CHINESE CITY. See PEKING. 

CHINESE EXCLUSION. Soon after gold 
was discovered in California, in 1848, Chinese 
laborers began to come into the territory. 
Their number was small, and for many years 
there was no opposition to them, but about 
1878 the immigration of Chinese to the Pacific 
states increased so rapidly that the citizens of 
those states became alarmed and appealed to 
Congress to enact a law restricting their immi- 
gration into the country. In 1880 a treaty was 
ratified with China, giving the United States 
the right to restrict or suspend Chinese immi- 
gration. In 1882 an act shutting them out for 
ten years and prohibiting their naturalization 
was passed. In 1892 the Geary Act was passed. 
This continued the exclusion for another ten 
years, and compelled all Chinese in the United 
States to procure certificates of residence. 
In 1 902 the law was continued and made still 
more comprehensive; it extended the statute 
to cover the country's insular possessions, 
and prohibited migration from one American 
island to another. 

Objection to Chinese immigrants is largely 
confined to the Pacific states. The residents of 
those states claim that their method of living 
and the low wage for which the Chinese will 



work are demoralizing to American workmen. 
There are fewer than 65,000 Chinese in con- 
tinental United States. 

[See ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (Administration) for 
further details of the Chinese Exclusion Act. See, 
also, CALIFORNIA (Oriental Immigration) ] 

CHINESE GORDON. See GORDON, 
CHARLES GEORGE. 

CHINESE- JAPANESE WAR. In 1804 a 
rebellion broke out in Korea (see CHOSEN), 
which was at that time strongly under the in- 
fluence of the Chinese government. Japan also 
had large interests in Korea, which it had gained 
through negotiations with China. China sent 
troops to Korea to quell the disturbance, and 
Japan sent troops to protect its interests. 
When the rebellion was put down, the nations 
could not agree upon the withdrawal of their 
troops. This dispute led to war, which began 
in July, 1804, and was ended by the Treaty 
of Shimonoseki, April 17, 18(35. The army and 
navy of Japan were far superior to those of 
China. Several important Chinese cities were 
captured, and the Chinese navy was destroyed. 
China ceded the island of Formosa and Liaotung 
peninsula to Japan, and agreed to pay a war 
indemnity of about $150,000,000. The Euro- 
pean powers, however, interfered and compelled 
Japan to cede Liaotung back to China. This 
war opened the way for the Great Powers to 
secure important trade concessions in China, 
and gave Japan such a preponderant influence 
in Korea that in IQII the country was annexed 
to Japan, and renamed Chosen. 

CHINESE MALLOW. See HIBISCUS. 

CHINESE TURKESTAN. See SiN-KlANG. 

CHINGMA, ching' mah. See INDIAN MAL- 
LOW. 

CHINKARA, ching kali' rah. See GAZELLE. 

CHINOOK', a name given by early set- 
tlers to a warm, dry wind which blows down 
the slopes of the Rocky Mountains in the 
winter and early spring. It prevails at inter- 
vals in Montana, Wyoming, Oregon, Wash- 
ington, and in some of the western parts of 
Canada. The chinook is always a descending 
wind, and for that reason is dry, having lost 
its moisture on the mountain tops. In coming 
down the mountains, the pressure, due to the 
lowering altitude, squeezes out the moisture 
and raises the temperature at the rate of i F. 
for every 183 feet. Hence, in coming down 
from an altitude of 5,550 feet, the wind would 
be 30 warmer at the bottom than at the top. 
This warm, dry wind spreads out over a large 
surface and absorbs or melts the snow, and thus 
makes cattle-grazing possible all winter in these 
regions. 

The wet chinook, a moist, warm wind blow- 
ing southwesterly on the Pacific coast of Ore- 
gon and Washington, is often confused with 
the dry chinook; but it is entirely different. 
It was supposed to come from the country of 



CHINOOK 



1403 



CHITONS 




the Chinook Indians, at the mouth of the 
Columbia River, hence the name. R.H.W. 

Related Subjects. For a list of all the winds, see WIND. 
See, also, CANADA (Climate); MONTANA (Climate) 

CHINOOK, a species of salmon (which see). 

CHINOOK INDIANS. See INDIANS, AMER- 
ICAN (Most Important Tribes). 

CHINQUAPIN, ching' ka pin. See CHEST- 
NUT. 

CHIPMUNK, a small ground squirrel, very 
common in Eastern North America. Its back is 
striped with black and white, and its tail is 
nearly as long as 
its body. This 
cheery, friendly 
little animal loves 
the sunshine and 
hot weather, and 
in summer is often 
seen on fences, 
hedgerows, or 
stumps. When the 
frost comes, it goes 
to its tunnel-like burrow in the 
ground, and, living on the nuts and 
grains it has stored, remains hidden 
through the long winter. The 
chipmunk home consists of a cham- 
ber nearly a foot high and wide and perhaps 
twice as long, with several tunnels leading to 
the surface above. Chipmunks always take the 
precaution to carry the soil they remove some 
distance away from the openings to the burrows, 
leaving no tell-tale evidence of their under- 
ground abode. Chipmunks rarely eat the 
eggs of birds, although it is thought a common 
occurrence. They do, however, run oil with 
newly planted corn, berries, apples, pears, and 
tomatoes. They can be tamed quite easily, 
and many boys imprison them in cages as 
pets. W.N H. 

Scientific Names. Chipmunks belong to the order 
of rodents, the family Sctundac, and the genus 
Tamia* The species described above is T stnatu\ 
Other species are found in the Central and Western 
United States 

CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS See FURNITURE. 

CHIPPEWA. See INDIANS, AMERICAN 
(Most Important Tribes, article Ojibwa). 

CHIROMANCY, ki f ro man sic. See PALM- 
ISTRY. 

CHIRON, ki f ron, in Greek mythology the 
famous learned centaur (half horse, half man) 
who taught such renowned heroes as Achilles, 
Hercules, Ulysses, and Aeneas. Chiron was the 
son of Kronos (Saturn) and Philyra, and be- 
came skilled in medicine, music, hunting, and 
the art of prophecy, under the instruction of 
Apollo and Diana." He lived at the foot of 
Mount Pelion, in Thessaly. One day the other 
centaurs were driven into Chiron's home by 
Hercules, and by accident a poisoned arrow 



from the bow of his old pupil struck Chiron. 
The poison caused him such torture that Zeus 
mercifully ended Chiron's life on earth and 
placed him among the stars, where he became 
the constellation Sagittarius, or The Archer. 

Related Subjects. See CENTAUR; also map of the 
heavens, in article ASTRONOMY See, also, articles on the 
mythological personages, in their alphabetical positions. 

CHIROPODIST, ki rop' o dist. See CORNS. 
CHIROPRACTIC, ki ro prak' tik, a method 
of treating disease through adjustment of 
vertebrae by pressure exerted by the hands. 
The basis of the method is the theory that 
disease is caused 
by interference 
with the normal 
flow of nervous or 
health energy 
along the spinal 
nerves, through 
pressure on those 
nerves exerted by 
dislocated verte- 
brae. The chiro- 
practor claims that by skilful 
handling he can push the displaced 
vertebrae into position, thus re- 
lieving the pressure and permitting 
the health energy to flow properly. 
This method was discovered in i8q5 by D. 
J). Palmer. A school of practice based on the 
method was founded by his son, B. J. Palmer. 
There are said to be 15,000 practitioners of 
the chiropractic art in the United States, be- 
sides others in fifteen foreign countries. Many 
chiropractic schools arc in operation. W.A.E. 
CHIROPTERA, ki rop' tc rah (from the 
Greek for hand and wing), an order of night- 
flying animals the bats found in all parts of 
the world. The fingers of the fore limbs are 
greatly elongated, and between these and the 
hind "limbs is stretched a thin membrane 
which forms the wings. The bones are slender 
and filled with a light marrow, and this les- 
sens the animal's weight. In the zoological 
scale, this order ranks next to the Primates, 
to which man belongs. See BAT; VAMPIRE 
BAT. M.J.H. 

CHISHIMA ISLANDS. See K UK ILE ISLANDS. 
CHITON, ki' ton, a Greek dress. See illus- 
tration, in article DRESS. 

CHITONS, ki' tonz, a large order of mollusks 
with boat-shaped shells. Gray or brown is the 
usual color, but in some species the shell is 
variegated by red, yellow, and other bright 
colors. The shell is composed of eight pieces, 
often in contact with and overlapping one 
another, but never truly joining. The animal 
clings to rocks by means of a strong, oval, 
muscular foot which extends the whole length 
of its body. It also has the power of rolling 
itself up by the contraction of the foot muscles, 
so that nothing but the shell is seen. A charac- 



CHIVALRY 



1404 



CHLORAL 




THE VIGIL OF THE KNIGHT 



teristic of some chitons is the possession of 
thousands of tiny eyes, borne on the shell 
valves. Small chitons are found on the North 
Atlantic coast, larger ones in Florida and the 
Gulf of Mexico, and those eight and ten inches 
long the giants occur along the north- 
western coast of the United States. See MOL- 

LUSKS. S.II.S. 

CHIVALRY, shiv'alrie. In the Middle 
Ages, when military feudalism held sway in 
Europe, the sons of the nobility were educated 
for knighthood. The spirit and ideals of this 
organization of knighthood are summed up 
in the term chivalry, which to-day is associated 
with protection of the weak, gallantry toward 
women, honesty in everything. 

In those "days of old, when knights were 
bold," as the familiar song runs, the education 
of the young noble began in his childhood. 
At the age of seven, he was sent to a court 
where he could be taught the use of arms, how 
to ride, and how to attend the ladies. When 
qualified for war, he became an esquire, or 
squire, and accompanied his lord in battle. 
The third and highest rank of chivalry was 
that of knighthood, which was usually not con- 
ferred before the twenty-first year. The person 
to be knighted prepared himself by confessing, 
fasting, and keeping vigil all night over his 
arms. Religious rites were performed, and then, 
after promising to be faithful, to protect ladies 
and orphans, never to lie nor utter slander, to 
live in harmony with his equals, and to protect 
the Church, he received the accolade, a slight 
blow on the shoulder with the flat of the 
sword, from the person who dubbed him knight. 



This ceremony often took place on the eve 
of battle, to encourage the new knight to 
brave deeds, or after the combat, to reward 
special bravery. 

As a system of education for the nobles, 
chivalry taught them the best ideals, social 
and moral, which the times could understand. 
The spirit of chivalry led to the Crusades, and 
the deeds of knights were celebrated in song by 
the "minstrels" in England and the "minne- 
singers" in Germany. See illustration, page 1405. 

In Literature. We read of knightly deeds in many 
of Scott's novels, in Spenser's Faerie Queene, and in 
Tennyson's Idylls of the King and other tales of King 
Arthur. Cervantes' Don Quixote, however, is a bur- 
lesque on chivalry and its tendency to affectation and 
exaggerated sentimentality 

Related Subjects. The reader is referred in these vol- 
umes to the following articles: 

Arthur, King Feudal System Minnesingers 

Don Quixote Knighthood Minstrel 

CHLORAL, klo' rahl, a bitter, colorless, oily 
liquid with an irritating smell, the hydrate of 
which, in the form of a white crystalline sub- 
stance, is extensively used in medicine. When 
hydrate of chloral comes in contact with alka- 
lies in the human system, it separates into 
chloroform and formic acid. The chloroform 
acts on the heart and brain, and when the 
hydrate is taken in prescribed doses, it pro- 
duces a refreshing sleep. It has been used 
with success in cases of insomnia, delirium 
tremens. Saint Vitus's dance, lockjaw, asthma, 
and whooping cough. Too large doses may 
affect the mind seriously or cause death, and 
hydrate of chloral should only be used under 



CHIVALRY 



1405 



CHIVALRY 



CHWALRYand FEUDALISM 



The ceremony of 
horn a.g e. from a seal 
of the twelfth century 



Costumes 

Fourteenth and 
fifteenth centuries 



A knight and his castle 



Conferring knighthood 
on the field of battle 



Water transportation 
in the feudal age 



A tilting match 
between two knighte 



A fully-armored horse and rider 
From a bronze statue in Madrid 



Jntpuet*d sa rh <wt f || II At 

w*r bctwn the ^<M of I tha 




CHLORIDE OF LIME 



1406 



CHOATE 



expert medical advice. Another argument 
against self-dosing is that chloral sometimes 
becomes a habit-forming drug. To treat poison- 
ing by chloral, the person should be kept awake, 
his body warmed by friction or otherwise, hot 
coffee taken, and artificial breathing resorted 
to, if necessary. See ANTIDOTE. 

Chloral is the poisonous principle in the 
"knock-out drops" employed by criminals to 
induce unconsciousness in their victims. 

[Chloral hydrate is a compound of carbon, chlorine, 
hydrogen, and oxygen ] 

CHLORIDE, klo'ride, OF LIME. See 
DISINFECTANTS. 

CHLORINE, klo' rin, a. highly poisonous 
gas of greenish-yellow color and disagreeable, 
suffocating odor. It is a simple substance, or 
element, and has the symbol Cl. Chlorine 
belongs to the halogen (salt-producing) family 
of elements, those that enter into the compo- 
sition of substances resembling common salt. 
(The other halogens are fluorine, bromine, 
and iodine.) When combined with the metal 
sodium, chlorine forms common table salt, 
or sodium chloride. It is manufactured on a 
large scale by the passage of an electric current 
through liquefied or dissolved salt. Chlorine 
combines with hydrogen to form hydrogen chlo- 
ride, the solution of which is hydrochloric acid. 

Pure chlorine gas turns to a liquid under 
pressure, and can be shipped in tanks. The 
liquefied product has long been a standard 
disinfectant for purifying city water supplies. 
For bleaching purposes, both liquid chlorine 
and chlorine combinations in powder form are 
found on the market. The element is widely 
used in industry, especially in connection 
with the manufacture of explosives and dye- 
stuffs. It is also employed in the extraction 
of gold from ores. 

Mixed with air in proper proportions, chlo- 
rine is believed to be a remedy for diseases of 
the respiratory organs, and experiments arc 
being carried on to test its value as a cure for 
heavy colds, bronchitis, and similar ailments. 
Because of its deadly poisonous properties 
and the ease with which the wind carries it, 
chlorine gas was much used by the belligerents 
in the World War in gas attacks. T.BJ. 

Related Subjects. The reader is referred in these vol- 
umes to the following articles. 



Chemistry 
Halogens 



Hydrogen Chloride 
Poison Gas 



CHLORIS, klo'ris, in mythology. See NIOBE. 

CHLOROFORM, klo' ro form] a powerful 
anesthetic. It was discovered at about the 
same time (1831) by three chemists, Samuel 
Guthrie of America, Liebig of Germany, and 
Soubeiran of France, each of whom worked 
independently of the others. The anesthetic 
value of the drug was brought to the general 



attention of the public in 1848 by Sir James 
Simpson of Edinburgh (which see). 

Chloroform is a heaw, colorless liquid, with 
a pungent odor and a sweetish taste. It is non- 
inflammable and dissolves freely in alcohol and 
ether, but does not mix with water. Air, light, 
or heat causes it to decompose. Besides being 
used in medicine, it is employed by chemists 
as a solvent for fats, alkaloids, iodine, and 
other substances. 

Inhaled in small quantities, chloroform 
deadens pain, and is sometimes administered 
in childbirth. General anesthesia for major 
operations requires larger quantities. The 
duration of unconsciousness is shorter than 
that produced by ether, and the after-effects 
are not so disagreeable, but chloroform is con- 
sidered a much more dangerous drug, because 
it lowers the blood pressure, weakens the 
heart, and is harmful to the liver. It is self- 
evident that chloroform should never be 
administered except under the direction of 
a skilled physician. In America, ether has 
largely replaced it in major operations. 

Chloroform is a strong irritant, and is used 
in liniments for chronic rheumatism and 
neuralgia. Small doses taken by mouth are 
prescribed for gastric fermentation and colic, 
and larger doses are given to expel worms. 
Physicians prescribe this drug very cautiously, 
however, since overdoses produce coma or 
death. Chloroform is also inhaled to relieve 
spasms in lockjaw and hydrophobia. See 
ETHER; ANESTHETIC; SIMPSON, SIR JAMES 
YOUNG. 

[Chloroform is a compound of chlorine, carbon, and 
hydrogen The purest form is made by decomposing 
chloral with an alkali j 

CHLOROPHYLL, klo' ro fil, the green color- 
ing matter of plants, is concerned primarily, 
if not entirely, with the absorption of energy 
from light. With this energy the manufacture 
of organic material (see LEAVES) proceeds in 
the leaf or green stem. Starch can be formed 
by leaves or other green parts only in the 
presence of light. Hence, green leaves or stems 
which are deprived of light will bleach or turn 
white to yellow, a fact applied commercially 
in the blanching of plants like celery. See 
ETIOLATION. B.M D. 

CHLOROSIS, klo ro' sis. See ANAEMIA. 

CHOATE, chote, the family name of two 
American public men who won distinction in 
law and statesmanship. 

Rufus Choate (1799-1850), one of the ablest lawyers 
America has produced and an eloquent and scholarly, 
public speaker, was born at Ipswich, Mass. He was 
graduated at Dartmouth College in 1819 at the head 
of his class, and after studying law, was admitted to 
the Massachusetts bar in 1823. He served in the 
House of Representatives from 1830 to 1834, and in 
the Senate from 1841 to 1845, and in the upper house 



CHOCOLATE 



1407 



CHOLERA 




JOS1 I'H CIIOATh 



won wide public notice because of his brilliant 
speeches on the tariff, the Oregon boundary, and 
Texas annexation. His orations and addresses are 
distinguished for learning, purity of style, and elegance 
of form. 

Joseph Hodges Choate (18^2-1017), the nephew of 
Rufus Choate, was born at Salem, Mass , and edu- 
cated at Harvard College. Admitted to the New 
York bar in 1865, he soon 
became one of the best- 
known lawyers of New 
York City, and was em- 
ployed in such famous cases 
as the income tax and the 
Tweed Ring suits (see 
TWEED, WILLIAM MARCY) 
He won greatest repute as 
a cross-examiner On the 
organization of the Repub- 
lican party, in i8s4, hf 
adopted its political prin 
riples, though he did not 
hold office until i8gg, when 
President McKinley ap- 
pointed him to SUCCeed Photo Brown Uro* 
John Hay as ambassador 
to Circat Britain In this 
position he strengthened the friendly relations be- 
tween the two English-speaking nations In IQOS 
he returned to his practice in New York, and two 
years later represented the United States at the 
second J'eace Congress at The Hague 

CHOCOLATE, chok' o late, a food product 
widely used in cookery and in candy-making. 
Chocolate is made from the seed kernels of the 
fruit of the cacao tree, from which, also, cocoa is 
obtained. Chocolate differs from cocoa chiefly 
in having a higher percentage of fat. Tn the 
preparation of chocolate, the seed kernels, 
when freed from the shells, are crushed in a 
grinding mill, and the smooth paste which 
flows out is molded into cakes of the desired 
size and shape and allowed to harden. (For 
other details of the process, see COCOA.) Ac- 
cording to the decisions of a committee on 
standards, the following descriptions of choco- 
late preparations are generally accepted in 
America: 

Chocolate \ plain chocolate, bitter chocolate, chocolate 
liquor, chocolate paste , and bitter chocolate coating are 
designations for the solid or plastic mass obtained by 
grinding the cacao kernels, which contain not less 
than fifty per cent of cacao fat, not more than eight 
per cent of total ash, and not more than seven per 
cent of crude fiber. 

Sweet chocolate and sweet chocolate coating arc desig- 
nations for chocolate mixed with sugar, with or with- 
out the addition of cacao butter, spices, or other 
flavoring materials. 

M ilk chocolate and sweet milk chocolate are designa- 
tions for the product obtained by grinding chocolate 
with sugar, with the solids of whole milk, or the con- 
stituents of milk solids in proportions normal for 
whole milk It contains not less than twelve per cent 
of milk solids 

The beverage chocolate, made by dissolving 
chocolate in hot milk, is a wholesome, agreeable 



drink, when used moderately. Unlike tea and 
coffee, it has valuable food properties in addi- 
tion to being an excitant of the nervous 
system. The uses of chocolate in making con- 
fectionery, pastry, puddings, and ice cream are 
numerous and well known. It should be used 
in moderation, however, especially when it is 
eaten in the form of candy. Physicians say 
that most American people, young and old, 
eat far too much chocolate candy, which is in- 
jurious to the teeth, the digestion, and the 
nervous system, when used too freely. E.V.M'C. 

CHOCTAW. See INDIANS, AMERICAN (Most 
Important Tribes). 

CHOICE. See WILL (in psychology). 

CHOKECHERRY. See CHERRY. 

CHOKE DAMP. See CARBONIC ACID GAS. 

CHOLERA, kol' c ruh, a form of diarrhoea 
caused by the cholera bacillus. It is infective, 
being spread by water, milk, raw food, by 
flies, and by soiled hands. The outstanding 
symptoms are profuse watery diarrhoea and 
profound shock. In times of prevalence of an 
epidemic, the disease can be guarded against by 
the exclusive use of sterilized water, cooked 
milk, vegetables, and other foods, exclusion 
of flies, and extreme cleanliness. The disease is 
present always in India and near-by countries. 
Occasionally it spreads to other countries, 
sometimes reaching Europe and America. 
Its spread is prevented by quarantines, by 
control of cases and carriers, and by protecting 
water and food supplies. 

Cholera Morbus. This is acute, violent, 
watery diarrhoea accompanied by vomiting. 
There is some evidence of shock. The possi- 
bility of food poisoning, and even chemical 
poisoning, should be inquired into in every 
case of cholera morbus. 

Treatment. Give no food. Give water to 
drink unless it provokes vomiting. Carbonated 
water may be acceptable to the stomach. In 
some cases a dose of castor oil or some similar 
purgative may be given as soon as the stomach 
will tolerate it. Morphine by hypodermic, or 
some cholera mixture, certain aromatics, and 
sedatives may be used. Aromatic spirits of 
ammonia and warm coffee can be given when 
the nausea subsides. Warm applications to 
the extremities and back add to comfort and 
overcome shock. 

Cholera Infantum. This is a form of diar- 
rhoea accompanied by great shock and rapid 
wasting due to great loss of water. It occurs 
in babies in hot weather. Cholera infantum 
differs only from the ordinary diarrhoea of 
infants in that it develops more rapidly and 
with evidence of shock. It is a diarrhoea with 
rapid loss of water from the tissues plus a heat 
prostration. The treatment is that of acute 
diarrhoea in infants, plus treatment of heat 
prostration and shock. Prompt medical atten- 
tion is advisable. See DIARRHOEA. W.A.E. 



CHOLERA INFANTUM 



1408 



CHORUS 




Photo Brown Bros 



CHOLERA INFANTUM. See CHOLERA, 
page 1407. 

CHOLERA MORBUS. See CHOLERA. 

CHOPIN, sho paN', FRDRIC FRANCOIS 
(1810-1849), a celebrated musician, one of the 
great masters of modern piano music. He was 
born near Warsaw, of French parentage on 
his father's side, and Polish on his mother's. 
In 1820, at the age of nineteen, he played 
some of his compositions at a public concert 
in Vienna, after which 
he traveled exten- 
sively. The political 
troubles of Poland 
drove him to Paris in 
183 r , where he resided 
for the rest of his life. 
Chopin's fame rests 
chiefly on his com- 
positions forthepiano, 
for he had a perfect 
appreciation of every 
effect which that in- 
strument can pro- 
duce. His mazurkas, 
waltzes, polonaises, 
preludes, etudes, and 
nocturnes are a complete revelation of his 
dreamy, romantic nature and of his love for 
new and exquisite harmonies. 

Chopin's music has an undercurrent of mel- 
ancholy that suggests the unhappy lot of his 
native country, Poland; his celebrated Funeral 
March is one of the most effective compositions 
of that character ever composed. His own age 
recognized his greatness; Mendelssohn, born 
the same year as Chopin, said of one of 
his pieces, "It is so perfectly beautiful that I 
could go on forever playing it.'' 

CHOPINES, high-heeled clogs or slippers 
hi vogue in Europe in the seventeenth century, 
originating, it is believed, in Turkey. They 
reached England in due time, and English 
literature contains many references to them. 
Charles Reade, in Cloister on the Hearth, wrote, 
"Your wooden -heeled chopines, to raise your 
little, stunted limbs up." Another writer called 
them "high-heeled shoes particularly affected 
by these proude dames, or as some say, in- 
vented to keepe them at home, it being very 
difficult to walke with them." 

CHORD, kawrd. See CIRCLE; Music. 

CHORDA TA, kawr da ' tah. See VERTEBRATES ; 
ZOOLOGY (Divisions of the Animal World). 

CHOREA, ko re' ah. See SAINT Virus's 
DANCE. 

CHORLEY, HENRY FOTHERGILL (1808-1872), 
one of the foremost English musical critics of 
his day. For thirty-eight years he was asso- 
ciated with one London paper, The Athenaeum, 
as critic, and his opinions were widely accepted. 
His literary reviews showed fine insight. There 
was hardly a phase of the subject of music 



which was not illumined by his pen. He left 
an unfinished autobiography. 

CHOROID, ko' royd, COAT. See EYE. 

CHOROLOQUE, ko ro lo'kay, a peak in Bo- 
livia. See BOLIVIA (The Land and Its Rivers). 

CHORON, ALEXANDER ETIENNE (1772- 
1834), a French writer and authority on music 
of the first third of the nineteenth century, 
who died at the age of sixty-two with the 
reputation of having possessed more informa- 
tion relating to the theory and practice of 
music than any other French musician. In 
his practical way, he reorganized the schools 
for training church choirs; he was a successful 
conductor of religious festivals, and for one 
year (1816) was the conductor in the great 
opera house in Paris. 

Choron established, in 1817, the Conserva- 
toire de Musique Classique et Religieuse (Con- 
servatory of Classical and Religious Music), 
and until nearly the year of his death it ex- 
erted a powerful influence throughout cultural 
Europe; it raised music among the masses to 
a higher level. 

CHORUS, ko' rus. This term has come into 
our language from the Greek, but has a dif- 
ferent meaning from that of the root word. In 
ancient Greek drama, the chorus was a group of 
singers who helped explain the action, made 
comments, or even took part in the dialogue. 
The chorus of to-day consists of a number of 
persons singing together in an opera, oratorio, 
cantata, or concert. The name is also applied 
to any part of a musical composition that is 
sung by several voices, and to that part of a 
song which is repeated as a refrain, at the 
end of each stanza. The importance of the 
chorus in opera and oratorio has been recog- 
nized by the greatest composers. Such com- 
positions as The Pilgrims' Chorus in Wag- 
ner's Tannhduser, The Soldiers' Chorus in 
Gounod's Faust, and The Hallelujah Chorus 
in Handel's Messiah, are representative of 
the best choral music. 

In most communities to-day, choral singing 
is loved and appreciated. Whether it be the 
volunteer church choir, the high-school glee 
club, the choral society of a business organi- 
zation, or the more formal organization of 
trained singers who give professional concerts, 
the effect of many voices singing in harmony is 
uplifting and refreshing. 

Most choral music is written for four parts. 
In mixed choruses these are soprano, alto, tenor, 
and bass. Male choruses have first and second 
tenor and first and second bass parts. First 
and second soprano and first and second alto 
are written for female voices and boys' choruses. 
An a capella chorus is one that sings without 
instrumental accompaniment. 

Related Subjects. The reader is referred in these vol- 
umes to the following articles: 

Cantata Music Opera Oratorio 



CHOSEN 



1409 



CHOSEN 




' HOSEN', formerly known as KOREA, 
but since igto a Japanese province, occupies 
the mountainous peninsula southeast of Man- 
churia, between the Japan and Yellow seas. 

Having an area of about 86,000 square miles, 
Chosen is a little larger than the state of 
Utah. Wooded mountains cover the north 
half of the peninsula, and a high, narrow range 
rises precipitously from the sea along the entire 
length of the east coast. West of this range, 
the treeless, gray foothills flatten out into 
fertile plains, the chief agricultural section of 
the peninsula. The steep eastern coast is pene- 
trated by few harbors, but the south and west 
coasts are fringed with bays and clusters of 
islands and are washed by dangerous tides. 
The largest island is Quelp'aert, off the south 
coast. The most important harbors are the 
picturesque ports of Won-san (Korean Gcn- 
san), Lazareff, and Fusan (Pusan). The largest 
river is the Oryoko (Yalu), rising in Pei-shan, 
an extinct volcano, and flowing south into the 
Yellow Sea, forming the northwest boundary 
of the country. Seagoing junks ascend the 
stream for a distance of thirty miles, and 
smaller boats 145 miles farther. The Daido 
(Tai-dong), Kan (Han), Rakuto (Nak-dong), 
and Mok-po are other large rivers, navigable 
for many miles. Most of the rivers and cities 
have been renamed by the Japanese, but the 
more familiar Korean names are still commonly 
used. On the whole, the country lacks the 
dainty picturesqueness of flowered Japan 
and the fantastic beauty and buzzing, palpi- 
tating life of China. 

The climate is pleasant nine months of the 
year, resembling that of the opposite coast of 
China. In the central and northern parts, 
winters are somewhat severe, and snow covers 

89 



the ground from December until February. 
The winters of the south are delightful, like 
those of Southern Japan. The temperature 
ranges from 5 in the winter to 90 in July. 
The average rainfall is thirty-six inches, most 
of it falling during the summer months. 

The People. The natives of Chosen are a 
mixed race, combining the characteristics of 
the Chinese, Japanese, and Malayan people. 




LOCATION MAP 

They excel the Japanese and Chinese in stature 
and physique, and are more regular of feature 
and lighter of skin than the Mongolians. In 
1925 the population numbered over 19,- 
500,000. A small proportion were Japanese, 
and the Japanese are increasing in number 
here; there are many Chinese, and about 1,000 
Americans and Europeans. The Koreans are 
rapidly adopting European customs of living. 
There are many religions among the Ko- 



CHOSEN 



1410 



CHOSEN 



reans, including Confucianism, Buddhism, 
spiritualism, fetish, and nature worship. An- 
cestor worship is universal, and plays an im- 
portant part in the life and morals of the 
natives, who are more superstitious than re- 
ligious. 

In no other Asiatic country has the growth 
of Christianity been so rapid and of such in- 
fluence upon the national life. Although there 
were frequent persecutions before 1885, the 
number of converts continually 
increased, and in that year re- 
ligious freedom was guaranteed. 
The Y. M. C. A., established at 
Keijo (Seoul) in 1907, is aided by 
the government. 

The present government has 
established a school system, em- 
bracing common, industrial, and 
special schools, and girls are now 
educated equally with boys. 
Many of the old classical Chinese 
schools for boys still exist, but the 
system is being rapidly Western- 
ized. There are also several hun- 
dred religious schools established 
by Christian missionaries 

Industry and Commerce. The 
soil of Chosen being fertile and its 
summers warm, about three- 
fourths of the population are en- 
gaged in agriculture. Japan, with 
an eye to industrial improve- 
ment, has introduced modern 
methods of cultivation and irri- 
gation to supplant the primitive 
customs of the natives. The cul- 
tivation of ginseng has been re- 
vived and become very extensive. 
Rice is still the most important crop, but 
barley, oats, wheat, maize, tobacco, cotton, 
hemp, sweet potatoes, and other vegetables 
are raised extensively. Mulberry trees grow 
in abundance, and the cultivation of the silk- 
worm is important. The seas teem with fish, 
and Japan has recently passed regulations 
protecting and encouraging the fishing industry; 
haddock, halibut, herring, sardines, and sharks 
are caught. Cattle-raising as an industry has 
been introduced, and meat, milk, butter, and 
cheese, heretofore little known, have become 
important products. 

The Japanese government has also at- 
tempted to develop the mineral resources of 
the peninsula, the value of which is estimated 
at $12,000,000 per year. The country possesses 
valuable deposits of gold, copper, coal, and 
iron. Nearly all of the important gold mines 
are controlled by foreigners; the United States 
concession, covering about 800 square miles, 
is the largest. The government also encourages 
manufacturing industries by financial assist- 
ance; the manufacture of paper, sea salt, 




PEASANT GIRL WITH 
BABY SISTER 



grassctoth, mats, bamboo screens, and pottery 
is important. 

Korean highways are notoriously poor. 
Wheeled vehicles are little used, baggage being 
carried by porters, pack horses, and oxen, while 
the people travel on horseback or in sedan 
chairs. The Japanese government has spent 
$10,000,000 for the improvement of roads in 
Chosen; paved streets were constructed in 
Keijo (Seoul) in 1915. There are three lines 
of street cars in the capital. In 
"I 1924 there were 1,460 miles of 
railroad in the peninsula, con- 
necting with Chinese and the 
Russian Siberian lines. By way 
of the Trans-Siberian system, it 
is possible to reach Moscow from 
Chosen in ten days, and Berlin 
in eleven and a half days. There 
is good steamer and ferry service 
with Japan, and fourteen treaty 
ports are now open for trade, 
which is chiefly carried on with 
Japan, Great Britain, China, and 
the United States. 

Government. Chosen is con- 
trolled by a Japanese governor- 
general, assisted by the secre- 
taries of the several departments 
and the central council, the latter 
consisting chiefly of Koreans. 
Provinces, districts, and villages 
are largely administered by Ko- 
reans, and financial aid and ad- 
vice are furnished by the central 
government through Japanese 
clerks. Courts, prisons, customs, 
lands, and railroads are all con- 
trolled by the central govern- 
ment at Tokyo. 

History. Korea is believed to have been 
founded in 1122 B.C. After many centuries of 
independent life, it was annexed to the Chinese 
Empire in 108 B.C. About a century later, the 
peninsula was divided into three small king- 
doms, the one called Kori absorbing the others 
in A.D. 960, and for three hundred years Kori, 
or Korea, existed as an independent kingdom. 
During this time Buddhism gained a very 
strong hold upon the country. A revolution in 
1392 overthrew Buddhism and established 
the Ming dynasty. The ancient name Chosen, 
meaning morning freshness, was then adopted. 
Two centuries later, the country was invaded 
by the Japanese, who were finally expelled 
by the Chinese. For this military assistance, 
Korea again became tributary to China. At 
the close of the Chinese- Japanese War, in 1895, 
independence was regained, and the country 
was then called Tai Han. 

The Japanese, however, gradually extended 
their influence over the country, contesting it 
with Russia. The Russians secured a large 



CHOSEN 



1411 



CHOW 




Photo U4U 
IN '111L FOKMLR CAPITAL CITY 

Looking down on a portion of the city of Seoul, one sees a monotony of low, corrugated roofs which cover the 

one-story structures. 



timber concession on the lower Oryoku (Yalu) 
River, which Japan regarded as an attempt 
to secure Korean territory. Japanese troops 
were sent to Korea, and on February 23, igo4, 
the emperor of Korea signed a treaty with 
Japan which strengthened Japanese influence 
and practically ended Korean independence. 
By the Treaty of Portsmouth, September 
5, 1905, which concluded the Russo-Japanese 
War, Russia formally recognized Japanese pre- 
dominance in Korea. A Japanese resident-gen- 
eral was installed, who gradually assumed the 
administration of the country. The murder of 
Prince I to, the resident-general, hastened the 
final absorption of Korea into the Japanese 
Empire, and on August 23, 1910, the country 
was formally annexed to Japan. The emperor 
was deposed, and a governor-general from 
Japan was established in office. The title of 
the country again became Chosen. 

The Cities. Aside from the former capital, 
there are no cities of any note in Chosen. 
Among the largest towns are Fusan, Taikyu-fu, 
and Pingyang. 

Seoul, :>eh ool', or sah' ool, renamed Keijo by the 
Japanese in igio, was the quaint capital of Chosen for 
the past six hundred years It is about nineteen miles 
from Chemulpo, its port on the Yellow Sea. and about 



three miles north of the Han (or Kan) River. A wall 
eleven miles in length and pierced by eight gates 
surrounds this old city Seoul is a city of strange con- 
trasts, typical of those Oriental municipalities into 
which modern innovations are slowly making their 
way Electric lights, an electric car line which ex- 
lends to three points outside the uty, a telegraph 
station, and a telephone system represent the new era, 
but the shabby, low dwelling houses of mud and 
stone, and the narrow, crooked streets of old Seoul 
.ire still in evidence. 

A group of former royal palaces surrounded by 
attractive lawns and gardens, a Roman Catholic 
cathedral, and a temple to Confucius are the buildings 
of chief interest. The city is connected by railway 
with Chemulpo, Fusan, and Wiju It contains a 
government school for English students, two hospitals 
operated by American missionaries, and one large 
Japanese hospital under government control. Two 
Japanese and three Chosen newspapers are published 
here, besides an English daily owned by the govern- 
ment Population in 1925, 297,465. 

Related Subjects. The following articles in these vol- 
umes will Rive additional information on topics connected 
with Chosen- 
Chinese- Japanese War Rice 
Ginseng Russo-Japanese War 
Japan (History) Yalu River 

CHOW, a very handsome Chinese dog. 
It carries its ears erect and its bushy tail curled 
gracefully over its back. The hair is long and 



CHOWAN RIVER 



1412 



CHRISTIANITY 



of one color, either black, red, yellow, blue, or 
white. The head is broad and flat. A chow 
weighs from forty-five to fifty-five pounds, and 
is very intelligent. M.J.H. 

CHOWAN, cho wahn', RIVER. See NORTH 
CAROLINA (Rivers and Lakes). 

CHOW DYNASTY, representing a period 
in Chinese history, famed as furnishing the 
first authentic date in the history of the country 
(August 29, 776 B.C.). See CHINA (History). 

CHRIST, meaning an anointed one, a title 
of Jesus of Nazareth. See JESUS CHRIST. 

CHRISTCHURCH. See NEW ZEALAND 
(The Cities). 

CHRISTENING, kris' en ing. See BAPTISM, 
subhead. 

CHRISTIAN, kris' chan, the name borne by 
several Danish monarchs, the first of whom 
reigned as king over united Denmark and Nor- 
way from 1448 to 1481. Of this group of 
sovereigns, Christian VIII, IX, and X have 
ruled over Denmark alone, since 1863. 

Christian IX (1818-1906), who came to the throne 
in 1863, on the death of Frederick VII, was often 
called the "father of the royal families of Europe." 
His eldest daughter, Alexandra, became the wife of 
Edward VII of England; his second daughter, Dag- 
mar, was the mother of Czar Nicholas II of Russia, 
his son, George, became king of Greece in 1863, after 
the revolution which deposed Otto II; and his grand- 
son, the son of George, was Constantine I, until IQI? 
and again, 1920-1922, king of that country; Chris- 
tian's grandson, Charles, was chosen king of Norway, 
as Haakon VII, in 1905, when Norway separated from 
Sweden. During the reign of Christian, Schleswig 
and Holstein were wrested from Denmark by Austria 
and Prussia (see SCHLES WIG-HOLSTEIN) . In the latter 
part of his reign, a liberal government was estab- 
lished in the kingdom. He was a man of high charac- 
ter, winning not only the affection of his subjects but 
the respect of all the other rulers of Europe. On his 
death his son, Frederick VIII (which see), succeeded 
him, and ruled for six years. 

Christian X (1870- ), son of Frederick VIII, 
was crowned in May, 1912. He came to the throne 
with considerable experience in the affairs of govern- 
ment, for during his father's numerous absences he 
was frequently called upon to act as king. His first 
speech, in which he promised his people to guard 
their liberty and happiness, was an auspicious be- 
ginning of his reign, and he has since proved himself a 
capable and liberal-spirited ruler. 

CHRISTIANA RIVER. See DELAWARE 
(The Land and Rivers). 

CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION OF WASH- 
INGTON. See CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER. 

CHRISTIAN CHURCH, one of the names 
applied to the Disciples of Christ (which see). 

CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, YOUNG PEO- 
PLE'S SOCIETY OF, an organization of the young 
people of evangelical Protestant churches for 
Christian service and the promotion of the 
spiritual life, founded by Rev. Francis E. 
Clark (which see), at Portland, Me., in 1881. 
The idea originated with Dr. Clark's experience 



in his own Church, the Congregational, where 
he had successfully brought the young people 
together for a weekly meeting for prayer and 
consecration, to which literary and social 
work had been added. The results were so 
encouraging that other churches soon took it 
up, and the movement spread rapidly through- 
out the United States and Canada. Crossing 
the ocean, it was taken up by England and all 
its colonies, and by China, Japan, India, 
and all countries where Christian missions 
were established. 

The society has for its motto "For Christ 
and the Church," and it has done splendid 
work in employing the activities of the young 
people of the churches in Christian service. 
The organization is interdenominational, each 
society being closely affiliated with its own 
church. The United Societies of Christian 
Endeavor was organized in 1885. At a later 
biennial convention, the name was changed to 
International Society of Christian Endeavor, 
embracing all the societies in North America. 
In 1905 a World's Christian Endeavor Union 
was formed, which holds a world's convention 
every four years. There are over 80,000 local 
chapters, with more than 4,000,000 members 

The Methodist Episcopal denomination is 
the only one that officially has no part in the 
Christian Endeavor work, as the young people's 
society of that church, known as the Epworth 
League, is a distinct organization (see EP- 
WORTH LEAGUE). The Christian Endeavor So- 
ciety is recognized by all the other branches 
of Methodism, and by all the other evangelical 
denominations in their denominational unions 
or departments of young people's work Chris- 
tian Endeavor societies in the Baptist Church 
have the same rights and privileges as the 
branch societies in the Baptist Young People's 
Union (which see). C.C.H. 

CHRISTIAN ERA, the period of time be- 
ginning with the birth of Christ, extending 
to the present date, and to continue indefinitely 
In the sixth century, a monk named Dionysius 
introduced the custom of reckoning the years 
from the birth of Christ; this method is now 
employed almost universally in Christian coun- 
tries, although the practice did not become 
general until the fifteenth century. The year 
was often taken to begin on December 25, and 
for a while on various dates between December 
25 and March 25. But now January i marks 
the beginning of the year in almost all coun- 
tries. It is believed that Dionysius made a 
mistake of about four years in his reckoning, 
and that Christ was born about four years 
before the Christian Era. See CHRONOLOGY 

CHRISTIANIA, kris tyah' ne ah, until 1925 
the name of the capital city of Norway. 
See OSLO. 

CHRISTIANITY, the religion established by 
Jesus Christ. The followers of Jesus were first 



CHRISTIANS 



1413 



CHRISTIAN SCIENCE 



called Christians, or followers of Christ, at 
Antioch in Syria, about A.D. 65. The funda- 
mental doctrines of Christianity are set forth 
in the Apostles' Creed (which see). They are 
as follows: 

1. Belief in God as the Father. 

2. Belief in Jesus Christ as the Son of God. 

3. Belief that Christ arose from the dead and that 
He is and forever will be the Judge of both the living 
and the dead. 

4 Belief in the Holy Spirit and the resurrection of 
the body. 

Christianity presupposes belief in the immor- 
tality of the soul. It is considered to be of 
supernatural origin, a religion instituted by 
divine revelation. For this reason, the follow- 
ers of Christianity believe it to be the only 
true religion, and that it is their duty to per- 
suade all men to accept it. This belief lies at 
the foundation of the missionary movement 
of the Christian Church. 

Christianity had its birth in old Palestine, 
whence it spread to Asia Minor, Southern 
Europe, and the countries in Northern Africa. 
It is the accepted religion of most of the coun- 
tries of Europe except Russia, of all the 
countries of North and South America, Aus- 
tralia, and the Union of South Africa. There 
is not a country in which Christianity is not 
known, and Christian missionaries have estab- 
lished stations among practically all people 
outside of Christian nations. Its followers out- 
number those of any other religion. 

Related Subjects. For a detailed list of topics connected 
with Christianity, see the Related Subjects division at the 
end of the article RELIGION 

CHRISTIANS, defined. See CHRISTIANITY. 

CHRISTIAN SCIENCE, the religion founded 
by Mary Baker Eddy and represented by the 
Church of Christ, Scientist, including the 
First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston, 
Massachusetts, and the branches of this 
"Mother Church" in all countries. 

In her book entitled Retrospection and 
Introspection, Mrs. Eddy related the origin 
of Christian Science as follows: 

During twenty years prior to my discovery, I had 
been trying to trace all physical effects to a mental 
cause, and in the latter part of i8(>0 1 gamed the 
scientific certainty that all causation was Mind, and 
every effect a mental phenomenon My immediate 
recovery from the effects of an injury caused by an 
accident, an injury that neither medicine nor surgery 
could reach, was the falling apple that led me to the 
discovery how to be well myself, and how to make 
others so 

The teachings of Christian Science are 
briefly but completely stated in Mrs. Eddy's 
principal book, Science and Health, with Key 
to the Scriptures. Known as the Christian 
Science textbook, this work is adapted for 
inquirers as well as students, and is read in 
connection with the Bible in the Sunday serv- 



ices and Wednesday evening meetings of this 
denomination. All of Mrs. Eddy's writings are 
to be found in many public libraries, and in the 
public reading rooms which are maintained by 
all Christian Science churches. 

The Church of Christ, Scientist, founded in 
1879 and reorganized in 1892, is designed 
"to commemorate the word and works of 
our Master" and to "reinstate primitive 
Christianity and its lost element of healing." 
Healing, in the broadest sense of this term, is 
regarded as the purpose of the Church, while 
healing the sick by mental and spiritual 
practice is emphasized as an essential aspect 
of Christian Science. The growth of the 
Christian Science denomination has resulted 
largely therefrom. 

The distinctive feature of Christian Science 
theology is its teaching that "all reality is in 
God and His Creation, harmonious and 
eternal. That which He creates is good, and 
He makes all that is made. Therefore, the 
only reality of sin, sickness, or death is the 
fact that unrealities seem real to human, err- 
ing belief, until God strips off their disguise." 
They are not true, in the belief of Christian 
Scientists, because they are not of God. 
Christian Scientists believe "all inharmony 
of mortal mind or body is illusion, possessing 
neither reality nor identity, though seeming 
to be real and identical." The practice of 
Christian Science follows the proposition that 
"there is a law of God applicable to healing, 
and it is a spiritual law instead of material." 

The Christian Science denomination has 
its headquarters in Boston, where its Pub- 
lishing Society issues the Christian Science 
Journal (a monthly, published in English and 
containing directories of churches and prac- 
titioners), the Christian Science Sentinel (a 
weekly, in English), Der Her old der Christian 
Science (monthly, in English and German), 
Le Heraut de Christian Science (a monthly, 
in English and French), the Christian Science 
Quarterly Bible Lessons (containing the Les- 
son-Sermons for Christian Science services 
and study, and published in many languages), 
and the Christian Science Monitor (an inter- 
national daily newspaper). 

There are about 2,000 churches of this 
denomination in the United States, and more 
than 350 in other countries, of which the 
majority are in Canada, England, and Ger- 
many. C.P.S. 

Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910), the discoverer of 
Christian Science and the founder of the Christian 
Science Church. She was born at Bow, near Concord, 
N. H., and was educated in the public schools, at 
Sanbornton (N.H.) Academy, and by private teachers. 
She was of a religious nature, and at an early age was 
admitted to membership in the Congregational 
Church, in spite of her inability to subscribe to some 
of its doctrines. This membership was retained until 
she founded her own Church. 




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CHRISTINA 



1415 



CHRISTMAS 



In 1843 she married George W Glover, who took 
her to Charleston, S. C. He died about a year later, 
and she returned to the home of her parents prac- 
tically without means; as a matter of conviction, she 
had liberated the slaves her husband had held. Here 
a son, George W. Glover, was born. As she was in 
very delicate health and dependent upon her family, 
her position was difficult. She was always a devout 
student of the Bible, and in her distress of body and 
mind she constantly turned to it for relief and guid- 
ance, and in i860, while suffering from a serious acci- 
dent, she gained the perception of the meaning of the 
Scriptures which'brought about her own healing and 
gave rise to the religion she founded Of this experi- 
ence she afterward published an account, which is 
found in her work, Miscellaneous Writing* 

After nearly a decade of work in pondering her 
discovery, perfecting its statement, and proving its 
worth to her fullest satisfaction, she produced in 1875 
her fundamental contribution to the religious and 
therapeutic thought of the world in Science and 
Health, with Key to the Scriptures, which is the "text- 
book" of Christian Science. Jt has gone through nu- 
merous editions. 



In 1877 she married Dr. Asa G. Eddy, who was 
associated with her in the Christian Science move- 
ment. In 1879 she organized the Church of Christ, 
Scientist, which in 1892 was reorganized as The First 
Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston, Mass. Of 
The First Church, known also as The Mother Church, 
she was pastor for many years. (Illustration on 
opposite page ) 

In 1881 she opened in Boston the Massachusetts 
Metaphysical College, the only institution of its kind 
having a charter from the Commonwealth. For a 
number of years, Mrs. Eddy lived in comparative 
retirement at Concord, N. H. In 1908 she went to a 
suburb of Boston, where, revered by her followers, 
she remained in charge of her large and growing 
movement almost to the day of her death, December 



Her Books. In addition to Science and Health and 
Miscellaneous Writings, referred to above, Mrs. Eddy 
wrote a Church Manual, Unity of Good and Other 
Writings, and Christian Healing and Other Writings, 
and numerous pamphlets. 



CHRISTINA, QUEEN. See SWEDEN. 




In all Christian coun- 
tries, Christmas is celebrated as the anniver- 
sary of the birth of Christ, ''the Prince of 
Peace," "the King of Kings." That day, by 
common consent December 25, is marked by 
special religious services in various churches, 
by charitable deeds, the exchange of gifts, and 
by merrymaking and rejoicing. It is on that 
day, as Longfellow wrote, that we hear Christ- 
mas bells 

Their old familiar carols play, 
\nd wild and sweet 
The words repeat 
Of peace on earth, good- will to men! 

The time when the Christmas festival was 
first observed is not definitely known. It is 
spoken of in the beginning of the third century 
by Clement of Alexandria, and Chrysostom 
speaks of it in the latter part of the fourth 
century as a custom of long standing. Other 
dates were often celebrated as the day of the 
Nativity, but finally, December 25 was uni- 
versally adopted; there is no evidence that 
the date is absolutely correct. But exactness 
on those points is now not so important as 
the "spirit of Christmas," the spirit of giving, 
of helping a broad, all-embracing love for our 
fellow men. Margaret E. Sangster in the poem 
Christmas-tide puts the sentiment in verse: 



At Christmas-tide the open hand 
Scatters its bounty o'er sea and land, 
And none arc left to grieve alone, 
For love is heaven and claims its own. 

The giving of presents and the use of holly, 
mistletoe, Yule logs (see YULE), and the was- 
sail bowl have all descended from the days of 
paganism, but they are things which set the 
day distinctly apart from all other holidays. 
Without the Christmas tree and Santa Claus 
for the little folks, the day would be incomplete 
and lose much of its deeper meaning to families. 
The custom of sending greetings on "Christmas 
cards" started more than fifty years ago. 

In recent years, many cities have adopted 
the beautiful custom of celebrating the festi- 
val as communities. Great Christmas trees, 
glowing with innumerable lights, are set up 
in a central location, such as Madison Square, 
in New York, or the lake front in Chicago, 
and on Christmas Eve the people gather about 
these trees to sing the familiar hymns and carols 
associated with the birth of Christ. 

Origin of the Christmas Tree. Use of the fir 
tree in connection with Christmas celebrations 
is of Germanic or Scandinavian origin. When 
the pagans of northern Europe became Chris- 
tians, they made their sacred evergreen trees a 
part of the Christian festival, and decorated 



CHRISTMAS 



Be merry all, be merry all, 
With holly dress the festive hall; 
Prepare the song, the feast, the ball, 
To welcome merry Christmas. 

SPENCER. 

Song, God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen Old Carol 

The First Christmas Luke 11, 8-21 

The Birds of Bethlehem Gilder 

Christmas Proctor 

The Fir Tree (adapted) Andersen 

Song, Little Town of Bethlehem . Brooks 

Jest 'Fore Christmas Field 

Little Gottlieb Cary 

Scenes from A Christmas Carol. . . . Dickens 
Christmas at the Cratchits' 
Christmas at Scrooge's Nephew's 
Christmas in Old Time ... . Scott 

The Little Christmas Tree Coolidge 

Essay, How the Fir Tree Became the Christmas 

Tree 

Christmas Everywhere To-night Brooks 

While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks . Dcland 
Song, // Came upon the Midnight Clear 



Good 



Santa 
Glaus 






For little children everywhere 
A joyous beason still we'll make; 
And bring our precious gifts to them, 
Even for the dear child Jesus' sake. 

GARY. 
Song, Silent Night, Holy Night 

Christmas Bells Longfellow 

A Visit from Santa Clans . . .Moore 

Essay, Why the Evergreens Keep Their Leaves 
in Winter 

Old Christmas Howilt 

Christmas Snow Spofford 

Scene from Cricket on the Hearth Dickens 

The Party at Caleb's 

Song, While Shepherds Watt tied Their I'lmks 
by Night 

Why the Chimes Rang Alden 

Christmas Song Held 

Kris Kringle Aldrich 

The Little Match Girl Andersen 

Kris Kringle' s Travels Best 

What Child Is This? Old Carol 

Carol's Dinner Party, from The Birds' 

Christmas Carol Riggs 

Song, Away in a Manger Luther 



CHRISTMAS ISLAND 



1417 



CHROMIUM 



the trees with gilt nuts and apples in imitation 
of the stars. 

One legend relates how on a Christmas Eve, 
twelve centuries ago, the first Christmas tree 
was miraculously revealed. Winfred, an 
Englishman who had gone to Germany to 
spread the teachings of Jesus, found a group 
of worshipers gathered at the Oak of Geismar 
about to sacrifice little Prince Asulf to the 
god Thor. Winfred averted the death blow 
and cut down the "blood" oak. As it fell, a 
young fir tree appeared, which the missionary 
declared was the tree of life or Christ, of whose 
birth he then told the people. 

Many fine stories have been woven about 
the Christmas spirit and Christmas merry- 
making. Dickens' Christmas Carol, the story 
of Scrooge and "Marley's Ghost," is one 
widely read and loved. See CAROL, for one of 
the most famous Christmas carols ever written. 

A Christmas Carol, one of the most beautiful and 
inspiring of all Christmas stones It was written by 
Charles Dickens, and published in 184$, and the 
15,000 copies that were speedily sold brought the 
author about ${,500 A Christmas Carol is the story 
of u "clutching, covetous old sinner" by the name of 
Scrooge Uow the Ghosts of the Christmas Past, 
Present, and Future brought about his regeneration 
is told in a series of pictures that have all the humor, 
the pathos, and the re.ihsm that arc a part of the 
author's genius Tiny Tun, the crippled child of 
Scrooge's brow-beaten clerk, is one of Dickens' well- 
loved creations The story is one that children and 
their elders read and re-re,td with equal delight 
Thackeray called it a national benefit, and declared 
no better charity sermon had ever been preached 

CHRISTMAS ISLAND. See SINGAPORE. 

CHRIST OF THE ANDES, a remarkable 
statue. See ARGENTINA 

CHRISTOPHER NORTH. See WILSON, 
JOHN. 

CHRISTY, kris' tie, HOWARD CHANDLER 
(1873- ), an American painter and il- 
lustrator with a dashing but not exaggerated 
style, creator of a picturesque and romantic 
type of society woman. He was born in Morgan 
County, Ohio, and studied at the National 
Academy and the Art Students' League in 
New York. During the Spanish- American 
War he went to Cuba with Roosevelt's "Rough 
Riders," and the illustrations he made there, 
which were published in Scribner's and Har- 
per's magazines and in Collier's Weekly, aroused 
the first interest in his work. A portrait of 
Colonel Roosevelt gained him special promi- 
nence later, and he also produced portraits 
of numerous prominent men, among them that 
of President Harding, for the steamship Le- 
viathan. However, he is best known through 
his black-and-white illustrations of serial 
stories in magazines and for his illustration 
of several of James Whitcomb Riley's books. 
Christy pictures are favorites as colored 
prints on magazine covers. 



CHROMATIC ABERRATION, kro mat' ik 
abur a' shun. See ABERRATION, subhead. 

CHROMATIC SCALE, in music, the scale 
produced by dividing the whole tones of the 
natural, or diatonic, scale into half-tones. 



CHROMATIC SCALE 

The chromatic half-tone, or semitone, is the 
interval between a note and that note raised 
by a sharp or lowered by a flat. The chromatic 
scale, with the two half-tones already in the 
diatonic scale, is an octave divided into twelve 
semitones. Composers make use of the chro- 
matic tones to produce many beautiful effects 
in music. See Music; SCALE. 

CHRO MATIN, kro' ma tin. See HEREDITY; 
CELL. 

CHROME, krome, a name applied to a num- 
ber of substances used as the basis of paints. 
Chrome yellow is a compound of chromic 
acid and lead. Chrome green, a compound of 
chromium and oxygen, is used by calico print- 
ers and for enamels; it is also the basis of a 
number of green paints and dyes which are not 
poisonous. Chrome red is a compound of 
chromium and lead. All chrome colors are 
noted for their clearness and brilliancy. 

CHROME YELLOW. See LEAD. 

CHROMIC, kro' mik, IRON ORE. See 
CHROMITE. 

CHROMITE, kro' mite, OR CHROMIC 
IRON ORE, a mineral, the chief ore from 
which chromium is extracted (see CHROMIUM). 
It is of black or brownish-black color, with a 
sub-metallic luster, and resembles magnetite 
or magnetic iron ore in appearance. It is 
usually associated with serpentine. Chromite 
is largely used in the preparation of paints, 
in calico-printing, or the dyeing of cotton goods, 
and in the preparation of chromium and its 
compounds. It is found in New Caledonia, 
Greece, Great Britain, Asiatic Turkey, Japan, 
Canada, and Cuba. Small quantities are 
mined in California. A.N.W. 

Chemical Formula. The formula for chromite is 
FeCr2O4, that is, a molecule contains one atom of 
iron, two atoms of chromium, and four atoms of 
oxygen. 

CHROMIUM, kro' mi urn, a very hard 
steel-gray metal, obtained chiefly from the ore 
chromite (which see). Chromium is not used 
in pure form, but is one of the most valuable 
of plating materials because of its hardness, 
resistance to high temperatures, and imper- 
viousness to most acids and to salt spray. 
It can be plated on iron, steel, copper, brass, and 
other metals, and the resulting product is reck- 
oned the hardest substance known, next to the 
diamond. Anv metal coated with chromium 



CHROMOSOME 



1418 



CHRYSALIS 



will scratch glass and the hardest steel plate. 
Because automobile radiators, lamps, pistons, 
valves, shafts, and bearings plated with 
chromium are indefinitely protected from rust, 
tarnish, and wear, chromium is used exten- 
sively in the automobile industry. The United 
States government uses chromium-plated steel 
engravings for printing money and postage 
stamps, and in the textile industry steel plated 
with chromium is coming into use in the print- 
ing of delicate fabrics. 

There are various steel alloys containing 
chromium (see ALLOY). Chromium steel is 
especially serviceable in the manufacture of 
airplane engines, safes, armor plate, and high- 
speed tools. A stainless steel valued as a 
material for knife blades, which is resistant 
to acids found in foods, is produced by alloying 
steel with about fifteen per cent of chromium; 
rust-proof iron contains the same amount. 

The compounds of the metal are utilized 
in the arts and industry. Chrome yellow, a 
compound of chromium and lead, is an im- 
portant basis of yellow paint. Chrome green, 
or ultramarine, a compound of the metal and 
oxygen, is used for painting china and coloring 
bank notes. Potassium bichromate is em- 
ployed in dyeing, in photography, and in the 
production of various pigments. The symbol 
for chromium is Cr. (see CHEMISTRY). T.B.J. 

CHROMOSOME, kro' mo sohm. See EVO- 
LUTION (The Factors of Evolution); BOTANY 
(Contribution to Human Welfare); CELL; 
HEREDITY. 

CHROMOSPHERE, kro 1 mo sfeer. See 
SUN (The Sun's Surface). 

CHRONICLES, kron' i Viz, BOOKS or, two 
books of the Old Testament which follow the 
books of Kings. The name in Hebrew means 
Acts of the Days. In the Hebrew Scriptures, 
Chronicles consists of only one book. The 
division was made when the Septuagint (which 
see) was written. Chronicles differs from Kings 
in giving more fully the religious side of the 
history of Israel during the period covered, 
and in giving the history of the kingdom of 
Judah to the exclusion of that of Israel after 
the kingdoms were divided. It is thought that 
these books were written by the priests. 

CHRONOLOGY, kro noV o jie, the science of 
dividing time into periods and of giving to 
historic events their proper dates. The unit 
of time in chronology is the year. When the 
date of an event is given, we mean that such 
an event happened so many years after or 
before some great point in history, which is 
regarded as the beginning of an era. 

We say that Columbus discovered America 
in A.D. 1492, meaning that he made his great 
discovery 1,492 years after the birth of Christ; 
A.D. is the abbreviation for the Latin expression 
Anno Domini, meaning in the year of Our Lord, 
and the birth of Christ is the beginning of 



the Christian Era. Dates of events occurring 
before the birth of Christ are written with 
the letters B.C.; as, Julius Caesar invaded 
Britain in 55 B.C. This system of fixing dates 
is the one now commonly employed through- 
out the enlightened parts of the world. 

The Greeks reckoned time by the four-year 
intervals between the Olympic Games, which 
were known as Olympiads. They began their 
era from a date which corresponds to 776 B.C. 
The Roman era begins with the founding of the 
city of Rome, 753 B.C. being the date generally 
accepted. Another important era is the Mo- 
hammedan, dating from the Hegira, Moham- 
med's flight from Mecca, in A.D. 622. The 
American and European year 1935 is therefore 
the Mohammedan year 1313. 

Related Subjects. The reader is referred in these vol 
umes to the following articles: 

Calendar (Hebrew Calendar) Hegira 

Christian Era Year 

CHRONOMETER, kro nom' e tur, in a gen- 
eral sense, is any instrument that measures and 
records time. Thus, a clock, a watch, a sun- 
dial, or any other device that does this is a 
chronometer. In a specific sense, a chronom- 
eter is an instrument made for very accurate 
and minute measurements of time The one 
most widely known is the marine chronometer, 
which determines time in connection with find- 
ing longitude at sea. For this purpose, it is 
set at the time of some first, or prime, merid- 
ian. Greenwich time is used by American and 
British ships; that of Paris, by the French; 
and that of Berlin, by the Germans. The 
mechanism of these instruments is very delicate 
and easily affected by outside influences; they 
must be kept away from the magnetic in- 
fluence of compasses and from the vibrations 
of the ship. These chronometers are hung in 
their cases on gimbals, so they may alwavs be 
in a horizontal position. A pocket chronom- 
eter, which is used for railroad and racing 
purposes, looks like an ordinary watch, but 
is somewhat larger. It registers very small 
fractions of time. See WATCH. 

CHRONOS, kro' nohs, in mythology, the 
father of Hades (which see). 

CHRYSALID, kris' a lid, a term having the 
same meaning as chrysalis (which see). See, 
also, INSECT (The Developing Insect). 

CHRYSALIS, kris' a Us, the resting state 
of a butterfly, when it has ceased to be a 
caterpillar but has not yet developed into a 
flying insect. The caterpillar is the larva of the 
butterfly; the chrysalis is the pupa. When the 
larva attains full growth, it encases itself in a 
hard, smooth skin, becoming a chrysalis (or 
chrysalid). In this form it remains attached to 
a plant or other object by a silken button at 
the end of the abdomen, or by a loop of silk 
passed around the middle of the body. The 
butterfly pupa looks like a wingless, legless, 



CHRYSANTHEMUM 



1419 



CHUGACH NATIONAL FOREST 



lifeless object, but during this stage, antennae, 
wings, and legs develop beneath the skin of 
the pupa, and at the proper time the hard 




CHRYSALIDS AND COCOONS 

(a) Cocoon of sphinx moth, (b) chrysalis of monarch 

butterfly; (c) pupa of mosquito The term chrysalis 

is usually limited to the pupa of a butterfly. 

covering breaks open, and the perfect insect 
emerges. The pupal stage of most moths is 
passed in a silken case called a cocoon, wj.s. 

Derivation. Chrysalis is derived from the Greek 
word for gold The name was given because some of 
the chrysalids shine with a golden luster 



Related Subjects. The reader 
umes to the following articles 
Butterfly 
Caterpillar 
Cocoon 
Insect 



. referred in these vol- 

L.irva 

Metamorphosis 

Moth 

Pupa 



CHRYSANTHEMUM, kris an' the mum. 
The storv of this stately, free-blooming autumn 
flower, the national flower and imperial emblem 




CHRYSANTHEMUM 

of Japan, is most interesting. In its natural 
state, it is much like the aster -coarse-leaved, 
with rather common-looking flowers, the ox- 



eye daisy and the corn marigold being two 
species. But as a result of care, cultivation, 
hybridization, and selection, the chrysanthe- 
mums of the gardens and hothouses to-day 
are gorgeous offspring of Chinese and Japanese 
varieties, with leaves pale green or dusty silver, 
and large, globelike, ragged-blossomed flowers 
of many forms and colors. Every year when 
the gray days come and other flowers have 
faded, in garden spots or florists' windows 
or under the glass of greenhouses, the chrys- 
anthemum, the "golden flower," affords' a 
wealth of brilliant hues. 

In the Imperial Gardens of Japan originated 
the custom of ''chrysanthemum shows." Now 
each year in many countries, for several weeks 
at a time, rich and poor alike can feast on 
the sight of chrysanthemums white or yellow, 
pink or purplish-rose and red, quilled or twisted, 
solid or shaggy, single, double, or semi-double 
chrysanthemums in true pompon or button 
form and size, dozens of blossoms from one 
stem, or one wonderful, showy, eight-inch 
head topping one straight, sturdy stem. B.M.D. 

Feast of Chrysanthemums, a festival celebrated by 
the Japanese in October, marked by magnificent dis- 
plays of the Japanese imperial emblem The feast is 
called kiku-no-sekku, and has practically become a 
public holiday, with streets filled with gay crowds on 
their way to the flower shows The blessing of 
longevity is supposed to be conferred on this day by 
sprinkling chrysanthemum leaves over tables laid 
for tea 

Classification. The chrysanthemums constitute 
the genus Chrysanthemum in the family Compositac 
(sec COMPOSITE FAMILY) 

CHRYSOSTOM, kris' os turn, JOHN, Saint 
(about 345-407), one of the most beloved and 
celebrated of the early Church fathers, born 
at Antioch, Syria. He studied rhetoric with 
the famous orator Libanius, and earned the 
name Chrysostom, meaning the golden- 
mouthed. Through the influence of his pious 
mother he determined to consecrate his life 
to God in the deserts of Syria, but after six 
years he became ill and returned to Antioch. 
He was later ordained deacon and presbyter, 
and in 398 went to Constantinople, where he 
was called John the Almoner, due to his zeal 
for charity. He preached so much against 
worldliness that the emperor banished him to 
the northeast shore of the Black Sea. Obliged 
to make most of the journey on foot, bare- 
headed, in the burning sun, he died on the way. 
His festival is observed on January 27 in 
Roman churches. 

[The Homilies he wrote on parts of the Scripture 
are the best in the ancient Christian literature ] 

CHUB. See FISH. 

CHUCK WILL'S WIDOW. See WHIP- 
POOR- WILL. 
CHUGACH NATIONAL FOREST. See 

ALASKA (Animal and Plant Life). 



CHURCH 



1420 



CHURCHILL 



CHURCH. When Jesus Christ was on earth, 
He gathered about Him a body of followers 
who accepted His teachings and spread them 
after the Resurrection. Within a few years, 
this organization became known as the Church. 
The name comes from a Greek word meaning 
dedicated to the Lord. The Scotch kirk and the 
German Kirche come from the same word and 
possess the same meaning. In the Book of 
Revelation (which see) the Church is spoken 
of as the bride of Christ, meaning all who 
have become His followers. This makes the 
Church a spiritual body, and this is what the 
word means in its broadest sense. 

During the time of the Apostles, the name 
was applied to different groups of Christians, 
and some of Saint Paul's Epistles are addressed 
to these churches. In Revelation, also, the 
word is used in the same way, where the 
angel bids John write to the seven churches 
in Asia Minor. A third meaning of the word 
is a body of Christians having the same creed, 
as the Presbyterian Church, the Baptist 
Church, the Roman Catholic Church. In 
this sense the meaning is the same as denomi- 
nation. 

Finally, the name, as a common noun, is 
given to the building in which a group of people 
of the same faith worship. 

Related Subjects. For the history of the Christian 
Church down to the end of the Reformation, see the articles 
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, REFORMATION, Tut After 
the Reformation, the Protestant body divided into numer- 
ous branches, because of differences in regard to doctrine 
and worship. The important divisions of the Protestant 
group are treated in this work under their respective titles. 

CHURCHES OF GOD IN CHRIST AND 
JESUS. See ADVENTISTS. 

CHURCHILL, LADY. See ANNE (Queen of 
England). 

CHURCHILL, WIN- 
STON (1871- ), an 
American author who 
has written a series of 
historical novels and 
several noteworthy 
books dealing with live 
social and political is- 
8>ues in modern Ameri- 
can life. He was born 
in Saint Louis, Mo., 
and was graduated in 
1894 from the Annap- 
olis Naval Academy. 
Churchill's novel, The 
Celebrity, appeared in 
1898, the first of about 
a dozen successful 
stories. His literary 
career he varied by 
taking an active part in the politics of his home 
state, New Hampshire. In 1903 and 1905 he 
was elected to the state legislature, and in 




Photo Brown Brm 
WINSTON CHURCHILL 

American author. 



1912 was the unsuccessful candidate of the 
Progressive party for governor. 

His Writings. The Celebrity was followed by three 
related historical novels that became very popular 
Richard Carvel, The Crisis, and The Crossing, tales of 
colonial and pioneer days. In 1906 came possibly 
the author's best achievement, Coniston, a finely 
written story of New England local politics. This 
was followed by Mr. Crewe's Career, another political 
novel, A Modern Chronicle, The Inside of the Cup, A 
Far Country, The Dwelling Place of Light, The 
Traveller in War-Time, and Dr. Jonathan (a play). 
Churchill's books are brightened by delightful humor, 
and he knows how to arouse and hold the reader's 
interest. All of his novels show the results of sound, 
careful workmanship, and are uniformly clean and 
wholesome. 

CHURCHILL, WINSTON LEONARD SPENCER 
(1874- )> one of the best-known of the 
modern group of Eng- 
lish statesmen, who, 
though he began his 
Parliamentary career 
as a Conservative, 
rose to distinction in 
the House of Com- 
mons as a Liberal. He 
entered the army in 
1895, saw service in 
India and in Egypt, 
winning a medal for 
gallant conduct in the 
Battle of Khartum, 
and during the South 
African War was cor- 
respondent for a Lon- En S lish author, soldier, and 
don paper. Elected to Desman. 

Parliament in 1900, he allied himself with the 
Liberals, and in 1006, during the Campbell- 
Bannerman Ministry, became Parliamentary 
Secretary for the Colonies. From igo8 to 
1910 he was President of the Board of Trade, 
in IQIO became Home Secretary, and in IQII 
was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty 
in the Asquith Ministry, being one of the 
youngest men who ever held this office. 

Though Churchill was an advocate of a 
strong navy, in 1913 he suggested to Germany 
the plan of a "naval holiday/' each nation to 
cease adding to its navy for one year. The 
next year saw nearly all Europe involved in 
the greatest conflict of modern times, the 
World War. Churchill's conduct of naval 
affairs in the war, especially in connection with 
the campaign in the Dardanelles, caused 
much dissatisfaction, , and when the Cabinet 
was reorganized in 1915 he was relieved of 
the Navy portfolio. But that his ability 
might not be lost to the Cabinet, he was 
appointed to the office of Chancellor of the 
Duchy of Lancaster. In November of the 
same year, he resigned and joined the army in 
France, but retained his seat in Parliament. 
In 1918 he became Secretary of State for 




Photo lirown Hro 
WINSTON mTTRCHlLL 



CHURCHILL RIVER 



1421 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND 



War and Air, and in 1921 Secretary of State 
for the Colonies. With the downfall of his 
party he was for a brief time in retirement, 
but in 1924 he was returned to the Parliament 
and became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 
the Baldwin Cabinet. See GREAT BRITAIN 
(History) ; BALDWIN, STANLEY. 

CHURCHILL RIVER, in Western Canada, 
with the exception of the Nelson and its 
tributaries, the greatest of the rivers which 
flow eastward into Hudson Bay. It is nearly 
1,000 miles long, and its drainage basin, which 
is not sharply defined, includes about 115,000 
square miles. One of its northern branches 
rises in Lake La Loche, in Saskatchewan, 
about ten miles from the Alberta boundary. 
About 300 miles eastward on its course it 
receives Reindeer River, which gives the 
Churchill a direct connection with the Mac- 
kenzie system, the greatest river system in the 
Dominion of Canada. 

Throughout its course the Churchill flows 
through many large and small lakes; in fact, it 
may be called a chain of lakes connected by 
narrow, rapid channels. For the most part the 
lakes and rivers are navigable for canoes, but 
there are many places \\here rapids and water- 
falls make short por.ages necessary. In the 
early days of the Northwest, long before the 
coming of a railway, the Churchill was an 
important trade route. Along its banks fur- 
bearing animals are still trapped in large 
numbers, and its waters abound in fish Fort 
Churchill, at the mouth of the river, is the best 
natural harbor on Hudson Bay. The river was 
named for John Churchill, first Duke of Marl- 
borough, who was the third governor of the 
Hudson's Bay Company (see MARYBOROUGH, 
JOHN CHURCHILL). 

CHURCH OF CHRIST, SCIENTIST. See 
CHRISTIAN SCIENCE. 

CHURCH OF ENGLAND, the Church es- 
tablished by law as the national church of the 
English people. Saint Chrysostom and Jerome 
are the first to mention anything about the 
early British church, three bishops of which 
attended the Council of Aries, 314 A.D., over 
200 years before the coming of Augustine (A.D. 
506)". From this on until the reign of Henry 
VllI, the spiritual guidance of the Pope was 
universally acknowledged. Henry took ad- 
vantage of his quarrel with the Pope to with- 
draw any allegiance formerly given, announcing 
that the' king of England always had been the 
head of the church in England. Parliament in 
1534 sustained the king and made the Church 
in England independent of the Pope, restoring 
it to its ancient position. See HENRY (VIII, 
England) and Related Subjects there given. 

A few years before this, Martin Luther, m 
Germany, had started the revolt against the 
Roman Catholic Church known as the Refor- 
mation, and his ideas had begun to find favor 



with a large number of the English people. 
Protestantism, however, with a meaning some- 
what different from that given it in America, 
was not established in England without a se- 
vere struggle that lasted through the reigns of 
Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth. In the 
Elizabethan period, the English Church was 
definitely committed to an independent exist- 
ence, and the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion 
were put in their present form. See THIRTY- 
NINE ARTICLES. 

The Church of England claims to teach and 
uphold the doctrines of the Apostles, and to be 
a branch of the one universal Church of Christ. 
Its doctrines are stated in the Thirty-nine 
Articles, the Book of Common Prayer, and the 
books of homilies. The Church has possession 
of the edifices, lands, and other property 
granted it in former times, and is protected 
by law in the possession of these endowments. 
In civil matters it is under the jurisdiction of 
Parliament. Convocations of the clergy are 
called for the discussion of religious matters, 
and these often exercise considerable influence. 
A wide range of belief in matters of doctrine 
and forms of worship prevails at the present 
time in the Church, which is divided into three 
groups the High Church, Low Church, and 
Broad Church parties. The first group repre- 
sents those who are nearest the Roman Catho- 
lic Church in doctrine and ritual; the second 
group, those who favor greater simplicity and 
are, in general, opposed to that which savors 
of the Roman worship; the third comprises 
the large group that is between the two ex- 
tremes. 

The Anglo-Catholics, as the High Church 
adherents are usually known, have long tried 
to restore the ancient ritual, which in part is 
like that of the Roman Church. A bill to 
endorse a revised Book of Common Prayer, 
designed to meet some of their aspirations, was 
introduced into Parliament in 1927. It was 
accepted by the Lords, but was rejected in the 
House of Commons, in December of that year. 
A second measure, offering a compromise, was 
rejected in June, 1028, and the following Oc- 
tober a synod of bishops was called in London 
to consider the matter. This body decided to 
accept the decision of the House of Commons 
as final. A year later, however, the convoca- 
tions of York and Canterbury voted to author- 
ize the use of the Prayer Book as revised, but 
made its use optional with any bishop, not 
compulsory. 

In regard to organization, the country is 
divided into two provinces, Canterbury and 
York. These are governed by archbishops, the 
archbishop of Canterbury having jurisdiction 
over England as a whole. The provinces are 
divided into dioceses, over which are bishops. 
Next to the bishops, in order of rank, are the 
archdeacons and deacons, followed by canons, 



CHURCH OF GOD, ADVENTIST 1422 



CICADA 



prebendaries, rectors, vicars, and curates. The 
English clergy are supported neither by the 
State nor entirely by voluntary contributions 
of the Church members, but chiefly by endow- 
ments and bequests given by persons of means 
and liberality. The Church is exceedingly 
active in both foreign and home missionary 
work. 

The American Protestant Episcopal Church 
was once a branch of the Church of England. 
The High Church party has made several in- 
effectual attempts to rename it the American 
Catholic Church. 

Related Subjects. A broader understanding of the his- 
tory of the Church of England will result from reading the 
following articles 

Archbishop Luther, Martin 

Augustine, Saint Oxford Movement 

Canterbury Reformation 

Catharine of Aragon Thirty-nine Articles 

Episcopal Church York 

CHURCH OF GOD, ADVENTIST. See 
ADVENTISTS. 

CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LAT- 
TER DAY SAINTS. See MORMONS. 

CHURCH OF SAINT SOPHIA. See CON- 
STANTINOPLE. 

CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHER. 
See JERUSALEM. 

CHURN, a closed vessel in which butter is 
made. Whatever the type, every churn 
is based on the principle that rapid stirring 
of milk or cream causes the fat particles to 
separate from the liquid and gather into 
lumps. The earliest churns of which we have 
any record were made of goat skins, used with 
the hair side out. In these, milk was agitated 
by swinging or beating until the butter was 
produced. In many farm homes, the old-fash- 
ioned vertical-dasher churn is still used. It is a 
wooden cylinder tapering to the top, where it 
is fitted with a cover. Through the cover 
passes a handle, to which is attached a wooden 
dasher. This consists of two pieces of wood 
crossing each other and perforated with a 
number of small holes. In another common 
type of hand churn, the dasher is revolved in 
the receptacle. 

Barrel churns are also in common use. These 
are operated by a crank that gives the churn 
itself a rotary motion, end over end. No 
dasher is needed. The butter is thrown upon 
the sides of the barrel, and the churner may 
watch the process through a small glass window 
in the cover. In still another kind of churn, 
the liquid is agitated by a back-and-forth 
motion of the vessel, which swings from side 
to side like a cradle. Churns should be made 
of hard, well-seasoned wood, as soft wood 
tends to give the butter a disagreeable taste. 

In creameries, where factory equipment 
takes the place of hand churns, power-driven 
machines are used, in which the butter is 
worked after the buttermilk is drawn off. 



Some of these machines have the butter- 
working apparatus a part of the mechanism, 
and in others it is adjusted separately, after the 
removal of the buttermilk. Combination 
churns and cream separators are also em- 
ployed in some creameries. F.W.D. 

[See illustrations, in article BUTTER.] 

Related Subjects. The reader is referred in these vol- 
umes to the following articles 

Butter Creamery 

Cattle Dairy and Dairying 

CHURUBUSCO, dwo roo boos' ko, BATTLE 
OF. See MEXICAN WAR. 

CHYLE, kile , a form of lymph which differs 
from ordinary lymph in containing globules 
of digested fat held in suspension. These fat 
particles give it a milky appearance. Chyle 
is found in the lacteals, or lymphatics of the 
small intestine; in the lymphatics which lead 
from the small intestine; and in the thoracic 
duct. The fat of chyle is furnished by chyme, 
which pours into the small intestine from the 
stomach. K.A.E. 

Related Subjects. The following articles should he read 
in this connection. 
Chyme Digestion Lacti-als Lymph 

CHYME, kimc. When food enters the 
stomach, the walls of that organ contract in 
such a way as to impart a sort of churning 
motion to it. This process continues until 
every portion of the food has been brought 
into contact with the gastric juice (see STOM- 
ACH), which reduces the food to a pulp called 
chyme. Chyme is a thick grayish-white mass 
of half- fluid consistency. It passes through the 
pylorus into the small intestine, where, under 
the action of intestinal juice, bile, and pan- 
creatic juice, digestion is completed. K.A.E. 

GIBBER, COLLEY. See TOPE, ALEXANDER. 

CIBOLA, sc' bo I ah, SEVEN CITIES OF, were 
Indian villages in the region of the Southwest 
now comprising New Mexico. Legendary tales 
of their wealth of turquoise-studded doors 
and streets of goldsmiths making ornaments 
of gold inflamed the greed of the Spanish 
conquerors. Fra Marcos, a Franciscan priest, 
and a Moor, Estevanico, were the first to see 
Cibola. (The name is believed to be the 
Spanish form of Shiwina, the Indian name for 
the Zuni range.) Estevanico was murdered 
by the Indians, and Fra Marcos, after seeing, 
from afar, the first of these storied cities, 
Hawikuh, returned to the city of New Mexico. 
His tales further excited the Spaniards, and 
an expedition set out under Coronado. Hawi- 
kuh was ta