oioraed
PE
1475
ii635w
1922
MELLISH
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
THE WRITING OF
MEDICAL PAPERS
BY
MAUD H. MELLISH
Editor of The Mayo Clinic Publications
PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY
1922
Copyright. 1922, by W. B. Saunders Company
MADE IN U. 8. A.
PRESS OF
W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY
PHILADELPHIA
PE
\HI?
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 9
CHAPTER I
GOOD USAGB ii
CHAPTER II
VOCABULARY 14
CHAPTER III
ITALICS 17
CHAPTER IV
ABBREVIATIONS, TABLES, AND MISCELLANY 21
CHAPTER V
PUNCTUATION 32
CHAPTER VI
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES 43
CHAPTER VII
DON'TS 61
CHAPTER VIII
SUBJECT MATTER: LENGTH OP PAPERS 66
CHAPTER IX
ARRANGEMENT: THE BEGINNING AND THE END 70
CHAPTER X
THE OUTLINE 73
6 CONTENTS
CHAPTER XI PAGE
CONSTRUCTION 78
CHAPTER XII
CASE HISTORIES: ABSTRACTS 83
CHAPTER XIII
CHAPTER, PARAGRAPH, AND SENTENCE 87
CHAPTER XIV
REFERENCES 91
CHAPTER XV
REVISION 94
CHAPTER XVI
THE TITLE 98
CHAPTER XVII
VOLUME OF OUTPUT 100
CHAPTER XVIII
THE MANUSCRIPT 104
CHAPTER XIX
THE PROOF 108
CHAPTER XX
QUOTED MATERIAL, INDEX, AND COPYRIGHT 113
BIBLIOGRAPHY 115
STANDARD ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 117
INDEX 147
The artist uses whatever material and whatever
forces he finds at hand, but he does not allow himself
to be mastered by them. And when he has finished
his work, he does not fall down before it. He looks at
it critically, he sees its limitations, and he plans a new
work which he hopes may surpass it. — Crothers.
INTRODUCTION
Many men and women who unfortunately
do not possess the art of writing and have not
acquired its usable substitute, the craft of
writing, have yet chosen medicine as a life-
work, for success in which they should be able
to write well for the medical profession. They
desire therefore to acquire the craft of writing
with the least possible effort or delay. For
these there is a need, not for new manuals, but
for a handbook adapted especially to their
profession and including the essential points to
be found in general textbooks. The present
handbook is an attempt to supply this need in
a brief form, for writers of medical papers, and
for those who edit, or read proof on such papers.
Quotations have been used freely where the
thought has been already happily expressed
by others. The topics have been reduced to
a minimum, and rules have been made definite,
even dogmatic, that they may be easy to refer
to and follow. The subject matter has been
arranged in two parts: specifically technical,
Chapters I to VII, and general, Chapters VIII
to XX.
10 INTRODUCTION
It is hoped that the book may help untrained
and partly trained writers to prepare for publi-
cation articles that will convey information
with brevity, accuracy, and clearness, and
adhere to the accepted forms of present day
usage. The volume is necessarily incomplete;
the excuse for this is the purpose in view; its
justification rests with those who use the book.
The author takes this opportunity to express
her appreciation of the books quoted, and the
pleasure and benefit she has derived from their
study.
THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
CHAPTER I
GOOD USAGE
Every man has the fullest liberty to indulge in any sort of linguistic
asceticism under the illusion that he is setting an example of linguistic
holiness. It is only when he insists that others cannot be pure without
accepting his notions of purity that he becomes objectionable. — Lounsbury.
The above and the following quotations
apply with particular fitness to the language
of the science of medicine, with its ever chang-
ing theories and methods, evolving in turn
new words and phrases, some of the more
worthy of which in time may be adopted into
the vocabulary of medicine.
Writers should not be too ready to follow
others in the misuse of terms or words. The
medical vocabulary of today is by no means
meager and the practical writer will do well to
confine himself to that which is already in estab-
lished use. The coining of words of doubtful
value obviously is not the function of busy men
or women whose privilege it is to select from
12 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
an established vocabulary those best adapted to
their purposes. It is often desirable to give new
meanings to old words, but this too may be-
come a much abused practice and may be safely
eliminated from ordinary writing.
The use of unnecessary foreign words or
phrases when English serves the purpose as
well or better is often nothing more than
affectation, and should be rigidly guarded
against and discouraged. The effect on the
reader of such construction is usually not
what the writer would desire; it is apt to
irritate rather than to flatter.
Yet to be regarded as a "purist in style" I have no claim,
and certainly no ambition. It is not with my goodwill that
the "reviewer" too often busies himself with details of style
to the neglect of the stuff of a book. The pedant is not
confined to the academy, and to cavil at words is easier by
far than to arrive at a judgment upon the matter of them.
That in literature, as in society, good form is useful, we are
now to learn, but in the amenities of form it shall not be
said of us that in a coxcombry of manners we become too
exquisite for the primary forces of the human mind.1
A language, like a living creature, bears its whole history
in its own being; it is what it is today because of what it
did and was yesterday. Usage is the final law of language,
and violations of usage, though they may on occasion be
justifiable, are linguistic errors. What was once an error
may become usage; it then ceases to be an error and becomes
correct.14
GOOD USAGE 13
Obscurity, however, may exist or be avoided in ways
that have nothing to do with either grammatical or rhetorical
rules. A writer, for instance, may use obsolete or provincial
forms of expression, or foreign words, in doing either of
which he lays himself open to the charge of using bad English
as well as obscure diction. A foreign word, of course, may
or may not be clear, according to the degree of knowledge
of the person to whom it is addressed. It used to be pre-
sumed that every well educated person knew Latin, and it
was therefore admissible to use Latin words and quotations
quite freely in any work addressed to people of education.
But in our time, education does not follow fixed lines, and
it is quite possible that one may be well educated without
a knowledge of the classical tongues. Much Latin, or even
any Latin at all, therefore, may sin against clearness. The
same may be said of French, German, and other languages.6
Choose words already approved and in use.
Hesitate to give new meanings to old words.
Do not invent words.
Use only English words and phrases.
CHAPTER II
VOCABULARY
If the word first accepted is precisely the word wanted, to vary it is
to vary the sense, to confuse the argument, and to vex the reader. —
Lounsbury.
The accurate use of a large vocabulary of
words clear and sharp in their meaning marks
the scholarly writer. In the study of the craft
of writing the acquiring of such a vocabulary
and of ready skill in its use should be the
first consideration. New words or those new
to the student should be painstakingly investi-
gated before they are appropriated and utilized.
In this way only can accuracy in the use of
many words be attained.
Nevertheless, while a meager supply of
words is often a handicap to convincing and
pleasing diction, in many instances writers of
medical papers will find it more important to
clear up their vocabularies than to enlarge
them. Irrelevant words and words remote
in application should be unhesitatingly elimi-
nated. If suitable ones cannot be found to
take their places, the manuscript should be
14
VOCABULARY 1 5
reconstructed so that it will read logically and
harmoniously without them.
No language has so complex and varied a vocabulary
as English. Our everyday speech includes a multitude of
words from all periods of history, and every quarter of the
globe. All the great civilizations have contributed to our
vocabulary. Indeed, the history of English words is the
history of our civilization in all its aspects."
Out of the army of terms that offer themselves for admis-
sion in every generation, but a very limited number find
lodgment in the speech. Nor do these, save in the rarest
instances, displace or make obsolete those already there.13
The habit which injures one's vocabulary most is the
habit of using crystallized phrases. Thought and the real
phrasing of thought soon become impossible.14
When we call a word popular we do not mean that it
is a favorite word, but simply that it belongs to the people
as a whole, that is, it is everybody's word, not the possession
of a limited number. When we call a word learned we do
not mean that it is used by scholars alone, but simply that
its presence in the English vocabulary is due to books and
the cultivation of literature rather than to the actual needs
of ordinary conversation.
Here is one of the main differences between a cultivated
and an uncultivated language. Both possess a large stock
of popular words, but the cultivated language is also rich
in learned words, with which the ruder tongue has not pro-
vided itself simply because it has never felt the need of them.
There is nothing abnormal about slang. In making it
men proceed in precisely the same manner as in making
language and under the same natural laws. The motive,
however, is somewhat different, for slang is not meant simply
to express one's thoughts. Its coinage and circulation come
1 6 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
rather from the wish of the individual to distinguish him-
self by oddity or grotesque humor. Hence slang is seldom
controlled by any regard for propriety, and it bids deliberate
defiance to all considerations of good taste.11
Acquire a large and varied vocabulary from
which to select the most fitting words.
Do not repeat a word or phrase needlessly,
although repetition is preferable to awkward
or labored avoidance of it.
Before using unfamiliar words, thoroughly
investigate their meaning.
Use words accurately.
Discard irrelevant and needless words.
Avoid crystallized phrases.
CHAPTER III
ITALICS
Italics should be used sparingly to express emphasis. The practice
of italicizing words too frequently spoils rather than adds to the effect,
and wearies the reader. — Manly and Powell.
The gradual disuse of italics as a means of
emphasis, and for such foreign words as may
not have been discarded from the English
language, is welcomed by readers who are
invariably annoyed by this method of attract-
ing their attention. Italics in English and
their substitute, the wide spacing of the letters
of a word so common in German literature,
equally insult the intelligence of the reader.
Their use for the purpose of calling attention
to humor or irony is undignified. However,
there are various uses to which italics may be
properly applied, for example:
Inserted subheads in papers; foreign words;
symbols (a); (fr), (c}> and so forth, used to
indicate subdivisions when beginning a para-
graph; particular letters of the alphabet when
referred to as such (the letter u, a small v) ;
2 17
1 8 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
and titles of books or articles quoted in regular
matter, unquoted in footnotes, and so forth.
To indicate in manuscript the use of italics,
a line should be drawn under the letters, words,
or sentences. Quotation marks are not used
with an italicized word.
Italicize scientific names of genera and
species when used together, such as Stegomyia
calopus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacillus tetani,
Bacillus subtilis, and Micrococcus nitrificans.
Many names of genera have become naturalized
as common nouns and should be set in Roman
when standing alone, for example, bacillus,
streptococcus, staphylococcus, treponema, spiro-
chete, micrococcus, blastomyces, ankylostoma,
anopheles, paramecium, and streptothrix.
ILLUSTRATIVE LIST OF WORDS STILL ITALICIZED
ab ovo ibid, (ibidem) par excellence
amour-propre idem persona non grata
bete noire in re raison d'etre
chef-d'oeuvre inter alia savoir faire
coup d'etat intra vitam sui generis
esprit de corps ipso facto tour de force
ex parte loc. cit. (loco citato) vis £ tergo
ex post facto mens sana in corpore sano vis medicatrix
naturae
ITALICS
ILLUSTRATIVE LIST OF WORDS No LONGER ITALICIZED
ad infinitum
fete
per rectum
aide de camp
fistula in ano
per se
alma mater
furunculosis orientalis
personnel
alveolar carcinoma grand mal
petit mal
anlage
gyrus angularis
postmortem
a posteriori
habeas corpus
prima facie
a priori
habitue
privat decent
apropos
in extenso
pro and con (tra)
attache
in loco
prot6g6
bas-relief
in maximo
pro tern (pore)
bona fide
'n minim o
questionnaire
cafe
innuendo
queue
charge d'affaires
in situ
regime
clientele
in statu quo
rendezvous
confrere
in utero
resume
connoisseur
in vitro
reveille
creche
in vivo
rigor mortis
criterion
locum tenens
r61e
culdesac
massage
savant
data
melee
(sic)
debris
modus operandi
sine die
debut
morale
sine qua non
decollet^
motif
sobriquet .
denouement
naive
soir6e
de novo
net
status epilepticus
depot
niche
terra firma
doctrinaire
ail
tete-a-tete
eclat
nom de plume
tonneau
elite
os calcis
"treppe"
ennui
papier mache
umlaut
entree
per annum
verbatim
erratum
per capita
versus
ex officio
per cent
via
expose
per contra
vice versa
facade
per os
vis-a-vis
facsimile
vise
2O
Avoid the use of italics and the wide spac-
ing of words for emphasis.
Use italics for subheads in manuscript, for
figures and letters subdividing paragraphs or
sentences, and so forth.
Italicize foreign words until their frequent
use results in their adoption into English.
Underscore with a single line to indicate
italics.
CHAPTER IV
ABBREVIATIONS, TABLES, AND MISCELLANY
Abbreviations are in bad taste in literary compositions of any kind,
including letters. Use no abbreviations except those which you know are
employed, not by the newspapers and writers of common-place business
letters, but by recognized masters of English prose. — Woolley.
While standard abbreviations may be used
quite correctly in technical papers, tabula-
tions, and so forth, they should in general be
used sparingly, and they should always be
used consistently. Compilations of tabula-
tions and statistics should not be abbreviated
in one column and then, because space seems
to permit, spelled out in the next column.
It is quite possible for the casual writer to be
wholly inappreciative of the time and care
expended by editors in recasting and checking
tabulated data. The writer himself should
experience the satisfaction which follows the
accomplishment of an orderly grouping of
figures and statistics. In arranging tabula-
tions the size of the journal page must be con-
sidered. Data should be condensed to fit the
space. A printed table may be continued
22 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
on the next page; it should not be folded.
Definite proportions should be adhered to in
tabulating material for lantern slides. The
proportion should conform to the size and
shape of the slide. A space 10 by 8 inches
should not be exceeded for the typewritten
copy. The amount of reduction within this
limit and the excellence of the reproduction
will depend largely on the skill of the statis-
tician. The figures and lettering should be
very black against a white background in
order to bring out a sharp projection on the
screen. The same rules apply to making
charts. Specially prepared paper, ruled in
brown or black should be used and the trac-
ings made in black.
Each table should be provided with a descriptive heading.
If there is more than one table, all should be numbered
consecutively, Table i, Table 2, Table 3, and so forth.
Words or letters of the alphabet should not be used when
Arabic numerals or mathematical signs can be used.
Vertical (not horizontal) columns should consist of like
data.
Condensation should be studied. Often a column can be
condensed by putting in the heading a factor common to
all the entries in the column.3
The author should indicate in the manu-
script about where he wishes tables placed.
ABBREVIATIONS, TABLES, AND MISCELLANY 23
Abbreviate volume, number, division, chap-
ter, article, section, page, column, line, note,
and figure followed by their number in foot-
notes and in bibliographic matter; and abbre-
viate the word following after the number to
denote continuance or sequence. Abbreviate
figure at the beginning of legends and when
it is placed in parenthesis in a sentence or at
the close of a sentence. Write the word in
full when it occurs in the text. Example:
Fig. i. The crystals of the amino form of
thyroxin, shown also in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. The solution becomes turbid and
fine branching crystals separate (Fig. i).
The common designations of weights and
measures in the metric system, the symbols
of measurement in common use, should be
abbreviated when following numerals and time.
24 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
A PARTIAL LIST OF STANDARD ABBREVIATIONS
alternating current a.-c.
centigrade C.
centimeters cm.
cubic cu.
cubic centimeters c.c.
direct current d.-c.
Fahrenheit F.
feet ft.
gallons gal.
grains gr.
gram-calories gm.-cal.
grams gm.
hours hr.
inches in.
kilogram-calories kg.-cal.
kilogram-meters kg.-m.
kilograms kg.
kilometers km.
kilowatts kw.
meter-kilograms m.-kg.
meters m.
milligrams mg.
millimeters mm.
minutes min.
ounces oz.
pounds lb.
seconds sec.
square sq.
kilovolt-amperes kv.-a.
kilovolts kv.
yards yd.
Spell out all numbers at the beginning of
sentences.
ABBREVIATIONS, TABLES, AND MISCELLANY 25
Spell out all numbers less than three figures,
except those denoting blood count, respiration,
pulse, temperature, specific gravity, weight,
length, area, capacity, degrees, percentages,
ratios, and so forth.
Spell out all fractions except decimals (one-
half of a pound; one-half of a mile; three-
quarters of a dollar; 2.5 inches).
Spell out length of time (fifteen minutes;
fifteen hours; fifteen years).
Spell out months except when necessary to
abbreviate in tabulated material (January i,
1922). When two years are hyphenated,
set both in full (1921-1922).
Spell out centuries : right, nineteenth century ;
wrong, 1 9th century; right, the nineties; wrong,
the 90*5.
Do not spell out Mr. Mrs., and Dr.
Abbreviate Professor, President, Secretary,
Superintendent, Surgeon, Colonel, and Captain
before the first name or initials, but not before
the family name alone : Capt. Charles Albright ;
Captain Albright; Col. Thomas R. Manning;
Colonel Manning.
Do not abbreviate names of persons: right,
Thomas R. Manning; wrong, Thos. R. Man-
ning.
26 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Degrees after names are abbreviated as
follows :
Bachelor of Arts B. A.
Bachelor of Science B. S.
Bachelor of Law B. L.
Bachelor of Divinity B. D.
Bachelor of Laws LL. B.
Bachelor of Philosophy Ph. B.
Graduate in Pharmacy Ph. G.
Bachelor of Medicine M. B.
Master of Arts M. A.
Master of Science M. S.
Master of Surgery M. S.
Master of Dental Surgery M. D. S.
Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D.
Doctor of Medicine M. D.
Doctor of Divinity D. D.
Doctor of Laws J. D. or LL. D.
Doctor of Letters Litt. D.
Doctor of Science D. Sc.
Doctor of Dental Surgery D.D.S.
Fellow of the American College of
Surgeons F.A.C.S.
Fellow of the Royal College of Physi-
cians (England) F.R.C.P.
Fellow of the Royal College of Sur-
geons (London, Edinburgh, Ire-
land) F.R.C.S.
Abbreviate Saint (St. Paul, St. Louis).
Do not abbreviate Fort or Mount (Fort
Dodge, Mount Vernon).
ABBREVIATIONS, TABLES, AND MISCELLANY 27
Set in figures the day of the month and the
year (May 19, 1922); time of day (n a.m.,
3 130 p.m.) ; and numbers indicating serial po-
sition (page 10, Case 3, Table i, Vol. xx).
Set in figures sums of money ($5.50).
Set in figures practically all data in tabula-
tions.
All of the foregoing rules are subject to
variations, but such variations should not be
accepted as precedents.
ABBREVIATION OF NAMES OF STATES
Spell out Cuba, Guam, Samoa, Utah, and
as a rule all state names containing only four
or five letters.
Ala.
Ga.
Me.
N. H.
Que.
Alta.
H. I.
Mich.
N..J.
R. I.
Ariz.
la.
Minn.
N. M.
Sask.
Ark.
Ida.
Miss.
N. S.
S. C.
B. C.
111.
Mo.
N. Y.
S. D.
Calif.
Ind.
Mont.
O.
Tenn.
C. Z.
Kan.
Neb.
Okla.
Tex.
Colo.
Ky.
Nev.
Ont.
Va.
Conn.
La.
N. B.
Ore.
Vt.
Del.
Manit.
N. C.
Pa
Wash.
D. C.
Mass.
N. D.
P. I.
W. Va.
Fla.
Md.
N. F.
P. R.
Wis.
Wyo.
28 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
NAMES OF CITIES AFTER WHICH STATE MAY BE OMITTED
Baltimore Detroit Philadelphia
Boston
Indianapolis
Pittsburgh
Brooklyn
Los Angeles
Salt Lake City
Buffalo
Minneapolis
San Francisco
Chicago
New Orleans
Seattle
Cincinnati
New York
St. Louis
Cleveland
Oklahoma City
St. Paul
Denver
Omaha
Ordinarily write out specific gravity; in tables other
condensed matter abbreviate to sp. gr., 1.078.
Never abbreviate names of foreign countries.
Write 4 by 5 by 7 inches, not 4 x 5 x 7 in. Write one-
sixth by volume, not 1/6 x vol.
Except where condensation is an object, as in tables,
write eighth-molecular, not m/8; write tenth-normal, not
decinormal or N/io. But if it is desirable for some special
reason to use the fraction, use the slant instead of the hori-
zontal line to separate numerator and denominator.
Write fourth cervical, second lumbar, and so forth, not
C IV, L 2, and so forth.
In ordinary matter spell out dosages. Write 4 grains,
three times a day, not gr. iv, t. i. d.
In a trade name the expression & Co. is used; otherwise
Company is spelled out.
The abbreviation for the expression i to 1,000 is. i : 1,000.
A thin space after the colon is desirable. Thin spaces are
also to be used with all signs, as the plus, minus, and sign
of equality.
Never use ditto marks; if they occur in the copy the words
for which they stand are to be spelled out.
Indicate the magnification of photomicrographs by the
sign of multiplication and the number, as:
Fig. i (Case i). — Section of sarcoma (Xioo).2
ABBREVIATIONS, TABLES, AND MISCELLANY 29
FOOTNOTES
Use superior figures in the text instead of the
star, dagger, and so forth. They are less
conspicuous and the number may be extended
indefinitely. If symbols are used they are
placed in the following order: star, dagger,
double dagger, section, parallel lines, and
paragraph (*, f, t &, II, ID-
A note at the end of an article, not referred
to in the text, is written as follows:
Note. — Dr. Jones exhibited a number of
animals with encephalitis.
CAPITALS
Capitalize only the first word in English
titles of publications (books, pamphlets, docu-
ments, periodicals, reports, and so forth) and
their divisions (parts, chapters, sections, and
articles), and in subjects of lectures, papers,
and toasts when they appear either in biblio-
graphic matter or in the body of the text.
In foreign titles, in addition to capitalizing the first word,
follow these general rules:
(a) In Latin titles capitalize proper nouns and adjectives
derived therefrom.
(6) In French, Italian, Spanish, and Scandinavian titles
capitalize proper nouns but not adjectives derived therefrom.
(c) In German and Danish capitalize all nouns but not
30 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
the adjectives, except German adjectives derived from the
names of persons.
(d) In Dutch capitalize all nouns and all adjectives
derived from proper nouns.
Capitalize titles of ancient manuscripts (abbreviation:
MS in the singular; MSS in the plural).
In botanical and zoological matter capitalize the names
of species if derived from names of persons or from generic
names, but in geological and medical matter never capitalize
the names of species.
To indicate on the manuscript (copy) that capitals are
desired, draw three lines, and to indicate small capitals
draw two lines under the letter or word to be capitalized.
It is also a frequent practice to express these directions
by writing caps, s. c. (small caps), or 1. c. (lower case), or
c. and 1. c. (caps and lower case) in the margin as a direction
for a line or passage to be so treated.
To indicate italic, underscore with a straight line. For
italic capitals underscore with three lines and add the words
italic caps in the margin.
To indicate black face or bold face type underscore with
a wavy line, thus ~~~~~:
Quoted matter exceeding five or six lines of type is usually
set in type of smaller size than the body of the text. It
will save trouble to the copy-reader and the printer and
often avoid inconsistent typographical treatment if such
matter is single-spaced when written on the typewriter,
or is otherwise set off from the body of the text in the copy.14
Use standard abbreviations only.
Use abbreviations sparingly and consistently.
When necessary abbreviate statistical data
in charts, tables, and so forth.
ABBREVIATIONS, TABLES, AND MISCELLANY 31
Arrange tabulated material for the printed
page so that folding will not be necessary.
Arrange material for lantern slides within
a prescribed limit proportional to the dimen-
sions of the slide.
Use superior figures in the text to indicate
footnotes.
Follow general rules in capitalizing.
CHAPTER V
PUNCTUATION
When to use a mark and what mark to use, are determined by reason
or by convention. The full value of marks is rarely understood even by
educated and cultured people. — Klein.
It is obvious that a limited number of even
well selected rules is of little value in deciding
points of punctuation. Differences of opinion
alone demand detailed explanations and ex-
amples. Obviously, also, it is unnecessary
to call attention to the importance of some-
what more than an intuitive knowledge of
punctuation. The writer should study thor-
oughly a well recognized treatise on the sub-
ject before assuming that he can make his
meaning clear with marks of punctuation.
If such study is not feasible he should place
marks cautiously and be guided in their further
use by the printer and the editor.
Close punctuation is characterized by the
use of many commas; the form was in common
use in English in the eighteenth century and
is still used in French. Open punctuation is
characterized by the avoidance of all point-
s'
PUNCTUATION 33
ing not clearly required by the construction;
it now prevails in the best English usage.
In some cases, as in certain legal papers, title
pages, and so forth, punctuation is wholly
omitted.
The function of marks is twofold:
1. To reveal the real meaning of printed language.
2. To reveal such meaning at a glance.
Marks perform this function in three ways:
1. By breaking up apparent groups of words, which
readily form themselves into new groups.
2. By showing the relations between groups.
3. By characterizing a group of words.
Every group of words, as well as every word, sustains
some relation to another word or group of words in the
sentence or paragraph. Somewhat exact knowledge of this
relation is possessed by everybody, even by the child just
beginning to talk. It is part of one's common sense; but
unfortunately many textbooks on language, used in the
grade school, the high school, .and the college, bury the
common-sense knowledge of the pupil under technicalities
that are never mastered. Tn like manner the technicalities
of punctuation have made the art so difficult that it may
be said to be almost a lost art. We are attempting to re-
discover it through our common sense.
While we must recognize the fact that for some years
there has been a tendency among good writers to use fewer
marks, we should disregard any such tendency based upon
a lack of appreciation of the value of marks or, more specif-
ically, upon ignorance of the fine sense relations of language
so easily overlooked when not indicated by marks with
meanings."
3
34 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
THE FOLLOWING GENERAL RULES DEFINE PRESENT GOOD
USAGE OF PUNCTUATION
THE PERIOD (.)
The period is used :
1. After a complete declarative or imperative sentence.
2. After an abbreviated word or a single or double initial
letter representing a word, as etc., viz., Mrs., i. e., e. g., LL. D.,
PP.
THE COMMA (,)
The comma is used:
1. To set off a substantive used in direct address, as:
You see, John, how I stand.
2. To set off appositives, as: Vienna, the capital of Austria.
3. To set off absolute phrases, as: The temperature
being normal, the patient was dismissed.
4. To set off any word or phrase which has a parenthetic
function but for which parenthesis marks or double dashes
are not suitable, as: His refusal to my offer, however, I
don't understand.
5. To set off a geographical name explaining a preceding
name.
6. To separate coordinate clauses connected by one of
the simple conjunctions, as: The train moved swiftly, but
Turner arrived too late.
7. To set off a dependent clause preceding its principal
clause. When the dependent clause follows the principal
clause a comma is usually unnecessary. Example: When
darkness comes, the candles are lit.
8. To indicate every distinct pause within a sentence,
except the pauses for which other marks of punctuation
are appropriate.
Q. To indicate separation between any sentence elements
that might, in reading, be improperly joined or misunder-
stood, were there no comma, as: On the path leading to
PUNCTUATION 35
the cellar steps were heard; and: On the path leading to
the cellar, steps were heard.
Two adjectives modifying the same noun should be sepa-
rated by commas if they are coordinate in thought; but if
the first adjective is felt to be superposed on the second,
they should not be separated by a comma, as: A faithful,
sincere friend. A big gray cat.
In a series of the form a, b, and c, a comma should precede
the conjunction. The practice of omitting the comma before
the conjunction is illogical and is not favored by the best
modern usage.
Often a phrase or clause, though grammatically a modifier
of a preceding substantive, is felt to be not an adjunct to
that substantive, but rather a statement added to the main
assertion of the sentence. Such phrases and clauses are
called nonrestrictive. They should always be set off by
commas, as: Washington Irving, whose personality was
genial and charming, became very popular in England.
When a phrase or clause, modifying a preceding substantive,
is felt to be essentially a modifier restricting that substantive,
it is called a restrictive phrase or clause. Such phrases and
clauses are not to be set off by commas, as: Every man who
holds such an opinion is by tendency a criminal.
After an interjection a comma is often preferable to an
exclamation point.
Expressions like he said, preceding direct quotations in
narrative, and such expressions preceding short direct quota-
tions in general, should be followed by a comma.
Guard against the use of commas where they are not
necessary. As a rule, do not put a comma where no pause
is made in reading.
Do not put a comma or other mark of punctuation before
the first member of a series of sentence elements unless it
would be required there, were there one element instead of a
series.
36 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Put no comma before a substantive clause introduced
by that or how when the governing verb (such as said, thought,
supposed) immediately or very closely precedes the clause.
Clauses of a compound sentence that are not joined by
conjunctions may be separated by commas when the clauses
are short, have no commas within themselves, and are closely
parallel in substance and form.
THE SEMICOLON (;)
The semicolon is used:
1. Between clauses of a compound sentence that are not
joined by a conjunction, as: He did not go to Canada; he
went to Mexico.
2. Between clauses of a compound sentence that are
joined by one of the conjunctive adverbs so, therefore, hence,
however, nevertheless, moreover, accordingly, besides, also,
thus, then, still, and otherwise.
3. Between clauses of a compound sentence that are
joined by a simple conjunction, when these clauses are some-
what long or when a more decided pause than a comma
would furnish is desirable.
4. To separate two or more coordinate members of a
simple or complex sentence when those members, or some
of them, have commas within themselves.
5. To separate any two members of a simple or complex
sentence when for any reason a comma would not make the
relation between them immediately clear.
Do not use a semicolon between two members of a simple
or complex sentence; use a comma if any punctuation is
required at such a place.
THE COLON (:)
The colon is used after a word, phrase, or sentence con-
stituting an introduction to something that follows, such
PUNCTUATION 37
as a list or an extended quotation, as: There are three causes:
poverty, injustice, and indolence.
THE QUESTION MARK (?)
The question mark is used after a direct question but
not after an indirect question.
The question mark within parentheses is properly used
only in serious compositions, such as historical works. Its
use as a notice of humor or irony is puerility. Example:
This event occurred in 411 B. C. (?).
THE DASH (— )
The dash is used:
1. When a sentence is abruptly broken off before its
completion.
2. After a comma, to increase the separation slightly.
3. As a substitute for parenthesis marks.
4. Before a word summarizing the preceding part of a
sentence.
5. Before a repetition or modification having the effect
of an afterthought.
6. After the word immediately preceding a sentence
element that is set apart on the page from the first part of
the sentence.
Do not use dashes indiscriminately, where commas,
periods, or other marks of punctuation belong.
PARENTHESIS MARKS ()
When parenthesis marks are used to set off matter in a
sentence, a comma, a period, or other mark of punctuation
belonging to the part before such matter should be placed
after the second parenthesis mark, not elsewhere.
A comma should not be used with parenthesis marks
unless it would be required were there no parenthetic matter.
38 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Do not use parenthesis marks to enclose matter that is
not parenthetical. Do not use them:
1. To emphasize a word; italicize.
2. To enclose a word about which something is said as a
word. Such words should be italicized.
3. To indicate the title of a book; italicize.
4. To enclose a letter, number, or symbol, unless it is
used parenthetically.
5. To cancel a word or passage.
BRACKETS ([ ])
Square brackets, [ ], are used to enclose a word or words
interpolated in a quotation by the person quoting. Words
enclosed in parenthesis marks, ( ), occurring in a quotation,
are understood to belong to the quotation; words enclosed
in brackets, [ ], are understood to be interpolated by the
writer quoting.
QUOTATION MARKS (" ")
Quotation marks are used to enclose a direct quotation,
but not to enclose an indirect quotation.
Do not fail to put quotation marks at the beginning and
the end of every quotation.
Do not punctuate sentences of a single speech as if they
were separate speeches.
When a quotation mark and a question or exclamation
mark both follow the same word:
1. The question or exclamation mark should stand first
if it applies to the quotation and not to the sentence con-
taining the quotation.
2. The quotation mark should stand first if the other
mark applies, not to the quotation, but to the sentence con-
taining the quotation.
3. In either case no comma or period should be used in
addition to the quotation mark and the question or exclama-
tion mark.
PUNCTUATION 39
A quotation within a quotation is marked by single quota-
tion marks; one within that by double marks.
When a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quota-
tion marks should be placed at the beginning of each para-
graph and at the end of the quotation.
Quotation marks may sometimes be used to mark a tech-
nical term presumably unfamiliar to the reader.
Quotation marks may sometimes be used to indicate
apology for slang or nicknames.
Do not use quotation marks:
1. To enclose the title at the head of a composition,
unless the title is a quotation.
2. To enclose proper names, including names of animals.
3. To enclose proverbial expressions that do not constitute
grammatically and logically complete statements.
4. To enclose words coined ex'empore.
5. To serve the undignified and inartistic purpose of
labeling your own humor or irony.
6. For no reason at all.
THE APOSTROPHE (')
In the possessive singular of regularly inflected nouns an
apostrophe should ordinarily precede the s; in the possessive
plural of such nouns an apostrophe should follow" the s.
Do not form the possessive singular of a noun ending in
s by putting an apostrophe before the s; put an apostrophe
after the 5 or add 's.
Never use an apostrophe with the possessive adjectives
hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs.
In a contracted word an apostrophe should stand in the
place of the omitted letter or letters, not elsewhere.
The plural of letters of the alphabet and of numerical
symbols is formed by adding 's to the letter or symbol.
The plural of a word considered as a word may also be formed
in the same way. But the regular plural of a noun should
never be formed by adding 's.
40 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
THE HYPHEN (-)
No simple rule can be given for determining whether a
compound word should be hyphened or written solid. One
must simply learn, from observation and from dictionaries,
what is the correct practice in individual cases.
Always hyphen to-day, to-night, to-morrow, and good-bye.
In dividing a word at the end of a line, place a hyphen
after the first element of the word and there only; never
put a hyphen at the beginning of a line.17
THE EXCLAMATION POINT (!)
Use the exclamation point after a word
or group of words to express command, sur-
prise, or emotion. Do not use two or three
exclamation points together.
MISCELLANEOUS RULES
If such as is used to introduce an example,
or examples, it is preceded by a comma, a
comma and dash, or a semicolon, and should
not be followed by a punctuation mark unless
a parenthetical expression is inserted between
the such as and the words it introduces.
In an example or explanation introduced
by one of the expressions, viz. (namely), e. g.
(for example), and i. e. (that is), the expres-
sion should always be followed by a comma.
0 is always written with a capital, but oh takes a capital
only when beginning a sentence. Some writers prefer always
to write oh with a capital.
PUNCTUATION 41
A period, or any other mark except an interrogation
point, is not often used after a display line in the title-page
of a book. This practice is well-nigh universal in hook work
and almost equally so in magazines.
A period and a dash are generally used after a side head.
The dash sets the group of words off from what follows and
thus shows at a glance that the words are a heading and not
a part of the sentence following.
A period is generally placed after the letter or the number
indicating a division in enumerations.
If the divisions have subdivisions and the subdivisions
are further subdivided, it is helpful to the reader if a good
conventional style is followed. In the case of four divisions
and subdivisions, a good conventional style is as follows:
A. The capital letters (A, B, C, and so forth) will mark
the main divisions of the subject.
I. The Roman numerals (I, II, III, and so forth) will
mark the subdivisions of A, B, C, and so forth.
i. The Arabic figures (i, 2, 3, and so forth) will mark
the subdivisions of I, II, III, and so forth,
a. The italic lower-case letters (a, b, c, and so
forth) will mark the subdivisions of i, 2, 3,
and so forth.
The word cent in per cent is now generally written without
a period.
The terms 4 to, 8 vo, 12 mo, and so forth, used to denote
the size of books, are not abbreviations and so do not take
periods after them. Each number stands for a suppressed
part of the word in which it appears.
When one, for the sake of brevity or otherwise, omits a
word, a group of words, or one or more sentences from a
quotation, such omission or ellipsis is indicated by either
periods or stars. Periods are generally preferred on the
ground that they look better on the printed page than stars.
Unfortunately the number of periods used for an ellipsis
is not definitely fixed by convention.
42 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
If words are omitted from the end of a sentence the end-
mark of the sentence, if an exclamation point or an interro-
gation point, is retained and follows the three periods. If
the end-mark of the sentence is a period and one or more
sentences following are omitted there will be four periods
at this point. There will be the same number if words are
omitted from the beginning of a sentence following a sentence
ending with a period.
' If stars are used the closing period is retained.
If one or more paragraphs, or if, in poetry, one or more
lines are omitted a full line of periods or stars is used.
A dash or stars are used in the place of letters omitted
from a word, and the dash in place of figures omitted from
a number of figures.12
Study punctuation thoroughly; the art can-
not be learned from a few rules.
Use marks of punctuation to show the rela-
tion between groups of words.
When in doubt place marks guardedly, using
only such as are clearly indicated.
CHAPTER VI
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES
Grammar is not pedantry" mathematics is not pedantry; military
maneuvers are not pedantry; but pedantry it is to take grammar for
literature, mathematics for physics, or maneuvers for war. — Allbutt.
Errors of grammar in writing as in speaking
are quite as often the result of careless habits
of thinking and of expression as of unfamiliarity
with the common rules of grammar. If the
writer will cultivate a fixed habit of searching
for exactly the right words to form a sentence,
he will be saved from committing gross errors
in speaking as well as in writing. He will,
moreover, be repaid for the time and care
thus expended when he contrasts the results
with those of others less painstaking.
Scientific writers are too apt to suppose that restatement
in bigger words is explanation.
Role is inferior to part, for role takes us back to a dried
sheepskin, whereas to play a part is to be engaged in the
drama itself. Summary is at least as good as resume; and
dernier ressort has no advantage over last resort. Raison
d'etre, tout ensemble, cortege, par excellence, and so forth, give
us nothing that we have not of our own. Taboo is generally-
used incorrectly, and in this common use is no better than
43
44 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
ban. There is no virtue in the barbarous cavitation which
is not in the civiller word excavation. To exteriorise is no
better than to utter, nor centrijugalisation than spinning.
Standardisation is a grievous infliction; let it serve as a
warning.
To the journalist, opinion is almost obsolete; he abases
theory to take its place. An antiquary, as he tells us, has a
theory that a certain coin is of Constantine; in the next
paragraph he himself has a theory that a burglar climbed
over the garden wall and let himself in by the cellar window;
in the next a theory that the leader of the opposite political
party talks nonsense; and so on. We, who shrink from
pedantry, scarcely venture nowadays to speak of opinions
or notions, or to keep theory for higher uses.
The neutral or indefinite pronoun one should be used
sparingly in English; one says, one does, are good French
or good German, but, if used indifferently, are not good
English.
The use of you and yours as indefinite pronouns is generally
vulgar, and not rarely unpleasant; e. g., when a student reads
to me, You may then get secondary deposits of cancer in
your liver, I resent the suggestion.
The following sentence, culled two or three years ago
from one of our theses, is, I admit, a record example:
Then I should advise putting your feet into hot water,
when he will feel a gentle perspiration breaking out, and the
next morning one will feel the cold passing off.
Even in more careful writings the pronoun- one is some-
times followed later in the sentence or paragraph by we,
your, and so forth.
I note that an indirect construction is often used to avoid
the little word 7. It would seem that an impression is abroad
among the writers of academic essays that the first person
is indecent. No doubt, as in our manners generally, self
must be intruded with tact; we must intrude, that is, just
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES 45
so much of one's self as the reader is attuned to, and no
more. Of the reader of a thesis, or other such paper, it is
expected that he speak in due measure of himself — of his
own work and his own opinions; and persistently to evade
the first person singular is in him affectation. Egoism may
lurk even in impersonality.
The hanging participle. — It is a very common fault to
leave a participle hanging, that is, without a subject; for
example, "My thesis was half written, having consulted
Professor Wilkinson as to the subject." Did the thesis con-
sult the Professor? "Complaining of shortness of breath,
the nurse lifted her into bed." Was it the nurse who com-
plained?
The following expressions are inadmissible: "I discussed
a series of cases occurring (which occurred) in this hospital";
"the building stood for many years, being pulled down,
however, fifty years ago"; "I intend doing" (to do); "to
which I propose alluding" (to allude); "we are contemplating
walking back"; and so forth.
The double passive is a clumsy mode of speech and in
many cases hazy in meaning. Why do we say "were con-
sidered to be produced by" (were attributed to); "his voice
was unable to be heard"; "the meaning may not be able to
be made out"; or "a frothy fluid would be able to be squeezed
out"?
Transitive and intransitive verbs: e. g., "The patient quiets
down." There is no authority worth mentioning for this
use of the verb, nor is the use needed. Even in the active,
some verbs, as to give, become transitive only by means of
the preposition to: for example, "I will give to him"; but to
write, "The patient was given a rhubarb pill" is bad, and
gratuitously bad, for we can say as readily that "a rhubarb
pill was given to him." For "the remedy should be given
a thorough trial," read "should be well tried."1
46 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Adverbs. — Place the adverbs only, merely,
just, almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, quite, and
nearly next to the words they modify and not
elsewhere. Example: ambiguous: Present ab-
stracts of long papers to an audience only;
correct: Present to an audience only abstracts
of long papers.
Past tenses and perfect participles. — Of some verbs the
past tenses and perfect participles are often confused: for
example, "I had scarcely began when he begun" (a double
error); "he drunk (drank) the mixture"; "the rags must be
burnt" (burned).
The subjunctive mood is falling into disuse but is still
effective for grave or emphatic doubt. //, however, often
means seeing that, when no doubt is assumed, and the sub-
junctive would be incorrect.
False concords. — These are relatively few, but they happen
occasionally: for example, "The ideas he had gained was
his chief concern." "This tablet, with the window above,
are a tribute," and so forth, was written on brass in Exeter
Cathedral. "The professor, with his friend and his pupil,
were" (was), and so forth. "The severity of the symptoms
were such," and so forth. "Policy as well as fashion dictate"
(dictates). "Gout as well as glycosuria were (was) present."
"Neither the one nor the other were (was) there." "The
outline of the breastbone is altered, as are also some of the
ribs" (as is also that of some of the ribs). Even in careful
writing a false concord will creep in furtively sometimes, as;
"My intentions were good, but my perseverance faulty"
(my perseverance were). "His gait is reeling and his steps
(are) irregular." "The outline was blurred and the details
(were) indistinct." Or again, "The complexion is pallid,
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES 47
the forehead wrinkled, the nose depressed, and the lips
thick and everted"; here and should be transferred to the
previous clause, a semicolon put after depressed, and are
inserted between lips and thick.
I will accumulate some examples here of other false con-
cords, as these minor errors are frequent: "Neither of these
boys were (was) remarkable," and so forth. "Nobody ever
put so much of themselves into their work." "Of these per-
sons none (no one) were (was) robust." "Now none of
these things were (was) there." How far more effective is
the singular verb after none!
A relative pronoun may determine the number of the
verb: for example, "One of the most valuable books that have
appeared" is correct, for that relates to books, not to one.
"This was one of the first objects that were found" is correct
likewise. "I am one of those who are unable to refuse my
assent" is correct as to are, but consequently my should
have been omitted.
Tenses are not to be changed when the sense is unchanged :
as in, "The leaves were dry and brown, and under the micro-
scope there is seen," and so forth.
It is not well, unless deliberately for emphasis, to change
construction in the course of a sentence: for example, "The
reaction first described by Jones and to which he gave the
name of," and so forth; it should run, "described by Jones
and named by him," and so forth.1
Too, very. — Neither of these words should immediately
precede a past participle; say too much, very much. Wrong:
"He is too exhausted to speak." Right: "He is too much
exhausted to speak." Wrong: "He felt very insulted."
Right: "He felt very much insulted."
It is often advantageous to place however, therefore, never-
theless, moreover, and the like, within the sentences they
introduce rather than at the beginning.17
48 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Whose is conveniently and quite correctly applied to
things as well as to persons.
Cases. — Errors in cases are few and venial, but I find in
a, thesis before me, "The patient did not know who to speak
to." Such phrases as "Between you and I," "Do you mind
me seeing them?" and "I heard of him (his) running away"
are not to be excused even in speech.
Than as a conjunction does not govern a case. "I know
you are wiser than me" should be "than I" (am). Avoid
such an uncomfortable ambiguity as this: "Anthony was
not less desirous of destroying the conspirators than his
officers."
The and which and and who blunders are by no means yet
extinct: for example, "These scenes, painful to witness
and which did no good"; where and, of course, is intrusive;
omit it or write, "Scenes which were painful to witness and
were," and so forth. The whom blunder may also be men-
tioned here: "To persons whom he thought were far away."
"Mr. Jones, whom I trusted would have helped me." In
both instances, read who.
That. — Keep down your that's, for they multiply like
lower organisms.
This and that. — When two subjects are mentioned, this
refers to the latter and that to the former, a good and efficient
rule often transgressed: for example, we write correctly
"The patient suffered from nephritis and pleurisy; that the
physician observed, this he overlooked." Not uncommonly
a paragraph begins with a vague this: for example, "This
being so," and so forth, where this may indicate any one of
several antecedents or the sum of them, without definite
distinction.1
Shall and will. — In affirmative sentences, shall in the
first person signifies expectancy, future action; its meaning
is reversed in the second and third persons and signifies
determination on the part of the speaker; will, in the first
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES 49
person, signifies willingness or determination or promise;
in the second and third persons it signifies merely future
action: "I [or we] shall go to town with him"; "He [or you,
they] will go to town with him." (Both of these sentences
express future action.) "I [or we] will go to town with him,"
"He [or you, they] shall go to town with him," express deter-
mination or a promise on the part of the speaker.
Should and would follow the rules for shall and will.
The use of should and would in indirect discourse is in
general determined by the form used in the speech reported;
but there are many subtleties which can be learned only by
careful and minute observation.14
Would rather and had rather are with us interchangeable.
But this is not true of would better and had better. The two
idioms under consideration stand on an entirely different
footing. In the one, volition is the underlying idea. "He
had rather do it," means that he would prefer to do it. Hence
there is no difficulty in substituting would for had, for in
both cases the meaning would be essentially the same. But
no such easy interchange can take place in the case of the
other idiom. In had better there is implied not a sense of
mere choice or volition, but one of obligation or of the com-
pulsion of circumstances. Hence the absolute insufficiency
of would in place of had, were there no other objections to
its employment. There are instances in which might better
could be properly substituted for had better, but in most
cases the change would be unsatisfactory. It was probably
the desire for directness and conciseness, and perhaps for
additional energy, which led to the introduction of the estab-
lished locution into the speech. "He had better do it"
once was and still can be represented by the phrase, "It
were (or would be) better that he should do it." It was
hardly to be expected that the latter diffuse locution could
hold its ground permanently against the brevity and con-
densed energy of the former. Still the history of this con-
4
50 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
tracted method of expression shows that while now accepted
everywhere by cultivated men, it made its way but slowly
into its present wide employment.13
Prepositions. — The prepositions most often confused in
use are at and to, by and which, and in and into. Careful
study should be given to these and to the standard forms of
such phrases as: with regard to, with a view to, compare
to, compare with, agree to, agree with, differ from, differ with,
different from (not to or than), disappointed by, and dis-
appointed in. The correct and idiomatic use of prepositions
is very hard to learn, but there are few subjects which will
better repay the careful student of language.
Conjunctions. — Attention should be given to the distinc-
tion between and and but, and to that between and and or.
Either . . . or, and neither . . . nor are correlative con-
junctions. Care should be taken that each member of the
pair used be placed in the same relative position, that is,
before the same part of speech. The following is wrong:
"I could neither see him or his father." Never use either
. . . nor or neither ... or as correlatives.14
Beware of the intrusive not: for example, "I ran to see if
I could (not) get a seat." "Let us see if we can (not) help
him." "I cannot say what disease she may (not) have."
"Mr. Jones asked if both lungs might (not) be diseased."
"We should consider whether this may (not) be a case of
infection." A recent gazette contained an inquiry whether
a certain title might (not) be conferred. On the other hand,
not is often in error omitted: for example, "He depended
on me no more than he could help" is, strictly speaking,
nonsense; if this form is to be used, not is required before
help. "I doubt whether the reverse be not the case" is a
common and bad form for, "I suspect the contrary to be
true."
Genitive. — Ought we to write, "I heard it in a speech of
Mr. Gladstone's (or of Mr. Gladstone)"? is a question often
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES 51
asked of me. Gladstone's may be regarded as an inflexional
genitive, as we say "in an undertaking of his" (not of him);
if this be the notion I should discard the 's after of as obsoles-
cent.
Whether in the genitive of a noun ending in 5, for example,
Socrates, we should write Socrateses, Socrates's, or Socrates,'
is not a matter of grammar but of custom, and the last is
the most convenient. Usually, however, as also in the plural
of such nouns, we avoid these hisses by a periphrasis: for
example, "in the opinion of Socrates." "Would there were
more Socrateses in the world" is very harsh.
A common grammatical error is the forcing of an alien
preposition upon a verb: for example, "of which he had
heard but never seen" (seen of!); "This addition can be
applied and connected with the instrument" (applied with!).
Or by the omission of a necessary preposition the meaning
may be vitiated: for example, "Much depends on the home
and the care bestowed upon them." Here on must be re-
peated before the care, as the home is not bestowed upon them.
Singular and plural nouns. — Whether Greek be compulsory
or not, Latin cannot well be omitted from a good education;
yet when in theses before me I read not only prodromata
(sing., prodromon; pi., prodroma) passim, and not rarely a
phenomena, and so forth, ignorance of Greek is scarcely an
excuse. But what are we to say when not long ago a well
known physician wrote of vocal fremitil In editorial para-
graphs of smart newspapers I have lately read of omnibi,
excursi, comities, and even of non possumi; apparali is pretty
common; carnivores appeared lately in a leading scientific
magazine; in a well known book by a celebrated author we are
told that "the hands of the Scipit were nailed to the rostra"
— blunders which remind us of Frank Lock wood's jest : "They
will apply for a mandamus! Then we will apply for a brace of
mandami."1
If the writer is furnished with but a lean stock of words.
52 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
those that he has must be degraded to rude and indiscriminate
uses. In such a sentence as this : "From this center the germ
were extended to other parts" (for were disseminated or
scattered), the writer does not search for the aptest word for
his meaning, nor does he care to do so; he fills the gap with the
handiest of the few in his scrip. A problem, a dilemma, a
proposition, a subject, a case, or nothing whatever, are all
questions: for example, "He gave credence to a doubtful
question"; "The question is one of decreased resistance" (for
the condition or problem); "The question is one of decreased
tissue change," where answer would have been nearer the
meaning; "The question of the shoulder and elbow will be
referred to later" (for question read affection or injury). To
involve, with its ugly noun, involvement, has to do duty for
to attack, to invade, to injure, to affect, to pervert, to encroach
upon, to influence, to enclose, to implicate, to permeate, to pervade,
to penetrate, to dislocate, to contaminate, to complicate, and so
forth. I see in a thesis before me, "the liver also was involved,
there being a few secondary growths in it"; the author might
as well have said that his lawn was involved in a few dan-
delions. Again, "the anemia involves the hemoglobin," for
example, a certain chemical compound is enclosed in an
abstraction! "The mesenteric artery was involved" (in an
embolism) ; surely the converse was the truth.
Before leaving grammar I may inquire why scientific
essayists generally go out of their way to an indirect construc-
tion which does but take the life out of their sentences. We
read, "there is found a blue coloration," "there exists a marked
tendency for the parts to unite," "only rarely does one find,"
and "to the apathy of the sufferer was added an appearance of
exhaustion," — all vapid substitutes for direct assertion, such
as "it turns blue," "the parts are very apt to unite," "one
rarely finds," and so forth.
Statements of fact, such as "the speaker said," are properly
of the past tense, but general propositions, if valid, are valid
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES 53
in the present and future; to put them in a past tense is to
suggest that even the speaker had no faith in their constancy.
A little while ago Ehrlich was thus reported: "Toxins were
unstable substances" (as if since they had become stable!);
and, more absurdly, "at present it was impossible to define them
chemically." Again, in another place, "Real education was
not an affair of the memory only; the mind was a live thing,"
and so forth. "They acted at that epoch just as people did
(do) at the present day." But the blunder is rarely so untimely
as in the attribution to a prelate, at a recent church congress,
of the words, "that there was a God above us."
The same false sequence in concords is seen in such phrases
as, "I intended to have written" (for "I intended to write");
"I should like to have seen him" (for "I should have liked to
see him") ; "It would have been wrong to have refused" (for "to
refuse"); "I should have deserved to have been dismissed',
(for "to be dismissed").1
EXAMPLES OF ACCEPTED ENGLISH PLURALS
antrums exanthems myomas
apexes fetuses myxomas
appendixes fibromas perineums
cannulas fistulas plasmas
carcinomas formulas psammomas
chondromas ganglions sanatoriums
condylomas glaucomas sarcomas
corneas gummas scotomas
curriculums hematomas septums
endotheliomas indexes sequestrums
enemas lipomas serums
epitheliomas mediums sputums
erythemas microns traumas
54 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
FOREIGN PLURALS AS YET RETAINED
apparatus diverticula phenomena
areolae emboli pleurae
axillae foci protozoa
bacteria foramina radii
bronchi larvae sequelae
coniunctivae lumina spermatozoa
cortices maxillae stigmata
criteria nevi stomata
data nidi uteri
deliria nuclei vertebrae
desiderata papillae viscera
ADJECTIVES WITH VARIANT ENDINGS
alphabetic empiric
(pertaining to an alphabet) entomologic
alphabetical ethnographic
(in the order of the letters etiologic
of the alphabet) etymological
analytic galenic
anatomic (galenical is the noun)
anthropologic generic
anthropometric geographic
astronomical gonococcic
bacteriologic hemianopic
biochemical hemorrhoidal
biologic histologic
botanic historic
chemical (celebrated in history)
chronological historical
classic (relating to history)
clinical hypodermic
cylindric hypothetic
dynamic hysterical
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES 55
immunologic
intraspinal
logical
macroscopic
microscopic
morphologic
mystic
neurologic
obstetric
paradoxic
parasitic
parasitologic
parenthetical
pathogenic
pathognomonic
pathologic
periodic
pharmaceutic
pharmacologic
physiologic
psychiatric
psychologic
roentg'enologic
serologic
spherical
staphylococcic
streptococcic
symmetrical
teleologic
theoretical
therapeutic
tubercular
(nodular)
tuberculous
(infected with tubercles
caused by the bacillus of
tuberculosis)
typographic
zoological3
PITFALLS IN DICTION
Abbreviate is sometimes used for abridge. A book or a
lecture is abridged when it is given in condensed form; it is
abbreviated when shortened in any way.
Above should not be used as an adjective, as: "Rules stated
in the above section." Substitute preceding, foregoing, or
some similar adjective.
Affect is to be distinguished from the verb effect. To affect
is to influence; to effect is to cause or bring about.
Alike should not be reinforced by both: "They are both
alike in this respect." The absurdity is easily seen in the stock
example: "Sam and Jim are both very much alike, especially
Sam."
56 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
All, in connection with right, is a separate word: all right,
never alright. All and universally should never be used
together.
Allege is a common error for say.
Alone expresses the sense of unaccompanied, and should be
distinguished from only, which means no other.
Alternative indicates a possibility of two courses. "Several
alternatives are open to me" is therefore bad.
Any is sometimes ambiguous. Any of them may be either
singular or plural. f
Appear is physical, external, in its meaning, and should be
distinguished from seem, which expresses a mental experience.
Apt should never be used in place of likely or liable. It
means capable or skilled. *
Avocation is not the same as vocation. A man's vocation is
his calling, his principal occupation ; his avocation is a secondary
occupation which, however, may interest him more than his
vocation.
Between applies only to two persons or things: "Between
you three" is ungrammatical.
Brainy is a colloquial Americanism.
But, used in connection with that, is redundant, unless
intended to express the opposite of what the meaning would
be without it.
Can has the meaning of ability, power, and should not be
confused with may, which implies permission.
Cheaply, for cheap, sounds affected. "He sold it cheap" is
correct. Cheap is an adverb as well as an adjective.
Claim, in the sense of assert, maintain, or say, is not
sanctioned by good usage.
Conscious should not be used for aware or sensible. We can
be conscious only of the facts of our own inner life; we are
sensible of external facts which affect our feelings; we are
aware of whatever external facts or general truths are known
to us. "I was conscious of his treachery" is incorrect.
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES 57
Continuous must be distinguished from continual; the former
implies something uninterrupted, unceasing, the latter, some-
thing frequently recurring but with interruptions.
Data is plural. "This data" is as bad as "this facts."
Decided must not be confused with decisive.
Different should be followed by from, never by than or to.
Distinguish must not be confused with differentiate; dis-
tinguish means to perceive differences between things or
persons; differentiate means to make or constitute a differ-
ence.
Due should not be used for owing to or because of.
Each is distributive and therefore is singular, not plural.
Either is distributive and therefore is singular and should
<iever be used of more than two.
Else should be followed by than, not by but.
Enthuse has not yet obtained the sanction of good usage.
Evidence is sometimes used when testimony would be pref-
erable. The testimony of a witness may contain no evidence.
Factor is loosely used for cause by careless writers.
Female for woman is a vulgarism: "Clothing for males and
females" (men and women).
Fewer applies to number; less, to quantity: "I have fewer
(not less) books than you."
Firstly should not be employed for first, even though
succeeded in an enumeration by secondly, thirdly, and so
forth. First is an adverb as well as an adjective.
Former, and its antithesis, latter, should be used to designate
one of two persons, things, ideas, and so forth. In case of
more than two, the expressions the first, the second, the third,
the last, should be employed.
Frequently should be distinguished from commonly, gen-
erally, perpetually, usually; each has its own refinement of
meaning. Commonly expresses the antithesis of rarely;
frequently and generally, the antithesis of seldom or occasion-
ally; usually is the opposite of casually.
58 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Got, in the sense of possession, is superfluous and is to be
avoided.
Guess, in the sense of imagine, suppose, think, as: "I guess
he is a rich man," is a provincialism sanctioned in conversation
but condemned in writing.
Healthy should be distinguished from healthful and from
wholesome.
High should be distinguished from tall.
If is often misused for whether.
Individual means a person or thing regarded as a unit. It
is improperly used as a mere synonym of person.
Kind is not plural.
Last is often misused for latest.
Latter applies only to the last of two.
Like must never be used in the sense of as.
Locate, in the sense of settle, is regarded as a vulgarism.
Lovely, like elegant, is a greatly overworked word.
Luxuriant, as distinguished from luxurious, means super-
abundant in growth or production.
Minus, in the sense of without, or lacking, is colloquial.
Most has been used instead of almost for almost a thousand
years, but this use is not permissible.
Necessities has almost entirely usurped the place of neces-
saries in current English. "The necessities of life often reduce
one to the bare necessaries." It is unfortunate that the dis-
tinction between the words is no longer observed.
Neither denotes one of two and should not be used for none
or no one.
Nice, in the sense of pleasant, agreeable, has established
itself in colloquial, but not in good literary, usage.
None should be treated as a singular: "None of them was
present"; "There is none of them that doeth good."
Not must be followed by the correlative nor in such a
sentence as: "Not for wealth nor for fame did he strive."
Observation should not be used for observance.
MISCELLANEOUS GRAMMATICAL NOTES 59
Other. After no other, use than, not but.
Panacea is ludicrously misused to mean an effective
remedy for a single disease; it means something that cures all
diseases.
Paradox means what seems absurd or self-contradictory.
Seeming is therefore redundant in "a seeming paradox."
Per should be used in connection with other words of Latin
form: Per diem, per annum, per cent; but, "He is paid $50
per week" is to be avoided. Use a with week, day, and so forth.
Perpendicular merely means at right angles to some-
thing else mentioned ; it should not be used for vertical.
Perpetually means "without interruption or cessation."
Place, when used in the sense of where, is a vulgarism.
Popular means "pleasing to many people."
Post and posted, for inform and informed, are too colloquial
for serious writing.
Practical and practicable are often confused.
Premature. To call a false report premature is ludicrous,
unless there is reason to believe that the event reported will
occur later.
Promise, in the sense of assure, is slang.
Propose is often misused for purpose.
Proposition is often misused for proposal. A proposition is
a statement of a judgment or a plan, a proposal is the presenta-
tion or statement of an offer.
Providing is sometimes misused for provided.
Quite means entirely, wholly. Quite a few is nonsense as
well as bad English.
Reference is often wrongly used with the preposition in.
Researcher is a vulgarism of the worst sort.
Reside is used for live by those who like fine words.
Retire, for go to bed, is affected.
Some, for somewhat, is a vulgarism.
Splendid means shining, brilliant.
State is now used vulgarly for say.
60 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Through should not be used in the sense of finished.
Transpire does not mean happen.
Ugly, in the sense of bad tempered, vicious, should be
avoided.
Unique does not mean rare, or odd, as many seem to
suppose; it means "alone of its kind."
Verbal. "A verbal message" means only "a message in
words"; a message by word of mouth is "an oral message."
Way should not be used in the sense of away.
Ways is often misused for way.
Witness is used for see by persons who like large words.14
CHAPTER VII
DON'TS
Even the calamities of ignorance and carelessness — deplorable and
blameworthy though they may be — serve to the well-balanced mind as
mighty and lasting stimulants toward increased knowledge and pains-
taking care. — Richardson.
Don't always go back to the Garden of
Eden and review the literature to date.
Don't say frequently when you mean often.
Don't say per instead of each.
Don't say up until when you mean until.
Don't say the patient was operated.
Don't say vast majority.
Don't say diseased condition. Correct: Dis-
ease condition, or condition of disease. Incor-
rect: diseased condition.
Don't begin papers by saying, "This is a
rare disease," or, "This is a rare case and
seems, therefore, to warrant being reported."
Don't say symptomatology when you mean
symptoms. Symptomatology treats of symp-
toms.
Don't say that a person is tubercular; this
implies that he is afflicted with nodules, which
may or may not be tuberculous.
Don't confuse beside and besides. Beside
61
t
62 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
is a preposition meaning next to; besides is a
preposition meaning in addition to.
Don't estimate measurements in terms of
cocoanuts, oranges, fists, eggs, beans, and so
forth; use the metric system.
Don't say, "There was no pathology in the
appendix." Pathology is that branch of medi-
cine which treats of the essential nature of
disease.
Don't say case when you mean patient.
Case, in a medical sense, signifies disease or
injury. There is no excuse for the expres-
sions: "The case was operated and recovered";
"The cases could not take such large doses";
"Five of the empyemas died"; "Of the 276
deaths, sixteen had gallstones."
Don't confuse toxicity with toxemia or toxic
effects. Toxicity: The quality, state, or degree
of being poisonous; the degree of virulence
of a toxic microbe. Toxemia: Blood poisoning;
poisoning by toxins produced in the cells
or by the influence of microorganisms. Toxic:
Pertaining to, due to, caused by, or of the
nature of, a poison. A poison cannot produce
toxicity, for toxicity is a characteristic of the
poison itself. The poison can produce toxemia
or toxic effects.
DOX'TS 63
Don't confuse differentiate with distinguish,
discriminate, or contrast. Differentiate may be
used correctly to explain a biologic process,
for example: "Squamous epithelium does not
originate from columnar epithelium, since the
columnar cell is differentiated and cannot
regenerate." Differentiate may also be used
in describing differences, point by point, for
example: Simple cardiac hypertrophy and
pericarditis may be differentiated by the heart
sounds. Right use: Differentiate cardiac hyper-
trophy and pericarditis. Wrong use: Differ-
entiate between cardiac hypertrophy and peri-
carditis.
Don't say -between when you mean among. Look up these
words in the dictionary.
Don't say consider when you mean regard, think, or view.
Don't say coordinate when you mean correlate. Look up
these words in the dictionary.
Don't say due to when you mean attributable to or on account
of, or perhaps something else. Due to is inaccurate and
slovenly.
Don't say during when you mean in.
Don't say eventuate when you mean occur or happen.
Don't say motivate when you mean rr.cie, or fcrce cfmottia
lion when you mean motive.
Don't say phenomena (plural) when you mean pehnomenon
(singular).
Don't forget that none is a contraction of no one and takes
the verb is, not are.
64 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Don't say people when you mean individuals or persons.
Neither fifty Kaisers nor fifty wops are fifty people.
Don't say point of view when you mean view or opinion.
The phrase point of view is now and then both accurate and
useful, but it should be employed sparingly.
Don't say sociological when you mean social, psychological
when you mean mental or psychical, biological when you mean
organic or vital, or physiological when you mean physical.
Don't overwork hence.
Don't begin as many as ninety-five per cent of your
sentences with thus.
Don't say startling fact, downward path, or step by step.
These phrases are stigmata of the exhorter.
Don't say / will or / would when you mean / shall or /
should, and don't say you shall, you should, he shall, or he
should when you mean you will, you would, he will, or he would.
Don't split infinitives.
Don't separate an auxiliary verb from its verb or participle
unless you are using more than one auxiliary with one verb.
Don't say, "This should never happen," although it is true.
"This never should happen" is equally true and is also correct.
But you may say, "This should never have happened," if
you like it better than "This never should have happened."
Don't forget that skipping about from tense to tense —
commingling past, present, and future — in one time and
paragraph, has not even a Bergsonian justification. It is
blasphemous, ungrammatical, and annoying.
Don't forget that a sentence into which you have put more
than fifty words is probably awkward and unclear.
Don't fail, after you have written a sentence, to look it
over and translate it into ideas (if you can), and decide whether
or not it tells the reader anything.
Don't fail to go over your pages diligently; relentlessly
"thin out" words. A good writer takes a hint from a good
gardener.
DON'TS 65
Don't think that atrocities are pardonable and may be
imitated if they are committed in books written by Presidents
of the United States who are known as "stylists" or "authors."
Abraham Lincoln would have said something brief and
appropriate about "stylists" if he had been called one. He
wrote well because he had something to say and wanted to be
understood. A good writer addresses persons who have to
comprehend, to decide, and to act. "Stylists" write for pub-
lishers, posterity, and chautauqua circles.10
Don't use exclamatory and interrogative sentences when the
declarative sentence can be made to serve. It is only in the
rarest cases that these variant forms are really effective.
Don't rise to poetic heights except when describing gen-
uinely poetic subject matter.
Don't pile up adjectives and adverbs. There is no more
justification for being a spendthrift with these descriptive
coins than there is for any other sort of extravagance.
Don't use, or at any rate don't abuse, the weak intensives,
such as certainly, surely, veritably, and so on.7
Form the habit of using correct words.
The reader should not be obliged to guess
your meaning.
Study the style of your paper quite as care-
fully as the subject matter. The hackneyed
excuse for bad English, "individual style,"
will not be accepted by conscientious editors.
CHAPTER VIII
SUBJECT MATTER: LENGTH OF PAPERS
Few men are experienced and wise enough to form large generaliza-
tions, and few large generalizations are true enough or definite enough
to be valuable. — Manly and Powell.
While the chosen audience determines, not
only the subject, but the phase, and the method
and scope of its development, it is conversely
true that the chosen subject determines the
audience and the journal in which the paper
should be published. This is especially the
case when it is desirable to announce without
delay a new method or discovery. The custom
of publishing miscellaneous articles in journals
purporting to cover only special subjects, and
of publishing special articles in journals cover-
ing a miscellaneous field, is not only wasteful
of the reader's time, but it is very often an
annoyance to the reviewer compiling data on
a particular topic.
The writer should choose his topic from the
most available subjects of which he has made
some original study, and, what is of greater
importance, he should choose it from material
of which he may have an opportunity to make
66
SUBJECT MATTER: LENGTH OF PAPERS 67
further studies and investigations. Too often
the young physician overlooks this point or
considers it impractical; and in his haste to
appear in print he prepares the first of a series
of widely disconnected papers which result in
waste and misdirection of his energy, and
assist only in further encumbering with unre-
lated data an already overburdened medical
literature. The writer should early appreciate
the fact that, not only the surest means of
recognition by his professional associates, but
also his greatest assurance of ultimately adding
somewhat to the sum total of scientific knowl-
edge, lies in the thorough and persistent study
of a single subject rather than in desultory
studies of many subjects. In a series of articles
giving the results of continued observations
on the same topic, material already published
should not be repeated. The writer should
particularly guard against this practice. A
brief summary, or a reference to previous
articles is quite sufficient for the intelligent
reader.
It might be supposed that anyone who wished to write
would know what he wished to write about. But many
merely wish to write. To recommend that such a person
choose a subject which he knows well, is not so superfluous as
68 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
it seems. What is well known seems commonplace, and only
the unfamiliar allures. But obviously the unfamiliar must be
left to someone to whom it is familiar.
The very process of limiting the subject to manageable
size will inevitably result in suggesting something to say about
it. The ideas suggested may arise very disconnectedly and in
very crude form. The first thing to make sure of is that you
catch and fix them all.14
LENGTH OF PAPERS
A paper should be brief and clear, demanding
only enough of the time and patience of the
reader to permit the presentation to him of the
essential points. The practice in some of our
medical societies of reading only abstracts of
articles, thus giving more time for discussion,
might well be adopted more generally. It is
worthy of note that an abstract will usually
be found to contain all the essential facts of
the original article. Orations for special occa-
sions may occupy more time;- but, even under
such circumstances, it is better to err on the
side of brevity. Special papers not intended
to be placed before an audience may contain
observations, results of investigations, and
descriptions of interesting cases more in detail.
However, should a journal article necessarily
extend beyond, five thousand words, it may be
wise to publish it serially or in a monograph.
SUBJECT MATTER: LENGTH OF PAPERS 69
If it is published serially, an opportunity is
also afforded for more complete investigation
of the subject.
There is a vast amount of effete and worthless material in
the literature of medicine, and it is increasing rapidly. Our
literature is in fact something like the inheritance of the
golden dustman, but with this important difference, namely,
that when the children raked a few shells or bits of bone from
the dustman's heap, and, after stringing them together and
playing with them a little while, threw them back, they did not
thereby add to the bulk of the pile; whereas our preparers of
compilations and compendiums, big and little, acknowledged
or not, are continually increasing the collection, and for the
most part with material which has been characterized as super-
latively middling, the quintessential extract of mediocrity .f
Avoid miscellaneous topics.
Choose a subject, (i) of which original study
has been made, and (2) on which further
investigations may be made.
Give a brief summary of personal observa-
tions on the topic previously published.
Review literature briefly.
Make papers brief and clear.
Present to an audience only abstracts of
long papers.
Publish long papers serially.
CHAPTER IX
ARRANGEMENT: THE BEGINNING AND THE END
Good organization comes, not by inspiration, but by careful thinking.
Even men of genius arrange and organize their work with care. Native
talent or long practice may greatly abridge the process, but the process
is necessary. Bad organization and confused arrangement have caused
as many failures as has poverty of thought. — Manly and Powell.
Accurate thinking and accurate expression
are a preliminary to good organization. The
practice of reading a few good articles care-
fully, and of thoroughly analyzing and fixing
in mind their substance, is excellent mental
training and far more useful than a superficial
review of many articles. Of equal importance
is the ability to select from the vastness of
literature and of science, subjects worthy of
special study, and to preserve through such
study a certain personal mental balance, thus
broadening the writer's conception, and stimu-
lating his imagination.
In the plan of the construction of a paper
th'e end should be considered with the begin-
ning, and in the course of the work both should
be kept in view for purposes of assimilation
and logical finality. The practiced writer
may not find it necessary to confine himself
70
ARRANGEMENT: BEGINNING AND END 71
to any fixed rule in the matter of beginning
and ending, but the inexperienced writer should
adopt the safe course, that is, state his problem,
his observations, and his deductions briefly
and clearly and then stop without hesitation.
Undoubtedly one of the greatest impedi-
ments to a graceful beginning is the writer's
self consciousness. Instead of trying to remem-
ber how others have written he should, for the
time, clear his mind of precedents and take
honest account of his own store. He should
then, with dignity, introduce that and no
more. One fixed rule should be adhered to:
Begin promptly.
Aside from the summary, the end of a paper
should, if possible, reach the climax of the
argument and then end, leaving a sense of
completeness and not redundancy in the mind
of the reader.
Many writers pay little serious attention to their intro-
ductions, but whatever needs to be done in the way of denning
the subject for the reader should be carefully done. At no
time is bewilderment more fatal for the reader than at the
start. If he gets into a subject with a thorough understanding,
he is able to surmount more serious difficulties; but starting
is as much more difficult than continuing for a reader as it is
for a locomotive attached to a heavy train.9
TA11 writers, even the most skillful, are, in the degree of their
skill, at some care how to begin. An unpractised writer, for
72 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
sheer helplessness at the outset, may never begin; he may
abandon his work in despair. A witty beginning is something
of a liberty; for an emphatic beginning, the reader is not yet
attuned; nor is he attuned to a ponderous introduction. To
begin naturally and interestingly is no mean art.
We shall not begin with a crude or heavy lump of our
matter, yet we shall try to touch the keynote of the subject
and to engage in the argument easily but directly. We have
seen that the beginnings of great writers are direct; we shall
not begin, then, with apologies, with wayward or fanciful
approaches, nor with any kind of skirmishing.
Of ends, authors of theses, and others, seem to be too care-
less; yet how telling a place is the end of a paper for a weighty
reflection or a summary view of the field. Of ends, I will only
say, "Do not end anyhow; let your leave-taking be easy,
gracious, and impressive in proportion to the theme, not
ponderous, pompous, epigrammatic, or austere."1
Practice thinking accurately before transcrib-
ing ideas.
Avoid superficial reading. Read good articles
carefully and make selections therefrom.
After reading, analyze and summarize all
data to be used.
Avoid time-worn introductions.
Begin promptly.
Bring the argument to a climax at the end
of the paper.
Summarize briefly.
End promptly.
CHAPTER X
THE OUTLINE
The subject chosen, facts must be collected, inferences formulated,
and the whole presented with due proportion in its several parts, and in
language as nervous and lucid as the author can command. — Allbu.lt.
In reviewing the literature of a subject,
the writer should make notes on cards or sheets.
These should be arranged first under main
headings and then under minor headings, in
logical working order. For greater convenience
the cards, if used, may be placed in a special
compartment file; they may then be added
to or rearranged as the study advances. Some
writers make satisfactory progress by writing
the first drafts of their papers on cards.
The next step is to build a definite frame-
work on which to construct the body of the
paper. The importance of making a complete
outline will always be appreciated after it
has once been done. While outlines must be
varied according to the subject under dis-
cussion, in general the following may be adapted
to almost any scientific subject:
i. Introduction. — This should give the object
of the paper, the character and extent of the
73
74 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
original data to be discussed, and the sequence
of the article if it is one of a series.
2. Historical notes. — The literature of the
subject should be reviewed. The writer, when
possible, should summarize the views of con-
temporary workers in the same field and then
restate briefly his own previous studies if any.
"It would save us hours of unnecessary misery
were we to make ourselves acquainted with the
views of prominent men of former times who
felt as we and talked as foolishly."
3. Materials and methods. — Here should be
included an exact statement of the character
and amount of material investigated, of the old
and new methods of investigation, and of the
operations, devices, and so forth, used.
4. Results. — This should embody a detailed
discussion of the results of the investigation,
operative procedures, or experimentation. While
findings which prove the author's working
hypothesis may properly be given first place in
the argument, other findings of a negative
character and those of no apparent significance
should also be stated.
5. Summary and conclusions. — This should
consist of a brief review of the work done and
of the conclusions which may properly be drawn
THE OUTLINE 75
therefrom. The writer should have in mind
that this portion of the paper is usually not only
the first portion read, but that it may be the
only portion read. Further, if properly made,
the summary and conclusions may serve as a
most desirable form of abstract to be published
by other journals.
6. Bibliography. — Bibliographies should give
the writer's name and initials, the title of the
article, the name of the periodical in which it
appeared, the year of publication, the volume
number, and the inclusive paging.
The outline completed, the first draft of the
paper should be made. If possible it should be
dictated to a stenographer who is familiar with
medical terms. Should it be necessary to write
it by hand, care should be taken to write legibly,
leaving wide margins and wide spacing to permit
changes and notes of instruction. The use of
the dictaphone is obviously more rapid than
writing by hand, and perhaps no more difficult,
when once learned, than dictating to a sten-
ographer, since both methods require practice.
A quiet place with sufficient space to spread
out notes and papers should be selected for
dictating or writing. All available precautions
should be taken against interruption, which is
76 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
clearly detrimental to inspiring or consecutive
thought. In writing or dictating from classified
notes and references the outline of the paper
should be closely followed. Dictating from
memory leads to inaccuracies in statements and
to faulty construction.
Experience has shown that if the writer will test his pro-
duction to see if it is in accord with four rules (which may be
readily applied to the synopsis form), he will be able to detect
all important defects of structure.
The facts should be presented in an order which is logical
for the reader.
The structure should be divided, first, into main divisions,
then into such minor divisions as will bring out fully all im-
portant relations of the separate facts.
All the parts of each division should be, in fact, strictly
coordinate.
The sum of all parts of each division should equal the whole
of that division, no more and no less.9
Make accurate notes on separate cards.
Arrange notes under subject headings.
File cards alphabetically.
Make a complete outline.
Follow the outline in writing the paper.
Select a quiet place for writing, with ready
access to cards and references.
Write legibly. Remember that the manu-
THE OUTLINE 77
script may be copied by someone who is not
familiar with the medical vocabulary.
Make a draft of the paper, revise it, and then
put it aside.
After many days revise with a new under-
standing.
CHAPTER XI
CONSTRUCTION
Finally, it has been well said that the style of writing is an echo of the
man's own soul. A blatant, didactic style is the work of the egotist; a
simple, reserved style, the sign of a conservative thinker; a careless, ram-
bling style, evidence of a slipshod worker. — Editorial Journal American
Medical Association.
The successful writer on medical topics is the
one who molds his writings in such manner and
of such material as will interest and, incidentally,
please the reader. Often, however, the reverse
of this is true, the writer obviously being so
intent on saying what he wishes to say that he
does not consider the impression he may leave
in the minds of his readers.
If the writer whose sole object, for various
reasons, is a desire to appear in print, and the
writer whose ideas are tiresome and uncon-
vincing because of his complacent belief in his
own omniscience, are left out of consideration,
there remain, among others, those who are
actuated by the hope that their work will prove
of some value. The writings of the latter will
be characterized by:
i. A careful avoidance of exaggerating his
78
CONSTRUCTION 79
personal observations and of minimizing the
observations of others.
2. A precision in the use of words, which
alone may convince the reader that careful
thinking has preceded.
3. A dignified orderliness of construction in
arranging clauses, sentences, and paragraphs,
and in making all statements brief and clear.
4. A logical sequence in the statement of
facts, theories, and deductions, which will
stimulate and inspire in the reader a desire for
further investigation of the same subject.
To those who have taken lifelong thought of how to write,
who have striven painfully with the craft of this supreme art,
the view of it as a happy gift seems flippancy. Let the can-
didate be assured that an easy and interesting style, like easy
cricket, implies hard practice.
In nature there is no great and small; the careful precision,
even of a word, often so bites into the matter as to lead the
author to revise or enlarge his thought; slovenly writing is not
only for the most part slovenly thinking, but slovenly habits
of expression corrode the very substance of the thought.
The reader must be carried along in a quick and equable
current. It vexes him to have to return upon sentence after
sentence in order to revise the author's particular meanings
by the general tenor of his argument; yet in reading current
prose this vexation is so continual that we scarcely realize
the burden and tax of it. A sentence, as it stands, bears a
certain meaning; the author, however, retorts testily, "Oh,
you know I did not mean that" ; but he has written it, and it is
8o
not fair for an author to think in the rough, to scribble, un-
chastened, whatsoever comes into his head, so that, as Erasmus
said, "Apollo only could discern his meaning," and to throw
the control and revision upon the vigilance of the reader.
In few theses, even of plain matter enough, have I not to prop
up maimed or rickety conceptions, to dissect conventional
phrases or equivocal words, and to sweep aside page after
page of loose vesture which nowhere fits the thought closely,
nor moves freely with it.
By disorderly writing, we fall into worse things than
muddle: we blunt the probity of our minds; we slur over
difficulties and cover up ignorance. Content to be bunglers,
we lose our respect for truth and blunt our consciences. On
the other hand, when in an author's prose we perceive un-
obtrusive scruples and feel that his conscience is tender for
the Tightness of things, we are disposed to give him credit in
greater issues for the rectitude which he exhibits in the less.
The essayist, seeing his design as with the eye, will describe
his vision precisely, cogently, and clearly; and if he will then
reduce his words and clauses to their simplest and shortest
forms, rejecting not exuberances and superfluities only but
also matter alien in that place, however interesting in another,
he will find that, in the main, sound matter so conceived makes
sound style, and original matter original style. Force, lucidity,
unity, simplicity, and economy of expression are virtues which
we may all attain, originality will be as God pleases.1
When a writer appears to be trying very hard to avoid
obscurity in any way, as when he introduces long footnotes to
explain his allusions, or translates his Latin or German quota-
tions in parentheses, he at once suggests the very thing that
he tries to avoid. No one can attain lucidity in this way.
The clearest style is generally the simplest. The writer
whose meaning is so plain it never gives us a thought, and
whose diction is so simple and ordinary that it seems easy,
until we try to imitate it, is, so far as this quality of style is
CONSTRUCTION 8l
concerned, the one who makes the most successful contri-
bution to literature.8
THE SPOKEN ADDRESS
Much that is desirable in the written address
may be applied with emphasis to the oration or
extemporaneous speech, but with the difference
that the choice of a topic and the manner of
delivery are the most important considerations.
The speaker gains an advantage by his oppor-
tunity to emphasize with tone and gesture
certain words and passages; he loses by the
inability of his audience to review mentally
what he has already said while he is still
speaking. Ideas, facts, and hypotheses, there-
fore should be presented with only enough em-
bellishment to make them convincing. Im-
portant issues lose force — may even fail to
reach the mark — when surrounded with pad-
ding in the form of vague conjectures and
generalities.
Paucity of language is a common defect of extemporaneous
speech, and a stenographic report of several speeches delivered
by the same person will exhibit this defect in a mortifying
manner when, in response to the requests of those who have
heard them, the orator attempts to collect them for publica-
tion. It is then difficult for him to believe his vocabulary so
meager, the forms of his sentences so similar, that so many
phrases often recur, and that there seems to be an irresistible
6
82 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
tendency to use the same words, even when other words
express the shade of meaning which he endeavors to com-
municate, with greater accuracy than the familiar terms which
go so trippingly over his lips. Excess of repetition in the same
speech is a serious evil and sufficient to account for the lack
of success which attends many who are nobly endowed in
voice and figure and not destitute of a rich and expressive
vocabulary.16
Write on topics that will instruct and interest
the reader.
In writing, keep in mind the reader's possible
point of view and knowledge of the subject.
Avoid hazy construction and hypothetical
conjectures.
Avoid exaggeration; adhere to facts and
verify them.
Keep in mind the importance of logical,
clear, and brief construction.
Follow the outline.
CHAPTER XII
CASE HISTORIES: ABSTRACTS
No matter how trifling the matter on hand, do it with a feeling that
it demands the best that is in you. and when done, look it over with a
critical eye. not sparing a strict judgment of yourself. — Osier.
Very often in composing medical papers the
writer neglects or mutilates the case history.
It would seem that no two writers even by
chance select the same form of construction,
and further, that few of them follow a uniform
style for their own consecutive histories.
The following illustrative examples not only
show the absurdities which sometimes appear in
print, but they also define the editor's and the
publisher's attitude toward such construction.
CASE REPORTS
A case report should tell its story in clear, unambiguous
narrative style. It should not be transcribed verbatim et
literatim from the original records, hastily jotted down at the
time the various events occurred. The jerky, telegraphic
style of the record sheet may result in actual padding. The
following is an example of this style :
Patient, Giuseppe Roverano. Age, 35. Color, white.
Nationality, Italian. Occupation, laborer. Condition,
married. Complaint, inflammatory rheumatism. Entered
Brown Hospital, Jan. 15, 1909.
All the important data are given in the following sentence:
G. R., an Italian laborer, aged thirty -five years, entered
83
84 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Brown Hospital, January 15, 1909, complaining of inflam-
matory rheumatism.
Negative findings. — Space should not be devoted to unim-
portant findings, or those which have no bearing on the subject
under consideration. Negative findings are of value in few
instances. They should be cited only when the author is
convinced that they add to tl 'orce of the argument he is
making.
Confusion of time. — A common fault in case reports is
illustrated in the following:
Case 3. A.D., Feb. 8, 1912. Hairpin in the bladder and
renal infection. Girl 22 years old, first seen three years ago.
. . . Two years ago her kidney was explored. ... A year ago
this patient went to the city hospital. . . . Soon after this
I heard of her as a patient with marked polyuria. . . . From
the early part of the summer until August she had retention
of urine and had to be catheterized. . . . We took her in on
this account. ... At one time while she was in the hospital
she attempted to catheterize herself. . . . Five weeks ago
she allowed a friend ... to attempt catheterization. . . .
The friend told her the next day that she had allowed to slip
into the bladder a hairpin that had been used to stiffen the
catheter. ... I saw her three weeks ago and found the
hairpin. ... I was not then allowed to remove it. ... On
February 3 she told me that the day before she had pain in
the left renal region. . . . Examination next day showed
marked cystitis. The pin was removed. . . . Within four
days . . . the patient was discharged.
January, 1913. Two weeks after leaving the hospital
another pin was found in the bladder.3
Comment. — The foregoing is typical of many
case histories actually offered for publication.
The confusion of dates and time, and the liberal
CASE HISTORIES: ABSTRACTS 85
use of the word ago in this case, are bewildering
and absurd.
Coined abbreviations. — Another fault is the use of original
or coined abbreviations, often quite unintelligible to the
reader, such as "W. D. & N." for "well developed and nour-
ished," "H. & L. O. K." for "heart and lungs normal," and
"L. L. L. N. R." for "left lower lobe no rales." Abbreviations
not in dictionaries and ordinary textbooks are permissible
only in tables, and then they must be explained in footnotes or
be obviously self-explanatory.
Tenses. — These should be used consistently. If the present
tense is used for the sake of vividness in reporting clinical
examinations or pathologic findings, it should be maintained
throughout the paragraph. The simplest way usually is to
use the past tense, at least in the narrative portions of the
report.3
ABSTRACTS
In making abstracts of papers the writer is
often too nonchalant, too regardless of the
appearance and the comprehensiveness of his
work. Abstracts are to be found in almost
every medical journal hopelessly mixed as to
tense, person, number, concord, and so forth;
this in spite o'f the many suggestions and printed
rules which are sent out willingly and patiently
by editors and publishers of medical papers.
Form of abstract. — Unless a direct quotation
is made, abstracts should be made in the third
person. The exact title of the original article,
the name of the journal in which it is published,
the year, volume, and page should be given.
86 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
In the first paragraph the general scope of the
article should be given, that is, whether the
work is original, a description of technic, case
reports, or a review of the literature with con-
clusions.
If the author's work is original, his results and
views should be emphasized. If it is a technical
description of an operation or apparatus, the
various steps or parts should be enumerated in
just enough words to convey the author's idea.
If it consists of reports of cases the important
points, with conclusions, should be summarized
Similar cases should not be duplicated. If the
work is a review of literature and reports of
cases, the conclusions only should be given and
the cases omitted. The value of the article
should not be commented on.
Do not overlook the importance of an in-
telligible case history.
Do not say case when you mean patient, and
vice versa.
Do not mix hopelessly time, person, and
number in writing case histories and abstracts.
Follow publishers' rules, suggestions, and out-
lines.
CHAPTER XIII
CHAPTER, PARAGRAPH, AND SENTENCE
If he forgets paragraph and chapter, the author makes the way less
easy for us; but if his sentences are awkward, shapeless, and perplexed,
his ore must be very precious if we are to toil on with him. Is there not a
certain arrogance in the author who cares little, or not at all, for unseem-
liness; who will put us out of step without apology? — Allbutt.
It is expected that the practical writer will
know best how to arrange his own material into
chapters, paragraphs, and sentences. Though
little versed in the craft of writing, some writers,
with intuitive art, select the most advantageous
and at the same time the most attractive form
of presentation. Others, however, must take
definite thought in order to secure clearness,
sequence, and unity; it may even be necessary
for them to return to the study of formal rules.
But if they would remember that the paragraph
should carry the thought in a wave of in-
creasing emphasis, and always with directness,
until the climax is reached, there would be little
danger of the discussion drifting into unprofit-
able channels.
A chapter consists of sections, visible or invisible, and on
the order and content of the sections much of the lucidity
even of the chapter depends: a mechanical order is better
87
88 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
than none; an organic order — an order of thought — is better
still.
On turning now to the paragraph, I find in too many
papers that this feature has a precarious existence, or none.
Not infrequently indeed, in page after page, sentences are
treated as paragraphs, or the paragraphs, if any there be, do
not correspond with natural parts of the argument, but are
fragments or hunks of the body of the thesis rather than limbs
of it, merely mechanical parcels, like a string of sausages.
Now we must bear in mind that a paragraph, unless it be in a
summary or emphatic position, is more than a sentence; it is
a group of sentences, one bearing on another, and thus com-
passing a wider meaning than the sentence; it has accordingly
its own subject and unity, though of a scope far narrower than
that of the chapter. A careful portioning of the matter into
paragraphs, all sufficient and various enough to contain the
several limbs of the argument, but none too long for the
reader to grasp at once, is a great assistance to him; but thus
to isolate mere sentences and to hop by paragraphs, as it were
upon stepping-stones, is almost as fatiguing as it is, on the
other hand, to trudge over lengths of stuff without beginning,
middle, or end, and without those pauses and recoveries on
the way that the slender faculties of man require.1
There is no one rule for constructing paragraphs, as there
is none for constructing chapters or sentences. Efforts to
formulate a single rule are successful only when they exclude
from consideration, as bad, all examples that do not conform
to the rule. The principal qualities to aim at are unity,
coherence, clearness, and emphasis. Unity is largely depend-
ent upon excluding inappropriate ideas; coherence depends
upon arrangement and sentence connection; clearness is a
function of organization, connection, sentence structure,
grammar, and vocabulary; emphasis is usually a matter of
climax, but even without climactic arrangement the end of
the paragraph is, for purely mechanical reasons, the most
emphatic position.
CHAPTER, PARAGRAPH, AND SENTENCE 89
The essentials of the sentence are good connection, sound
organization, and correct grammar. To the untrained writer
sentences are hard, crystallized affairs. When once a thought
has taken form in words, it seems practically impossible to
change it. The experienced writer knows that a sentence is as
easy to manipulate as a lump of putty. He can change its
shape, twist it about, divide it, join it with another, do what
he will with it. For style, for effectiveness, skillful organiza-
tion of the sentence is even more important than correct
grammar. The intelligent reader can usually correct faults of
grammar with little effort; badly constructed sentences can
be cured only by rewriting.14
Having trained your ear on good prose, turn your sentences
this way and that before you pass your revise for press, and
fix them in the form which reads best ; the rules you may read
afterwards.
In prose, then, for breadth of conception, dignity, or im-
pressiveness, the ear and the understanding are willing to be
constrained by suspension; but mere drags, delays, or inver-
sions, without such rewards, they resent.1
Long compound sentences consisting of many statements
strung together with and's and but's are peculiarly crude.
Avoid abrupt change in the point of view within a sentence.
Do not make many sentences in a composition or a passage
monotonously alike in construction. This principle is often
violated (a) by beginning many sentences near each other with
after, with this or these, or with there is or there are; (b) by using
with noticeable frequency a compound sentence with two
members of about equal length joined by and or but; (c) by
using participial or absolute phrases with noticeable fre-
quency ; and (d) by the habitual use of so as a connective.
The opening sentences of a formal composition should be
self-explanatory; they should be clear to the reader without
reference to the title of the composition.
Paragraphing, if properly employed, gives the reader as
90 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
much assistance in understanding a whole composition as
punctuation gives him in understanding a sentence. Parts of
a composition that are distinct in topic may, by paragraphing,
be made distinct to the eye also, — an effect that decidedly
promotes clearness.
A passage that serves as an introduction or a conclusion to
a composition consisting of several paragraphs should be
paragraphed separately, even if it consists of only one or two
sentences.
The beginning of a new paragraph naturally leads the
reader to think that the discussion of a new topic is beginning.
Therefore, to begin a new paragraph where the discussion of a
new topic does not begin, misleads the reader.
See that every paragraph has one central topic, under which
all the statements in the paragraph logically fall.
A sentence or a short passage which the writer wishes to
make especially emphatic may be paragraphed separately.
A composition more than 300 words long should not be
written without paragraphing.
A composition no longer than 150 words should usually
be written without any paragraph divisions.
Do not paragraph with needless frequency and without
good reason.17
Study the construction of chapters, para-
graphs, and sentences.
Study particularly rules on the construction of
sentences, and apply the rules in practice until
you acquire confidence in your own manipula-
tion of words.
Make clear cut, clean sentences.
CHAPTER XIV
REFERENCES
There is hardly any one detail of a well prepared and well written
article that will give a better and clearer idea of a writer's methods, or
foster a greater confidence in the accuracy and soundness of his views,
than well chosen, well arranged, absolutely correct references. — Jour.
Am. Med. Ed. Assn.
While writers differ in their methods of taking
and making notes, there can be no question as
to the necessity for accuracy. The simplest and
most business-like method is to place comments,
exact quotations, accurate abstracts, and so
forth, on separate cards at the time of reading.
The value of doing this will be fully realized
only when it is found necessary to refer to the
original article, which may no longer be acces-
sible, in order to correct carelessly made notes
and references. In this connection it may be
suggested also that when only an abstract has
been read, the writer, in referring to it, should,
in all fairness, make reference to the abstract
rather than to the original article from which
entirely different conclusions might have been
drawn. Definiteness, accuracy, and uniformity
in references cannot be too strongly urged. The
too confident or careless writer would not be
91
92 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
flattered if he should happen to overhear the
comments of librarians and editors after they
have searched vainly for one of his inaccurate
references. The data for a complete and useful
reference are: (i) the author's name and
initials, (2) the title of the article, (3) the prop-
erly abbreviated name of the periodical in which
it appeared, (4) the year of publication, (5) the
volume number, and (6) the inclusive paging.
Emphasis should be placed on the inclusive
paging, as it is a matter of considerable impor-
tance to the reviewer to know the length of an
article.
The following are examples of correct refer-
ences :
1. Cannon, W. B., and Washburn, A. L. : An
explanation of hunger. Am. Jour. Physiol.,
1912, xxix, 441-454.
2. Faber, K,, and Lange, G. : Die Pathogenese
und Aetiologie der chronischen Achylia
gastrica. Ztschr. f. klin. Med., 1908,
Ixvi, 247-276.
3. Pavlov, I. P.: The work of the digestive
glands. Ed. 2, London, Griffin, 1910,
90 pp.
The author who places a proper estimate on the importance
of having his references correct can always, by due and
REFERENCES 93
proper diligence and effort, prevent the occurrence of typo-
graphical errors. The printer, poor devil, has much to answer
for here and hereafter, but errors in an author's references
invariably tell more eloquently of the writer's neglect than of
the printer's mistakes.*
A common fault lies in taking a reference from another's
bibliography as though it were thereby Gospel truth itself.
Faith may remove mountains, but hi science ye are known by
your works. "If the great Schmidt gives this reference, it is
good enough for me." That is where trouble begins — or is
continued; for the possibilities — nay, the probabilities — are
that Professor Dr. Geh. Schmidt allowed an inexperienced
assistant to round up the references; that another, equally
untried, omitted to verify them in any way, and in copying,
altered this one unconsciously; while a third let the printer
still further maltreat it. The result, fair without but false
within, may mean nothing even to Fetlock Jones or Doctor
Swatson. Take no reference for granted. Verify the reference
that your best friend gives you. Verify the reference that your
revered chief gives you. Verify, most of all, the references
that you yourself found and jotted down. To err is human,
to verify is necessary.15
Verify all references ; be positive that they are
complete and accurate.
Index all articles when reading or abstracting.
Refer to original articles. Do not give ref-
erences from previous references.
If an abstract is referred to, state the fact
that it is an abstract.
CHAPTER XV
REVISION
The mania to "tell it all" hinders clearness and precision and unity
and emphasis. Moreover, a composition that empties the writer rarely
fills the reader; and the lees of any subject are bitter to the palate. —
Manly and Powell.
The writer who appreciates his own limita-
tions and the fact that nothing has ever been
done so well that it cannot be done better, will
be his own most severe critic, and in thus
criticizing will find ways and means to improve
his work.
The inexperienced writer, in particular, should
not ignore the importance of a careful revision
of his manuscript before submitting it for pub-
lication, and such a revision should not be done
hastily. Few emergencies arise in which it is
not possible to prepare an article and then put
it aside for a brief period, when it may be
reviewed with clearer vision. In several careful
readings of a clean typewritten draft of the
paper with wide margins and spacing, the
following points should be given special atten-
tion:
i. Changes in the arrangement of material.
94
REVISION 95.
If the outline has been properly made and faith-
fully followed, few changes will be necessary.
2. Proper placing of illustrations, tabulations,
and subheads, and the following of a uniform
order of arrangement of bibliographic references.
3. The addition of data, ideas, missing links
in the argument, and so forth. The writer can-
not be too careful in this portion of his work in
eliminating inaccuracies, in expanding incom-
plete statements, in verifying data and statistics,
and in correcting proper names, dates, numbers,
and bibliographic references.
In the final review of the diction careful
discrimination must be exercised in the choice
of words, in the arrangement of phrases, and,
in general, in the consideration of the impression
which will be conveyed to the hearer or the
reader. For example, if the writer will put him-
self in the place of the reader or the audience he
will be quick to note that invariably a strong
point is weakened by repetition. A speaker may
safely drive his point home by repeating once,
while a second repetition is always fatal. A
writer may not effectively repeat, save in other
words.
For many it is extremely difficult to acquire the art of
"boiling down." If the structure of the writing is carefully
96 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
made out, much may be done at the start by the exclusion of
"all unnecessary ideas and by the brief statement of the ideas
which, being subordinate, need not be given full expression.
In writing the final draft, many words may be saved by
guarding against sentence structure which is faulty or which
entails the use of needless circumlocutions. In speaking we
often get well into a sentence before we have considered how
we can end it; consequently we are compelled to use extra
words for lack of proper sentence planning. There is no such
excuse for verbosity in writing.9
Do not hesitate, either now or later, to sacrifice any idea or
material not strictly germane to your purpose. It takes
courage and hardness to do this, but the sacrifice will be re-
warded. Excellence lives by sacrifice. Partiality to one's
own ideas, unwillingness to omit what seems to have been
well thought or well said is a main cause of deformed, dispro-
portioned writing.14
Again, excogitate matter and argument as we may before
beginning to write, yet, as we write, thought develops, and
may develop considerably; thus the later part of the first
draft proceeds on larger lines, and is fuller in thought than the
earlier part. In the second draft, therefore, the writer has to
consider the earlier part in the light of the later, and has to
remodel the narrower conception of that part on the broader
conception proper to the whole. This is the toughest of the
tasks of revision, for it may be necessary to break up and
reconstruct the piece.
On the third draft the composition is submitted to a still
closer revision; but the main work of this stage is to recast
paragraphs and sentences until they run logically, and bear
but one meaning, and this inevitably: perverse constructions
and equivocal or defective words give way to their betters.
Ornamental and figurative passages also undergo purgation:
in scientific papers purgation should generally go to expurga-
tion; yet our writing should be lively as well as true, and some
REVISION 97
happy allusions, if distilled to their essence, may be carried
in upon an adjective, or upon a noun coloured by an apt
association.1
Revise manuscript carefully several times;
put it aside and then revise it again.
Verify statistical data, charts, illustrations,
legends, and references.
Eliminate inaccuracies in the discussion and
in names, dates, and so forth.
7
CHAPTER XVI
THE TITLE
The four rules for the preparation of an article for a journal will then
be: (1) Have something to say. (2) Say it. (3) Stop as soon as you
have said it. (4) Give the paper a proper title. — Billings.
The title of a paper should set forth the
character and if possible the extent of the article,
not only to enlist the attention of the interested
reader, but also for the convenience of future
reviewers and bibliographers. Valuable material
is often hidden under a casual or irrelevant title.
If only a limited phase of the subject is to be
discussed, the limitation should be indicated.
In recording experimental findings it is very
important to indicate in the title, the type and
the extent of the experiment. The title should
be a concise and brief index of the material
under discussion. This is a matter which should
not only be emphasized but enforced. When it
is overlooked or neglected by the writer, the
editor should be inflexible in his insistence that
a comprehensive title is supplied. The writer
who fails to provide a proper title has no just
reason to complain or even to feel injured when
98
THE TITLE 99
his article is omitted from references or from an
important review of the subject.
First impressions are strong impressions; a title ought
therefore to be well studied and to give, as far as its limits
permit, a precise indication of what is to come.1
In behalf of the readers and bibliographers of the future, I
would appeal to authors, and more especially to editors, to
pay more attention than many of them do to the matter of
titles and indexes. The men to whom your papers are most
important, and who will make the best use of them provided
they know of their existence, are for the most part hard
workers, busy men, who have a right to demand that their
library tables shall be provided with properly prepared
materials and not with shapeless lumps.5
Select a title which may be correctly classified
in general indexes.
Indicate in the title the contents and scope
of the article.
Avoid generalizations; be brief and clear.
CHAPTER XVII
VOLUME OF OUTPUT
There is a dead medical literature, and a live one. The dead is not
all ancient, the live is not all modern. There is none, modern or ancient,
which, if it has no living value for the student, will not teach him some-
thing by its necropsy. But it is with the live literature of his profession
that the medical practitioner is first of all concerned. — Billings.
There should be a determined effort among
writers, editors, and publishers to standardize
and classify material for publication in order to
decrease the enormous output of medical books
and journals. Besides the fact that many of
the journals now in existence are a discredit to
the medical profession, there is also the deplor-
able fact that their doubtfully valuable contents
must be included in our already overcrowded
indexes.
In the disposition of material submitted to
them, editors should not be dependent either on
tradition or existing conditions. In the ac-
ceptance or rejection of articles publishers
should not be dependent on, or influenced by,
the yearly subscription list or the influential
patron. If a uniformly high standard of
VOLUME OF OUTPUT 101
publication cannot otherwise be maintained, the
medical editor and the medical publisher should
perform separate functions. It may be difficult
for the owner and publisher of a journal to
reject manuscript; an independent editor need
not be thus hampered.
A large medical library is in itself discouraging to many
inquirers, and I have become quite familiar with the peculiar
expression of mingled surprise, awe, and despair, which is apt
to steal over the face of one not accustomed to such work,
when he finds himself fairly in the presence of a mass of
material which he wishes to examine for the purpose of com-
pleting his ideal bibliography of — let us say epilepsy, or
excision, or the function of the liver.
Let such inquirers, as well as those who regret that they
have no access to large libraries, and must therefore rely on the
common textbooks and current periodicals for bibliography,
console themselves with the reflection that much the larger
part of all of our literature which has any practical value
belongs to the present century, and, indeed, will be found in
the publications of the last twenty years.5
It is always painful for the medical editor to reject a manu-
script, not only because it may mean the loss of a valued sub-
scriber but because he always dislikes to hurt a colleague's
feelings. It cannot be denied, however, that occasionally it
affords the medical editor almost vindictive pleasure to liber-
ally blue pencil some of the articles that come to his desk.
As a matter of fact, few realize the amount of earnest effort
and painstaking labor which a conscientious editor bestows
upon many a paper to make it readable and worth while.
Looking backward, it must be freely conceded that the articles
102 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
nowadays published in the leading medical journals are
superior both from a scientific and literary standpoint to those
in the past, but still there is much room for improvement.
Indeed one can only wonder at times why some articles have
been written at all, since they are neither original nor in-
structive. Certain writers seem to labor under the delusion
that an imposing array of citations from the general literature
on the subject discussed, invests their own papers with
additional importance in the eyes of others and gives them the
stamp of erudition. It would be a wholesome surprise to
these gentlemen to learn how near some of their contributions
were to rejection by reason of their prosy uninteresting char-
acter. Many of us will remember the old time puzzle that
consisted of placing a trivial object in a small box and this in
turn in a larger one and so on until the whole package had
reached formidable proportions. Too many articles seem to
be constructed upon this very plan, for it is necessary to do a
lot of unraveling before the real object is reached. Most
readers have neither the time nor patience to do this; life is
too short. Consequently many a paper goes unread. On the
other hand, there is the writer who is afflicted with an excess
of brevity, and therefore omits much that would have con-
tributed materially to the value and completeness of his con-
tribution. Again, we meet with the apologetic writer, who
prefaces his paper with several pages of explanation of the
motives which prompted his effort, his realization of the
honor conferred upon him by the request to contribute, and
other bombastic platitudes. Can you blame the editor if
he liberally blue pencils such copy? Then there is the author
who is addicted to what might be termed medical slang,
such as "acute and chronic abdomen," "acute and chronic
appendix," "hematogenous kidney," who does a "knee joint"
or an "elbow joint," and whose patients, marvelous to relate,
"have a temperature."4
VOLUME OF OUTPUT 103
Do not write unless you have something
original or instructive to contribute.
Publish special articles in journals devoted to
that subject.
Do not always select the so-called popular
journal as a medium of publication.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE MANUSCRIPT
Now there are kinds of form which all literary works must possess,
and there are, in addition, rules to which each work must conform when
it is written according to some special formula. — Bostwick.
Manuscript should be typewritten on one
side of a good grade of white paper, with double
space between the lines. A margin of from one
to two inches should be reserved on the left of
the page on which to make notations and cor-
rections. A carbon copy on thinner paper
should be retained by the author to safeguard
against accident to, or loss of, the original, and
with which to compare the publisher's proof.
The original copy should always be sent to the
publisher.
The name of the author and the number of
the page should be written in the upper right
hand corner of the sheet. Headings should be
placed in the order of their importance; for
example, large capitals for main headings, small
capitals for center headings, and bold face type,
or italics for subordinate or side headings.
Tables, bibliographies, explanations of figures,
and all notes should be written under their
104
THE MANUSCRIPT 105
individual headings on separate sheets for the
convenience of the printer. The conclusion or
summary should also be written on separate
sheets, and in this form may often be used as
an abstract for publication in journals, or as an
outline for the author's memorandum. Con-
secutive paging, however, should be maintained
throughout the article. If a page is omitted,
or an insert is made, it should be clearly marked
(p. \y2 or p. i a).
Bibliographies should be arranged alpha-
betically, according to authors, and numbered
consecutively. The numbers should be placed
in the text only when an author is referred to
more than once, or when his name is not men-
tioned in the text, thus avoiding the annoyance of
numerous reference numbers on the printed page.
Illustrations should be numbered from one up
and their numbers placed in the text consecu-
tively. All necessary identification data should
be written on the backs of illustrations ; that is,
the indication of top or bottom, the figure
number, the name and address of the author,
and the title of the article. This writing should
be done lightly with ink in order not to disfigure
the face of the picture. The legends should be
written on manuscript paper, numbered to
106 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
correspond to the illustrations, and attached to
the manuscript, not to the illustrations. The
amount of reduction should be marked on
drawings so that their dimensions will not
exceed the printed page. Drawings should be
made at least twice the diameter of the repro-
duction. Reduction by photography permits
refinement of line and fine shading without
excessive care in making the original. All illus-
trations should be studied carefully with refer-
ence to reduction or cutting. This may mean
not only a great saving in the cost of reproduc-
tion but will enhance the value of the illus-
tration by emphasizing important details.
If a special arrangement is desired, that
cannot be designated by serial numbers, the
outlines of the illustrations may be traced on
sheets of paper and forwarded with the draw-
ings or photographs.
The number of illustrations to be used and the
date on which the article is presented for
publication should be noted on the title page.
Manuscript should not be rolled or folded; it
should be mailed in a flat envelope, sealed.
If illustrations are inclosed, they should be
guarded by sheets of cardboard placed inside
the envelope. They should not be mounted.
THE MANUSCRIPT 107
Do not submit manuscript for publication
until it has been made as perfect as possible.
Number pages correctly.
Place the author's name on each page.
Write tables, bibliography, legends, and sum-
mary or conclusions on separate sheets, with
consecutive paging.
Compare the illustrations with the legends
and with the figure numbers in the text.
Mark reductions on illustrations. Eliminate,
by trimming, all unnecessary details from photo-
graphs and photomicrographs before sending
them for reproduction.
Mark the top of the picture.
Send the original (typewritten) manuscript to
the publisher; do not roll or fold it.
Retain a duplicate copy of the manuscript.
CHAPTER XIX
THE PROOF
Remember that changes in type cost money. The omission of a single
word in the middle of a paragraph may necessitate resetting the whole of
this from that point on; and if such alteration is made in the page proof
it may further involve repaging the entire article or chapter. — Manual
of Style, University of Chicago Press.
The author, in reading proof, should compare
it carefully with the carbon copy of his manu-
script. All changes from the original should
be observed, not alone for the purpose of
detecting errors of interpretation and of type,
but to note for future use changes made in the
punctuation, general construction, and so forth.
If the manuscript has not been carefully edited
before being sent for publication, the author
will find it to his advantage painstakingly to
check the proof with the carbon copy of the
original manuscript and later to check the
corrected proof with the printed article. This
practice, persistently followed, will in time
enable the author to anticipate the idiosyn-
crasies of different editors and publishers, and
he may even become proficient in meeting their
varied requirements; at the same time he will
acquire discrimination in the use of certain rules
1 08
THE PROOF 109
and regulations, and hence, more confidence in
his own methods.
Corrections and changes should be made on
the margin of the proof in legible handwriting
by means of the signs and marks employed by
proofreaders. It should be remembered that
proof of changes or revisions is not submitted,
and the printer should not be required to
decipher carelessly written inserts. Proof should
be corrected with ink. Pencil marks become
blurred and are often unintelligible by the time
the proof reaches the printer.
Proof should be read and returned to the
publisher without delay. The original manu-
script should always be returned with the proof.
If reprints are desired, the order blank provided
by the publisher should be filled out and
attached to the proof. If such a blank is not
provided, a written order should be attached to
the proof. In either case a copy or memoran-
dum of the order should be retained.
If it is found necessary to change or add a word or phrase,
an effort should be made to substitute new matter equal in
length to that deleted, or to add matter which will fill one or
more complete lines.
The necessity for many "changes may be avoided if the
author will exercise a little care to decide in advance what he
wishes done and will mark his copy accordingly. Lack of
no THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
sufficient thought at the right time is responsible for many
later changes which would be avoided by a careful writer and
which prove highly expensive.
An additional reason for care and decision at the right
time — more potent than that of expense — is that eleventh-
hour additions or changes are often made in such a manner as
to be out of harmony with the context, or inconsistent in
matter of style with the rest of the work, and, when too late,
arise to plague the author, the publisher, the proofreader, and
the reading public.
Marks or queries made by the proofreader should never
merely be erased by the author. If for any reason the author
does not agree with the mark, he should draw a line through it,
substituting his own mark for it. If such queries or marks
are erased, the proofreader is likely to repeat them at a later
stage, or even to make a correction on his own responsibility
which may not be desired. This can be obviated if the author
will pay attention to all such marks as they are encountered
on the galley proofs.
Do not draw a line around corrections made in the margin,
for printers are trained to regard such a mark as indicating
that the matter so inclosed is not to be set up.
Page-proofs. — All preliminary questions having been
settled, the type is next "made up" into pages, and a "page-
proof" is sent to the author, accompanied by the marked
galley proofs. At this stage it is dangerous and expensive
to make any further changes or additions. The addition or
deletion of a single line may mean that every following page
may have to be made over to the end of the chapter; since
every page must be exactly the same length as every other
page. On the other hand, the page-proofs should be read
carefully by the author to see (i) that the appropriate running-
heads and folios are in position, (2) that no lines are trans-
posed or omitted, especially at the top or at the foot of pages,
(3) that footnotes are in place on their appropriate pages,
THE PROOF III
(4) that alterations indicated on galley proofs have been
correctly made, (5) that letters or punctuation marks have not
been dropped from the ends of lines.
PROOFREADER'S MARKS
d> Dele, or delete: take X out.
9 Letter r/versed — turn.
# Put in^pace.
C ClcQe Up — no space.
VA Bad^spacing^space^norc evenly.
**^ Wrojfg font: character of wrong size or
style.
*»" Transp0e.
^fake a new paragraph,
^ndent; or, put in an em-quad space.
C C Carry to the left.
3 Cjrry fo the right.
n "Elevate.
Imperfect type — correct.
Space shows|between words — push down.
Straighten crooked line.
llStraighten aligJEfnent.
Restore or retain words crossed out.
Print (£&, f?, etc.) as a ligature.
Words are omitted from, or in^opy.
Query to author: Is this corrgc^.?
Putin^
Put in 1
Put in LOWER CASE.
Put in reman type.
Put in italia type.
Put in bold face type.
112 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Read and return proof without delay.
Compare proof with the carbon copy of the
manuscript.
Note whether statistical data, legends, refer-
ences, and the spelling of proper names and of
unusual words are correct.
Answer questions written on the margin of
proof.
Make corrections definite and legible on the
margin of the galley or page proof.
Return original manuscript with proof O. K.
with signature.
Avoid alterations.
Order reprints.
CHAPTER XX
QUOTED MATERIAL, INDEX, AND COPYRIGHT
If you fail to find anything you want in your library, the chances are
a hundred to one that you fail, not because what you seek is not there,
but because you do not understand the apparatus that has been made
ready to your hand for that purpose. — Utter.
Complete reference should be given for quoted
matter, and the quotations should be exact.
If copyrighted matter is used, except in brief
quotations, consent to publish it should be
obtained.
Expressed in untechnical language, infringement may be
described as copying, in whole or in part, the copyrighted
work of another with intent to evade the law. And this
applies not only to the complete work but to any part of it —
just how large or how small a portion has never yet been
defined with any satisfactory exactness. ... It can there-
fore be regarded as the well settled rule that if any considerable
passage of a copyrighted work is to be made use of in a new
work, the consent of the owner of the copyright must first
be obtained.14
The making of an index is a craft in itself.
Usually the author does not find it desirable to
learn this craft, and arranges to have the index
made by someone who understands this work.
The author may assist the indexer by pro-
viding a title that is a clear index of the contents
8 113
114 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
of the article, by grouping material in orderly
sequence, and by dividing it with main headings
and subheadings.
An index, unlike the book itself, can scarcely be too prolix
or liberal. The index, unlike the text, is not read. It is
referred to, and only those "catch- words" actually needed are
read at any one time. Hence every word which will aid in
directing the reader to the subject he seeks should appear in
the index. To determine what are such words, the compiler
should frequently ask himself: "If I myself needed information
on this subject, what are the words or sub-subjects under which
I myself should be likely to look for it in another man's work?"
This point of view will often assist him in covering the needs of
"the other man" who will use his work.14
Be exact in copying quotations.
Be exact in giving credit for ideas and
material obtained from others.
Conform to standard rules for publishing
quoted material.
Give a title that will reveal the content of
the article.
Make a liberal index.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Allbutt, T. C.: Notes on the composition of scientific
• papers. New York, Macmillan, Ed. 2, 1905, pp. xiii,
39-41, 49, 50-51. 51-53, 53-55, 56-58, 58-61, 96-97,
60-64, 2O> 22> 23» 8, 27, 26-27, 3O, 162, 65, 66, 67, 76,
I3-H, 7-
2. American Medical Association style book. Chicago, Am.
Med. Assn., 1915, p. 39.
3. Suggestions to medical authors and American Medical
Association style book. Chicago, Am. Med. Assn.,
1917- PP- 32~33, io-ii, 24.
4. Editorials: (i) The importance of correct references;
(2) The medical editor — some of his problems. Jour.
Am. Med. Ed. Assn., 1916, iii, pp. 29, 30-31.
5. Billings, J. S. : An address on our medical literature.
Boston Med. and Surg. Jour., 1881, cv, pp. 219, 221, 219.
6. Bostwick, A. E.: Earmarks of literature. Chicago,
McClurg, 1914, pp. 26, 27, 31.
7. Boynton, P. H.: Principles of composition. Chicago,
Ginn, 1915.
8. Crothers, S. McC.: The pleasures of an absentee land-
lord and other essays. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1916,
229 pp.
9. Earle, S. C, : The theory and practice of technical writing.
New York, Macmillan, 1911, pp. 127, 121-122, 210.
10. Giddings, F. H.: Twenty-five suggestions.
11. Greenough, J. B., and Kittredge, G. L.: Words and their
ways in English speech. New York, Macmillan, 1912,
pp. 128, 21, 55.
"5
n6 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
12. Klein, W. L. : Why we punctuate or Reason versus rule
in the use of marks. Minneapolis, Lancet Publ. Co.,
Ed. 2, 1916, pp. i, n, 209, 1 60, 167-168, 164-165, 201,
175-
13. Lounsbury, T. R.: The standard of usage in English.
New York, Harper, [c. 1908], pp. 54, 297-298.
14. Manly, J. M., and Powell, J. A.: A manual for writers.
Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1913, pp. 25, 23,
99-100, 158, 159, 36-38, 39-40. 45-65. 12-13, 21, 15,
179-185, 210, 167.
15. Place, F.: Verify your references. New York Med.
Jour., 1916, civ, p. 699.
16. Whitford, W.: Physicians as speakers. Jour. Am. Med.
Assn., 1900, xxxv, p. 743.
17. Woolley, E. C.: Handbook of composition. Boston,
Heath, [c. 1907], pp. 90-107, 169, 35, 29-31, 59, 65, 78,
79, 83, 84, 85.
STANDARD ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL
JOURNALS
Abhandl. d. k. preuss. Akad.
d. Wissensch Abhandlungen der koniglich preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin.
Abhandl. a. d. Neurol.,
Psychiat., Psychiol. u. i.
Grenzgeb Abhandlungen aus der Neurologic, Psychi-
atric, Psychiologie und ihre Grenzgebieten,
Berlin.
Acta chir. Scandin Acta chirurgica Scandinayica, Stockholm.
Acta dermat.-ven Acta dermato-venereolo_gica, Stockholm.
Acta med. Scandin Acta medica Scandinavica, Stockholm.
Acta oto-laryngol Acta oto-laryngologica, Upsala.
Aerztl. Ber. d. k. k. allg.
Krankenh. zu Wien Aerztliche Berichte des kais.-koniglichen
allgemeinen Krankenhauses zu Wien.
Aerztl. Cor.-Bl. f. Bohmen. .Aerztliches Correspondenzblatt fUr Bohmen,
Prag.
Aerztl. Vereinsbl. f . Deutschl.Aerztliches Vereinsblatt fttr Deutschland,
Dresden.
Alabama Med. Jour Alabama Medical Journal, Birmingham.
Albany Med. Ann Albany Medical Annals, Albany, New York.
Alger. m6d Alger medical, Alger.
Alienist and Neurol Alienist and Neurologist, St. Louis.
Allg. med. Centr.-Ztg Allgemeine medicinische Central-Zeitung,
Berlin.
Allg. Wien. med. Ztg Allgemeine Wiener medizinische Zeitung,
Wien.
Allg. Ztg. f. Chir Allgemeine Zeitung ftir Chirurgie, innere
Heilkunde und ihre Httlfswissenschaften,
Augsburg.
Allg. Ztschr. f. Psychiat Allgemeine Zeitschrift fttr Psychiatric und
psychisch-gerichtliche Medicin, Berlin.
Allg. Ztg. f. Mil.-Aerzte Allgemeine Zeitung fttr Militaar-Aerzte,
Braunschweig.
Am. Chem. Jour American Chemical Journal, Baltimore.
Am. Druggist American Druggist, New York City.
Am. Jour. Anat .American Journal of Anatomy, Philadelphia.
Am. Jour. Clin. Med '....American Journal of Clinical Medicine.
Chicago.
Am. Jour. Dis. Child American Journal of Diseases of Children,
Chicago.
Am. Jour. Insan American Journal of Insanity, Utica, New
York.
Am. Jour. Med. Sc American Journal of the Medical Sciences,
Philadelphia.
Am. Jour. Nursing American Journal of Nursing, Philadelphia.
Am. Jour. Obst American Journal of Obstetrics and Diseases
of Women and Children, New York City.
117
Il8 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Am. Jour. Ophth American Journal of Ophthalmology, Chicago.
Am. Jour. Orthop. Surg American Journal of Orthopedic Surgery,
Philadelphia.
Am. Jour. Pharm American Journal of Pharmacy, Philadelphia.
Am. Jour. Physiol. Optics. . . American Journal of Physiological Optics,
Southbridge, Massachusetts.
Am. Jour. Physiol American Journal of Physiology, Baltimore.
Am. Jour. Pub. Health American Journal of Public Health, Chicago.
Am. Jour. Roentgenol American Journal of Roentgenology, New
York City.
Am. Jour. Surg American Journal of Surgery, New York City.
Am. Jour. Syphilis American Journal of Syphilis, St. Louis.
Am. Jour. Trop. Dis. and
Prev. Med American Journal of Tropical Diseases and
Preventive Medicine, New Orleans.
Am. Jour. Urol American Journal of Urology, New York City.
Am. Jour. Vet. Med American Journal of Veterinary Medicine,
Chicago.
Am. Med American Medicine, Philadelphia..
Am. Quart. Roentgenol American Quarterly of Roentgenology, Pitts-
burgh.
Am. Rev. Tuberc American Review of Tuberculosis, Baltimore.
An. de cien. med Anales de ciencias medicas, Madrid.
An. de. Facul. med Anales de la Facultad de medicina, Universi-
dad de Montevideo.
An. d. Inst. mod. clin. med.. Anales del Institute modelo de clinica m£dica,
Buenos Aires.
An. de oftal Anales de oftalmologia, Mexico.
An. r. Acad. de med Anales de la real Academia de medicina,
Madrid.
An. Soc. ginec. espan Anales de la Sociedad ginecologica espanola,
Madrid.
Anat. Rec Anatomical Record, Philadelphia.
Anat. Anz Anatomischer Anzeiger, Jena.
Ann. d. Cheiri Annalen der Chemie (Liebig's), Leipzig.
Ann. d. Geburtsh Annalen der Geburtshiilfe iiberhaupt und der
Entbindungsanstalt zu Marburg insbeson-
dere, Leipzig und Mannheim.
An. f . d. ges. Heilk Annalen fur die gesammte Heilkunde, Karls-
ruhe.
An. d. Phys. u. Chem Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Leipzig.
Ann. chim anal Annales de chimie analytique applique a
1'industrie, a 1'agriculture, a la pharmacie,
et a la biologic, et revue de chemie analyt-
ique reunies, Paris.
Ann. de chim. et de phys Annales de chimie et de physique, Paris.
Ann. clin. de Montpellier. . .Annales cliniques de Montpellier, Mont-
pellier.
Ann. de dermat. et de syph..Annales' de dermatologie et de syphiligraphie,
Paris.
Ann. de gynec. et d'obst. .. .Annales de gynecologic et • d'obstetrique,
Paris.
Ann. d'hyg. pub Annales d'hygigne publique et de m6decine
legale, Paris.
Ann. de 1'Inst. Pasteur Annales de 1'Institut Pasteur, Paris.
Ann. d. mal. de la peau Annales des maladies de la peau et de la
syphilis. Paris.
Ann. d. mal. ven Annales des maladies veneriennes, Paris.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 119
Ann. de mfid Annales de m&iecine, Paris.
Ann. de m6d. et chir. inf.. . .Annales de medecine et chirurgie infantiles,
Paris.
Ann. d'ocul Annales d'pculistique, Bruxelles.
Ann. sc. Univ. Jassy Annales scientifiques de 1'Universite' de Jassy,
Jassy.
Ann. d'ig. sper Annali d'igiene sperimentale, Roma.,
Ann. d. 1st. Maragliano p. la
cura d. tuberc Annali dell'Istitute Maragliano per lo studio
e la cura della tubercolosi e di altri malattie
infettive, Genpva.
Ann. di med. nav. Annali di medicina navale, Roma.
Ann. di ottal Annali di ottalmologia, Pavia.
Ann. Gynaec. and Paediat. .Annals of Gynaecology and Paediatry.
Philadelphia and Boston.
Ann. Ophth Annals of Ophthalmology. St. Louis.
Ann. Otol., Rhinol., and
Laryngol Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngol-
ogy, St. Louis.
Ann. Surg Annals of Surgery, Philadelphia.
Ann. Trop. Med. and Para-
sitol Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology,
Liverpool.
Apoth.-Ztg Apotheker-Zeitung, Berlin.
Arb. a. d. k. Gsndhtsamte . . Arbeiten aus dem kaiserlichen Gesundheit-
samte, Berlin.
Arb. a. d. neurobiol. Lab. d.
Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. . . Arbeiten aus dem neurobiologischen Labor-
atorium der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften
in Warschau, Berlin.
Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. . . .Archiv fiir Anatomic und Physiologic, Berlin
und Leipzig.
Arch. f. Anat., Physiol. u.
wissensch. Med Archiv fiir Anatomic, Physiologic und wissen-
schaftliche Medicin, Leipzig.
Arch, f . Augenh Archiv fur Augenheilkunde, Wiesbaden.
Arch. f. Dermat. u. Syph. .Archiv fiir Dermatologie und Syphilis. Wien
und Leipzig.
Arch. f. Entwcklngsmechn.
d. Organ Archiv fiir Entwickelungsmechanik der
Organismen, Leipzig.
Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Phar-
makol Archiv fiir experimentelle Pathologic und
Pharmakologie, Leipzig.
Arch, f . d. ges. Physiol Archiv fiir die gesamte Physiologic des
Menschen und der Tiere, Bonn.
Arch. f. Gynaek Archiv fiir Gynaekologie, Berlin.
Arch. f. Hyg Archiv fiir Hygiene, Munchen und Leipzig.
Arch, f . Kinderh Archiv fiir Kinderheilkunde, Stuttgart.
Arch. f. klin. Chir Archiv fiir klinische Chirurgie, Berlin.
Arch. f. Laryngol. u. Rhinol. .Archiv fiir Laryngologie und Rhinologie,
Berlin.
Arch, f . inikr. Anat Archiv fiir mikroskopische Anatomic, Bonn.
Arch, f . Ohrenh Archiv fUr Ohrenheilkunde, Leipzig.
Arch. f. Ohren-, Nasen-, u.
Kehlkopfh Archiv fur Ohren-, Nasen-, und Kehlkopf-
heilkunde, Leipzig.
Arch. f. Ophth Archiv fiir Ophthalmologie, Leipzig.
120 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Arch. d. Pharm Archiv der Pharmazie, Berlin.
Arch. f. Physiol Archiv fiir Physiologic, Leipzig.
Arch, f . Protistenk Archiv fflr Prolislenkunde, Jena.
Arch, f . Psychiat Archiv fur Psychiatric und Nervenkrank-
heiten, Berlin.
Arch. f. Schiffs u. Tropen-
Hyg Archiv fiir Schiffs und Tropen-Hygiene,
unter besonderer Beruchsichtigung der
Pathologic und Therapie, Kassel.
Arch. f. Verdauungskr Archiv fiir Verdauungs-Krankheilen, Berlin.
Arch, f . Zellforsch Archiv fiir Zellforschung, Leipzig.
Arch, de biol Archives de biologic, Li6ge.
Arch. Dermat Archives of Dermatology, New York and
Philadelphia.
Arch. Dermat. and Syph. . . . Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology,
Chicago.
Arch. g6n. de chir Archives generates de chirurgie, Paris.
Arch. g6n. de med Archives g6n€rales de me'decine, Paris.
Arch. Int. Med Archives of Internal Medicine, Chicago.
Arch, internal, de chir Archives internationales de chirurgie, Gand.
Arch, internal, de laryngol.. Archives internationales de laryngologie, de
rhinologie et d'otologie, Paris.
Arch, internal, de phar-
macod Archives internationales de pharmacodyna-
mie et de therapie, Gand et Paris.
Arch, internal, de physiol. . . Archives internationales de physiologic,
Liege el Paris.
Arch. ilal. d. biol Archives ilaliennes de biologic, Roma e
Torino.
Arch. d. mal. de 1'app. di-
geslif ! Archives des maladies de 1'appareil digeslif et
de la nulrilion, Paris.
Arch. d. mal. du coeur Archives des maladies du cceur, des vaisseaux,
el du sang, Paris.
Arch, de m6d. d. enfants. . . .Archives de me'decine des enfants, Paris.
Arch, de med. exper. et
d'anat. palh Archives de mgdecine experimenlale et
d'anatomie, palhologique, Paris.
Arch, de med. el pharm.
mil Archives de me'decine el de pharmacie mili-
laires (publiees par ordre du Ministre de
la guerre), Paris.
Arch. me'd. d'Angers Archives me'dicales d'Angers, Angers.
Arch. med. de Toulouse Archives mddicales de Toulouse, Toulouse.
Arch. med. beiges Archives me'dicales beiges, Bruxelles.
Arch. mens. d'obst. el de
gyn6c Archives mensuelles d'obsletrique et de
gynecologic, Paris, formerly Obstetrique.
Arch, de neurol Archives de neurologic, Paris.
Arch. Neurol. and Psychiat. .Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry,
Chicago.
Arch, de oftal. hispano-am.. Archives de oftalmologia hispano-americanos
Madrid.
Arch. Ophth Archives of Ophthalmology, New York
City.
Arch. Otol Archives of Otology, New York City.
Arch, de parasitol Archives de parasilologie, Paris. .
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 1 21
Arch. Pediat Archives of Pediatrics, New York City.
Arch, de physiol. norm, et
path Archives de physiologic normale et pathol-
ogique. Paris.
Arch. Radiol. and Electroth. Archives of Radiology and Electrotherapy,
London.
Arch. Roentg. Ray Archjves of the Roentgen Ray, London.
Arch. d. sc. biol Archives des sciences biplogique, Petrograd.
Arch. Surg . Archives of Surgery, Chicago.
Arch. din. ital Archivio clinico italiano, Roma.
Arch, di farmacol. sper Archivio di farmacologia e. scienze affini,
Roma.
Arch, internaz. di med. e
chir Archivio internazionalc di medicina e chi-
rurgia, Napoli.
Arch. ital. di otol., rinol, e
laringol Archivio italiano di otologia, rinologia, e
laringologia, Napoli.
Arch, per le sc. med Archivio per le scienze mediche, Torino.
Arch, brasil. de psychiat. .. .Archives brasileiros de psychiatria, neuro-
logia, e sciencias afines, Rio de Janeiro.
Arch, espan. de pediat Archives espanoles de pediatria, Madrid.
Arizona Med. Jour Arizona Medical Journal, Phoenix.
Atlanta Jour.-Rec. Med Atlanta Journal-Record of Medicine, Atlanta,
Georgia.
Atti d. r. Accad. d. Lincei . .Atti della reale Accademia dei Lincei, Roma.
Attualita med Attualita medica, organo scientifico e di
classe dell' Associazione sanitaria milanese,
Milano.
Australas. Med. Gaz Australasian Medical Gazette, Sydney.
Balneol. Centralztg Balneologische Centralzeitung, Berlin.
Beitr. z. chem. Phys. u.
Path Beitrage zur chemischen Physiologic und
Pathologic, Braunschweig. (Merged in
Biochemische Zeitschrift.)
Beitr. z. exper. Therap Beitrage zur experimentellen Therapie, Berlin.
Beitr. z. Geburtsh. u. Gynak . Beitrage zur Geburtshttlfe und Gynakologie,
Berlin.
Beitr. z. Klin. d. Tuberk Beitrage zur Klinik der Tuberkulose. Wiirz-
burg.
Beitr. z. klin. Chir Beitrage zur klinischen Chirurgie, Tubingen.
Beitr. z. path. Anat. u. z.
allg. Path Beitrage zur pathologischen Anatomic und
zur allgemeinen Pathologie, Jena.
Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ge-
sellsch Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesell-
schaft, Berlin.
Ber. d. deutsch. pharm. Ge-
sellsch Berichte der deutschen pharmaceutischen
Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Ber. u. d. ges. Physiol Berichte iiber die gesamte Physiologic (Neue
Folge des Zentralblatts fUr Biochemie und
Biophysik), Berlin.
Ber. d. Gsndhtsrath. in
Zurich Berichte des Gesundheitsrathes an die hohe
Regierung in Zurich, Ztirich.
Berl. Klinik Berliner Klinik, Berlin.
122 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Berl. klin. Wchnschn. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, Berlin.
Bibliot. d. ges. med. Wis-
sensch Bibliothek der gesammten medicinischen
Wissenschaften, Wien und Leipzig.
Bibliot. f . Laeger Bibliothek fiir Laeger, Kjobenhavn.
Biochem. Bull Biochemical Bulletin, New York City.
Biochem. Ztschr Biochemische Zeitschrift, Berlin.
Biol. Bull Biological Bulletin, Woods Hole, Massa-
chusetts.
Bl. f. Gsndhtspflg Blatter fur Gesundheitspflege, Zurich.
Bol. d. Cons. sup. de salub . Boletin del Consejo superior de salubridad,
Mexico.
Bol. d. inst. patol Boletin del institute patologico, Mexico.
Bol. de med. y cirug Boletin de medicina y cirugia, Madrid.
Boll. chim. farm Bolletino chimico farmaceutico, Milano.
Boston Med. and Surg.
Jour Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, Boston.
Brain Brain: A Journal of Neurology, London.
Brauer's Beitr Brauer's Beitrage: See Beitrage zur Klinik der
Tuberkulose, Wurzburg.
Brazil-med Brazil-medico, Rio de Janeiro.
Bristol Med.-Chir. Jour Bristol Medico-Chirurgical Journal, Bristol.
Brit, and Colon. Druggist . . . British and Colonial Druggist, London.
Brit. Jour. Child. Dis British Journal of Children's Diseases,
London.
Brit. Jour. Dent. Sc. , British Journal of Dental Science, London.
Brit. Jour. Dermat. Syph. . . British Journal of Dermatology and Syphilis,
London.
Brit. Jour. Exper. Path British Journal of Experimental Pathology,
London and Toronto.
Brit. Jour. Ophth British Journal of Ophthalmology, London.
Brit. Jour. Surg British Journal of Surgery, Bristol.
Brit. Jour. Tuberc British Journal of Tuberculosis, London.
Brit. Med. Jour British Medical Journal, London.
Bruns' Beitr Bruns' Beitrage: See Beitrage zur klinische
Chirurgie, Tubingen.
Budapest! orv. ujsag Budapest! orvosi jusag (Budapest Medical
News), Budapest.
Buffalo Med. Jour Buffalo Medical Journal, Buffalo.
Bull, de 1'Acad. de med Bulletin de 1'Academie de medecine, Paris.
Bull, de 1'Acad. roy. de
Belgique Bulletin de 1'Academie royals des sciences, des
lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique,
Bruxelles.
Bull. Am. Acad. Med Bulletin of the American Academy of Medi-
cine, Easton, Pennsylvania.
Bull, de 1'Assn. franc- P-
1'etude du cancer Bulletin de 1 'Association francaise pour
1'etude du cancer, Paris.
Bull. El Paso Co. Med. Soc. . Bulletin of El Paso County Medical Society, El
Paso, Texas.
Bull. gen. de therap. ..'..... Bulletin general de th6rapeutique me'dicale
et chirurgicale, Paris.
Bull. Hyg. Lab., U.S. P. H.S., Bulletin Hygienic Laboratory, United States
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
Bull, de 1'Inst. Pasteur Bulletin de 1'Institut Pasteur, Paris.
Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. . . Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital,
Baltimore.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 123
Bull. Lying-in Hosp Bulletin of the Lying-in Hospital of the City
of New York, New York City.
Bull. Manila Med. Soc Bulletin of the Manila Medical Society,
Manila.
Bull. Med. and Chir. Faculty,
Maryland Bulletin of the Medical and Chirurgical
Faculty of Maryland, Baltimore.
Bull. m6d Bulletin medical, Paris.
Bull. m6d. de Quebec Bulletin m6dical de Quebec, Quebec.
Bull, et m£m. Soc. anat. de
Par Bulletin et me'moires de la Societe anatomique
de Paris, Paris.
Bull, et mem. Soc. de chir. de
Par Bulletin et me'moires de la SociSte' de chirurgie
de Paris, Paris.
Bull. off. Soc. franc- d'elec-
trother. et de radiol Bulletin officiel de la Socie'te francaise
d'electrothfirapie et de radiologie, Paris.
Bull, et m£m. Soc. med. d.
h6p. de Par Bulletin et m6moires de la Soci6t6 medicale
des hdpitaux de Paris, Paris.
Bull, et mem. Soc. radiol.
m£d. de France Bulletins et mfimoires de la Soci6t6 de
radiologie medicale de France, Paris.
Bull. Soc. anat. de Par Bulletin de la Societe anatomique de Paris,
Paris.
Bull. Soc. beige de gynec. et
d'obst Bulletin de la Soci6te beige de gynecologic et
d'obst6trique, Bruxelles.
Bull. Soc. chim Bulletin de la Societe chimique de France,
Paris.
Bull. Soc. franc- de dermat.
et de syph Bulletin de la Soci6t6 francaise de dermato-
logie et de syphiligraphie, Paris.
Bull. Soc. de path, exot Bulletin de la Societ6 de pathologic exotique,
Paris.
Bull. Soc. de pediat. de Par . .Bulletin de la Society de pediatrie de Paris.
Paris.
Bull. Soc. de pharm. de Par . . Bulletin de la Societe de pharmacie de Paris,
Paris.
Bull. Soc. d. sc. d'Alger Bulletin de la SocietS des sciences physiques,
naturelles, et climatologiques d'Alger,
Alger.
Bull. d. trav. Soc. de pharm.
de Bordeaux Bulletin des travaux de la Societe de phar-
macie de Bordeaux, Bordeaux.
Caducee .Caduc6e: Journal de chirurgie et de medecine
d'armee, Paris.
Calcutta Med. Jour Calcutta Medical Journal, Calcutta.
Calif. Med. and Surg. Re-
porter California Medical and Surgical Reporter,
Los Angeles.
Calif. State Jour. Med California State Journal of Medicine, San
Francisco.
Can. Jour. Med. and Surg. . .Canadian Journal of Medicine and Surgery,
Toronto.
124 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Can. Med. Assn. Jour Canadian Medical Association Journal,
Toronto.
Can. Pract. and Rev The Canadian Practitioner and Review,
Toronto.
Centralbl Centralblatt. See Zentralblatt.
Centralbl. f. allg. Path. u.
path. Anat Centralblatt filr allgemeine Pathologic und
pathologische Anatomic, Jena.
Centralbl. f . Bakteriol Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Parasiten-
kunde und Infectionskrankheiten, Jena.
Centralbl. f. d. Grenzgeb. d.
Med. u. Chir Centralblatt fflr die Grenzgebiete der Medizin
und Chirurgie, Jena.
Centralbl. f. d. Krankh. d.
Harn- u. Sex.-Org Centralblatt fiir die Krankheiten der Harn-
und Sexual-Organe, Leipzig.
Centralbl. f. d. med. Wissen-
sch Centralblatt fiir die medicinischen Wissen-
schaften, Berlin.
Centralbl. f. Nervenh. u. Psy-
chiat Centralblatt fiir Nervenheilkunde und Psy-
chiatric, Coblenz und Leipzig.
Centralbl. f. Stoffwechsel. u.
Verdauung?kr Centralblatt fiir Stoffwechsel- und Ver-
dauungs-Krankheiten, Gottingen.
Charite-Ann Charite'-Annalen, Berlin.
Charlotte Med. Jour Charlotte Medical Journal, Charlotte, North
Carolina.
Chem. Abstr Chemical Abstracts, Easton, Pennsylvania.
Chem. News Chemical News, London.
Chem.-Ztg Chemiker-Zeitung, Gothen.
Chem. Centrbl Chemisches Centralblatt, Leipzig.
Chicago Med. Recorder Chicago Medical Recorder, Chicago.
China Med. Jour China Medical Journal, Shanghai.
Cleveland Med. Jour Cleveland Medical Journal, Cleveland.
Cleveland Med. and Surg.
Reporter Cleveland Medical and Surgical Reporter,
Cleveland.
Clin. Chir Clinica chirurgica, Milano.
Clin. Jour Clinical Journal, London.
Clin. mod Clinica moderna, Firenze.
Clin. ostet Clinica ostetrica, Roma.
Colorado Med Colorado Medicine, Denver.
Colorado Med. Jour Colorado Medical Journal, Denver.
Columbus Med. Jour Columbus Medical Journal, Columbus, Ohio.
Compt. rend. Acad. roy. de
m6d. de Belg Compte-rendu des travaux de 1' Academic
royale de medecine de Belgique, Bruxelles.
Compt. rend. Acad. d. sc . . . .Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances
de 1' Academic des sciences, Paris.
Compt. rend. Soc. de biol. . .Comptes rendus des stances et memoires de la
Socieie1 de biologic, Paris.
Cornell Univ. Med. Bull. .. .Cornell University Medical Bulletin, New
York City.
Cor.-Bl. f. schweiz. Aerzte . . . Correspondenz-Blatt fflr schweizer Aerzte,
Basel.
Critic and Guide Critic and Guide, New York City.
Cron. m6d Cronica medica, Lima.
Cron. med. mexicana Cr6nica medica mexicana, Mexico.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 125
Delaware State Med. Jour . . . Delaware State Medical Journal. Wilmington,
Delaware.
Dental Cosmos Dental Cosmos, Philadelphia.
Dental Digest Dental Digest, Chicago.
Dental Items Int Dental Items of Interest, New York City.
Dental Rec Dental Record, London.
Dental Rev Dental Review, Chicago.
Dental Sum Dental Summary, Toledo, Ohio.
Denver Med. Times and
Utah Med. Jour Denver Medical Times and Utah Medical
Journal, Denver.
Dermat. Wchnschr Dermatologische Wochenschrift, Leipzig.
Dermat. Ztschr Dermatologische Zeitschrift, Berlin.
Detroit Med. Jour Detroit Medical Journal, Detroit.
Deutsche Klinik Deutsche Klinik, Berlin und Wien.
Dcutsch med. Wchnschr .... Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, Leip-
zig und Berlin.
Deutsch mil.-arztl. Ztschr. . .Deutsche militair-arztliche Zeitschrift, Berlin.
Deutsch. Arch. f. klin. Med . Deutsches Archiv fflr klinische Medizin,
Leipzig.
Deutsch. Ztschr. f. Chir. . . .Deutsche Zeitschrift fur Chirurgie, Leipzig.
Deutsch. Ztschr. f. Nervenh . Deutsche Zeitschrift ftir Nervenheilkunde.
Leipzig.
Dietet. and Hyg. Gaz Dietetic and Hygienic Gazette, New York
City.
Dingler's polytech. Jour .... Dingjer's poly techniches Journal, Stuttgart.
Dominion Dent. Jour Dominion Dental Journal, Toronto.
Dominion Med. Month Dominion Medical Monthly, Toronto.
Drug. Circ Druggist's Circular. New York City.
Dublin Jour. Med. Sc Dublin Journal of Medical Science, Dublin.
ficho mid. du nord Echo medical du nord, Lille.
Eclect. Med. Jour Eclectic Medical Journal, Cincinnati.
Edect. Rev Eclectic Review. New York City.
Edinburgh Med. Jour Edinburgh Medical Journal, Edinburgh.
Endocrinology Endocrinology, Los Angeles.
Epilepsia Epilepsia, Hamburg.
Ergebn. d. allg. Path. u. Anat.
Ergebnisse der allgemeine Pathologic und
Anatomic, Wiesbaden.
Ergebn. d. Chir. u. Orth. .. .Ergebnisse der Chirurgie und Orthopadie,
Berlin.
Ergebn. d. Hyg. Bak. Im-
munitsf. u. exp. Therap. . .Ergebnisse der Hygiene. Bakteriologie, Im-
munitatsforschung, und experimentellen
Therapie, Berlin.
Ergebn. d. Immunitatsf Ergebnisse der Immunitatsforschung. con-
tinued as Ergebnisse der Hygiene, Bakteri-
ologie, Immunitatsforschung, und experi-
mentellen Therapie, Berlin.
Ergebn. d. inn. Med. u.
Kinderh Ergebnisse der innere Medizin und Kinder-
heilkunde, Berlin.
Folia hsematol Folia haematologica. Internationales Zentral-
organ ftir Blut- und Serumforschung.
Berlin.
126 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Folia serolog Folia serolpgica. II (serologischer) Teil der
Internationalen Zentralorgan fur Blut- und
Serumforschung, Leipzig.
Folia urolog Folia urologica. Internationales Archiv fur
die Krankheiten der Harnorgane, Leipzig.
Forh. Svens. Lak.-Sallsk.
Sammank FQrhandlingar vid Svenska Lakare-Sallskapets
Sammankomster, Stockholm.
Fortschr. a. d. Geb. d. Ront-
genstrahlen Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der Rontgen-
strahlen, Hamburg.
Fortschr. de Med Fortschritte der Medizin, Berlin.
Fort Wayne Med. Jour.-Mag. Fort Wayne Medical Journal-Magazine.
Fort Wayne, Indiana.
Frankfurter Ztschr. f . Path. . Frankfurter Zeitschrift fur Pathologic, Wies-
baden.
Gac. med Gaceta medica, Mexico.
Gaz. lek Gazeta lekarska, Warszawa.
Gaz. med. da Bahia Gazeta medica da Bahia, Bahia.
Gaz. hebd. de med Gazette hebdomadaire de medecine et de
chirurgie, Paris.
Gaz. hebd. d. sc. med. de
Bordeaux Gazette hebdomadaire des sciences m£dicales
de Bordeaux.
Gaz. d. h6p Gazette des h6pitaux civils et militaires (La
Lancette franchise), Paris.
Gaz. d. mal. infant Gazette des maladies inf antiles, Paris.
Gaz. med. beige Gazette me'dicale beige, Lie'ge.
Gaz. med. de Par Gazette medicale de Paris, Paris.
Gazz. chim. Ital Gazzetta chimica Italiana, Roma.
Gazz. d. osp Gazzetta degli ospedali e delle diniche,
Milano.
Gazz. med Gazzetta medica, Milano.
Gazz. med. ital Gazzetta medica italiana, Torino.
Gazz. med. Iqmb Gazzetta medica lombarda, Milano.
Gazz. med. sicil Gazzetta medica siciliana. Giornale pratico
di medicina, chirurgia, igiene e farmacia;
per medici, ufficiali sanitari, farmacisti,
Catania.
Gazz. med. di Torino Gazzetta medica di Torino, Torino.
Geneesk. Tijdschr. v. Belgie.Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Belgie, Ant-
werpen.
Ginecologia Ginecologia, Firenze.
Gior. d. r. Accad. di med. di
Torino Giornale della reale Accademia di medicina di
Torino, Torino.
Gior. ital. d. mal. ven Giornale italiano delle malattie veneree e
della pellp, Milano.
Gior. di med. mil Giornale di medicina militare, Roma.
Gior. d. r. Soc. naz. vet Giornale della reale Societa nazionale veteri-
naria, Torino.
Glasgow Med. Jour Glasgow Medical Journal, Glasgow.
Good Health Good Health, Battle Creek, Michigan.
Grace Hosp. Bull *. .Grace Hospital Bulletin, Detroit.
Graefe's Arch Graefe's Archiv: See Archiv fiir Ophthal-
mologie, Leipzig.
127
Grdce m£d Grdce m6dicale, Athene, Grice. French
section of Istrik6 Proodos.
Guy's Hosp. Gaz Guy's Hospital Gazette: a Student's Journal
of Hospital News, Medicine, and Surgery,
London.
Guy's Hosp. Rep Guy's Hospital Reports, London.
Gynaekol. Helvet Gynaekologia Helvetica, GenSve.
Gynak. Rundschau Gynakologische Rundschau, Berlin und Wien.
Gy6gyaszat Gy6gyaszat, Budapest.
Gy6gysze'reszi hetil Gydgysze'reszi hetilap, Budapest.
Haematologica Haematologica: Archivio italiano di ematolo-
gia e sierologia, Napoli.
Heart Heart: A Journal for the Study of the Circu-
lation, London.
Hildebrand's Jahresb Hildebrand's Jahresberichte: See Jahres-
berichte Uber die Fortschritte auf dem
Gebiete der Chirurgie, Wiesbaden.
Hofmeister's Beitr Hofmeister's Beitrage: See Beitrage zur
cheraischen. Physiologic und Pathologic,
Braunschweig.
Hoppe-Seyler's Ztschr Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschrift: See Zeitschrift
ftir physiologische Chemie, Strassburg.
Hospital The Hospital, London.
Hospitalstidende Hospitalstidende, Kjobenhavn.
Hosp. Management Hospital Management. Chicago.
Hosp. Prog Hospital Progress, Milwaukee. Wisconsin.
Hot Springs Med. Jour Hot Springs Medical Journal, Hot Springs,
Arkansas.
Hufeland's Jour Hufeland's Journal: See Journal der practis-
chen Arzneykunde und Wundarzneykunst,
Jena und Berlin.
Hygea Hygea, Karlsruhe.
Hygiea Hygiea, Stockholm.
Hyg. g6n. et appliq Hygie'ne generale et appliquee, Paris.
Hygiene Hygiene, London.
Hyg. mod Hygiene moderne, Paris.
Hyg. Bl Hygienische Blatter, Berlin.
Hyg. Rundschau Hygienische Rundschau, Berlin.
latrike proodos Intrike proodos, Athens, Greece: See Grece
M&iicale.
Illinois Biol. Monog Illinois Biological Monographs, Urbana.
Illinois Med. Jour Illinois Medical Journal, Chicago.
Incurabili Incurabili, Napoli.
Indian Jour. Med. Res Indian Journal of Medical Research, Calcutta.
Indian Med. Gaz Indian Medical Gazette, Calcutta.
Indian Med. Rec Indian Medical Record, Calcutta.
Indiana Med. Jour Indiana Medical Journal, Indianapolis.
Intercolonial Med. Jour.
Australas Intercolonial Medical Journal of Australasia,
Melbourne.
Internal. Assn. Med. Mus.
Bull The International Association of Medical
Museums Bulletins, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Internal. Centralbl. f. d. ges.
Tuberk.-Forsch Internationales Centralblatt fur die gesamt*
Tuberkulose-Fcrschung, Wurzburg.
128 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Internal. Clin International Clinics, Philadelphia.
Internat. Dent. Jour International Dental Journal, New York
City and Philadelphia.
Internat. Monatschr. f. Anat.
u. Phys Internationale Monatsschrift fur Anatomic
und Physiologic, Leipzig.
Internat. Jour. Orthodontia. International Journal of Orthodontia and
Oral Surgery, St. Louis.
Internat. Jour. Surg International Journal of Surgery. New York
City.
Interstate Med. Jour Interstate Medical Journal, St. Louis.
Italia san Italia sanitaria, Milano.
Jahrb. f . Kinderh Jahrbuch fur Kinderheilkunde und physische
Erziehung, Berlin.
Jahrb. d. prakt. Med Jahrbuch der praktischen Medizin, Berlin.
Jahresb. ii. d. Ergebn. d. Im-
munitatsforschung Jahresbericht liber die Ergebnisse der Im-
munitatsforschung, Stuttgart.
Jahresb. U. d. Fortschs. d.
Anat. u. Entwcklngs.
gesch Jahresberichte fiber die Fortschritte der
Anatoraie und Entwickelungsgeschichte,
Jena.
Jahresb. ii. d. Fortschr. d.
Chem Jahresbericht liber die Fortschritte der
Chemie und verwandler Theile anderer
Wissenschaften, Braunschweig.
Jahresb. ii. d. Fortschr. a. d.
Geb. d. Chir Jahresbericht liber die Fortschritte auf dem
Gebiete der Chirurgie, Wiesbaden.
Jahresb. ii. d. Fortschr. d.
ges. Med Jahresbericht liber die Fortschritte der
gesammten Medicin, Erlangen.
Jahresb. ti. d. Fortschr. d.
Thierchem Jahresbericht liber die Fortschritte der
Thierchemie, Wiesbaden.
Jahresb. ii. d. Leistung. u.
Fortschr. i. d. Anat. u.
Physiol Jahresbericht iiber die Leistungen und Fort-
schritte in der Anatomic und Physiologic,
Berlin.
Jahresb. u. d. Leistung. u.
Fortschr. i. d. ges. med .... Jahresbericht iiber die Leistungen und Fort-
schritte in der gesammten Medizin (Fort-
setzung von Virchow's Jahresbericht),
Berlin.
Jahresb. d. schles. Gesellsch.
f. vaterl. Kult Jahresbericht der schlesischen Gesellschaft
fiir vaterlandische Kultur, Breslau.
Janus Janus, Leyden.
Johns Hopkins Hosp. Rep. . .Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports, Baltimore.
Jour. Abnorm. Psychol Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Boston.
Jour. Advanc. Therap Journal of Advanced Therapeutics, New York
City.
Jour. Agr. Res Journal of Agricultural Research, Washing-
ton, D. C.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 129
Jour. Am. Chem. Soc Journal of the American Chemical Society.
Easton. Pennsylvania.
Jour. Am. Med. Assn Journal of the American Medical Association,
Chicago.
Jour. Am. Pharm. Assn Journal of the American Pharmaceutical
Association, Columbus, Ohio.
Jour. Am. Pub. Health Assn . Journal of the American Public Health
Association, Columbus, Ohio.
Jour. Am. Soc. for Psych.
Research Journal of the American Society for Psychical
Research, New York City.
Jour, de 1'anat. et de la
physiol Journal de 1'anatomie et de la physiologie
normales et pathologiques de 1'homme et
des animaux, Paris.
Jour. Anat. and Physiol .... Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, London.
Jour. Arkansas Med. Soc .... Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society,
Little Rock.
Jour. Bacteriol Journal of Bacteriology, Baltimore.
Jour. Biol. Chem Journal of Biological Chemistry, New York
City.
Jour. Boston Soc. Med. Sc. .Journal of the Boston Society of Medical
Sciences, Boston.
Jour. Cancer Res Journal of Cancer Research, Baltimore.
Jour. Chem. Soc. London. . .Journal of the Chemical Society of London,
London.
Jour, de chir Journal de chirurgie, Paris.
Jour. d. Chir. u. Augenh.. . .Journal der Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde,
Berlin.
Jour. Comp. Neurol Journal of Comparative Neurology, Phila-
delphia.
Jour. Comp. Path, and
Therap Journal of Comparative Pathology and
Therapeutics, Edinburgh and London.
Jour. Cutan. Dis Journal of Cutaneous Diseases, New York
City.
Jour. Dent. Res Journal of Dental Research, New York City.
Jour. Exper. Med Journal of Experimental Medicine, New
York City.
Jour. Exper. Zool Journal of Experimental Zoology, Phila-
delphia.
Jour. Eye, Ear, and Throat
Dis .Journal of Eye, Ear, and Throat Diseases,
Baltimore.
Jour. Florida Med. Assn Journal of the Florida Medical Association,
Jacksonville.
Jpur. Gen. Physiol Journal of General Physiology, Baltimore.
Jour. Hyg Journal of Hygiene, London.
Jour. Immunol Journal of Immunology, Baltimore.
Jour. Indiana State Med.
Assn Journal of the Indiana State Medical Associa-
tion, Fort Wayne.
Jour. Indust. and Engin.
Chem Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chem-
istry, Easton, Pennsylvania.
Jour. Indust. Hyg Journal of Industrial Hygiene, Boston.
Jour. Inebr Journal of Inebriety, Boston.
Jour. Infect. Dis Journal of Infectious Diseases, Chicago.
9
130 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
J our. Iowa State Med. Soc . . . Journal of the Iowa State Medical Society,
Des Moines.
Jour. Kansas Med. Soc Journal of the Kansas Medical Society,
Columbus.
Jour. f. Kinderkr Journal filr Kinderkrankheiten, Berlin und
Erlangen.
Jour. Lab. and Clin. Med. . .Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine,
St. Louis.
Journal-Lancet Journal-Lancet, Minneapolis.
Jour. Laryngol., Rhinol., and
Otol Journal of Laryngology, Rhinology, and
Otology, London.
Jour. Maine Med. Assn Journal of the Maine Medical Association,
Portland, Maine.
Jour, de med. de Bordeaux . . Journal de medecine de Bordeaux, Bordeaux.
Jour, de med., de chir., et de
pharmacol Journal de m6decine, de chirurgie, et de
pharmacologie, Bruxelle?.
Jour, de med. et de chir. prat .Journal de medecine et de chirurgie pratiques,
Paris.
Jour, de med. de Par Journal de medecine de Paris, Paris.
Jour. Med. Assn. Georgia. . .Journal of the Medical Association of Georgia,
Augusta.
Jour. Med. Res Journal of Medical Research, Boston.
Jour. Med. Soc. New Jersey. . Journal of the Medical Society of New
Jersey, Orange.
Jour. Ment. Path Journal of Mental Pathology, New York
City.
Jour. Mich. State Med. Soc. Journal of the Michigan State Medical
- Society, Detroit*
Jour. Minn. Med. Assn Journal of the Minnesota State Medical
Association, and Northwestern Lancet,
Minneapolis.
Jour. Missouri State Med.
Assn Journal of the Missouri State Medical Asso-
ciation, St. Louis.
Jour. Morphol Journal of Morphology, Philadelphia.
Jour. Nat. Dent. Assn Journal of the National Dental Association,
Chicago.
Jour. Nerv. and Ment. Dis. . .Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases,
New York City.
Jour, de neurol. et d'hypnol . . Journal de neurologie et d'hypnologie, Paris.
Jour. New Mexico Med. Soc. Journal of the New Mexico Medical Society,
Albuquerque.
Jour. Obst. and Gynec. Brit.
Emp Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology of the
British Empire, London.
Jour. Oklahoma State Med.
Assn Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical
Association, Muskogee.
Jour. Ophth. and Oto-Laryn-
gol Journal of Ophthalmology and Oto- Laryn-
gology, Chicago.
Jour. Orthop. Surg Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery, Lincoln,
Nebraska.
Jour. Outdour Life Journal of the Outdoor Life, Trudeau, New
York.
Jour. Parasitol Journal of Parasitology, Urbana, Illinois.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 131
Jour. Path, and Bacteriol . . . Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology,
Edinburgh and London.
Jour, de pharm. et de chim. . .Journal de pharmacie et de chimie. Paris.
Jour. Pharmacol. and Exper.
Therap Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental
Therapeutics, Baltimore.
Jour, de physiol. exper Journal de physiologic exp£rimentale et
pathologique, Paris.
Jour, de physiol. et de path.
gen Journal de physiologic et de pathologic
generate, Paris.
Jour. Physiol Journal of Physiology.London and Cambridge.
Jour. d. piart. Arznk. u.
Wundarznk Journal der practischen Arzneykr.nde und
Wtindarzneykunst, Jena und Berlin.
Jour. f. nrakt. Chem Journal fttr praktische Chemie, Leipzig.
Jour, de psychol. norm, et
path Journal de psychologic normale et patho-
logique, Paris.
Jour. Rad. et d'electrol Journal de Radiologie et d'electrologie. Paris.
Jour. Radiol Journal of Radiology, Omaha.
Jour. Roy. Army Med. Corps. Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps,
London.
Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society,
London.
Jour. Roy. Nav. Med. Serv . Journal of the Royal Naval Medical Service,
London.
Jour. d. sc. m6d. de Lille Journal des sciences me'dicales de Lille, Lille.
Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry,
London.
Jour. Sociol. Med Journal of Sociologic Medicine, Easton,
Pennsylvania.
Jour. S. Caroljna Med. Assn . Journal of the South Carolina Medical Asso-
ciation, Greenville.
Jour. State Med Journal of State Medicine, London.
Jour. Surg., Gynec., and
Obst . . . f Journal of Surgery, Gynecology, and Ob-
stetrics, New York City.
Jour. Tennessee State Med.
Assn Journal of the Tennessee State Medical
Association, Nashville.
Jour. Trop. Med. . . Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
London.
Jour, d'urol. med.etchir. .. .Journal d'urologie medicale et chirurgicale.
Paris: formerly Annales des maladies des
organes genito-urinaires.
Jour. Urol Journal of Urology, Baltimore.
Kansas City Med. Index-
Lancet Kansas City Medical Index- Lancet, Kansas
City.
Kansas City Med. Rec Kansas City Medical Record, Kansas City.
Kentucky Med. Jour Kentucky Medical Journal, Bowling Green.
Kitasato Arch. Exper. Med. .Kitasato, Archives of Experimental Medicine,
Tokio.
Klin. Beitr. z. Gynak Klinische Beitrage zur Gynakologie, Breslau.
Klin. Monatsbl. f. Augenh . . Klinische Monatsblatter fur Augenheilkunde.
Stuttgart.
132
Klin.-therap. Wchnschr Klinisch-therapeutische Wochenschrift, Wien.
Knapp's Arch Knapp's Archiv: See Archiv fiir Augenheil-
kunde, Wiesbaden.
Kolloidchem. Beih Kolloidchemische Beihefte, Dresden und
Leipzig.
Kolloid-Ztschr Kolloid-Zeitschrift, Dresden und Leipzig.
Lancet Lancet, London.
Lancet-Clinic Lancet-Clinic, Cincinnati.
Langenbeck's Arch Langenbeck's Archiv: See Archiv fiir klinis-
che Chirurgie, Berlin.
Lancet te franc Lancet te francaise: See Gazette des h6pitaux
civils et militaires, Paris.
Leucocyte Leucocyte, Detroit.
Liebig's Ann Liebig's Annalen: See Annalen der Chemie,
Leipzig.
Liverpool Med.-Chir. Jour. . .Liverpool Medico-Chirurgical Journal, Liver-
pool.
London Med. Rec London Medical Recorder, London.
Long Island Med. Jour Long Island Medical Journal, Brooklyn.
Louisville Month. Jour. Med.
and Surg Louisville Monthly Journal of Medicine and
Surgery, Louisville, Kentucky.
Lyon chir Lyon chirurgical, Paris.
Lyon med Lyon medical, Lyon.
Maly's Jahresb Maly's Jahresbericht: See Jahresbericht iiber
die Fortschritte der Theirchemie, Wies-
baden.
Marseille med Marseille me'dical, Marseille.
Maryland Med. Jour Maryland Medical Journal, Baltimore.
Massachusetts Med. Jour. . .Massachusetts Medical Journal, Boston.
Med. mod Medecine moderne, Paris.
Med. Advance Medical Advance, Batavia, Illinois.
Med. Brief Medical Brief, St. Louis.
Med. Bull Medical Bulletin, Philadelphia.
Med. Chron Medical Chronicle, Manchester, England.
Med. Clin. Chicago Medical Clinics of Chicago, Philadelphia;
continued as Medical Clinics of North
America.
Med. Clin. N. Amer Medical Clinics of North America, Phila-
delphia.
Med. Council Medical Council, Philadelphia.
Med. Era Now combined with St. Louis Medical Review
under the title of Medical Review, St. Louis.
Med. Exam, and Pract Medical Examiner and Practitioner, New York
City.
Med. Fortnightly Medical Fortnightly, St. Louis.
Med. Gaz Medical Gazette, New York City.
Med. Herald : Medical Herald, St. Joseph, Missouri.
Med. Jour. Australia Medical Journal of Australia, Sydney.
Med. Libr. and Hist. Jour ... Medical Library and Historical Journal,
Brooklyn.
Med. Mag Medical Magazine, London.
Med. News Medical News, London.
Med. Notea and Queries.... Medical Notes and Quenes, Lancaster,
Pennsylvania.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 133
Med. Press and Circular. . . .Medical Press and Circular, London.
Med. Rec Medical Record, New York City.
Med. Recorder Medical Recorder, Shreyeport, Louisiana.
Med. Rev. of Rev Medical Review of Reviews, New York City.
Med. Rev Medical Review, St. Louis, incorporating
Medical Era and St. Louis Medical Review.
Med. Sentinel Medical Sentinel, Portland, Oregon.
Med. Standard Medical Standard, Chicago.
Med. Summary Medical Summar>'i Philadelphia.
Med. and Surg. Rep. City
Hosp Medical and Surgical Reports of the City
Hospital of the City of Boston, Boston.
Med. Times Medical Times, New York City.
Med. Times and Gaz Medical Times and Gazette, London.
Med. World Medical World. Philadelphia.
Med. nuova Medicina nuova, Roma.
Medicine ... Medicine, Detroit.
Med. and Surg Medicine and Surgery, St. Louis.
Med. Bl Medicinische Blatter: See Wochenschrift fUr
die gesammte Heilkunde, Wien.
Med. Monatschr Medicinische Monatsschrift, New York City.
Med. Cor.-Bl. d. wtirttemb.
arztl. Landesver Medicinisches Correspondenzblatt des wtlrt-
tembergischen arztlichen Landesvereins,
Stuttgart.
Med. Rev Medicinsk revue, Bergen, Norway.
Med.-Chir. Jour Medico-Chirurgical Journal, Philadelphia.
Med. -Leg. Jour Medico-Legal Journal, New York 'City.
Med. Rev Medische Revue, Haarlem.
Med. Weekbl Medisch Weekblad, Amsterdam.
Med. Obozr Meditsinskoye Obpzrienie, Moscow.
Med. Klin Medizinische Klinik, Berlin.
Mem. Acad. imp. d. sc. de
Petrograd MSmoires de 1'Academie imperiale des
sciences de Petrograd, Petrograd.
Mem. r. Accad. d. sc. d. 1st.
di Bologna Memorie della reale Accademia delle scienze
dell' Istituto di Bologna, Bologna.
Memphis Med. Month Memphis Medical Monthly, Memphis, Ten-
nessee.
Meyer Bros. Drug Meyer Brothers' Druggist, St. Louis.
Midi med Midi me'dical, Toulouse.
Midland Drug, and Pharm.
Rev Midland Druggist and Pharmaceutical Re-
view, Columbus, Ohio.
Militararzt Der Militararzt, Wien.
Mil. Surgeon Military Surgeon, Washington, D. C.
Minn. Med Minnesota Medicine, St. Paul.
Mississippi Med. Month. . . .Mississippi Medical Monthly, Vicksburg.
Mitt. de. deutsch. Gesellsch.
z. Bekampf. d. Geschlecht-
skr Mitteilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft zur
Bekampfung der Geschlechtskrankheiten,
Leipzig.
Mitt. d. Gesellsch. f. inn.
Med. u. Kinderh Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fur innere
Medizin und Kinderheilkunde in Wien.
Wien.
134 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Mitt. a. d. Grenzgeb. d. Med.
u. Chir Mitteilungen aus den Grenzgebieten der
Medizin und Chirurgie, Jena.
Mitt. a. d. med. Fakult. d. k.
Univ. zu Tokyo Mitteilungen aus der medizinischen Fakultat
der kaiserlichen Universitat zu Tokyo,
Tokyo.
Mobile Med. and Surg. Jour. Mobile Medical and Surgical Journal, Mobile.
Mod. Hosp Modern Hospital, Chicago.
Mod. Med Modern Medicine, Chicago.
Mois med.-chir Mois medico-chirurgical, Paris.
Monatschr. f. Geburtsh. u.
Gynak Monatsschrift fur Geburtshiilfe und Gyna-
kologie, Berlin.
Monatschr. f. Kinderh Monatsschrift fur Kinderheilkunde, Leipzig.
Monatschr. f. Ohrenh Monatsschrift fur Ohrenheilkunde, Berlin.
Monatschr. f. Psychiat. u.
Neurol Monatsschrift fur Psychiatric und Neurologic,
Berlin.
Monatschr. f. Unfallheilk. . .Monatsschrift fiir Unfallheilkunde mit be-
sonderer Beriicksichtigung der Mechano-
therapie und der Begutachtung Unfallver-
letzter, Leipzig.
Monatsh. f. prakt. Dermal. .Monatshefte fiir praktische Dermatologie,
Hamburg und Leipzig.
Monde med Monde medical, Paris.
Month. Cycl. Pract. Med. . .Monthly Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine,
Philadelphia.
Montreal Med. Jour Montreal Medical Journal, Montreal.
Morgagni Morgagni, Milano.
Milnchen. med. Wchnschr. . . Miinchener medizinische Wochenschrift,
Miinchen.
Nashville Jour. Med. and
Surg Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery,
Nashville, Tennessee.
Nebraska State Med. Jour . . Nebraska State Medical Journal, Omaha.
Nederl. Tijdschr. v. Geneesk . Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde,
Amsterdam.
Nederl. Tijdschr. v. Verlosk.
en Gynaec Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor Verloskunde en
Gynaecologie, Haarlem.
Neurol. Centralbl Neurologisches Centralblatt, Berlin und
Leipzig.
New England Med. Month.. New England Medical Monthly, Danbury,
Connecticut.
New Mexico Med. Jour New Mexico Medical Journal, Las Cruces.
New Orleans Med. and Surg.
Jour New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal,
New Orleans.
New York Med. Jour New York Medical Journal, New York City.
New York Med. Jour, and
Obst. Rev New York Medical Journal and Obstetrical
Review, New York City.
New York Med. Press New York Medical Press, New York City.
New York StateJ°ur Med. .New York State Journal of Medicine, New
York City.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 135
New Zealand Me-1 Jour . . . New Zealand Medical Journal. Dunedin.
Nippon Gankwa Gakukwai
Zasshi Nippon Gankwa Gakukwai Zasshi (Gazette
of the Society of Oculists of Tapan), Tokyo*
Nord. med. Ark Nordiskt mediciniskt Arkiv, Stockholm.
Norsk Mag. f. Laegevidensk . Norsk Magazin for Laegevidenskaben, Kris-
tiania.
Norsk Tidsskr. f. Mil.-Med. Norsk Tidsskrift f6r Militaermedicin. Udgivet
af det militaermedicinske selskab i Kristi-
ania. Kriftiania.
Northwest Med Northwest Medicine, Seattle.
Nourrison Nourrison. Revue d'hygi6ne et de pathologic
de la premiere enfance, Paris.
Nouv. iconog. de la Salpet-
riere Nouvelle iconographie de la ^alpetrtere,
Paris.
Obozr. psikhiat., nevrol Obozrienige psikhiatrii, nevrologii i eksperi-
mentalnoi psikholqgii. Petrograd.
Obsh.-san. obozr Obshtshestvenno-sanitarnoye obozrienive, Pe-
trograd.
Obstetrique L'Obstetrique: See Archives mensuelles
d'obst6trique et de gynecologic, Paris.
Ohio State Med. Jour Ohio State Medical Journal, Columbus.
Old Dominion Jour. Med.
and Surg Old Dominion Journal of Medicine and
Surgery, Richmond, Virginia.
Ophth. Lit Ophthalmic Literature, Denver.
Ophth. Rec Ophthalmic Record, Chicago.
Ophthalmology Ophthalmology, Seattle.
Oral Health Oral Health, Toronto.
Oral Hyg Oral Hygiene, Minneapolis.
Orvosi hetil Orvosi hetilap, Budapest.
Osp. maggiore Ospedale maggiore, Milano.
Otchet o dleyateln. khirurg.
klin. v. Mosk Otchet o dleyatelnqsti khirurgicheskol kliniki
Iverskql Obshtshini Syoster Miloserdiyo v.
Moskvie, Moskva.
Oto-rhino-laringol. internal. .Oto-rhino-laryngologie Internationale, Lyons.
Pacific Med. Jour Pacific Medical Journal, San Francisco.
Parasitology Parasitology, London.
Paris chirurg Paris chirurgical; publiant les comptes rendus
de la Societe des chirurgiens de Paris.
Revue mensuelle, Paris.
Paris m€d Paris medical, Paris.
Pathologica Pathologica. Revista quindicinale. Geneva.
Pediat. espan Pediatria espanpla; revista mensual de higiene,
medicina y cirugia infantil. Madrid.
Pediatria Pediatria, Petrograd.
Pediatrics Pediatrics, New York and London.
Pennsylvania Med. Jour .... Pennsylvania Medical Journal, Athens.
Pensiero med Pensiero medico, Milano.
Pest, med.-chir. Presse Pester medizinische-chirurgische Presse, Buda-
pest.
Petrograd. med. Ztschr Petrograder medizinische Zeitschrift, Petro-
grad.
136
THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Pflflger's Arch Pfliiger's Archiv: See Archiv ftir die gesamte
Physiologie des menschen und der Tiere,
Bonn.
Pharm. Era Pharmaceutical Era, New York City.
Pharm. Jour Pharmaceutical Journal, London.
Pharm. Zentralhalle Pharmaceutische Zentralhalle ftir Deutsch-
land, Berlin und Dresden.
Pharm. u. therap. Rund-
schau % Pharmakolqgische und therapeutische Rund-
schau, Wien.
Pharm. Ztg Pharmazeutische Zeitung, Berlin.
Philadelphia Med. Jour Philadelphia Medical Journal, Philadelphia.
Philippine Jour. Sc Philippine Journal of Science, Manila.
Philippine Jour. Trop. Med . . Philippine Journal of Tropical Medicine,
Manila.
Phil. Tr. Roy. Soc. London . . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, London.
Physician and Surg Physician and Surgeon, London.
Physiol. Abstr Physiological Abstracts, London.
Plexus Plexus, Batavia, Illinois.
Polyclinic Polyclinic, London.
Policlinico Policlinico, Roma.
Pop. Sc. Month Popular Science Monthly, New York City.
Post-Graduate Post-Graduate, New York City.
Practitioner, Baltimore Practitioner, Baltimore.
Practitioner, Lancaster, Pa . . Practitioner, Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
Practitioner, London Practitioner, London.
Prag. med. Wchnschr Prager medizinische Wochenschrift, Prag.
Prakt. Arzt Praktische Arzt, Wetzlar.
Presse med Presse medicale, Paris.
Proc. Am. Assn. Advancem.
Sc Proceedings of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, Salem, Mas-
sachusetts.
Proc. Am. Assn. Phys. and
Surg Proceedings of the American Association of
Physicians and Surgeons, Indianapolis.
Proc. Am. Pharm. Assn Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical
Association, Scio, Ohio.
Proc. Chem. Soc Proceedings of the Chemical Society, London.
Proc. New York Path. Soc.. .Proceedings of the New York Pathological
Society, New York City.
Proc. Path. Soc. Philadel-
phia Proceedings of the Pathological Society of
Philadelphia, Philadelphia.
Proc. Philadelphia Co. Med.
Soc Proceedings of the Philadelphia County
Medical Society, Philadelphia.
Proc. Roy. Med. and Chir.
Soc Proceedings of the Royal Medical and Chirur-
gical Society of London, London.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Med Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine.
London.
Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. and
Med Proceedings of the Society for Experimental
Biology and Medicine, New York City.
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Washington, D. C.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 137
Proctol. and Gastro-EnteroL.Proctologist and Gastro-Enterologist. St.
Louis.
Progrds m€d Progres medical, Paris.
Progr. Med Progressive Medicine, Philadelphia.
Providence Med. Jour Providence Medical Journal, Providence.
Province me<l Province rrUklicale, Paris.
Psychoanal. Rev Psychoanalytic Review, Lancaster, Pennsyl-
vania.
Psychol. Bull Psychological Bulletin, Lancaster, Pennsyl-
vania.
Psychol. Mon Psychological Monographs, Lancaster, Penn-
sylvania.
Pub. Cornell Univ. Med.
Coll : Publications of Cornell University Medical
College, New York City.
Pub. Health Jour Public Health Journal. Toronto.
Pub. Health Rep Public Health Reports, United States Public
Health Service, Washington, D. C.
Quarderni di med. leg Quarderni di medicina legale, Milano.
Quarderni di psichiat Quarderni di psichiatria, Genova.
Quart. Fed. State Med.
Boards Quarterly of the Federation of State Medical
Boards of the United States, Easton,
Pennsylvania.
Quart. Jour. Exper. Physiol. .Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physi-
ology, London.
Quart. Jour. Inebr Quarterly Journal of Inebriety, Hartford,
Connecticut.
Quart. Jour. Med Quarterly Journal of Medicine, Oxford.
Quart. Jour. Micr. Sc Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,
London.
Queen's Med. Quart Queen's Medical Quarterly, Kingston, Canada.
Quinzaine the'rap Quinzaine th£rapeutique, Paris.
Radium Radium, Pittsburgh.
Railway Surg. Jour Railway Surgeon's Journal, Chicago.
Recalled to Life Recalled to Life, London.
Rec. d'opht Recueil d'ophthalmologie, Paris.
Repert. de phar Repertoire de phannacie, Paris.
Repert. f . d. Pharm Repertorium fflr der Pharmacie, Berlin.
Rev. Ibero-Am. de cien. med . Revista Iberc-Americana de ciencias medicas,
Madrid.
Rev. ital. di neuropatol.,
psichiat. ed elettroter Revista italiana di neuropatologia, psichiat-
ria ed elettroterapia, Catania.
Rev. mi'-d. Cub Revista m6dica Cubana, Habana.
Rev. med Revista m£dica, Mexico. .
Rev. me'd. d. Uruguay Revista medica del Uruguay, Montevideo.
Rev. de med. y drug Revista de medicina y cirugia, Barcelona.
Rev. de med. y cirug. de la
Habana Revista de medicina y cirugia de la Habana.
Habana.
Rev. de med. y cirug. pract . . Revista de medicina y cirugia practicas,
Madrid.
Rev. Soc. m6d. arg Revista de la Sociedad m€dica argentina,
Buenos Aires.
138
THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Rev. de chir Revue de chirurgie, Paris.
Rev. gen. de clin. et de
th6rap Revue generate de clinique et de th6rapeu-
tique, Paris.
Rev. g£n. d'opht Revue generate d'ophthalmologie, Paris.
Rev. de gyne'c. et de chir.
abd Revue de gynecologic et de chirurgie ab-
dominale, Paris.
Rev. hebd. de laryngol Revue hebdomadaire de laryngologie, d'otol-
ogie, et de rhinologie, Bordeaux.
Rev. d'hyg Revue d'hygidne et de police sanitaire, Paris.
Rev. d'hyg. et de the'rap.
ocul Revue d 'hygie'ne et de theVapeutique ocu-
laires, Bruges, Angouleme, et Paris.
Rev. de laryngol., d'otol., et
de rhinol Revue de laryngologie, d'otologie, et de
rhinologie, Bordeaux.
Rev. med. de Test Revue m6dicale de Test, Nancy.
Rev. m6d. de la Suisse Revue me'dicale de la Suisse romande,
Geneve.
Rev. de med Revue de mfidecine, Paris.
Rev. mens. de gynec., d'ob-
stet., et de pediat Revue mcnsuelle de gynecologic, d'obst^t-
rique, et de p6diatrie, Paris.
Rev. mens. d. mal.dl'enf. .. .Revue mensuelle des maladies de 1'enfance,
Paris.
Rev. neurol Revue neurologique, Paris.
Rev. d'orthop Revue d'orthopedie, Paris.
Rev. prat, d'obst. et de
gynec Revue pratique d'obst6trique et de gyn£col-
ogie, Paris.
Rev. de therap. me'd.-chir Revue de therapeutique medico-chirurgicale,
Paris.
Riforma med Riforma medica, Napoli.
Riv. clin. di Bologna Rivista clinica di Bologna, Bologna.
Riv. crit. di clin. med Rivista critica di clinica medica, Firenze.
Riv. d'ig. e san. pubb Rivista d'igiene e sanita pubblica, Roma.
Riv. internaz. di terap. fis. . . . Rivista internazionale di terapia fisica, Roma.
Riv. med Rivista medica. Periodico mensile di medi-
cina, terapia e d'igiene, Milano.
Riv. osp Rivista ospedaliera, Roma.
Riv. di patol. nerv Rivista di patologia nervosa e mentale,
Firenze.
Riv. sper. di freniat Rivista sperimentale di freniatria e di medi-
cina legale in relazione con I'antropOldgia e
le scienze giuridiche e sociali, Reggio-
Emilia.
Russk. Arch. Patol., Klin.
Med. i Bakteriol Russkiy Archiv Patolpgii, Klinicheskol Med-
itsini i Bakteriologii, Petrograd.
Russk. Jur. Kozhn. i Ven.
Boliezn Russkiy Jurnal Kozhnikh i Venericheskikh
Bolleznel, Kharkov.
Russk. Vrach Russkiy Vrach, Petrograd.
Samml. klin. Vortr Sammlung klinischer Vortrage, Leipzig.
Shorn, klin Sbornik klinicky. Casopis pestovdni vedy
lekafske. Praze.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 139
Schmidt's Jahrb Schmidt's Jahrbticher der in- und ausiandis-
chen gesamten Medizin. Leipzig.
Science Science, New York City.
Sc. Progr. Twentieth Cent . . Science Progress in the Twentieth Century,
London.
Scient. Am Scientific American, New York City.
Schweiz. Arch. f. Neurol. u.
Psychiat Schweizer Archiv ftir Neurologic und Psy-
chiatric, Zurich.
Schweiz. med. Wchnschr. . . . Schweizerische me,dizinische Wochenschrift,
Basel.
Scot. Med. and Surg. Jour. .Scottish Medical and Surgical Journal, Edin-
burgh.
Sei-i-Kwai Med. Jour Sei-i-Kwai Medicaj Journal, Tokyo.
Semaine gynec Semaine gyn6cologique, Paris.
Semaine m6d Semaine meclicale, Paris.
Semana med Semana medica, Buenos Aires.
Settimana med. d. Speri-
mentale Settimana medica dello Sperimentale, Firenze.
Siglo med Siglo medico, Madrid.
Skandinav. Arch. f. Phys. . . Skandinavisches Archiv ftir Physiologic,
Leipzig.
Soc. Hyg Social Hygiene, Menasha, Wisconsin.
South. Calif. Pract Southern California Practitioner, Los Angeles.
South. Clin Southern Clinic, Richmond, Virginia.
South. Med. Jour Southern Medical Journal. Journal of the
Southern Medical Association, Louisville,
Kentucky.
South. Med. Jour • Southern Medical Journal, Mobile, Alabama.
South. Med. and Surg Southern Medicine and Surgery, Chattanooga,
Tennessee.
South. Pract Southern Practitioner, Nashville, Tennessee.
Southwest Jour. Med. and
Surg Southwest Journal of Medicine and Surgeryt
Elreno, Oklahoma.
Soziale Med. u. Hyg Soziale Medizin und Hygiene, Hamburg.
Sperimentale Sperimentale: Archivio di biologia normale e
patologica, Firenze.
Spitalul Spitalul, Bucuresce.
St. Earth. Hosp. Rep St. Bartholomew's Hospital Reports, Lon-
don.
St. Louis Clinique St. Louis Clinique, St. Louis..
St. Louis Cour. Med St. Louis Courier of Medicine, St. Louis.
St. Louis Med. Rev St. Louis Medical Review. Now combined
with Medical Era under title of Medical
Review, St. Louis.
St. Paul Med. Jour St. Paul Medical Journal, St. Paul.
St. Petersb. med. Wchnschr. St. Petersburger medicinische Wochenschrift;
continued as St. Petersburger medicinische
Zeitschrift.
St. Petersb. med. Ztschr. . . .St. Petersburger medicinische Zeitschrift:
See Petrograder medicinische Zeitschrift,
Petrograd.
St. Thomas' Hosp. Rep St. Thomas' Hospital Reports, London.
Strahlentherapie, Orig Strahlentherapie Mitteilungen aus dem
Gebiete der Behandlung mit Rontgen-
strahlen, Licht, und radioaktiven Sub-
stanzen. Originale; Berlin.
140 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Strahlentherapie, Ref Strahlentherapie Mitteilungen aus dem
Gebiete der Behandlung mit Rontgen-
strahlen, Licht, und radioaktiven Sub-
stanzen. Referate; Berlin.
Studium Studium; rivista di scienza medica, Napoli.
Surg. Clin. Chicago ........ Surgical Clinics of Chicago, Philadelphia, con-
tinued as Surgical Clinics of North America.
Surg. Clin. N. Amer Surgical Clinics of North America, Philadel-
phia.
Surg., Gy nee. and Obst Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, with
International Abstract of Surgery, Chicago.
Texas Cour.-Rec. Med Texas Courier- Record of Medicine, Fort
Worth.
Texas Med. Jour Texas Medical Journal, Austin.
Texas Med. News Texas Medical News, Austin.
Texas State Jour. Med Texas State Journal of Medicine, Fort Worth.
Therap. Gaz Therapeutic Gazette, Detroit.
Therap. Monatsh Therapeutische Monatshefte, Berlin.
Therap. Neuheiten Therapeutische Neuheiten, Leipzig.
Therap. d. Gegenw Therapie der Gegenwart, Berlin und Wien.
Tidsskr. f. d. norske Laegef or . Tidsskrift for den norske Laegeforening,
Kristiania.
Tohoku Jour. Exper. Med. . .Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine,
Sendal, Japan.
Toledo Med. and Surg. Re-
porter Toledo Medical and Surgical Reporter,
Toledo, Ohio.
Tr. Am. Acad. Ophth. and
Oto-Laryngol Transactions of the American Academy of
Ophthalmology and Oto - Laryngology,
Cleveland.
Tr. Am. Assn. Gen.-Urin.
Surg Transactions of the American Association of
Genito-Urinary Surgeons, New York City.
Tr. Am. Assn. Obst Transactions of the American Association of
Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Phila-
delphia.
Tr. Am. Dermat. Assn Transactions of the American Dermatological
Association, New York City.
Tr. Am. Gynec. Soc Transactions of the American Gynecological
Society, Philadelphia.
Tr. Am. Hosp. Assn Transactions of the American Hospital Asso-
ciation, Washington, D. C.
Tr. Am. Med. Assn Transactions of the American Medical Asso-
ciation, Chicago.
Tr. Am. Neurol. Assn Transactions of the American Neurological
Association, New York City.
Tr. Am. Ophth. Soc Transactions of the American Ophthalmo-
logical Society, New York City.
Tr. Am. Orthop. Assn Transactions of the American Orthopaedic
Association, Philadelphia.
Tr. Am. Otol. Soc Transactions of the American Otological
Society, New Bedford, Massachusetts.
Tr. Am. Pediat. Soc Transactions of the American Pediatric
Society, Philadelphia.
Tr. Am. Proctol. Soc Transactions of the American Proctologic
Society, St. Louis.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 141
Tr. Am. Roentgen Ray Soc . . Transactions of the American Roentgen Ray
Society, Pittsburgh.
Tr. Am. Surg. Assn Transactions of the American Surgical Asso-
ciation, Philadelphia.
Tr. Assn. Am. Phys Transactions of the Association of American
Physicians, Philadelphia.
Tr. Chem. Soc Transactions of the Chemical Society, London.
Tr. Chicago Path. Soc Transactions of the Chicago Pathological
Society, Chicago.
Tr. Chicago Soc. Int. Med. . .Transactions of the Chicago Society of
Internal Medicine, Chicago.
Xr. Clin. Soc. London Transactions of the Clinical Society of
London, London.
Tr. Med. Soc. New York. . .Transactions of the Medical Society of the
State of New York, New York City.
Tr. New York Med. Assn. . .Transactions of the New York State Medical
Association, New York City.
Tr. Ophth. Soc. U. Kingdom .Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society
of the United Kingdom, London.
Tr. Path. Soc. London Transactions of the Pathological Society of
London, London.
Tr. Sect. Dermat. Am. Med.
Assn Transactions of the Section on Dermatology
of the American Medical Association,
Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Dis. Child. Am.
Med. Assn Transactions of the Section on Diseases of
Children of the American Medical Associa-
tion, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Hosp. Am. Med.
Assn Transactions of the Section on Hospitals of
the American Medical Association, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Genito-Urin. Dis.
Am. Med. Assn Transactions of the Section on Genito-Urinary
Diseases of the American Medical Associa-
tion, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Laryngol., Otol.,
and Rhinol. Am. Med.
Assn Transactions of the Section on Laryngology,
Otology, and Rhinology of the American
Medical Association, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Nerv. and Ment.
Dis. Am. Med. Assn Transactions of the Section on Nervous and
Mental Diseases of the American Medical
Association, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Obst., Gynec., and
Abd. Surg. Am. Med.
Assn Transactions of the Section on Obstetrics,
Gynecology, and Abdominal Surgery of the
American Medical Association, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Ophth. Am. Med.
Assn Transactions of the Section on Ophthalmology
of the American Medical Association,
Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Orth. Surg. Am.
Med. Assn Transactions of the Section on Orthopedic
Surgery of the American Medical Associa-
tion, Chicago.
142 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Tr. Sect. Path, and Physiol.
Am. Med. Assn Transactions of the Section on Pathology and
Physiology of the American Medical
Association, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Pharmacol. and .
Therap.Am. Med. Assn. . .Transactions of the Section on Pharmacology
and Therapeutics of the American Medical
Association, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Pract. Med. Am.
Med. Assn Transactions of the Section on Practice of
Medicine of the American Medical Associa-
tion, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Prev. Med. and
Pub. Health Am. Med.
Assn Transactions of the Section on Preventive
Medicine and Public Health of the American
Medical Association, Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Stomat. Am. Med.
Assn Transactions of the Section on Stomatology
of the American Medical Association,
Chicago.
Tr. Sect. Surg., Gen. and
Abd., Am. Med. Assn Transactions of the Section on Surgery,
General and Abdominal, of the American
Medical Association, Chicago.
Tr. South. Surg. and Gynec.
Assn Transactions of the Southern Surgical and
Gynecological Association. (Published in
various places.)
Tribuna med Tribuna medica. Revista quinzenal de
medicina e cirugia, Rio de Janeiro.
Tribune med., Am. ed Tribune medicale, American edition, New
York City.
Tribune med Tribune medicale, Paris.
Trudi i Protok. Imp. Kav-
kazsk. Med. Obsh Trudi i Protokoli Imperatorskavo Kavkazs-
kavo Meditsinskavo Obshtshestva, Tiflis.
Tuberculosi . Tubercolosi, Roma.
Tuberculosis Tuberculosis, Leipzig.
Tuberculosis Tuberculosis, London.
.Tumori Tumori, Roma.
Ugesk. f . Laeger Ugeskrift for Laeger, Kjobenhavn.
Ungar. med. Presse Ungarische medizinische Presse, Budapest.
U. S. Nav. Med. Bull United States Naval Medical Bulletin, Wash-
ington, D. C.
Univ. Med. Mag University Medical Magazine (edited by the
University of Pennsylvania), Philadelphia.
Univ. Penn. Med. Bull University of Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin,
Philadelphia.
Upsala Lakaref . Forh Upsala Lakaref orenings Forhandlingar, Up-
sala.
Urol. and Cutan. Rev., Tech.
Suppl Urologie and Cutaneous Review, Technical
Supplement, St. Louis.
Urol. and Cutan. Rev Urologie and Cutaneous Review, St. Louis.
Utah Med. Jour Utah Medical Journal, Denver.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 143
Verhandl. d. Cong. f. inn.
Med Verhandlungen des Congresses fUr innere
Medicin, Wiesbaden.
Verhandl. d. deutsch. Kong.
f. inn. Med Verhandlungen des deutschen Kongresses fttr
innere Medizin. Wiesbaden.
Verhandl. d. deutsch. Gesell-
sch. f. Chir Verhandlungen der deutschen Gesellschaft
filr Chirurgie, Berlin.
Verhandl. d. deutsch. path.
Gesellsch Verhandlungen der deutschen pathologischen
Gesellschaft, Jena.
Verhandl. d. Kong. f. inn.
Med Verhandlungen des Kongresses fflr innere
Medizin, Wiesbaden.
Verhandl. d. Ver. f. inn. Med.
zu Berlin Verhandlungen des Vereins fiir innere Medizin
zu Berlin, Leipzig und Berlin.
Vermont Med. Month Vermont Medical Monthly, Burlington.
Vermont Med Vermont Medicine, Rutland.
Venvorn's Ztschr! Verworn's Zeitschrift: See Zeitschrift fiir
allgemeine Physiologic, Jena.
Vet. Jour Veterinary Journal, London.
Vet. Rev Veterinary Review, Edinburgh.
Vrtljschr. f. gerichtl. Med . . . Vierteljahrsschrift fiir gerichtliche Medizin
und offentliches Sanitatswesen, Berlin.
Vrtljschr. f . prakt. Pharm . . . Vierteljahrsschrift fiir praktische Pharmazie,
Berlin.
Virchow's Arch. f. path.
Anat Virchow's Archiv fiir pathologische Anatomic
und Physiologic und fiir klinische Medicin,
Berlin.
Virginia Clin. Rec Virginia Clinical Record, Richmond.
Virginia Med. Month Virginia Medical Monthly, Richmond. Con-
tinued as Virginia Medical Semi-Monthly,
Richmond.
Virginia Med. Semi-Month. .Virginia Medical Semi-Monthly, Richmond.
Volkmann's klin. Vortr Volkmann's klinische Vortrage: See Samm-
lung klinischer Vortrage, Leipzig.
Vrach Vrach, Petrograd.
Vrach, Gaz Vrachebnaya Gazeta, Petrograd.
Washington Med. Ann Washington Medical Annals, Washington,
D. C.
West. Canada Med. Jour. . .Western Canada Medical Journal, Winnipeg.
West. Dent. Jour Western Dental Journal, Kansas City,
Missouri.
West. Clin. Rec Western Clinical Recorder, Chicago.
West. Druggist Western Druggist, Chicago.
West. Med. Jour Western Medical Journal, Fort Scott, Kansas.
West. Med. Rev Western Medical Review, Omaha.
West. Med. Times Western Medical Times, Denver.
West. Med. and Surg. Gaz,. .Western Medical and Surgical Gazette,
Denver.
West London Med. Jour.. . .West London Medical Journal, London.
West Virginia Med. Jour.. . .West Virginia Medical Journal, Wheeling.
Wien. klin. Rundschau Wiener klinische Rundschau, Wien.
Wien. klin. Wchnschr. . . .Wiener klinische Wochenschrift, Wien.
144 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Wien. med. Bl . . . Wiener medizinische Blatter, Wien.
Wien. med. Presse Wiener medizinische Presse, Wien.
Wien. med. Wchnschr Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift, Wien.
Wisconsin Med. Jour Wisconsin Medical Journal, Milwaukee.
Wisconsin Med. Rec Wisconsin Medical Recorder, Janesville.
Wchnschr. f. Therap. u. Hyg.
d. Auges Wochenschrift fur Therapie und Hygiene des
Auges, Breslau.
Woman's Med. Jour Woman's Medical Journal, Toledo, Ohio.
Wyandotte Co. Med. Jour. .Wyandotte County Medical Journal, Kansas
City, Kansas.
Yale Med. Jour Yale Medical Journal, New Haven, Con-
necticut.
Ztschr. d. allg. osterr. Apoth.-
Ver Zeitschrift des allgemeinen osterreichischen
Apotheker-Vereines, Wien.
Ztschr. f . allg. Physiol Zeitschrift ftir allgemeine Physiologic, Jena.
Ztschr. f . anal. Chem Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie, Wies-
baden.
Ztschr. f . ang. Chem Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Chemie, Berlin.
Ztschr. f . anorg. Chem Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, Ham-
burg.
Ztschr. f. arztl. Fortbild . . . .Zeitschrift ftir arztliche Fortbildung, Jena.
Ztschr. f . Biol Zeitschrift fiir Biologic, Miinchen.
Ztschr. f. Chemotherap.,
Orig Zeitschrift fiir Chemptherapie und verwandte
Gebiete Teil I, Originale, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. Chemotherap.,
Ref Zeitschrift fiir Chemotherapie und verwandte
Gebiete Teil II, Ref era te, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. diatet. u. physik.
Therap Zeitschrift fiir diatetische und physikalische
Therapie, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. exper. Path. u.
Therap Zeitschrift fiir experimentelle Pathologic und
Therapie, Berlin.
Ztschr. f. Geburtsh. u. Gy-
nak Zeitschrift fiir Geburtshiilfe und Gynakologie,
Stuttgart.
Ztschr. f. d. ges. Neurol. u.
Psychiat Zeitschrift ftir die gesamte Neurologie und
Psychiatric, Berlin.
Ztschr. f. Heilk Zeitschrift fiir Heilkunde, Prague.
Ztschr. f . Hyg Zeitschrift fiir Hygiene, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. Hyg. u. Infections-
krankh Zeitschrift fiir Hygiene und Infectionskrank-
heiten, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. Immunitatsforsch.
u. exper. Therap., Orig. .. .Zeitschrift fiir Immunitatsforschung und
experimentelle Therapie. I Teil; Originale;
Jena.
Ztschr. f. Immunitatsforsch. u.
exper. Therap., Ref Zeitschrift fiir Immunitatsforschung und
experimentelle Therapie. Referate. Jena.
Ztschr. f. Infektionskr Zeitschrift fur Infektionskrankheiten, para-
sitare Krankheiten und Hygiene der
Haustiere, Berlin.
ABBREVIATIONS FOR MEDICAL JOURNALS 145
Ztschr. f. Kinderb Zeitschrift fflr Kinderheilkunde, Berlin.
Ztschr. f . klin. Med Zeitschrift fUr klinische Medicin, Berlin.
Ztschr. f . Krebsforsch Zeitschrift fUr Krebsforschung, Jena.
Ztschr. f . Naturwissensch . . . Zeitschrift ftir Xaturwissenschaf ten. Stutt-
gart.
Ztschr. f. d. ges. Neurol. u.
' Psychiat., Orig Zeitschrift ftir die gesamte Neurologic und
Psychiatric; Originale; Berlin.
Ztschr. f. d. ges. Neurol. u.
Psychiat., Ref Zeitschrift fflr die gesamte Neurologic und
Psychiatric; Referate; Berlin.
Ztschr. f. med. Elektrol. n.
Rontgenk Zeitschrift fur medizinische Elektrologie und
Rontgenkunde, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. offentl. Chem Zeitschrift fflr offentliche Chemie. Plauen.
Ztschr. f. Ohrenh Zeitschrift fUr Ohrenheilkunde. Wiesbaden.
Ztschr. f. orthop. Chir Zeitschrift fflr orthopadische Chirurgie, Stutt-
gart.
Ztschr. f. physiol. Chem .... Zeitschrift fflr physiologische Chemie, Strass-
burg.
Zeitschr. f. physik. u. diatet.
Therap Zeitschrift fflr physikalische und diatetische
Therapie, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. Psychol. u. Physiol.
d. Sinnesorg Zeitschrift fflr Psychologic und Physiologic
der Sinnesorgane, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f . Sexual wissensch . . . Zeitschrift fflr Sexual wissenschaf t, Bonn.
Ztschr. f. Tuberk. u. Heil-
stattenw Zeitschrift fflr Tuberkulose und Heilstatten-
wesen, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. soziale Med Zeitschrift fflr soziale Medizin. Medizinal-
statistik, Arbeitsversicherung, soziale Hy-
giene und die Grenzfragen der Medizin und
Volkswirtschaft, Berlin.
Ztschr. f. Untersuch. d. Nah-
rungs- u. Genussmittel .... Zeitschrift fttr Untersuchung der Nahrungs-
und Genussmittel, Berlin.
Ztschr. f. Urol Zeitschrift fflr Urologie, Berlin und Leip-
r~ zig.
Ztschr. f. urol. Chir Zeitschrift fflr urologische Chirurgie, Berlin.
Ztschr. f . wissensch. Zool . . . Zeitschrift fflr wissenschaftliche Zoologie,
Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. wissensch. Mikr. u.
mikr. Technik Zeitschrift fflr wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie
und mikroskopische Technik, Leipzig.
Ztschr. f. Wundarzte u.
Geburtsh Zeitschrift fflr Wundarzte und Geburtshelfer,
Fellbach.
Ziegler's Beitr Ziegler's Beitrage: See Beitrage zur patho-
logischen Anatomic und zur allgemeinen
Pathologic, Jena.
Zentralbl.: See also Centralbl.
Zentralbl. f. allg. Gsndht-
spflg Zentralblatt fflr allgemeine Gesundheits-
pflege, Bonn.
Zentralbl. f. allg. Path. u.
path. Anat Zentralblatt fflr allgemeine Pathologic und
pathologische Anatomic, Jena.
10
146 THE WRITING OF MEDICAL PAPERS
Zentralbl. f. Bakteriol. Para-
sitenk. u. Infektionskr. . . . Zentralblatt ftir Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde
und Infektionskrankheiten, Jena.
Zentralbl. f. Biochem. u.
Biophys Zentralblatt fur Biochemie und Biophysik,
Berlin.
Zentralbl. f. Chir Zentralblatt. fur Chirurgie, Leipzig.
Zentralbl. f. chir. u. mech.
Orthop Zentralblatt fiir chirurgische und mechanische
Orthopadie, Berlin.
Zentralbl. d. exper. Med .... Zentralblatt der experimentellen Medizin,
Berlin und Wien.
Zentralbl. f. d. ges. Chir. u.
i. Grenzgeb Zentralblatt fflr die gesamte Chirurgie und
ihre Grenzgebiete, Berlin.
Zentralbl. f. d. ges. Gynaek.
u. Geburtsh Zentralblatt fur die gesamte Gynaekologie und
Geburtshilfe sowie deren Grenzgebiete,
Berlin.
Zentralbl. f. d. ges. inn. Med.
u. i. Grenzgeb Zentralblatt fiir die gesamte innere Medizin
und ihre Grenzgebiete, Berlin.
Zentralbl. f. d. ges. Ophth. u.
i. Grenzgeb Zentralblatt fiir die gesamte Ophthalmologie
und ihre Grenzgebiete, Berlin.
Zentralbl. f. d. ges. Physiol.
u. Path. d. Stoffwechs. . . .Zentralblatt fiir die gesamte Physiologic und
Pathologic des Stoffwechsels mit Einschluss
der experimentellen Therapie, Berlin und
Wien.
Zentralbl. f. Gynak Zentralblatt fur Gynakologie, Leipzig.
Zentralbl. f. Herz- u. Ge-
fasskr Zentralblatt fiirHerz- und Gefasskrankheiten,
Dresden und Leipzig.
Zentralbl. f. inn. Med Zentralblatt fiir innere Medizin, Leipzig.
Zentralbl. f. Nervenh. u.
Psychiat Zentralblatt fiir Nervenheilkunde und Psy-
chiatric, Leipzig.
Zentralbl. f. norm. Anat. u.
Mikrotech Zentralblatt fiir normale Anatomic und
Mikrotechnik, Berlin und Wien.
Zentralbl. f. physik. Therap.
u. Unfallk Zentralblatt fiir physikalische Therapie und
Unfallheilkunde, Wien und Berlin.
Zentralbl. f. Physiol Zentralblatt fur Physiologic, Leipzig und
Wien.
Zentralbl. f. Roentgenstr Zentralblatt fur Roentgenstrahlen, Radium
und verwandte Gebiete, Wiesbaden.
Zoologica Zoologica, Stuttgart.
Zool. Anz Zoologischer Anzeiger, Leipzig.
Zool. Zentralbl Zoologisches Zentralblatt, Leipzig.
Zoologist Zoologist, London.
INDEX
A
Abbreviate and abridge, 55
Abbreviations: 28; bibliographic matter, 23; cities, 26; coined
85; company, 28; degrees, academic, 26; dosages, 28; eighth-
molecular, 28; footnotes, 23; fourth cervical, 28; grains, 28;
inches, 28; list of standard, 24; medical journals, 117;
names foreign countries, 28; proper names, 25; one-sixth
by volume, 28; ratio, '28; references, 92; second lumbar, 28;
specific gravity, 28; states, 27; tables, 21 ; tenth-normal, 28;
times a day, 28; weights and measures, 23
Above and foregoing, 55
Abstracts, form of, 85
Adjectives with variant endings, 54
Adverbs, 46
Affect and effect, 55
Agree to and agree with, 50
Alike and both, 55
All right and universally, 56
Allege and say, 56
Alone and unaccompanied, 56
Alternative, 56
And and but, 50
/IrtJ and or, 50
which and and wAo, 49
, 56
Apostrophe: rules, 39; contracted word, 39; plural of letters
of alphabet, 39; possessive, 39; possessive adjectives, 39;
with nouns ending in s, 5 1
148 INDEX
Appear and seem, 56
Apt and likely, 56
At and to, 50
Avocation and vocation, 50
B
Began and begun, 40
Beginning, 70; prompt, 71, 72
Beside and besides, 61
Between, 56, 63
Bibliography, 75, 115
Biological and organic, 64
Brackets: rules, 38; in quotations, 38.
Brainy, 56
5w* tffo/, 56
/ty and which, 50
C
Can and way, 56
Capitals: 29; Dutch titles, 30; English titles, 29; foreign titles,
names of species, 30; O and ofe, 40; subjects of lectures, 29;
titles of ancient manuscripts, 30; titles in French, Italian,
Spanish, Scandinavian, Latin, German, and Danish, 29;
to indicate black face, 30; to indicate bold face. 30; to indi-
cate capitals, 30; to indicate italic capitals, 30; to indicate
small capitals, 30
Carbon copies of manuscript, 104
Case and patient, 62
Case histories, 83
Case reports, 83
Captation and excavation, 44
Centrifugalization and spinning, 44
Certainly, 65
Chapter: 87; parts of, 88
Cheaply and cheap, 56
INDEX 149
Cities, state omitted, 28
Claim and maintain, 56
Colon: rules, 36; after word as introduction, 37; before ex-
tended quotation, 37 ; before list, 37
Comma: rules, 34; absolute phrases, 34; adjectives, 35;
appositives, 34; clauses of compound sentence, 36; co-
ordinate clauses, 34; dependent clause, 34; direct quotation,
351 geographic name, 34; interjection, 35 ; parenthetic words,
34; pause, 34; separation, 34; series, 35; substantive, 34;
substantive clause, 36
Compare to and compare with, 50
Conclusion and summary, 105
Condition and problem, 52
Conjunctions, 50
Conscious and aware, 56
Consider and regard, 63
Construction, 78
Continuous and continual, 57
Coordinate and correlate, 63
Copyright, 114
Crystallized phrases, 16
D
Dash: rules, 37; end of sentence, 37; indiscriminate use, 37;
repetition, 37; substitute for parentheses, 37; summarizing
word, 37; with comma, 37; word set aoart, 37
Data, 57
Decided and decisive, 57
Dernier resort and last resort, 43
Different from, 57, 50
Differentiate and distinguish, 57, 63
Disappointed by and disappointed in, 50
Diseased condition and disease condition, 61
Disseminated and scattered, 52
Ditto marks, 28
150 INDEX
Divisions and subdivisions, 40; letters and numbers for, 40
Don'ts, 61
Downward path, 64
Due to and attributable to, 63; due to and owing to, 57
During and in, 63
E
Each, 57
Either. ..or and neither... nor, 50, 57
Else, 57
End, 70; as climax, 71, 72; promptly, 72
Enthuse, 57
Eventuate and occwr, 63
Evidence and testimony, 57
Exclamation point, rules, 40
Exclamatory sentences, 65
Exteriorise and «/ter, 44
F
Factor and cowse, 57
False concords, 4^
Female and woman, 57
Fewer and /ess, 57
Figures, set in, 27
Firstly and. first, 57
Footnotes: 29, 31 ; at end, 29; numbers in, 29; symbols in, 29
Foreign words, use, 13; plurals retained, 54
Former and latter, 57
Frequently and commonly, 57, 6 1
Genitive, 50
£<>*, 58
j, 58
INDEX 151
H
Hanging participle, 45
Headings of manuscript, 104
Healthy and healthful, 58
Hence, 64
High and tall, 58
Him and his, 48
Historical notes, 74
History to Garden of Eden, 61
However, 47
Hyphen, rules, 40
I
I, indirect construction, 44, 52
// and seeing that, 46
// and whether, 58
Illustrations of manuscript, 105
In and into, 50
Index, 114
Individual and person, 58
Introduction, 9, 73; timeworn, 71, 72
Invention of words, 13
Involve and involvement, 52
Irrelevant words, 16
Italics : foreign words, 1 7 ; genera and species, 1 8 ; in German
and English, 17; letters of alphabet, 17; list of words
italicized, 18; list of words not italicized, 19; subheads, 17;
symbols, 17; titles, 18; to indicate, 18; with quotation
marks, 18
K
Kind, 58
L
Last and latest, 58
Latter, 58
1 52 INDEX
Legends of manuscript, 106
Length of papers, 68
Like and as, 58
Locate and settle, 58
Lovely, 58
Luxuriant and luxurious, 58
M
Manuscript, 104; margin of, 104
Materials and methods, 74
Me, 48
Measurements, terms of, 62
Might better, 49
Minus and lacking, 58
Miscellaneous notes, 43
Most and almost, 58
Motivate and move, 63
"N
Necessities and necessaries, 58
Neither and no one, 58
New meanings to old words, 13
JWce, 58
None, 58, 63; and no one, 47
JVo/ and nor, 50, 58
O
Obscurity, 13
Observation and observance, 58
One, 44
Opinion and notion, 44
0//ter Jfozn, 59
Outline, 73
INDEX 153
P
Pages of manuscript, 104
Panacea, 59
Paradox, 59
Paragraph, 88
Parenthesis marks: rules, 37; cancel word or passage, 38;
emphasis, 38; letter, number, or symbol, 38; title of book,
38 ; with comma or period, 38 ; word about which something
is said as word, 38
Passive, double, 45
Pathology, 62
Patient operated, 61
People and individuals, 64.
Per and each, 61
Per in per diem, 59
Period: rules, 34; abbreviation, 34; after 4to, 40; after per
cent, 40; denote omission, 40; end sentence, 34; with dash
after side head, 40
Perpendicular and vertical, 59
Perpetually, 59
Phenomena and phenomenon, 63
Photomicrographs, magnification of, 28
Physiologic and physical, 64
Piling up adjectives and adverbs, 65
Place, 59
Plurals, accepted English, 53 ; foreign retained, 54
Poetic heights, 65
Point of view and view, 64
Popular, 59
Possessive, 50; formation, 51
Post and inform, 59
Practical and practicable, 59
Premature, 59
Prepositions, 50; examples of alien, 51
Promise and assure, 59
154 INDEX
Pronoun, relative, and number of verb, 47
Proof: 1 08; corrections and changes in, 109; page proof, pur-
pose of, no; reader's marks, in
Propose and purpose, 59
Proposition and proposal, 59
Providing and provided, 59
Psychologic and psychical, 64
Punctuation: 32; after such as, 40; apostrophe, 39; art of, 33;
brackets, 38; close, 32; colon, 36; comma, 34; dash, 37;
exclamation point, 40; function of, 33; in English, 32; in
French, 32; hyphen, 40; legal papers, 33; letter or number
indicating division in enumerations, 40; omission, 40, 41;
open, 32; parenthesis marks, 37; per cent, 40; period, 34;
4to and 8vo, 40; question mark, 37; quotation marks, 38;
rules for, 34; semicolon, 36; side head, 40; study of, 32;
technicalities of, 33; title pages, 33, 41
Q
Question and affection, 52
Question mark: rules, 37; direct question, 37; within paren-
theses, 37
Quite and quite a few, 59
Quotation marks: rules, 38; humor and irony, 39; proper
names, 39; proverbial expressions, 39; quotation within
quotation, 39; quotations, 38; slang or nicknames, 39;
technical term, 39; title of composition, 39; with comma or
period, 38; with question mark, 38; words coined, 39
Quoted material, 30, 113
R
Raison d'etre, 43
Rare disease, 61
References, 49, 91 ; abbreviations in, 92; data for, 91 ; definite-
ness and accuracy in, 93; in text of manuscript, 105
Repetition of words, 16
INDEX 155
Researcher, 59
Reside and live, 59
Results, 74
Retire and go to bed, 59
Revision of manuscript, 94
Role and part, 43
Semicolon: 36; clauses of compound sentence, 36; coordinate
members of simple or complex sentence, 36; statement
added to main assertion, 35
Sentence: 89; of fifty words, 64
Series of connected papers, 69
Set in figures: 27; data and tabulations, 27; numbers, serial
position, 27; rules, 27; sums of money, 27; time, 27
Shall and will, 48
Should and would, 49 .
Singular and plural nouns, 5 1
Slang, 15
Slides, lantern, 22, 31
Sociological and social, 64
Some and somewhat, 59
Special articles, special journals, 68
Spell out, 24; rules, 25
Splendid and brilliant, 59
Split infinitives, 64
Spoken address, 81
Standardization, 44
Startling fact, 64
Stale and say, 59
Step by step, 64
Stylists, 65
Subject matter, 66
Subjunctive mood, 46
Summarize briefly, 71, 72
156 INDEX
Summary and conclusion, 74
Summary and resume, 43
Symptomatology and symptoms, 61
Tables: 21, 31; condensation in, 22; folded, 22; headings, 22;
numbering, 22; placing in text, 22; size, 21; slides, 22, 31
Taboo and ban, 43
Tense, change of, 47, 64; past, 46; past for present, 52; use of,
85
Than, 48
That, 48
Theory and opinion, 44
r/iere is and i/fere exists, 52
Thin out words, 64
This and /to, 48
Through and finished, 60
Thus, 64
Title, 98 ; as first impression, 99
Too and very, 47
Toxicity and toxemia, 62
Translate the written sentence, 64
Transpire and happen, 60
Tubercular and tuberculous, 61
U
C/g/y and vicious, 60
Unique and rare, 60
£//> ttn/i/ and until, 61
Usage, ii
V
Fas/ majority, 61
Verbal and era/, 60
Vocabulary, 14
Volume of output, 100
INDEX 157
W
Was and were, 46
Way and ways, 60
Who and whom, 48
Whose, 48
WtV/ and 5*o//, 64
WY/& regard to and wu/fc a w'«t> /o, 50
Witness and se«, 60
Words, accurate use of, 16; English, 13; unfamiliar, 16
Would better and had better, 49
Would rather and Aad rather, 49
y»M and 7, 48
Fow and yours, 44
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