arneaie
Mmtitution
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COX
19&5-19&4
Cover: Liquid crystals (mesophase) are an intermediate state
through which many organic compounds pass in responding to
increasing time and temperature. During mesophase, thermally
immature, structurally disordered carbon-based compounds be-
come visible as ordered units. Often seen during coke manufac-
turing, mesophase was not observed in nature until last year,
when Geophysical Laboratory postdoctoral fellow Andrew Gize
and his colleague Sue Rimmer of Penn State University discov-
ered the first-reported occurrence of thermal mesophase in a geo-
logical setting. The microphotograph on the cover is of thermally
altered petroleum residues from a lead-zinc mine in Baffin Island,
Canada, viewed on the surface of a polished sample with reflected
light. The mesophase appears as the rounded globules; the colors
are artifactual. (See p. 94.)
Carnegie
Institution
OF WASHINGTON
Year Book 83
The President's Report
1983-1984
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 3-16716
International Standard Book Number 0-87279-658-2
Composition by Harper Graphics, Inc., Waldorf, Maryland
Printing by Port City Press, Baltimore, Maryland
December 1984
Contents
President and Trustees v
President's Commentary 1
The Year in Review 7
The Biological Sciences 13
How Light Controls Plant Development 14
Red Light Regulation 15
Blue Light Regulation 18
Pigment Structure 20
Gene Engineering — in Nature and in the Laboratory 21
Manipulating Genes in the Laboratory 25
Evolutionary Divergence 27
The Functioning Genome: A Vista on Developmental Control 28
Tracking Gene Products 31
How Do Cells Organize Their Proteins? 32
The Dynamic Membrane 33
Membrane Lipid Traffic 36
Plant Response to Stress: Coping with Extremes 37
Photoinhibition 39
The Collection of Human Embryos 42
Development of the Nervous System 43
The Physical Sciences 44
Turning Back the Cosmic Clock 46
Quasar Studies 49
Galaxies in Collision 50
How Stars and Galaxies Form: Challenges to Past Views? 53
Globular Cluster Studies 54
Evidence from Observations of Noncluster Stars 58
New Insights from Spectra of Spirals 59
The Question of Binary Stars 59
Infrared Observations of Young Stars in Molecular Clouds 60
Solar-Stellar Research at Mount Wilson 63
Rotations in Hyades Dwarf Stars 64
Differential Rotation in Stars 65
Solar-Stellar Seismology 65
' Rotation in Red Giants 66
Formation of the Sun and Solar System 67
Meteorites as Windows on the Early Solar System 68
Conditions in the Primitive Solar System 69
A Theoretical Problem in Planet Formation 70
Understanding the Structure of the Inner Earth 71
Direct Studies of Mantle Rocks 72
Experiments at High Pressure: A Breakthrough in Technology 74
Synthetic Mantle Minerals at High Pressure 77
Characterization of the Mantle's Transition Zone 78
Processes of the Crust and Upper Mantle 79
The Generation of Continental Material: Isotopic Studies 79
Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry 83
Element Concentration in Magma Intrusions 84
Element Concentration in Aqueous Transport 85
Structure of Liquids and Glasses 86
Numerical Modeling of Transfer Processes 89
Seismological Investigations 90
Biogeochemistry 94
10Be Studies of Surface Erosion 98
Leadership in Collective Ventures , 100
An Inverted Telescope 100
Mineral Energetics: A Systematic Approach 102
A Data Base for Igneous Petrology 103
Professional Activities 103
The Educational Roles 103
A Reach to Future Scientists 106
Leadership in Professional Groups 106
Seminars and Symposia 108
Local Seminars 108
Losses, Gains, Honors 109
Bibliography of Published Work 115
Department of Embryology 117
Department of Plant Biology 120
Developmental Biology Research Group 123
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 124
Geophysical Laboratory 127
Mount Wilson and Las Campanas Observatories 131
Publications of the Institution 136
Administrative Documents 137
Staff Lists 139
Report of the Executive Committee 151
Abstract of Minutes of the Eighty-Seventh Meeting
of the Board of Trustees 153
Financial Statements 155
Articles of Incorporation 171
By-Laws of the Institution 175
Index 181
IV
President and Trustees
PRESIDENT
James D. Ebert
BOARD OF TRUSTEES
William R. Hewlett
Chairman
William C. Greenough
V ice-Chairman
William T. Golden
Secretary
Philip H. Abelson
Lewis M. Branscomb
William T. Coleman, Jr.
Edward E. David, Jr.
John Diebold
Gerald M. Edelman
Robert G. Goelet
Crawford H. Greene wait1
Caryl P. Haskins
Richard E. Heckert
George F. Jewett, Jr.
Antonia Ax:son Johnson
John D. Macomber
Franklin D. Murphy
Robert M. Pennoyer
Richard S. Perkins
Robert C. Seamans, Jr.
Frank Stanton
Charles H. Townes
Sidney J. Weinberg, Jr.
Gunnar Wessman2
Trustees
Carl J. Gilbert3
William McChesney Martin, Jr.
Garrison Norton
Trustees Emeriti
trustee Emeritus as of May 11, 1984
2Elected May 11, 1984
3Died November 13, 1983
V
Farmer Presidents and Trustees
PRESIDENTS
Daniel Coit Gilman, 1902-1904
Robert Simpson Woodward,
1904-1920
John Campbell Merriam,
1921-1938
Vannevar Bush, 1939-1955
Caryl P. Haskins, 1956-1971
Philip H. Abelson,
1971-1978
TRUSTEES
Alexander Agassiz, 1904-1905
Lord Ashby of Brandon, 1967-1974
J. Paul Austin, 1976-1978
George J. Baldwin, 1925-1927
Thomas Barbour, 1934-1946
James F. Bell, 1935-1961
John S. Billings, 1902-1913
Robert Woods Bliss, 1936-1962
Amory H. Bradford, 1959-1972
Lindsay Bradford, 1940-1958
OmarN. Bradley, 1948-1969
Robert S. Brookings, 1910-1929
Vannevar Bush, 1958-1971
John L. Cadwalader, 1903-1914
William W. Campbell, 1929-1938
John J. Carty, 1916-1932
Whitefoord R. Cole, 1925-1934
JohnT. Connor, 1975-1980
Frederic A. Delano, 1927-1949
Cleveland H. Dodge, 1903-1923
William E. Dodge, 1902-1903
Charles P. Fenner, 1914-1924
Michael Ference, Jr., 1968-1980
Homer L. Ferguson, 1927-1952
Simon Flexner, 1910-1914
W. Cameron Forbes, 1920-1955
James Forrestal, 1948-1949
William N. Frew, 1902-1915
Lyman J. Gage, 1902-1912
Walter S. Gifford, 1931-1966
Carl J. Gilbert, 1962-1983
Cass Gilbert, 1924-1934
Frederick H. Gillett, 1924-1935
Daniel C. Gilman, 1902-1908
Hanna H. Gray, 1974-1978
Patrick E. Haggerty, 1974-1975
John Hay, 1902-1905
Barklie McKee Henry, 1949-1966
Myron T. Herrick, 1915-1929
Abram S. Hewitt, 1902-1903
Henry L. Higginson, 1902-1919
Ethan A. Hitchcock, 1902-1909
Henry Hitchcock, 1902
Herbert Hoover, 1920-1949
William Wirt Howe, 1903-1909
Charles L. Hutchinson, 1902-1904
Walter A. Jessup, 1938-1944
Frank B. Jewett, 1933-1949
Samuel P. Langley, 1904-1906
Ernest O. Lawrence, 1944-1958
Charles A. Lindbergh, 1934-1939
William Lindsay, 1902-1909
Henry Cabot Lodge, 1914-1924
Alfred L. Loomis, 1934-1973
Robert A. Lovett, 1948-1971
Seth Low, 1902-1916
Wayne MacVeagh, 1902-1907
Keith S. McHugh, 1950-1974
Andrew W. Mellon, 1924-1937
John Campbell Merriam,
1921-1938
Margaret Carnegie Miller,
1955-1967
Roswell Miller, 1933-1955
Darius O. Mills, 1902-1909
S. Weir Mitchell, 1902-1914
Andrew J. Montague, 1907-1935
Henry S. Morgan, 1936-1978
William W. Morrow, 1902-1929
Seeley G. Mudd, 1940-1968
William I. Myers, 1948-1976
William Church Osborn, 1927-1934
Walter H. Page, 1971-1979
James Parmelee, 1917-1931
Wm. Barclay Parsons, 1907-1932
Stewart Paton, 1916-1942
George W. Pepper, 1914-1919
John J. Pershing, 1930-1943
Henning W. Prentis, Jr. ,
1942-1959
Henry S. Pritchett, 1906-1936
GordonS. Rentschler, 1946-1948
David Rockefeller, 1952-1956
Elihu Root, 1902-1937
Elihu Root, Jr., 1937-1967
Julius Rosenwald, 1929-1931
William M. Roth, 1968-1979
William W. Rubey, 1962-1974
Martin A. Ryerson, 1908-1928
Henry R. Shepley, 1937-1962
Theobald Smith, 1914-1934
John C. Spooner, 1902-1907
William Benson Storey, 1924-1939
Richard P. Strong, 1934-1948
Charles P. Taft, 1936-1975
William H. Taft, 1906-1915
William S. Thayer, 1929-1932
JuanT. Trippe, 1944-1981
James W. Wadsworth, 1932-1952
Charles D. Walcott, 1902-1927
Frederic C. Walcott, 1931-1948
Henry P. Walcott, 1910-1924
Lewis H. Weed, 1935-1952
William H. Welch, 1906-1934
Andrew D. White, 1902-1916
Edward D. White, 1902-1903
Henry White, 1913-1927
James N. White, 1956-1979
George W. Wickersham, 1909-1936
Robert E. Wilson, 1953-1964
Robert S. Woodward, 1905-1924
Carroll D. Wright, 1902-1908
Under the original charter, from the date of organization until April 28,
1904, the following were ex officio members of the Board of Trustees: the
President of the United States, the President of the Senate, the Speaker of
the House of Representatives, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
and the President of the National Academy of Sciences.
VI
Administration and Directors
OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATION
1530 P Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005
James D. Ebert President
Margaret L. A. Mac Vicar Vice President
John C. Lawrence Bursar
Ray Bowers Publications Officer; Editor
Susan Y. Vasquez Assistant to the President
Joseph M. S. Haraburda Accounting Manager
Patricia Parratt Assistant Editor
Marshall Hornblower Counsel
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
115 West University Parkway, Baltimore, Maryland 21210
Donald D. Brown Director
DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BIOLOGY
290 Panama Street, Stanford, California 9^305
Winslow R. Briggs Director
GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
2801 Upton Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008
Hatten S. Yoder, Jr. Director
MOUNT WILSON AND LAS CAMPANAS OBSERVATORIES
813 Santa Barbara Street, Pasadena, California 91101
George W. Preston Director
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
52U1 Broad Branch Road, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015
George W. Wetherill Director
STAFF MEMBER IN SPECIAL SUBJECT AREA
Roy J. Britten
DISTINGUISHED SERVICE MEMBER IN SPECIAL SUBJECT AREA
Barbara McClintock
Vll
Carnegie Institution of Washington adheres in all phases
of its operations, including employment and educational
programs, to a policy barring discrimination on the basis
of race, religion, color, national or ethnic origin, sex, or
physical handicap. In its educational programs it admits
qualified students as fellows without regard to race, reli-
gion, color, national or ethnic origin, sex, or physical
handicap to all the rights, privileges, programs, and ac-
tivities generally accorded or made available to fellows at
the Institution. It does not discriminate on the basis of
race, religion, color, national or ethnic origin, sex, or
physical handicap in administration of its educational
policies, admissions policies, fellowship programs, and
other Institution-administered programs.
President's Commentary
•
•
•
Questions of galaxy interaction and galaxy formation are at the forefront of in-
quiry in today's astronomy. The spindle-like galaxy MCG 5-7-1 is one of roughly a
dozen in the southern skies identified as SO galaxies with polar rings. The delicate
but well-delineated ring lies almost at right angles to the main body of the sys-
tem. Carnegie staff members Paul Schechter and Jerome Kristian, and Caltech's
Jeremy Mould, obtained this deep image of MCG 5-7-1 last year with the Irenee
du Pont telescope at Las Campanas, Chile, equipped with a Charge-Coupled
Device. Evidence continues to accumulate that such systems result from recent
mergers of SO galaxies with smaller gas-rich galaxies. (See p. 51.)
I find the great thing in this world is not so much where we
stand, as in what direction we are moving. . . . We must sail
sometimes with the wind and sometimes against it — but we must
sail, and not drift, nor lie at anchor.
Oliver Wendell Holmes
The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table
1858
Recent numbers of The Chronicle of Higher Education have
dwelt on the plight of today's college and university presi-
dents, who it is said are so preoccupied with form filling and
fund raising that they have little time to provide leadership to-
ward academic excellence. Frustrated and overworked, many of
these dedicated individuals are experiencing presidential "burn-
out."
Fortunately, neither form filling nor fund raising occupies
most of my time, possibly because the Institution is unique, and
small. My attention continues to be focused primarily on the In-
stitution's work in its chosen fields and on ways to build upon its
existing strengths. Fund raising is vital of course, and time-con-
suming, all the more so because it is an activity new to the In-
stitution. But for a unique organization like ours — lacking a
large body of alumni, and focused on advanced training and
basic research of a pioneering nature — our tradition of scientific
excellence must come first. This tradition is indeed our ultimate
resource, from which the benefits of philanthropy must spring.
Increasingly, I have been giving attention to the setting of
priorities within the Institution. Such matters force themselves
on the attention of every president, indeed of every individual
scientist.
The year 1984 saw the Institution reach a difficult yet crucial
decision. Following a three-year assessment of its priorities in
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
astronomy, the Institution plans to phase out its support of pro-
grams on Mount Wilson and to channel the resources thus con-
served to the strengthening of the Las Campanas Observatory.
It is not our intention to close Mount Wilson Observatory unless
it becomes absolutely necessary. It is our hope that the direction
and support, either of Mount Wilson as a whole or of individual
telescopes and programs, will be assumed by other organiza-
tions. To that end, the Institution is prepared to receive expres-
sions of interest, and ultimately proposals, from organizations
having the resources, both intellectual and financial, requisite to
assume responsibility.
This step is but the first of several that will be required if the
Institution is to maintain its position of strength in observational
astronomy. The ultimate goal must be for the Institution's as-
tronomers to have, in George Preston's words, "access to one of
the new breeds of large telescopes that will dominate ground-
based optical astronomy by or before the turn of the century. "
It is clear that the Institution cannot "go it alone" in developing
such an instrument, and thus a major collaboration with at least
one other institution appears to be required. Meanwhile, high
priority must be given to two short-term goals, namely to pro-
vide the best possible instrumentation at our active facilities and
to upgrade computational facilities. The cost savings achieved by
ending our support of the solar astronomy program and the op-
eration of the Mount Wilson 2.5-meter telescope can be redi-
rected toward these goals, whiSi will surely require the creation
of a new group committed to a broadly based program in tele-
scope and auxiliary-instrument technology. Such investment in
technology development is a wise strategy, and is absolutely
necessary if we are to participate in the design and construction
of a large telescope at Las Campanas.
But astronomy is not the only field requiring a hard look at
priorities for the next decade. Indeed all of our departments are
reviewed periodically by visiting committees, which focus not
only on the immediate health of the departments, but on their
future needs and opportunities as well. For example, at their
most recent meeting, the members of the Visiting Committee to
the Department of Plant Biology confirmed (resoundingly) the
director's statement of need for new greenhouses and constant-
temperature facilities. As a consequence, those improvements
should be completed during 1985.
The timing of this report permits me to do little more than
identify the most thorny problem now before us, namely that of
PRESIDENT'S COMMENTARY
creating an environment providing both more-functional labora-
tories and a more stimulating intellectual environment for the
Geophysical Laboratory and Department of Terrestrial Magne-
tism, whose main buildings were completed in 1906 and 1914, re-
spectively. As the needs for new instrumentation grow,
especially for large computational facilities, it will not be possi-
ble to provide them separately. The sharing of facilities is to a
considerable degree already a way of life in the two departments
but — and here I express only my personal view — there has been
less sharing of ideas. I am happy to say that there has been
more intellectual sharing even within the past year. For exam-
ple, the two departments recently sponsored a workshop on the
mantle, bringing together seismologists, mineral physicists,
geochemists, and other earth and planetary scientists, for two
days of animated discussions.
In an important step well under way, a Committee on the
Physical Sciences chaired by George Wetherill and including
representatives of both departments, along with Morton Roberts
and George Tilton, is examining the future relations between
the two departments. Specifically, the group is asking whether
the departments should be brought together on one campus in a
new building. I have used the phrase "brought together" — the
least inflammatory phrase I can think of at this time — for almost
every other word I have used on other occasions implies, to one
individual or another, that one of the departments may lose its
identity. The issue is emotionally charged, though probably no
more so than the curtailment of our support at Mount Wilson. It
is certainly an understatement that I await the report of the
Committee with interest.
The next few years promise to be critical ones in the Institu-
tion's history. How shall we order our priorities in the physical
sciences? Can we develop the resources necessary to proceed
both with a new building for the earth and planetary sciences
and, over the next few years, to participate with others in the
construction of a large telescope in the Southern Hemisphere?
Can we maintain our leadership in observational astronomy and
in the earth and planetary sciences? And, can these objectives
be accomplished without drawing down the Institution's financial
resources, as happened during the 1970's? Clearly, our decisions
now will influence the course of the Institution's work well into
the next century.
James D. Ebert
December 20, 1984
The Year in Review
Department of Embryology staff, June 1984. Bottom row, left to right: Earl Potts, Donald
Brown, Joe Gall, Mike Sepanski, Rahul Warrior, Bill Hoerichs, Jennifer Schwartz. Second row:
Suki Parks, Dianne Thompson, Kunio Takeyasu, Kathy French, Eileen Hogan, Naomi Lipsky,
Celeste Berg, Diane Shakes, Chris Murphy, Ernestine Flemmings. Third row: Gloria Wilkes,
Betty Addison, Paul Uster, Mike Tamkun, Richard Sleight, Bill Taylor, Steve L'Hernault,
Fred Moshiri, Lloyd Epstein, Dick Pagano, Joe Vokroy, Ophelia Rogers. Fourth row: Richard
Kelley, Sandy Lazarowitz, Doug Fambrough, Thomas Miller, Rick Johns, Kent Vrana, Marty
Schwartz, Tom Malooly, Sam Kelly, Bill Duncan, Barry Wolitzky.
The Year in Review
The compartmenting of subject matter is a
constant threat to the unity of science . . .
Caryl P. Haskins
Report of the President
Year Book 56
A strong trend in the history of modern science is the move-
ment toward specialization among scientists, a development
opposite from an earlier tradition of broad-ranging individual
scholarship. As knowledge pyramided from decade to decade
in our century, scientific disciplines became divided into sub-
disciplines, and subdisciplines became fragmented into ever-
narrower specialties. The resulting arrangement made possible
many of the remarkable discoveries of modern times.
Ever more powerful research tools reinforced the trend to-
ward specialization. Observations and experiments became
possible at finer and finer levels of detail, and especially in the
last decade or so, the ability to record and analyze vast
amounts of data drastically improved. Investigators increas-
ingly required mastery of intricate and highly specialized
equipment and techniques. As a result, radio astronomers
came to be distinguished from optical astronomers, x-ray crys-
tallography became itself a specialty, and revolutionary new
techniques for studying the genetic molecule strengthened
specialization within the field of developmental biology.
Today, as in recent years, most newcomers to the scientific
profession enter as practitioners of some narrow research
field. There is so much to learn within each specialty, so many
exciting ideas to explore, so much competition among investi-
gators to achieve recognized results, that the surest path to
recognition is by remaining within one's chosen field, building
knowledge and supplying new ideas within its generally under-
stood bounds. To move into a different subdiscipline requires
mastery of a new family of knowledge and techniques, and to
9
10 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
launch a major quest for synthesis across disciplinary bound-
aries carries high risk of failure.
Thus, most investigators spend most of their time in de-
tailed specialized research; their professional contacts typically
are with investigators of identical or very closely related
specialties, and their professional writings are largely in the
form of detailed reports of original, specialized investigations.
To cite a familiar example, much of the material in recent
Carnegie Year Books is manifestly intended for a limited
readership of fellow specialists; lay persons and scientists in
unrelated specialties find much of the language beyond
comprehension.
The case should not be overstated, however, nor is it neces-
sarily to be deplored. Specialized knowledge and expertise are
basic to creativity and leadership in discovery. Specialization
has not prevented the emergence of grand syntheses — witness
in our century the birth of the expanding universe concept,
the plate tectonic revolution in the earth sciences, and the fun-
damental understanding of the nature of the gene from the
discovery of its molecular structure. Such syntheses have
properly given direction to the research of many later investi-
gators.
But if the dominant pattern remains that of specialized re-
search, there is also unmistakable indication that the pres-
sures leading to specialization are being moderated by
influences leading in an opposite direction. More and more fre-
quently, scientific problems are very difficult and call for the
expertise and tools of more than a single discipline; discoveries
in one subdiscipline are recognized to be of immediate signifi-
cance to workers in others. In short, communication — indeed
collaboration — across traditional boundaries appears increas-
ingly crucial for assembling the knowledge and ideas needed
for further significant advance.
In plant biology, for example, biochemists and ecologists
traditionally have had little understanding of, or interest in,
one another's problems; it is probably not possible for any one
individual to be completely comfortable and well-informed in
both realms. A great strength of Carnegie Institution's
Department of Plant Biology has come from its attempts to
bridge the two — to connect what goes on in the whole organ-
ism to what goes on between the molecules of a cell. At the
Department in recent decades, studies of the whole organism
in the field, in combination with laboratory studies of the cellu-
lar components and biochemical processes, have led to far
greater understanding than either approach could have yielded
separately. Then a few years ago, the extraordinary promise
of molecular biology brought yet another dimension; today,
THE YEAR IN REVIEW 11
there seems to be no problem in basic plant research that can-
not be approached profitably by applying this new field. At the
Carnegie Department, fundamental questions — how light influ-
ences plant development, for example — are now being ad-
dressed in all three realms: that of the whole plant, the cell,
and the genetic molecule.
Donald Brown, director of the Institution's Department of
Embryology, recently identified a comparable, though less
fully developed, movement toward vertical integration in his
field. Past model systems in developmental biology have cen-
tered on single molecules of known, important function, Brown
writes, although complex structures such as organelles, tis-
sues, and finally whole organisms are built from the interac-
tion of these molecules. Brown concludes that, however
powerful the modern methods of molecular analysis may be,
they are not enough; developmental biologists must learn to
think and experiment while keeping in mind the implications
of their research for understanding the complex functioning of
the whole organism.
Meanwhile, we seem to be witnessing a growing-together
among the subdisciplines of the earth sciences and astronomy,
indeed a growing-together of the earth sciences and astronomy
themselves. There is, of course, a gross difference in how we
see and touch planet Earth and how we look upon the cosmos
from afar; the research tools for studying the Earth are ac-
cordingly very different from those of the astronomer, so that
the separation of the earth sciences from astronomy has be-
come traditional. It can be argued, however, that the separa-
tion has been an artificial one, for the natural world lies before
us not in two exclusive spheres but in a grand continuum of
distance and time — a continuum encompassing the inner Earth
and reaching to the farthest galaxies. No part of the contin-
uum can be long considered in isolation from its neighbors,
and the perspectives of all the physical sciences should be
brought to bear in studying each part.
Studies of regions beyond our Milky Way Galaxy, for exam-
ple, tell how populations of many galaxies are distributed in
age, shape, size, and location; such information offers crucial
but otherwise unattainable perspectives for understanding our
own Galaxy. Likewise, studies of populations of neighboring
and distant stars expand comprehension of our own Sun and
its solar system, while research on the planets, comets, and
asteroids of our solar system give insight as to how the
Earth's core and mantle may have formed. Discoveries about
the deep Earth, then, influence our understanding of processes
in the crustal regions we inhabit. Finally, the whole scheme
also applies in reverse — the detailed observations possible in
The Department of Plant Biology's seminar room.
studying our own Sun give knowledge valuable for under-
standing other stars, rocks from meteorites contain isotopic
evidence of processes in distant stars, and so on.
If evidence of growing integration across the subdisciplines
of science is real, it is a trend for which the Carnegie Institu-
tion is well prepared. Although each Carnegie scientist is typi-
cally a specialist in some field, there is opportunity — indeed
encouragement — to grow as a generalist, to develop research
interests transcending conventional disciplines. By creating
environments for daily interaction and collaboration across
subdisciplines, the Institution's departments have already es-
tablished traditions in harmony with a vision of integration.
Thus in the strengths of its scientists in many disciplines, and
in its eagerness to cross disciplinary boundaries, the Institu-
tion is well prepared for leadership in developing the
syntheses that surely lie ahead.
The Review of the Year's Work. Our tour in the pages that
follow is not all-inclusive. Only some of the research in prog-
ress— generally those activities nominated by the directors of
the departments — is presented. A few ventures have been
treated more expansively than others in the hope of expanding
the nonspecialist reader's perspective in representative areas;
it is to be expected that different topics will receive expanded
treatment in future Year Books. In general, there has been an
attempt to make the material intelligible to nonscientist read-
ers by including more background information than has for-
merly been the case and by reducing the extent of technical
detail. Readers interested in the kind of detailed information
THE YEAR IN REVIEW 13
found in previous Year Books are referred to the Bibliography
of Published Work on pages 115-136.
The text has been developed from unpublished inputs pre-
pared in July 1984 by the directors and scientists, and most of
the direct quotations used here are taken from these sources.
The Biological Sciences
The Department has long held the philosophy
that molecular biologists, biochemists,
physiologists, and ecologists do not have to live in
isolation, and that a thorough understanding of
any facet of plant biology will almost certainly
require the combined efforts of people from each
group.
Winslow R. Briggs
Director, Department of
Plant Biology
July 1984
The future challenges before us can be
predicted. Our model systems to date have been
one-dimensional in the sense that we center our
attention on single molecules that we know have
important functions. However, complex
structures such as organelles, tissues, and finally
whole organisms are built from the interaction of
many of these molecules. Therefore we must
learn to think and experiment in two dimensions
(or more) to understand these complexities.
Donald D. Brown
Director, Department of
Embryology
July 1984
The mechanisms that plants and animals have devised to
create, adapt, maintain, and restore life are each one unique —
unique to an environment, unique to a species, unique to a
gene. Biological research, too, evidences extraordinary diver-
sity. At the same time that plant ecologist Olle Bjorkman
studies salt stress in mangrove leaves, for example, molecular
biologist William Thompson is investigating light regulation in
14 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
genes of the pea plant in a laboratory down the hall. While ge-
neticist Allan Spradling studies how eggshell protein genes
work in the fruit fly, Richard Pagano is exploring lipid metab-
olism in hamster cells.
What unites these seemingly disparate activities? What
common ground do physiological ecologists, biochemists, and
molecular biologists share? One answer, simply, is a common
search for mechanisms of biological regulation. Plant physiolo-
gists ask what controls a plant's photosynthetic capacity in
stressful environments. Cell biologists ask what regulates the
traffic in a living cell. Molecular biologists are interested in
what controls the actions of genes.
Many questions of control, it seems, ultimately come down
to the genes. For in the genetic codes of inheritance are many
of the answers to the puzzles of how life is maintained and
how it has evolved. Perhaps the genes also contain answers to
the question of how life arose from nonlife. Today, we are
closer to understanding these mysteries. But, as Donald
Brown expresses above, an understanding of the larger ques-
tions of life requires a new synthesis. We need to know how
genes influence and are influenced by other genes; we need to
know how genes are controlled by signals from other parts of
the chromosome, indeed by signals from the cell membrane
and from the organism's external environment. We need to
know how genes know when to turn on and off: Where does
their time sense come from?
Hence, at Carnegie's Department of Embryology and at the
Carnegie-Caltech Developmental Biology Research Group
(where Carnegie Senior Research Associate Roy Britten
works), one finds a growing emphasis on studies "in situ"
(within the organism), where one can begin to determine the
range of environmental variables affecting a particular biologi-
cal system. Correspondingly, at the Institution's Department
of Plant Biology, there is a continuing attempt, as director
Winslow Briggs says, "to bridge what goes on in nature to
what goes on between the molecules of the cell — to cover the
entire vertical spectrum from the macro to the micro to the
molecular." Investigators there, in fact, have reached the
point where they can begin to use molecular techniques as
tools in the elucidation of questions posed on the cellular and
organismal levels.
How Light Controls Plant Development
The merging of plant molecular biology with other, more es-
tablished disciplines is one of the most significant develop-
ments of recent years at the Department of Plant Biology.
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 15
The Department has been far-sighted in preparing the neces-
sary facilities for this synthesis. Still, crossing the boundaries
that separate disciplines is a difficult task, one that requires
the vision and open-mindedness of the scientists themselves.
This year, Department scientists report preliminary, note-
worthy achievements in one such discipline-bridging collabora-
tion— that between Winslow Briggs' photobiology group and
the molecular biology lab of William Thompson. How, these
scientists ask, does light affect plants — at the levels of the
whole plant, the cell, and the gene?
The response of a plant to light is mediated by various pig-
ment molecules, called photoreceptors, which absorb different
wavelengths, or colors, of the spectrum. The green pigment
chlorophyll, which traps energy during photosynthesis,
absorbs energy most efficiently from red and from blue
light. The pigment phytochrome, which stimulates many
chemical changes not involved in photosynthesis, for example,
seed germination and flowering events, responds to red and
far red light.
Red Light Regulation. Several years ago, Dina Mandoli, a
graduate student working in Briggs' laboratory, carefully de-
scribed the phytochrome growth responses of dark-grown oat
seedlings to low and very low levels of red light (Year Book
79, pp. 126-131). These responses begin very early in develop-
ment, as the growing shoot reaches the first light while still
below the soil surface, and continue as emergence occurs.
Light influences the rate of stem elongation (which slows down
after a light stimulus) and triggers events leading to construc-
tion of the photosynthetic apparati and the expansion of leaves
(thus permitting the plant to become energetically self-sup-
porting at a young age). Some phytochrome responses to red
light occur in two stages. The first stage is very sensitive,
being stimulated by amounts of light ranging from the equiva-
lent of a single firefly flash to about one minute of full moon-
light. The second stage is less sensitive and requires at least
one hundred times more light than the first.
In an extension of this study last year, predoctoral fellow
James Shinkle, also in the Briggs lab, discovered that it is the
amount of the growth hormone auxin in the plant tissue that
determines whether the tissue shows high sensitivity to red
light (high levels of auxin), both high and low sensitivity com-
ponents in a complex response (intermediate levels), or only
the lower sensitivity response (low levels).
Last year, using pea plants, Lon Kaufman, in a collabora-
tion between Briggs' and Thompson's laboratories, began
examining in detail what effect light has on the amount of
16 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
messenger RNA (mRNA) transcribed by several different
genes. (Messenger RNA is copied from DNA and forms the
template for protein production.) Among some thirteen genes
studied by Kaufman were two that coded for important pro-
teins in the photosynthetic apparatus. One of the proteins is
responsible for binding a major fraction of the chlorophyll in a
"light-harvesting" complex; the other is the smaller of the two
subunits that make up the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate car-
boxylase (RuBP carboxylase), which is required for the initial
carbon-fixing stages of photosynthesis.
Thompson and his colleagues had shown previously that
patterns of light treatment known to produce phytochrome
induced growth responses in plants also caused changes in lev-
els of mRNA. As early as 1978, they had begun to develop a
library of cloned genes to use as probes for the detection of
specific mRNA sequences in tissues exposed to varying re-
gimes of white, red, and far red light. This technique was pos-
sible because, when mixed under appropriate laboratory
conditions, the cloned gene sequences hybridized with, or to,
similar (complementary) mRNA sequences in the sample being
assayed. The extent of reaction — indicating the amount of
mRNA complementary to a given clone — could be roughly vi-
sualized using autoradiography techniques. Over the years, as
the sensitivity of the hybridization technique improved, so did
the detail of the measurements.
When Kaufman, with Thompson and Briggs, began his ex-
periments last year, he was able to measure mRNA abun-
dance at very precise levels. In the first round of experiments
(where he treated individual six-day-old plants with just
enough red light to induce the first-stage response), he found a
clear increase in the message for the chlorophyll-binding pro-
tein after a 24-hour period, but no change in the level of
mRNA for the small subunit of RuBP carboxylase. When he
treated plants with enough light to stimulate stage two of
growth, however, he found an additional response for the chlo-
rophyll-binding protein mRNA as well as a response of the
small subunit mRNA.
In further detailed studies of the eleven other genes, Kauf-
man found that these genes (whose functions in the cell are
yet unknown) responded differently to the light treatments.
Some of the mRNAs increased immediately and continued to
increase for the entire 24 hours of the experiments, while oth-
ers climbed rapidly for a little over an hour, then reached a
plateau. Yet a third group showed a lag of about 16 hours be-
fore beginning to climb. And, finally, one group was climbing
steadily even in the dark; the light treatment merely increased
the rate at which the mRNAs accumulated.
f f
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FLUENCE, Log /xmol m"2
Scientists at the De-
partment of Plant Biology
are developing sensitive
molecular biology tech-
niques for studying devel-
opmental responses to
light. Shown here are re-
sults from experiments by
Lon S. Kaufman, William
F. Thompson, and Wins-
low Briggs, who are in-
vestigating the response
of pea seedlings to con-
trolled red light irradia-
tions. The upper curve
shows production of the
mRNA for the chloro-
phyll-binding protein (as described in text); the lower curve shows production of the mRNA
for the small subunit of RuBP carboxylase. At very low red light fluence (at - 4 on the
horizontal scale), the chlorophyll-binding protein mRNA exhibits accumulation, but the
lower curve does not. At higher fluences, both mRNAs exhibit accumulation. The investi-
gators note that inasmuch as light at very low fluence is present deeper in the soil, the
chlorophyll-binding protein mRNA may start to accumulate very early in seedling develop-
ment, possibly before the RuBP carboxylase mRNA and certainly before chlorophyll accu-
mulation. (The slot blots shown at right are the data used to calculate the fluence response
curves in connection with the DNA hybridization techniques. The notations cab and rbcS
refer to the respective RNAs; pBR322 refers to the plasmid vector DNA used in the hy-
bridization.) (Adapted from the investigators' report in Science 226, p. 1447, 21 December
1984, copyright 1984 AAAS.)
It is known that identical copies of the genes both for the
chlorophyll-binding protein and the small subunit of RuBP car-
boxylase exist in the nuclear DNA. Not all copies would nec-
essarily be expressed (or transcribed into mRNA) under all
conditions, and one very interesting possibility is that light
regulates only certain copies of the genes. Postdoctoral fellow
John Watson, with Thompson, has begun to clone different
copies of the genes in an effort to determine what controls
their differential expression. Meanwhile, another postdoctoral
fellow working in Thompson's lab — Neil Polans — is combining
molecular techniques with conventional genetics in an attempt
to place these genes on the pea genetic map.
Light is clearly turning on very elaborate — and complex —
programs of change at the molecular level. These changes are
reflected in the effects of light on the whole plant, and open up
a vast array of experiments designed to unravel the threads of
18 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
developmental change under the influence of light. Without
the whole plant studies, writes Briggs, the physiological and
molecular studies would not (and indeed could not) have been
done.
The question of how genes are regulated by light is becom-
ing a common theme at the Department. Much of what is hap-
pening in Thompson's laboratory, for example, represents a
direct assault on this problem at the molecular level. Evidence
in the literature suggests that the degree to which DNA se-
quences are methylated, or modified by the addition of methyl
groups, is often related to whether or not the gene is ex-
pressed. Thompson's group is now finding differences in the
extent of methylation of the same genes in root and shoot
cells. Experiments are in progress to determine if and how
light affects the degree of methylation of these and other
genes.
In another study in Thompson's lab, graduate student David
Stern has initiated an effort to determine whether genes in
mitochondria show light regulation. (Mitochondria, in which
most plant respiration occurs, contain their own, separate
DNA.) Stern's preliminary results suggest that certain mito-
chondrial genes, like those already studied in the nucleus and
the chloroplast, respond to light. The molecular mechanism of
this response, and indeed of any of the responses studied so
far, is unknown, and will be the focus of research efforts for
years in the future.
Blue Light Regulation. Blue light, like red, effects a variety
of responses in plants, but the nature of the photoreceptors
(or pigments) involved is largely unknown. Some years ago,
workers in Briggs' laboratory obtained evidence that a partic-
ular flavin-containing pigment complex located in the outer-
most membranes of photoreceptor cells might play a central
role in blue light photoreception in such processes as photo-
tropism, which causes plants to bend toward the Sun (Year
Book 80, pp. 94-96).
Phototropism has often been described as the consequence
of a growth differential induced across the plant axis. But the
precise way whereby light influences this response has re-
mained elusive. Dow Woodward, on sabbatical leave from
Stanford University, has made substantial progress in isolat-
ing and purifying the flavin-containing pigment complex from
corn, preparatory to detailed characterization. This work is es-
sential, writes Briggs, if we are to understand the first steps
by which the light signal is transformed into a biological re-
sponse.
Meanwhile, Moritoshi lino, in the Briggs laboratory, has
c
>
a
LLUMINATED SIDE
□
SHADED SIDE
Apica
Time, minutes from 25 sec blue irradiation
Results of an experiment investigating growth responses in corn to illumination
from a single direction. The drawing depicts growth pattern on the illuminated and
the shaded sides of red light-grown maize coleoptiles following a pulse of blue light.
(The apical cells are near the tip and are 4 mm above the basal cells.) Depression of
growth rate is seen on the illuminated side, and stimulation of growth on the shaded
side, some minutes after irradiation; both changes occur in the apical cells about ten
minutes prior to onset in the basal cells. The investigators — Tobias Baskin, Moritoshi
lino, and Winslow Briggs — suggest that net growth in the direction of the source is
explained by transport of the growth hormone auxin, induced by blue light irradia-
tion. (Data was obtained by time-lapse photomicrography through a horizontal micro-
scope. Cell edges were isolated for measurement in enlarged images. The natural log
of the measured length is plotted vs. minutes after irradiation.)
been carrying out detailed kinetic studies both on phototrop-
ism in corn shoots and on another blue light mediated
response — the opening of a plant's stomata, or its "gas-
exchange" valves. (The latter studies were done in collabora-
tion with Eduardo Zeiger at Stanford.) And in yet another
blue light study in the Briggs lab, lino and former fellow
Eberhard Schafer showed that the phototropic response of a
particular fungal reproductive structure to a pulse of blue light
was remarkably similar to — though much more sensitive
than — the phototropic response of a coleoptile (the sheath
that covers the first leaves of a monocot seedling). Briggs
notes that the similarities between these two very different
systems suggest that the same photoreceptor is probably oper-
ating in both, and indeed may be of general importance in
light regulation in plants.
In extending phototropic studies to the level of individual
cells, lino and Tobias Baskin last year found that plants re-
sponding phototropically to light from a single direction
20 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
showed a very sharp wave of growth inhibition that migrated
down the irradiated side of the stem. An equally sharp wave
of growth stimulation migrated down the shaded side. At any
given point along the shoot, a new growth rate was estab-
lished in less than five minutes. Further, these waves moved
at just the rate expected for the downward transport of the
growth hormone auxin. This suggests that the response is
caused by the lateral redistribution of growth, and that it is
not necessarily accompanied by changes in net growth. Cur-
rently, Baskin is doing experiments to determine whether this
blue light-induced response to short pulses of light in low
doses is confined to seedlings of grasses (such as corn and
oats) or if it is more general.
In showing that auxin is growth limiting, lino and Baskin's
experiments lend elegant support to a very old (but recently
challenged) theory of phototropism stating that blue light acts
on shoots by setting up a lateral movement of auxin from the
illuminated to the shaded side. Blue light must be exerting
very precise control over this movement.
In other blue light studies, Kaufman and Watson (in Thomp-
son's group) have found preliminary evidence that blue light
brings about dramatic changes in the expression of mRNA
from several (but not all) of the same genes that they found
responded to red light. In addition, they found that auxin it-
self can bring about changes in the expression of these same
mRNAs. Auxin can also effect changes in mRNAs that are not
affected by blue light, but all blue light-affected mRNAs seem
to respond to auxin. Briggs says that all of the blue light stud-
ies represent a coordinated attack on the photoregulation of
plant processes by blue light, and complement and interact
with studies involving red light.
Pigment Structure. In yet another look at light regulation in
plants, Arthur Grossman and his colleagues are investigating
an important light-harvesting system in red and blue-green al-
gae. Functionally analogous to the light-harvesting chloro-
phyll-protein complex in higher plants, this system is
composed of stacks of varied pigmented polypeptides linked
together by colorless proteins (called linkers) in an orderly ar-
ray and attached to the photosynthetic membrane by a high-
molecular-weight pigmented polypeptide called the anchor pro-
tein. These unique pigment-protein structures, called phycobi-
lisomes, often absorb light from the middle range of the light
spectrum — the range most available to some algae that dwell
just beneath the water's surface.
In certain algae, the phycobilisomes have the striking ability
to adjust the amount of their individual pigmented proteins ac-
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 21
cording to the color of the light they are receiving (a phenome-
non called chromatic adaptation). If the algae are exposed to
red light, they maximize the amount of a red-absorbing pig-
ment and minimize a green-absorbing pigment. If they are ex-
posed to green light (for example, if they are shaded by green
algae), they maximize the green light absorber and minimize
the red. The system shows full photoreversibility, and the
question suddenly becomes obvious: How does this reversible
photo regulation occur?
Two years ago, Grossman launched a major effort to under-
stand how the phycobilisome system works, how its genes are
arranged, and how it has evolved. Already, he and the post-
doctoral fellows who work in his lab have isolated and cloned
several phycobilisome genes. Peggy Lemaux has cloned four
genes encoding the pigmented phycobiliprotein subunits in a
eukaryotic alga. Pamela Conley is doing similar work with
prokaryotic algae. And Terri Lomax has tackled the difficult
job of obtaining the genes for the linker proteins.
Briggs observes that phycobilisome photoregulation resem-
bles the red-sensitive phytochrome system under study in the
Briggs and Thompson laboratories, and he suggests that the
Grossman and the Briggs-Thompson efforts will soon con-
verge.
Staff member Jeanette Brown is also exploring pigment
structural relationships — but from a different viewpoint. This
year, in collaboration with Jacques Duranton from the French
Atomic Energy Center at Saclay, Brown used special spectral
techniques to show the absorption of (3-carotene (a major pho-
toprotective pigment) in a chlorophyll-protein complex. As
well, she has compared the reaction center complexes (those
pigment complexes wherein the primary reactions of photosyn-
thesis occur) and the principal light-gathering (antenna) pig-
ment complexes from a wide range of plants. She finds that
the reaction center complexes are conserved in the same spec-
tral form over a number of organisms, while the antenna com-
plexes show a high degree of variation. The molecular
approaches of Grossman and his colleagues, says Briggs, will
no doubt be of value in learning whether the pigment-binding
proteins of the reaction center complexes are likewise con-
served.
Gene Engineering — in Nature and in the Laboratory
One of the fascinating aspects of phycobilisome biosynthesis
is that the genes that encode them are not all found in the
same location in a cell. In red algae, for example, the bilipro-
tein polypeptides are encoded in the chloroplast genome,
22 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
while the colorless linker proteins are encoded in the nucleus.
(In higher plant and eukaryotic algae, DNA is found not just
in the nucleus but in two other subcellular organelles, the
chloroplast and the mitochondrion.) Many scientists believe
that chloroplasts are evolutionary descendants of primitive
blue-green algae. Blue-green algae may have become engulfed
into unicellular organisms and, in the course of evolution, may
have lost much of their genetic potential to the nucleus of the
host organism. The nuclear-localized linker genes in red algae
may represent just such an evolutionary migration.
There is other evidence that genes inside plants may move
from one genome to another over time. For example, graduate
student David Stern and former graduate student and re-
search associate Jeffrey Palmer find surprising similarities
(homologies) between the chloroplast and mitochondrial gen-
omes, suggesting an ongoing evolutionary process of DNA se-
quence transfer from one organelle to the other (Year Book
82, pp. 17-19).
One important process involved in the evolution and regula-
tion of plant genes concerns the recombination (both "legiti-
mate" and "illegitimate") of DNA. Viruses provide some of the
best-studied recombination systems. This year at the Depart-
ment of Embryology, staff associate Sondra Lazarowitz found
evidence that the DNA of a small plant geminivirus called
Squash Leaf Curl may consist of more than two components,
one of which has distinct regions of partial sequence homology
to the others. The structure of the components indicates that
they may have evolved as a result of recombination events.
The "legitimate" recombination between homologous DNA
sequences is a fairly common event in all organisms. From it,
for example, come variations that make offspring different
from their parents. Recombination may also occur "illegiti-
mately" between nonhomologous DNA. Barbara McClintock,
the 1983 Nobelist in Physiology or Medicine, uncovered the
first evidence of this phenomenon forty years ago while work-
ing as a staff member at Carnegie's former Department of
Genetics in Cold Spring Harbor, New York. She found that,
during cell division, pieces of DNA could move about, or
transpose, within the maize genome, inserting themselves into
places they normally did not belong. If a transposable element
happened to move into or near a gene, it could turn that gene
off; when the element moved away, during a subsequent cell
division, the gene turned back on. These unstable mutations
showed up in the corn plant as colorful variegations in the ker-
nels and leaves. Because the variegations appeared to be ex-
pressed in regular and highly characteristic patterns,
McClintock called the transposable DNA pieces "controlling
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 23
elements."
McClintock suggested that transposition was an example of
a normal developmental control system gone awry. So far,
however, molecular biology techniques have provided no direct
evidence that transposable elements are involved in the con-
trol of gene expression in maize (or in any other organism in
which they have been found). But the possibility has not been
ruled out, since transposable elements seem to be responsible
for patterned gene expression in a variety of organisms.
Scientists know quite a bit about how transposable elements
function at the molecular level in such simple organisms as
bacteria and yeast. Answers to questions about how they
work in maize, however, must wait until scientists have a
better idea how these elements are structured and organized
within the maize genome. This has been the goal of Nina
Fedoroff, staff member at the Department of Embryology, for
several years. Continuing McClintock's genetic detective work
on the molecular level, Fedoroff and her colleagues last year
succeeded in isolating and cloning several transposable ele-
ments in maize — three designated Ds and one designated Ac.
Ds and Ac were the first transposable elements that Mc-
Clintock discovered in maize. Ds first manifested itself as a
site of chromosome breakage. Hence, she called it Ds, for dis-
sociation. Soon it became apparent to her that Ds could move.
But to do so, it required the presence of another element,
which she named Ac, for activator. Then, McClintock found
that Ac, too, could move, but it did not require the presence
of another element; it could move on its own.
In collaboration with Joachim Messing at the University of
Minnesota, Fedoroff and her colleagues Samuel Kelly and Rick
Johns recently determined the entire nucleotide sequence of
Ac. The element, they found, is 4,563 bases long and has short
sequences (11 nucleotides long) that appear as mirror, i.e., in-
verted, repeats at either end. (Inverted repeats are character-
istic of transposable elements and appear to be necessary for
the transposition process.) Within the nucleotide sequence of
Ac they found two genes — a long gene and a short gene. The
function of the small gene is not yet known, but Fedoroff and
colleagues believe the long gene encodes an enzyme, called
transposase, that is required for transposition.
The investigators were able to make this conclusion by ana-
lyzing the structure of the subsequently isolated Ds's. The
first of the Ds elements that they isolated was virtually identi-
cal to the Ac element, except it lacked a short sequence (194
nucleotides long) from the longer Ac gene. Since the genetic
effect of this change was to immobilize Ds (rendering its trans-
position dependent on the presence of Ac), Fedoroff concluded
I kb
i
ORF 1 ORF 2
*■
Ac(wx)
TAGGGAT6AAA TTTCATCCCTG
TAGGGATGAAA TTTCATCCCTG
Ds(wx)
Ds(sh)
TAGGGATGAAA TTTCATCCCTA
d. *=> «=* Ds(Adh)
TAGGGATGAAA TTTCATCCCTA
Diagrammatic representation of one Activator (Ac) and three Dissociation (Ds)
transposable elements isolated from maize by Nina Fedoroff and her colleagues at
the Department of Embryology, (a) The Ac element isolated from the wx locus is
4563 base pairs (bp) in length and terminates in an imperfect 11-bp repetition. It
is shown as having two major divergent uninterrupted protein-coding sequences
(open reading frames or ORFs), although recent data suggest that ORF 1 has ei-
ther a short internal intervening sequence or that it comprises two smaller ORFs.
(b,c,d) Three different Ds elements, isolated from the wx, sh, and Adh maize loci
all terminate in perfect 11-bp repetitions virtually identical to that of the Ac ele-
ment. The Ds element at (b) is very similar to, and was derived directly from, the
Ac element; it differs only by having a 194-bp deletion in one of the protein-coding
sequences, represented by the gap in solid line. The smaller Ds element (c) re-
sembles the ends of the Ac element. The gap in the line's center represents the
part of the Ac element's sequence not represented. The smallest Ds element (d)
has no sequences in common with the Ac element except for the terminal inverted
repetition; its sequence is thus represented by an open box. Ds elements comprise
a heterogeneous family of sequences that can be mobilized by the Ac element's
trans-acting function or functions, which appear to act on the terminal sequences.
that the long gene must be responsible for making the tran-
sposase that initiates transposition. Her conclusion was
strengthened when they found another Ds that lacked almost
all of the long gene. Elements called Ds thus appear to contain
the structural information required for transposition, but they
cannot initiate the event.
Fedoroff and her colleagues have made a few preliminary
explorations into how maize transposable elements can be
used — both for the isolation of certain genes that are marked
by insertion mutations, and as transmitting agents, or vectors,
for introducing DNA into maize and other plants. In experi-
ments toward the first objective, they were able this year to
isolate the bronze (bz) locus (which encodes an enzyme in-
volved in pigment synthesis), by virtue of its association with
an Ac element having flanking sequences homologous to bz.
They succeeded in isolating the bz locus rather readily, sug-
gesting to Fedoroff that the Ac element will be useful for the
isolation of other genes with similar insertions. In the mean-
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 25
time, the isolation of the bz locus will prove useful in their
efforts to isolate another family of transposable elements that
McClintock studied in maize — the Suppressor-mutator (Spm)
family. Fedoroff and her colleagues recently cloned and are
currently analyzing the structure of several members of this
family.
In the second set of experiments — those designed to deter-
mine how Ds and Ac elements might be used as vectors —
Fedoroff s group (in collaborative experiments with Josef
Schell of the Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding,
Cologne, West Germany), are testing the ability of the Ac
element to transpose in the tobacco genome. (To insert the
element into the tobacco plant, they splice it into a bacterial
plasmid capable of entering the cells.) They are also attempt-
ing to reintroduce Ac or bz directly into maize plants or cul-
tured maize cells. One importance of these experiments, which
Fedoroff says will probably progress slowly, lies in the even-
tual possibility of introducing agronomically useful genes into
crop plants.
Manipulating Genes in the Laboratory. For many years,
scientists have been able to isolate genes, splice them into bac-
terial plasmids, and insert them into the genomes of such sim-
ple systems as bacteria and viruses. The ability to transfer
genes into the genomes of higher organisms, as Fedoroff is
trying to do, has come more slowly, largely because of the
lack of appropriate vectors, capable of transmitting genes from
one organism to another. With the discovery that the genomes
of higher organisms contain transposable elements, however,
the situation began to change. Fedoroff s attempts to use
transposable elements as the transfer vehicle in maize, in fact,
rests on an analogous — and successful — technique developed
in the fruit fly (Drosophila) by Department of Embryology
staff member Allan Spradling and former staff member Gerald
Rubin two years ago.
Spradling and Rubin found that they could transfer a gene
into a Drosophila embryo by inserting the gene into a trans-
posable element (the P element) and then injecting the modi-
fied element (or transposon) directly into the embryo. Once
inside the embryo, the transposon jumped directly into the
genome, where it was stably incorporated. Furthermore, in
future generations, the gene continued to be accurately ex-
pressed (Year Book 81, pp. 181-188).
This technique is a powerful research tool. With it, re-
searchers can transfer into a Drosophila line, genes whose
control regions have been experimentally modified. The molec-
ular basis for genetic disruptions can be examined, and ques-
tions about how control regions activate genes at precise times
Members of the laboratory for study of Drosophila develop-
ment. Left to right, row 1: Allan Spradling, Joe Levine; row 2:
Barbara Wakimoto, Laura Kalfayan; row 3: Suki Park, Dianne
Thompson; row 4: Pam Fornili, Richard Kelley, Terry Orr-
Weaver.
during development can be posed. Many laboratories around
the country are using the technique successfully in Droso-
phila, but efforts to use P elements as vectors in other organ-
isms have so far failed. It is not surprising, therefore, that
other methods of gene transfer need to be developed in other
higher organisms. At the Carnegie-Caltech Developmental Bi-
ology Research Group at the Kerckhoff Marine Laboratory,
California, for example, Carnegie Senior Research Associate
Roy Britten and his colleagues are working on a simple, rapid
microinjection method for introducing DNA into sea urchin
eggs.
In their experiments, Britten and his colleagues (Constantin
Flytzanis, Andrew McMahon, Barbara Hough-Evans, and Eric
Davidson) inject cloned DNA sequences into unfertilized sea
urchin embryos and then examine the five-week-old larvae
(50,000 cells). In some experiments, as many as 85% of the
larvae contained the injected sequences, and in over half of
these, the sequences were present at an average of more than
one copy per cell. Britten's group found that an injected bac-
terial gene (chloamphenicol acetyl transferase) is expressed
under control of a Drosophila heat shock promoter region also
present on the injected plasmid. The transcription of the bac-
terial gene is enormously increased under conditions that in-
duce a heat shock response in the sea urchin larvae, indicating
that this transcription control DNA must be highly conserved.
When the larvae undergo metamorphosis, much of the repli-
cated DNA is lost. A significant quantity, however, remains in
a minority of individuals. Within the DNA of one such individ-
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 27
ual, Flytzanis found junction regions between genomic and
injected DNA. One junction region was sequenced, demon-
strating that the injected DNA had indeed been integrated
into the sea urchin genome.
Evolutionary Divergence. The gene transfer method de-
scribed above is important for future studies of gene control
mechanisms during sea urchin development. Sea urchins are
particularly favorable organisms for the study of gene func-
tion, for considerable detailed molecular information exists on
sea urchin gene expression. A great deal of information also
exists on sea urchin phylogeny, which makes them additionally
useful for the study of evolution.
Roy Britten has been fascinated with evolution ever since
his discovery — twenty years ago as a member of the former
Biophysics Group at Carnegie's Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism — that some DNA sequences are copied in the gen-
omes of higher organisms as many as one million times. At the
Kerckhoff Laboratory, which Britten joined in 1972, he and
his colleagues use recombinant DNA techniques to measure
the conservation of repeated and single-copy DNA sequences
in different sea urchin species of known phylogenetic relation-
ship. They have found that repeated sequences often show
strong similarity between distantly related species. In one
case, members of a particular family of repeats show more
than 95% homology between two sea urchin species that last
shared a common ancestor more than 100 million years ago.
Homology between single-copy DNA, in contrast, was very
slight.
This year, Britten et al. simulated by computer the effect of
frequent copying and insertion of DNA sequences to deter-
mine if copying was limiting divergence of the repeated seg-
ments. They found that copied and control sets drifted at
precisely equal rates. Thus, it appeared that copying does not
retard the rate of evolutionary drift. According to Britten,
two alternative explanations for the lesser evolutionary diver-
gence of repeats remain: repeats either undergo sequence-de-
pendent selection pressure or they are transferred horizontally
between species by viral infection or some unknown mecha-
nism.
Individual genes can have tremendous evolutionary signifi-
cance. The bindin gene, for example, which produces the
sperm-binding protein in sea urchins, is likely to be a signifi-
cant speciation mechanism. This is because bindin, by binding
to the receptor on the egg membrane, renders fertilization
species-specific. It provides a barrier against the hybridization
of two separate species in the wild. Recently, Britten's group
28 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
began a comparative study of the bindin gene between individ-
uals and closely related species. The first step has been accom-
plished this year. Boning Gao, a visitor from mainland China,
has isolated the gene regions and is now sequencing the gene
from the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. She finds
that the gene exists as single-copy rather than as a gene clus-
ter member, which simplifies the study of its evolution.
The Functioning Genome: A Vista on Developmental Control
Evolution and development. Two sides of the same coin —
one the rearrangement of the genome on timetables of millions
of years, the other the expression of that genome on the order
of days, minutes, seconds. It is a continuing mystery that each
cell of an organism contains the same genes as every other cell
of that organism. How does differentiation then occur? What
are the factors that turn some genes on and others off,
particularly during the early stages of a developing embryo
when individual cells and tissues are being shaped? At the
Department of Embryology, the question is posed in a variety
of ways, with a variety of organisms. Each organism provides
a model system with which to explore fine details of gene
function.
Allan Spradling and his colleagues focus their attention on a
set of genes in Drosophila that code for eggshell (or chorion)
proteins. These genes, found in every cell of the fruit fly, are
expressed only in the ovarian follicle cells, where they are am-
plified (increased in number) as many as sixty times. These
amplified genes produce enormous quantities of messenger
RNA but they do so only at a precise time during the develop-
ment of each egg.
What causes these genes to function at the appropriate time
and place during the development of the eggl To help answer
this question, Spradling's group uses a combination of classical
and molecular techniques sometimes called "in vitro genetics."
This involves isolating genetic material, mutating it — i.e.,
restructuring it in the laboratory by deleting or rearranging
nucleotide bases — and then testing its ability to function by
inserting it into the germline. (They insert the chorion gene
via transposable P elements; see pp. 25-26.)
By progressively deleting DNA sequences from end regions
flanking the chorion gene in the chromosome, Spradling and
his colleagues have defined the DNA sequences that are suffi-
cient to cause amplification of the chorion gene regions in
ovarian follicle cells. The sequence is small, about 3,800
nucleotides long. At the present time, experiments are in
progress to obtain further insight into the mechanism by
Lines S6.9-
5 4 3 10 9 8 7
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8.5~ Mi «■**» ' HH§ mmm mmm > * ib «nw» - H
^ ^^**^m ^p^wwfF ^KPS^PiF ^^
5,9- ******* mm- in ~ 'in iiMni inpuwi IT T
The effect of chromosome position on amplification. Allan Spradling of the De-
partment of Embryology and his colleagues constructed seven Drosophila strains
using P-element-mediated gene transfer. Each contained a single insertion of a
specific transposon carrying a 3.8-kb DNA segment believed to be responsible for
controlling the amplification of chorion genes during stages 9-13 of Drosophila
oogenesis. The only difference between these strains (termed lines s6.9-3 through
s6.9-10) was the chromosomal site at which transposon insertion occurred. The ex-
tent to which transposon sequences underwent amplification during oogenesis in
these strains was determined by the binding, or hybridization, of DNA from early
(E) egg chambers (before amplification begins) and from late (L) egg chambers
(after amplification was complete) to a transposon-specific probe (T) and a control
probe (//). The ratio TIH in late-stage DNA compared to T/H in early-stage DNA
indicates the extent of transposon amplification. The extent of amplification ob-
served varied between 1-fold and 59-fold among the seven lines, demonstrating
that amplification is subject to position effect.
which this control region initiates and regulates local DNA
replication.
Spradling' s group has also determined the control element
responsible for the tissue and time-specific expression of a
chorion gene. So far, they have found that sequences lying
between a point 510 base pairs upstream of the transcription
start site and a point 74 base pairs downstream from it are
sufficient to program developmentally specific transcription.
Additional experiments are in progress to define the minimum
size of this control sequence and to compare it with the control
regions of other chorion genes that differ in their time of acti-
vation.
During the course of their experiments, Spradling and his
colleagues found that when they introduce genes into Droso-
phila, the genes do not always integrate in the same place.
Sometimes, gene action is influenced by the chromosomal loca-
tion at which it inserts. Such "position effects," in the case of
transformed chorion genes, seem to modify only the amount of
mRNA produced, not the tissue or temporal specificity. The
levels of mRNA produced by identical genes at different sites
may vary as much as tenfold. The 3,800-nucleotide-long con-
trol sequence for amplification is even more sensitive to these
position effects. At about half the sites tested, it failed to in-
30 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
duce amplification. At the remaining sites tested, the fragment
did cause differential replication but the level of amplification
was generally lower than normal.
The existence of position effects indicates that DNA se-
quences at the site of insertion can significantly influence the
expression of the chorion gene. The nature of this influence is
yet unknown. Further study of the interactions of genes with
their chromosomal environment will no doubt provide addi-
tional insight into the ability of the genomes of higher organ-
isms to adjust to changes in gene arrangement.
The interaction of genes with their molecular environments
is the major focus of Donald Brown's laboratory. Brown and
his colleagues are concerned with the signals that control the
differential expression of two closely related genes in a frog-
like organism called Xenopus. The two genes ("somatic 5S
RNA" and "oocyte 5S RNA") are expressed differently: in so-
matic cells (the body's nonsex cells), the somatic 5S RNA
genes are active and the oocyte 5S RNA genes are repressed.
A few years ago, Brown's group discovered the DNA signals
in and around these genes that direct the accurate initiation
and termination of RNA synthesis (Year Book 78, pp. 71-84).
Their efforts in determining the DNA signals that account for
the differences in gene expression, however, have met with
only limited success. This is because they lack an assay system
that reproduces in vitro (in the test tube) the differential gene
expression of somatic cells. Nevertheless, they have identified
and purified two of the components needed to activate 5S
RNA genes, and, as a result of experiments this year by pre-
doctoral fellow Mark Schlissel, they now have a clearer idea of
the molecular environment that represses the oocyte 5S RNA
genes in somatic cells.
Schlissel found that the somatic 5S RNA genes in the chro-
mosomes of somatic cells are programmed into normal tran-
scription complexes. The oocyte genes, on the other hand, are
repressed by structures containing a protein called histone HI.
The two physical states — activation and repression — are very
different, but each is stable and not easily converted to the
other. Furthermore, both states are maintained in the same
cell by the interaction of their respective molecules with
genes.
Currently, Brown and his colleagues are attempting to iso-
late the components of both active and repressed complexes
and to study how they interact. It appears that such com-
plexes account for a variety of developmental phenomena, in-
cluding cell differentiation. It may be, in fact, that
developmental control in general will be explained by the affin-
ity of genes for one or more specific protein factors.
A microscopic section of Drosophila oocyte (unlaid egg) showing messenger
RNA (mRNA) that codes for one of the eggshell proteins. The mRNA (black re-
gions) shows up as silver grains in the autoradiographic emulsion exposed by a
radioactive probe molecule. The probe molecule is part of a special in situ nucleic
acid hybridization technique developed by Joseph Gall and colleagues to locate
specific mRNAs in microscopic cell sections.
Tracking Gene Products. In charting the time at which
genes are turned on and off during early embryonic develop-
ment, it would be helpful to track the synthesis and accumula-
tion of specific gene products (RNAs) within the cells of a
given tissue or organ. Recently, staff member Joseph Gall and
his colleagues at Embryology have perfected a technique that
permits precise localization of RNA molecules in the nuclei
and cytoplasm of cells even when these molecules are present
at very low concentrations. The technique is a modification of
an in situ nucleic acid hybridization technique first worked out
by Gall and his student, Mary Lou Pardue, about fifteen years
ago. Basically, it involves binding a radioactive probe molecule
(either RNA or DNA) to a chromosome or other nucleic acid-
containing component of the cell and then detecting the probe
by a sensitive photographic method. Originally, the technique
worked well in localizing RNA molecules on chromosome prep-
arations, but it was difficult to apply to microscopic sections of
whole cells. By combining and modifying a variety of more or
less standard methods of cell preparations, Gall's group can
now routinely apply the technique to mark RNA molecules in
cell sections.
M
32 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Gall is also intrigued by the complex structure and function
of chromosomes in higher organisms. In fact, it is to this area
that his major efforts over the years have been directed. In
1963, for example, he helped establish the now generally ac-
cepted view that chromosomes of higher organisms, like those
of bacteria and viruses, are essentially single DNA molecules.
This year, he and his colleagues have paid particular attention
to the telomere, or end, of a chromosome. For a long time it
has been thought that the telomere must have a special struc-
ture. This is chiefly because the ends of chromosomes, in na-
ture, do not adhere to one another, whereas the ends of
chromosomes broken by x-rays or other means become
"sticky" and readily combine with other broken ends. To un-
derstand the chemical structure of the telomere, Gall and his
colleagues use a very short chromosome (20,000 nucleotides
long) from the protozoan Tetrahymena. They have made prog-
ress in defining how the composition of a telomere helps main-
tain a chromosome's linear shape. In future studies they also
hope to determine how the telomere replicates when the chro-
mosome as a whole divides.
How do Cells Organize Their Proteins? To answer large
questions in the biological sciences, investigators necessarily
focus on small problems. Gall could not hope to understand
chromosome structure by attacking the multitude of complex
chromosomes found in a human cell, for example. He had to
choose a single chromosome that was short enough and simple
enough to be manipulated by ordinary biochemical methods.
So also staff member Samuel Ward, in addressing the broad
and difficult questions about how cells differentiate, had to
choose a single, simple cell from an organism that can be ma-
nipulated easily in the laboratory. The cell he chose is the
sperm cell of the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans.
During the development of any organism from a fertilized
eggy cells become differentiated by the expression of different
genes, which produce different proteins. But cells, to become
differentiated, must also arrange these proteins in unique
ways. For example, neuron proteins are arranged to form syn-
apses; muscle cell proteins are assembled into parallel fila-
ments. In roundworms, sperm proteins must be shaped to
promote the sperm's amoeboid-like movement. What, asks
Ward, are the instructions in the roundworm's genome or in
the spermatozoa themselves that specify such specific protein
arrangements?
Since 1978, Ward and his colleagues have described the de-
velopment of C. elegans sperm and characterized mutations in
more than fifteen different genes necessary for development.
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 33
This year, in an effort to analyze protein arrangements in
spermatozoa, they have characterized several monoclonal anti-
bodies that react with sperm proteins. Because monoclonal
antibodies combine only with specific proteins, they can be
used to reveal the exact location of a protein in a cell. This is
accomplished by labeling the antibody with dyes or metals.
Ward's group found that four different antibodies react with
the same set of eight sperm proteins, which means that these
proteins must share a common antigenic domain. (An antigen
is usually a foreign substance that, when introduced into an
organism, stimulates antibody production.) Furthermore, in
collaboration with former postdoctoral fellow Tom Roberts,
now at Florida State University, they found that the locations
of the proteins are restricted to sperm membranes. This sug-
gests that the antigenic parts of these proteins might be part
of the signal that localizes the proteins to the membrane.
During sperm development, the antigenic proteins are as-
sembled in the outer membrane, forming a transient organelle
called the fibrous body. Other cytoplasmic sperm proteins are
assembled inside this organelle. The organelle is moved into
the developing sperm during development, taking the proteins
along within it. At the final stage of development, the fibrous
body disassembles, releasing its cytoplasmic proteins and
eventually inserting its membrane into the membrane of the
mature sperm. Thus, both cytoplasmic and membrane proteins
are transported to the sperm in different parts of the same
transient organelle.
The Dynamic Membrane
The structure of the cell membrane is critical in allowing
proper cell function. This ultrathin sheet of proteins and lipids
creates a separate environment within which the biochemical
processes of life can take place; it interacts with other cells to
form tissues; it attacks foreign viruses; it may even communi-
cate with the nucleus, telling it when to start and stop divid-
ing.
Because of their importance in controlling some of the vital
functions of the cell, membranes are arousing great curiosity
among biologists. At the Department of Embryology, three
staff scientists devote their efforts toward understanding how
membranes work. Martin Snider studies cell surface receptors.
Douglas Fambrough studies the mechanisms by which the cell
surface membrane proteins of nerve and muscle cells are regu-
lated. And Richard Pagano studies the little-understand role
of lipids in membrane assembly.
Membranes mediate traffic into and out of a cell. That traffic
can be quite heavy. It is known, for example, that extracellu-
34 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
lar molecules like hormones are bound to the membrane and
then moved into the cell's interior. At the same time, compo-
nents destined for the cell surface are assembled within inter-
nal organelles and then carried to the outer membrane in
small vesicles. As many as ten different membrane-bound
organelles within cells participate in the synthesis, secretion,
and internalization of surface components.
Embryology staff associate Martin Snider is interested in
the role of internal organelles in the establishment and mainte-
nance of surface properties in mammalian cells. He is particu-
larly interested in the function of cell surface receptors. These
receptors comprise a large family of glycoproteins that bind to
many different types of molecules, including metal carriers,
hormones, lipoproteins (a major source of cholesterol), and
molecules involved in cellular nutrition. Typically, each recep-
tor functions by entering the cell along with its bound mole-
cule (or ligand). Once inside, the ligand dissociates from the
receptor. It is then either used or destroyed. The receptor,
meanwhile, returns to the cell surface to repeat the cycle.
Snider is developing a technique that will enable him to de-
tect the movement of receptors inside the cell. This involves
altering receptors on the cell surface, so that they can be
acted on by various enzymes found in individual internal
organelles. If the altered receptors have been acted on by an
enzyme specific to a certain organelle, then transport to that
organelle has occurred.
This past year, he developed two assays designed to chart
the movement of surface molecules to the Golgi complex, an
organelle thought to be very important in cell traffic. Each as-
say tests for the movement of the receptor for transferrin to a
particular Golgi region. (Transferrin is the molecule by which
all mammalian cells get iron from blood circulation.) He finds
that the receptor moves from the cell surface to the distal re-
gion of the Golgi (the one closest to the cell surface), but not
to the proximal region. However, it appears that passage
through the Golgi does not occur each time the receptor enters
the cell, since the rate of receptor internalization is more rapid
than the rate of transport to the Golgi complex.
The nature of cell surface receptors also intrigues Doug
Fambrough, who in 1968 launched an effort to understand the
regulatory mechanisms governing the muscle cell surface re-
ceptors that respond to acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that
is released by motor nerve cells at nerve-muscle junctions.
The work led to the elucidation of several human neuromuscu-
lar disorders, such as myasthenia gravis, which is character-
ized by an abnormal level of receptors at neuromuscular
junctions (Year Books 72, 7U, SO).
Lysosomes
Coated \ Plasma
Endosomes vesicle \ Membrane
Intracellular organelles involved in secre-
tion and internalization (endocytosis)
within mammalian cells. Secreted products
originate in the rough endoplasmic reticu-
lum (Rough ER), pass through the Golgi
complex, and are then released at the cell
surface. Extracellular material (shown as
solid dots) is internalized by binding to
surface receptor glycoproteins (shown as
Ps), This bound material is taken into
coated vesicles, endosomes, and lyso-
somes, where it is degraded. Martin Sni-
der's finding that the bound surface
receptors can also enter the Golgi complex
establishes a connection between the or-
ganelles involved in secretion and those in-
volved in endocytosis.
Rough ER
Two years ago, Fambrough and his colleagues changed their
focus to the sodium- and potassium-ion stimulated ATPase
(known more familiarly as the sodium pump). This molecule,
found in the surface membranes of all animal cell types, per-
forms the major work of transporting sodium ions out of, and
potassium ions into, cells. The ionic gradients established as a
result of this movement are used in generating the large
transmembrane voltages characteristic of electrically excitable
cells such as neurons and muscle fibers.
Using monoclonal antibodies specific to an antigenic determi-
nant on the outside-facing part of the molecule, Fambrough
and his colleagues have mapped the distribution of sodium
pumps on several types of cells, and have begun to study the
mechanisms regulating the number of sodium pump molecules
per cell. They are also determining the sites of insertion of
new sodium pumps into the surface membranes of growing
neurons. This work may help confirm (or disprove) a major
hypothesis of nerve growth — that is, that new surface area is
added in the form of new pieces of membrane inserted at the
growing tips.
Their data so far suggest that there are several molecular
forms of the sodium pump, with different forms occurring on
different cells. To analyze the regulatory mechanisms govern-
Fluorescence micrograph of a cultured human skin cell treated
with a fluorescent analog of ceramide, a precursor of a type of
lipid called a sphingolipid. Richard Pagano and his colleagues find
that each type of fluorescent lipid, once introduced inside a cell,
labels a different collection of intracellular membranes. Ceramide
becomes localized in the Golgi complex (shown in white).
ing sodium pump action, they are currently attempting to
clone the genes encoding each subunit of the sodium pump in a
variety of cells. According to Fambrough, the results may be
relevant in understanding such human diseases as epilepsy and
hypertension.
Membrane Lipid Traffic. Meanwhile, in a laboratory down
the hall, Richard Pagano and his colleagues are asking ques-
tions about the assembly and intracellular transport of lipids.
Most scientists studying membranes focus on proteins — their
synthesis, metabolism, and transport. Proteins are relatively
large, fairly easy to manipulate, and are known to be responsi-
ble for many of the major reactions on the cell surface. Lipids,
in contrast, have generally been relegated to supporting roles.
Over the last few years, however, Pagano and a handful of
other lipid scientists have established that lipids are more than
just matrices for proteins. Instead, they are dynamic mole-
cules (some 2,000 different kinds exist) with complicated life
cycles of their own. Over the course of several years, Pagano
and his colleagues have developed a novel series of lipid ana-
logs that are chemically very similar to their natural counter-
parts. These artificial molecules, however, carry a fluorescent
"tag." Thus, they can be inserted into living cells and their
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 37
movements visualized by high-resolution fluorescence micros-
copy. Each fluorescent lipid, as it travels through the cell,
labels a different collection of intracellular membranes. Some
label only the cell surface membrane, while others label inter-
nal membranes such as the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochon-
dria, and Golgi body.
The differential transport of fluorescently tagged lipids is an
intriguing phenomenon. But does it reflect the behavior of nat-
ural lipids? And, if so, how are the labeling patterns main-
tained and regulated? This has been the thrust of Pagano's
most recent efforts. This year, he and his colleagues found
that the metabolism of both fluorescent ceramide and radiola-
beled ceramide are virtually identical. (Ceramide is an impor-
tant precursor to a lipid called sphingolipid, deficiencies in the
degradation of which are related to the onset of certain pro-
gressive degenerative diseases, such as Tay-Sachs or Nie-
mann-Pick disease.) Their results suggest that the fluorescent
tag does not affect the lipid's fate in the normal metabolic
pathway.
They have also made progress this year in determining how
lipids move across cell membranes. It appears that lipids use
different methods to enter a cell. The fluorescent analogs of
the lipids phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine,
for example, enter in different ways and move to different lo-
cations. Phosphatidylcholine moves inward by an endocytic
mechanism (i.e., it is engulfed by a fragment of the plasma
membrane). Once inside, it accumulates in the Golgi appara-
tus. Phosphatidylethanolamine, in contrast, goes right through
the membrane (i.e., it "flip-flops"), and subsequently labels the
mitochondria, nuclear envelope, and endoplasmic reticulum.
Yet another lipid, the fluorescently labeled phosphatidic acid,
enters cells in an even more remarkable manner. It does not
pass through the membrane as a whole molecule, but disas-
sembles, losing its phosphate group (in a process called de-
phosphorylation) to become diglyceride. In this form, it flip-
flops across the membrane so that it faces the interior of the
cell, where it can label internal membranes or be rephosphory-
lated back to phosphatidic acid. In the coming year, Pagano
and his colleagues hope to learn more about what controls the
intricate patterns of movement of these lipid molecules within
the living cell.
Plant Response to Stress: Coping with Extrernes
The mechanisms of membrane synthesis and transport that
Pagano, Fambrough, and Snider study are examples of the ex-
traordinarily diverse ways that cells have devised to carry out
38 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
the business of living. Such diversity is also evident in the
myriad ways that plants, which are monumental aggregates of
cells, have devised to cope with extremes in their environ-
ments. At the Department of Plant Biology, a major interdis-
ciplinary effort has been long in progress to study how plants
respond to stress. About five years ago, for instance, staff
members Olle Bjorkman and Joseph Berry noted that as the
temperature at which certain plants were growing changed
dramatically (as they do during the growing season in Death
Valley), the capacity of the plants to do photosynthesis at high
temperatures increased, while their capacity to photosynthe-
size at low temperatures declined.
This observation — that the plants have a remarkable capac-
ity to adapt to changing temperatures — might have been suffi-
cient for many ecologists, and the issue dropped. The
Carnegie physiologists, however, chose to move into the labo-
ratory. Bjorkman pursued the question of why a low tempera-
ture would decrease photosynthesis. He found that it was
related in large part to changes in the level of a particular en-
zyme in the carbon dioxide fixation pathway (Year Book 77,
pp. 262-276). Berry asked why higher temperatures increased
photosynthetic capacity; he found that the answer was related
to complex changes in the chloroplast membranes, which make
the membranes more stable at high temperatures (Year Book
77, pp. 276-283, and Year Book 78, pp. 149-152). The com-
bined study of the whole organism in the field with biochemi-
cal and biophysical study of its cellular components yielded far
more insight than either of the approaches could have pro-
duced alone.
A similar multileveled approach is currently being pursued
in a collaborative venture between members of Berry's lab and
molecular biologist Arthur Grossman. About eight years ago,
Berry and his colleagues discovered that the unicellular algae
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii could develop the capacity to
pump inorganic carbon into its cells against an opposing con-
centration gradient if carbon dioxide (C02) was deficient in its
environment (Year Book 75, pp. 423-433). In nature, this
event can occur in large lakes, where billions of algae plants
spread out in large mats just under the water's surface. C02
levels may be high at night, but during the day, when the
plants are performing photosynthesis, competition for C02
may be fierce enough to limit alga function; what is present,
however, is bicarbonate (HCO3"). Bicarbonate normally can
not pass through the membrane. But under stressful condi-
tions, this algae (and other algal species, it was later discov-
ered) can quickly transform itself to pump HC03" in past the
membrane barrier. Once inside (where it can reach a concen-
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 39
tration far beyond that present in the surrounding water), it is
converted to carbon dioxide.
Last year, John Coleman, a postdoctoral fellow working in
Berry's lab, joined forces with molecular biologist Arthur
Grossman to study the nature of the response at the cellular
level. Coleman and Grossman artificially induced the response
by transferring algae from environments high in HC03~ con-
centration to those low in HC03" concentration. The transfer
effected a dramatic biochemical change. Just outside the
plasma membrane but inside the cell wall there appeared an
enzyme (carbonic anhydrase), which they found facilitated the
HCO3" exchange reaction. This year, Grossman is investigat-
ing— on the molecular level — the precise role this enzyme
plays in the bicarbonate-concentrating mechanism.
Grossman is also pursuing similar studies on algae in envi-
ronments limited in sulfur. His preliminary results show that
plant cells exposed to environments lacking sulfur evidence
changes comparable to those induced by the HC03~ reaction.
For instance, he has found that at least one of the enzymes
involved in sulfur metabolism — an enzyme that, like carbonic
anhydrase, is found just outside the cell membrane — appears
to undergo changes much like those he noticed in carbonic an-
hydrase. Studies like these are important in understanding
plant response to stress at the biochemical level. As well, they
could lead to a general model explaining how plants respond —
at both the cellular and genetic levels — to nutrient depriva-
tion.
Photoinhibition. Olle Bjorkman has for years been fasci-
nated with the mechanisms plants devise to cope with ex-
tremes in their environment, such as extremes of light,
temperature, or dryness. Last year, this interest carried him
to Australia, where he spent six months studying the man-
groves of coastal salt marshes. Mangroves grow under condi-
tions that would kill most other plants. The temperature is
high, the light is strong, and the plants often stand in full-
strength seawater, which produces abnormally high salt con-
centrations in the leaves. Not surprisingly, the plants don't
survive unscathed. Comparing salt-stressed mangroves with
other plants growing in nonstressed sites nearby, Bjorkman
found that stressed mangrove leaves were severely damaged
by full sunlight, showing serious photoinhibition (diminished
photosynthetic capacity). High salt seemingly predisposes the
photosynthetic apparatus to photoinhibition.
To understand this phenomenon more thoroughly, Bjorkman
moved from the field to the laboratory. The greenhouses at
the Department of Plant Biology are now filled with man-
40 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
groves, and together with visiting fellow Barbara Demmig,
Bjorkman is beginning to do mechanistic studies on these
plants at the physiological and eventually the biochemical
levels.
Meanwhile, with Berry and senior fellow Dennis Greer,
Bjorkman is continuing photoinhibition studies on other plants,
such as the chilling-sensitive bean. The group has shown that
recovery from photoinhibition requires complex processes of
protein synthesis. These processes are strongly inhibited at
chilling temperatures. And, indeed, bean plants show no re-
covery from photoinhibition at temperatures less than about
15°C. The failure of the recovery system could well account, at
least partially, for the chilling sensitivity of this species.
In related studies, staff member David Fork has continued
his detailed explorations into photoinhibition in algae. He is
particularly interested in learning how algae adjust their pho-
tosynthetic apparatus to stress. How do certain algae, he
asks, dissipate excess light energy when the temperature is
too low or too high, the salt concentration too high, or in a
system depleted in calcium? (Calcium is needed for the normal
functioning of one of the two photosystems involved in photo-
synthesis.) Fork and his colleagues have developed very sensi-
tive probes for heat damage, cold damage, and for the
monitoring of energy redistribution during stress. Previously,
they demonstrated that the photosynthetic apparatus of the
red alga Porphyra perforata has at least four ways of coping
with light imbalance (Year Book 81, pp. 45-58; Year Book 82,
pp. 55-65). This year they discovered another mechanism that
algae use for coping with stress. Some algae, it appears, can
dissipate excess energy under stress, be it heat, salt, or cal-
cium depletion, through the fluorescence of a nonchlorophyll
light-gathering pigment. (Fluorescence is one of three ways
that a molecule or atom expends the excitation energy induced
by photons of light. The other two are loss through heat and
loss by the initiation of a chemical reaction. Photosynthesis oc-
curs as a result of the latter.)
Fork's studies are of importance in understanding the de-
tailed ways by which plants cope with stress at the biophysical
level. Two members of Joseph Berry's laboratory, in contrast,
are examining how plants adjust their photosynthetic appara-
tus (in this case, physiological responses which control gas-
exchange) to stressful environmental conditions at the level of
the whole plant.
Berry's colleagues — predoctoral fellow J. Timothy Ball and
postdoctoral fellow Keith Mott — have used instrumentation
developed by Ball for making very precise measurements of
gas exchange. When a leaf opens its stomatal pores to take in
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to do photosynthesis, it
Olle Bjorkman inspects Australian mangrove plants in growth
chambers at the Department of Plant Biology. He and Barbara
Demmig hope to learn how the high-salt environment of Austra-
lian marshes predisposes the plants to photoinhibition.
Plant Biology staff member David
Fork collects fluorescence spectra
for biophysical studies on stress.
42 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
simultaneously creates an opening for water loss. The regula-
tion of this gas exchange process is of critical importance to
the plant, for too much water loss can waste a limiting re-
source. Ball and Mott have succeeded in separating stomata
responses to limited water availability from those to limited
carbon dioxide. With carbon dioxide held constant, they found
that it is the relative humidity gradient from inside the leaf to
the outside, rather than the rate of water loss, that is sensed
by the mechanism controlling stomatal aperture.
Ball and Mott also examined a standing hypothesis stating
that the stomatal aperture is controlled by a constant ratio of
carbon dioxide inside the leaf to that outside. This provides a
good empirical basis to predict stomatal aperture from knowl-
edge of the biochemical responses of the leaf mesophyll. How-
ever, Ball and Mott show that this hypothesis is not correct. If
it were, it should be possible to manipulate independently the
stomata on separate sides of a leaf by imposing different C02
concentrations on each side. The two scientists show that sto-
matal responses in such experiments are inconsistent with the
constant-ratio hypothesis.
Meanwhile, Mott and Jeffrey Seemann, also in Berry's lab,
have been studying conditions under which the key enzyme in
carbon dioxide fixation — the previously mentioned ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase, or RuBP — is kept active in leaves.
In laboratory experiments, it is not possible to keep RuBP of
spinach leaves fully active under conditions thought to exist
within the photosynthetic organelle (the chloroplast), even
though photosynthesis in the intact leaf requires full activa-
tion. Mott finds, however, that the enzyme can be kept fully
activated in a more-alkaline test-tube medium (high pH).
Thus, he is currently reexamining the natural chloroplast envi-
ronment, particularly the pH.
In related work, Seemann finds that in certain other plants
(soybeans, for example), RuBP may be inactive in the dark
and will activate only when the leaves have received light.
While inactive RuBP extracted from leaves kept in darkness
responds like the spinach RuBP to high pH in the test tube, it
still does not carry out the C02 fixation reaction effectively.
Activation, at least in soybeans, must then involve some other
components not required in spinach.
The Collection of Human Embryos
Perhaps we are now ready to heed the
challenges of experimental embryologists, albeit
on our own terms. They have warned the
molecular biologist repeatedly about the
complexity of developmental phenomena and the
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 43
need to study at least whole cells and tissues, if
not the entire organism.
Donald D. Brown
1984
An understanding of how cells work, how they communicate
with one another, how the genes generate signals to the cell
membranes, and how the membranes, in turn, influence the
genes, is the goal of much of the research in biology — both in
animals and in plants — at the Carnegie Institution. Such an
understanding promises to lead to elucidation of the factors in-
volved in the development and growth of an organism, partic-
ularly in the development of the human embryo.
It was to study human embryology that the Department of
Embryology was orginally founded in 1914. By mid-century,
however, attention at the Department began to shift away
from the whole embryo to detailed studies of its component
parts — individual cells and genes. In 1973, the Department
passed its renowned human embryo collection to the Univer-
sity of California. There, at the Carnegie Laboratories of
Embryology, study of these embryos continues under the
direction of Department of Embryology research associate
Ronan O'Rahilly.
It is perhaps fitting that we close our summary of the bio-
logical sciences with a brief description of the year's research
in human embryology. As Brown expresses in the above
quote, molecular biologists can no longer remain isolated from
the complexities of development, for life is a process, and
more, a continuum of events. Nowhere is this complexity and
continuum more aptly illustrated than in a developing human
embryo.
Development of the Nervous System. Ronan O'Rahilly and
Fabiola Miiller continued their study of the developing ner-
vous system in staged human embryos. Their results on the
development of the human brain at stages 8 and 9 have ap-
peared, and they are investigating stage 10 (22 days) in em-
bryos 2.0-3.5 mm in length. Precise graphic reconstructions
are being prepared. In collaboration with Grover M. Hutchins
and G. William Moore (both of Johns Hopkins Medical School),
data relating to the first five prenatal weeks (stages 7-15)
have been filed into a computer. The data include 100 key
developmental features, and the filing method clarifies the
sequence and timing of developmental events, as well as
variations.
O'Rahilly and Miiller's detailed study of the developing hy-
poglossal nerve also appeared recently. It included an investi-
gation of the occipital somites — segmental units that become
44 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
incorporated into the base of the skull, the posterior part of
which develops like a vertebra according to Goethe's vertebral
theory of the skull. The occipital somites also give rise to the
musculature of the tongue, the origin of which was traced by
means of graphic reconstructions.
Inquiries concerning the human embryo collection, as well
as requests for publication permission, should be addressed to
Ronan O'Rahilly, Carnegie Laboratories of Embryology, Cali-
fornia Primate Research Center, Davis, California 95616.
The Physical Sciences
Purely observational science would be nothing
but data gathering, were it not directed and
integrated by a continual striving to understand
what it all means. A considerable portion of our
scientific effort is therefore theoretical,
recognizing that a healthy science is characterized
by an active interplay between theory,
observation, and experiment.
George W. Wetherill
Director, Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism
July 1984
Experimental verification and demonstration of
the complex rock-forming processes within the
earth deduced primarily from observations on the
end products, the rocks themselves, has been the
hallmark of the Geophysical Laboratory.
Hatten S. Yoder, Jr.
Director, Geophysical Laboratory
1984
Much has changed in observational astronomy
from the times of George Ellery Hale. But the
combination of intellectual rigor and curiosity
about the universe among practitioners of this
lively field remains timeless.
George W. Preston
Director, Mount Wilson and Las Campanas
Observatories
1984
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 45
The Carnegie Institution's three principal departments in
the physical sciences — the Geophysical Laboratory, the De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism (DTM), and the Mount
Wilson and Las Campanas Observatories (founded as the
Mount Wilson Observatory) — have been in continuous exis-
tence from the Institution's first decade. Over the years, the
three took leadership in separate realms — in experimental
geology, in observational astronomy, and in the remarkable
range of ventures that has marked the history of DTM.
Today, Carnegie researchers continue to work at the leading
edges of various subdisciplines of the physical sciences. But
along with this, there is unmistakable evidence of leadership
of a different kind. At the front of this essay, we took note of
a present-day trend toward synthesis in the earth sciences and
astronomy — a growing-together of the various subdisciplines,
indeed a growing-together of the earth sciences and astronomy
themselves. Carnegie Institution scientists are working — in a
number of examples — at the very forefront of this develop-
ment.
Our review of this year's work in the physical sciences will
offer many examples of linkages and crossings-over at the
level of the traditional subdiscipline. Distinctions between
"stellar" and "galactic" studies are blurring, for example, as
capabilities improve for observing individual stars and star
clusters in galaxies beyond our own. Similarly, solar and stel-
lar physics are coming together in the form of "solar-stellar
physics" — the study of nearby stars in the context of what is
known about our Sun, and vice versa — a field being pioneered
at Mount Wilson. Meanwhile at DTM and the Geophysical
Laboratory, the work of the penologists, mineralogists, and
crystallographers interested in the Earth's upper regions is
being increasingly influenced by the work of those seismolo-
gists, geochemists, and high-pressure and high-temperature
experimentalists who engage in explorations of deep-Earth
processes, which may fundamentally affect the crust. Theoreti-
cians at DTM, for example, are building a computer-based
model for the structure and behavior of the mantle, one that
brings together thermodynamics and fluid mechanics theory,
seismological data, and geochemical analyses of material raised
rapidly from the mantle.
The earth sciences and astronomy meet most directly in the
search to understand the formation of the Earth 4.5 billion
years ago within a primordial solar nebula. Our knowledge of
this event will come from — and will in turn influence — our un-
derstanding of the processes of galaxy and star formation on
the one hand and the evolution of earth and planetary interi-
ors on the other. Astronomers and earth scientists alike were
46 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
interested in the late- 1984 observations (at Carnegie's Irenee
du Pont telescope on Las Campanas) indicating the existence
of an early solar system around the nearby star p Pictoris;
further observations may greatly contribute to understanding
our own planetary system in its youth. An elegant example of
cross-disciplinary inquiry came this year in an experimental in-
vestigation at the Geophysical Laboratory. The researchers —
earth scientists by training and career — conducted experi-
ments at temperatures and pressures similar to those believed
to have existed in the solar nebula during its condensation to
form the terrestrial planets.
In one of the quotations opening this section, DTM's direc-
tor, George Wetherill, writes that a healthy science is charac-
terized by active interplay among theory, observation, and
experiment. A major stride in any of these realms must influ-
ence, and must be influenced by, continuing work in the other
two. All three realms — theory, observation, and experiment —
are manifest in the recent strengths of the Carnegie depart-
ments: the predominant emphasis is experimental at the Geo-
physical Laboratory, theoretical and observational at DTM,
observational at the Mount Wilson and Las Campanas Obser-
vatories. New techniques of research and new targets of in-
vestigation have come and gone, but the broadest common
goal linking the three — the search for understanding of the
Earth and universe — has been unchanging.
Turning Back the Cosmic Clock
As the pieces continue to come together, we
begin to appreciate that we live in a very
dynamic universe, and that the processes of
galaxy formation and evolution are still very
much in evidence more than ten billion years
after the Big Bang.
Alan Dressier
Mount Wilson and Las Campanas
Observatories
July 1984
Astronomy is unique among the sciences in that much of
nature's past is directly observable. Because light travels at a
finite speed, the information that arrives on Earth from dis-
tant objects has been in transit for millions or even billions of
years. Observations of distant galaxies thus provide a view of
the universe as it used to be, and give astronomers a valuable
means for studying how galaxies have evolved over time.
Thanks to enormous gains in the last ten years in the efficien-
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES
47
cies of electronic detectors, it is possible, but by no means
easy, to obtain spectra of galaxies up to ten billion light years
distant — more than halfway back in time to the origin of the
present universe.
Staff member Alan Dressier of the Mount Wilson and Las
Campanas Observatories, in a long-term continuing project, is
obtaining optical spectra of galaxies in distant clusters. By
comparing emission-line and absorption-line characteristics of
these galaxies — seen as they were about five billion years
ago — with those of nearby galaxies, Dressier hopes to deter-
mine whether cluster galaxies have changed in their star-
formation and nuclear-emission activity. Using an extremely
sensitive Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) system built by
James E. Gunn of Princeton, Dressier and Gunn have obtained
spectra for sixty-odd galaxies in two distant clusters. In both
clusters, there is evidence that star formation was taking
place and/or that actively emitting galactic nuclei were present
to a greater extent than in present-day galaxies. Since the dis-
tant galaxies are seen at ages only about 30 percent younger
than nearby ones, it seems likely that even greater changes
may have occurred over the full age of the universe.
Dressier, Gunn, and Donald P. Schneider of Caltech inter-
pret these observations in relation to changes to the galaxy
environments caused by the falling together of galaxies into
dense clusters. Similar environmental influences have been
further highlighted in a new study by three Observatories' sci-
Emission-line Frequency vs. Type
, , E SO Sa Sb Sc Sd,I S
1 YKL' (D) (SBa) (SBb) (SBc)
Emission-line characteristics of galaxies, from
an analysis of over a thousand nearby cluster
galaxies and noncluster galaxies, from spectra
obtained by Carnegie astronomers Alan Dressier
and Stephen Shectman at the du Pont telescope.
Relatively strong emission is seen in the central
regions of 31% of the noncluster (field) galaxies
but in only 7% of the cluster galaxies. The above
histogram illustrates that differences in morphol-
ogical types cannot fully explain this effect, as
emission-line galaxies are less frequent in cluster
galaxies of all morphological types.
48 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
entists. Dressier, research associate Ian Thompson, and staff
member Stephen Shectman show that strong star formation
and nuclear activity are four times less common in nearby
cluster galaxies than in nearby noncluster, or field, galaxies.
(Accelerated rates of star formation early in a cluster's history
will hasten the exhaustion of gas, with the result that galaxies
in clusters may reach a dormant state before field galaxies.)
Dressier concludes: "With more observations of such nearby
galaxies, relatively distant clusters, and when possible, ex-
tremely distant clusters, the relative importance of nature
versus nurture for galaxy formation will be better under-
stood."
Systematic observations of several hundred very faint, non-
cluster galaxies have been undertaken by David Koo of the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism and Richard Kron of
Yerkes Observatory. Employing the 4-meter telescope at the
Kitt Peak National Observatory, Koo and Kron (like Dressier
and Gunn) are able to obtain spectroscopic observations of
about ten faint objects simultaneously (thereby saving pre-
cious telescope time). They are observing objects as faint as
about magnitude 22.5 — ten times fainter than in any previous
survey of field galaxies. Their preliminary analyses indicate
that the rate of star formation in noncluster galaxies — as in
the cluster galaxies studied by Dressier and Gunn — was
greater in the past than now. The Koo-Kron data are also
being used to study the evolution of large-scale clustering and
regions in space largely void of galaxies.
Further clues to the evolution of galaxies are coming from
objects that emit strongly at the radio frequencies. For sev-
eral years, Rogier Windhorst at Leiden University has been
developing deep radio maps, taking advantage of the sensitiv-
ity of the Westerbork radio telescope in The Netherlands.
Windhorst collaborated in several studies with Koo and Kron,
who had been obtaining faint optical observations in areas of
the sky also of interest to Windhorst. The collaboration led to
the discovery of faint radio sources, many of which when opti-
cally identified turned out to be very blue, faint galaxies,
whose images look like those of interacting or merging galax-
ies. These faint blue galaxies appear to represent a new popu-
lation of objects, quite unlike the giant red ellipticals usually
found from bright radio sources.
Windhorst became a Carnegie Fellow at the Observatories
in early 1984. He is working to develop a technique for finding
clusters of galaxies at great distances by means of surveys
with the Westerbork telescope and the Very Large Array
(VLA) radio telescope at Socorro, New Mexico. At the faint
detection levels now obtainable at the VLA, it is possible to
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 49
locate extremely distant areas having high density of faint gal-
axies. When identified at the optical telescopes, these faint
galaxies may become useful targets for redshift measurements
as a means of determining their distances from us.
Quasar Studies. Another means of probing the early uni-
verse is the study of quasars, which are generally (though not
universally) believed to be emitters of enormous amounts of
energy from the nuclear regions of galaxies. Given their high
luminosity, many quasars can be detected beyond even ten bil-
lion light years. By studying very faint quasars, Koo and Kron
find that quasars were much more luminous in the distant past
than they are today; further — contrary to the generally ac-
cepted view — their results suggest that quasars were less nu-
merous in the early universe than now.
Although slow to yield their secrets, quasars are gradually
bowing to the persistence of investigators worldwide. Carne-
gie and Caltech astronomers, for example, in varied studies
often employing observations at Carnegie's 2.5-meter du Pont
telescope at Las Campanas, Chile, or at Caltech's 5-meter
Hale instrument at Palomar, California, are working to under-
stand quasar emission mechanisms.
Sensitive observations by Alexei Filippenko and collabora-
tors at Caltech have strengthened the idea that the weakly
emitting nuclei of certain nearby galaxies are low-luminosity
counterparts of more-distant quasars. Related studies suggest
that such nuclear activity may be present in a significant frac-
tion of all nearby galaxies, and may be the result of gas accre-
tion by black holes at the galactic centers. Meanwhile,
Carnegie's Alan Dressler's kinematical study of M31 and
M32 — two of the galaxies nearest our own — suggests the
presence of black holes (106-107 solar masses) in both. It thus
appears that a crucial element (i.e., black holes) needed for
active nuclei may be present in all galaxies and, indeed, that
many now-normal galaxies were themselves quasars in the dis-
tant past.
Earlier work by Todd Boroson of the Observatories and
J. B. Oke of Caltech showed that some quasars are sur-
rounded by a faint fuzz having the spectrum of stars — strong
evidence that quasars indeed reside in distant galaxies. Boro-
son and Oke's expanded sample of 24 objects now reveals a di-
vision into two classes. In one group, little or no emission is
seen in the fuzz; Boroson and Oke believe that a dense accre-
tion disk is absorbing the radiation emitted by the nuclear
source. In the other group, emission is seen, they argue, when
the nuclear region is surrounded by less-dense clouds, chaoti-
cally distributed and moving at high velocity; radiation from
50 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
the central source ionizes the surrounding gas.
Just as quasars seem to be declining in luminosity, galaxies,
too, in their star-forming activity, may be "running down."
Dressier writes that it is tempting to regard both decay pro-
cesses as results of the ever-decreasing supply of gas available
to galaxies — for making stars in one case and for feeding cen-
tral black holes in the other. A fuller understanding of this
connection requires greater knowledge of the gas and galaxy
densities of the early universe.
As it happens, the best way to investigate this question is
by means of quasar emissions. One group of researchers, pri-
marily from Caltech, has been examining quasar spectra to
study absorption lines caused, they believe, by material lying
between the quasars and ourselves. They suggest that heavy-
element absorption lines arise in the outskirts of intervening
galaxies, while the hydrogen absorption lines originate in in-
tervening gas clouds. Both types of absorbers — the galaxies
and the clouds — appear to have been more numerous in the
past than in recent times.
The sizes of gas clouds at different epochs can be investi-
gated by studying the spectra of close pairs of quasars to see
if they have common absorption lines, caused by a single
cloud. Several investigators using the Reticon spectrometer at
the du Pont telescope at Las Campanas recently uncovered
three quasar pairs having separations of less than one arc-min-
ute. These objects should be valuable in future probes of the
intervening gas material.
Galaxies in Collision. Until recently, interactions among
galaxies were considered to be of little importance in the
study of galaxy evolution. The huge distances between galax-
ies suggested that encounters between them are probably
rare; further, since galaxies are mostly empty space, it was
thought that even interpenetrating collisions would produce
only small changes to the configurations of the original galax-
ies.
These ideas are changing fast. Astronomers now widely be-
lieve that the initial positions and velocities of galaxies were
such that encounters have occurred far more frequently than
randomly — indeed, that galaxies may have been "born to
merge." Computer simulations have shown that the collision
and merger of gas-rich "protogalaxies" can result in the forma-
tion of new galaxies, and that such collisions are scarcely be-
nign. The gravitational fields of colliding galaxies are so vastly
altered as to disorganize completely the original forms of the
galaxies, and the compression of impacting gas clouds may
trigger huge episodes of star formation which may then domi-
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 51
nate the appearance of the product galaxy for a billion years.
Not surprisingly then, galaxies with unusual or disturbed
forms — most likely the results of recent galaxy encounters and
mergers — have become widespread targets for study. At the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Frangois Schweizer and
W. Kent Ford are continuing their observational work on col-
liding and merging galaxies, and on how certain collisions can
result in the formation of elliptical galaxies. Their work em-
ploys new digital image-enhancement techniques. Complemen-
tary numerical work by DTM postdoctoral fellow Kirk Borne
on the extensive transfer of kinetic energy of colliding galaxies
to disordered motions of the constituent stars, further predicts
that galaxy mergers are not rare.
Such insights have been refined as the result of recent work
related to merging systems by Carnegie Fellow Thomas Stei-
man-Cameron at the Observatories. Steiman-Cameron has
continued his Ph.D. studies modeling gas disks (representing
galaxies) under the influence of irregular gravitational poten-
tials. His theoretical models — the first to treat viscous forces
in a rigorous self-contained way — reveal that the settling
times for perturbed disks are much longer than those indi-
cated in earlier calculations. Steiman-Cameron concludes that
settled-disk (spiral) galaxies seen today must, in general, be
very old, and — since only a small percentage of galaxies seen
today are unsettled — that occasions where a galaxy encoun-
ters or captures a neighbor are less frequent than might
otherwise be supposed. Although it is clear that galaxy
interactions are far more important than was once believed, it
remains difficult to pin down how often mergers occur: the
average number of encounters already experienced by pres-
ently observable galaxies to date could be anywhere from one
to ten.
Galaxies having rings of gas or stars encircling the poles
rather than the galactic equator have been a favorite subject
of study for Paul Schechter at the Observatories. Schechter
believes that many such systems are results of merging galax-
ies, where the gas has yet to settle into an equatorial disk, as
Steiman-Cameron's models predict; no single line of argument
provides positive proof, but evidence continues to accumulate
in support of Schechter's view. The peculiar galaxy MCG 5-7-
1, cataloged by Halton Arp of the Observatories and Barry
Madore of the University of Toronto, is one of roughly a dozen
identified as SO galaxies with polar rings (Year Book 81, pp.
566-569; Year Book 82, pp. 627-630). Schechter and Jerome
Kristian of the Observatories and Jeremy Mould of Caltech
have obtained deep images of this object with a CCD televi-
sion-type detector on the du Pont telescope at Las Campanas.
t
Two photographs produced from a single frame of the polar-ring galaxy MCG 5-
7-1. The view at right was produced at twice the contrast of the one at left, which
also serves as frontispiece to this book. Low-surface-brightness material is distrib-
uted roughly in the shape of the main body but extends much farther from the
center. The investigators suggest that this envelope is the stellar debris from a
gas-rich galaxy disrupted in a merger with a larger SO galaxy; gas from the
smaller system then settled into the polar ring and formed a new generation of
stars.
These pictures provide detailed information about the encir-
cling ring and also reveal a faint, asymmetrical envelope
extending well beyond the main body of the galaxy. The
investigators offer the hypothesis that this system is the prod-
uct of a merger between an SO galaxy and a smaller gas-rich
galaxy, that the smaller system was tidally disrupted, and
that its stellar debris spread out to form the faint envelope.
Gas from the smaller system then settled into the observed
ring and formed a new generation of stars.
Schweizer at DTM strongly agrees that the polar ring con-
figuration is a likely consequence of galactic collision. He and
Bradley Whitmore — a former fellow at DTM now at the Space
Telescope Science Institute — are using a number of such gal-
axies as dynamical probes of the nonluminous region outside
the visible spiral disk. The stars of the polar ring are "test
particles" — used by the investigators to measure the gravity
field perpendicular to the plane of the disk. The measurements
show that the "missing mass"
evidenced in earlier DTM stud-
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 53
ies of spiral-galaxy dynamics is distributed more nearly spheri-
cally than flat, and is comparable to the mass of the visible
disk itself.
Evidence that galaxy interactions play a major role in star
formation has come from the Infrared Astronomical Satellite,
IRAS. Because galaxies with very vigorous star formation re-
lease at least as much energy in the far infrared as in the opti-
cal, IRAS has provided a means to identify galaxies having
either unusually vigorous star formation or active nuclei. Var-
ious investigators including Eric Persson of the Observatories
have made follow-up spectroscopic observations of IRAS
sources at the Hale telescope at Palomar. They have detected
optical emission lines that, in the vast majority of cases, indi-
cate enormous amounts of star formation, thus ruling out very
active galactic nuclei as the cause of the intense emissions.
Star-formation rates as high as 400 solar masses per year have
been found — about 100 times that of the galaxy M82, which
from other evidence is believed to be undergoing a strong epi-
sode of star formation, and 400 times that of the Milky Way.
Furthermore, CarolJ. Lonsdale of Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Keith Matthews of Caltech, and Persson have found that many
of the galaxies identified by IRAS are interacting pairs — a re-
sult supporting the suspicion that interactions trigger bursts
of star formation. Still other infrared observations with the
Hale telescope of known interacting galaxies point to the same
result.
Today's students of the distant realms live in an exciting
time. Their ability to observe very faint, very distant objects,
along with the vastly improved capabilities at the radio and
infrared wavelengths, are enabling astronomers to assemble a
picture of an evolving universe — a universe still very much in
the process of change. In this picture, the galaxies are not iso-
lated islands but instead interact with one another, altering
their own forms and changing the large-scale structure of the
universe. We next turn to a parallel development in astron-
omy— how new capabilities for studying objects closer to our-
selves (nearby galaxies, star clusters, and regions of star
formation, for example) are bringing fresh understanding of
how stars, and the galaxies which they largely define, are
formed and evolve.
How Stars and Galaxies Form: Challenges to Past Views?
More than fifty years have passed since the confirmation by
Edwin Hubble at Mount Wilson that many of the "nebulae" —
fuzzy patches of light faintly visible with telescopes of moder-
ate power — were in reality systems of stars beyond our own
54 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Milky Way Galaxy. Later, Hubble and colleague Milton Huma-
son showed that these galaxies were moving away from one
another at speeds proportional to their distances.
Since Hubble's time, galactic astronomers, favored by ever
more powerful telescopes and by superior observing sites like
those in Chile, have looked deeper and deeper into the uni-
verse, with ever-finer detail. Galaxies have been widely ana-
lyzed, and the distance-time relation of Hubble's expanding
universe has been thoroughly reevaluated. (Allan Sandage,
whose career at Mount Wilson overlapped with Hubble's, now
calculates the time since the start of the universe's expansion
to be about 18 billion years — about ten times more than the
value first calculated by Hubble.)
Meanwhile, stellar astronomers continued along the paths
opened late in the 19th century with the invention of the spec-
trograph. By breaking the light from individual stars of our
Galaxy into its component wavelengths and by studying the
resulting spectra, these scholars have come to understand the
life histories of many typical stars.
The spectrograph^ methods that were the life's blood of the
stellar astronomers, however, were of limited use in observing
other galaxies. Although it was possible to obtain spectra
across a whole galaxy, the resolution and light-gathering
power of telescopes were insufficient to permit spectrograph^
measurements of individual stars and star clusters in external
galaxies. It has been simply impossible to study stars in other
galaxies with anything like the detail possible in studying the
Milky Way. Partly for this reason, stellar and galactic astron-
omy have remained largely separate subdisciplines, and basic
understanding of how galaxies form and evolve has been slow
in coming.
Today, new electronic detectors, like the Reticon and
Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) systems designed and built by
Carnegie Institution's Stephen Shectman, mounted on the
spectrographs of the larger telescopes, permit spectrograph^
observations of individual stars in the globular clusters of our
Galaxy and integrated spectra of globular clusters in nearby
galaxies. Varied data can thus be acquired on the chemical
compositions, structures, and internal motions of the globu-
lar s.
Globular Cluster Studies. The globular clusters are like fos-
sils. Many of these spheroidal collections of stars are as old as
(or, perhaps, older than) the galaxies in which they reside. In
their spectral lines are records of the proportions of the heavy
elements — carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and iron — present at the
time and place of globular (and galaxy) formation. Globular
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES
cluster ages can be estimated from the colors and magnitudes
of their stars (Year Book 82, pp. 619-624). Knowing chemical
abundances and ages of a nearby galaxy's globulars, then, as-
tronomers can attempt to trace the chemical-enrichment his-
tory of the galaxy and its ancestral material. From
observations of globular cluster populations in several galax-
ies, then, it is possible to explore correlations linking differ-
ences in the globular populations with other galactic
properties.
An ultimate goal of such investigations is to revise existing
models of galaxy formation and evolution. The generally ac-
cepted view, now under serious challenge, has been that a
typical galaxy was formed from a large cloud of gas and dust
which underwent a single gradual collapse under its own
weight.
Leonard Searle of the Mount Wilson and Las Campanas Ob-
servatories has undertaken a long-term investigation of the
chemical-enrichment history of galaxies in our Local Group.
Several years ago, Searle and Robert Zinn of Yale University
measured "metal abundances" — i.e., composition in elements
heavier than helium and hydrogen — in globulars of our Galaxy
(Year Book 76, pp. 144-145). They found a bimodal distribu-
tion, as follows. Metal-poor globulars, a tenfold majority, oc-
cupy a vast and relatively thinly populated sphere, or "halo,"
outside the disk and nuclear bulge of the Galaxy; the rarer,
metal-rich globulars reside close to the Galactic center. Searle
found little or no evidence, however, that metal abundance
varies smoothly as a function of distance from the Galactic
center. This result failed to support the old view that when
the primordial cloud gradually collapsed, metal abundance in
stars gradually increased; instead, it suggested that the col-
lapse may have been episodic or even chaotic, the metal-rich
globulars perhaps forming in a separate event.
New measurements by Allan Sandage and volunteer re-
search assistant Paul Roques have now shown that at least
one of these metal-rich globulars, NGC 6171, is as old as the
metal-poor systems — about 17 billion years — and therefore
was not formed in a separate event. Thus, it seems possible
that all the globular clusters in our Galaxy may have formed
very early in the Galaxy's history. Such evolution is to be con-
trasted with that of a nearby galaxy, the Large Magellanic
Cloud (LMC), where Searle and Horace Smith, a former Car-
negie Fellow now at Michigan State University, found many
globular clusters that formed as recently as a few billion years
ago (Year Book 80, pp. 608-610).
It seems clear that galaxies can differ greatly in their chem-
ical-enrichment histories. Our Milky Way, a typical galaxy in
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THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 57
size, mass, and luminosity, appears to have reached a metal
abundance near the present (solar) value in the first 1-2 billion
years of its 18-billion-year lifetime, while the smaller LMC re-
mained very metal poor until a few billion years ago. This dif-
ference may simply reflect the longer time required for
collapse and formation of the less-dense LMC system. On the
other hand, Searle's data clearly show that old globulars do
exist in the LMC, and that some are probably as old as any in
our Galaxy. The LMC therefore must have formed at about
the same time as our Galaxy, but it experienced a vigorous
episode of star formation only five billion years ago.
Applying such methods to the study of other nearby galax-
ies promises to show how star formation and chemical enrich-
ment proceeded in galaxies of varied mass and size. In Year
Book 82 (pp. 622-624), Searle presented the results of a pho-
tometric study of 100 globular clusters in M31, a large nearby
spiral galaxy similar to our own. Searle found that nearly all
the globulars in M31 are old systems like the globulars of our
Galaxy, unlike the many young clusters in the Magellanic
Clouds. This result provides further evidence that relatively
large galaxies like our own, early in their histories, experi-
enced large amounts of star formation and accompanying syn-
thesis of heavy elements, thereby raising average metal
abundance to the present values. The process appears to have
been even more pronounced in M31: a third of the globular
clusters in M31 are metal rich contrasted with only a tenth in
our Galaxy.
This year Searle and colleagues completed a spectroscopic
study to determine the motions of these same M31 globulars,
in hopes of exploring correlations between motions and chemi-
cal composition. The observations were obtained by Searle and
Stephen Shectman using Shectman's Reticon detector on the
Cassegrain spectrograph of the Palomar 5-meter telescope; the
observations have been analyzed by Peter Stetson, a recent
Carnegie Fellow, now at the Dominion Astrophysical Observa-
tory.
Again, the data fail to fit the old view of a slow, dissipative
collapse. The old model predicts that a collection of collapsing
metal-rich clusters will rotate more rapidly about the symme-
try axis of the galaxy than will a subset of (noncollapsing)
metal-poor clusters, since the spin of a collapsing system in-
creases, as a skater's spin increases upon drawing in his or her
outstretched arms. The investigators found, on the contrary,
that the rotational properties of the clusters were independent
of metal abundance. The mean rotational velocity, the velocity
dispersion, and the fraction of clusters in backward motion,
are not significantly different for subsets of metal-rich and
58 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
metal-poor clusters.
The result clearly conflicts with the standard picture, and
tends to support an alternative view, urged in recent years,
that such clusters were formed in the dense and dynamically
stable disks of preexisting "protogalaxies." If so, most of the
galaxies we observe today could be secondary structures
formed by the collisions and mergers of the protogalaxies.
Stars and clusters of the earlier protogalaxies would thus com-
pose the halos of today's systems like M31 and the Milky Way.
Evidence from Observations of Noncluster Stars. Globular
clusters are particularly good tools for studying the star-for-
mation histories of galaxies because globulars are bright and
can be age-dated. On the other hand, there are relatively few
of them in any given galaxy, and it is uncertain exactly how
their evolution parallels that of a galaxy's vastly more numer-
ous noncluster stars. Therefore, measurements of motions and
metal abundances of single stars are a necessary complement
to the globular cluster studies.
In a famous paper in Astrophysical Journal in 1963, Allan
Sandage, Donald Lynden-Bell, and Olin Eggen presented re-
sults of a study of noncluster stars in the halo of our Galaxy.
Their data showed that most metal-poor stars have very large
velocities perpendicular to the plane of the Galaxy; these mo-
tions serve to carry them high into the halo. On the other
hand, no metal-rich stars were found with such high veloci-
ties— a result indicating that these stars are largely confined
to the Galaxy's plane.
Now, Sandage and research assistant Gary Fouts, working
with the Reticon spectrometer on the Mount Wilson 2.5-meter
Hooker telescope, have obtained 4000 radial velocity measure-
ments of 1000 noncluster stars, thereby quadrupling the size
of the 1963 sample. The new data confirm the old result — that
no stars with high metal abundance are found in the halo. Al-
though this circumstance was once taken as evidence that the
Galaxy collapsed from a large gas cloud with steadily increas-
ing metal abundance and flatness (a view contradicted in
Searle's research, described above), the data could fit other
scenarios. Halo stars could have been scattered into a spheroi-
dal distribution after forming in a metal-poor disk, for exam-
ple, or the halo could have resulted from a merger of two or
more metal-poor protogalaxies. The more-metallic disk stars
would then have followed. The new data of Sandage and Fouts
are important constraints for the builders of galaxy models.
R. Michael Rich, a Caltech graduate student, has been mea-
suring the motions and metal abundances of K-giant stars in
the densely populated nuclear bulge of our Galaxy, using the
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 59
2.5-meter du Pont telescope at Las Campanas. Rich has found
that although the integrated spectrum of this central region of
the Galaxy appears to be metal rich, a star-by-star investiga-
tion reveals that at least a fourth of the 62 stars he studied
have metal abundances as low as one-tenth solar. The old con-
cept of a slowly collapsing gas cloud argues that only metal-
rich stars should be encountered; thus the new data appear to
feed the concept of a more complex history involving at least
two generations of stars and/or mergers of distinct subsys-
tems.
Las Campanas Fellow Nicholas Suntzeff has been continuing
his investigations into the chemical composition of the nearby
satellite galaxies of the Milky Way. Working in collaboration
with Robert P. Kraft of Lick Observatory, Marc Aaronson of
Steward Observatory, and Edward Olszewski of Dominion As-
trophysical Observatory, Suntzeff has obtained spectra of
eleven K-giant stars in the Ursa Minor dwarf elliptical galaxy.
Analysis of these spectra has shown that the metal abundance
is very low in Ursa Minor, at most one-hundredth solar, in
keeping with theoretical expectations that lower-mass galaxies
are less efficient at making, or are less able to retain, the
metal-enriched gas from which new stars will form. In collabo-
ration with Kraft and John Graham, Suntzeff has begun to
measure the metal abundances of giant stars in the Magellanic
Clouds. The results should provide interesting comparisons
with the previously studied abundances of globular clusters in
the Clouds.
New Insights from Spectra of Spirals. Galactic astronomers
at DTM have applied other tools to questions of star (and gal-
axy) formation. For several years, Vera Rubin and W. Kent
Ford have been obtaining optical spectra for use in determin-
ing the rotational velocities and mass distributions of spiral
galaxies, and in correlating these properties with galaxy lumi-
nosity, galaxy type, and other variables. Now, in collaboration
with former postdoctoral fellow Bradley Whitmore, Rubin and
Ford have used the identical spectra to study variations in
chemical properties within and among spiral galaxies. They
find that the nitrogen-to-sulfur ratio increases with galaxy lu-
minosity; in the most luminous galaxies sampled, the ratio is
higher by a factor of four than in the least luminous galaxies.
This difference is likely to be related to differences in the star-
formation histories of the galaxies, since nitrogen and sulfur
are produced in very different types of stars.
The Question of Binary Stars. The near absence of binary,
or double, stars in the ancient star population raises the con-
60 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
cept that ancient stars may have formed in conditions very dif-
ferent from those of more-recent star formation. (Among
younger stars, double stars are the rule rather than the excep-
tion.) Theoretical studies of such questions, including work by
Alan Boss at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, have
shown that the formation of single rather than multiple stars
is sensitive to the details of how angular momentum is redis-
tributed during the gravitational collapse of the material des-
tined to form the star. It is possible that these details were
different early in the history of the Galaxy. However, new
work by DTM postdoctoral fellow Linda Stryker and her col-
laborators at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory contra-
dicts the view that double stars were rare in the ancient
population. The result makes it somewhat less likely that the
processes of star formation were significantly different in the
ancient Galaxy, and a potentially misleading false constraint
on the history of star formation in our Galaxy has been re-
moved.
Infrared Observations of Young Stars in Molecular Clouds
Such a mass, when it began to shine, would be
red and of low surface brightness but of very low
density and great surface so that its total light
emission would be large. As it contracted it
would grow smaller, hotter, whiter, and increase
in surface brightness so that its light-emission
would not change much.
Henry Norris Russell
Princeton University
1913
Scholars in the 19th century had already recognized that
contraction of a self-gravitating mass could produce a star, and
in 1913 Henry Norris Russell at Princeton speculated, as in
the above quotation, about what might be observed in the
early stages of star formation. Russell failed in his attempt to
identify such embryonic stars among those in the temperature-
luminosity diagram that now bears his name, however, and no
one knew how to go about looking for them.
Alfred Joy of Carnegie Institution's Mount Wilson Observa-
tory provided an important clue in 1945, when he called atten-
tion to a remarkable group of stars inhabiting the environs of
a dark cloud of obscuring material in the constellation Taurus.
The spectra of these stars were vaguely solar-like but were
overlain by bright emission lines of common elements that
could only be produced by large volumes of gas. George Her-
big at the Lick Observatory later showed that such stars,
DTM astronomers Vera Rubin and David Koo, with Alan
Dressier of the Mount Wilson and Las Campanas Observatories,
following Dressler's seminar in the DTM library, May 1984.
called T Tauri stars after the archetype, abound in or near all
dark clouds in the Galaxy. Herbig argued persuasively that
the T Tauris are very young objects (106 years old) in the late
stages of gravitational contraction, i.e., new stars. However,
the line-emitting regions of these bodies are not the contract-
ing spheres envisioned by Russell. Instead they are expand-
ing— driven by physical forces still the subject for reasoned
speculation.
Infrared astronomers, probing the interiors of the dark mo-
lecular clouds at longer wavelengths, have discovered hotter,
more-massive counterparts of the T Tauri stars. Carnegie as-
tronomer Eric Persson explains that as these "young stellar
objects," or YSOs, migrate from their inner-cloud birthplaces,
they ionize and energetically illuminate surrounding regions
(like the spectacular nebula of Orion), ultimately to explode as
Type II supernovae. Many questions are yet unanswered —
what fraction of a molecular cloud eventually becomes turned
into YSOs, for example, and whether the shock waves pro-
duced by them speed up or disrupt further star formation.
Answers are slow to come, as the number of such stars in the
birth process is small, and they are typically buried in the par-
ent clouds where observations at the optical wavelengths are
impossible.
Needed are observations of temperatures, densities, veloci-
ties, and other conditions in regions close to the central
sources themselves. Infrared photometric and spectroscopic
data have been scarce. The advent of CCD cameras and spec-
trometers that are extremely sensitive in the red, however,
62 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
sharply changes the situation. During the past year, for exam-
ple, Persson and Carnegie fellow Peter McGregor obtained
high signal-to-noise optical spectra of a dozen YSOs deeply
embedded in dust. They employed the Palomar 5-meter tele-
scope with the double spectrograph to cover (1) a broad wave-
length band reaching into the infrared at low resolution and
(2) a narrow band at high resolution.
Persson notes that the YSOs have provided many surprises.
One of the most remarkable (obtained at radio wavelengths) is
that surrounding cloud material is pushed away from the YSO
in an outflowing wind. The geometry of the outflow is bipolar,
as if two back-to-back nozzles were spewing material away
from a small region centered on the star. Meanwhile, slowly
rotating disks of molecular gas have been detected around a
few YSOs; these may serve to confine and direct the mass out-
flow. As would be expected, the axes of disk rotation line up
well with the direction of the outflow. The amount of material
in the outflow typically amounts to several solar masses; veloc-
ities of several tens of kilometers per second are typical. By
stellar standards, the mass flux is extremely energetic and ap-
pears to require an extremely powerful driving source at the
center. It is intriguing to note that the overall geometry re-
sembles that seen in the expulsion of gas from the nuclei of
certain galaxies to form double radio sources, although the
size and energy scales differ by many orders of magnitude.
Persson and McGregor's picture of a strong central source, a
shielding disk of about 1 Astronomical Unit (1 A.U. = the dis-
tance of the Earth's orbit from the Sun), and a massive sur-
rounding envelope lightly emitting in the infrared, is
supported by their detailed analysis of YSO spectra. The
spectrum of each YSO broadly resembles the others despite
wide apparent differences in the evolutionary states of the
YSOs; all exhibit strong H I, Ca II, and 0 I emission lines — a
signature similar to that of T Tauri stars. The hydrogen lines
provide information on the generation of the outflowing wind
at the central source; the line widths indicate outflow velocity,
line strengths indicate outflow mass. Together, the velocity
and mass measurements represent the expelling force avail-
able in the ionized regions of the central sources.
It appears, however, that the outputs of the ionized central
region are many times insufficient to drive the molecular out-
flow. Evidently, the outflow continues to be accelerated in re-
gions beyond the ionized zone. The extent of the acceleration
zone and the possible link to the shedding of angular momen-
tum in the emission region and surrounding envelope are the
next challenges in the study of these objects. Detailed under-
standing of the motions will require knowledge of the shapes
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 63
of the emission lines, interpreted with the aid of computer
models that explain the transfer of energy through the sys-
tem.
Solar-Stellar Research at Mount Wilson
The attack is along three converging lines,
involving the study of the Sun as a typical star;
the study of stars and nebulae and of their
relationship to the Sun and to one another; and
the interpretation of both solar and stellar
phenomena by means of carefully chosen
laboratory experiments.
George Ellery Hale
Director, Mount Wilson Observatory
Year Book 5
Strong in the leadership of George Ellery Hale was the idea
that the study of the Sun was inextricable from study of the
stars. The work of Carnegie astronomer Olin Wilson in the
1950s and early 1960s, in demonstrating that certain stars had
long-term magnetic cycles like the Sun's, paved the way for
the Institution's present leadership in "solar-stellar" studies.
Favored by the availability of excellent observing facilities at
Mount Wilson, regular observations of chromospheric activity
in 91 selected stars were begun six years ago at the Mount
Wilson 60-inch telescope. By observing periodicity in the rise
and fall of a star's chromospheric emissions (the H and K
lines) as active, or "starspot," regions rotated into and out of
an observer's field of view, the investigators expected to see
direct evidence of the star's rotation.
Rotational modulation was indeed detected in many stars,
and a further relation linking the mean level of HK flux with
rate of rotation was developed for more-general application.
At present, the investigators — research associate Douglas
Duncan and staff associate Arthur Vaughan of the Mount Wil-
son and Las Campanas Observatories, and colleagues at the
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and the Lowell
Observatory — continue to monitor the long-term HK cycles in
the selected star population. But in addition, as seen in this
year's work, the venture has led to a flow of other results
scarcely anticipated at the outset.
George Preston, director of the Mount Wilson and Las Cam-
panas Observatories, attributes the group's successes in part
to three circumstances — the broad participation of scientists
64 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
from several institutions, the capabilities of the chromospheric
spectrometer designed by Vaughan for the venture, and the
assurance of sustained support. The effort complements the
long-range program of observation at the Mount Wilson solar
telescopes and provides an excellent example of the coming
together of two branches of astronomy.
Rotations in Hyades Dwarf Stars. Since all the stars in the
early HK investigations were solar-like, the investigators
could neglect differences in stellar convection — the circulation
of heat and material in an extensive region beneath the star's
visible surface. For extending relationships to other types of
stars, however, Duncan and Vaughan in Year Book 82 (pp.
607-608) suggested that a star's chromospheric activity level
(its HK flux) varied not with the star's rotation period alone
but rather with the ratio of the rotation period to the star's
convective zone turnover time. This year, Duncan and
Vaughan, in collaboration with Richard Radick of Sacramento
Peak Observatory and Wes Lockwood and others of Lowell
Observatory, began a test of this relation. Observing nine
Hyades dwarfs (nonsolar-like), the investigators at Lowell de-
termined rotational periods by monitoring changes in optical
light from the star's visible surface, or photosphere. These
values were compared with predictions of rotational rate made
from HK measurements at Mount Wilson. Agreement between
the predicted and measured Hyades rotational rates was gen-
erally good, but the predicted periods tended to be slightly
low.
In accounting for the discrepancy, the investigators noted
that Hyades stars are on average more metal rich than are the
nearby, solar-type stars studied earlier. The Hyades convec-
tion zones thus should be slightly deeper and the turnover
times longer, necessitating an adjustment to the simple HK
flux-rotation conversion; in short, the discrepancy tended to
confirm the relation suggested in Year Book 82. (No estimates
have been made, however, in assessing the magnitude of the
effect.) In addition, both photospheric and chromospheric mea-
surements of flux showed that, as in the case of the Sun,
"starspots" reduce a star's luminous output but on a much
larger scale; how the missing radiant energy can be stored in
stellar envelopes is not known.
It appears that the broadband photometric method used in
the Lowell Hyades observations is the most efficient way of
detecting rotational modulation in young, heavily spotted
stars, while the HK spectrophotometry used at Mount Wilson
is more efficient for stars older than about 109 years. To their
mutual advantage, the Mount Wilson and Lowell groups have
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 65
compared mathematical techniques for extracting periodic phe-
nomena from noisy observations. Collaboration will continue
through winter .1984-1985, when observations at Lowell — ex-
tended to cooler stars than have been heretofore studied — will
permit a test of HK prediction in a new regime.
Differential Rotation in Stars. The fact that the Sun rotates
faster at its equator than at its poles first led former Observa-
tories' director Horace Babcock to suggest that shear is the
dynamical mechanism that amplifies solar magnetic fields and
gives rise to the Sun's 11-year "sunspot" cycle of magnetic ac-
tivity. In Year Book 81 (p. 611), Vaughan and Duncan re-
ported variations in HK flux for the star HD 149661 that could
have arisen from the beating of two slightly different frequen-
cies. It seemed possible that the observers were detecting two
strong areas of chromospheric activity, located at two differ-
ent latitudes having different periods of rotation. Now, HK
observations have provided strong evidence of differential ro-
tation in nine additional stars.
In most cases, data from a single season are insufficient to
distinguish unambiguously between differential rotation and
the evolution of active regions. Observations over several sea-
sons, however, may strengthen evidence favoring the former.
Star HD 190406, for example, has an apparent 2.6-year mag-
netic activity cycle; if, as has been observed in the Sun {Year
Book 81, pp. 596-599), the sites of magnetic activity gradually
move during the activity cycle to a different latitude with a
different rotational velocity, then the observer should detect a
gradual increase in rotation period. This has indeed been ob-
served in HD 190406. Further, in the third observing season,
a fresh period equal to that of the first season was detected,
presumably caused by renewed magnetic activity at the origi-
nal latitude, a phenomenon also seen on the Sun.
Solar-Stellar Seismology. Like seismic waves within the
Earth, seismic waves travel through the Sun and are reflected
at various boundaries; some oscillations appear to traverse re-
gions as deep as the Sun's center. Duncan, in collaboration
with Robert Noyes, Sallie Baliunas, and others at the Harvard-
Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, has begun a search for
counterparts of the Sun's "five-minute oscillations" in stars.
Observing e Eridini, a K2 dwarf star cooler and less massive
than the Sun, the investigators obtained one-minute HK inte-
grations at short intervals over a period of about six hours;
several such six-hour sets were obtained. They detected a
number of low-amplitude spectral peaks spaced at about 86
and 172 jjlHz. The 172-(jlHz spacing, which should approximate
66
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
the reciprocal of the travel time through the star, agrees well
with theoretical predictions for a star of e Eridini's size. The
peak power occurs for periods near ten minutes, correcting
the predicted duration of about four minutes for a star of this
type. The early success of this line of investigation is most
encouraging.
Rotation in Red Giants. Preston writes that perhaps the
year's most exciting event in solar-stellar physics is the first-
ever determination of the rotation period in red giant stars.
Duncan and colleagues report evidence for rotational modula-
tion in 20 of the 50 giants under systematic observation. When
a sufficient number of periods have been established, statisti-
cal comparison of the rotations of giants with those of their
main-sequence progenitors will provide the first means for de-
scribing how angular momentum is redistributed within stars
during post-main-sequence evolution. This knowledge in turn
should aid in refining models used to predict subsequent im-
portant phases of stellar evolution.
0.4
X
a>
"D
.E 0.3
x
CO
0.2
-| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
-i — i — r — r
r Tau
-t +
-&
+ + +% +
+
&
j i i i i i i i i i_
1600 1650 1700 1750
Julian Day - 2,444,000
1800
Rotation in the red giant star 7 Tau is revealed in this plot of HK flux vs. date.
The periodicity of about five months results from rotation of the star, whereby
regions of greater and lesser HK activity are carried into and out of the observ-
er's field of view. The detection of rotational modulation in twenty red giant stars
this year is the year's most significant result in solar-stellar research at Mount
Wilson.
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 67
Formation of the Sun and Solar System
A central theoretical question, occupying a middle ground
between astronomy and the earth sciences, is how a single
star can be formed with a planetary system like our own.
To some extent everything in the universe is rotating.
When an interstellar cloud of dust and gas becomes sufficiently
dense to begin collapsing under its own weight, its spin in-
creases as it contracts, like the familiar skater. At some rate
of rotation, the self-gravity of the cloud will no longer with-
stand the centrifugal force tending to tear the cloud apart.
The cloud will then fragment, leading to a number of sub-
clouds which can continue to collapse until once more their
rotation causes fragmentation.
The process must be in some way related to the observation
that new stars are usually formed in large groups, for example
in the region of the Great Orion Nebula in our Galaxy. There
is difficulty, however, in understanding how the continuing
fragmentation stops. (If it did not stop, single stars like the
Sun could not form.) Somehow, angular momentum must be
removed from the contracting star and be transferred to the
dust and gas surrounding it.
A fashionable way to explain single-star formation, writes
DTM's George Wetherill, is by calling upon turbulent motion
in the collapsing cloud to transfer the necessary angular mo-
mentum. This may be the way it happens, he continues, but
there is no strong theoretical reason to believe that the neces-
sary turbulence actually occurs; indeed, the rapid motions
associated with turbulence could preclude the formation and
growth of planetesimal bodies like those that formed the plan-
ets of our solar system.
Alan Boss at DTM has been carrying out theoretical and
numerical studies of star formation, including the first fully
three-dimensional study of the collapse and heating of a rotat-
ing cloud. His three-dimensional work incorporates the pres-
ence of asymmetries — the barlike structures observed in some
irregular objects, for example — that are precluded by the arti-
ficial symmetry assumed in simpler calculations. His results
show that these asymmetries are able to transfer angular mo-
mentum by gravitational forces, even in the absence of turbu-
lence. If in fact this was a significant mechanism during the
formation of our solar system, then the solar nebula — the flat-
tening disk which rotated about the very early Sun and from
which the planets formed — could have been relatively cool and
quiescent.
68 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Meteorites as Windows on the Early Solar System. Most
meteorites are derived from small asteroidal bodies that have
not been altered by the active geological processes of a planet
like the Earth. Meteorites, therefore, are believed to be a
prime source of detailed evidence about the solar nebula and
the early solar system.
Past discussions have been dominated by the concept of a
high-temperature solar nebula — one hot enough to have vapor-
ized all preexisting interstellar grains. But even a moderately
turbulent solar nebula would be relatively cool and capable of
vaporizing only the more volatile components of interstellar
grains. Studies of meteorite material in recent years by iso-
tope geochemists provide widespread evidence of isotopic het-
erogeneity, a result compatible with the concept of a cool solar
nebula. The observed isotopic data vary over a wide range,
and it seems likely that they will be explained by a complex
model of only partly homogenized interstellar material within
the solar nebula.
During the past year, James R. Ray, research associate at
DTM, has developed theoretical treatments attempting to ex-
plain the presence of oxygen isotope anomalies and the com-
plex mixture of isotope variations (the "FUN" anomalies)
found only in special inclusions of the Allende carbonaceous
meteorite. Meanwhile, DTM staff members Typhoon Lee and
Fouad Tera completed a search for a third class of anomaly —
one produced by the decay of now-extinct radioactive nuclei,
in this case the radioisotope 53Mn (2-million-year half-life).
Earlier work on the problem was discussed in Year Book 82
(pp. 541-544). Lee and Tera have now increased the sensitiv-
ity of their search by a factor of 200, but they still have not
found evidence for the existence of 53Mn in the early solar sys-
tem. The result is puzzling in view of the relatively high abun-
dance at that time of the shorter-lived isotope 26A1, and it
rules out some astrophysical models for the formation of 26A1
because they require quantities of 53Mn greater than those
observed.
A difficulty in making full use of meteoritic data has been in
identifying the immediate sources of these fragments. In the
past few years, it has become clear that a few rare meteorites
are fragments of the Moon, while others were probably
ejected from Mars by giant impacts. Problems remain, how-
ever, in identifying sources of the most abundant class of
stony meteorite, the "ordinary chondrites." It has become in-
creasingly clear that the source of these meteorites is some-
where in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter. But during the last few years, other evidence has
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 69
been obtained denning the general orbits of these meteorites
when they impact the Earth, and it has not been possible to
show how asteroidal sources could produce the required
orbital distribution.
The question has been greatly clarified by the recent work
of Jack Wisdom at the University of California, Santa Bar-
bara. Wisdom found that asteroidal material entering a narrow
range of the asteroid belt 2.5 A.U. from the Sun will be sub-
ject to large and chaotic orbital changes. This behavior is the
result of resonance with the motion of Jupiter. (An object at
2.5 A.U. will make three revolutions about the Sun in the
same time interval required for Jupiter to make one.) This
resonance condition has been known for a long time, but not
until the work of Wisdom was it known that such extreme
orbital changes would result.
During the past year, George Wetherill has pursued in de-
tail the implications of Wisdom's discovery for understanding
the source of the ordinary chondrite meteorites. Wetherill
found that the chaotic orbits evolve in just the right way to
provide asteroidal fragments matching very well the observed
distribution of meteorite orbits. The total mass and number of
meteorites striking the Earth also agree with the mass and
number expected from the 2.5-A.U. source. Moreover, the
resonance mechanism explains in a natural way the relation-
ship between the larger (ca. 1-kilometer-diameter) Earth-
approaching Apollo Objects and the smaller meteoritic frag-
ments. Wetherill writes: "It now seems very likely that the
ordinary chondrites are fragments of a few large asteroids
near 2.5 A.U., as well as fragments of their retinue of smaller
asteroids produced by mutual asteroidal collisions."
Conditions in the Primitive Solar System. In an innovative
new program, termed condensation petrology, workers at the
Geophysical Laboratory are subjecting materials representa-
tive of the early solar system to laboratory conditions simulat-
ing those in the solar nebula during planetary formation.
Meteorites offer evidence of processes occurring during
early stages of solar system formation. Some contain chon-
drules — small (about 1-millimeter) bodies of crystalline mate-
rial, which may have formed initially as molten droplets by
direct condensation in the solar nebula. Other meteorite mate-
rials lacking chondrules may have crystallized directly from a
gas phase; i.e., they solidified without passing through a liquid
state. The possible pressure conditions accompanying these
processes have never been investigated experimentally.
The new venture involves study of the triple-point condi-
tions for the major meteoritic minerals (i.e., the pressure
70 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
above which a mineral will proceed through a molten state,
and below which crystallization will occur directly from the
gas). Ikuo Kushiro, David Virgo, and Bj0rn My sen built a fur-
nace assembly, which permitted high-temperature experi-
ments at pressures as low as 10 _9 bars — much lower than
pressures previously attained in experimental petrology. The
sample is held in a molybdenum crucible with a small orifice in
the lid. The triple point for diopside composition (CaMgSi206),
a characteristic material in meteorites, was found to be
4 x 10 "8 bars at 1553K; that for enstatite composition (Mg-
Si03), also a meteorite material, was found to be somewhat
lower.
Encouraged by the success of these experiments, the inves-
tigators are constructing a chamber capable of attaining still
lower pressures, and are incorporating facilities for studying
the same minerals under controlled hydrogen-gas pressure. In
preliminary work with the new chamber, they have reached
10 ~n bars. A closer approach to conditions in the solar nebula
may thereby be achieved. In any case, the early experimental
data indicate that certain materials crystallized in the solar ne-
bula at pressures several orders of magnitude lower than has
been generally proposed.
A Theoretical Problem in Planet Formation. One of the
most fundamental heretofore unresolved theoretical problems
of planet formation is that of dynamic tidal instability. (Just as
the Earth's ocean tides rise and fall from the gravitational at-
tractions of the Moon and Sun, solid bodies are distorted in
shape by the pull of gravitational forces of nearby bodies.) It
has been known from the work of the great classical physicists
of the 19th century, subject to assumptions such as static equi-
librium and the absence of viscosity, that a large satellite or-
biting the Earth at a distance closer than the "Roche limit"
(about three Earth radii) would fragment into smaller pieces
in response to tidal forces. It has not been known whether
fragmentation would occur if a body simply flew by the Earth,
passing within the Roche limit for approximately one hour.
The question is fundamental because in the accumulation of
planets from smaller planetesimals, such close encounters will
occur eight times as often as actual collisions.
If fragmentation occurs, "survival of the biggest" is the
likely result, where tidal forces reduce to rubble all but a few
large embryonic planets. Except for the possible late-stage
merger of these embryos, planets will therefore be formed by
accumulations of many smaller bodies. But if there is not
enough time for fragmentation to occur during the flybys, then
planets would grow from collisions of large bodies of compara-
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 71
ble mass. The alternative possibilities lead to very different
models of thermal and chemical evolution of the Earth, and
would be related to such questions as the origin of the Moon
and the mare basins visible on its surface.
As a result of careful numerical modeling at DTM, Hiroshi
Mizuno and Alan Boss have demonstrated that if the body
flying by is rocky (as expected) rather than liquid, the encoun-
ter time will be too short for tidal fragmentation to occur.
Their result thus indicates that planetary formation by large-
body collision is the more probable, and that theories of lunar
origin based on "disintegrative capture" are untenable, as is
the formerly most reasonable explanation of the close time
grouping in the formation of the mare basins.
Under standing the Structure of the Inner Earth
The nodule studies show increasingly that the
mantle is more diverse than has heretofore been
realized; indeed, the problems of its origin and
evolution are equally as complex as those relating
to the Earth's crust.
Hatten S. Yoder, Jr.
July 1984
The time appears ripe to begin to . . . relate
this initial state to the subsequent thermal and
chemical history of the Earth, with the goal of
matching theory to the observed geological and
geochemical record preserved in the most ancient
rocks. Discussions of this kind clearly involve
many uncertainties, are bound to be in large part
speculative, and conclusions must be tentative.
Nevertheless, we believe that with sufficient
attention to the requirements of consistency and
physical and chemical plausibility, first steps can
be taken toward understanding these most
fundamental geological questions.
George W. Wetherill
July 1984
As a result of theoretical work on planet formation during
the past decade, Wetherill writes, it has become evident that
the Earth formed at a temperature high enough to melt, at
least partly, silicate rocks and metallic iron. (Although the so-
lar nebula was likely to have been cool, as we have noted, the
Earth was heated during its formation by the kinetic energy
of impacting planetesimal bodies.) This view is a reversal of
the older theory that the Earth formed at a rather low tem-
perature and slowly reached its present thermal state as it
72 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
was heated by the decay of the radioactive elements uranium,
thorium, and potassium.
One product of the new view is seen in the work of Alan
Boss, Charles Angevine, and Selwyn Sacks at DTM on convec-
tive transport of heat immediately after Earth formation.
They note that melting caused by the impacting planetesimals
should have initiated the separation of iron from less-dense sil-
icates. Heat transport driven by chemical density differences
(as the iron descended toward the center of the planet) ac-
counted for the initial temperature distribution within the
Earth. Numerical modeling by Boss et al. indicates that this
temperature distribution should produce a large initial burst of
solid (or mixed solid-liquid) convection, which will cause hot
material from the deep interior to be transported above cooler
material previously near the surface. This rapid redistribution
of material results in a stable temperature inversion, and this
initial convection will halt. It appears that 500 million years or
more may be required to erase this condition of stability; the
modeling thus suggests that mantle-wide convection in the
Earth was re-established four billion years ago, 500 million
years after initial Earth formation.
Although the concept is highly speculative, Sacks and Boss
suggest that this thermal and convective history may be re-
lated to the 500-million-year hiatus between the formation of
the Earth and the formation of the oldest continental-type
crust known. This view is based on an analogy with the mod-
ern Iceland Plateau, where seismological work by workers in
Iceland and later at DTM has shown the basaltic crust to be
about 25 kilometers thick — much thicker than the oceanic
crustal thickness of about 5 kilometers. Iceland lies above a
convective mantle "plume," which feeds hot, silicate material
to the surface from the deep interior, possibly from the core-
mantle boundary, thereby accounting for the thick crust. Deep
plumes, however, cannot have formed under the Boss et al.
model for the early history of the Earth until after the primor-
dial temperature inversion was erased.
Crusts 25 kilometers thick are buoyant enough to resist sub-
duction downward into the mantle, whereas present-day evi-
dence shows that thin crusts (attached to higher-density
subcrustal lithosphere) are readily subducted. Thus, the de-
layed formation, about four billion years ago, of these unsink-
able rafts of thick crust may have initiated the formation of
continental land-masses, which then grew larger through colli-
sions among these ancient continental nuclei.
Direct Studies of Mantle Rocks. However speculative may
be the newest models for explaining the inner Earth, they
Kimberlite in thin section, consisting of color-
less fresh olivines in a fine-grained matrix of
opaque spinels, serpentine, and calcite. The field
of view is about 2.5 mm across; plane polarized
light.
Fragments of metasomatized sedimentary ma-
terial in kimberlite rock raised from the mantle
at Ison Creek pipe, Elliott County, Kentucky.
The scale in foreground is marked in cm. Investi-
gators at the Geophysical Laboratory study such
inclusions as a means of understanding fluid-rock
metasomatic reactions in the mantle.
must ultimately stand the test of consistency with known ex-
perimental and observational evidence. At the Geophysical
Laboratory, several investigators are making direct studies of
mantle rocks — the rounded fragments, or "nodules," that were
carried to the Earth's surface in ancient eruptions of kimber-
lite magmas and alkaline basalts. Their results reveal the com-
plexity of mantle structure and composition.
In his studies of mantle nodules, Francis R. Boyd of the
Geophysical Laboratory finds that the stable, ancient continen-
tal nucleus, or craton, of southern Africa has a root of rigid,
relatively cool rocks, which extends to greater depths than the
lithosphere of the surrounding mobile belts and oceanic re-
gions. Boyd suggests that this root has existed since early in
the Earth's history, i.e., from Archean times. His evidence
comes from garnet crystals, isolated and protected as inclu-
sions in diamonds, and dated by the Nd-Sm method at 3.2-3.3
billion years. Boyd has determined that the olivines and gar-
nets in these inclusions formed under conditions of pressure
and temperature that plot close to a geotherm consistent with
present-day heat flow. He interprets this relationship to indi-
cate that temperatures in the root of the craton 3.2 billion
years ago were not appreciably different from those existing
today — a different conclusion from the currently common view
that the Archean upper regions were exceptionally hot.
Similarities between mantle and crustal geology can be seen
in certain mantle features recently attributed to metasomatic
processes — i.e., to mineralogical and chemical changes caused
by reaction of rocks with migrating fluids (particularly mag-
matic liquid and supercritical carbonated aqueous solutions).
For example, Daniel Schulze has found that the garnets in
74 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
ultramaflc nodules from Kentucky kimberlites are inhomoge-
neous, and that clinopyroxene megacrysts from the He Bizard
in Quebec are zoned; both features suggest incomplete reac-
tions. Schulze also interprets the low Ca content of garnets
from some diamond-bearing peridotites as an indication that
the peridotite was formed by reconstitution of subducted
metaserpentinite, a rock that is a product of near-surface
alteration.
Experiments at High Pressure: A Breakthrough in Technol-
ogy. Mankind's deepest drillings have penetrated only 12 kilo-
meters into the Earth, while natural eruptions have raised
unmelted mantle material from at most about 250 kilometers.
Experiments with synthetic mantle materials at high pres-
sures and temperatures are thus indispensable for understand-
ing the inner Earth.
During the mid-1960s, workers at the National Bureau of
Standards and at the University of Maryland devised a new
kind of apparatus for experiments at high pressures, one de-
ceptively simple in principle. In diamond-cell devices, mechani-
cal force was applied to two precisely cut diamonds, which
held a tiny sample to be compressed. At the University of
Rochester, William Bassett and colleagues developed diamond
cells capable of attaining about 300 kilobars, equivalent to a
depth in the Earth of 900 kilometers. Assisting Bassett was a
graduate student, Ho-kwang Mao, who — Ph.D. in hand — came
to the Geophysical Laboratory in 1968, where he began a long
association with fellow staff member Peter Bell.
Spurred by the availability of laser technology for heating
samples inside the diamond cell, Mao and Bell "really went to
work" improving the experimental devices. Many times, the
two investigators saw their diamonds shatter as pressure was
increased. They gradually discovered better techniques for
maintaining exact alignment of the facing diamonds, and at the
end of 1975, they attained the then-remarkable static pressure
of 1000 kilobars (one megabar) — equivalent to a depth in the
mantle more than halfway to the molten core.
Although much of their time went into experiments at up-
per-mantle pressures, the Geophysical Laboratory team kept
working to attain much higher pressures. One day in 1978,
upon reaching 1.7 megabars — their highest pressure to that
date — the investigators encountered a new phenomenon.
Instead of shattering in the usual way at the limit of its
strength, one of the diamonds began to deform as if by plastic
flow. It was a remarkable event but also a disappointing one,
for it appeared that diamond-cell technology may have reached
a limit — the ability of diamonds to resist plastic deformation.
Cross-section and plan views of the sample
chamber area of the diamond cell. The sample is
held between two facing diamonds separated by
a stainless steel gasket. The configuration of the
angles of bevel (angles 6) and the central flat
area B were critical in redesigning the cell prior
to the recent 2.8-Mbar run at the Geophysical
Laboratory. The dots on the plan view are points
of the computer-stored position matrix where pres-
sure was measured. A = 300|xm, B = 50fim.
The 3.5 megabars of the Earth's center, 6370 kilometers deep,
seemed beyond reach.
Seeking clues for overcoming the plastic-flow problem, Mao,
Bell, and staff member Kenneth Goettel looked closely at the
other diamond — the one that had not failed at 1.7 megabars.
This diamond, they learned, had an unusually high concentra-
tion of nitrogen platelets; for their subsequent experiments,
therefore, the investigators sought out high-nitrogen dia-
monds. At the same time, they increased the rigidity of the
diamond-cell's steel structure. (This improvement reduced
bending upon applying force, which interfered with perfect
diamond alignment.) Finally, they redistributed force loadings
within the diamonds by (1) reducing the flat area where the
two diamonds faced and (2) changing the angle of beveling at
the sides, where shattering most often occurred. It was clear
in the early trials that pressures well above the previous re-
cord would be attained.
But in testing the redesigned cell, the investigators faced
yet another problem. In past years, pressure within the sam-
ple chamber had been obtained by observing fluorescence
emitted by ruby crystals inside the chamber. Geophysical Lab-
oratory workers had used the method extensively and had put
much effort into its calibration. Unfortunately, ruby fluores-
cence (R lines) is no longer observed above about 1.85 mega-
bars, so the method cannot be used above that pressure.
Seeking an alternative, Goettel, Mao, and Bell first pre-
pared computer software for measuring ruby fluorescence si-
multaneously at many points across the sample chamber. The
3.0 r
Force (103N)
0 1.0
Pressure 30 ,u.m from center (Mbar)
Determination of 2.8 Mbar static pressure achieved in the recent experiment at
the Geophysical Laboratory, (a) Plot of pressure vs. applied force as a function of
distance from the center of the sample chamber of the diamond-cell high-pressure
apparatus. The dashed line is the linear extrapolation from the 1.8 Mbar measur-
able by the ruby fluorescence method, (b) Plot of pressure at the center of the
sample chamber vs. pressure 30 |xm from the center. The line defined by the four
lower readings is extended to intercept the 1.8-Mbar value measured 30 fim from
the center; this method is independent of applied-force measurements.
ruby readings at various force loadings documented how pres-
sure increases to a maximum at the exact center of the dia-
mond face. The new measuring capability was useful in
redesigning the diamond face, and it promises to be an impor-
tant aid in making further design improvements. Indeed, in
surveying the major accomplishments in instrumentation of
the group this year, director Hatten S. Yoder, Jr. , has writ-
ten that "the principal contribution is in the development of a
technique for mapping the pressure gradient across the dia-
mond anvil."
The investigators kept stepping up the force loadings, well
beyond the old limit. For determining the new peak pressures
at the center of the diamond face, two methods were avail-
able. One method relied on the new pressure-mapping capabil-
ity, which resulted in the extrapolation of high values of
pressure at the center from ruby measurements (up to 1.85
megabars) at the sides. But a more conclusive (though labori-
ous) technique was also available — essentially the method used
several years earlier to verify and calibrate the ruby fluores-
cence scale at lower pressures. After each increase in force
loading, the Geophysical Laboratory team made precise me-
chanical measurements of applied force and microscopic mea-
surements of areas within the cell. Together, the force and
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 77
area measurements led to calculations of pressures in various
regions in the cell.
Reporting measurements in 1984 from both methods, Bell,
Mao, and Goettel demonstrated that their group had success-
fully attained a pressure of 2.8 megabars at the center of the
diamond face. At this point, they slowly reduced the pressure
(in preference to further increasing the force loading to even-
tual failure of one of the diamonds). They thereby obtained
valuable measurements during the unloading and saved the
diamonds for examination.
The 2.8 megabars attained in the laboratory is equivalent to
well inside the Earth's inner core and approaches the pressure
of 3.5 megabars at the Earth's center. Still higher pressures
are possible using the diamond cell; Yoder writes that "condi-
tions like those at the center of the Earth may soon be
achieved and sustained under control." An immediate goal is
to develop a convenient scale to replace the ruby method at
the higher pressures now attainable.
Synthetic Mantle Minerals at High Pressure. The Geophysi-
cal Laboratory investigators this year continued experimental
work with possible materials of the mantle. Such studies can
provide incontrovertible data valuable in developing models of
the inner Earth. In x-ray diffraction experiments with the dia-
mond cell, for example, crystal structure can be measured and
pressure-density relations (i.e., compressibility) determined at
temperatures and pressures of the inner Earth. Any model of
the mantle developed from seismological, geochemical, and
theoretical evidence must be consistent with what is seen in
the laboratory.
This year, Pascal Richet conducted x-ray diffraction mea-
surements on magnesiowiistite Fe0.sMg0 20 up to 470 kilobars.
He finds the compressibility of this and other magnesiowus-
tites, within experimental error, to be a linear function of
composition. Meanwhile, Bell, Mao, and Xu determined the
compressibilities of grossularite and andradite at 100-200 kilo-
bars.
Techniques recently developed at the Laboratory for hydro-
static experiments were important in several investigations.
(In hydrostatic work, samples under pressure are enveloped in
fluid and are thus compressed evenly from all directions; dis-
tortions attributable to a single axis of compression are
thereby eliminated.) Bell, Mao, and Xu studied periclase MgO;
argon, a weak plastic solid under pressure, served as the hy-
drostatic medium. Under conditions up to 650 kilobars, the
periclase was virtually free of nonhydrostatic stress. Mean-
while, predoctoral fellow Andrew Jephcoat studied the com-
78 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
pressibility of iron (up to 750 kilobars) and FeS2 pyrite (up to
450 kilobars) — materials of interest in understanding the pos-
sible composition of the Earth's core. Jephcoat's results under
hydrostatic conditions show no evidence for the existence of a
phase transition, reported from nonhydrostatic shock- wave ex-
periments in pyrite in this pressure range.
The diamond cell is also being used for Mossbauer and infra-
red studies of minerals at mantle pressures. Martha
Schaefer is conducting Mossbauer studies of the geometric and
electronic structures of iron-bearing minerals of the type be-
lieved to exist in the mantle and core. By making the mea-
surements (up to 600 kilobars) under hydrostatic conditions by
means of an argon pressure medium, she avoided hitherto
troublesome problems with the Mossbauer spectra.
The infrared spectra are of interest because their longer-
wavelength modes can be used to measure values of specific
heat. From preliminary results, Anne Hofmeister and Mao ex-
pect to be able to do spectroscopy in this region at pressures
up to 500 kilobars. The specific heat data are needed to calcu-
late the Griineisen parameter 7 — a fundamental equation re-
lating temperature, pressure, volume, and internal energy of a
substance.* All terms in 7 except specific heat can be deter-
mined from laboratory measurements of pressure, volume, and
temperature (equation-of-state data), so that the ability to de-
termine accurate values of specific heat from spectral observa-
tions (including both the Raman and infrared modes) at high
pressure will lead to a more complete estimate of the parame-
ter and the associated properties of materials in the mantle.
Characterization of the Mantle's Transition Zone. It is con-
ceivable that the absence of samples from deeper than 250 kil-
ometers in the mantle is attributable to mineral transitions
seen in laboratory experiments at pressures equivalent to
slightly greater depths. In experiments at pressures of the
"transition zone" (depth of 300-670 kilometers), Geophysical
Laboratory researchers have shown that most known mantle
silicates change to the perovskite structure. Looking toward
the eventual correlation of seismic observations with mineral
structures, researchers at the Laboratory have undertaken a
major new initiative to characterize the minerals believed to
exist in the transition zone by defining their properties at COn-
cx, KT
Cv p
where a,, is the volume coefficient of thermal expansion; KT, the isothermal bulk
modulus; Cr, the specific heat at constant volume; and p, the density.
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 79
ditions in the Earth.
Toward this end, Bell and Mao have begun experiments us-
ing a diamond cell fitted with a laser-heating system. The tem-
perature will be measured indirectly by means of the thermal-
emission spectrum of an area 5 |xm in diameter within the 40-
ixm, laser-heated focal spot. The pressure measurement is to
be carried out simultaneously from the fluorescence emission
of Eu-doped YAG crystals in the heated zone and ruby in the
unheated zones of the sample chamber. Raman spectra, ob-
tained in 0. 1-second pulses and by continuous scan, will be
used to detect phase transitions. Brillouin spectra, used for a
direct measure of plastic and thermodynamic properties, may
also be obtained on the same sample. The first experiments
are being conducted on samples of garnet.
Processes of the Crust and Upper Mantle
The Earth's crust is a changing region — a shell whose var-
ied, often slow processes are largely driven by the flow of heat
and material from below. Within the solid crust are subsurface
chambers of magma — liquid intrusions that may lead to vol-
canic eruptions or may slowly solidify in complex chemical
pathways to form layers of igneous rocks. Meanwhile, various
elements dissolved in intergranular fluids are slowly trans-
ported through the crust, sometimes resulting in deposits of
useful minerals. New crust is constantly forming out of heated
mantle material at the midocean ridges, while oceanic plates
are pushed against continental margins, leading to subduction,
volcanism, and surface mountain-building.
Earth scientists at the Geophysical Laboratory and the De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism, employing the most ad-
vanced techniques and instruments to obtain data at the finest
possible level of detail, seek basic understanding of these phe-
nomena.
The Generation of Continental Material: Isotopic Studies.
Louis Brown and colleagues at DTM, in collaboration with sci-
entists at the University of Pennsylvania, in recent years have
developed a technique to measure the 10Be content in samples
by using the University's tandem Van de Graaff accelerator as
a mass spectrometer. The method has proven to be extremely
sensitive, and it has been successfully used for the research
purpose originally envisioned — to trace the journey of oceanic
crust (whose sediment carries 10Be from rainfall) to its erup-
tion in island arc and continental volcanos.
This year, Brown and Fouad Tera of DTM, with Roy Mid-
dleton and Jeffrey Klein of Penn, have increased considerably
^Aleutians
Central America
6 „-i
N = 35 Average = 5.4x10° g
77!
H
H
m mm
J_
1SBL
6 8 10 12
,0Be concentration (I06g_l)
14
x
M
24
H
Q Non-island-arc volcanos
Flood basalts
N=I7
6 „-l
Average = 0.3xl0°g
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
l0Be concentration (I06 g"1)
Histograms showing 10Be measurements in various samples, obtained by DTM's
Louis Brown and colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania in their effort to
trace the journey of oceanic crustal material to its eruption in volcanos.
Each square designates a measurement; measurements are placed along the
horizontal axis in bins of 0.5 x 106 atoms of 10Be per gram. F, the flow was fresh
at the time of collection; A, the flow was from an active volcano; H, the flow was
historical; no letter, the sample was from a dormant volcano, and the age of the
lava is uncertain. (Values from the fresher samples are less likely to be affected
by any 10Be deposited from rainfall after eruption.)
The upper histogram shows measurements from Central America and the Aleu-
tians— two arcs where concentrations significantly above the instrumental noise
are consistently found. The lower histogram shows lavas from volcanos unrelated
to subducting plates and from flood basalts too old to evidence initial 10Be. Three
other island arcs examined in similar detail (Java, Halmahera, and the Marianas)
have not shown 10Be at levels greater than the non-island-arc group. Other arcs
are being studied, but the data are still too few to allow conclusions.
the number of volcanic samples analyzed. The patterns previ-
ously seen have been largely confirmed: in general, volcanic
rocks not associated with subduction zones are, within mea-
surement errors, devoid of 10Be, while those from magma orig-
inating from the heating of subducted material exhibit large
10Be concentrations. It seems clear that in the latter case, the
observed 10Be comes from oceanic sediment carried downward
with subduction of the oceanic plate and later incorporated in
subduction-zone magma. The result is a convincing demonstra-
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 81
tion of plate tectonic theory.
It is clear, however, that the extent of 10Be transport is
markedly regionally dependent. The concentration of 2 x 106
atoms per gram is exceeded in 91% of volcanic samples from
the Aleutians and from Central America, but in only 22% of
rocks from other subduction zones, primarily in the western
Pacific. In fact, within present limits of accuracy, about half
the rocks from these other subduction zones contain no more
10Be than samples from volcanos unrelated to subduction. The
reason is not well understood, though it is probably related to
differences in how the particular subduction zones work. In or-
der to investigate the phenomenon, additional measurements
are being made, and data are being obtained from other iso-
tope systems.
Other types of isotope studies provide other important in-
sights into subduction processes. DTM workers, for example,
are trying to learn what percentage of crustal material is
raised to the surface in subduction-related volcanos, and what
percentage is pushed downward, to be "recycled" into the
mantle.
The Cascade Mountains of the northwestern United States
are volcanos caused by the heating in subduction of the
oceanic plate beneath the lighter North American continent.
In addition, some 200-300 kilometers farther to the east, ex-
tremely voluminous basalts were erupted about 15 million
years ago. In a study completed recently by DTM's Richard
W. Carlson, these mantle-derived basalts of the Columbia
River Plateau were found to contain strontium, neodymium,
lead, and oxygen isotopic signatures attributable to the pres-
ence of subducted sediments in their source region. The in-
volvement of sedimentary materials in the genesis of these
basalts implies that at least some fraction of the subducted
crustal material survived its passage through the source re-
gion of the Cascade volcanism. This implication is significant,
because the recycled material carries with it into the mantle
high concentrations of the "incompatible" (in the mantle) radio-
active heat-producing elements (U, Th, and K) and volatile
compounds such as H20 and C02. Both of these components
enhance the ability of the mantle to produce melts that will
eventually be erupted as volcanic rocks. Thus, Wetherill com-
ments, extensive recycling of crustal materials into the mantle
through subduction processes may, in part, explain why the
Earth remains volcanologically and technically active, while
other terrestial planets like Mercury and the Moon have long
been dead.
In contrast, studies of large-volume basalt eruptions just to
the south of the Columbia Plateau by DTM postdoctoral fellow
© LOW K OL.THOL.
© COL. RIVER BASALT
(D TRANSITIONAL OL. THOL
(4) SNAKE RIVER OL.THOL.
(5) ALKALINE OL. BASALT
A,N1/B
COLUMBIA RIVER PLATEAU
m OREGON-MODOC PLATEAU
m SNAKE RIVER PLAIN
m CRUST
E3 OLD SUBCONTINENTAL
LITHOSPHERE
The proposed crust and mantle structure of the northwestern United States,
developed by DTM's Richard Carlson and William Hart from their geochemical
study of basaltic volcanic rocks in the area. The upper part of the drawing is a
surface map of the northwestern United States (state boundaries shown) depicting
the Columbia River Plateau, the Oregon-Modoc Plateau, and the Snake River
Plain. The cross-sections show subsurface structure beneath the lines A- A' and
B-B'.
Low-K olivine tholeiites (1) of the Oregon-Modoc Plateau were generated by
melting at shallow depth of incompatible-element-depleted "oceanic-type" mantle
existing beneath the newly formed (younger than Paleozoic, <Pz) crust of the pla-
teau. Basalts of the Columbia River Plateau (2) were generated in much the same
manner, but compared to the Oregon-Modoc Plateau the lack of severe crustal ex-
tension led to ponding of the primary magmas near the base of the crust (cross-
hatched regions). This ponding resulted in cooling and differentiation of the Co-
lumbia magmas prior to eruption, and allowed some of them to interact with the
old (Precambrian, PC) crustal section existing beneath parts of the Plateau. Snake
River basalts &), the easternmost low-K basalts, and basalts with transitional
chemical characteristics between these two (3) were generated by melting of an
ancient (2.5-billion-year-old) incompatible-element-enriched subcontinental mantle
region confined to an area underlying the Precambrian crust of the eastern mar-
gins of the study area.
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 83
William Hart, and by Carlson and Hart, fail to show isotopic
evidence for the presence of recycled sediment in the volcanic
source. However, there is a strong suggestion, especially in
the data for the basalts studied by Hart, that an ancient (2.0-
2.6 billion years) subcontinental mantle region enriched in the
incompatible elements (Rb, Nd, and U, for example) — similar
to that proposed by Boyd to exist beneath the African era-
ton — is involved in the genesis of these basalts. On the basis
of a very good correlation between geographic position of
eruption and the isotopic compositions of the basalts, Hart
concludes that this ancient enriched mantle is confined to an
area roughly beneath the Archean continental boundary (ap-
proximated by the Oregon-Idaho state border). To the west,
the crust may represent a very recent (less than 100 million
years) addition to the North American continent. Further evi-
dence of subcontinental mantle regions enriched in the ele-
ments generally concentrated in the crust comes from a study
by Xinhua Zhou (a former visiting investigator to DTM from
the State Seismological Bureau of Beijing) and Carlson on the
Pb isotopic systematics of young basalts from eastern China,
Wetherill notes that the existence of enriched mantle re-
gions beneath continents requires that more incompatible ele-
ments have been extracted from the mantle than has been
supposed. If the enriched mantle exists in sufficient volume,
then, much more than the often accepted one-third of the re-
maining mantle would have been correspondingly depleted in
incompatible elements. It therefore becomes less likely that
the 670-kilometer discontinuity known from seismology repre-
sents the boundary between depleted upper mantle and
undepleted lower mantle.
Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry. The stable isotopes of the five
elements sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (the
SCHON, or "beautiful," system) present a unique set of tools
to learn about both organic and inorganic processes under geo-
logical conditions. During the past decade, the Geophysical
Laboratory has developed the capacity to measure the iso-
topes of C, H, 0, and N. This year, a new mass spectrometer
is being fitted with four detectors to measure simultaneously
the ion beams of the four stable sulfur isotopes (32S, 33S, 34S,
and 36S). Thomas Hoering has developed a method using BrF3
as a fluorinating agent to produce SF6 from sulfide minerals
for the measurements.
The new capability will be used in various geological investi-
gations. For example, in collaboration with John M. Ferry of
Johns Hopkins University, Douglas Rumble and Hoering plan
to measure sulfur isotopes in pyrite (FeS2) and pyrrhotite
84 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
(Fex_xS) from metamorphic rocks of the Waterville-Augusta,
Maine, area. It appears that as fluid from nearby igneous
rocks moved through this area, sulfur-bearing minerals slowly
broke down, releasing sulfur and altering pyrite to pyrrhotite
(a process called desulfurization). The investigators suspect
that measurement of the S isotopes will provide evidence of
this reaction. The study offers a unique opportunity to relate
the pyrite-to-pyrrhotite transition and its accompanying iso-
tope exchanges to understanding of fluid flow through rock
during metamorphism.
Element Concentration in Magma Intrusions. Academic
and exploration geologists alike are interested in understand-
ing how a given element or mineral can be concentrated at a
particular site within the Earth, sometimes to concentrations
many times greater than the material's overall abundance in
the crust. One mechanism for the formation of such concentra-
tions is in the solidification of subsurface magma bodies, or in-
trusions, into successive layers of rock, each with distinctive
chemical compositions. Important insights into the nature of
the layering process in intrusions have emerged from studies
in recent years by T. Neil Irvine, a petrologist at the Geo-
physical Laboratory.
In a recent paper in Economic Geology (November 1983),
Irvine, D. W. Keith of Stillwater PGM Resources in Montana,
and S. G. Todd of the same firm summarize their concepts ex-
plaining the formation of certain layered intrusions and how
ore deposits have been concentrated therein. Their analysis is
based on studies of the Stillwater Complex in Montana and the
Bushveld Complex in South Africa. Fundamental to their view
is a concept — previously offered by Irvine in studies of the
Muskox Intrusion in northwestern Canada — whereby solid
layers are formed not by the accumulation of settling crystals
(as has traditionally been assumed) but rather by the crystalli-
zation of each layer from distinct, matching liquid layers. The
theory rests heavily on experimental studies conducted at the
Geophysical Laboratory and elsewhere; applying the theory to
data from field observations (at places where intrusions have
been exposed at the surface by erosion) provides a limited test
of its validity.
The formation of zones enriched in the platinum-group ele-
ments (PGE) at Stillwater and the Bushveld is related to the
incompatibility of PGE in the structures of most magmatic sili-
cate and oxide minerals, and the enormous affinity of PGE for
sulfide liquid. Irvine, Keith, and Todd note that intrusions
that are open both to additions of fresh magmatic liquid and to
removal of fractionated residual melt should be subject to en-
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 85
richment in PGE provided that the magma has not reached
saturation in sulfide liquid. (They believe that the Stillwater
and Bushveld intrusions formed from the mixing of two parent
magmas; the PGE were derived from the first parent, most of
the sulfur from the second.)
The investigators then postulate that the Stillwater and
Bushveld magmas underwent stratified convection. Numerous
liquid layers crystallized into separate cumulate (rock) layers,
while residual liquid was passed successively from level to
level. In these circumstances, each liquid layer was itself ef-
fectively an open fractionating magma body, and enrichment
effects may be amplified from layer to layer, possibly upgrad-
ing PGE concentrations by 1-2 orders of magnitude. Irvine et
al. suggest that this effect is essential to the production of the
extremely high PGE concentrations in the ore-zone sulfides
when sulfide liquid eventually precipitated.
Opposite circumstances appear to have occurred at the Mus-
kox, where Irvine has found PGE widespread in amounts of
5-300 ppb but no indication of enrichment to ore grades
(20,000-30,000 ppb). Although sulfides form only small, local
deposits in Muskox, they are on the whole much more conspic-
uous in small amounts than in either Stillwater or Bushveld.
Thus it may be that ore formation failed to occur because the
parent silicate magma became saturated with sulfide liquid
early, so that sulfide precipitation occurred before the PGE
could be substantially enriched by fractional crystallization.
Element Concentration in Aqueous Transport. Crustal
rocks contain intergranular fluid consisting primarily of water
but also dissolved compounds, such as NaCl, HF, C02, and
KOH. This intergranular fluid is an important medium in pro-
cesses of mineral dissolution, transport, and precipitation
which result in element concentrations in the crust. The struc-
tural and thermodynamical properties of supercritical (high-
temperature, high-pressure) aqueous fluids strongly affect
these processes.
In developing structural models of aqueous intergranular
fluids, John Frantz and William Marshall (Oak Ridge National
Laboratory) pay particular attention to the ionization behavior
of aqueous compounds. This study includes the measurement
of a compound's ionization constant, which is the ratio of mole-
cules to free-standing ions (for example, the ratio of NaCl to
its constituent ions Na+ and Cl~), as well as determination of
the numbers of solvation, which are the numbers of water
molecules (from the host medium) that bind electrostatically to
the charged ions. Frantz and Marshall this year examined so-
lutions of potassium chloride, sodium carbonate, and sodium
86 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
hydroxide at pressures up to 4 kilobars and at temperatures
between 25° and 575°C. In the case of sodium hydroxide, they
overcame previous difficulties by using zirconia rather than al-
umina as an electrical insulator. They find that as temperature
increases and density decreases, ionization behavior changes
dramatically. Ion pairing increases (i.e., more molecules are
formed, fewer ions), the numbers of solvation decrease (i.e.,
fewer water molecules bond to ions), and mineral solubility in-
creases.
From computations with these data, it is possible to calcu-
late the hydrolysis constant for NaCl. At elevated tempera-
tures and pressures, NaCl hydrolyzes (reacts with water) to
produce molecular NaOH and HC1. This work is important not
only in developing theoretical models related to element con-
centration but also in analyzing steam-generated corrosion in
nuclear power plants.
Fluoride ions are common in aqueous fluids, and fluoride-
bearing solutions play a significant role in the transport of ore-
forming elements, especially in the formation of porphyry cop-
per deposits. Frantz and postdoctoral fellow Mark Barton cal-
culated thermodynamic properties of dissolved KF and NaF.
One of these properties, the free energy of formation, is used
to calculate equilibrium constants and hence relative stabilities
of minerals in a fluid solution. These data are essential in mod-
eling ore-forming fluids because gangue mineral assemblages
(the worthless minerals associated with an ore) commonly
buffer the fluid composition, and thus control transport and
deposition of ore minerals.
Structure of Liquids and Glasses. Researchers at the Geo-
physical Laboratory have for several years been investigating
the structures of molten silicates. Knowledge of the structures
(i.e., the unit arrangements of atoms and their bondings) is
needed for understanding the important role of molten rock,
or magma, in heat- and mass-transfer processes within the
Earth and terrestrial planets. Once known, the structures of a
melt can be used to calculate liquid properties and liquid-
crystal equilibria under infinite combinations of composition,
pressure, and temperature. Thus, by means of experiments at
the structural level — a level of detail rarely studied in liquids
until recently — the researchers are developing fundamental in-
sights into such questions as how melts are generated, how ig-
neous rocks are formed from melts in nature, and how melts
are transported by infiltration through the largely solid mate-
rial of the Earth's crust.
Until several years ago, most scientists believed the atoms
of silicate liquids (molten rocks) to be in random configuration,
David Virgo in the Raman spectroscopy lab at the Geophysical
Laboratory.
having no discernable systematics in structural arrangement.
The existence of systematic structural features in liquids, with
similarities to those in crystals, was not appreciated, and until
the application of recent spectral methods to such questions,
liquid structures were not profitably studied.
In about 1977, the research interests of two Geophysical
Laboratory scientists converged. David Virgo, who worked
with iron-bearing minerals, and Bj0rn My sen, interested in
the chemistry and physics of crystal-liquid interaction, began
collaborating in systematic investigations of the structures and
properties of silicate melts, and in applying these properties to
igneous processes. In experiments with liquids or with their
quenched "equivalent" glasses, Mysen, Virgo, and various col-
leagues employed the array of modern spectral equipment as-
sembled in recent years at the Laboratory to obtain detailed
structural information.
They soon confirmed that liquid structures have some of the
same building blocks found in crystals, though without the lat-
ter's extensive repeating configurations and long-range order.
Like their crystalline counterparts, silicate liquid structures
typically contain many tetrahedral (pyramid-shaped) entities of
four oxygen atoms equidistant from a central cation such as
Si, Al, or Fe3+ (i.e., the Si04 configuration). Each oxygen
atom may "bridge" to, and thus be a part of, an adjoining tet-
rahedron, thereby forming a link in a network of tetrahedra.
Such combinations of tetrahedra form a structural unit. Or an
88 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
oxygen may be "nonbridging," by bonding to a network-modi-
fying cation in a different type of unit — octahedral perhaps.
The nonbridging oxygens thus form the boundaries of struc-
tural units. My sen and Virgo explored the proportions of dif-
ferent types of units in liquids, the lengths and angles of the
bondings, and relations between structure and properties.
Observing that the structural roles of iron appeared to be
important in defining properties of liquids, Virgo and My sen
began to look closely at this little-understood phenomenon. In
Raman, Mossbauer, and other spectral investigations on criti-
cal iron-bearing systems, they succeeded in observing how fer-
ric iron (Fe3+) and ferrous iron (Fe2+) function as network
formers and network modifiers under various conditions, and
in measuring the presence of ferric and ferrous iron as a pro-
portion of total iron in the liquid. They sought correlations be-
tween measured values of the ratio Fe2+/Fe3+ and what was
previously known about the rest of the liquid structure; espe-
cially, they explored how temperature, pressure, oxygen
activity, and overall chemical composition (the essential pa-
rameters in igneous petrology) are related to this seeming cru-
cial ratio. They now offer a general model of the structure of
magmatic liquids, one that also explains the structural state of
iron in silicate and aluminosilicate liquids.
From their varied spectral data, they show that in oxidized
glasses (where Fe3+ predominates over Fe2+) the Fe3+ is te-
trahedrally coordinated. Under the same oxidizing conditions,
the spectra indicate that the Fe2+ ions are all in octahedral co-
ordination. In contrast, in reduced glasses (where Fe2+ pre-
dominates) the Mossbauer results are consistent with varying
proportions of tetrahedrally and octahedrally coordinated
Fe3+, whereas the Fe2+ remains octahedrally coordinated. A
significant proportion of the iron occurs as amorphous iron-rich
clusters with certain properties resembling those of inverse
spinels (e.g., Fe304), and as isolated Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions. At
dilute Fe3+ concentration, the ferric iron is wholly octahed-
rally coordinated.
Virgo and Mysen found Fe2+/Fe3+ to be a simple function of
A1/(A1 + Si) and to decrease linearly with increasing A1/(A1 +
Si) at fixed temperature, oxygen activity, and proportion of
nonbridging oxygens. The Fe2+/Fe3+ also decreases systemati-
cally with increasing melt basicity, and depends on the types
of network-modifying cations. (The ratio is comparatively low
in Na+ systems, intermediate in Ca2+ systems, and high in
Mg2* systems.) Interpreting the structural implications of
these now-established empirical relationships, Mysen and
Virgo then demonstrated how to calculate Fe2+/Fe3+ over the
known compositional range of igneous rocks. As a result of
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 89
these calculations, My sen and Virgo illustrated the sensitivity
of the paths of fractional crystallization in a magma to Fe2+/
Fe3 + . The work also provides an experimental basis for inter-
preting the dependence of melt viscosity on Fe2+/Fe3 + . In ad-
dition, having observed an increase in Fe3+ in plagioclase with
increasing oxygen activity, Virgo and My sen suggested that
the partitioning of iron has potential as an oxygen barometer
in igneous processes.
The coordination shift of Fe3+ from tetrahedral to octahed-
ral with reduction of a magma may result in changes of the
crystal-liquid partition coefficients of some geochemically im-
portant trace elements. In several experiments this year,
Virgo and Mysen measured the crystal-liquid partition coeffi-
cients of Ba and Sr in the system diopside-anorthite; they de-
tected essentially no change over a wide range of Fe3+ as a
proportion of total iron, within the sensitivity of their pro-
posed melt-structure model. On the other hand, they found in-
dications of significant effects in experiments with transition
metals Ni and Ti. The difference may be related to the sug-
gestion that transition metals like Ti and Ni can complex with
the iron-bearing structural units; thus, their activity in the sil-
icate melts depends systematically on the proportion of iron-
bearing units. These results also lead toward understanding
why many petrologically important major, minor, and trace
element mineral-melt partition coefficients are sensitive func-
tions of the chemical composition of the melt.
Numerical Modeling of Transfer Processes. Thermal and
chemical diffusion are important mechanisms for the transfer
of heat and mass in earth processes. Diffusive heat flow, for
example, which requires no movement of material, is an im-
portant mechanism in a cooling liquid intrusion or in the trans-
fer of heat through the Earth's crust. Chemical diffusion can
be the rate-controlling process during the growth of crystals in
a solidifying magma or during the alteration of rocks in con-
tact metamorphism. Modeling of such transport phenomena re-
quires experimental data concerning rates and the theoretical
solution of the governing transport equations.
Postdoctoral fellow Gregory Muncill has been working at the
Geophysical Laboratory to solve the linear equation for diffu-
sive heat transfer with no sources or sinks of heat. Applying
results from heat-transfer experiments by Hatten S. Yoder,
Jr. , Muncill has inserted geological boundary conditions (such
as where a magma intrusion contacts cooler surrounding rock)
more reasonable than those used in previous models. Staff
member Larry Finger has helped with the theoretical analysis
and has developed the computer programs needed to estimate
90 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
the variable parameters of the experimental data and test the
validity of the models generated. One of the principal ad-
vances has been in the characterization of the temperature
rise through a boundary, for example at the contact of an
intrusion.
Another of Muncill's goals is to develop, through various nu-
merical techniques, a model for coupled multicomponent diffu-
sion in silicate melts. By integrating experimental diffusion
data with such mathematical models, it may become possible
to describe mass transport across boundary layers in igneous
systems. These boundary layers can be at the micrometer
scale during crystal growth or at the meter scale across
boundaries in a convecting magma chamber. The ultimate goal
will be to model simultaneous heat and mass transfer within
large-scale boundary layers in melts.
Seismological Investigations. From early in the Institution's
history, Carnegie scientists have been leaders in studying
earth structure by means of the seismic signals produced by
earthquakes or explosions, and in studying the earthquake
process itself. In recent years, the seismology group at DTM
has made scientific contributions ranging from studies of the
Earth's core and mantle to analyses of the rupture characteris-
tics of earthquakes and localized earth deformation. The latter
work, which promises to aid in earthquake prediction, employs
data collected over extended periods by subsurface strainme-
ters — sensitive instruments designed and developed at DTM.
Paul Silver of DTM has proposed a new method for extract-
ing information from seismic data. Although it has been known
for some time that seismograms contain information on the
physical dimensions of earthquakes — the length, width, and
duration of faulting, and the rupture-propagation characteris-
tics— even a simple description of such properties of a given
earthquake has been surprisingly difficult to obtain. Silver's
method is based on a statistical measurement of the duration
of the body- wave signal generated by the earthquake and
recorded at dispersed stations.
This year, Silver and DTM postdoctoral fellow Tetsu Ma-
suda set out to test the method. They applied it to two shal-
low (6-kilometer-deep), moderate-sized earthquakes occurring
at the southern end of the San Andreas fault system — the
1979 Imperial Valley earthquake on the Imperial Fault, Cali-
fornia (magnitude 6.9), and the 1980 Victoria earthquake on
the Cerro Trieto Fault, Baja California (magnitude 6.5), which
occurred eight months later and 50 kilometers to the south.
The Imperial Valley earthquake has been thoroughly stud-
ied by other investigators and thus represents an interesting
(Below). Expanded map of the box region of
adjacent map. The two stars show the locations
of the Imperial Valley earthquake of 15 October
1979 on the Imperial Fault, and the Victoria
Earthquake of 9 June 1980 on the Cerro Prieto
Fault. The smaller symbols are epicenter loca-
tions of seismic events. Analysis of these events
by Paul Silver of DTM leads him to propose that
spreading events took place in the stippled re-
gions, in the directions of spreading shown by
the arrows. Silver's evidence suggests that the
Imperial, Cerro Prieto, and San Andreas Faults
are on-land transform faults associated with the
East Pacific Rise.
33.50°
l*\ftV«— SAN ANDREAS
^ kA^lX FAULT
33.00
32.50° -
(Above). Map of the northern end of the East
Pacific Rise. The thick line segments represent
known regions of sea-floor spreading, and the
thinner, perpendicular lines are transform faults.
-116.0°
-115.50°
LONGITUDE
-115.00°
92 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
test of the new method's potential. Surprisingly, Silver's re-
sults differed significantly from those of earlier investigators.
His analysis confirmed the well-documented faulting that ex-
tended from the Mexican border northward into the Imperial
Valley; but in addition, Silver found evidence of previously un-
known faulting southward into Baja California, very close to
the region of the second earthquake. This finding has now
been confirmed by previously unconsidered seismic data
collected close to the southern component of faulting. Silver's
discovery of a first-order feature that had previously been
overlooked indicates that his technique is a powerful tool, one
applicable not only to other shallow earthquakes but also to
deep earthquakes (deeper than 100 kilometers), about which
very little is known.
The discovery of the southern component of faulting sug-
gests that a much closer and perhaps causal relationship links
the two earthquakes. The region is thought to represent an
on-land extension of the East Pacific Rise, an oceanic spread-
ing center where the North American and Pacific plates are
being generated. The two earthquakes then can be viewed as
the failures of two adjacent faults associated with spreading on
the East Pacific Rise. Currently being examined is the possi-
bility that a spreading event has occurred in the region be-
tween the two earthquakes and/or farther north, between the
Imperial and San Andreas Faults. If verified, the area would
become only the third place on Earth where active on-land
spreading has been observed. (The others are in Iceland and
Afar, Africa.)
Meanwhile, Alan Linde and I. Selwyn Sacks of DTM, with
Shigeji Suyehiro of the Japan Meteorological Agency, have
made a new analysis of strainmeter and surface-uplift data for
the interval between the 1978 and 1980 Izu peninsula earth-
quakes in southeastern Honshu. The strain changes were re-
corded in the regional network of strainmeter instruments
monitored by the Japan Meteorological Agency. The new anal-
ysis significantly alters earlier views of the events, and illus-
trates that erroneous conclusions can result when analysis is
based only on uplift data with partial areal coverage. (Often,
such information is all that geophysicists have, since many
earthquake-related events occur offshore.)
From the coherence of the strain signals over a large area
and the correlation of these changes with the substantial in-
crease in seismic activity, it is apparent that a major readjust-
ment of stress has occurred in the Earth over the two-year
period under study. Three possibilities are now being consid-
ered to explain the observed data: (1) upward motion of
nearby vertical sheets of magma originating beneath Oshima
island, an active volcano near the Izu peninsula (a dyke se-
N
GJM
2-
1-
0--
EXPANSION STEPS
z
N
10
1982
l_L
ii
E
o
ill
12
E
EEE I EE
1983
N
1 -
0
10
11
12
1
1984
93
Incidence of expansion strain signals recorded at station GJM
in northern Honshu, from the date of installation in October 1982
to the start of 1984. The strain events increased slightly in fre-
quency of occurrence during the first six months of recording. A
dramatic increase took place in the month preceding the large,
7.7-magnitude earthquake of 26 May 1983 (marked by arrow), 80
km away under the Japan Sea. The strain events continued, at
lower frequency, for another month during the large aftershocks.
After June 1983, no more strain events were recorded. K. Suye-
hiro of Tohoku University and DTM's Selwyn Sacks and Alan
Linde note that the signals appear to have been precursors to the
earthquake.
quence), (2) a large, slow earthquake on the Philippine Sea
plate-Eurasian plate boundary, which lies beneath the region,
and (3) a rebound episode associated with subduction of the
Philippine Sea plate near Izu.
Probably equally important but presently less well under-
stood are "bumps" seen in the strainmeter output obtained at
the coastal station in northern Honshu in 1982. The rate of oc-
currence of these unusual strain signals increased dramatically
just before the 7.7-magnitude earthquake in the Japan Sea
about 80 kilometers away. The unusual strain signals became
less frequent after the earthquake, and none have been seen
since the last large aftershocks. They appear to have been
precursors to the earthquake.
Somewhat similar signals are now being recorded in south-
ern Iceland at strainmeter stations near a transform fault on
the Mid- Atlantic Ridge. (The Ridge lies above sea level in this
region, which is very active technically.) From comparison of
recent seismic and volcanic activity with the historical record,
the DTM seismologists believe that a significant episode of tec-
tonic activity (with seismicity and volcanism) may occur in the
region instrumented. Indeed, a volcanic eruption occurred in
94 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
the area since installation of the strainmeter net in 1979, and
the associated strain changes were recorded on all instru-
ments. The recorded data led to a model confirming the view
that the region is undergoing an increase in stress. More-
recent strain signals are much larger than the similar signals
recorded in Honshu, possibly because the instruments are
closer to the region undergoing tectonic changes. Although at
present it is not possible to determine the source of the sig-
nals, all of the data together are consistent with the original
view that southern Iceland is now undergoing major readjust-
ment to the forces driving seafloor spreading.
The strain signals recorded in Iceland and Honshu represent
new and clear observations of stress redistribution, and they
may provide important clues to seismologists in their quest to
understand the earthquake generation process.
Biogeochemistry
The opening of this field has been preceded by
a long period of pioneering studies, many of
which were undertaken by the staff of the
Geophysical Laboratory. Recognition of the
potential of the new tools and methods has been
followed by the demand for investigators trained
not only in geology but also in the more advanced
specialties of the biological sciences.
Biogeochemists may soon become commonplace in
university rosters.
Hatten S. Yoder, Jr.
July 1984
The physical and biological sciences come together in the
fast-growing field of biogeochemistry, where scientists are in-
terested in the influence of living organisms and organic mate-
rial on the physical Earth. Present-day biogeochemical
techniques open to investigation a number of fundamental
questions in the earth sciences.
Organic matter present in sedimentary rocks can offer "fin-
gerprints" for tracing ore sources and various processes in
these rocks. Such associations are being exploited by postdoc-
toral fellow Andrew Gize, who has adapted techniques com-
monly used in the petroleum, coal, and coking industries. Gize
has observed changes in organic matter found in ore depos-
its— increased compositional homogenization, greater thermal
maturity, and greater structural order. Recently, he compared
textures in bitumens (organic materials found in rocks) from
Nanisivik, Canada, and Kongsberg, Norway. Results provide
further measures of the thermal history of such rocks and give
evidence of migration patterns during ore formation. His ex-
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES
95
periments are among the first using petrographic techniques
(those normally associated with hard, crystalline rock), cou-
pled with spectroscopy and analytical chemistry, to investigate
organic material in ore deposits.
While Gize views such questions petrographically, Thomas
Hoering has used an approach from organic chemistry. There
are reasons to believe that certain materials in low-tempera-
ture ore deposits migrate in the form of metallic ions combined
as complexes with organic matter. Some such metallo-organic
compounds are known from sediments — the vanadium and
nickel porphyrins found in petroleum are classic examples.
(Porphyrins are the end products of the transformation of
chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves responsible for their
light-gathering function. In a living leaf, chlorophyll binds
with the magnesium ion, but after deposition in a sediment,
chemical transformations take place, and magnesium is leached
out and replaced by vanadium and nickel.) It is reasonable to
inquire if porphyrin complexes of other metals could be
involved in deposition of low-temperature ore deposits in
sediments.
Using the "hydrous pyrolysis" method that he developed
last year, Hoering attempted to prepare porphyrin complexes
of divalent metal ions (such as Co, Cu, Be, Pb, and Zn ions)
under simulated geological conditions. But even though sedi-
ments were heated with large excesses of these ions, only Ni
and V porphyrins were found in the products. Apparently the
complexes of the other ions are not stable enough to persist
under the experimental conditions, and are therefore unlikely
candidates as carriers in low-temperature ore solutions. Cur-
rently, Hoering is studying the metallo-binding, or chelating,
A key stage in the thermal transformation of
organic compounds to structured and composi-
tionally homogeneous forms is the formation of a
mesophase. Last year, Geophysical Laboratory
postdoctoral fellow Andrew Gize and his col-
league Sue Rimmer of Penn State University re-
corded the first discovery of mesophase in a
geological setting. The microphotograph, above,
is of thermally altered petroleum residues from a
lead-zinc mine in Baffin Island, Canada, viewed
on the surface of a polished sample with reflected
light. The mesophase appears as the rounded
globules.
96 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
potential of other kinds of sedimentary organic matter — the
naphthenic acids, for example.
Hoering has collaborated with the DTM-Penn group (see
p. 79) in investigating a surprising recent report on the pres-
ence of cosmic-ray-produced 10Be in ancient petroleums. Be-
cause the half-life of this radionuclide is 1.5 million years, it
should have decayed away and become undetectable in mate-
rial older than 15 million years. Examination of sixteen crude
oils produced from Miocene-aged reservoirs (older than 20 mil-
lion years) disclosed three samples from the Lake Maracaibo
region of Venezuela with high and easily detectable concentra-
tions of 10Be. By measuring the molecular constitution of the
saturated hydrocarbons in these three petroleums, Hoering
found that they had been severely biodegraded. The linear and
slightly branched molecules had been consumed by aerobic mi-
croorganisms. These crude oils from Venezuela are also well
known for their high concentration of Ni and V porphyrin
compounds, for their high asphalt content, and for the excep-
tionally high ash content upon combustion of the asphalt.
It is tempting to speculate that the 10Be, the aerobic bacte-
ria, and the metallic constituents found in the ash were added
late in the history of these crude oils, presumably by a flux of
surface water during migration of the oil from the primary
source beds into the reservoir. It is known, however, that the
10Be brought to the Earth's surface in rain is rapidly and
strongly sorbed by mineral surfaces in soils and sediments and
would not be readily transported by fresh water. The origin of
10Be in crude oils remains unknown.
The organic material preserved in sediments is only that
small fraction of organic matter (about 0.01%) escaping the dy-
namic biological cycle. This small percentage ends up as inert,
high-molecular- weight material — humic acid and kerogen,
which are very complex and little understood. The complicated
process whereby organic material degrades and chemically
transforms into kerogen and humic acid is called diagenesis.
This year, Geophysical Laboratory guest investigator E. Kent
Sprague, with Gize and staff member Marilyn Estep, exam-
ined the early diagenesis of organic matter in the very produc-
tive ecosystems of coastal salt marshes. By isotopic analysis,
pyroly sis-gas chromatography, and optical microscopic meth-
ods, they deduced the relative contribution of terrestrial
plants and phytoplankton to the muds. They found that the or-
ganic matter of plants, except the persistent long-chain waxes,
had been quickly degraded, whereas the organic material of
the phytoplankton had been polymerized to form biologically
resistant humic acids. Eventually, it may be possible to deter-
mine quantitatively the proportion of recycled and preserved
material in such organic deposits.
(Right) Mats of the sulfur-oxidizing bacter-
ium Thermoproteus, growing at a tempera-
ture of 85°C in Big Creek Hot Springs, Idaho.
Biogeochemist Marilyn Estep preparing a
sample of a thermophilic microorganism
from Yellowstone for isotope analysis. In
her studies of algae and bacteria that thrive
in water at near-boiling temperatures and
high acidity, Estep is gaining understanding
of the nature of the microorganisms that
first populated the Earth.
Estep is also engaged in a long-term study of the thermo-
philic microorganisms that thrive in the hot springs of Yellow-
stone National Park. These algae and bacteria present a
unique opportunity for inferring the nature of the microorgan-
isms that first populated the Earth.
In their natural environments, thermophilic microorganisms
can withstand water temperatures up to 95°C and high, corro-
sive acid levels (pH = 1). Estep and her colleagues at the
Laboratory are investigating the subtle differences in protein
structure that result in this strong resistance. They find that
high concentrations of hydrophobic amino acids and strong
peptide bonds formed by valine, leucine, and isoleucine proba-
bly caused the resistance.
In much of her research, Estep uses measurements of the
stable isotopes of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Because
various enzymatic reactions (such as nitrogen fixation, photo-
synthesis, and sulfate reduction) produce distinctive isotopic
98 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
compositions in organic material, these isotopes can serve as
tracers in delineating the physiology and biochemistry of or-
ganisms. Estep plans to make early use of the sulfur-isotope
techniques being developed at the Laboratory (see p. 83).
Among the microorganisms growing in the Yellowstone
springs are the S-oxidizing and S-reducing bacterium Thermo-
proteus, which grows in boiling water at neutral acidity, and
the aerobe Sulfolobus, which grows in boiling water at high
concentrations of sulfuric acid. Some of the microorganisms in
the Earth's early history were S-oxidizing and S-reducing spe-
cies. It will be interesting to learn if pyrite in ancient sedi-
ments retains the sulfur isotopic signature of these modern
Yellowstone species.
10 Be Studies of Surface Erosion
Scientists have made an important beginning in studying the
building of the continental land masses by inner-Earth pro-
cesses. Better understood has been the opposite phenome-
non— the continual removal of surface crust by weathering
and erosion. By themselves, these destructive processes would
reduce the continents to sea level within a few hundred million
years.
Quantitative measurement of erosion has been difficult, how-
ever, particularly the determination of the rate of erosion at a
given location. Nathalie Valette-Silver, Louis Brown, and
Fouad Tera of DTM, in collaboration with Milan Pavich of the
U.S. Geological Survey and Roy Middleton and Jeffrey Klein
at the University of Pennsylvania, have carried out a number
of studies where erosion rates are obtained by measuring 10Be
concentrations in soils and sediments. Their method is based
on the principle that most soil formations are old enough to
have reached a steady-state balance between the rates of 10Be
deposition in rainfall and its removal by erosion and radioac-
tive decay. The radioactive decay constant is known, and the
deposition rate is becoming more accurately known from mea-
surements of 10Be in rain; measurement of the steady-state
concentration thus permits calculation of the erosion rate.
The investigators have applied the method to determine
rates of erosion at three localities in the Maryland piedmont.
Their results agree with presumably cruder estimates based
on the present elevations of the sites.
In another study, the same workers, in collaboration with
Grace Brush of Johns Hopkins, have combined various tech-
niques to investigate the history of erosion during the past
2500 years in the Chesapeake Bay. Using measurements of
14C, 137Cs, and 10Be concentrations and pollen analyses in
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
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LOCATION Of THE 3 CORES
STUDIED IN THE
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o
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r-
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110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
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= 1950
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1980
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10Be CONCENTRATIONS
X 106 atoms/grams
580
160
SEDIMENTATION RATE
cm/y
Core FB 5
FURNACE BAY (upper Chesapeake)
10Be measurements and the historical erosion of surface soils in the Ches-
apeake Bay area. DTM's Nathalie Valette-Silver and colleagues are detect-
ing evidence of events that increased erosion over the last 300 years by
measuring 10Be concentrations as a function of depth in the sediments of
bay tributaries.
The small map at left shows the location of the cores recently analyzed
by the group.
Shown at the left of the diagram are values of 10Be concentration (in mil-
lions of atoms per g) vs. depth for a core collected at the mouth of the Fur-
nace Bay tributary. The underlined numbers are the historical dates, from
measured ages; the dates not underlined were obtained by extrapolation.
At the right are plotted the derived sedimentation rates vs. depth and his-
torical date.
three cores of sedimentary material taken from rivers feeding
the bay, the investigators calculated sedimentation rate and
changes in local vegetation over time. The pollen analyses of
the sediments reveal an increase of herbaceous pollen (e.g.,
ragweed) over tree pollen during the last 300 years; associated
with these changes are sharp increases both in 10Be concentra-
tion and sedimentation rate.
The pollen changes correspond to two agricultural horizons,
100 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
interpreted by Brush to be the introduction of European farm-
ing techniques and forest clearing at the time of (1) initial set-
tlement and (2) the start of intensive cultivation — the years
1650 and 1840 in the southern region, 1730 and 1780 in the
northern. The higher sedimentation rates at these times indi-
cate strong increases in sediment transport and presumably
soil erosion, and, since previous work shows that 10Be is en-
riched in top soil, the increases in 10Be apparently result from
increased erosion and transport of 10Be-rich soils previously
formed under forest cover. After about 1860 — represented in
the upper parts of the three cores — a generally decreasing
trend is seen in 10Be concentration, while the sedimentation
rate increases. A simple explanation is that 10Be-poor soils,
presumably located lower in the column, are being eroded.
Some increases in 10Be concentration are evident prior to the
European settlements; these are difficult to interpret because
of the low sedimentation rate registered at that time, but they
could be associated with the loss of forest cover because of
fires or other natural phenomena.
The work demonstrates the potential usefulness of 10Be pro-
files, along with sedimentation rate data and pollen analyses,
for understanding the erosion process. It also reveals the ef-
fect of human activities on erosion, thus permitting evaluation
of natural rates during geological history prior to human inter-
vention.
Leadership in Collective Ventures
Every subdiscipline consists of a worldwide community of
scholars who both cooperate and compete in research. The ar-
rangement assures the advancement of knowledge while allow-
ing scope for personal achievement and reward. Occasionally,
the customary individualistic patterns of research are set
aside, when a group of investigators organize themselves and
their resources to attain some research purpose likely to bene-
fit all. This year, Carnegie Institution earth scientists are pro-
viding leadership in organizing three such endeavors.
An Inverted Telescope. Older discussions of the continents
often involved reconstructions based on surface geology and
were expressed in terms of recognizable surface features such
as collisional and accreted terranes, suture zones, and trans-
form faults. There has been in the last two decades an aston-
ishing revolution in understanding how continents evolve. In
plate tectonic terms, the structures and compositions of conti-
nents are described as results of dynamical and chemical pro-
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 101
cesses taking place over billions of years within the Earth.
Further advances in understanding of the continents require
an ability to "see" downward into the crust and upper mantle
at much greater resolution than has been yet achieved.
A major new initiative has been taken this year at DTM.
The idea is to build a capability to obtain seismological "im-
ages" of the Earth's interior by means of an array of seismic
instruments. The instrument array will be mobile, and is to be
positioned at locales and in layouts specific for viewing particu-
lar subsurface earth regions. The "inverted telescope" will re-
cord seismic waves from earthquakes or explosions. The
system will include considerable data-recording and data-pro-
cessing equipment, for operation in both field and laboratory.
David James and Selwyn Sacks have used Carnegie seed
money to convene initial organizational meetings, looking
toward establishing the new venture on a national scale.
Carnegie is also temporarily acting as lead institution for im-
plementing this program in "lithospheric seismology."
Initial emphasis lies in developing a new generation of ver-
satile, portable seismograph systems, featuring microproces-
sor-based "intelligence." When used in large numbers (1000 or
more) in densely packed arrays, the instruments will improve
the "seeing" of subsurface structure by a factor of ten or
more. That critical increase in resolution will provide the tech-
nical means for unlocking major geologic puzzles. Meanwhile,
the versatility of the instruments, particularly their ability to
examine signals and determine whether or not they should be
recorded, and over what frequency band and dynamic range,
will open a wide range of studies not now readily possible. De-
velopment of the new seismograph is being carried out by an
instrument design team chaired jointly by Sacks and R. P.
Meyer of the University of Wisconsin, with representatives
from the academic community and seismograph-manufacturing
companies.
As the coordinator of the national program, James has been
working to prepare a long-range scientific plan. In addition, he
is developing at DTM a capability for the computer analysis
needed to convert the seismic observations to high-resolution
imaging and tomography of the Earth's interior.
The initiative is expected to develop into a major national
effort, primarily supported by federal funds, to rival national
facilities in other areas like optical and radio astronomy.
George Wetherill writes that the Institution's scientists expect
to participate in the future scientific program, whose start was
assured in large measure by the seed funds made available by
the Institution. The effort, he concludes, represents a poten-
tially highly rewarding scientific venture.
102 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Mineral Energetics: A Systematic Approach. Earth scien-
tists have not yet succeeded in integrating the complex inter-
relationships among mineral structure, bonding, physical
properties, and thermochemical parameters. Traditionally, an
investigation of a mineral has exploited a single method — de-
termination of crystal structure, calorimetry, or study of spec-
tral response to a given radiation. Yet all the approaches can
contribute to understanding why a specific structure exhibits
certain observed physical and thermochemical properties.
Forging a new style of approach, scientists at the Geophysical
Laboratory have instituted a venture in cooperative and inter-
disciplinary research — one that will exploit the wide array of
talent and experimental equipment at the Laboratory and will
enlist the collaboration of workers and institutions elsewhere.
Robert Hazen at the Laboratory has taken the initiative in
organizing a consortium, one also involving UCLA, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, and SUNY Stony
Brook. The planned program of investigation is both tightly
focused (in specifying the materials and conditions to be stud-
ied) and wide-ranging (in its use of many research methodolo-
gies). The collaborators plan to study a well-characterized
suite of related minerals in the system BeO-Al203-Si02. This
suite consists of ordered, stoichiometric compounds that occur
in large, single crystals with elements of low atomic number.
Each of the phases in the system will be examined with at
least five different techniques. Crystal structures will be mea-
sured by x-ray crystallography at cryogenic temperatures, as
well as at simultaneously high temperatures and pressures.
The resulting equation-of-state information will be augmented
by elastic-constant measurements with ultrasonic and Bril-
louin-scattering techniques. Raman and infrared vibrational
spectroscopy will be performed on all samples. The heat capac-
ities thus derived will be compared with calorimetrically deter-
mined thermochemical properties. Computational quantum
chemistry will be used to derive bond-force constants, which
in turn will be used to calculate from first principles vibra-
tional frequencies, elastic moduli, and thermochemical proper-
ties.
Hatten S. Yoder, Jr., director of the Laboratory, comments
that this broad-based approach to the properties of a targeted
minerals group — the first of its kind — should result in valua-
ble, internally consistent data sets on a chemically related
suite. The project should lead to more-precise prediction of
mineral behavior within the Earth; perhaps of equal impor-
tance, Yoder notes, the effort should provide an example for
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 103
similar approaches in the future to mineralogical (and materi-
als science) investigations.
A Data Base for Igneous Petrology. The data explosion in
descriptive petrography that began after World War II contin-
ues at an accelerating rate. Petrologists worldwide are collect-
ing more and more information, including information of more
and more different kinds, such that the accumulation defies ef-
fective organization by traditional scholarly procedures. Yet,
little systematic advantage has been taken of the remarkable
developments in electronic data storage and retrieval. In re-
cent years, much of the work of Felix Chayes of the Geophysi-
cal Laboratory has been in developing means whereby
petrographers can systematically use modern computational
techniques, not only for storage and retrieval but also for
extracting and using pertinent chemical, petrographic, and
mineralogical information.
The International Geological Correlation Project, chaired by
Chayes, is pioneering in the design and development of a
world data base for igneous petrology. This year, the group
made its first major deposit of information for public use at
the world data center in Boulder, Colorado. Chayes, in order
to strengthen the public's ability to exploit this large and het-
erogeneous data base, has been refining a method for improv-
ing the efficiency of matching operations used in data
extraction. He has also developed methods for working with
samplings of large data arrays, including techniques of particu-
lar interest to petrologists.
Professional Activities
The Educational Roles
The training of young scientists for productive careers in re-
search is a foremost function of each department. Generally
speaking, postdoctoral fellows and students work on their own
research studies under the guidance and supervision of the In-
stitution's staff scientists. Topics are within the general range
of the staffs interests, so that significant opportunities for col-
laboration and exchange develop readily. At any time during
the report year, a total of about eighty postdoctoral fellows,
David Stern, graduate student at the Department of Plant
Biology, has found surprising homology between mitochondrial
and chloroplast DNA. His experiments, conducted with former
research associate Jeffrey Palmer, have important implications in
understanding the relationships between these two plant organ-
elles— both functionally and in an evolutionary sense.
predoctoral fellows, and undergraduate students served at the
Institution's departments.
Each fellow and student brings to his or her tour at Carne-
gie a special set of curiosities, drives, and imaginations; most
individuals have superb previous educational backgrounds,
along with firm ideas as to personal direction and goals. Each
is expected to grow not only in research but also in communi-
cating results — in local seminars, in published work, and in
presentations at scholarly gatherings elsewhere.
Fellows and students make valuable contributions to the
overall missions of the departments, and their research brings
acknowledgement within the profession. A striking example
was seen in the work of graduate student David Stern at the
Department of Plant Biology. Stern's published results this
year comparing plant mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA, in
collaboration with the Department's former graduate student
and research associate Jeffrey D. Palmer (see p. 22), received
prompt and widespread professional note.
Many come from other countries. This year, Plant Biology
hosted fellows from Japan, New Zealand, West Germany, and
India. Serving at Embryology were Diane de Cicco (fellow of
the European Molecular Biology Organization), Fritz Muller
(fellow of the Swiss National Fund), and Daniel Burke (a grad-
uate student from the National Research Council of Canada).
PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES 105
At the Geophysical Laboratory, postdoctoral fellow Pascal Ri-
chet of the University of Paris and Andrew Jephcoat, a gradu-
ate student at Johns Hopkins from the United Kingdom,
worked in the group engaged in studying materials at high
pressures. Tetsu Masuda and Hiroshi Mizuno from Japan
worked with scientists at DTM. Postdoctoral fellows at the
Observatories were Peter J. McGregor of Australia and Ro-
gier A. Windhorst of The Netherlands. In graduate study at
Caltech was Chilean Fernando Selman, supported by the In-
stitution under its Carnegie-Chile fellowship program.
Financial support for the fellowship and student programs
comes from the Institution's own resources as well as from the
Carnegie Corporation and other outside foundations. In the
past year, for example, the McKnight Foundation of Minneap-
olis awarded a three-year, $750,000 grant to the Carnegie De-
partment of Plant Biology and the Stanford University
Department of Biological Sciences, primarily to support gradu-
ate students and postdoctoral fellows working in the Carnegie-
Stanford plant biology program.
The McKnight grant builds upon a long tradition of coopera-
tion between Carnegie Institution and Stanford University in
research and education; for many decades, Carnegie staff
members have held appointments in the Stanford Department,
and Stanford graduate students have conducted their doctoral
research at Carnegie. In making the grant, the McKnight
Foundation envisioned that an interdisciplinary approach — in-
volving molecular biologists, plant physiologists, and physio-
logical plant ecologists — is necessary for understanding the
genetic mechanisms that enable plants to adapt under environ-
mental stresses. Winslow Briggs, director of the Carnegie De-
partment, reports that the effort has gotten off to a vigorous
start; a general meeting of plant scientists held in Asilomar,
California, in April, attracted over fifty people. Briggs notes
that the award will strengthen the Carnegie-Stanford complex
as a magnet for top-quality postdoctoral and graduate appli-
cants.
After completing postdoctoral training at Carnegie, individ-
uals typically move to research careers elsewhere. As their
professional careers develop in later years, many former fel-
lows and students lead strong research programs at their own
institutions, and may engage in frequent communication, col-
laboration, and friendly competition with their former mentors
at Carnegie. Thus, through its informal body of alumni, the
Institution fertilizes growing fields of investigation; its impact
is to be measured not only in the research of its present staff
but also in the achievements of its former fellows and stu-
dents.
106 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
A Reach to Future Scientists. As part of the Institution's
educational and informational venture, Perspectives in Sci-
ence, staff members at the Geophysical Laboratory and DTM
recorded short discussions on the general subject of research
on the Earth's core. The recordings were sent without charge
to several hundred educational and public radio stations (in-
cluding over a hundred stations reporting past use of the se-
ries). In addition, Perspectives in Science was expanded to
include publication of an essay-booklet "The Earth's Core:
How Does It Work?" The booklet was designed for use by
classroom teachers and outstanding students, and copies have
been made available to members of the National Science
Teachers Association and were sent free to all members of the
National Association of Geology Teachers.
Leadership in Professional Groups
Every scientist, over and beyond his or her immediate insti-
tutional affiliation, has an identity as part of a national and
worldwide community of scholars. This community is orga-
nized amorphously into many diverse and overlapping entities,
including professional associations, learned societies, review
panels, advisory boards, foundations, and the like. As an indi-
vidual's stature in research grows, the opportunities to con-
tribute in positions of leadership beyond the principal
workplace tend to increase. Each individual must acknowledge
such obligations and must determine how such roles may en-
rich his or her primary career in research. The examples be-
low are intended to suggest how Carnegie scientists, as active
members of this community, share in its day-to-day function-
ing.
Among the founders of the Life Sciences Research Founda-
tion in 1981 and its only president to date is Donald Brown,
director of Carnegie's Department of Embryology. The Foun-
dation provides a mechanism for the sponsorship of three-year
postdoctoral fellowships by industrial corporations; the Foun-
dation's Peer Review Committee chooses the fellowship recipi-
ents, who work at institutions of their own choice. Brown
announced the first nine recipients and their corporate spon-
sors in spring 1983.
Public service aspects are also strong in the outside activi-
ties of many other individuals. Douglas Fambrough of the De-
partment of Embryology serves as member of the Scientific
Advisory Committee of the Muscular Dystrophy Association;
Nina Fedoroff is a member, Recombinant DNA Advisory
Committee, National Institutes of Health; Olle Bjorkman of
PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES 107
the Department of Plant Biology served on a committee of the
National Academy of Sciences evaluating the current status of
bioscience research in the U. S. Department of Agriculture;
Joseph Berry helped organize and served on a panel consider-
ing the possible effects of nuclear war on primary photosyn-
thetic productivity; Robert Hazen of the Geophysical
Laboratory was secretary of the History and Teaching Com-
mission, International Mineralogical Society.
The outside activities of Hatten S. Yoder, Jr., director of
the Geophysical Laboratory, exemplify how senior scientists
contribute in the making of the nation's science policy. Yoder
serves on the National Research Council's Commission on
Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Resources, its Board of
Minerals and Energy Resources, and its Continental Scientific
Drilling Committee. He is a member of the Nominating, the
Report Review, and the Day Prize and Lectureship Commit-
tees of the National Academy of Sciences, and is on the Advi-
sory Committee on Experimental Petrology of the U. S.
Geological Survey. He also serves on the Council of the Amer-
ican Philosophical Society.
The wide range of research at DTM is reflected in the di-
verse outside roles of its scientists. During the past year,
George Wetherill served as president of the Meteoritical Soci-
ety and continued as editor of Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences. Vera Rubin served as president of Com-
mission 28 (Galaxies) of the International Astronomical Union
and as member of the editorial board of Science. David James
was editor-in-chief for the U. S. National Report, consisting of
over a hundred articles by U. S. scientists, submitted to the
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. DTM scien-
tists served on panels on explosive volcanism and on earth-
quake prediction, on advisory committees to the U. S. Ocean
Drilling program, the Space Science Board, and the Interna-
tional Council of Scientific Unions, and on the steering com-
mittee for the International Halley Watch.
Observatories' director George Preston served on the Visit-
ing Committee for The Association of Universities for Re-
search in Astronomy, Inc., and on the National Academy of
Sciences Nominating Committee for Astronomy. Allan San-
dage served on the Council of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific and on the Scientific Advisory Committee for the Na-
tional New Technology Telescope.
Joseph G. Gall of the Department of Embryology is presi-
dent of the Society for Developmental Biology. Richard Pa-
gano of the Department of Embryology is serving as
chairman-elect for the 1985 Gordon Conference on Lipid Me-
tabolism.
108 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Carnegie vice president Margaret MacVicar is a member of
the National Policy and Higher Education advisory panel of
the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
She is also working closely with the Alfred P. Sloan Founda-
tion in a major program to infuse technology into the liberal
arts curriculum.
Seminars and Symposia
A full listing of the outside presentations by the Institution's
scientists would be as varied and wide-ranging as the research
interests of the scientists themselves. While a majority of such
activity takes place at meetings in this country, there are fre-
quent occasions for contributions at gatherings abroad. Here,
as a means of suggesting the dimensions of such activity in all
the departments, we review the speaking presentations in
other countries this year by staff members of the Department
of Embryology. The enumeration also serves to convey the in-
ternational flavor that characterizes all branches of science to-
day.
Donald Brown gave the Tanner Lecture on Human Values,
Brasenose College, Oxford; his topic was "Genetic Engineer-
ing: Promises and Problems." He also spoke at the Symposium
on Gene Expression at the Royal Society, London, and at the
Meeting on Life Sciences and Mankind, Tokyo.
Douglas Fambrough lectured at the International Congress
of Physiological Sciences in Sydney, Australia, and at the 38th
Annual Meeting of the Society of General Physiologists at the
University of Otago Medical School, Dunedin, New Zealand.
Among nearly a dozen talks and lectures in Europe by Nina
Fedoroff were presentations at the 16th Meeting of the Feder-
ation of European Biochemical Societies, at the Max Planck
Institute for Plant Breeding, Cologne, and at the Swiss Insti-
tute for Experimental Cancer Research, Lausanne.
Joseph Gall served as session chairman on "Aspects of Gene
Expression and Its Control" at the Royal Society of London,
and on "Programs for Development" at the British Society for
Developmental Biology.
Local Seminars. Each of the departments conducts semi-
nars, roughly weekly, where current research directions are
presented and discussed. Presentations are made by outside
and visiting scholars, as well as by staff members, fellows, and
advanced students working in the department. All resident
scientists typically attend, along with visitors from local insti-
tutions interested in the given topic. The seminars provide a
formal means for interaction across disciplines and research
PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES 109
groups, and are viewed as an ideal training ground for fellows
and students. This year, the seminars offered several exam-
ples of interaction among the Carnegie departments — Nina
Fedoroff of Embryology and Marilyn Estep of the Geophysical
Laboratory gave presentations at Plant Biology; David Koo
and Vera Rubin of DTM held forth at the Observatories;
Marilyn Estep and Anne Hofmeister of Geophysical and Alan
Dressier and Rogier Windhorst of the Observatories gave
seminars at DTM; and David James, Richard Carlson, Alan
Boss, and Louis Brown of DTM spoke at the Geophysical
Laboratory.
In other seminar activities, the Geophysical Laboratory con-
tinued its past role hosting meetings of the Washington Or-
ganic Geochemistry Colloquium, the Washington Crystal
Colloquium, and the Petrologists' Club. The Department of
Embryology hosted the monthly meetings of the Baltimore-
Washington Membrane Club and the evening Disease of the
Month Club; the Department's annual one-day minisymposium
was on "Molecular and Genetic Approaches to the Study of the
Nervous System."
The lecturer at Carnegie Evening, May 3, 1984, at Root
Hall in the Administration Building, was I. Selwyn Sacks of
the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Sacks' illustrated
lecture, "The Mobile Earth," was attended primarily by mem-
bers of the East Coast Departments, their families, and in-
vited friends from the Washington-Baltimore area.
Losses, Gains, Honors....
With deep sorrow, we report the death this year of Scott E.
Forbush, a former staff member at the Department of Terres-
trial Magnetism. An expert in cosmic rays and other solar-ter-
restrial relationships, Forbush was known for his discovery in
1937 that a sharp decrease in cosmic ray intensity occurs one
or two days after a major solar flare. This phenomenon be-
came widely known as the Forbush effect. Forbush's 42-year
official career with the Institution included service on the ves-
sel Carnegie at the time of its destruction in 1929; after his
retirement in 1969, he remained active at DTM and in his cho-
sen field. Forbush moved to Charlottesville in 1982, where he
died after a short illness on April 4, 1984.
Theodore Dunham, Jr., a staff member at Mount Wilson
from 1930 until 1947, also died in April 1984. Dunham's inter-
ests centered around planetary atmospheres, element abun-
dances in stars, and spectrophotometry of biological cells. His
most important discovery, made in 1932 with colleague Walter
Former DTM staff member Scott E. Forbush,
an expert in the study of solar-terrestrial rela-
tionships, died in April 1984.
Adams, was that the atmosphere of Venus contains a large
amount of carbon dioxide, disproving years of speculation that
the Venusian atmosphere is similar to Earth's.
Other former Carnegie employees who passed away this
year include George Streisinger, an associate geneticist at
Carnegie's Department of Genetics at Cold Spring Harbor
from 1956 to 1960, and two former workers at Terrestrial
Magnetism— fellow Jacob Duerksen (1959-1960) and research
associate Alois Purgathofer (1964-1965). Streisinger, a well-
known expert on molecular mechanisms of mutation in the
phage virus, early in his career participated critically in the
discovery of the important process of transduction, where ge-
netic material is transferred from one bacterium to another by
phage.
The untimely and tragic death of Hiroyuki Fukuyama, a
senior postdoctoral fellow at DTM, was a great shock to his
friends and colleagues. Fukuyama was an assistant professor
at Tokyo University and a former student of Geophysical Lab-
oratory staff member Ikuo Kushiro. Fukuyama and two Japa-
nese colleagues were on a field trip in Iceland during August
1984 when all three drowned while fording a swollen river.
Leroy Dabney, custodian of the Administration Building
from 1942 to 1976, died on March 15 at the age of 74. Everett
Shipley, who worked in the Geophysical Laboratory shop for
25 years (1948-1973), died on September 24, 1984.
One trustee and several staff members stepped down from
active service this year. Crawford Greenewalt resigned from
LOSSES, GAINS, HONORS 111
the Board of Trustees after 32 years of active and loyal ser-
vice. Designated a trustee emeritus, Mr. Greenewalt says he
will not hold appointments on standing committees, but will
take on other assignments as special opportunities arise. As
the Institution explores new areas in the earth sciences and
astronomy — a special interest of Mr. Greenewalt, who with
his wife Margaretta generously supplied funds to construct the
2.5-meter du Pont telescope at Las Campanas — such oppor-
tunities may not be long in coming.
L. Thomas Aldrich retired this year after serving as a staff
member at DTM for 34 years. In collaboration with A. 0. C.
Nier, Aldrich was the co-discoverer of radiogenic 40Ar, the ba-
sis of one of the most widely used methods of radiometric dat-
ing. He also made pioneering studies on the abundance of the
helium isotope in natural materials, and, in collaboration with
George Tilton, Gordon Davis, George Wetherill, and Louis
Nicolaysen, established the Rb-Sr method of geological age de-
termination. Tom Aldrich cooperated in much of the Depart-
ment's early seismology program. With Merle Tuve and
others, he studied the Earth's crust and mantle by means of
earthquakes and manmade explosions. Much of this work took
place in the Andes of Peru, Chile, and Bolivia, where Aldrich
was also responsible for operating a net of magnetic vario-
graph stations for studying electrical conductivity. For a time,
Aldrich served as DTM's associate director (1966-1974) and
then as acting director (1974-1975).
James Boise joined the Institution's bursar's office in 1952,
becoming bursar in 1960. Boise co-authored the Institution's
retirement plan and was the first bursar to attend meetings of
the Finance Committee of the Board of Trustees. He retired
on June 30, 1984. Kenneth Henard resigned as business man-
ager in early 1984.
Also retiring this year were Observatories archivist Helen
Czaplicki and Department of Embryology senior technician
William Duncan. Helen Czaplicki came to Santa Barbara
Street in 1946 as secretary to then director Ira Bowen. In
1981, she became archivist and began the task, since com-
pleted, of organizing the papers of Walter S. Adams, Bowen's
predecessor.
William Duncan joined Embryology in 1947. There, he
learned the techniques for fixing, embedding, sectioning, and
staining human embryos and placentas, working closely with
staff member Elizabeth Ramsey in her pioneering studies of
the placenta. Later, he helped advance techniques for the
preparation of cells for study with the electron microscope.
Two staff members have left the Institution this year for po-
sitions elsewhere. Robert Howard, an astronomer at Mount
112 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Wilson and Las Campanas Observatories since 1961 and assis-
tant director of Mount Wilson since 1982, assumed the direc-
torship of the National Solar Observatory in Tucson, Arizona,
in September 1984. DTM astronomer Norbert Thonnard has
left the Institution and now works at Atom Science, Inc., in
Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
Gains
The Board of Trustees gained a new member with the elec-
tion this year of Mr. Gunnar Wessman. Wessman is president
and chief executive officer of the Swedish chemical and phar-
maceutical company Pharmacia AB, which manufactures prod-
ucts for the separation and purification of biological substances
and for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Before joining
Pharmacia in 1980, Mr. Wessman was president of the Swed-
ish companies Scholten-Honig (1964-1969), Perstorp AB
(1970-1975), and Uddeholm AB (1975-1980). He holds
an M.Sc. degree from the Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm.
With the retirement this year of James Boise, assistant bur-
sar John Lawrence assumed the role of bursar. Lawrence
joined the Institution in 1982. He holds the M.B.A. from Co-
lumbia University and is a certified public accountant.
Honors
A report year that began with the announcements of Bar-
bara McClintock's Nobel Prize and the naming of the Edwin
P. Hubble Space Telescope (both reported in Year Book 82)
bid well to be unusually rich in honors. This expectation was
more than amply fulfilled.
Allan Spradling, staff member at the Department of Em-
bryology, and former Embryology staff member Gerald Rubin
won the Newcomb Cleveland Prize for 1982-1983 from the
American Association for the Advancement of Science. The
Prize is awarded each year to the authors of original work
published in Science. Spradling and Rubin's paper describing
details of their gene transfer technique appeared in the Octo-
ber 22, 1982, issue.
Observatories astronomer Stephen Shectman was selected
to receive a Sloan Research Fellowship from the Alfred P.
Sloan Foundation, beginning in mid-September 1984 and last-
ing for two years. Sloan fellowships, which provide financial
support for basic research, are awarded annually to gifted
young scientists who show promise of making original contri-
butions.
Halton Arp, also of the Observatories, received a Senior
Observatories staff member emeritus Olin C.
Wilson received the Catherine Wolfe Bruce
Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
in recognition of lifetime achievement in astro-
nomical research.
United States Scientists Award from the Alexander von Hum-
boldt Foundation for a year of study at the Max Planck Insti-
tute for Physics and Astrophysics in Munich. The Award
recognizes Arp's accomplishments in research and teaching.
Last year, Department of Plant Biology director Winslow
Briggs also received a Humboldt Award, for study in Ger-
many.
Former Observatories staff member Olin C. Wilson received
the Catherine Wolfe Bruce Medal of the Astronomical Society
of the Pacific for 1984. The Bruce Medal, a distinguished inter-
national award that was first bestowed in 1898, was given to
Wilson in recognition of his lifetime achievements in astronom-
ical research, especially for his work on stellar chromospheres.
Nina Fedoroff, staff member at Embryology, was appointed
a Phi Beta Kappa Visiting Scholar for 1984-1985. In this role,
she will visit various college campuses to take part in class-
room and seminar discussions and to meet informally with stu-
dents and faculty.
Joseph Gall, also of Embryology, was honored by the Catho-
lic University of America with their 1984 Director's Scholar-
ship.
Geophysical Laboratory staff member Marilyn Estep re-
ceived the Bradley Prize for the best technical paper pre-
sented to the Geological Society of Washington during 1983.
Peter Bell, also of the Geophysical Laboratory, received a
1984 NASA Special Scientific Award for a study of extrater-
restrial materials.
Barbara McClintock, Distinguished Service Member of the
Institution, and trustees Lewis Branscomb and Edward E.
David received honorary degrees from Rutgers University in
May 1984.
Lise Caron and Edmond Giraud, both recent Ph.D. recipi-
114 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
ents from France, were awarded Carnegie-del Duca Fellow-
ships for postdoctoral work at the Department of Plant
Biology and the Mount Wilson and Las Campanas Observato-
ries, respectively.
Mark Schlissel, a predoctoral fellow at Embryology, re-
ceived the 1984 Michael A. Shanoff Award from the Johns
Hopkins University School of Medicine in recognition of his es-
say, "Molecules Involved in the Developmental Regulation of
Xenopus 5S RNA Gene Transcription."
A new mineral, fingerite, was named this year in honor of
Larry W. Finger, a staff member at the Geophysical Labora-
tory. Also, asteroids were named this year after former Mount
Wilson Observatory staff members Edwin Hubble, Milton Hu-
mason, and Henrietta Swope.
Gunnar Kullerud, former staff member at the Geophysical
Laboratory now at Purdue University, was elected to the Na-
tional Academy of Science in Norway. Three former fellows at
the Laboratory — Michael Engel, E. Bruce Watson, and Ray-
mond Jeanloz — received Presidential Young Investigator
Awards through the National Science Foundation's Division of
Earth Sciences.
Vice president Margaret Mac Vicar presented the Phi Beta
Kappa Oration at the 1984 Literary Exercises during Harvard
University's Commencement Week in June.
Trustee emeritus Crawford Greenewalt was elected presi-
dent of the American Philosophical Society in April 1984.
William Golden was elected a member of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Philip Abelson was corecipient of the National Science
Foundation Distinguished Public Service Award.
The Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced Interna-
tional Studies established an international finance and econom-
ics chair in honor of William McChesney Martin, Jr. In March,
Harvard College officially established the Frank Stanton Pro-
fessorship of the First Amendment at the John F. Kennedy
School of Government.
Richard E. Heckert was awarded an honorary Doctor of Sci-
ence degree from Miami University in May 1984.
Charles H. Townes received the Centennial Medal of the In-
stitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers in May 1984.
William Greenough received a Gold Medal Founders Award
in June from the Board of Directors of International Insurance
Seminars Inc.
Bibliography of Published
Work
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
Reprints of the publications listed below
can be obtained at no charge from the De-
partment of Embryology, 115 West Univer-
sity Parkway, Baltimore, Maryland 21210.
M.
John Anderson
. Anderson, M. J., and D. M. Fambrough,
Aggregates of acetylcholine receptors are as-
sociated with plaques of a basal lamina heparan
sulfate proteoglycan on the surface of skeletal
muscle fibers, /. Cell. Biol. 97, 1396-1411, 1983.
Donald D. Brown
Brown, D. D., How modern methods are
solving biological problems, in Genetic Engi-
neering: Applications to Agriculture (Belts-
ville Symposium 7), L. D. Owens, ed., pp. 1-
3, Rowman and Allanheld, Totowa, Passaic,
New Jersey, 1984.
Brown, D. D., The role of stable complexes
that repress and activate eucaryotic genes, Cell
37, 359-365, 1984.
Cozzarelli, N. R., S. P. Gerrard, M. Schlis-
sel, D. D. Brown, and D. F. Bogenhagen, Pur-
ified RNA polymerase III accurately and
efficiently terminates transcription of 5S RNA
genes, Cell 34, 829-835, 1983.
Smith, D. R., I. J. Jackson, and D. D. Brown,
Domains of the positive transcription factor for
the Xenopus 5S RNA gene, Cell 37, 645-652,
1984.
Wormington, W. M., M. Schlissel, and D.
D. Brown, Developmental regulation of Xen-
opus 5S RNA genes, Cold Spring Harbor Symp.
Quant. Biol. 1*7, 879-884, 1983.
Wormington, W. M., and D. D. Brown, On-
set of 5S RNA gene regulation during Xenopus
embryogenesis, Devel. Biol. 99, 248-257, 1983.
Daniel J. Burke
Burke, D. J., and S. Ward, Identification of
a large multigene family encoding the major
sperm protein of Caenorhabditis elegans, J.
Mol. Biol. 171, 1-29, 1983.
Matthias Chiquet
Chiquet, M., and D. M. Fambrough, Extra-
cellular matrix assembly during muscle de-
velopment studied with monoclonal antibodies,
Proc. Third EMBO Workshop on Myogenesis,
in Experimental Biology and Medicine 9, H.
M. Eppenberger, ed., pp. 87-92, S. Karger,
Basel, 1984.
. Wakshull, E., E. K. Bayne, M. Chiquet, and
D. M. Fambrough, Characterization of a plasma
membrane glycoprotein common to myoblasts,
skeletal muscle satellite cells, and glia, Devel.
Biol. 100, 464-477, 1983.
Diane de Cicco
De Cicco, D. V., and A. C. Spradling, Lo-
calization of a cis-acting element responsible
for the developmentally regulated amplifica-
tion of Drosophila chorion genes, Cell 38, 45-
54, 1984.
De Cicco, D. V., B. Wakimoto, L. Kalfayan,
J. Levine, and A. C. Spradling, Drosophila
chorion gene amplification: a model system for
the study of chromosome replication, Proc. Roy.
Soc. London Ser. B, in press, 1984.
Douglas M. Fambrough
Fambrough, D. M., Studies on the (Na+ +
K + )-ATPase of skeletal muscle and nerve, Cold
Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 1*8, 297-
304, 1983.
Fambrough, D. M., Biosynthesis and intra-
cellular transport of acetylcholine receptors,
in Methods in Enzymology; Biomembraues:
Membrane Biogenesis, Assembly, and Recy-
cling, 96, S. Fleischer and B. Fleischer, eds.,
pp. 331-352, Academic Press, New York, 1983.
Fambrough, D. M., Turnover of acetlycho-
line receptors: A brief review and some cau-
tions concerning significance in myasthenia
gravis, in Neuromuscular Diseases, G. Ser-
ratrice et al., eds., pp. 465-470, Raven Press,
New York, 1984.
Anderson, M. J., and D. M. Fambrough,
Aggregates of acetylcholine receptors are as-
sociated with plaques of a basal lamina heparan
sulfate proteoglycan on the surface of skeletal
muscle fibers, J. Cell. Biol. 97, 1396-1411, 1983.
Chiquet, M., and D. M. Fambrough, Extra-
cellular matrix assembly during muscle de-
velopment studied with monoclonal antibodies,
Proc. Third EMBO Workshop on Myogenesis,
In Experimental Biology and Medicine, 9, H.M.
Eppenberger, ed., pp. 87-92, S. Karger, Basel,
1984.
Pumplin, D. W., and D. M. Fambrough, (Na +
- K + )-ATPase correlated with a major group
of intramembrane particles in freeze fracture
replicas of cultured chick myotubes, J. Cell
Biol. 97, 1214-1225, 1983.
Wakshull, E., E. K. Bayne, M. Chiquet, and
117
118
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
D. M. Fambrough, Characterization of a plasma
membrane glycoprotein common to myoblasts,
skeletal muscle satellite cells, and glia, Devel.
Biol. 100, 464-477, 1983.
Nina V. Fedoroff
Fedoroff, N., D. Chaleff, U. Courage-Tebbe,
H.-P. Doring, M. Geiser, P. Starlinger, E.
Tillman, E. Week, and W. Werr, Mutations at
the Shrunken locus in maize caused by the
controlling element Ds, in Structure and
Function of Plant Genomes, 0. Ciferri and L.
Dure, eds., pp. 61-72, Plenum Press, New
York, 1983.
Fedoroff, N. , S. Wessler, and M. Shure, Iso-
lation of the transposable maize controlling
elements Ac and Ds, Cell 35, 243-251, 1983.
Fedoroff, N., D. Furtek, and 0. Nelson,
Cloning of the Bronze locus in maize by a sim-
ple and generalizable procedure using the
transposable controlling element Ac, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. USA 81, 3825-3829, 1984.
Behrens, U., N. Fedoroff, A. Laird, M.
Muller-Neumann, P. Starlinger, and J. Yoder,
Cloning of Zea mays controlling element Ac
from the wx-m7 allele, Mol. Gen. Genet. 194,
346-347, 1984.
Courage-Tebbe, U., H.-P Doring, N. Fe-
doroff, and P. Starlinger, The controlling ele-
ment Ds at the Shrunken locus in Zea mays:
structure of the unstable sh-m5933 allele and
several revertants, Cell 34, 383-393, 1983.
Pohlman, R. F.. N. V. Fedoroff, and J.
Messing, The nucleotide sequence of the maize
controlling element Activator, Cell 37, 635-
643, 1984.
Sheldon, E., R. Ferl, N. Fedoroff, and L.
C. Hannah, Isolation and analysis of a genomic
clone encoding sucrose synthetase in maize:
evidence for two introns in Sh, Mol. Gen. Ge-
net. 190, 421-426, 1983.
Shure, M. , S. Wessler, and N. Fedoroff, Mo-
lecular identification and isolation of the Waxy
locus in maize, Cell 35, 235-242, 1983.
Fedoroff, N. V., Transposable genetic ele-
ments in maize, Sci. Amer. 250, 84-98, 1984.
Joseph G. Gall
Gall, J. G., M. 0. Diaz, E. C. Stephenson,
and K. A. Mahon, The transcription unit of
lampbrush chromosomes, in Gene Structure and
Regulation in Development, pp. 137-146, Alan
R. Liss, Inc., New York, 1983.
Jamrich, M., R. Warrior, R. Steele, and J.
G. Gall, Transcription of repetitive sequences
on Xenopus lampbrush chromosomes, Proc.
Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 80, 3364-3367, 1983.
Jamrich, M., K. A. Mahon, E. R. Gavis, and
J. G. Gall, Histone RNA in amphibian oo-
cytes visualized by in situ hybridization to
methacrylate embedded tissue sections, EMBO
J. 3, 1939-1943, 1984.
Ian J. Jackson
Smith, D. R. , I. J. Jackson, and D. D. Brown,
Domains of the positive transcription factor for
the Xenopus 5S RNA gene, Cell 37, 645-652,
1984.
Laura Kalfayan
De Cicco, D. V., B. Wakimoto, L. Kalfayan,
J. Levine, and A. C. Spradling, Drosophila
chorion gene amplification: a model system for
the study of chromosome replication, Proc. Roy.
Soc. London Ser. B, in press, 1984.
Joseph Levine
De Cicco, D. V., B. Wakimoto, L. Kalfayan,
J. Levine, and A. C. Spradling, Drosophila
chorion gene amplification: a model system for
the study of chromosome replication, Proc. Roy.
Soc. London Ser. B, in press, 1984.
Naomi Lipsky
Lipsky, N. G., and R. E. Pagano, Intracel-
lular translocation of fluorescent sphingomye-
lin and cerebroside analogs in cultured
fibroblasts, J. Cell. Biol., in press.
Ronan O'Rahilly
O'Rahilly, R., The timing and sequence of
events in the development of the human eye
and ear during the embryonic period proper,
Anat. Embryol. 168, 87-99, 1983.
O'Rahilly, R. , Early human development, in
Research in Reproduction, R.G. Edwards, ed.,
Internat. Planned Par. Fed., London, 1983.
O'Rahilly, R., and F. Miiller, Early human
embryology, in Fertility and Sterility, pp. 13-
18, MTP Press, Lancaster, 1984.
O'Rahilly, R., and F. Miiller, The early de-
velopment of the hypoglossal nerve and occip-
ital somites in staged human embryos, Amer.
J. A?iat. 169, 237-257, 1984.
Miiller, F., and R. O'Rahilly, The first ap-
pearance of the major subdivisions of the hu-
man brain at stage 9, Anat. Embryol. 168,
419-432, 1983.
Richard E. Pagano
Pagano, R. E., Intracellular processing of
lipids: A theory based on studies with fluores-
cent lipids, liposomes and cells, in The Lipo-
some Letter, A. D. Bangham, ed., pp. 83-96,
Academic Press, 1983.
Pagano, R. E., Metabolism and intracellular
distribution of a fluorescent analogue of phos-
phatide acid in cultured fibroblasts, Ann. N.
Y. Acad. Sci. 4U, 1-7, 1983.
Lipsky, N. G., and R. E. Pagano, Intracel-
lular translocation of fluorescent sphingomye-
lin and cerebroside analogs in cultured
fibroblasts, J. Cell Biol., in press.
Sleight, R. G., and R. E. Pagano, Rapid
appearance of newly synthesized phosphati-
dylethanolamine at the cell surface, J. Biol.
Chem. 258, 9050-9058, 1983.
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of a fluorescent phophatidylcholine analog from
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Ophelia C. Rogers
Snider, M. D., and 0. C. Rogers, Trans-
membrane movement of oligosaccharide-lipid
during asparagine-linked oligosaccharide syn-
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Mark Schlissel
Cozzarelli, N. R., S. P. Gerrard, M. Schlis-
sel, D. D. Brown, and D. F. Bogenhagen, Pur-
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efficiently terminates transcription of 5S RNA
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Wormington, W. M., M. Schlissel, and D.
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Mavis Shure
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lation of the transposable maize controlling
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Shure, M. , S. Wessler, and N. Fedoroff, Mo-
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Martin D. Snider
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J. A. M. Stous, Hepatoma secretory proteins
migrate from rough endoplasmic reticulum to
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Allan C. Spradling
Spradling, A. C, and G. M. Rubin, The ef-
fect of chromosomal position on the expression
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De Cicco, D. V., and A. C. Spradling, Lo-
calization of a cis-acting element responsible
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54, 1984.
De Cicco, D. V., B. Wakimoto, L. Kalfayan,
J. Levine, and A. C. Spradling, Drosophila
chorion gene amplification: a model system for
the study of chromosome replication, Proc. Roy.
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Rubin, G. M., and A. C. Spradling, Vectors
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Barbara Wakimoto
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Samuel Ward
Burke, D. J., and S. Ward, Identification of
a large multigene family encoding the major
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Rahul Warrior
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G. Gall, Transcription of repetitive sequences
on Xenopus lampbrush chromosomes, Proc.
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Susan Wessler
Fedoroff, N. , S. Wessler, and M. Shure, Iso-
lation of the transposable maize controlling
elements Ac and Ds, Cell 35, 243-251, 1983.
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embryogenesis, Devel. Biol. 99, 248-257, 1983.
120
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BIOLOGY
Reprints of the numbered publications
listed below can be obtained at no charge
from the Department of Plant Biology, 290
Panama St., Stanford, CA 94305. Please
give reprint number(s) when ordering.
Murray R. Badger
843 Seemann, J. R., M. R. Badger, and J. A.
Berry, Variation in specific activity of ribulose-
1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase between species
utilizing differing photosynthetic pathways,
Plant Physiol. 7k, 791-794, 1984.
Joseph A. Berry
830 Downton, W. J. S., J. A. Berry, and J. R.
Seemann, Tolerance of photosynthesis to high
temperature in desert plants, Plcmt Physiol.
74, 786-790, 1984.
841 Coleman, J. R., J. A. Berry, R. K. Togosaki,
and A. R. Grossman, Identification of extra-
cellular carbonic anhydrase of Chlamydo-
monas reinhardtii, Plant Physiol. 76, 472-
477, 1984.
843 Seemann, J. R., M. R. Badger, and J. A.
Berry, Variation in specific activity of ribulose-
1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase between species
utilizing differing photosynthetic pathways,
Plant Physiol. 7k, 791-794, 1984.
851 Seemann, J. R., J. A. Berry, and W. J. S.
Downton, Photosynthetic response and adap-
tation to high temperature in desert plants: a
comparison of gas exchange and fluorescence
methods for studies of thermal tolerance, Plant
Physiol. 75, 364-368, 1984.
Olle Bjorkman
775 Bjorkman, O., and S. B. Powles, Inhibition
of photosynthetic reactions under water stress:
Interaction with light level, Planta 161, 490-
504, 1984.
806 Ludlow, M., and O. Bjorkman, Paraheli-
otropic leaf movement in Siratro as a protec-
tive mechanism against drought-induced
damage to primary photosynthetic reactions:
Damage by excessive light and heat, Planta
161, 505-518, 1984.
811 Pearcy, R. W., and O. Bjorkman, Physio-
logical effects, in Plant Responses to More
Carbon Dioxide, E. Leman, ed., pp. 65-105,
AAAS, Washington, D.C., 1984.
Michael R. Blatt
823 Blatt, M. R., The action spectrum for chlo-
roplast movements and evidence for blue-light-
photoreceptor cycling in the alga Vaucheria,
Planta 159, 267-276, 1983.
Wins low R. Briggs
789 Mandoli, D. F., and W. R. Briggs, Fiber-
optic plant tissues: spectral dependence in dark-
grown and green tissues, Photochem. Photo-
biol. 39, 419-424, 1984.
801 Cooke, T. J., R. H. Racusen, and W. R.
Briggs, Initial events in the tip-swelling re-
sponse of the filamentous gametophyte of On-
oclea sensibilis L. to blue light, Planta 159,
300-307, 1983.
808 Kaufman, L., W. F. Thompson, and W. R.
Briggs, Phytochrome-induced accumulation of
RNA encoding the small subunit of RuBPcase
requires ten thousand fold more red light than
the RNA for the chlorophyll alb binding pro-
tein, Scie?ice, in press.
815 Mandoli, D. F., and W. R. Briggs, Physi-
ology and optics of plant tissues, What's New
Plant Physiol. Ik, 13-16, 1983.
816 Briggs, W. R., and M. lino, Blue-light-ab-
sorbing photoreceptors in plants, Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc. London. Ser. B. 303, 347-359, 1983.
824 lino, M. , W. R. Briggs, and E. Schafer, Phy-
tochrome-mediated phototropism in maize
seedling shoots, Planta 160, 41-51, 1984.
825 Shinkle, J. R., and W. R. Briggs, Auxin
concentration/growth relationship for Avena
coleoptile sections from seedlings grown in
complete darkness, Plant Physiol. 7k, 335-
339, 1984.
829 lino, M., and W. R. Briggs, Growth distri-
bution during first positive phototropic cur-
vature of maize coleoptiles, Plant Cell Environ.
7, 97-104, 1984.
832 McGee, H. , S. Long, and W. R. Briggs, Why
whip egg whites in copper bowls?, Nature S08,
667-668, 1984.
833 Mandoli, D. F., J. Tepperman, E. Huala,
and W. R. Briggs, Photobiology of diagravi-
tropic maize roots, Plant Physiol. 75, 359-363,
1984.
834 lino, M., E. Schafer, and W. R. Briggs, Red-
light induced shift of the fluence-response curve
for first positive phototropic curvature of maize
coleoptiles, in The Blue Light Syndrome II , H.
Senger, ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, in press.
836 Briggs, W. R. , Plants and the daylight spec-
trum, by H. Smith, ed. (book review), Plant
Cell Environ. 7, 72-73, 1984.
847 Shinkle, J. R., and W. R. Briggs, IAA sen-
sitization of phytochrome-controlled growth of
coleoptile sections, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA
81, 3742-3746, 1984.
854 lino, M. , E. Schafer, and W. R. Briggs, Pho-
toreception sites for phytochrome-mediated
phototropism of maize mesocotyls, Planta, in
press.
Jeanette S. Brown
786 Anderson, J. A., J. S. Brown, and R. Malkin,
Chlorophyll b: an integral component of pho-
tosystem I of higher plant chloroplasts, Pho-
tochem. Photobiol. 38, 205-210, 1983.
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121
819 Biown, J. S., A new evaluation of chloro-
phyll absorption in photosynthetic mem-
branes, Photosyn Res. 4, 375-383, 1983.
828 Brown, J. S., Unusual pigments in a pri-
mitive green alga, Adv. Photosyn. Res., Vol.
II, 13-16, 1984.
840 Grimme, H., and J. S. Brown, Function of
chlorophylls and carotenoids in thylakoid
membranes: Chi a forms in LHC- and RC-
complexes from a green alga, Adv. Photosyn.
Res., Vol. II, 141-144, 1984.
John R. Coleman
841 Coleman, J. R. , J. A. Berry, R. K. Togosaki,
and A. R. Grossman, Identification of extra-
cellular carbonic anhydrase of Chlamydo-
mo?ias reinhardtii, Plant Physiol. 76, 472-
477, 1984.
844 Coleman, J. R., and A. R. Grossman, The
biosynthesis of carbonic anhydrase in Chla-
mydomonas y^einhardtii during adaptation to
low CO-,, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 6049-
6053, 1984.
David C. Fork
790 Satoh, K., and D. C. Fork, The relationship
between state II to state I transitions and cyclic
electron flow around photosystem I, Photosyn.
Res. b, 245-256, 1983.
812 Satoh, K., C. M. Smith, and D. C. Fork,
Effects of salinity on primary processes of pho-
tosynthesis in the red alga Porphyra perfor-
ata, Plant Physiol. 73, 643-647, 1983.
820 Satoh, K., and D. C. Fork, Induction of MS
delayed luminescence in the thermophilic blue-
green alga, Synechococcus lividus, in Photo-
synthetic Water Oxidation and PSII Photo-
chemistry, Riken International Symposium,
Y. Inoue, N. Murata, and Govindjee, eds., pp.
431-438, 1983.
C. Stacey French
Hagar, W. G., and C. S. French, Resolution
of components of the absorption spectrum of
chlorophyll-protein 668 and its phototransfor-
mation product in Atriplex hortensis, Physiol.
Plant 59, 292-296, 1983.
835 French, C. S., Introduction, in Protochlo-
rophyllide Reduction and Greening, C. Siron-
val and M. Brouers, eds., pp. 7-13, Nijhoff/
Junk, The Hague, 1984.
Arthur R. Grossman
841 Coleman, J. R., J. A. Berry, R. K. Togosaki,
and A. R. Grossman, Identification of extra-
cellular carbonic anhydrase of Chlamydo-
monas reinhardtii, Plant Physiol. 76, 472-
477, 1984.
844 Coleman, J. R., and A. R. Grossman, The
biosynthesis of carbonic anhydrase in Chla-
mydomonas reinhardtii during adaptation to
low C02, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 6049-
6053, 1984.
849 Lemaux, P., and A. R. Grossman, Isolation
and characterization of a gene for a major light-
harvesting polypeptide from Cyanophora par-
adoxa, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 4100-
4104, 1984.
Eva L. Huala
833 Mandoli, D. F., J. Tepperman, E. Huala,
and W. R. Briggs, Photobiology of diagravi-
tropic maize roots, Plant Physiol. 75, 359-363,
1984.
Moritoshi lino
816 Briggs, W. R., and M. lino, Blue-light-ab-
sorbing photoreceptors in plants, Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc. London. Ser. B. 303, 347-359, 1983.
824 lino, M. , W. R. Briggs, and E. Schafer, Phy-
tochrome-mediated phototropism in maize
seedling shoots, Planta 160, 41-51, 1984.
829 lino, M., and W. R. Briggs, Growth distri-
bution during first positive phototropic cur-
vature of maize coleoptiles, Plant Cell Environ.
7, 97-104, 1984.
834 lino, M., E. Schafer, and W. R. Briggs, Red-
light induced shift of the fluence-response curve
for first positive phototropic curvature of maize
coleoptiles, in The Blue Light Syndrome II, H.
Senger, ed., Springer- Verlag, Berlin, in press.
850 lino, M., and E. Schafer, Phototropic re-
sponse of the stage I phycomyces sporangio-
phore to a single pulse of blue light, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. USA, in press.
854 lino, M. , E. Schafer, and W. R. Briggs, Pho-
toreception sites for phytochrome-mediated
phototropism of maize mesocotyls, Planta, in
press.
Lon S. Kaufman
808 Kaufman, L., W. F. Thompson, and W. R.
Briggs, Phytochrome-induced accumulation of
RNA encoding the small subunit of RuBPcase
requires ten thousand fold more red light than
the RNA for the chlorophyll alb binding pro-
tein, Science, in press.
Peggy Lemaux
849 Lemaux, P., and A. R. Grossman, Isolation
and characterization of a gene for a major light-
harvesting polypeptide from Cyanophora par-
adoxa, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 4100-
4104, 1984.
Mervyn M. Ludlow
845 Ludlow, M. M, and D. W. Sheriff, Some
investigations of diaheliotropic responses of
Macroptilium atropurpureum, Ann. Bot., in
press, 1984.
806 Ludlow, M., and O. Bjorkman, Paraheli-
otropic leaf movement in Siratro as a protec-
tive mechanism against drought-induced
damage to primary photosynthetic reactions:
Damage by excessive light and heat, Planta
161, 505-518, 1984.
122
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Dina F. Mandoli
789 Mandoli, D. F., and W. R. Briggs, Fiber-
optic plant tissues: spectral dependence in dark-
grown and green tissues, Photochem. Photo-
biol. 39, 419-424, 1984.
815 Mandoli, D. F., and W. R. Briggs, Physi-
ology and optics of plant tissues, What's New
Plant Physiol. U, 13-16, 1983.
833 Mandoli, D. F., J. Tepperman, E. Huala,
and W. R. Briggs, Photobiology of diagravi-
tropic maize roots, Plant Physiol. 75, 359-363,
1984.
Bemardita Osorio
804 Palmer, J. D., B. Osorio, J. C. Watson, H.
Edwards, J. Dodd, and W. F. Thompson, Ev-
olutionary aspects of chloroplast genome
expression and organization, in Photosyn-
thesis, UCLA Symp. on Molecular and Cel-
lular Biology, R. Hallick, ed., pp. 273-283,
Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York, 1984.
Jeffrey D. Palmer
788 Thompson, W. F., M. Everett, N. Polans,
R. A. Jorgensen, and J. D. Palmer, Photo-
chrome control of RNA levels in developing
pea and mung-bean leaves, Planta 158, 487-
500, 1983.
821 Stern, D. B., J. D. Palmer, W. F. Thomp-
son, and David M. Lonsdale, Mitochondrial
DNA sequence evolution and homology to
chloroplast DNA in angiosperms, Plant Mo-
lecular Biology, UCLA Symposium on Mo-
lecular and Cellular Biology, R. B. Goldberg,
ed., pp. 467-477, Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York,
1983.
803 Stern, D. B., and J. D. Palmer, Recombi-
nation sequences in plant mitochondrial gen-
omes: Diversity and homologies to known
mitochondrial genes, Nucl. Acids. Res. 12,
6141-6157, 1984.
804 Palmer, J. D., B. Osorio, J. C. Watson, H.
Edwards, J. Dodd, and W. F. Thompson, Ev-
olutionary aspects of chloroplast genome
expression and organization, in Photosyn-
thesis, UCLA Symp. on Molecular and Cel-
lular Biology, R. Hallick, ed., pp. 273-283,
Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York, 1984.
822 Stern, D. B., and J. D. Palmer, Extensive
and widespread homologies between mito-
chondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA in plants,
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 1946-1950, 1984.
838 Palmer, J. D., and C. R. Shields, Tripartite
structure of the Brassica campestris mito-
chondrial genome, Nature 307, 437-440, 1984.
839 Palmer, J. D., R. A. Jorgensen, and W. F.
Thompson, Chloroplast DNA variation in Pi-
seum: Deletions, inversions, and phylogenetic
analysis, Genetics, in press.
Neil O. Polans
788 Thompson, W. F., M. Everett, N. Polans,
R. A. Jorgensen, and J. D. Palmer, Photo-
chrome control of RNA levels in developing
pea and mung-bean leaves, Planta 158, 487-
500, 1983.
Stephen B. Powles
lib Bjorkman, O., and S. B. Powles, Inhibition
of photosynthetic reactions under water stress:
Interaction with light level, Planta 161, 490-
504, 1984.
837 Powles, S.B., G. Comic, and G. Lovason,
Photoinhibition of in vivo photosynthesis in-
duced by strong light in the absence of C02:
an appraisal of the hypothesis that photores-
piration protects against photoinhibition,
Physiol. Vegetale 22, 437-446, 1984.
Kazuhiko Satoh
790 Satoh, K., and D. C. Fork, The relationship
between state II to state I transitions and cyclic
electron flow around photosystem I, Photosyn.
Res. b, 245-256, 1983.
812 Satoh, K., C. M. Smith, and D. C. Fork,
Effects of salinity on primary processes of pho-
tosynthesis in the red alga Porphyra perfor-
ata, Plant Physiol. 73, 643-647, 1983.
820 Satoh, K., and D. C. Fork, Induction of MS
delayed luminescence in the thermophilic blue-
green alga, Synechococcus lividus, in Photo-
synthetic Water Oxidatioji and PSII Photo-
chemistry, Riken International Symposium,
Y. Inoue, N. Murata, and Govindjee, eds., pp.
431-438, 1983.
Eberhard S chafer
824 lino, M. , W. R. Briggs, and E. Schafer, Phy-
tochrome-mediated phototropism in maize
seedlings shoots, Planta 160, 41-51, 1984.
834 lino, M., E. Schafer, and W. R. Briggs, Red-
light induced shift of the fluence-response curve
for first positive phototropic curvature of maize
coleoptiles, in The Blue Light Syndrome II, H.
Senger, ed., Springer- Verlag, Berlin, in press.
850 lino, M., and E. Schafer, Phototropic re-
sponse of the stage I phycomyces sporangio-
phore to a single pulse of blue light, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. USA, in press.
854 lino, M., E. Schafer, and W. R. Briggs, Pho-
toreception sites for phytochrome-mediated
phototropism of maize mesocotyls, Planta, in
press.
Jeffrey R. Seemann
830 Downton, W. J. S., J. A. Berry, and J. R.
Seemann, Tolerance of photosynthesis to high
temperature in desert plants, Plant Physiol.
7k, 786-790, 1984.
843 Seemann, J. R., M. R. Badger, and J. A.
Berry, Variation in specific activity of ribulose-
1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase between species
utilizing differing photosynthetic pathways,
Plant Physiol. 71,, 791-794, 1984.
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123
851 Seemann, J. R., J. A. Berry, and W. J. S.
Downton, Photosynthetic response and adap-
tation to high temperature in desert plants: a
comparison of gas exchange and fluorescence
methods for studies of thermal tolerance, Plant
Physiol. 75, 364-368, 1984.
James R. Shi?ikle
825 Shinkle, J. R., and W. R. Briggs, Auxin
concentration/growth relationship for Avena-
coleoptile sections from seedlings grown in
complete darkness, Plant Physiol. 7k, 335-
339, 1984.
847 Shinkle, J. R., and W. R. Briggs, IAA sen-
sitization of phytochrome-controlled growth of
coleoptile sections, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA
81, 3742-3746, 1984.
Celia M. Smith
820 Satoh, K., C. M. Smith, and D. C. Fork,
Effects of salinity on primary processes of pho-
tosynthesis in the red alga Porphyra perfor-
ata, Plant Physiol. 73, 643-647, 1983.
David B. Stern
821 Stern, D. B.. J. D. Palmer, W. F. Thomp-
son, and David M. Lonsdale, Mitochondrial
DNA sequence evolution and homology to
chloroplast DNA in angiosperms, Plant Mo-
lecular Biology, UCLA Symposium on Mo-
lecular and Cellular Biology , R. B. Goldberg,
ed., pp. 467-477, Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York,
1983.
803 Stern, D. B., and J. D. Palmer, Recombi-
nation sequences in plant mitochondrial gen-
omes: Diversity and homologies to known
mitochondrial genes, Nucl. Acids. Res., in
press, 1984.
822 Stern, D. B., and J. D. Palmer, Extensive
and widespread homologies between mito-
chondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA in plants,
Proc. Nat, Acad. Sci. USA 81, 1946-1950, 1984.
842 Stern, D. B., and K. Newton, Isolation of
intact plant mitochondrial RNA using aurin
tricarboxylic acid, Plant Mol. Biol. Rep. 2, 8-
15, 1984.
James M. Tepperman
833 Mandoli, D. F., J. Tepperman, E. Huala,
and W. R. Briggs, Photobiology of diagravi-
tropic maize roots, Plant Physiol. 75, 359-363,
1984.
William F. Thompson
788 Thompson, W. F., M. Everett, N. Polans,
R. A. Jorgensen, and J. D. Palmer, Photo-
chrome control of RNA levels in developing
pea and mung-bean leaves, Planta 158, 487-
500, 1983.
804 Palmer, J. D., B. Osorio, J. C. Watson, H.
Edwards, J. Dodd, and W. F. Thompson, Ev-
olutionary aspects of chloroplast genome
expression and organization, in Photosyn-
thesis, UCLA Sym.p. on Molecular and Cel-
lular Biology, R. Hallick, ed., pp. 273-283,
Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York, 1984.
808 Kaufman, L., W. F. Thompson, and W. R.
Briggs, Phytochrome-induced accumulation of
RNA encoding the small subunit of RuBPcase
requires ten thousand fold more red light than
the RNA for the chlorophyll alb binding pro-
tein, Science, in press.
821 Stern, D. B., J. D. Palmer, W. F. Thomp-
son, and David M. Lonsdale, Mitochondrial
DNA sequence evolution and homology to
chloroplast DNA in angiosperms, Plant Mo-
lecular Biology, UCLA Symposium on Mo-
lecular and Cellular Biology , R. B. Goldberg,
ed., pp. 467-477, Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York,
1983.
839 Palmer, J. D., R. A. Jorgensen, and W. F.
Thompson, Chloroplast DNA variation in Pi-
seum: Deletions, inversions, and phylogenetic
analysis, Genetics, in press.
C. Eduardo Vallejos
813 Vallejos, C. E., Enzyme activity staining,
in Isozymes in Plant Genetics and Breeding,
S. D. Tanksley and T. J. Orton, eds., pp. 469-
516, Elsevier Publications, Amsterdam, 1984.
John C. Watson
804 Palmer, J. D., B. Osorio, J. C. Watson, H.
Edwards, J. Dodd, and W. F. Thompson, Ev-
olutionary aspects of chloroplast genome
expression and organization, in Photosyn-
thesis, UCLA Symp. on Molecular and Cel-
lular Biology, R. Hallick, ed., pp. 273-283,
Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York, 1984.
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY RESEARCH GROUP
Roy J. Britten
Lee, J. J., R. J. Shott, S. J. Rose III, T. L.
Thomas, R. J. Britten, and E. H. Davidson,
Sea urchin actin gene subtypes: Gene number,
linkage and evolution, J. Mol. Biol. 172, 149-
176, 1984.
_ Cabrera, C. V., J. L. Lee, J. W. Ellison, R.
J. Britten, and E. H. Davidson, Regulation of
cytoplasmic mRNA prevalence in sea urchin
embryos: Rates of appearance and turnover
for specific sequences, J. Mol. Biol. 17k, 85-
111, 1984.
124
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
_ Shott, R. J., J. L. Lee, R. J. Britten, and
E. H. Davidson, Differential expression of the
actin gene family of Strong ylocentrotus pur-
puratus, Devel. Biol. 101, 295-306, 1984.
. Niman, H. L., B. R. Hough-Evans, V. D.
Vacquier, R. J. Britten, R. A. Lerner, and E.
H. Davidson, Proteins of the sea urchin egg
vitelline layer, Devel. Biol. 102, 390-401, 1984.
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
Reprints of the numbered publications
listed below can be obtained at no charge
from the Department of Terrestrial Magne-
tism, 5241 Broad Branch Rd., N. W.,
Washington, D.C. 20015. When ordering,
please give reprint number(s).
Charles L. Angevine
4722 Angevine, C. L., D. L. Turcotte, and J. R.
Ockendon, Geometrical form of aseismic ridges,
volcanoes, and seamounts, /. Geophys. Res.,
in press.
4723 Boss, A. P. , C. L. Angevine, and I. S. Sacks,
Finite amplitude models of the early evolution
of the earth, Phys. Earth Planet. Int., in press.
Barbara Barreiro
4724 Barreiro, B., and A. Clark, Lead isotopic
evidence for evolutionary changes in magma-
crust interaction, Central Andes, southern
Peru, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 69, 30-42, 1984.
Alan P. Boss
4723 Boss, A. P. , C. L. Angevine, and I. S. Sacks,
Finite amplitude models of the early evolution
of the earth, Phys. Earth Planet. Int., in press.
4725 Barnes, A., and A. P. Boss, Rapid expan-
sion of polytropes, Astrophys. J. 280, 819-824,
1984.
4726 Boss, A. P., Convection, Rev. Geophys. Space
Phys. 21, 1511-1520, 1983.
4727 Boss, A. P., Fragmentation of a noniso-
thermal protostellar cloud, Icarus 55, 181-184,
1983.
4728 Boss, A. P., Angular momentum transfer
by gravitational torques and the evolution of
binary protostars, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.
209, 543-567, 1984.
4729 Boss, A. P., Protostellar formation in ro-
tating interstellar clouds. IV. Nonisothermal
collapse, Astrophys. J. 277, 768-782, 1984.
4730 Boss, A. P. , Three-dimensional calculations
of the formation of the presolar nebula from a
slowly rotating cloud, Icarus 61, in press, 1985.
4731 Boss, A. P., and I. S. Sacks, Time-depen-
dent models of single- and double-layer mantle
convection, Nature 308, 533-535, 1984.
Louis Brown
4732 Brown, L. , Applications of accelerator mass
spectrometry, in Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Science, 12, George W. Wetherill,
ed., pp. 39-59, Annual Reviews, Inc., Palo
Alto, California, 1984.
4733 Pavich, M. J., L. Brown, J. Klein, and R.
Middleton, 10Be accumulation in a soil chron-
osequence, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 68, 198—
204, 1984.
Richard W. Carlso?i
4734 Carlson, R. W., Comment on "Implications
of oxygen-isotope data and trace-element mod-
eling for a large-scale mixing model for the
Columbia River Basalt," Geology 11, 735, 1983.
4735 Carlson, R. W., Magma oceanography and
the early evolution of the earth, Nature 305,
390, 1983.
4736 Carlson, R. W., D. R. Hunter, and F. Bar-
ker, Sm-Nd age and isotopic systematics of the
bimodal suite, ancient gneiss complex, Swa-
ziland, Nature 305, 701-704, 1983.
4737 Carlson, R. W., Tectonic influence on magma
composition of Cenozoic basalts from the Co-
lumbia Plateau and northwestern Great Basin,
U.S.A., in Explosive Volcanism: Inception,
Evolution, and Hazards, pp. 23-33, Panel on
Explosive Volcanism, Francis R. Boyd, Jr.,
Chairman, National Academy Press, Washing-
ton, D.C, 1984.
4738 Hart, W. K., and R. W. Carlson, K-Ar ages
of late Cenozoic basalts from southeastern Or-
egon, southwestern Idaho, and northern Ne-
vada, Isochron/West 38, 23-26, 1983.
4739 Ishizaka, K. , and R. W. Carlson, Nd-Sr sys-
tematics of the Setouchi volcanic rocks, south-
west Japan: a clue to the origin of orogenic
andesite, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 64, 327-340,
1983.
Lina M. Echeverria
4740 Aitken, B. G., and L. M. Echeverria, Pe-
trology and geochemistry of komatiitic and
tholeiitic rocks from Gorgona Island, Colom-
bia, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 86, 94-105, 1984.
W. Kent Ford, Jr.
4741 Rubin, V. C, and W. K. Ford, Jr., The
noninteracting spiral pair, NGC 450/UGC 807,
Astrophys. J. 271, 556-563, 1983.
4742 Rubin, V. C, W. K. Ford, Jr., and B. C.
Whitmore, Luminosity-dependent line ratios
in disks of spiral galaxies, Astrophys. J. 281,
L21-L24, 1984.
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125
4771 Whitmore, B. C., V. C. Rubin, and W. K.
Ford, Jr., Stellar and gas kinematics in disk
galaxies, Astrophys. J. 287, in press.
William K. Hart
4743 Hart, W. K., J. L. Aronson, and S. A.
Mertzman, Areal distribution and age of low-
K, high-alumina olivine tholeiite magmatism
in the northwestern Great Basin, Geol. Soc.
Amer. Bull. 95, 186-195, 1984.
4738 Hart, W. K., and R. W. Carlson, K-Ar ages
of late Cenozoic basalts from southeastern Or-
egon, southwestern Idaho, and northern Ne-
vada, Isochron/West 38, 23-26, 1983.
Albrecht W. Hofmann
4744 Feigenson, M. D., A. W. Hofmann, and F.
J. Spera, Case studies on the origin of basalt:
II. The transition from tholeiitic to alkalic vol-
canism on Kohala volcano, Hawaii, Contrib.
Mineral. Petrol. 8k, 390-405, 1983.
4745 Hofmann, A. W. , and M. D. Feigenson, Case
studies on the origin of basalt: I. Theory and
reassessment of Grenada basalts, Contrib.
Mineral. Petrol. 8k, 382-389, 1983.
4746 Jochum, K. P., A. W. Hofmann, E. Ito, H.
M. Seufert, and W. M. White, K, U and Th in
mid-ocean ridge basalt glasses and heat pro-
duction, K/U and K/Rb in the mantle, Nature
306, 431-436, 1983.
Esther M. Hu
4141 Cowie, L. L., E. M. Hu, E. B. Jenkins, and
D. G. York, Two-dimensional spectrophoto-
metry of the cores of X-ray luminous clusters,
Astrophys. J. 272, 29-47, 1983.
Mizuho Ishida
4748 Ishida, M., Spatial-temporal variation of
seismicity and spectrum of the 1980 earth-
quake swarm near the Izu Peninsula, Japan,
Bull. Seismol. Soc. Amer. 7k, 199-221, 1984.
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Relationships between properties and struc-
ture of aluminosilicate melts, Amer. Mineral.,
in press, 1984.
Mysen, B. 0., D. Virgo, E.-R. Neumann,
and F. A. Seifert, Redox equilibria and the
structural states of ferric and ferrous iron in
melts in the system CaO-MgO-Al203-Si02-Fe-
0: relationships between redox equilibria, melt
structure and liquidus phase equilibria, Amer.
Mineral., in press, 1984.
Shiv K. Sharma
1906 Sharma, S. K., B. Simons, and H. S. Yoder,
Jr., Raman study of anorthite, calcium Tscher-
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Anne C. Sigleo
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Bruno Simons
1906 Sharma, S. K., B. Simons, and H. S. Yoder,
Jr., Raman study of anorthite, calcium Tscher-
mak's pyroxene, and gehlenite in crystalline
and glassy states, Amer. Mineral. 68, 1113—
1125, 1983.
Frank S. Spear
1893 Rumble, D., Ill, and F. S. Spear, Oxygen-
isotope equilibration and permeability en-
hancement during regional metamorphism, J.
Geol. Soc. (London) UO, 619-628, 1983.
George Tunell
1929 Tunell, G., Satisfactory and unsatisfactory
definitions of the activity function and satis-
factory and unsatisfactory derivations of its
partial derivatives with respect to tempera-
ture and pressure, Chem. Geol. 45, 299-311,
1984.
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MOUNT WILSON AND LAS CAMPANAS OBSERVATORIES
Limited reprints are available for the
numbered publications listed below at no
charge from the Editor, Mount Wilson and
Las Campanas Observatories, 813 Santa
Barbara Street, Pasadena, California 91101.
Please give reprint number(s) when order-
ing.
Halton C. Arp
2748 Arp, H. C, Further observations and anal-
ysis of quasars near companion galaxies, As-
trophys. J. 271, 479-506, 1983.
2796 Arp, H. C, Addendum to Browne's paper
[Astrophys. J. (Lett.) 263, hi, 1982,] Astro-
phys. J. (Lett.) 271, L41, 1983.
2821 Arp, H. C, A large quasar inhomogeneity
on the sky, Astrophys. J. (Lett.) 277, L27-
L29, 1984.
2840 Arp, H. C, The nearest quasars, Pnbl. As-
tron. Soc. Pac. 96, 148-160, 1984.
2857 Arp, H. C, Distribution of quasars on the
sky, J. Astrophys. Astron. (India) 5, 31-41,
1984.
2870 Wolstencroft, R. D., W. H.-M. Ku, H. C.
Arp, and S. M. Scarrott, Six quasars near the
jets of NGC 1097, Mon. Roy. Astron. Soc. 205,
67-80, 1983.
Arp, H. C, Two newly discovered quasars
closely spaced across a galaxy, Astrophys. J.,
in press, 1984.
Arp, H. C, I. Nineteen newly discovered
quasars in the Dec = -35° zone, Astrophys.
J., in press, 1984.
Arp, H. C, II. Properties of quasars in the
Sculptor regions, Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Arp, H. C, R. D. Wolstencroft, and X. T.
He, Complete quasar search in the NGC 1097
field, Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Todd A. Boroson
2830 Boroson, T. A., I. B. Thompson, and S. A.
Shectman, Color distributions in early type
galaxies. I. BVRI observations with a scan-
ning CCD, Astron. J. 88, 1707-1718, 1983.
2839 Boroson, T. A. , and J. B. Oke, Spectroscopy
of the nebulosity around eight high-luminosity
QSO's, Astrophys. J. 281, 535-544, 1984.
Boroson, T. A., J. W. Liebert, and M. S.
Giampapa, New spectrophotometry of the ex-
tremely cool proper motion star LHS 2924,
Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
David H. Bruning
2769 Bruning, D. H., and B. J. LaBonte, Inter-
pretation of solar irradiance variations using
ground-based observations, Astrophys. J. 271,
853-858, 1983.
2773 Howard, R. H., J. E. Boyden, D. H. Brun-
ing, M. K. Clark, H. W. Crist, and B. J.
LaBonte, The Mount Wilson magnetograph
(Report from a Solar Institute), Solar Phys.
87, 195-203, 1983.
132
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
2836 Bruning, D. H., The applicability of the
Fourier convolution theorem to the analysis of
late-type stellar spectra, Astrophys. J. 281,
830-838, 1984.
2844 Marcy, G. W., and D. H. Bruning, Magnetic
field observations of evolved stars, Astrophys.
J. 281, 286-291, 1984.
Alan Dressier
2761 Dressier, A. D., and J. E. Gunn, Spectros-
copy of galaxies in distant clusters. II. The
population of the 3C 295 cluster, Astrophys.
J. 270, 7-19, 1983.
2804 Dressier, A. D., Internal kinematics of gal-
axies in clusters. I. Velocity dispersions for
elliptical galaxies in Coma and Virgo, Astro-
phys. J. 281, 512-524, 1984.
Dressier, A., The evolution of galaxies in
clusters, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 22,
in press, 1984.
Dressier, A., Studying the internal kine-
matics of galaxies using the calcium IR triplet,
Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Douglas K. Duncan
2803 Noyes, R. W., L. W. Hartmann, S. L. Bal-
iunas, D. K. Duncan, and A. H. Vaughan, Ro-
tation, convection, and magnetic activity in
lower main sequence stars, Astrophys. J. 279,
763-777, 1984.
2841 Duncan, D. K., A sample of solar-type stars
of known age, Astron. J. 89, 515-522, 1984.
2858 Duncan, D. K., and B. F. Jones, Lithium
abundance and age spread in the Pleiades, As-
trophys. J. 271, 663-671, 1983.
Hartmann, L., S. L. Baliunas, D. K. Dun-
can, and R. W. Noyes, A study of the de-
pendence of Mg II emission on the rotational
periods of main-sequence stars, Astrophys. J.
279, 778-784, 1984.
Marcy, G. W., D. K. Duncan, and R. Cohen,
Short timescale periodicity in H-alpha from the
main-sequence HII 1883, Astrophys. J, in press,
1984.
Duncan, D. K., S. L. Baliunas, R. W. Noyes,
A. H. Vaughan, J. Frazer, and H. H. Lanning,
Chromospheric emission and rotation of the
Hyades lower main sequence, Publ. Astroyi.
Soc. Pac, in press.
Noyes, R. W., S. L. Baliunas, D. K. Dun-
can, E. Beiserne, J. Home, and L. Widrow,
Evidence for global oscillations in the K2 dwarf
Epsilon Eridani, Astrophys. J., in press.
Baliunas, S. L., J. H. Home, A. Porter, D.
K. Duncan, J. Frazer, H. Lanning, A. Misch,
J. Mueller, R. W. Noyes, T. Soyumer, A. H.
Vaughan, and L. Woodard, Time series mea-
surements of chromospheric Ca II H and K
emission in cool stars and the search for dif-
ferential rotation, Astrophys. J., in press.
Duncan, D. K., G. W. Lockwood, D. T.
Thompson, R. R. Radick, W. H. Osborn, W.
E. Baggett, and L. W. Hartman, Publ. As-
tron. Soc. Pac, in press.
Gerard Gilmore
Gilmore, G., New light on faint stars. VI.
Structure and evolution of the galactic spher-
oid, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 207, 223-
240, 1984.
Gilmore, G., and P. Hewett, A new limit on
the nature of the galactic missing mass, Na-
ture (Lett.) 306, 669, 1983.
Gilmore, G. , and N. Reid, New light on faint
stars. III. Galactic structure towards the south
galactic pole, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 202,
1025-1047, 1983.
Reid, N. , and G. Gilmore, New light on faint
stars. V. Infrared photometry and the H-R
diagram for low mass dwarfs, Mon. Not. Roy.
Astron. Soc. 206, 19-35, 1984.
Robert Howard
2749 Howard, R., and B. J. LaBonte, The ob-
served relationships between some solar ro-
tation parameters and the activity cycle, IAU
Symp. No. 102, Solar and Stellar Magnetic
Fields: Origins and Coronal Effects, J.O.
Stenflo, ed., pp. 101-111, D. ReidelPubl. Co.,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1983.
2773 Howard, R. H., J. E. Boyden, D. H. Brun-
ing, M. K. Clark, H. W. Crist, and B. J.
LaBonte, The Mount Wilson magnetograph
(Report from a Solar Institute), Solar Phys.
87, 195-203, 1983.
2829 Snodgrass, H. B., R. H. Howard, and L.
Webster, Recalibration of Mount Wilson Dop-
pler measurements, Solar Phys. 90, 199-202,
1984.
2850 Howard, R., F. Tang, and J. M. Adkins, A
statistical study of active regions 1967-1981,
Solar Phys., in press, 1984.
Snodgrass, H. B., and R. Howard, Limits
on photospheric Doppler signatures for giant
cells, Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Snodgrass, H. B., and R. Howard, Sepa-
ration of large-scale photospheric Doppler pat-
terns, Solar Phys., in press, 1984.
Snodgrass, H. B., and R. Howard, Torsional
oscillations of low mode, Solar Phys., in press,
1984.
Howard, R., P. A. Gilman, and P. I. Gilman,
Rotation of the sun measured from Mount Wil-
son white-light images, Astrophys. J., in press,
1984.
Howard, R., and P. A. Gilman, On the cor-
relation of longitudinal and latitudinal motions
of sunspots, Solar Phys., in press, 1984.
Howard, R., and P. A. Gilman, Variations
in solar rotation with the sunspot cycle, As-
trophys. J., in press, 1984.
Howard, R., and F. Tang, Active regions in
the solar cycle, Second Indo-US Workshop on
Solar Terrestrial Physics, in press, 1984.
Jerome Kristian
2782 Mould, J. R., Kristian, J., and G. S. Da-
Costa, Stellar populations in Local Group dwarf
Las Campanas, photographed shortly before dedication of the
Irenee du Pont telescope in 1976. From left to right: the dome of the 40-inch
wide-angle Swope reflector, the dome of the University of Toronto 24-inch re-
flector, the housing of the 10-inch Ross refractor, and the du Pont telescope
dome.
elliptical galaxies. I. NGC 147, Astrophys. J.
270, 471-484, 1983.
2812 Middleditch, J., and J. Kristian, A search
for young, luminous optical pulsars in extra-
galactic supernova remnants, Astrophys. J. 279,
157-161, 1984.
2819 Mould, J. R., Kristian, J., and G. S. Da-
Costa, Stellar populations in Local Group dwarf
elliptical galaxies. II. NGC 205, Astrophys. J.
278, 575-581, 1984.
Wojciech Krzeminski
Garrison, R. F., R. E. Schild, W. A. Hilt-
ner, and W. K. Krzeminski, CPD -48° 1577:
The brightest known cataclysmic variable, As-
trophys. J. (Lett.) 276, L13-L16, 1984.
Duhalde, 0., and W. K. Krzeminski, The
Quality of Las Campanas as a site, ESO Work-
shop on Site Testing for Future Telescopes, A.
Ardeberg and L. Woltjer, eds., pp. 119-125,
1984.
Howard Lanning
2899 Baliunas, S. L., A. H. Vaughan, L. Hart-
mann, F. Middelkoop, D. Mihalas, R. W. Noyes,
G. W. Preston, J. Frazer, and H. Lanning,
Stellar rotation in lower main-sequence stars
measured from time variations in H and K
emission-line fluxes. II. Detailed analysis of
the 1980 observing season data, Astrophys. J.
275, 752-772, 1983.
Duncan, D. K., S. L. Baliunas, R. W. Noyes,
A. H. Vaughan, J. Frazer, and H. H. Lanning,
Chromospheric emission and rotation of the
Hyades lower main sequence, Publ. Astro)i.
Soc. Pac, in press.
Baliunas, S. L., J. H. Home, A. Porter, D.
K. Duncan, J. Frazer, H. Lanning, A. Misch,
J. Mueller, R. W. Noyes, D. Soyumer, A. H.
Vaughan, and L. Woodard, Time series mea-
surements of chromospheric Ca II H and K
emission in cool stars and the search for dif-
ferential rotation, Astrophys. J., in press.
Geoffrey W. Marcy
2784 Marcy, G. W. , Observations of magnetic fields
on solar-type stars, Astrophys. J. 276, 286-
304, 1984.
2844 Marcy, G. W., and D. H. Bruning, Magnetic
field observations of evolved stars, Astrophi/s.
J. 281, 286-291, 1984.
Marcy, G. W., A search for sub-stellar ob-
jects (Abstract), Bull. Amer. Astron. Soc. 16,
No. 2, 1984.
Marcy, G. W., D. K. Duncan, and R. D.
Cohen, Short timescale periodicity in H-alpha
emission from the main-sequence star HI 1 1883,
Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Peter J. McGregor
2788 Lacy, J. H., F. Baas, L. J. Allamandola, S.
E. Persson, P. J. McGregor, C. J. Lonsdale,
134
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
T. R. Geballe, and C. E. P. van de Bult, 4.6
micron absorption features due to solid phase
CO and cyano group molecules toward compact
infrared sources, Astrophys. J. 276, 533-543,
1984.
2831 McGregor, P. J., and A. R. Hyland, A pho-
tometric comparison of late-type cluster su-
pergiants in the Magellanic Clouds and the
Galaxy, Astrophys. J. 277, 149-163, 1984.
2856 McGregor, P. J., S. E. Persson, and T. R.
Geballe, Brackett-alpha emission from south-
ern compact infrared sources, Publ. Astron,
Soc. Pac. 96, 315-320, 1984.
Persson, S. E., P. J. McGregor, and J. G.
Cohen, Spectrophotometry of compact embed-
ded infrared sources in the 0.6-1.0 m region,
Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Persson, S. E., T. R. Geballe, P. J. Mc-
Gregor, C. J. Lonsdale, S. Edwards, and F.
Baas, Brackett-alpha line profiles in young
stellar objects, Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
David G. Monet
2842 Margon, B., M. Aaronson, J. Liebert, and
D. Monet, A very distant high-latitude carbon
star, Astron. J. 89, 274-276, 1984.
S. Eric Persson
2788 Lacy, J. H., F. Baas, L. J. Allamandola, S.
E. Persson, P. J. McGregor, C. J. Lonsdale,
T. R. Geballe, and C. E. P. van de Bult, 4.6
micron absorption features due to solid phase
CO and cyano group molecules toward compact
infrared sources, Astrophys. J. 276, 533-543,
1984.
2809 Frogel, J. A., J. G. Cohen, and S. E. Pers-
son, Globular cluster giant branches and the
metallicity scale, Astrophys. J. 275, 773-789,
1984.
2843 Frogel, J. A., S. E. Persson, and J. G. Cohen,
Infrared photometry, bolometric luminosities,
and effective temperatures for giant stars in
26 globular clusters, Astrophys. J. Snppl. Ser.
53, 713-749, 1983.
2855 Cohen, J. G., S. E. Persson, and L. Searle,
The clusters of M33, Astrophys. J. 281, 141-
147, 1984.
2856 McGregor, P. J., S. E. Persson, and T. R.
Geballe, Brackett-alpha emission from south-
ern compact infrared sources, Publ. Astron.
Soc. Pac. 96, 315-320, 1984.
Persson, S. E., P. J. McGregor, and J. G.
Cohen, Spectrophotometry of compact embed-
ded infrared sources in the 0.6-1.0 m region,
Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Persson, S. E., T. R. Geballe, P. J. Mc-
Gregor, C. J. Lonsdale, S. Edwards, and F.
Baas, Brackett-alpha line profiles in young
stellar objects, Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Cohen, J. G. , S. E. Persson, and R. M. Rich,
IUE Observations of the clusters of the Ma-
gellanic Clouds, Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
. Persson, S. E., C. J. Lonsdale, and K. Mat-
thews, Infrared observations of interacting/
merging galaxies, Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
_ Persson, S. E., C. J. Lonsdale, C. A. Beich-
man, B. T. Soifer, G. Neugebauer, and J.
Houck, Luminosities and excitations of gal-
axies in the IRAS minisurvey, Bull. Amer.
Astron. Soc, in press, 1984.
George W. Preston
2899 Baliunas, S. L., A. H. Vaughan, L. Hart-
mann, F. Middelkoop, D. Mihalas, R. W. Noyes,
G. W. Preston, J. Frazer, and H. Lanning,
Stellar rotation in lower main-sequence stars
measured from time variations in H and K
emission-line fluxes. II. Detailed analysis of
the 1980 observing season data, Astrophys. J.
275, 752-772, 1983.
Allan Sandage
2774 Sandage, A., On the distance to M33 deter-
mined from magnitude corrections to Hubble's
original Cepheid photometry, Astron. J. 88,
1108-1125, 1983.
2783 Sandage, A., and B. Katem, On the intrinsic
width and luminosity function of the M92 main
sequence, Astron. J. 88, 1146-1158, 1983.
2785 Sandage, A., On the age of M92 and M15,
Astron. J. 88, 1159-1165, 1983.
2793 Sandage, A., The brightest stars in nearby
galaxies. II. The color-magnitude diagram for
the brightest red and blue stars in M101, As-
tron, J. 88, 1569-1578, 1983.
2825 Sandage, A., The brightest stars in nearby
galaxies. IV. The color-magnitude diagram for
the brightest red and blue stars in NGC 2403,
Astron. J. 89, 630-635, 1984.
2826 Binggeli, B., A. Sandage, and M. Tarenghi,
Studies of the Virgo cluster. I. Photometry of
109 galaxies near the cluster center to serve
as standards, Astron. J. 89, 64-82, 1984.
2828 Sandage, A., The brightest stars in nearby
galaxies. III. The color-magnitude diagram for
the brightest red and blue stars in M81 and
Holmberg IX, Astron. J. 89, 621-629, 1984.
2853 Sandage, A. , and G. A. Tammann, The Hub-
ble constant as derived from 21 cm linewidths,
Nature 307, 326-329, 1984.
2854 Kraan-Korteweg, R. C, A. Sandage, and
G. A. Tammann, The effect of the perturbation
of the local velocity field by Virgo on the cal-
culation of differential luminosity functions,
Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
2861 Sandage, A., and G. A. Tammann, The dy-
namical parameters of the Universe: H0, qo,
(l0, A, and K, Conference report to the first
ESO/CERN symposium, Large Scale Struc-
tures of the Universe, Cosmology and Fun-
damental Physics, CERN, Geneva,
Switzerland, 1983.
2862 Sandage, A., and B. Binggeli, Studies of the
Virgo cluster. III. A classification system and
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an illustrated atlas of Virgo cluster dwarf gal-
axies, Astron. J., in press, 1984.
2874 Sandage, A., and P. Roques, Main-sequence
photometry and the age of the metal-rich glob-
ular cluster NGC 6171, Astron. J., in press,
1984.
2888 Sandage, A., Cosmology: The discovery of
the Universe in this century, Science &4, No-
vember, 1984.
Paul L. Schechter
Kirshner, R. P., A. Oemler, P. L. Schech-
ter, and S. A. Shectman, Survey of the Bootes
void, in Early Evolution of the Universe and
its Present Structure, IAU Symposium No.
104, G. Abell and G. Chincarini, eds., D. Rei-
del Publ. Co., Dordrecht, The Netherlands,
1983.
Kirshner, R. P., A. Oemler, P. Schechter,
and S. A. Shectman, A deep survey of gal-
axies, Astron, J. 88, 1285-1300, 1983.
2801 Schechter, P. L., R. Sancisi, H. Van Woer-
den, and C. R. Lynds, The spindle-like gal-
axies UGC 7576 and II ZW 73, Mon, Not. Roy.
Astron. Soc. 208, 111-121, 1984.
Schechter, P. L. , M.-H. Ulrich, and A. Bok-
senberg, NGC 4650A: The rotation of the dif-
fuse stellar component, Astrophys. J. 277, 526-
531, 1984.
Latham, D. W., J. Tonry, J. N. Bahcall, R.
M. Soneira, and P. L. Schechter, Detection of
binaries with projected separations as large as
0.1 parsec, Astrophys. J. (Lett.) 281, L41-L45,
1984.
Leonard Searle
2834 Searle, L., The integrated spectra of star
clusters and the history of the Magellanic
Clouds, in Structure and Evolution of the Ma-
gellanic Clouds, IAU Symposium. No. 108, S.
van den Bergh and K. S. de Boer, eds., pp.
13-23, D. Reidel Publ. Co., Dordrecht, The
Netherlands, 1984.
2855 Cohen, J. G., S. E. Persson, and L. Searle,
The clusters of M33, Astrophys. J. 281, 141-
k 147, 1984.
Stephen A. Shectman
Kirshner, R. P., A. Oemler, P. L. Schech-
ter, and S. A. Shectman, Survey of the Bootes
void, in Early Evolution of the Universe and
its Present Structure, IAU Symposium No.
10k. , G. Abell and G. Chincarini, eds., D. Rei-
del Publ. Co., Dordrecht, The Netherlands,
1983.
Kirshner, R. P., A. Oemler, P. Schechter,
and S. A. Shectman, A deep survey of gal-
axies, Astron. J. 88, 1285-1300, 1983.
Shectman, S. A., R. P. Stefanik, and D. W.
Latham, Redshifts for 115 galaxies near the
equator, Astron. J. 88, 477-482, 1983.
2830 Boroson, T. A., I. B. Thompson, and S. A.
Shectman, Color distributions in early type
galaxies. I. BVRI observations with a scan-
ning CCD, Astroyi. J. 88, 1707-1718, 1983.
. Shectman, S. A., Reflecting correctors for
large spherical primaries, in Advanced Tech-
nology Telescopes II, Proc. SPIE kkU, pp. 106-
109, 1984.
. Shectman, S. A., A two-dimensional photon
counter, in Instrumentation in Astronomy V,
Proc. SPIE U5, pp. 128-131, A. Boksenberg
and D. L. Crawford, eds., 1984.
. Shectman, S. A., Clusters of galaxies form
the Shane-Wirtanen counts, Astrophys. J.
Suppl. Ser., in press.
Horace A. Smith
2807 Smith, H. A., and A. Manduca, The metal
abundances of RR Lyrae stars in the globular
clusters NGC 3201, NGC 4590, and NGC 6171,
Astron. J. 88, 982-984, 1983.
Herschel B. Snodgrass
2762 Snodgrass, H. B., Magnetic rotation of the
solar photosphere, Astrophys. J. 270, 288-299,
1983.
2829 Snodgrass, H. B., R. H. Howard, and L.
Webster, Recalibration of Mount Wilson Dop-
pler measurements, Solar Phys. 90, 199-202,
1984.
2896 Snodgrass, H. B., An improved parameter-
ization for the Mount Wilson Doppler data,
paper presented at the Solar Neighborhood
Meeting, Owens Valley Radio Observatory,
1984.
Snodgrass, H. B., and R. Howard, Limits
on photospheric Doppler signatures for giant
cells, Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Snodgrass, H. B., and R. Howard, Sepa-
ration of large-scale photospheric Doppler pat-
terns, Solar Phys., in press, 1984.
Snodgrass, H. B. , and R. Howard, Torsional
oscillations of low mode, Solar Phys., in press,
1984.
Thomas Y. Steiman-Cameron
Steiman-Cameron, T. Y., H. R. Johnson,
and R. K. Honeycutt, Chromospheric activity
in M giants, in Proceedings of the NASA Sym-
posium, Future of Ultraviolet Astronomy
Based on Six Years of IUE Research, J. M.
Mead, R. D. Chapman, and Y. Kondo, eds.,
pp. 441-444, NASA-CP 2349, Greenbelt,
Maryland, 1984.
Steiman-Cameron, T. Y., L. P. David, and
R. H. Durisen, Preferred orbit planes in triax-
ial galaxies. II. Tumbling about a nonprincipal
axis, Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
Peter B. Stetson
2781 Stetson, P. B., Early-type high- velocity stars
in the solar neighborhood. III. Radial veloci-
ties, rotation indices, and line-strength indices
for southern candidates, Astron. J. 88, 1349—
1366, 1983.
136
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
2830 Stetson, P. B., Spectroscopy of giant stars
in the Draco and Ursa Minor dwarf galaxies,
Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 96, 128-142, 1984.
Nicholas B. Suntzeff
Suntzeff, N. B., J. F. Dominy, and G. Wall-
erstein, Line doubling in the 272-day-long pe-
riod variable V Cancri, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron.
Soc, in press, 1984.
Gustav A. Tammann
2853 Sandage, A. , and G. A. Tammann, The Hub-
ble constant as derived from 21 cm linewidths,
Nature 307, 326-329, 1984.
2854 Kraan-Korteweg, R. C, A. Sandage, and
G. A. Tammann, The effect of the perturbation
of the local velocity field by Virgo on the cal-
culation of differential luminosity functions,
Astrophys. J., in press, 1984.
2861 Sandage, A., and G. A. Tammann, The dy-
namical parameters of the Universe: H0, q0,
O0, A, and K, Conference report to the first
ESO/CERN symposium, Large Scale Struc-
tures of the Universe, Cosmology and Fun-
damental Physics, CERN, Geneva,
Switzerland, 1983.
Ian B. Thompson
2814 Thompson, I. B., Magnetic observations of
the Ap star HD 83368, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron.
Soc. 205, 43P-45P, 1983.
2830 Boroson, T. A., I. B. Thompson, and S. A.
Shectman, Color distributions in early type
galaxies. I. BVRI observations with a scan-
ning CCD, Astron. J. 88, 1707-1718, 1983.
2974 Borra, E. F., J. D. Landstreet, and I. B.
Thompson, The magnetic fields of helium-weak
B stars, Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 53, 151—
167, 1983.
Arthur H. Vaughan
2803 Noyes, R. W., L. W. Hartmann, S. L. Bal-
iunas, D. K. Duncan, and A. H. Vaughan, Ro-
tation, convection, and magnetic activity in
lower main sequence stars, Astrophys. J. 279,
763-777, 1984.
2837 Vaughan, A. H., The Mount Wilson pro-
gram for stellar activity cycles, I All Symp.
No. 102, Solar and Stellar Magnetic Fields:
Origins and Coronal Effects, J. 0. Stenflo,
ed., pp. 113-132, D. Reidel Publ. Co., Dor-
drecht, The Netherlands, 1983.
2899 Baliunas, S. L., A. H. Vaughan, L. Hart-
mann, F. Middelkoop, D. Mihalas, R. W. Noyes,
G. W. Preston, J. Frazer, and H. Lanning,
Stellar rotation in lower main-sequence stars
measured from time variations in H and K
emission-line fluxes. II. Detailed analysis of
the 1980 observing season data, Astrophys. J.
275, 752-772, 1983.
Hartmann, L., D. R. Soderblom, R. W.
Noyes, N. Burnham, and A. H. Vaughan, An
analysis of the Vaughan-Preston survey of
chromospheric emission, 1983, Astrophys. J.
276, 254-265, 1984.
Noyes, R. W., N. O. Weiss, and A. H.
Vaughan, The relation between stellar rota-
tion rate and activity cycle periods, 1984, As-
trophys. J., in press.
Duncan, D. K., S. L. Baliunas, R. W. Noyes,
A. H. Vaughan, J. Frazer, and H. H. Lanning,
Chromospheric emission and rotation of the
Hyades lower main sequence, Publ. Astron.
Soc. Pac, in press.
Baliunas, S. L., J. H. Home, A. Porter, D.
K. Duncan, J. Frazer, H. Lanning, A. Misch,
J. Mueller, R. W. Noyes, T. Soyumer, A. H.
Vaughan, and L. Woodard, Time series mea-
surements of chromospheric Ca II H and K
emission in cool stars and the search for dif-
ferential rotation, Astrophys. J., in press.
Vaughan, A. H., The magnetic activity of
Sunlike stars, Science, in press.
Vaughan, A. H., Being in the right place at
the right time, Reflections, Mt. Wilson Obs.
Assoc, in press.
Rogier A. Windhorst
Windhorst, R. A., G. K. Miley, F. N. Owen,
R. G. Kron, and D. C. Koo, Sub-millLJansky
source counts and multicolor studies of weak
radio galaxy populations, Astrophys. J., in
press, 1985.
Windhorst, R. A., G. M. van Heerde, and
P. Katgert, A deep Westerbork survey of areas
with multicolor Mayall 4 m plates. I. The 1412
MHZ catalogue, source counts, and angular
size statistics, Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser.,
in press, 1984.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTION
Carnegie Institution of Washington Year Book
82, viii + -U + 736 pages, 359 figures, December
1983.
CIW Newsletter, issued in November 1983, Feb-
ruary and June 1983.
Perspectives in Science, 4th edition, recorded
features for radio, with resumes, September 1983.
Carnegie Institution of Washington, informa-
tional booklet, 24 pages, 20 illustrations, revised
edition, November 1983.
The Earth's Core: How Does It Work?, Per-
spectives in Science booklet number 1, 32 pages,
25 illustrations, May 1984.
Carnegie Evening, 1984, 8 pages, 13 illustra-
tions, May 1984.
Administrative Documents
Staff Lists
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
Research Staff
Donald D. Brown, Director
Douglas M. Fambrough
Nina V. Fedoroff
Joseph G. Gall1
Kenneth J. Muller2
Richard E. Pagano
Allan C. Spradling
Samuel Ward
Staff Associates
Sondra G. Lazarowitz
Richard L. Rotundo3
Martin Snider
Research Associates (Extramural)
Bent Boving, Detroit, Michigan
Igor B. Dawid, Bethesda, Maryland
Robert L. DeHaan, Atlanta, Georgia
Arthur T. Hertig, Boston, Massachusetts
Irwin R. Konigsberg, Charlottesville, Vir-
ginia
Kenneth J. Muller, Miami, Florida
Ronan O'Rahilly, Davis, California
Elizabeth M. Ramsey, Washington, D.C.
Ronald H. Reeder, Seattle, Washington
Gerald M. Rubin, Berkeley, California
Yoshiaki Suzuki, Okazaki City, Japan
Postdoctoral Fellows and Grant-Supported
Associates
Karen Bennett, Fellow of the National In-
stitutes of Health (NIH)
Matthias Chiquet, Fellow of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington (CIW)4
Mary Collins, Fellow of the NIH5
Diane de Cicco, Fellow of the European
Molecular Biology Organization6
Lloyd Epstein, Research Associate, NIH
Grant (Gall)7
Craig Findly, Research Associate, Amer-
ican Cancer Society Grant (Gall)8
Kathy French, Research Associate, NIH
Grant (Fambrough)
Mitrick Johns, Fellow of Pioneer Hi-Bred
International9
Laura Kalfayan, Fellow of the NIH
Roger Karess, Fellow of the NIH10
Richard Kelley, Fellow of the NIH11
Samuel Kelly, Fellow of the CIW12
Steven L'Hernault, Fellow of the NIH13
Naomi Lipsky, Fellow of the NIH
Fritz Muller, Fellow of the Swiss National
Fund
Kevin O'Hare, Research Associate, Amer-
ican Cancer Society Grant (Rubin)14
Terry Orr- Weaver, Fellow of the Jane Cof-
fin Childs Memorial Fund15
David Setzer, Fellow of the Jane Coffin
Childs Memorial Fund
Mavis Shure, Fellow of the CIW16
Richard Sleight, Fellow of the NIH
Douglas Smith, Fellow of the Damon Run-
yon- Walter Winchell Cancer Fund17
Kunio Takeyasu, Fellow of the CIW18
Michael Tamkun, Fellow of the Muscular
Dystrophy Association19
William Taylor, Fellow of the NIH
Paul Uster, Fellow of the CIW20
Kent Vrana, Fellow of the NIH21
Barbara Wakimoto, Fellow of the Helen
Hay Whitney Foundation
Barry Wolitzky, Fellow of the Muscular
Dystrophy Association
Graduate Students
Celeste Berg, Yale University22
Daniel Burke, National Research Council
of Canada23
Zaven Kaprielian, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity24
Barbara Kirschner, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity
Fred Moshiri, Johns Hopkins University25
Suki Parks, Johns Hopkins University
139
140
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Mark Schlissel, Johns Hopkins University
Medical School
Jennifer Schwartz, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity
Diane Shakes, Johns Hopkins University26
Rahul Warrior, Yale University27
Undergraduate Students
Paula Adams, Johns Hopkins University28
Darlene Marshall, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity29
Supporting Staff
Betty Addison, Laboratory Helper
Paul Blackwell, Custodian (part-time)
Betty Conde, Technician
Scott Downing, Technician
William H. Duncan, Senior Technician30
Pat Englar, Secretary
James Fenwick, Laboratory Helper
Ernestine V. Flemmings, Laboratory
Helper
Pam Fornili, Technician31
Richard D. Grill, Photographer
Virginia Hicks, Laboratory Helper
Wilson Hoerichs, Building Engineer32
Mary E. Hogan, Technician
John E. Jones, Custodian33
Eddie Jordan, Senior Technician
Nancy Jordan, Laboratory Helper (part-
time)34
Joseph Levine, Technician
Thomas F. Malooly, Business Manager
Jeffrey Malter, Librarian (part-time)
Ona Martin, Senior Technician
Abbie Mays, Technician35
Thomas Miller, Custodian
Christine Murphy, Technician
John Pazdernik, Building Engineer36
Betty Lou Phebus, Bookkeeper/Clerk
Earl Potts, Custodian37
Ophelia Rogers, Technician
Susan Satchell, Secretary
Michael Sepanski, Technician38
Delores Somerville, Senior Technician
Diane Thompson, Laboratory Helper
Joe Vokroy, Machinist
Gloria Wilkes, Laboratory Helper
^rom September 1, 1983
2To September 30, 1983
3To February 29, 1984
4To February 29, 1984
5To September 30, 1983
6To February 29, 1984
7From January 15, 1984
*From September 1, 1983
9From April 16, 1984
1(,To September 30, 1983
11 From April 1, 1984
12From November 1, 1983
1:5From October 1, 1983
14To September 30, 1983
15From January 1, 1984
1,5To February 29, 1984
17To October 15, 1983
1KFrom January 1, 1984
19From November 15, 1983
20From November 1, 1983
21 From July 1, 1983
22From September 1, 1983
23To August 1, 1983
24From May 30, 1984
25From January 20, 1984
2,iFrom May 15, 1984
27From September 1, 1983
28To September 1, 1983
29To September 1, 1983
:50To June 30, 1984
31 From January 1, 1984
32From August 29, 1983
33To September 30, 1983
34To November 30, 1983
:55To February 29, 1984
36To October 1, 1983
"From October 10, 1983
;wFromJune 1, 1984
DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BIOLOGY
Research Staff
Joseph A. Berry
Olle Bjorkman
Winslow R. Briggs, Director
Jeanette S. Brown
David C. Fork
C. Stacy French, Director Emeritus
Arthur R. Grossman
William M. Hiesey, Emeritus
Malcolm A. Nobs, Emeritus
William F. Thompson
Research Associates
Lon S. Kaufman
Jeffrey D. Palmer1
Postdoctoral Fellows
Barbara Demmig, University of Wurz-
burg, West Germany
Dennis H. Greer, DSIR, New Zealand
Department of Embryology staff member Joseph Gall (seated)
and his colleagues (from left) Christine Murphy, Lloyd Epstein,
and Celeste Berg study the structure and function of chromo-
somes using a variety of cytological and molecular techniques.
Carnegie Institution of Washington Post-
doctoral Fellows
Annette W. Coleman, Senior Fellow, Brown
University
John R. Coleman2
Pamela Conley
Marvin Fawley3
Satoshi Hoshina, Senior Fellow, Kanazawa
University, Japan
Peggy Lemaux, McKnight Foundation Fel-
low
Terri Lomax, NSF Fellow
Moritoshi lino
Prasanna Mohanty, Senior Fellow, Jawa-
harlal Nehru University, India5
Keith Mott
Neil 0. Polans
Jeffrey R. Seemann, McKnight Foundation
Fellow
Susan C. Spiller
Robert K. Togosaki, Senior Fellow, Indi-
ana University
Mikio Tsuzuki, University of Tokyo0
Eduardo Vallejos"
John C. Watson
Graduate Students
J. Timothy Ball, Stanford University
Tobias I. Baskin, Stanford University
Charlotte Borgeson, University of Califor-
nia, Santa Cruz
Thomas Egelhoff, Stanford University
Laura Green, Stanford University
Alan P. Maloney, Stanford University
Elizabeth Newell, Stanford University
James R. Shinkle, Stanford University
David B. Stern, Stanford University
Philippe Tacchini, Stanford University
Lawrence D. Talbot, Stanford University
Undergraduate Student
Helen E. Edwards, Stanford University8
Supporting Staff
J. Timothy Ball, Laboratory Technician
142
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Anne Bang, Laboratory Technician
Glenn Ford, Laboratory Manager
Suzan Freas, Laboratory Technician
John A. Gamon, Laboratory Technician
Karen L.B. Hall, Laboratory Technician
Einar C. Ingebretsen, Electrical Engineer
Douglas A. Jones, Laboratory Technician9
Jerome P. Lapointe, Laboratory Techni-
cian
Linda K. Morris, Laboratory Technician
Frank Nicholson, Senior Technician
Bernardita Osorio, Laboratory Techni-
cian10
Norma J. Powell, Typist11
Pedro F. Pulido, Technician
Maureen A. Simpson, Typist12
Mary A. Smith, Business Manager
James M. Tepperman, Technician13
Rudolph Warren, Technician
Aida E. Wells, Department Secretary
Brian M. Walsh, Mechanical Engineer
*To August 31, 1983
2To October 31, 1983
8To August 31, 1983
4To January 20, 1984
5To February 24, 1984
6To February 29, 1984
7To August 31, 1983
8To August 15, 1983
9To April 20, 1984
10To September 16, 1983
uToJune30, 1984
12To December 7, 1983
1:)To November 30, 1983
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
Research Staff
L. Thomas Aldrich1
Alan Paul Boss
Louis Brown
Richard W. Carlson
W. Kent Ford, Jr.2
David E. James
Typhoon Lee3
Alan T. Linde
Vera C. Rubin2
I. Selwyn Sacks
Francois Schweizer2
Paul Silver
Fouad Tera
Norbert Thonnard4
George W. Wetherill, Director
Research Associates
Charles Angevine
Hiroshi Mizuno
Leonidas Ocola5
James R. Ray6
John Schneider7
Steven Shirey8
Michael V. Torbett
Senior Visiting Fellows
Zdenek Ceplecha, Ondrejov Observatory,
Czechoslovakia
Douglas ReVelle, Northern Arizona Uni-
versity
Senior Fellows
Hiroyuki Fukuyama9
David Koo
Stanley A. Mertzman10
Tsutomu Murase
Gui-Zhong Qi11
Nathalie Valette-Silver12
Postdoctoral Fellows
Kirk Borne13
W. Winston Chan14
Tetsu Masuda15
Julie Morris16
Linda Y. Schweizer17
Linda L. Stryker18
Students and Predoctoral Fellows
Diana Diez de Medina, George Washington
University19
James K. Meen, Pennsylvania State Uni-
versity20
Supporting Staff
Georg Bartels, Instrument Maker
Gary A. Bors, Maintenance Technician
Richard C. Carlson, Word Processor Op-
erator
Mary McDermott Coder, Editorial Assis-
tant
Dorothy B. Dillin, Librarian
STAFF LISTS
143
John B. Doak, Electronics Research Spe-
cialist
Janice Dunlap, Administrative Assistant
for PASSCL21
John A. Emler, Laboratory Technician
Maura Fitz-Patrick, Receptionist
Bennie Harris, Caretaker
Gary D. Heldt, Jr., Caretaker21
William E. Key, Caretaker
Caroline Busch Linde, Fiscal Assistant
Ben K. Pandit, Electronics Specialist
Glenn R. Poe, Electronics Research Spe-
cialist
Thomas Poe, Caretaker21
Akiwata Mayi Sawyer, Research Assistant
Michael Seemann, Design Engineer — Me-
chanical, Shop Manager
Terry L. Stahl, Fiscal Officer
Retired, June 30, 1984
2Holds additional appointment as Adjunct Staff
Member, Mount Wilson and Las Campanas Ob-
servatories
3On leave of absence at Academia Sinica, Taipei
4Resigned March 15, 1984
5To April 20, 1984
6To May 31, 1984
7From March 5, 1984
8From April 6, 1984
9Died August 10, 1984
10To May 15, 1984
nFrom June 14, 1984
12Visiting Investigator to November 15, 1984
13From September 19, 1983
14From February 28, 1984
15To March 15, 1984
16From March 6, 1984
17To October 31, 1983
18From October 16, 1983
19To June 15, 1984
20To December 31, 1983
21 Temporary employee
GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
Research Staff
Peter M. Bell
Francis R. Boyd, Jr.
Felix Chayes
Marilyn L. F. Estep
Larry W. Finger
John D. Frantz
Kenneth A. Goettel
P. Edgar Hare
Robert M. Hazen
Thomas C. Hoering
T. Neil Irvine
Ikuo Kushiro1
Ho-kwang Mao
Bj0rn 0. My sen
Douglas Rumble III
David Virgo
Hatten S. Yoder, Jr.,
Postdoctoral Associates
Anne M. Hofmeister2
Martha W. Schaefer3
Ji-an Xu
Postdoctoral Fellows
Andrew Y. Au4
Mark D. Barton5
Director
Andrew P. Gize
Gregory E. Muncill3
Pascal Richet6
Daniel J. Schulze
Predoctoral Fellow
Andrew P. Jephcoat, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity
Research Assistant
Norma K. Pannell,
University7
Supporting Staff
George Washington
Andrew J. Antoszyk, Instrument Maker
Charles A. Batten, Shop Foreman and In-
strument Maker
Stephen D. Coley, Sr., Machinist
Mack C. Ferguson, Jr., Custodian
David J. George, Electronics Technician
Chris G. Hadidiacos, Electronics Engineer
Marjorie E. Imlay, Stenographer
Shannon J. Jeffries, Bookkeeper8
Barbara B. Jones, Typist- Accounting Clerk9
Harvey J. Lutz, Clerk and Technician
Mabel B. Mattingly, Stenographer
144
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Harvey L. Moore, Building Engineer
Lawrence B. Patrick, Custodial Supervisor
Dolores M. Petry, Editor and Librarian
David Ratliff, Jr. , Custodian and Thin-Sec-
tion Technician
A. David Singer, Executive Officer
Gunther E. Speicher, Laboratory Techni-
cian and Instrument Maker10
John M. Straub, Accountant11
'In residence at Geophysical Laboratory, March
13-April 13, 1984; leave of absence at University
of Tokyo, remainder of report year
2From October 16, 1983
:5From September 1, 1983
4From June 1, 1984
'To December 31, 1983; to Assistant Professor, De-
partment of Earth and Space Sciences, UCLA
6From March 1, 1984, to June 30, 1984
"From November 1, 1983
^Temporary appointment from October 17, 1983,
to Februarv 29, 1984
9To September 15, 1983
10Retired, June 30, 1984
11 From March 19, 1984
MOUNT WILSON AND LAS CAMPANAS OBSERVATORIES
Research Staff
Halton C. Arp
Horace W. Babcock, Emeritus
Alan Dressier
Robert F. Howard, Assistant Director for
Mount Wilson Observatory
Jerome Kristian
Wojciech A. Krzeminski, Resident Scien-
tist, Las Campanas Observatory1
William E. Kunkel, Resident Scientist/Ad-
ministrator for Las Campanas Obser-
vatory2
S. Eric Persson
George W. Preston, Director
Allan Sandage
Paul L. Schechter
Leonard Searle
Stephen A. Shectman
Olin C. Wilson, Emeritus
Adjunct Staff Members
W. Kent Ford, Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism, CIW
Vera C. Rubin, Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism, CIW
Frangois Schweizer, Department of Ter-
restrial Magnetism, CIW
Staff Associate
Arthur H. Vaughan, Perkin-Elmer Cor-
poration
Research Associates
Todd A. Boroson
Douglas K. Duncan
Ian B. Thompson
Postdoctoral Research Fellows
David H. Bruning
Stephen Heathcote, Visiting Postdoctoral
Fellow, from Cerro Tololo Inter-Amer-
ican Observatory2
Peter J. McGregor, Carnegie Fellow3
Geoffrey W. Marcy, Carnegie Fellow
David G. Monet, Carnegie Las Campanas
Observatory Fellow4
Herschel B. Snodgrass
Peter B. Stetson, Carnegie Fellow5
Thomas Y. Steiman-Cameron, Carnegie
Fellow
Nicholas B. Suntzeff, Carnegie Las Cam-
panas Observatory Fellow
Rogier A. Windhorst, Carnegie Fellow
Carnegie-Chile Fellow
Fernando J. Selman
Sabbatical Visitor
Eduardo Hardy, University Laval, Can-
ada6
The Las Campanas Mountain Crew. Seated (left to right): Mauricio Villalobos,
Fernando Peralta, Bill Robinson, Ljubomir Papic, Angel Guerra, Oscar Duhalde.
Standing: Hernan Solis, Mario Taquias, Honorio Rojas, Drago Papic, Hector Bal-
bontin, Pedro Rojas, Victorino Riquelme, Herman Olivares, Alfredo Parades,
Leonel Lillo.
Visiting Associates
Gerard Gilmore, Royal Observatory, Edin-
burgh
Rita E. M. Griffin, University of Cam-
bridge
Roger F. Griffin, University of Cambridge
Joseph L. Snider, Oberlin College
Gustav A. Tammann, University of Basel,
Switzerland
Supporting Staff, Pasadena
John M. Adkins, Senior Research Assis-
tant, Solar Physics
Maria Anderson, Manuscript Typist and
Editor
John R. Bedke, Photographer
Nicolette Breski, Purchasing Agent7
Richard T. Black, Business Manager
John E. Boyden, Systems Programmer,
Solar Physics
Ken D. Clardy, Data Systems Manager
Maynard K. Clark, Electronics Engineer,
Solar Physics
Harvey W. Crist, Machinist
Douglas C. Cunningham, Assistant Pho-
tographer8
Helen S. Czaplicki, Archivist9
Gary Fouts, Research Assistant/Observer
Carroll L. Friswold, Head, Design Group
Joan Gantz, Librarian
Robert T. Georgen, Machinist (Foreman)
Pamela I. Gilman, Research Assistant, So-
lar Physics
Rhea M. Goodwin, Assistant to the Direc-
tor
Charles E. Hartrick, Draftsperson
Basil N. Katem, Senior Research Assistant
Stephen L. Knapp, Electronics Engineer
Stephen P. Padilla, Research Assistant,
Solar Physics
Christopher K. Price, Electronics Engi-
neer
Alexander Pogo, Honorary Curator, His-
torical Collection
William D. Quails, Driver
Delores B. Sahlin, Receptionist
Edward H. Snoddy, Designer, Coordinator
for Las Campanas Support Office
Jeannie B. Todd, Bookkeeper
Nancy Tomer, Technical Illustrator10
Arturo Urquieta, Technical Assistant to the
Director11
Estuardo Vasquez, Machinist
Stephen Wilson, Carpenter
Laura A. Woodard, Research Assistant/
Observer
146
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Supporting Personnel, Mount Wilson
David M. Carr, Electronics Technician
James Frazer, Night Assistant/Observer
Howard H. Lanning, Night Assistant/Ob-
server
Jean Mueller, Night Assistant/Observer
Anthony Misch, Observatory Technician
Frank Perez, Mountain Superintendant12
Eric Rawe, Observatory Technician
Tevfik Soyumer, Night Assistant/Ob-
server13
Michael Thornberry, Steward
Larry Webster, Resident Solar Observer
Ricardo de Leon, Steward
Supporting Personnel, Las Campanas
Hector Balbontin I., Chef
Angel Cortes, L.
Oscar Duhalde C, Night Assistant
Angel Guerra F., Night Assistant
Leonel Lillo A. , Carpenter
Mario Mondaca 0., El Pino Guard
Herman Olivares G., Warehouse Atten-
dant
Ljubomir Papic P., Mountain Superinten-
dant
Alfredo Paredes Z., Equipment Operator
Fernando Peralta B., Night Assistant
Leonardo Peralta B., Driver and Pur-
chaser
Victorino Riquelme P., Janitor
Honorio Rojas P., Pump Operator
Pedro Rojas T., Mason
William Robinson W., Electronic Techni-
cian
Luis H. Solis P., Electronic Technician
Mario Taquias L., Plumber
Gabriel Tolmo V., El Pino Guard
Jorge Tolmo V., El Pino Guard
Mauricio Villalobos H., Cook
Patricia Villar B., Administrative Assis-
tant
1 Resident Scientist/ Administrator to December 1,
1983
2From December 1, 1983
3To December 20, 1983
4To April 1, 1984
5To August 31, 1983
6From January 1984
7From October 25, 1983
8To April 15, 1984
9Retired June 30, 1984
10To December 31, 1983
nTo September 30, 1983
12To June 30, 1984
18To February 29, 1984
APPOINTMENTS IN SPECIAL SUBJECT AREAS
Roy J. Britten, Staff Member of the Insti-
tution1
Barbara McClintock, Distinguished Service
Member of the Institution2
distinguished Carnegie Senior Research Associ-
ate, Developmental Biology Research Group,
California Institute of Technology
2Cold Spring Harbor, New York
OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATION
Cheryl Allen, Editorial Assistant (part-time)1
Lloyd H. Allen, Custodian
James W. Boise, Bursar2
Ray Bowers, Editor, Publications Officer
Don A. Brooks, Custodian
Carolyn J. Davis, Secretary
Barbara F. Deal, Administrative Assistant3
D'Ann L. DeBruyn, Secretary4
James D. Ebert, President
Joseph M. S. Haraburda, Accounting Man-
ager
Kenneth R. Henard, Business Manager5
STAFF LISTS
147
Susan E. Henderson, Junior Accountant
Antoinette M. Jackson, Facilities and Sup-
port Services Manager6
Sherman L. E. Johnson, Payroll Supervisor
Jacqueline L. King, Administrative Assis-
tant7
Richard S. Kuzmyak, Senior Accountant
John C. Lawrence, Assistant Bursar8
Margaret L. Loflin, Secretary to the Vice
President9
Raymond G. Ludwig, Junior Accountant10
Margaret L. A. Mac Vicar, Vice President
Diep T. Nguyen, Administrative Assistant10
John B. Osolnick, Junior Accountant11
Patricia Parratt, Assistant Editor
Adrienne Powell, Administrative Assistant12
Arnold T. Pryor, Equal Opportunity Officer
Anthony Sherman, Custodian (part-time) 18
Susan Y. Vasquez, Assistant to the President
*To August 26, 1983
2Retired June 30, 1984
^Secretary to March 27, 1984
4From June 25, 1984
5To February 29, 1984
6 Administrative Assistant to February 1, 1984
7From January 16, 1984
8Bursar from July 1, 1984
9From August 22, 1983
10To April 13, 1984
nFrom March 5, 1984
12To August 5, 1983
13From March 19, 1984, to June 22, 1984
Visiting Investigators
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
Kenneth Longmuir, University of California,
Irvine
Gerhard Meissner, University of North Car-
olina, Chapel Hill,
Martin Schwartz, University of Maryland,
Baltimore
DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BIOLOGY
Jacob Levitt, Senior Fellow, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis
Patrick Williams, Senior Lecturer, Biophys-
ics Department, Chelsea College, Univer-
sity of London
Dow Woodward, Senior Fellow, Stanford
University
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
Barbara Barreiro, Darmouth College
William K. Hart, Miami University, Oxford,
Ohio
Emi Ito, University of Minnesota, Minne-
apolis
Milan J. Pavich, U. S. Geological Survey,
Reston, Virginia
J. Arthur Snoke, Virginia Polytechnic Insti-
tute and State University, Blacksburg
Ragnar Stefansson, Iceland Meteorological
Office, Reykjavik
Richard T. Williams, University of South
Carolina, Columbia
148
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
Mary Jo Baedecker, U.S. Geological Survey
Nonna Bakun-Czubarow, Polish Academy of
Sciences
Joy Beier, Indiana University
Nabil Z. Boctor, Purdue University
Barbara Brassat, University of Maryland
James Brophy, Johns Hopkins University
Lynn Caporale, Georgetown University
Luis A. Cifuentes, University of Delaware
Howard Feldman, Indiana University
John M. Ferry, Arizona State University
Katherine H. Freeman, Wellesley College
S. Guha, Howard University
Bj0rn Gunnarson, Johns Hopkins University
James T. Gutmann, Wesleyan University
Joseph Hailer, Indiana Geological Survey
Emi Ito, University of Minnesota
Kay Kaneda, Johns Hopkins University
Douglas W. Keith, Manville Corporation
K. Kobayashi, University of Maryland
Julie Kokis, George Washington University
Linda Kovach, Johns Hopkins University
Ian D. MacGregor, National Science Foun-
dation
Brooks McKinney, Johns Hopkins University
Tsutomu Murase, Institute of Vocational
Training, Kanagawa, Japan
Virek Navale, University of Maryland
Linda Nunnermacker, University of Mary-
land
Norma K. Pannell, George Washington Uni-
versity
Henry Polack, Australian National Univer-
sity
Pascal Richet, University of Paris
Meyer Rubin, U.S. Geological Survey
Andrei Serban, Weizmann Institute, Israel
Patrick Shanks, U. S. Geological Survey
Hiroyasu Shimizu, Gifu University, Japan
Douglas Smith, University of Texas at Austin
E. Kent Sprague, University of Georgia
Danielle Velde, University of Paris
Luis Vierma, Indiana University
Bernard Waitzenegger, George Washington
University
Ke-Nan Weng, Institute of Geochemistry,
Academia Sinica, People's Republic of China
Jianguo Xu, Institute of Geochemistry, Aca-
demia Sinica, People's Republic of China
Takehiko Yagi, Tokyo University
MOUNT WILSON AND LAS CAMPANAS OBSERVATORIES
Sallie L. Baliunas, Harvard-Smithsonian
Center for Astrophysics
Pierre Bergeron, University of Montreal
Graham Berriman, University of Cambridge
Bruno A. Binggeli, University of Basel
Benjamin Bishoff, Oberlin College
Jacques Blamont, National Center of Scien-
tific Research, France
Douglas Brown, University of Washington
Alessandro Cacciani, Astronomical Obser-
vatory of Rome
Luis E. Campusano, University of Chile
Mark Colavita, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Robert Dicke, Princeton University
Steven Federman, Jet Propulsion Labora-
tory
Gilles Fontaine, University of Montreal
Peter A. Gilman, High Altitude Observatory,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
Keith Home, University of Cambridge
Stephen Knowles, Naval Research Labora-
tory
Richard Kron, Yerkes Observatory, Univer-
sity of Chicago
Jeffrey R. Kuhn, Princeton University
Daniel Kunth, Institute of Astrophysics, Paris
John Landstreet, University of Western On-
tario
Kenneth Libbrecht, Princeton University
Bruno Liebundgut, University of Basel
Victoria Lindsay, University of California,
Berkeley
Barry F. Madore, David Dunlap Observa-
tory, University of Toronto
Matthew Malkan, University of Arizona
Jorge Melnick, University of Chile
Mariano Moles, Astrophysical Institute, An-
dalucia
Robert W. Noyes, Harvard-Smithsonian
Center for Astrophysics
John Ottusch, University of California,
Berkeley
Carol Lonsdale Persson, Jet Propulsion Lab-
oratory
Hernan Quintana, Catholic University of Chile
Neill Reid, University of Sussex
Edward J. Rhodes, Jr., University of South-
ern California
STAFF LISTS
149
Rene Rutten, Astronomical Institute, Uni-
versity of Utrecht, The Netherlands
William Sebok, Princeton University
Michael Shao, Naval Research Laboratory
Bradford A. Smith, University of Arizona
Horace A. Smith, Michigan State University
Verne Smith, McDonald Observatory, Uni-
versity of Texas
David Staelin, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Rae Stiening, Stanford University
Linda Stryker, Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington
Jean Surdej, European Southern Observa-
tory
Jean-Pierre Swings, University of Liege
Santiago Tapia, University of Arizona
Richard J. Terrile, Jet Propulsion Labora-
tory
Roberto Terlevich, Royal Greenwich Obser-
vatory
Carlos Torres, University of Chile
J. Anthony Tyson, Bell Laboratories
Roger K. Ulrich, University of California, Los
Angeles
Douglas L. Welch, University of Toronto
Rosemary F. C. Wyse, University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley
California Institute of Technology Observ
ers1
Mary Barsony
Timothy Beers
Gregory Bothun
Judith Cohen
G. Edward Danielson
Richard Edelson
Alexei Filippenko
James Gibson2
Alain Porter
Steven Pravdo2
James McCarthy
Jeremy Mould
James Nemec
R. Michael Rich
Wallace L. W. Sargent
B. Thomas Soifer
Edward Tedesco2
John Tonry
John Trauger
David Tvtler
faculty, professional staff, research fellows, and
graduate students observing at Mount Wilson,
Las Campanas, and the 1.5-meter telescope at
Palomar
2Jet Propulsion Laboratory
The staff at La Serena, Chile. From
left: Leonardo Peralta, Jorge Tolmo,
Gabriel Tolmo, Rosa Gomez, W. A.
Krzeminski, Patricia Villar, Angel
Cortes, William Kunkel, Mario Mon-
daca.
Report of the Executive
Committee
To the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington
In accordance with the provisions of the By-Laws, the Executive Com-
mittee submits this report to the Annual Meeting of the Board of Trustees.
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1984, the Executive Committee held
four meetings. Accounts of these meetings have been or will be mailed to
each Trustee.
A full statement of the finances and work of the Institution for the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1983, appears in the Institution's Year Book 82, a copy
of which has been sent to each Trustee. An estimate of the Institution's
expenditures in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1985, appears in the budget
recommended by the Committee for approval by the Board of Trustees.
The terms of the following members of the Board expire on May 11, 1984:
Lewis M. Branscomb William C. Greenough
John Diebold William R. Hewlett
Gerald M. Edelman Richard S. Perkins
Crawford H. Greene wait Frank Stanton
In addition, the terms of all Committee Chairmen and the following mem-
bers of Committees expire on May 11, 1984:
Executive Committee Finance Committee
Edward E. David, Jr. Robert G. Goelet
Crawford H. Greene wait John D. Macomber
Robert C. Seamans, Jr. Richard S. Perkins
Frank Stanton
Nominating Committee Auditing Committee
Gerald M. Edelman Antonia Ax:son Johnson
Frank Stanton
May 11, 1984 William C. Greenough, Chairman
151
Abstract of Minutes
of the Eighty -Seventh Meeting of the Board of Trustees
The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees was held in the Staff Lounge
of the Department of Embryology, Baltimore, Maryland, on Friday, May 11,
1984. The meeting was called to order by Chairman William R. Hewlett.
The following Trustees were present: Philip H. Abelson, Edward E. David,
Jr., John Diebold, Gerald M. Edelman, Robert G. Goelet, William T. Golden,
William C. Greenough, Caryl P. Haskins, William R. Hewlett, George F.
Jewett, Jr., Antonia Ax:son Johnson, John D. Macomber, Robert M. Pen-
noyer, Richard S. Perkins, Charles H. Townes, and Sidney J. Weinberg, Jr.
Garrison Norton, Trustee Emeritus, James D. Ebert, President, Margaret
L. A. Mac Vicar, Vice President, James W. Boise, Bursar, and John D. Law-
rence, Assistant Bursar, were also in attendance.
The minutes of the Eighty-Sixth Meeting were approved.
The Chairman notified the Trustees of the deaths of Carl J. Gilbert and
Charles P. Taft, Trustees Emeriti. Dr. Haskins read a memorial statement
in tribute to Mr. Gilbert, and the following resolution was unanimously adopted:
Be It Therefore Resolved, That we, the Board of Trustees of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, hereby record our sorrow at the
death of Carl J. Gilbert.
And Be It Further Resolved, That this resolution be entered on
the minutes of the Board of Trustees, and that copies be sent to Mrs.
Gilbert.
He then read a memorial statement in tribute to Mr. Taft, and the fol-
lowing resolution was unanimously adopted:
Be It Therefore Resolved, That we, the Trustees of Carnegie In-
stitution of Washington, record our deep sense of loss at the death of
Charles P. Taft.
And Be It Further Resolved, That this resolution be entered on
the minutes of the Board of Trustees, and that copies be sent to the
family of Mr. Taft.
The reports of the Executive Committee, the Finance Committee, the
Employee Benefits Committee, and the Auditing Committee were accepted.
On the recommendation of the latter, it was resolved that Price Waterhouse
& Co. be appointed as public accountants for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1985.
On the recommendation of the Nominating Committee, Gunnar Wessman
was elected a member of the Board of Trustees, and the following were
reelected all for terms ending in 1987: Lewis M. Branscomb, John Diebold,
Gerald M. Edelman, William C. Greenough, William R. Hewlett, Richard S.
Perkins, and Frank Stanton.
153
154 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
The following were elected for one-year terms: Robert C. Seamans, Jr., as
Chairman of the Executive Committee; Sidney J. Weinberg, Jr., as Chairman
of the Finance Committee; Frank Stanton, as Chairman of the Auditing Com-
mittee; Robert G. Goelet, as Chairman of the Nominating Committee; and
William T. Coleman, Jr., as Chairman of the Employee Benefits Committee.
Vacancies in the Standing Committees, with terms ending in 1987, were
filled as follows: Edward E. David, Jr., John D. Macomber, Robert C. Sea-
mans, Jr., and Frank Stanton were elected members of the Executive Com-
mittee; Robert G. Goelet, John D. Macomber, and Richard S. Perkins were
elected members of the Finance Committee; William T. Golden was elected
a member of the Nominating Committee; and Antonia Ax:son Johnson and
Frank Stanton were elected members of the Auditing Committee. In addition,
William C. Greenough was elected a member of the Finance Committee for
the unexpired term ending in 1986.
The Chairman pointed out that Crawford H. Greene wait, who has been an
active member of the Board for many years, had chosen not to stand for re-
election. His resignation was noted with regret, and in accordance with Article
1.6 of the By-laws, Mr. Greenewalt was designated Trustee Emeritus.
The annual report of the President was accepted.
To provide for the operation of the Institution for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1985, and upon recommendation of the Executive Committee, the
sum of $15,271,000 was appropriated.
Financial Statements
for the year ended June 30, 1984
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Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
Contributions, Gifts, and Grants
for the Year Ended June 30, 1984
Yvonne Aitken
Joseph F. Albright
American Cancer Society
Anonymous
George Assousa
Henry and Claudine Ator
BARD (United States-Israel Binational Agri-
cultural Research and Development Fund)
Ailene J. and G. Philip Bauer
The Charles Ulrick & Josephine Bay Foundation
Liselotte Beach
Giuseppe Bertani
Lars Olof Bjbrn
John J. Bonica
Fern Borgen
Bent G. Bbving
Montgomery S. Bradley
The Bristol-Myers Fund, Inc.
Donald Brown
Donald M. Burt
William Buscombe
California Institute of Technology
Carnegie Corporation of New York
James F. Case
Ernst W. Caspari
Roland Caubergs
Celanese Corporation
The Jane Coffin Childs Memorial Fund for
Medical Research
John and Annette Coleman
Hayden G. Coon
Charles E. Culpeper Foundation, Inc.
H. Clark Dalton
The Charles A. Dana Foundation, Inc.
Edwin A. Davis
Louis E. DeLanney
John P. de Neufville
John Diebold
The William H. Donner Foundation, Inc.
James and Alma Ebert
W. Gary Ernst
Exxon Education Foundation
Sandra M. Faber
Michael Fleischer
Louis B. Flexner
Stacy and Margaret French
Robert G. Goelet
Sibyl and William T. Golden Foundation
Richard H. Goodwin
Crawford and Margaretta Greenewalt
John B. Gurdon
William G. Hagar, III
Richard Hallberg
Per Halldal
Pembroke J. Hart
Stanley R. Hart
Caryl and Edna Haskins
Robert J. Hay
Ulrich Heber
Richard Heckert
Mary G. Hedger
Lawrence Heifer
Edward P. Henderson
Alfred D. Hershey
Richard E. Hewitt
William R. Hewlett
William M. Hiesey
High Pressure Diamond Optics, Inc.
E. Kathleen Hill
Robert Hill
International Business Machines Corp.
Earl Ingerson
Kyoichi Ishizaka
George F. Jewett, Jr.
Antonia Ax: son Johnson
Paul A. Johnson
David D. Keck
W.M. Keck Foundation
Elizabeth M. Ramsey and Hans A. Klagsbrun
Robert N. Kreidler
Harold H. Lee
Howard M. Lenhoff
Ta-Yan Leong
Edna and Harry Lichtenstein
Melvyn Lieberman
Charles A. Little
Eckhard Loos
Richard A. Lux
John D. & Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
John D. Macomber
William McChesney Martin, Jr.
Sheila McGough
The McKnight Foundation
The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation
Gunter H. Moh
The Ambrose Monell Foundation
Monsanto Company
Francis L. Moseley
Muscular Dystrophy Association
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
National Geographic Society
National Science Foundation
Office of Naval Research
Malcolm Nobs
Garrison Norton
Jessie Smith Noyes Foundation, Inc.
Seigo Ohi
Tokindo S. Okada
Gunnar Oqvist
Elburt F. Osborn
(continued)
157
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
Contributions, Gifts, and Grants
for the Year Ended June 30, 1984 (continued)
Eijiro Ozawa
Jill D. Pasteris
Robert M. Pennoyer
Penta Corporation
The Pew Memorial Trust
Pioneer Hi-Bred International
Alexander Pogo
Harold T. Prothro
Public Health Service
Rambabu P. Ranganayaki
John E. Rash
Robert G. Roeder
Glenn C. Rosenquist
Vera C. Rubin
Dorothea Rudnick
Ruth N. Schairer
Paul H. and Margaret Hale Scherer
Maarten Schmidt
Robert C. Seamans, Jr.
Shell Companies Foundation, Inc.
Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
A. Ledyard Smith
The Smithsonian Institution
Harold Speert
Frank Stanton
Christer Sundqvist
Ziro Suzuki
Henrietta Swope
Lawrence A. Taylor
The Teagle Foundation, Inc.
Heinz Tiedemann
George R. Tilton
Elwood 0. Titus
George Tunell
United States Agency for International
Development
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Department of Commerce
United States Department of Energy
United States Department of the Interior
University of California
A. Unsold
William B. Upholt
Hemming Virgin
Ken-Ichi Wakamatsu
The Sidney J. Weinberg, Jr. Foundation
James Weinman
Richard E. White
Helen Hay Whitney Foundation
D.G. Whittingham
Susanne Widell
Damon Runyon-Walter Winchell Cancer Fund
Frederick T. Wolf
158
fri
W
"pir*^ 1801 K STREET. NW
rV 1 WASHINGTON, DC 20006
aternouse
202 296-0800
September 4, 1984
To the Auditing Committee of
Carnegie Institution of Washington
In our opinion, the accompanying statements of assets, liabil-
ities and fund balances and the related statements of income,
expenses, and changes in fund balances present fairly the financial
position of the Carnegie Institution of Washington at June 30,
1984 and 1983, and the results of its operations and the changes in
its fund balances for the years then ended, in conformity with
generally accepted accounting principles consistently applied. Our
examinations of these statements were made in accordance with
generally accepted auditing standards and accordingly included such
tests of the accounting records and such other auditing procedures
as we considered necessary in the circumstances.
Our examinations were made for the purpose of forming an
opinion on the basic financial statements taken as a whole. The
supporting schedules 1 through 5 are presented for purposes of
additional analysis and are not a required part of the basic
financial statements. Such information has been subjected to the
auditing procedures applied in the examination of the basic
financial statements and, in our opinion, is fairly stated in all
material respects in relation to the basic financial statements
taken as a whole.
(yuu_ Uj4&^h»+~<~
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
Statements of Assets, Liabilities, and Fund Balances
June 30, 1984 and 1983
1984
Assets
Current Assets
Cash and cash equivalents $ 519,851
Accounts receivable and advances 116,942
Grants receivable 339,209
Accrued interest and dividends 910,906
Due from brokers
Total current assets 1,886,908
Investments*
Fixed income — short term 51,223,621
Fixed income — bonds 12,034,596
Fixed income — mortgages 22,969,328
Corporate stocks — common 44,668,237
Other 451,875
Adjustment to lower of cost or market (542,276)
Total investments 130,805,381
Plant
Land 1,027,524
Buildings 4,051,744
Equipment 10,211,819
Total plant 15,291,087
Total assets $147,983,376
Liabilities and Fund Balances
Current liabilities
Due to brokers 2,692,583
Accounts payable and accrued expenses 965,319
Deferred grant income 1,610,448
Total current liabilities 5,268,350
Fund balances 142,715,026
Total liabilities and fund balances $147,983,376
1983
112,303
53,770
526,948
801,202
1,201,164
2,695,387
9,765,000
6,730,420
35,899,756
61,817,178
393,191
114,605,545
1,010,529
4,087,968
10,182,648
15,281,145
$132,582,077
828,429
1,316,753
2,145,182
130,436,895
$132,582,077
* Approximate market value on June 30, 1984: $130,805,381; June 30, 1983: $137,858,753.
The accompanying notes are an integral part of these statements.
160
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
Statements of Income, Expenses, and Changes in Fund Balances
for the Years Ended June 30, 1984 and 1983
Year Ended June 30
Income
Investment income
Grants
Federal
Private
Other income
Total income
Expenses
Personnel and related
Equipment
General
Total expenses
Excess of income over expenses before capital changes
Capital changes
Realized net gain on investments
Unrealized gain (loss) on investments
Gifts — endowment and special funds
Land, buildings, and equipment capitalized
Total capital changes
Excess of income and capital changes over expenses
Funds balance, beginning of year
Funds balance, end of year
The accompanying notes are an integral part of these statements.
1984
1983
$ 10,224,014
$ 8,982,808
3,370,722
936,811
187,423
3,114,168
1,362,665
241,292
14,718,970
13,700,933
8,745,860
1,290,621
4,388,688
7,967,624
1,496,072
4,136,028
14,425,169
13,599,724
293,801
101,209
11,707,307
(542,276)
809,357
9,942
16,156,663
1,942,166
1,097,074
63,981
11,984,330
19,259,884
12,278,131
19,361,093
130,436,895
111,075,802
$142,715,026
$130,436,895
161
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
Notes to the Financial Statements
June 30, 1984
Note 1 . Significant Accounting Policies
The financial statements of the Institution are prepared on the accrual basis of accounting.
Investments are carried on the balance sheet in the aggregate at the lower of cost or market
value. A detailed listing of all securities held by the Institution as of June 30, 1984, has been
included as Schedule 5 of this report.
The Institution capitalizes expenditures for land, buildings, telescopes and other significant
equipment, and construction projects in progress. Expenditures for other equipment are
charged to current operations as incurred, and the cost of such other equipment is not capitalized.
The Institution follows the policy of not depreciating its buildings, telescopes, and other signif-
icant equipment.
Note 2. Retirement Plan
The Institution has a noncontributory money-purchase retirement plan in which all United
States employees are eligible to participate. Voluntary contributions may also be made by
employees. Actuarially determined contributions are funded currently by the Institution, and
there are no unfunded past service costs. The total contributions made by the Institution were
$845,671 in 1984 and $766,410 in 1983. Benefits under the plan upon retirement depend upon
the investment performance of the Institution's Retirement Trust. After four years' participa-
tion (participation for one year after July 1, 1984), an individual's benefits are fully vested.
Note 3. Restricted Grants
Restricted grants are funds received from foundations, individuals, and federal agencies in
support of scientific research and educational programs. The Institution follows the policy of
reporting revenues only to the extent that reimbursable expenditures are incurred. The Re-
stricted Grants Statement (Schedule 3) shows all of the current grants.
Note If. Income Taxes
The Institution is exempt from federal income tax under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal
Revenue Code. Accordingly, no provision for income taxes is reflected in the accompanying
financial statements. The Institution is also an educational institution within the meaning of
Section 170(b)(l)(A)(ii) of the Code. The Internal Revenue Service has classified the Institution
as other than a private foundation, as defined in Section 509(a) of the Code.
162
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
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164
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
Schedule 3
Restricted Grants
for the Year Ended June 30, 1984
Federal grants
BARD (U.S.-Israel Agriculture Fund) $
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
National Science Foundation
Office of Naval Research
Public Health Service
The Smithsonian Institution
U.S. Agency for International Development
U.S. Department of Agriculture
U.S. Department of Commerce
U.S. Department of Energy
U.S. Department of Interior
Total federal grants
Private grants
American Cancer Society
Anonymous
California Institute of Technology
University of California
Carnegie Corporation of New York
Charles E. Culpeper Foundation, Inc
The Jane Coffin Childs Memorial Fund for Medical
Research
The Charles A. Dana Foundation, Inc
The William H. Donner Foundation, Inc
Exxon Education Foundation
Max C. Fleischmann Foundation
William R. Hewlett Lead Trust
Pioneer Hi-Bred International
W.M. Keck Foundation
John D. & Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
The McKnight Foundation
The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation
The Ambrose Monell Foundation
Monsanto Company
Francis L. Moseley
Muscular Dystrophy Association
National Geographic Society
Jessie Smith Noyes Foundation, Inc
The Pew Memorial Trust
Richard B. T. Roberts
Vera C. Rubin
Damon Runyon-Walter Winchell Cancer Fund .
Aflred P. Sloan Foundation
The Teagle Foundation, Inc
The Charles Ulrick & Josephine Bay Foundation
Helen Hay Whitney Foundation
Total private grants
Total restricted grants
Less cash not yet received from grants
2,172,929 2,680,651
3,314,998
Balance
New
Balance
July 1,1983
Grants
Expenses
June 30, 1984
$ 8,127
$ 572
$ 7,555
373,460
$ 494,040
483,424
384,076
928,697
1,264,926
1,187,298
1,006,325
67,425
87,722
112,631
42,516
596,763
1,582,822
1,179,740
999,845
439
10,000
10,439
...
261,082
229,400
89,957
400,525
110,936
55,000
131,729
34,207
4,061
21,100
15,041
10,120
91,714
60,000
124,689
27,025
16,118
141,721
35,202
122,637
2,458,822
3,946,731
3,370,722
3,034,831
700,142
83,045
617,097
339,801
...
84,829
254,972
35,100
9,816
25,284
...
42,035
38,624
3,411
500,642
...
125,642
375,000
200,000
...
100,000
100,000
2,250
86,083
25,969
62,364
42,202
37,034
5,168
7,144
7,144
...
75,000
(25,000)
...
50,000
50,000
...
50,000
...
...
1,000,000
11,224
988,776
...
58,000
6,802
51,198
...
225,000
886
224,114
15,000
15,000
...
78,677
(72,558)
6,119
...
500,000
250,000
7,443
742,557
50,000
50,000
...
...
30,000
...
30,000
...
160,000
5,402
154,598
17,675
52,484
42,409
27,750
23,103
42,770
30,095
35,778
33,605
31,709
1,896
175,000
100,000
75,000
2,000
694
1,306
3,500
3,500
4,124
4,124
...
21,705
5,345
2,050
25,000
17,000
30,000
36,000
11,000
10,250
10,250
14,501
51,000
14,501
51,000
936,811 3,916,769
4,631,751 $6,627,382 $4,307,533 6,951,600
5,341,152
Deferred income $1,316,753
The accompanying notes are an integral part of these schedules.
$1,610,448
165
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
Schedule 4
Schedule of Expenses
for the Years Ended June 30, 1984 and 1983
1984
Salaries, fringe benefits, and payroll taxes
Salaries
Fringe benefits
Payroll taxes
Total
Fellowship grants
Awards, grants, and honoraria
Equipment
Educational and research
Administrative and operating
Library
Land (improvement)
Building (improvement)
Telescopes (improvement)
Total
General expenses
Educational and research supplies . .
Building maintenance
Investment services
Administrative
Travel
Retiree and special employee benefits
General insurance
Publications
Professional and consulting fees . . .
Commissary
Shop
Real estate taxes
Rent
Total
Indirect costs
Total expenses
The accompanying notes are an integral part of these schedules.
1983
Endowment
Restricted
Total
Total
and Special
Grants
Expenses
Expenses
$ 5,202,451
$1,153,887
$ 6,356,338
$ 5,788,865
943,578
216,081
1,159,659
1,018,305
310,683
69,315
379,998
375,850
6,456,712
1,439,283
7,895,995
7,183,020
447,392
350,279
797,671
731,254
28,248
23,946
52,194
53,350
298,270
687,272
985,542
1,132,375
129,397
9,000
138,397
194,602
92,284
10,000
102,284
104,188
16,995
...
16,995
11,361
18,232
18,232
47,397
29,171
29,171
1,290,621
6,149
584,349
706,272
1,496,072
487,575
719,912
1,207,487
1,268,694
1,006,463
...
1,006,463
832,806
411,115
...
411,115
395,015
578,107
694
578,801
532,431
254,243
99,995
354,238
346,093
195,222
...
195,222
155,865
184,887
...
184,887
205,610
136,762
30,158
166,920
129,539
159,408
159,408
163,349
56,812
...
56,812
41,923
33,026
...
33,026
28,813
8,930
...
8,930
9,192
10,379
15,000
25,379
26,698
3,522,929
865,759
4,388,688
4,136,028
(921,994)
921,994
$4,307,533
$10,117,636
$14,425,169
$13,599,724
166
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
Schedule of Investments
June 30, 1984
Schedule 5
1 of 3
Description Par/Shares
Fixed income — short term
Barclays Americancorp. , PN, 11.15%, 1984 .... 700,000
Barclays Americancorp., PN, 11.05%, 1984 .... 1,035,000
Export Development Corp., PN, 10.75%, 1984 . . 7,000,000
General Electric Corp., PN, 10.75%, 1984 800,000
General Motors Acceptance Corp. , PN,
11.05%, 1984 3,100,000
Hibernia National Bank, VR, CD, 10.725%, 1984 . 2,000,000
Houston Natural Gas, PN, 11.05%, 1984 3,500,000
Mercantile National Bank, Dallas, PN,
10.685%, 1984 2,500,000
Mellon Bank Pittsburg, VR, CD, 10.960%, 1985 . 3,500,000
Merrill Lynch & Co., PN, 10.80%, 1984 2,000,000
Merrill Lynch & Co., PN, 11.15%, 1984 2,200,000
Mitsubishi International Corp., PN, 10.40%, 1984 . 3,500,000
Mitsubishi International Corp., PN, 11.30%, 1984 . 3,000,000
Morgan Bank of Delaware Co., 11.00%, 1984 . . . 3,000,000
Southern Bell Telephone & Telegraph Co. ,
11.05%, 1984 3,000,000
Texaco Inc., PN, 11.05%, 1984 3,200,000
Texas Commerce Bank Houston, VR, CD,
10.915%, 1985 3,000,000
United Technologies Corp., PN, 10.75%, 1984 . . 1,500,000
Wells Fargo & Co., PN, 11.10%, 1984 2,000,000
Whirlpool Acceptance Corp., PN, 10.30%, 1984 . 1,000,000
Total fixed income — short term
Fixed income — bonds
Boeing Co., Sub Conv., L/T, 8.875%, 2006 593,000
Ford Motor Credit Co., VR, 11.563%, 1987 .... 2,500,000
Ford Motor Credit Co., VR, 11.187%, 1993 .... 700,000
Service Merchandise Co. , Conv. , Sub Deb,
11%, 2002 355,000
United States Treasury Note, 13.125%, 1994 . . . 1,675,000
United States Treasury Note, 10.875%, 1989 . . . 5,800,000
Total fixed income — bonds
Fixed income — mortgages
FHLMC, Group #18738, 7%, 2011 2,089,622
FHLMC, Group #18349, 8%, 2005 882,380
FHLMC, Group #180783, 7%, 2008 262,383
FHLMC, Group #180893, 8%, 2008 1,923,806
FHLMC, Group #181062, 6%, 2008 2,923,712
FNMA, Group #278, 8.5%, 2009 4,291,399
FNMA, Group #280, 8.5%, 2012 6,840,652
The accompanying notes are an integral part of these schedules.
Cost
Approximate
Market
$ 692,446
1,025,469
6,929,976
800,000
$ 692,446
1,025,469
6,929,976
800,000
3,100,000
2,000,000
3,462,399
3,100,000
2,000,000
3,462,399
2,500,000
3,500,000
2,000,000
2,179,558
3,466,750
2,972,692
3,000,000
2,500,000
3,500,000
2,000,000
2,179,558
3,466,750
2,972,692
3,000,000
2,972,375
3,167,587
2,972,375
3,167,587
3,000,000
1,483,875
1,979,650
990,844
3,000,000
1,483,875
1,979,650
990,844
51,223,621
51,223,621
657,404
2,500,000
700,000
705,670
2,500,000
700,000
709,752
1,604,859
5,862,581
550,250
1,610,094
5,821,750
12,034,596
11,887,764
1,253,773
545,973
193,180
1,368,837
1,622,655
2,843,052
4,583,237
1,366,091
612,152
170,877
1,334,640
1,878,485
3,079,079
4,942,371
(continued)
167
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
22,969,328
Schedule of Investments, June 30, 1984 (continued)
Description Par/Shares
Fixed income — mortgages (continued)
FNMA, Group #282, 8.5%, 2011 5,311,198
FNMA, Group #1149, 8%, 2012 4,678,333
FNMA, Group #1150, 8.5%, 2012 3,251,868
FNMA, Group #1490, 8%, 2008 450,794
FNMA, Group #2133, 8%, 2008 473,845
FNMA, Group #2579, 7%, 2007 228,344
Total fixed income — mortgages
Corporate stocks — common
Allied Corp 6,000
Amerada-Hess 10,500
American Information Technologies Co 20,100
American Telephone & Telegraph Co 171
AMR Corp 6,500
Arizona Bancwest Corp 27,500
Atlantic Richfield Co 4,500
Avco Corp 7,500
Bank of Boston Corp ' 4,300
Bankers Trust New York Corp 3,800
Bell Atlantic Corp 20,100
Beneficial Corp 8,000
Burlington Industries, Inc 7,000
Central & South West Corp 9,200
Cigna Corporation 15,081
Citicorp 4,600
El Paso Electric Co 71,300
Exxon Corp 5,500
Farmers Group Inc 16,600
Financial Corporation of America 12,000
First Alabama Bancshares, Inc 40,000
First Bank System Co 24,800
First Union Corp 13,800
Ford Motor Co 23,500
General Motors Corp 21,500
Golden West Financial Corp 12,500
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co 22,000
Gulf States Utilities Co 12,000
Hewlett-Packard Co 20,150
Illinois Power Co 7,000
International Business Machines Corp 29,976
International Paper Company 19,500
Irving Bank Corp 3,500
IU International Corp 17,900
Jim Walter Corp 7,500
Kansas City Power & Light Co 8,250
Kerr-McGee Corp 10,000
Leaseway Transportation Corp 8,000
McCormick & Co 29,000
Marine Midland Banks Inc 7,000
Marsh & McLennan Companies, Inc 17,300
Maryland National Bank 18,000
The accompanying notes are an integral part of these schedules.
Schedule 5
2 of 3
tinued)
Cost
Approximate
Market
3,664,726
3,508,750
2,499,874
361,199
355,384
168,688
$ 3,810,784
3,315,768
2,381,993
315,556
330,507
150,136
23,688,439
194,780
189,750
336,630
295,312
1,324,354
1,306,500
2,855
2,950
202,188
198,250
477,812
495,000
215,982
204,750
211,253
223,125
165,981
132,225
172,345
146,300
1,351,897
1,364,288
215,512
202,000
261,310
184,625
161,900
163,300
624,923
473,166
200,280
140,875
855,600
739,737
210,182
224,125
553,850
639,100
207,135
126,000
710,000
720,000
704,150
573,500
324,300
358,800
917,482
848,936
1,458,755
1,405,562
213,544
145,312
640,197
566,500
173,151
130,500
352,636
735,475
134,365
129,500
2,860,728
3,169,962
1,001,227
948,187
181,915
175,000
419,970
317,725
204,680
184,688
155,877
122,719
334,432
312,500
314,800
213,000
609,941
953,375
169,057
138,250
777,040
752,550
537,750
567,000
(continued)
168
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Financial Statements
Description
Corporate stocks — common (continued)
Medtronic Inc
Mercantile Texas Corp
Monsanto Co
J.P. Morgan & Co. Inc
NCNB Corp
National City Corp
Niagara Mohawk Power Corp
Northeast Utilities
Northwest Corp
Nynex Corp
Occidental Petroleum Corp
Ohio Casualty Corp
Orbanco Financial Services
Pacific Telesis Group
J.C. Penney Co
Pfizer Inc
Philip Morris Inc
Republicbank Corp
Rochester Gas & Electric Corp
Royal Dutch Petroleum Co
Safeway Stores, Inc
Shawmut Corporation
Sonat Inc
Southeast Banking Corp
Southwestern Bell Corp
Standard Oil Co. (Ohio)
Tenneco Inc
Texaco Inc
Tucson Electric Power Co
Union Electric Co
United Illuminating Co
U.S. Life Corp
U.S. West
United Technologies Corp
Westinghouse Electric Corp
Total corporate stocks — common
Other
Alan Dressier, Second trust,
variable interest rate
James D. & Alma C. Ebert (non-interest-bearing
loan to president secured by real estate) ....
Arthur Grossman, 9.0%, 2114
Francois Schweizer, First trust, 10.5%, 2007 . .
Total other
Adjustment to lower of cost or market . .
Total investments
The accompanying notes are an integral part of these schedules.
Schedule 5
3 of 3
E 30, 1984 (continued)
Approximate
Par/Shares
Cost
Market
9,000
$ 502,212
$ 228,375
5,700
172,499
115,425
36,400
1,678,270
1,574,300
2,300
167,384
142,888
50,000
1,203,000
1,200,000
5,850
171,600
166,725
10,000
169,544
140,000
13,500
167,985
153,563
12,400
347,200
311,550
25,800
1,590,151
1,560,900
22,000
675,900
629,750
8,000
353,000
319,000
23,500
676,175
293,750
23,800
1,341,874
1,294,125
9,500
525,950
482,125
17,500
643,461
573,125
26,500
963,249
1,835,125
4,700
157,913
124,550
9,400
175,109
130,425
4,000
152,842
191,500
8,500
210,760
195,500
8,200
334,150
348,500
6,000
171,352
194,250
35,000
698,687
774,375
23,000
1,357,737
1,285,125
4,500
209,700
196,313
68,000
2,622,524
2,541,500
20,700
814,256
698,625
28
1,029
1,061
11,700
175,458
149,175
6,500
176,743
82,063
8,000
215,036
202,000
26,500
1,587,197
1,530,375
49,600
1,643,668
1,612,000
61,600
1,471,836
1,355,200
$44,668,237
$43,553,682
60,137
60,137
200,000
93,792
97,946
200,000
93,792
97,946
451,875
451,875
(542,276)
$130,805,381
$130,805,381
169
Articles of Incorporation
ftftg-tigjrtjj Congress of t|e Uniteb States of America;
^t the Jteamd Jtessiou,
Begun and held at the City of Washington on Monday, the seventh day of December, one
thousand nine hundred and three.
A2ST act
To incorporate the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That the persons following, being persons
who are now trustees of the Carnegie Institution, namely, Alexander Agassiz,
John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew,
Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Oilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William
Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth
Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius 0. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow,
Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles
D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, their associates and successors, duly chosen, are
hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate by the name of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington and by that name shall be known and have
perpetual succession, with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained.
Sec. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the
broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and
the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind; and in particular —
(a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any department of
science, literature, or art, and to this end to cooperate with governments,
universities, colleges, technical schools, learned societies, and individuals.
(b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research.
(c) To publish and distribute documents.
(d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings, and acquire and maintain a library.
(e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct such building
or buildings as may be necessary to carry on the work of the corporation.
171
172 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
(f) In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote the
objects of the institution, with full power, however, to the trustees hereinafter
appointed and their successors from time to time to modify the conditions and
regulations under which the work shall be carried on, so as to secure the
application of the funds in the manner best adapted to the conditions of the time,
provided that the objects of the corporation shall at all times be among the
foregoing or kindred thereto.
Sec. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the corporation
and the control and disposal of its property and funds shall be vested in a board
of trustees, twenty-two in number, to be composed of the following individuals :
Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge,
William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry
L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P.
Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius 0. Mills,
S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root,
John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright,
who shall constitute the first board of trustees. The board of trustees shall
have power from time to time to increase its membership to not more than
twenty-seven members. Vacancies occasioned by death, resignation, or otherwise
shall be filled by the remaining trustees in such manner as the by-laws shall
prescribe; and the persons so elected shall thereupon become trustees and also
members of the said corporation. The principal place of business of the said
corporation shall be the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia.
Sec. 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold and
administer the securities, funds, and property so transferred by said Andrew
Carnegie to the trustees of the Carnegie Institution and such other funds or
property as may at any time be given, devised, or bequeathed to them, or to such
corporation, for the purposes of the trust ; and with full power from time to time to
adopt a common seal, to appoint such officers, members of the board of trustees or
otherwise, and such employees as may be deemed necessary in carrying on the
business of the corporation, at such salaries or with such remuneration as they may
deem proper; and with full power to adopt by-laws from time to time and such rules
or regulations as may be necessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction
of the business of the corporation ; and with full power and discretion to deal
with and expend the income of the corporation in such manner as in their
judgment will best promote the objects herein set forth and in general to have
and use all powers and authority necessary to promote such objects and carry out
the purposes of the donor. The said trustees shall have further power from time
ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION 173
to time to hold as investments the securities hereinabove referred to so transferred
by Andrew Carnegie, and any property which has been or may be transferred
to them or such corporation by Andrew Carnegie or by any other person,
persons, or corporation, and to invest any sums or amounts from time to time
in such securities and in such form and manner as are permitted to trustees
or to charitable or literary corporations for investment, according to the laws
of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, or Massachusetts, or in such securities
as are authorized for investment by the said deed of trust so executed by Andrew
Carnegie, or by any deed of gift or last will and testament to be hereafter made
or executed.
Sec. 5. That the said corporation may take and hold any additional
donations, grants, devises, or bequests which may be made in further support of
the purposes of the said corporation, and may include in the expenses thereof
the personal expenses which the trustees may incur in attending meetings or
otherwise in carrying out the business of the trust, but the services of the
trustees as such shall be gratuitous.
Sec. 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this Act a
meeting of the trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by Daniel C. Oilman,
John S. Billings, Charles D. Walcott, S. Weir Mitchell, John Hay, Elihu Root,
and Carroll D. Wright, or any four of them, at the city of Washington, in
the District of Columbia, by notice served in person or by mail addressed to
each trustee at his place of residence; and the said trustees, or a majority
thereof, being assembled, shall organize and proceed to adopt by-laws, to elect
officers and appoint committees, and generally to organize the said corporation;
and said trustees herein named, on behalf of the corporation hereby incorporated,
shall thereupon receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and
management of all property, real or personal, of the corporation heretofore known
as the Carnegie Institution, incorporated, as hereinbefore set forth under "An Act
to establish a Code of Law for the District of Columbia, January fourth, nineteen
hundred and two," and to all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of any
kind or nature ; and the several officers of such corporation, or any other person
having charge of any of the securities, funds, real or personal, books or property
thereof, shall, on demand, deliver the same to the said trustees appointed by this
Act or to the persons appointed by them to receive the same; and the trustees
of the existing corporation and the trustees herein named shall and may take
such other steps as shall be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act.
Sec. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corporation
known as the Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be impaired by the
174
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
passage of this Act, or the transfer of the property hereinbefore mentioned, nor
shall any liability or obligation for the payment of any sums due or to become
due, or any claim or demand, in any manner or for any cause existing against
the said existing corporation, be released or impaired ; but such corporation hereby
incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities and to be held
liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said
corporation so existing to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself
incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no such action
or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been
discontinued by reason of the passage of this Act.
Sec. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this
Act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall
thereby be divested or impaired.
Sec. 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately.
President of the Senate pro tempore.
By-Laws of the Institution
Adopted December 13, 1904. Amended December 13, 1910, December 13, 1912, Decem-
ber 10, 1937, December 15, 1939, December 13, 1940, December 18, 1942, December 12,
1947, December 10, 1954, October 24, 1957, May 8, 1959, May 13, 1960, May 10, 1963,
May 15, 1964, March 6, 1967, May 3, 1968, May 14, 1971, August 31, 1972, May 9, 1974,
April 30, 1976, May 1, 1981, and May 7, 1982.
ARTICLE I
The Trustees
1.1. The Board of Trustees shall consist of twenty-four members with power to in-
crease its membership to not more than twenty-seven members.
1.2. The Board of Trustees shall be divided into three classes each having eight or
nine members. The terms of the Trustees shall be such that those of the members of one
class expire at the conclusion of each annual meeting of the Board. At each annual meet-
ing of the Board vacancies resulting from the expiration of Trustees' terms shall be filled
by their re-election or election of their successors. Trustees so re-elected or elected shall
serve for terms of three years expiring at the conclusion of the annual meeting of the
Board in the third year after their election. A vacancy resulting from the resignation,
death, or incapacity of a Trustee before the expiration of his term may be filled by elec-
tion of a successor at or between annual meetings. A person elected to succeed a Trustee
before the expiration of his term shall serve for the remainder of that term. There shall
be no limit on the number of terms for which a Trustee may serve, and a Trustee shall
be eligible for immediate reelection upon expiration of his term.
1.3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as such.
1.4. Trustees shall be elected by vote of two-thirds of the Trustees present at a meet-
ing of the Board of Trustees at which a quorum is present or without a meeting by writ-
ten action of all of the Trustees pursuant to Section 4.6.
1.5 If, at any time during an emergency period, there be no surviving Trustee capable
of acting, the President, the Director of each existing Department, and the Executive
Officer, or such of them as shall then be surviving and capable of acting, shall consti-
tute a Board of Trustees pro tern, with full powers under the provisions of the Articles
of Incorporation and these By-Laws. Should neither the President, nor any such Direc-
tor, nor the Executive Officer be capable of acting, the senior surviving Staff Member
of each existing Department shall be a Trustee pro tern with full powers of a Trustee
under the Articles of Incorporation and these By-Laws. It shall be incumbent on the
Trustees pro tern to reconstitute the Board with permanent members within a reason-
able time after the emergency has passed, at which time the Trustees pro tern shall
cease to hold office. A list of Staff Member seniority, as designated annually by the
President, shall be kept in the Institution's records.
1.6. A Trustee who resigns after having served at least six years and having reached
age seventy shall be eligible for designation by the Board of Trustees as a Trustee Emer-
itus. A Trustee Emeritus shall be entitled to attend meetings of the Board but shall
have no vote and shall not be counted for purposes of ascertaining the presence of a
quorum. A Trustee Emeritus may be invited to serve in an advisory capacity on any
committee of the Board except the Executive Committee.
175
176 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
ARTICLE II
Officers of the Board
2.1. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a Vice-Chairman, and
a Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees, from the members of the Board, by
ballot to serve for a term of three years. All vacancies shall be filled by the Board for
the unexpired term; provided, however, that the Executive Committee shall have power
to fill a vacancy in the office of Secretary to serve until the next meeting of the Board of
Trustees.
2.2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the usual powers of a
presiding officer.
2.3. The Vice-Ch airman, in the absence or disability of the Chairman, shall perform
the duties of the Chairman.
2.4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board, record its transactions,
and conduct that part of the correspondence relating to the Board and to his duties.
ARTICLE III
Executive Administration
The President
3.1. There shall be a President who shall be elected by ballot by, and hold office during
the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the chief executive officer of the Institution.
The President, subject to the control of the Board and the Executive Committee, shall
have general charge of all matters of administration and supervision of all arrange-
ments for research and other work undertaken by the Institution or with its funds. He
shall prepare and submit to the Board of Trustees and to the Executive Committee
plans and suggestions for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its general corre-
spondence and the correspondence with applicants for grants and with the special ad-
visors of the Committee, and shall present his recommendations in each case to the Ex-
ecutive Committee for decision. All proposals and requests for grants shall be referred
to the President for consideration and report. He shall have power to remove, appoint,
and, within the scope of funds made available by the Trustees, provide for compensa-
tion of subordinate employees and to fix the compensation of such employees within
the limits of a maximum rate of compensation to be established from time to time by
the Executive Committee. He shall be ex officio a member of the Executive Committee.
3.2. He shall be the legal custodian of the seal and of all property of the Institution
whose custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall sign and execute on behalf of the
corporation all contracts and instruments necessary in authorized administrative and
research matters and affix the corporate seal thereto when necessary, and may delegate
the performance of such acts and other administrative duties in his absence to the Ex-
ecutive Officer. He may execute all other contracts, deeds, and instruments on behalf
of the corporation and affix the seal thereto when expressly authorized by the Board of
Trustees or Executive Committee. He may, within the limits of his own authorization,
delegate to the Executive Officer authority to act as custodian of and affix the corpo-
rate seal. He shall be responsible for the expenditure and disbursement of all funds of
the Institution in accordance with the directions of the Board and of the Executive
Committee, and shall keep accurate accounts of all receipts and disbursements. Follow-
ing approval by the Executive Committee he shall transmit to the Board of Trustees
before its annual meeting a written report of the operations and business of the Institu-
tion for the preceding fiscal year with his recommendations for work and appropria-
tions for the succeeding fiscal year.
3.3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees.
3.4. There shall be an officer designated Executive Officer who shall be appointed by
BY-LAWS
177
and hold office at the pleasure of the President, subject to the approval of the Execu-
tive Committee. His duties shall be to assist and act for the President as the latter may
duly authorize and direct.
3.5. The President shall retire from office at the end of the fiscal year in which he be-
comes sixty-five years of age.
ARTICLE IV
Meetings and Voting
4.1. The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in the City of Wash-
ington, in the District of Columbia, in May of each year on a date fixed by the Execu-
tive Committee, or at such Other time or such other place as may be designated by the
Executive Committee, or if not so designated prior to May 1 of such year, by the Chair-
man of the Board of Trustees, or if he is absent or is unable or refuses to act, by any
Trustee with the written consent of the majority of the Trustees then holding office.
4.2. Special meetings of the Board of Trustees may be called, and the time and place
of meeting designated, by the Chairman, or by the Executive Committee, or by any
Trustee with the written consent of the majority of the Trustees then holding office.
Upon the written request of seven members of the Board, the Chairman shall call a spe-
cial meeting.
4.3. Notices of meetings shall be given ten days prior to the date thereof. Notice may
be given to any Trustee personally, or by mail or by telegram sent to the usual address
of such Trustee. Notices of adjourned meetings need not be given except when the ad-
journment is for ten days or more.
4.4. The presence of a majority of the Trustees holding office shall constitute a quorum
for the transaction of business at any meeting. An act of the majority of the Trustees
present at a meeting at which a quorum is present shall be the act of the Board except
as otherwise provided in these By-Laws. If, at a duly called meeting, less than a quo-
rum is present, a majority of those present may adjourn the meeting from time to time
until a quorum is present. Trustees present at a duly called or held meeting at which a
quorum is present may continue to do business until adjournment notwithstanding the
withdrawal of enough Trustees to leave less than a quorum.
4.5. The transactions of any meeting, however called and noticed, shall be as valid as
though carried out at a meeting duly held after regular call and notice, if a quorum is
present and if, either before or after the meeting, each of the Trustees not present in
person signs a written waiver of notice, or consent to the holding of such meeting, or
approval of the minutes thereof. All such waivers, consents, or approvals shall be filed
with the corporate records or made a part of the minutes of the meeting.
4.6. Any action which, under law or these By-Laws, is authorized to be taken at a
meeting of the Board of Trustees or any of the Standing Committees may be taken
without a meeting if authorized in a document or documents in writing signed by all the
Trustees, or all the members of the Committee, as the case may be, then holding office
and filed with the Secretary.
4.7. During an emergency period the term "Trustees holding office" shall, for pur-
poses of this Article, mean the surviving members of the Board who have not been ren-
dered incapable of acting for any reason including difficulty of transportation to a place
of meeting or of communication with other surviving members of the Board.
article v
Committees
5.1. There shall be the following Standing Committees, viz. an Executive Committee,
a Finance Committee, an Auditing Committee, a Nominating Committee, and an Em-
ployee Benefits Committee.
178 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
5.2. All vacancies in the Standing Committees shall be filled by the Board of Trust-
ees at the next annual meeting of the Board and may be filled at a special meeting of
the Board. A vacancy in the Executive Committee and, upon request of the remaining
members of any other Standing Committee, a vacancy in such other Committee may be
filled by the Executive Committee by temporary appointment to serve until the next
meeting of the Board.
5.3. The terms of all officers and of all members of Committees, as provided for herein,
shall continue until their successors are elected or appointed. The term of any member
of a Committee shall terminate upon termination of his service as a Trustee.
Executive Committee
5.4. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, and
Secretary of the Board of Trustees, the President of the Institution ex officio, and, in
addition, not less than five or more than eight Trustees to be elected by the Board by
ballot for a term of three years, who shall be eligible for re-election. Any member elected
to fill a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his predecessor's term. The presence of
four members of the Committee shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of
business at any meeting.
5.5. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in session and has not
given specific directions, have general control of the administration of the affairs of the
corporation and general supervision of all arrangements for administration, research,
and other matters undertaken or promoted by the Institution. It shall also submit to
the Board of Trustees a printed or typewritten report of each of its meetings, and at the
annual meeting shall submit to the Board a report for publication.
5.6. The Executive Committee shall have power to authorize the purchase, sale, ex-
change, or transfer of real estate.
Finance Committee
5.7. The Finance Committee shall consist of not less than five and not more than six
members to be elected by the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years, who
shall be eligible for re-election. The presence of three members of the Committee shall
constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting.
5.8. The Finance Committee shall have custody of the securities of the Institution and
general charge of its investments and invested funds and shall care for and dispose of
the same subject to the directions of the Board of Trustees. It shall have power to au-
thorize the purchase, sale, exchange, or transfer of securities and to delegate this power.
So long as the Institution is the trustee under any retirement or other benefit plan for
the staff members and employees of the Institution, it shall be responsible for super-
vision of matters relating to investments thereunder and for the appointment or re-
moval of any investment manager or advisor. It shall also be responsible for reviewing
the financial status and arrangements of any employee benefit plan for which the Insti-
tution is not the trustee and for appointment or removal of any plan trustee or insur-
ance carrier. It shall consider and recommend to the Board from time to time such mea-
sures as in its opinion will promote the financial interests of the Institution and improve
the management of investments under any retirement or other benefit plan. The Com-
mittee shall make a report at the annual meeting of the Board.
Auditing Committee
5.9. The Auditing Committee shall consist of three members to be elected by the
Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.
5.10. Before each annual meeting of the Board of Trustees, the Auditing Committee
shall cause the accounts of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year to be audited by
public accountants. The accountants shall report to the Committee, and the Committee
shall present said report at the ensuing annual meeting of the Board with such recom-
mendations as the Committee may deem appropriate.
BY-LAWS 179
Nominating Committee
5.1 1. The Nominating Committee shall consist of the Chairman of the Board of Trust-
ees ex officio and, in addition, three Trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a
term of three years', who shall not be eligible for re-election until after the lapse of one
year. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his prede-
cessor's term, provided that of the Nominating Committee first elected after adoption
of this By-Law one member shall serve for one year, one member shall serve for two
years, and one member shall serve for three years, the Committee to determine the re-
spective terms by lot.
5.12. Sixty days prior to an annual meeting of the Board the Nominating Committee
shall notify the Trustees by mail of the vacancies to be filled in membership of the
Board. Each Trustee may submit nominations for such vacancies. Nominations so sub-
mitted shall be considered by the Nominating Committee, and ten days prior to the an-
nual meeting the Nominating Committee shall submit to members of the Board by mail
a list of the persons so nominated, with its recommendations for filling existing vacan-
cies on the Board and its Standing Committees. No other nominations shall be received
by the Board at the annual meeting except with the unanimous consent of the Trustees
present.
Employee Benefits Committee
5.13. The Employee Benefits Committee shall consist of not less than three and not
more than four members to be elected by the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of
three years, who shall be eligible for re-election, and the Chairman of the Finance Com-
mittee ex officio. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of
his predecessor's term.
5.14. The Employee Benefits Committee shall, subject to the directions of the Board
of Trustees, be responsible for supervision of the activities of the administrator or ad-
ministrators of any retirement or other benefit plan for staff members and employees
of the Institution, except that any matter relating to investments or to the appoint-
ment or removal of any trustee or insurance carrier under any such plan shall be the re-
sponsibility of the Finance Committee. It shall receive reports from the administrator
or administrators of the employee benefit plans with respect to administration, bene-
fit structure, operation, and funding. It shall consider and recommend to the Board
from time to time such measures as in its opinion will improve such plans and the ad-
ministration thereof. The Committee shall submit a report to the Board at the annual
meeting of the Board.
ARTICLE VI
Financial Administration
6.1. No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance of a previous
appropriation by the Board of Trustees, or as provided in Section 5.8 of these By-Laws.
6.2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day of July in each
year.
6.3. The Executive Committee shall submit to the annual meeting of the Board a full
statement of the finances and work of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year and a
detailed estimate of the expenditures of the succeeding fiscal year.
6.4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall make general
appropriations for the ensuing fiscal year; but nothing contained herein shall prevent
the Board of Trustees from making special appropriations at any meeting.
6.5. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control of all appropria-
tions made by the Board. Following the annual meeting, the Executive Committee may
180
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
allocate these appropriations for the succeeding fiscal year. The Committee shall have
full authority to reallocate available funds, as needed, and to transfer balances.
6.6. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property, and funds invested
and to be invested, shall be deposited in such safe depository or in the custody of such
trust company and under such safeguards as the Finance Committee shall designate,
subject to directions of the Board of Trustees. Income of the Institution available for
expenditure shall be deposited in such banks or depositories as may from time to time
be designated by the Executive Committee.
6.7. Any trust company entrusted with the custody of securities by the Finance
Committee may, by resolution of the Board of Trustees, be made Fiscal Agent of the
Institution, upon an agreed compensation, for the transaction of the business coming
within the authority of the Finance Committee.
6.8. The property of the Institution is irrevocably dedicated to charitable purposes,
and in the event of dissolution its property shall be used for and distributed to those
charitable purposes as are specified by the Congress of the United States in the Articles
of Incorporation, Public Law No. 260, approved April 28, 1904, as the same may be
amended from time to time.
ARTICLE VII
Amendment of By-Laws
7.1. These By-Laws may be amended at any annual or special meeting of the Board
of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided written notice of the
proposed amendment shall have been served personally upon, or mailed to the usual ad-
dress of, each member of the Board twenty days prior to the meeting.
Index
Abelson, Philip, v, vi, 114, 153
Adams, Walter S., papers of, 111
Aldrich, L. Thomas, 111, 142
algae
light harvesting in, 20-21
pigment structure in, 20-21
response to C02 stress, 38-40
response to light stress, 40
Anderson, M. John
publications of, 117
Angevine, Charles L., 72, 142
publications of, 124
aqueous fluids in Earth, 85-86
Arp, HaltonC, 51, 113, 144
publications of, 131
asteroids as meteorite source, 68-69
astronomy
growing together with earth sciences, 11,
45
studies in, 46-71
auxin
role in phototropism, 20
Babcock, Horace, 65, 144
Badger, Murray R.
publications of, 120
Baliunas, Sallie, 65-66, 148
Ball, J. Timothy, 40-42, 141
Barriero, Barbara, 147
publications of, 124
Barton, Mark, 86, 143
Baskin, Tobias, 19-20, 141
Bassett, William, 74
Bell, Peter M., 74-78, 113, 143
publications of, 127
Berry, Joseph, 38-42, 107, 140
publications of, 120
10Be studies, 79-81, 96, 98-100
bindin gene in sea urchin, 27-28
biogeochemistry, 94-98
Bjorkman, Olle, 13, 38-42, 106-107, 140
publications of, 120
black holes, 49, 50
Blatt, Michael R.
publications of, 120
Boctor, Nabil Z., 148
publications of, 127
Boise, James, 111, 112, 146, 153
Borne, Kirk, 51, 142
Boroson, Todd A., 49, 144
publications of, 131
Boss, Alan P., 60, 67, 71, 72, 109, 142
publications of, 124
Bowers, Rav, vii, 146
Boyd, Francis R., 73, 83, 143
publications of, 127
Branscomb, Lewis, r, 113, 151, 153
Briggs, Winslow, vii, 13, 14, 15, 18-20, 21,
105, 140
publications of, 120
Brillouin spectra, 79
Britten, Roy J., vii, 26-28, 146
publications of, 123-124
Brown, Donald D., vii, 13, 14, 30, 43, 106,
108, 139
publications of, 117
Brown, Jeanette, 21, 140
publications of, 120-121
Brown, Louis, 79-81, 98-100, 109, 142
publications of, 124
Bruning, David H., 144
publications of, 131-132
Brush, Grace, 98-100
Burke, Daniel, 104, 139
publications of, 117
Carlson, Richard W., 81-83, 109, 142
publications of, 124
Carnegie-del Duca Fellowships, 113-114
Caron, Lise, 113-114
Cascade region, 81-83
cells
differentiation of, 30, 32-33
mapping within, 32-33
membranes, 33, 33-37
surface properties, 34-35
traffic in, 34, 36-37
Charge-Coupled Devices, 2,. 47, 51, 54
Chayes, Felix, 103, 143 \
publications of, 127
Chesapeake Bay sediments, 98-100
Chiquet, Matthias, 139
publications of, 117
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, 38-40
chloroplast DNA, 21-22
chromosome structure, 32
181
182
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
chromospheric emissions, 60-63
Coleman, John R., 39, 141
publications of, 121
Coleman, William T., Jr., v, 154
Committee on the Physical Sciences, 5
Conley, Pamela, 21, 141
continents
formation of, 72, 73
contributions to the Institution, 157-158
control regions in genes, 28-30
convection
in mantle, 72
C02 stress
in algae, 38-40
crust
thickness, 72
crystal structures, 86-89
Czaplicki, Helen, 111, 145
Dabney, Leroy, 110
Danckwerth, Paul A.
publications of, 127
Davidson, Eric, 26
David, Edward E., v, 113, 151, 153, 154
de Cicco, Diane, 104, 139
publications of, 117
Demmig, Barbara, 39-41, 140
diagenesis of organic matter, 96-97
diamond-cell devices, 74-78
ruby fluorescence use in, 75-77
diamonds
plastic flow in, 74-77
Diebold, John, v, 151, 153
differential gene expression, 30
diseases
epilepsy, 36
hypertension, 36
myasthenia gravis, 34
Tay-Sachs and Niemann-Pick, 37
DNA evolution, 22, 27
Dressier, Alan, 46, 47-48, 49, 61, 109, 144
publications of, 132
Drosophila genetics, 25-26, 28-30, 31
Duncan, Douglas K., 63-66, 144
publications of, 132
Duncan, William, 111, 140
Dunham, Theodore, Jr., 109-110
Duerksen, Jacob, 110
du Pont telescope, 2, 45, 49, 51, 59
Duranton, Jacques, 21
Earth
formation of, 45, 71-72
initial temperature, 71-72
earthquakes, 90-94
1979 Imperial Valley, 90-92
1980 Victoria, 90-92
1982 Honshu, 92-93
Izu peninsula, 92-93
Ebert, James D., v, vii, 3-5, 146, 153
Echeverria, Lina M.
publications of, 124
Edelman, Gerald M., v, 151, 153
embryos, human
computer filing of data on, 43
hypoglossal nerve in, 43-44
nervous system in, 43
Engel, Michael H., 114
publications of, 127
erosion of soils, 98-100
Estep, Marilyn L. F., 96-98, 109, 113, 143
publications of, 127
facilities
for earth sciences, 4-5
for plant biology, 4
Fambrough, Douglas, 33, 34-36, 106, 108,
139
publications of, 117
Fedoroff, Nina, 23-25, 106, 108, 109, 113,
139
publications of, 118
Ferry, John M., 83-84, 148
Filippenko, Alexei, 49, 149
financial statements, 155-169
Finger, Larry W., 89, 114, 143
publications of, 128
Finnerty, Anthony A.
publications of, 128
Flytzanis, Constantin, 26
Forbush, Scott E., 109-110
Ford, W. Kent, 51, 59, 142, 144
publications of, 124-125
Fork, David C, 40-41, 140
publications of, 121
Fouts, Gary, 58, 145
Frantz, John D., 85-86, 143
publications of, 128
French, C. Stacey, 140
publications of, 121
Fukuyama, Hiroyuki, 110, 142
galaxies
active nuclei in, 47, 48, 49-50, 53
collisions involving, 50-53
clustering of, 48
decay of, 50
elliptical, 51
evolution, 46, 48-53, 55, 60
formation of, 2, 45, 46, 48, 51, 55
gas disks, 51
MCG 5-7-1, 2, 51-52
M31, 49, 57-58
M32, 49
mergers of 2, 50-53
population distribution of, 11, 47-48
rings in, 2, 51-52
spiral, spectra of, 59
Ursa Minor, 59
very distant, 46-50
very faint, 48
Gall, Joseph G., 31-32, 107, 108, 113, 139
publications of, 118
Gao, Boning, 28
gas clouds, 50
gene transfer
INDEX
183
in laboratory, 25-26, 28
in sea urchin, 26-27
genes
control of, 14, 28-29
specificity of, 32-33
genetic recombination, 21-27
geochemical studies, 45, 81-83, 83-84
gifts to the Institution, 157-158
Gilbert, CarlJ., v, 153
Gilmore, Gerard, 145
publications of, 132
Giraud, Edmond, 113-114
Gize, Andrew, 94-95, 96, 143
globular clusters, 54-58
composition, 55
distribution of, 55
evolution of, 55, 58
motions of, 57-58
NGC 6171, 55
Goelet, Robert G., v, 151, 153, 154
Goettel, Kenneth A., 75-77, 143
publications of, 128
Golden, William, v, 114, 153, 154
Golgi complex, 34-36, 37
Graham, John, 59
Greenewalt, Crawford, v, 110-111, 114,
151, 154
Greenough, William C, v, 114, 151, 153,
154
Greer, Dennis, 40
Grossman, Arthur R., 38-40, 140
publications of, 121
Griineisen parameter, 78
Gunn, James E., 47-48
Hale, George Ellery, 44, 63
Hale telescope, 49, 53, 62
Haraburda, Joseph M. S., vii, 146
Hare, P. Edgar, 143
publications of, 128
Hart, William K., 82-83, 147
publications of, 125
Haskins, Caryl P., v, vi, 153
Hazen, Robert M., 102-103, 107, 143
publications of, 128
Heckert, Richard E., v, 114
Henard, Kenneth, 111, 146
Herbig, George, 60-61
Hewlett, William R., v, 151, 153
high-pressure studies, 45, 74-79
H K emissions, 63-66
Hoering Thomas C, 83-84, 95-96, 143
publications of, 128
Hofmann, Albrecht W.
publications of, 125
Hofmeister, Anne, 78, 109, 143
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 3
Hooker telescope, 58
Hornblower, Marshall, vii
Hough-Evans, Barbara, 26
Howard, Robert, 111, 144
publications of, 132
Hu, Esther M.
publications of, 125
Huala, Eva L.
publications, 121
Hubble, Edwin P., 53-54, 112
Hutchins, Grover M., 43
hypoglossal nerve in embryos, 43
Iceland, 72, 93-94
lino, Moritoshi, 18-20, 141
publications of, 121
infrared astronomy, 53, 60-63
instrument advances
seismology, 100-101
International Geological Correlation
Project, 103
intrusions, magma, 84-85
ionization
in aqueous fluids, 85-86
iron compounds, 86-89
compressibility of, 77-78
Irvine, T. Neil, 84-85, 143
publications of, 128
Ishida, Mizuho
publications of, 125
Ishizaka, Kyoichi
publications of, 125
isotopic studies, 73, 79-81, 81-83, 83-84
in meteorites, 68
Ito, Emi, 147, 148
publications of, 125
Jackson, Ian J.
publications of, 118
James, David E., 100-101, 107, 109, 142
publications of, 125
Jeanloz, Raymond, 114
Jephcoat, Andrew, 77-78, 105, 143
Jewett, George F., Jr., v, 153
Johns, Mitrick, 23, 139
Johnson, Antonia Ax:son, v, 151, 153, 154
Joy, Alfred, 60
Kalfayan, Laura, 139
publications of, 118
Kaufman, Lon S., 15-16, 20, 140
publications of, 121
Keith, D. W., 84-85, 148
Kelly, Samuel, 23, 139
Kerckhoff Marine Laboratory, 26, 28
kimberlite, 73-74
Klein, Jeffrey, 79-81, 96, 98-100
Koo, David C, 48, 61, 109, 142
publications of, 125
Kraft, Robert P., 59
Kristian, Jerome, 2, 51, 144
publications of, 132
Kron, Richard, 48, 148
Krzeminski, Wojciech, 144, 149
publications of, 133
Kullerud, Gunnar, 114
Kunkel, William, 144, 149
184
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
Kushiro, Ikuo, 70, 143
publications of, 129
Lanning, Howard, 146
publications of, 133
Large Magellanic Cloud, 55-57, 59
Las Campanas observatory, 4, 45
Lawrence, John C, vii, 112, 147, 153
Lazarowitz, Sondra, 22, 139
Lee, Typhoon, 68, 142
Lemaux, Peggy, 21, 141
publications of, 121
Levine, Joseph, 140
publications of, 118
Li, Shu Zhong
publications of, 129
Life Sciences Research Foundation, 106
light, influence on plants, 14-21
blue light, 18-20
growth response, 16-17
red light, 15-18
Linde, Alan, 92-94, 142
lipids, 36-37
movement across cell membranes, 37
movement within cell, 37
Lipsky, Naomi, 139
publications of, 118
Lockwood, W., 64
Lomax, Terri, 21, 141
Lonsdale, Carol J., 53, 148
Lowell Observatory, 64-65
low-pressure experiments, 69-70
Ludlow, Mervyn M.
publications of, 121
Macko, Stephen A.
publications of, 129
Macomber, John D., v, 151, 153, 154
Mac Vicar, Margaret L. A., vii, 108, 114,
147, 153
Madore, Barry, 51, 148
magma
intrusions in, 84-85
structural features of, 86-89
maize genetics, 22-25
Mandoli, Dina, 15
publications of, 121
mantle
convection in, 72
materials, studies of, 73, 77-78, 81-83
modeling of, 45
plumes in, 72
transition zone in, 78-79, 83
structure and behavior of, 45
Mao, Ho-kwang, 74-78, 143
publications of, 129
Marcy, Geoffrey W., 144
publications, 133
Marshall, William, 85-86
Martin, William McChesney, Jr., v, 114
Masuda, Tetsu, 90-92, 105, 142
Matthews, Keith, 53
McClintock, Barbara, vii, 22-23, 112, 113,
146
McGregor, Peter J., 62, 105, 144
publications of, 133-134
McKnight Foundation, 105
McMahon, Andrew, 26
Mertzman, Stanley A. , 142
publications of, 125
mesophase, 94-95
Messing, Joachim, 23
metamorphism, 84
metasomatism, 73-74
meteorites, 68-69
sources of, 67-68
isotopic study of, 68
methylation of DNA, 18
Middleton, Roy, 79-81, 96, 98-100
mineral energetics, 102-103
Milky Way Galaxy
evolution of, 58
nuclear region, 58-59
perspectives on, from galatic studies, 11,
45
missing mass, 52-53
mitochondria, 18, 21-22
Mizuno, Hiroshi, 71, 105, 142
publications of, 125
models
heat and mass transfer in Earth, 89-90
heat flow on Earth formation, 72
molecular biology influence on other
disciplines, 10—11
Monet, David G., 144
publications of, 134
monoclonal antibodies, 33, 35-36
Moore, G. William, 43
Mott, Keith, 40-42, 141
Mould, Jeremy, 2, 51, 149
Mount Wilson observatory
changes at, 4-5
60-inch telescope at, 63
2.5-meter telescope at, 4
mRNA transcription, 15-18, 20
Miiller, Fabiola, 43-44
Muller, Fritz, 104, 139
Muncill, Gregory, 89-90, 143
Murphy, Franklin D., v
mutations
in C. elegans sperm cells, 32-33
Mysen, Bj0rn, 70, 87-89, 143
publications of, 129-130
Norton, Garrison, v, 153
Neumann, Else-Ragnhild
publications of, 130
Noyes, Robert, 65-66, 148
nutrient deprivation in plants, 39
Oke, J. B., 49
O'Rahilly, Ronan, 43-44, 139
publications of, 118
ore deposits
organic matter in, 94-95
INDEX
185
Osborn, Elburt F.
publications of, 130
Osorio, Bernardita, 142
publications of, 122 ■
Pagano, Richard, 14, 33, 36-37, 107, 139
publications of, 118-119
Palmer, Jeffrey, 22, 104, 140
publications of, 122
Pardue, Mary Lou, 31-32
Parratt, Patricia, vii, 147
Pavich, Milan, 98-100, 147
P elements, 25-26, 28-29
Pennoyer, Robert M., v, 153
Perkins, Richard S., v, 151, 153, 154
Perspectives in Science, 106
Persson, S. Eric, 53, 144
publications of, 134
petroleums, 94-95, 96
photoreceptors in plants, 15
phototropism, 18-20
photosynthesis
effects of temperature on, 38
phycobilisomes, 20-21
pigment structure, 20-21
planetary formation, 69-70, 70-71
planetary fragmentation, 70—71
plant response to
CO, stress, 38-39, 42
high salt, 39-40
sulfur stress, 39
temperature stress, 38
plants
gas exchange in, 40-42
platinum-group elements, 84-85
plume in Earth, 72
Polans, Neil, 17, 141
pollen in sediments, 99-100
Powles, Stephen B.
publications of, 122
Preston, George W., vii, 5, 44, 63, 66, 107,
144
publications of, 134
Purgathofer, Alois, 110
quasars, 49-50
Radick, Richard, 64
radio astronomy, 48-49, 53, 62
Radick, Richard, 64
radio astronomy, 48-49, 53, 62
radio broadcasts, 106
Ralph, Russell L.
publications of, 130
report of independent public accountants,
159
Reticon system, 54, 57, 58
Rich, R. Michael, 58, 149
Richet, Pascal, 77, 143
Rimmer, Sue, 95
RNA marking in cells, 31
Roberts, Morton, 5
Roberts, Thomas, 33
Rogers, Ophelia C, 140
publications of, 119
Roques, Paul, 55
Rubin, Gerald, 25-26, 112, 139
Rubin, Vera C, 59, 61, 107, 109, 142, 144
publications of, 125
RuBP activation, 42
Rumble, Douglas, 83-84, 143
publications of, 130
Russell, Henry N orris, 60
Sacks, I. Selwyn, 72, 92-94, 100-101, 109,
129, 142
publications of, 126
Sandage, Allan, 54, 55, 58, 144
publications of, 134-135
Satoh, Kazuhiko
publications of, 122
Scarfe, Christopher M.
publications of, 130
Schaefer, Martha, 78, 143
Schafer, Eberhard, 19
publications of, 122
Schechter, Paul L., 2, 51, 144
publications of, 135
Schell, Josef, 25
Schlissel, Mark, 30, 114, 140
publications of, 119
Schneider, Donald P., 46
Schulze, Daniel, 73-74, 143
Schweizer, Francois, 51, 142, 144
publications of, 126
science
communication in, 10
experimental approach in, 44-46
need for synthesis in, 9-12
observational approach in, 44-46
role of theory in, 44-46
specialization in, 9-12
scientist
characteristics of, 44
Seamans, Robert C, Jr., v, 151, 154
Searle, Leonard, 55, 57, 144
publications of, 135
Seemann, Jeffrey R., 42, 141
publications of, 122-123
Seifert, Friedrich A.
publications of, 130
seismograph array, 100-101
seismology, 45, 72, 90-94, 100-101
Selman, Fernando, 105, 144
seminars, 108-109
Sharma, Shiv K.
publications of, 130
Shectman, Stephen A., 48, 54, 57, 112, 144
publications of, 135
Shinkle, James R., 15, 141
publications of, 123
Shipley, Everett, 110
Shure, Mavis, 139
publications of, 119
Sigleo, Anne C.
publications of, 130
186
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
silicates
melt structure, 86-89
Silver, Paul G., 90-92, 142
publications of, 126
Simons, Bruno
publications of, 130
Sleight, Richard G., 139
publications of, 119
Smith, Celia M.
publications of, 123
Smith, Horace A., 55, 149
publications of, 135
Snider, Martin, 33-35, 139
publications of, 119
Snodgrass, Herschel B., 144
publications of, 135
Snoke, J. Arthur, 147
publications of, 126
sodium pump, 35-36
solar astronomy, 4
solar nebula, 45, 46, 67, 68
experiments on conditions in, 69-70
solar-stellar physics, 45, 63-66
solar-stellar seismology, 65-66
solar system
early conditions in, 68
experiments on early conditions, 69-70
formation of, 67
Spear, Frank S.
publications of, 130
Spradling, Allan, 25-26, 28-30, 112, 139
publications of, 119
Sprague, E. Kent, 96, 148
Squash Leaf Curl virus, 22
Stanford University, 105
Stanton, Frank, v, 114, 151, 153, 154
star formation, 48, 50-53, 57, 60-63, 67
stars
binary, 59-60
differential rotation in, 65
7 Tau, 66
e Eridini, 65-66
halo, 58
Hyades dwarfs, 64
K-giants, 58-59
radial velocities of, 58
rotations of, 64, 66
rotation in red giants, 66
Steiman-Cameron, Thomas Y., 51, 144
publications of, 135
stellar outflow, 62
Stern, David B., 18, 22, 104, 141
publications of, 123
Stern, Robert J.
publications of, 126
Stetson, Peter B., 57, 144
publications of, 135-136
Stillwater Complex, Montana, 84-85
St. John, Peter
publications of, 130
strainmeter use, 92-94
Streisinger, George, 110
stress
response to in plants, 37-42
Stryker, Linda L., 60, 142, 149
publications of, 126
subduction processes, 79-81, 81-83
Sun formation, 67
Suntzeff, Nicholas, 59, 144
publications of, 136
Suyehiro, Shigeji, 92-94
Suzuki, Yoshiaki, 139
Taft, Charles P., 153
Tammann, Gustav A., 145
publications of, 136
telescope technology, 4
telomeres of chromosomes, 32
temperature in early Earth, 72
ten-year financial summary, 156
Tepperman, James M., 142
publications of, 123
Tera, Fouad, 68, 79-81, 98-100, 142
thermophilic microorganisms, 97-98
Thompson, Ian B., 48, 144
publications of, 136
Thompson, William F., 13, 15, 140
publications of, 123
Thonnard, Norbert, 112, 142
Tilton, George, 5
Todd, S. G., 84-85
Torbett, Michael V., 142
publications of, 126
Townes, Charles H., v, 114, 153
transposable genetic elements, 22-25, 28-
29
as vectors, 24, 25, 25-26, 28-29
nucleotide sequences of, 23-25
use in isolating genes, 24-25
Tunell, George
publications of, 130
universe
dynamic nature of, 46
expansion of, 53-54
large-scale structure of, 46-48, 53
Valette-Silver, Nathalie, 98-100, 142
Valiejos, C. Eduardo, 141
publications of, 123
Vasquez, Susan Y., vii, 147
Vaughan, Arthur H., 63-66, 144
publications of, 136
Virgo, David, 70, 87-89, 143
publications of, 131
volcanic materials, 79-81, 81-83
Wakimoto, Barbara, 139
publications of, 119
Ward, Samuel, 32-33, 139
publications of, 119
Warrior, Rahul, 140
publications of, 119
Watson, E. Bruce, 114
Watson, John C, 17, 20, 141
publications of, 123
INDEX
187
Weinberg, Sidney J., Jr., v, 153, 154
Wessler, Susan
publications of, 119
Wessman, Gunnar, v, 112, 153
Wetherill, George W., 5, 44, 46, 68, 69, 71,
81, 83, 101, 107, 111, 142
publications of, 126
Whitmore, Bradley C., 52, 59
publications of, 126
White, William M.
publications of, 126
Wilson, OlinC., 63, 113, 144
Windhorst, Rogier A., 48, 105, 109, 144
publications of, 136
Wisdom, Jack, 69
Woodward, Dow, 18, 147
Wormington, W. Michael
publications of, 119
Xenopus genetics, 30
Xu, Ji-an, 77, 143
publications of, 131
Yellowstone microorganisms, 97-98
Yoder, Hatten S;, Jr., vii, 44, 71, 77,
94, 102-103, 107, 143
publications of, 131
Young Stellar Objects, YSOs, 60-63
Zeiger, Eduardo, 19
Zhou, Xinhua, 83
Zinn, Robert, 55
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