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The

Twentieth Yearbook

NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY

tOF EDUCATION
i

PART I

SECOND REPORT Dl
NEW MATERIALS OF INSTRLic

KBOOK

THE

Twentieth Yearbook

OF THE

NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY

OF EDUCATION

PART I

SECOND REPORT OF THE SOCIETY'S COM-
MITTEE ON NEW MATERIALS
OF INSTRUCTION

A COLLECTION OP TWO HUNDRED EIGHTY-FIVE PROJECTS COM-
PILED BY THE COMMITTEE WITH THE AID OP VARIOUS
SUB-COMMITTEES FROM MATERIAL SUBMITTED BY
THE REPRESENTATIVES OF NUMEROUS
SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Edited by

GUY MONTEOSE WHIPPLE

THIS YEARBOOK WILL BE DISCUSSED AT THE ATLANTIC CITY
MEETING OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, SATURDAY
FEBRUARY 26, 1021, 2:00 P. M.

PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY

BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS

1921

• J*A1., L.otfAfiV

• . ••

m

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY
for the Atlantic City Meeting

President

Harry B. Wilson
Superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, California

Vice-President

David Felmley
Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois

Secretary-Treasurer

Guy Montrose Whipple
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Executive Committee

(The Year Indicates Date of Expiration of Term)

Ernest Horn (1921)
State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa

Frederick James Kelly (1922)
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas

Paul Whitfield Horn (1923)
Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas

Stephen S. Colvin (1924)
Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island

Board of Trustees

Daniel Starch (1921)
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts

W. W. Kemp (1922)
State Normal School, San Jose, California

Frank W. Ballou (1923)
Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C.

TABLE OP CONTENTS

PAGE

Editor's Preface vi

Introduction and Second Report of the Committee vn

Membership of the Society's Committee on New Materials of

Instruction x

Membership of the Society's Sub-Committees on New Materials

of Instruction xi

CHAP.

I. New Materials for the Kindergarten (Nos. 1-20) .... 1

II. New Materials for the Primary Grades (Nos. 21-64) 14

A. Materials Primarily for the First Grade (Nos. 21-37) 14

B. Materials for the Second Grade (Nos. 38-53) 24

C. Materials for the Third Grade (Nos. 54-64) 34

III. New Materials for Grades IV, V, and VI (Nos. 65-193) 39

A. Materials for the Fourth Grade (Nos. 65-101) 39

B. Materials for the Fifth Grade (Nos. 102-148) 60

C. Materials for the Sixth Grade (Nos. 149-193) 86

IV. New Materials for the Junior High School

(Nos. 194-274) 115

A. Projects Concerned with School Activities and In-

terests (Nos. 194-212) 118

B. Projects Concerned with Community Civic Interests

(Nos. 213-228) 134

C. Projects Concerned with General Civic and Patriotic

Interests (Nos. 229-240) 147

D. Projects Concerned with A vocational and Cultural

Interests (Nos. 241-255) 154

E. Projects Concerned with Vocational Interests (Nos.

256-263) 166

F. Projects Concerned with Business Interests (Nos.

264-270) 172

G. Projects Concerned with Home Interests (Nos. 271-

274) 176

•

CHAP. PAGE.

V. New Materials fob Special Classes (Nos. 275-285) .... 179

VI. A Bibliography op the Project Method in the Ele-
mentary School, the Junior High School, and the
High School 189

Constitution of the National Society for the Study of Education 222

Minutes of the 1920 Meeting of the Society 224

Honorary and Active Members of the Society 227

Report of the Treasurer of the Society for 1920 236

Information Concerning the Society 238

EDITOR'S PREFACE

As explained in detail elsewhere, this part of the Twentieth
Yearbook represents the contributions of an unusually large number
of different persons, who, at the solicitation of the various sub-
committees, submitted accounts of classroom exercises that had
been developed by them and had been found to possess merit.

Whether the reader wishes to apply the term 'projects' to all
these exercises or not, the fact remains that they all possess a
degree of novelty, that they at least represent departures from the
stock material of the school textbook, that they are calculated to
enlist the interests of children, and that they afford obvious oppor-
tunity both for the exhibition of initiative and also for the securing
of drill in the fundamental pedagogical tools.

The chairman of the various sub-committees and more par-
ticularly, Dr. F. J. Kelly, the chairman of the general committee,
deserve the credit for assembling and arranging the material re-
ported by the classroom teachers. The editor takes the responsi-
bility for the final arrangement of the material and for excluding,
on account of limitations of space, a considerable amount of excel-
lent material. As it is, the 285 ' projects ' are surely numerous
enough, varied enough, and comprehensive enough to afford an ex-
cellent sample of these newer educational developments.

Where known to the editor, the name and school address of the
contributor has been credited to each item. This will make it pos-
sible, we hope, for supervisors and teachers who use this Yearbook
to get into direct correspondence with these contributors, who will
be glad, we are sure, to impart further details of their work and to
exchange experiences. If the Yearbook can be used in this way,
it will meet the hopes of the Society's Committee who have had in
mind from the start the direct assistance of wide-awake classroom
teachers in their daily work.

Guy M. Whipple,

INTRODUCTION AND SECOND REPORT OF THE

COMMITTEE

The Committee on New Materials of Instruction whose names
are appended hereto, is a committee created by the National So-
ciety for the Study of Education in 1919. This Committee ap-
proved the plan for the assembling of materials such as appear in
this report. The materials were to be submitted by a large sub-
committee consisting primarily of teachers in actual contact with
classroom situations. The chairman of the Committee was author-
ized to proceed with the work on this basis, and other members of
the Committee have had no further opportunity to share with the
chairman the responsibility for the contents of the report.

In following out the Committee's plan, the chairman sought
from a large number of educators throughout the country the names
of teachers who were doing outstanding work with curriculum ma-
terials based upon the genuine interests of children. The teachers
whose names were thus secured were arranged in sub-committees
according to their major interests. They were then asked to re-
port to their respective chairmen, the new materials which they
had successfully tried out in their classrooms.

For the final organization of the materials, sub-committee chair-
men were held responsible. These were : for the kindergarten ma-
terials, Miss Nina C. Vandewalker, Specialist in Kindergarten Edu-
cation with the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. ; for pri-
mary grades, Miss Frances M. Berry, Supervisor, Trimary Grades,
Baltimore, Md. ; for Grades Four, Five and Six, Miss Edna Keith,
Supervisor, Elementary Grades, Joliet, 111. ; for the Junior High
School, Mr. H. G. Lull, Superintendent of the Training School,
State Normal, Emporia, Kan. ; for sub-normal children, Miss Nel-
lie R. Olson, teacher of an ungraded class, Faribault, Minn. A
sixth committee under the chairmanship of Mr. F. L. Whitney, of
the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, was asked to assemble
materials not readily classified under traditional school subjects,
and that committee submitted valuable materials. However, since
materials assembled by the other committees were not found readily

VII

vra

classifiable under the traditional school subjects, the materials sub-
mitted by Mr. Whitney were not made into a separate section, but
were distributed in the most appropriate places throughout the
reports submitted by the other committees.

It is impossible to give adequate recognition to the very large
number of people who have contributed from their experience to
the materials of the following report. All, however, are seriously
engaged in the effort to make the subject matter and method used
in elementary schools function better than .they now do in the pro-
duction of an efficient citizenship. We can only express our ap-
preciation of their service in making available to other teachers the
results of their valuable experiences.

A word should be said with reference to the bibliography ap-
pearing at the close of this report. Each sub-committee presented
a bibliography particularly valuable to workers in its own field.
These were found to be embodied in the more complete bibliography
which was prepared by Willis N. Kerr, librarian, and his assistants
in the library at the State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas; it
was thought best, therefore, to confine the bibliography to this one
splendid classified list of references. I am glad to make public ac-
knowledgment of the pains-taking work done by all those who pre-
pared bibliographies, and especially to Mr. Kerr.

There is no longer any need for entering into a defense of the
use of the sort of materials contained in the following report. Such
defense is quite complete in many of the treatises referred to in
the bibliography. One point may, however, be urged at this time.
The traditional classification of materials for elementary education
seems poorly adapted to these newer materials based upon genuine
interests of children. It was found impossible, therefore, to make
a distinct classification of materials under Beading, Arithmetic,
Geography, and the like. In many cases each of these "tool" sub-
jects was used in carrying out the objects of a single project. It
seems fitting, therefore, to state that the following report adds strik-
ing testimony to the claim for the classification of materials in ele-
mentary schools above the primary grades on quite a different basis
than prevails in our present classification. No distinctive classifica-
tion was undertaken in this report, because it was thought at the

DC

time when work on the report was begun that it would be impos-
sible to assemble any very large number of projects which had been
successfully tried, except upon the basis of the traditional classi-
fication of subjects. However, when the accounts were submitted,
it was discovered that in a great many cases they were independ-
ent of the traditional subjects, but did not lend themselves to any
other classification. In the Junior High School section, Mr. Lull,
Chairman of the Committee, has used a classification which he ex-
plains in his introduction, but he recognizes that the projects sub-
mitted do not fit especially well into his classification.

Respectfully submitted, for the Committee :

F. J. Kelly, Chairman.

MEMBERSHIP OP THE SOCIETY'S COMMITTEE ON NEW

MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION

Professor W. C. Bagley, Teachers College.

President J. C. Brown, State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn.

Dean C. E. Chadsey, University of Illinois.

President L. D. Coffman, University of Minnesota.

Dean E. P. Cubberley, Leland Stanford University.

President E. C. Elliott, University of Montana.

Director C. H. Judd, University of Chicago.

Dean P. J. Kelly, University of Kansas, Chairman.

Professor H. C. Morrison, University of Chicago.

Professor C. D. Strayer, Teachers College.

Professor G. M. Whipple, University of Michigan.

XI

MEMBERSHIP OF THE SOCIETY'S SUB-COMMITTEES ON NEW

MATEBIALS OF INSTRUCTION

Committee I. Materials suitable for Kindergarten Children.

Miss Nina C. Vanderwalker, chairman, Specialist in Kindergarten
Education, U. S. Bureau of Education.

Emma Flinn, Kindergarten Critic, State Normal, Valley City,
N. D.

Marion Watson, Kindergarten Critic, State Normal College,
Ypsilanti, Mich.

Committee 11. Materials suitable for Grades 1, 11, and 111.
General Committee.

Miss Frances M. Berry, chairman, Primary Supervisor, Baltimore, Md.

Miss Ellice Burke, Murray Hill School, Cleveland, Ohio.

Miss Frances Dearborn, Primary Method, Detroit Normal School,

Detroit, Mich.
Miss Mary L. Dougherty, Primary Critic. Mankato, Minn.
Miss Achsah Harris, Primary Supervisor, State Normal, Emporia, Kan.
Miss Alison Hayne, First Grade Critic, Marr School, Detroit, Mich.
Miss Begenia B. Heller, Primary Supervisor, Public Schools, Detroit,

Mich.
Miss Helen Beynolds, Primary Supervisor, Public Schools, Seattle,

Wash.
Miss Mary G. Bud, Primary Supervisor, Minot, N. D.
Miss Cora Jean Smith, Primary Critic, Valley City, N. D.

Committee 11 a. Materials for Grade I.

Mrs. Mabel Orr, Chairman, City Normal School, Rochester, N. Y.
Miss Martha Griffith, City Normal, Dayton, Ohio.
Miss Margaret Morris, Primary Critic, Training School, Athens, O.
Miss Laura Bemer, Primary Department, State Normal, Pittsburg,

Kan.
Miss Isabolle Veazey, Critic Teacher, Alva, Okla,

Committee 11 b. Materials for Grade 11.

Miss Fannie Ballow, Chairman, State Normal, Kalamazoo, Mich.
Miss Ann Den Blyker, State Normal, Pittsburg, Kan.
Miss Katherine Nichols, City Normal School, Rochester, N. Y.
Miss Amy Weihr, Critic Teacher, Training School, Athens, Ohio.

Committee II e. Materials for Grade 111.

Miss Edith B. Whitney, Chairman, Critic Teacher, Stevens Point, Wis.
Miss Edith Buchanan, Critic Teacher, Training School, Athens, Ohio.
Miss J. U. Charlton, Critic Teacher, Alva, Okla.
Miss Nell C. Curtiss, Lincoln School, 646 Park Ave., New York City.

Committee III. Materials suitable for Grades IV, V, and VI.
General Committee.

Miss Edna Keith, Chairman, Elementary Supervisor, Joliet, HI.
Miss Jennie M. Flemming, Director of Practice School, Detroit Normal,

Detroit, Mich.
Mrs. 0. Flood, Eagle School, Cleveland, Ohio.

Miss Mary Gardner, Critic Teacher, State Normal School, Valley City,

North Dakota.
Miss Catherine Morgan, Director of Substitutes, Detroit Normal,

Detroit, Mich.
Miss Kate Sharrard, Elementary Supervisor. Rockford, HI.

Committee 111 a. Materials for Grade IV.

Miss Maude McBrown, Chairman, Fourth Grade Critic, Marr School,

Detroit, Mich.
Miss Blanche Bussey, Alva, Okla.

Miss Myrtle Hesse, Critic Teacher, Training School, Athens, Ohio.
Miss Mae Kileullen, Critic Teacher, Stevens Point, Wis.
Miss Hazel McCullock, Critic Teacher, Minot, N. D.

Committee 111 b. Materials for Grade V.

Mrs. Anna K. Price, Chairman, Critic Teacher, Training School,

Athens, Ohio.
Miss Besse M. Hayden, Critic Teacher, Pittsburg, Kan.
Miss Julia Hubbard, Critic Teacher, Winona, Minn.
Miss Blanch Louden, Critic Teacher, Moorhead, Minn.
Miss Susan Norton, Critic Teacher, State Normal, Valley City, N. D.
Miss Johanna G. Soland, Critic Teacher, State Normal, Minot, N. D.

Committee Hie. Materials for Grade VI.

Miss Elsie J. Cook, Chairman, Critic Teacher, Training School, Minot,

N. D.
Miss Mabel Benson, Critic Teacher, State Normal, Moorhead, Minn.
Miss Ethel Black, Sixth Grade Critic, Marr School, Detroit, Mich.
Miss Stella Everett, Critic Teacher, Training School, Athens, Ohio.
Miss Carrie Lankford, Franklin School, Okmulgee, Okla.
Miss Kathryn Mulry, State Normal, Kalamazoo, Mich.

Committee IV. Materials for Grades VII, VI11, and IX.
General Committee.

Mr. H. G. Lull, Chairman, Superintendent Training School, Emporia,

Kan.
Miss Nelle H. Brown, City Normal, Dayton, Ohio.
Mr. Leo J. Brueekner, Assistant Principal, Detroit Normal School,

Detroit, Mich.
Mr. W. G. Cisne, Principal Junior High School, State Normal, Car-

bondale, HI.
Miss Laura MacArthur, Principal Irving Junior High School, Duluth,

Minn.
Miss Eula Miller, Critic Teacher, Mankato, Minn.
Mr. James M. Glass, Principal, Washington Junior High School,

Bochester, N. Y.

Committee IV a. Materials for Grade Vll.

Miss Louise Steinway, Chairman, State Normal, Kalamazoo, Mich.
Miss Cora Bailey, Critic Teacher, Training School, Athens, 0.
Miss Anna Wilke, Critic Teacher, Alva, Okla.

Committee IV b. Materials for Grade VIII.

Miss Lydia Kreutz, Critic Teacher, State Normal, Valley City, N. D.
Miss Louise McDonald, Emerson School, Okmulgee, Okla.

xin

Ma. Mildred Smith, Critic Teacher, Alva, Okla.
Miss Margaret Tilley, Chairman, Critic Teacher, Training School,
Athens, Ohio.

Committee IV e. Materials for Grade IX.

Miss Margaret McCarthy, Chairman, Critic Teacher, State Normal,
Valley City, N. D.

Committee F. MateriaU suitable for subnormal children.

Miss Nellie B. Olson, Chairman, 511 Fourth Street, West, Faribault,

Minn.
Miss Blanche Towne, Special Boom Critic Teacher, Tpsilanti, Mich.

Committee VI. Materials not readily classified under the traditional school
subjects.

Mr. F. L. Whitney, Chairman, University of Minnesota.

Miss Flora B. Cotterill, City Normal, Dayton, Ohio.

George B. Crissman, Supervisor of Training, Warrensburg, Mo.

Orville Davis, Principal, Greenwood School, Kirksville, Mo.

Miss Florence Hall, State Normal, Muncie, Ind.

Miss Ada Van Stone Harris, Supervisor Public Schools, Pittsburg, Pa.

Mr. Herschel T. Manuel, Department of Education, State Normal,
Platteville, Wis.

Miss Cora A. Newton, Supervisor of Training, State Normal, Bridge-
water, Mass.

Mr. C. E. Porter, Head Practice School, State Normal, Milwaukee,
Wis.

Mr. D. W. Boberts, Supt, Training School, Tpsilanti, Mich.

Mr. Charles C. Boot, Head of Educational Department, State Normal,
Buffalo, N. Y.

Miss Ethel I. Salisbury, Supervisor of Instruction, Berkeley, CaL

Mr. Wade H. Shumate, Director of Training, Talequah, Okla.

Miss Susan Stinson, Critic Teacher, Ypsilanti, Mich.

Miss Ida Lee Tall, Teacher Training, Baltimore, Md.

Mr. E. H. Wilds, Department of Education, State Normal, Platteville,
Wis.

Miss Belle Wallace, Training School, State Normal, Billingham, Wash.

Mr. Frederic P. Woellner, Head of Part Time Education, State Nor-
mal, Buffalo, N. Y.

Committee VII. Materials assembled by subjects — to be then submitted to the
appropriate grade committee listed above.

Committee VII a. General Science, biological, physical.

Phillip W. L. Cox, Chairman, Principal Ben Blewett Junior High

School, St. Louis, Mo.
Philipine Crecelius, Ben Blewett Junior High School, St. Louis, Mo.
Florence Billig, Science Supervisor, State Normal, Emporia, Kan.
W. L. Eikenberry, Training School, University of Kansas, Lawrence,

Kan.
Charles B. Finley, Lincoln School, 646 Park Ave., New York City.
Earl B. Glenn, Lincoln School, 646 Park Ave., New York City.
C. H. Watson, Training School, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan.

Committee VII b. Agriculture.

Fred T. Ullrich, Chairman, Department of Agriculture, State Normal,
Platteville, Wis.

XIV

Committee Vile, Home Economic*.

Miss Bessie Mae Allen, Chairman, Director Home Economics, Stevens
Point, Wis.

Committee VII d. Hygiene and Health.

Miss Georgia Davis, Supervisor of Instruction, Muskogee, Okla.

Committee Vile. Social Studies, economic, civic.

Miss Elizabeth Breckenridge, Chairman, State Normal, Louisville, Ky.
Miss Cornelia A. Forbes, Ben Blewett Junior High School, St. Louis,

Mo.
Maud Myers, 701 West 38th St., Kansas City, Mo.
Miss Erma Dolfinger, State Normal, Louisville, Kentucky.
Miss Louise Bobertson, State Normal, Louisville, Kentucky.
Mrs. Louise Mears, State Normal, Milwaukee, Wis.

Committee VII f. History.

Miss Lotta A. Clark, History Department, Boston Normal School.
Mr. Grant E. Finch, Director of Training, State Normal, Dillon, Mont.

Committee VII g. Geography.

Miss Blanch E. Campbell, Chairman, Elementary Supervisor, Board of
Education, Atlanta, Georgia.

Mr. Grant E. Finch, Director of Training, State Normal, Dillon, Mont.

Miss Sarah M. Imboden, Elementary Supervisor, Decatur, 111.

Miss Bertha Mason, Superintendent of Geography, Jacksonville, HI.

Mr. Leonard F. Packard, Geography Department, Boston Normal
School.

Miss Zor M. Thralls, Geographical Department, Normal, Pittsburg,
Kansas.

Miss Jennie Williams, Geography Department, State Normal, Em-
poria, Kan.

Miss Lydia A. Woliung, Lincoln School, 646 Park Ave., New York
City.

Committee VII h. Industrial Arts.

Mr. A. H. Edgerton, Chairman, Lincoln School, 646 Park Ave., New

York City.
G. H. Hargitt, Ben Blewett Junior High School, St. Louis, Mo.
Mr. A. L. Herr, Lincoln School, 646 Park Ave., New York City.

Committee VII i. Drawing and Painting.

Miss Floy Campbell, Chairman, Junior College, Kansas City, Mo.
Miss Helen E. Cleaves, Art Department, Boston Normal School.
Miss Ethelwyn Bradish, Lincoln School, 646 Park Ave., New York
City.

Committee VII j. Music.

Miss Catherine Stronse, Music Supervisor, Emporia, Kan.

Committee VII Jc. English Literature.

Miss A. Laura McGregor, Chairman, Washington Junior High School,

Rochester, N. Y.
Miss Harriet Beale, Instructor Children's Lit., State Teachers College,

Mankato, Minn.

Mrs. W. B. 8every, Supervisor English, State Normal, Milwaukee, Wis.
Mr. £. £. Chiles, Supervisor English, Ben Blewett Junior High School,
St. Louis, Mo.

Committee VII Z. Composition.

Mr. Grant E. Finch, Chairman, Director of Training, State Normal,
Dillon, Mont.

Miss F. Ursula Payne, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, Brook-
lyn, N. Y.

Mr. 8. A. Leonard, Lincoln School, 646 Park Ave., New York City.

Committee VII m. Arithmetic

Intermediate Grades.

Miss Georgia Davis, Chairman, Supervisor of Instruction, Muskogee,

Okla.
Miss Emma Meyer, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn,

N. Y.
Mrs. Jessie Barr Weild, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers,

Brooklyn, N. Y.
Miss Orpha E. Worden, Instructor, Arithmetic, Detroit Normal School,

Detroit, Mich.
Junior High School.
H. P. Shepherd, Chairman, Principal Junior High School, Tenth and

Ivandale Ave., Kansas City, Kan.
Miss Gertrude Brown, State Normal, Emporia, Kan.
Miss Carrie Markham, Ben Blewett Junior High School, St. Louis, Mo.

Committee VII n. Penmanship.

Clyde C. Lister, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn,
N. Y.

CHAPTER I

NEW MATERIALS FOR THE KINDERGARTEN

INTRODUCTION

The work of the kindergarten must be constantly new if the
present-day conception of education as a meeting of children's
needs at the successive stages of their development is kept clearly
in mind. Having grasped this principle, the kindergartner sees
that children's interests and activities must serve as the starting
point in their education and that these interests must be so guided
as to create problems for them to solve. The approach to subject
matter is made by the meeting of play situations and the solving
of play problems. It cannot, therefore, be stereotyped, but must
be brought afresh to each individual or group.

When the approach is thus psychologically made, the working
out of the problem naturally takes the project form. The project
method is not, therefore, new to the kindergartner of insight, since
she has worked in the spirit of that method for years. The cur-
riculum of the kindergartner is in fact embodied in a series of
projects by the working out of which children gain an insight into
the world of man and nature and their own relation to both. At
the beginning of the year, for example, they carry out in play the
activities of the home; they build the store from which the home
secures its supply of food and dramatize the process of buying and
selling; and they make in the sand table the garden or miniature
farm which supplies the store. They arrange a harvest festival in
preparation for the Thanksgiving party in which the products
that characterize the season are grouped together. Other projects
worked out in other seasons or in preparation for other festivals
interpret for the children other significant aspects of life. In these
several ways human life and activity come to have meaning for chil-
dren, and they see themselves as parts and partners in the great
drama that is being played on the stage of nature.

Because of the method that characterizes kindergarten pro-
cedure, the expression "New Material of Instruction for the Kin-

2 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

dergarten" should not be taken to mean extraneous matter brought
to the children for which they have no basis in their experience.
The kindergartner must find her material in the aspects of the chil-
dren 's environment. The newness needed is a newness of inter-
pretation — a clothing of the familiar in new forms so that its real
significance may be made apparent. New interpretations of known
facts in project form therefore constitutes the best form of "New
Material for the Kindergarten/ ' Projects vary in value, however,
and need to be weighed in the balance before being adopted. There
are many that grow out of the stimulus of the material and have
little if any thought value. Since they show initiative and the re-
sult of experimentation, they should be worked out. If these only
are worked out, however, the curriculum lacks cohesiveness and con-
tinuity, and does not yield the results that it should in the child's
developing life. The projects of real value arc those that interpret
some aspect of life. Among these are the garden, cither in spring
or fall, the doll house and family, and the community, in which
each is seen to be needed to make a complete whole.

TYPICAL KINDERGARTEN PROJECTS

The following projects furnished by the kindergarten sub-com-
mittee are, of course, too few in number to represent adequately
the work being done by the kindergartners of the country. This is
doubtless due to the fact that few could be reached during the sum-
mer, and that the opening weeks of school hardly admit of a favor-
able response to requests for such material. Some of these fur-
nished are of the accidental and others of the interpretative type.
Some are a combination of both.

1. "A Collection of Seeds for Spring Planting"
(Reported by Mrs. Elizabeth Jacobson, of Minneapolis)

This project started from the children's seeing dandelion seeds
floating about while on an excursion, and led to their bringing to
kindergarten seeds from their home gardens.

The steps in carrying the project forward were :

1. Converting the baskets they had made into boxes with cov-
ers in which they could bring their seeds to the kindergarten.

MATERIALS FOB TEE KINDEBOABTEN 3

2. The making of boxes of uniform size and shape, and of colors
selected by themselves, to hold the collection of seeds.

3. The sorting of the seeds, making labels for the boxes, and
storing them away for the spring planting.

This led to the collection of milkweed pods, rose hips, cat tails,
and many other kinds of seeds, which were used to decorate the
room.

2. "The Making of a Barn"

(Worked out under the direction of a group of students in the Mil-
waukee Normal School)

This project originated in a suggestion from two boys that they
make a shelter for the toy horses they had received at Christmas
to correspond to the doll house made for the dolls.

The steps were as follows :

1. Making with blocks the ground floor of a barn arranged
from the children's personal knowledge.

2. Looking at pictures of barn interiors.

3. Building the ground floor with stalls for the horses on one
side and a feed bin and place for implements with which the horse
does its work on the other.

4. Making a barn for each child from construction paper (at
the children's request), so that they might take them home to
play with.

This was of special interest to the boys, whose interests are too
often ignored. It fitted in with the kindergartner's idea of help-
ing the children to play happily at home during the winter months.

3. "The Making of a Toboggan"

(Carried out in the kindergarten of the State Normal School at
Valley City, North Dakota, under the direction of Miss

Emma Flinn)

This project was suggested by a child whose father had a to-
boggan.

4 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

The steps were:

1. The free building of a toboggan.

2. The gradual improvement of the toboggan as the result of
observation, trial, and discussion, until it was good enough to be
used, and large enough to hold eighteen children.

3. The construction of toboggans in card board, the making of
clay forms and sand table scenes, and the illustration of coasting
scenes with crayons and scissors.

The interest in this was maintained throughout the winter, and
the results were real dramatization, skillful hand work, cooperation
and marked progress in construction.

4. "The Valentine Party"

(Reported by Miss Mary C. Jacobs, Milwaukee Normal School)

To make the children conscious of the ties of friendship and of
the written message as a means of maintaining these is one of the
purposes of the customary Valentine party in the kindergarten.
The incident of the children's receiving a letter from a soldier in
France during the war, the father of one of the group, was the
stimulus to a new interest in such messages in one of the kinder-
gartens of the Milwaukee Normal School, directed by Miss Mary
G. Jacobs.

The steps in the carrying on of their work were :

1. The composing of a letter by the children in reply to the
one received and the writing of this for them by the kindergartner.

2. Folding envelopes (one of which was to contain the letter)
addressing, stamping, and mailing the finished envelope.

3. Making of Valentines and post cards to send to other friends.

4. Making a mail bag and mail box to be used at the Valen-
tine party.

5. Making the street car, train, and boat to carry the soldier's
letter to France.

Among the results were a marked improvement in the hand
work, and an interest in the letters received at home.

MATERIALS FOB THE EINDEBOABTEN 5

5. "The Church for Easter' '

(Reported by Miss Anne M. Wells, State Normal School, Bridge-
water, Massachusetts)

Thanksgiving is made much of in kindergarten because it sym-
bolizes the season's completed work. It is no less important that
children's attention be called to the re-awakening of the life of
nature at Easter time. Just as the markets full of vegetables have
been brought to the children's attention in the fall in preparation
for Thanksgiving, so the shops full of flowers may herald the com-
ing of Easter. It is because children frequently see and hear about
the preparations for Easter in the nearby Sunday Schools and
churches that many kindergartners include the building of a church
in their Easter preparation. The steps taken in building it, con-
siderably simplified, are as follows:

1. Experimental building of churches during the year.

2. Observation of the best church architecture in the neigh-
borhood.

3. Building freely with miscellaneous blocks.

4. Looking at pictures of churches.

5. Building by suggestion and direction of the final form.

This experience in the building of a church as a building hav-
ing definite characteristics of its own would be a valuable prepara-
tion for the building of a community of houses later on.

6. "Building a Village"
(Reported by Marcita Halkyard, Bidgewood School, Joliet, Illinois)

After a walk around the neighborhood to learn the names of the
streets and to look at the buildings, we built a little village in the
room.

We laid out our plan on the floor using long strips of paper for
our streets ; we named each street.

The floor blocks were used to make the houses, garages, stores,
school, church, and the viaduct near by.

We found material, such as boxes and paper, to make street
cars, automobiles, mail boxes and the other things suggested by
the children.

6 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

When it was finished, the children brought their dolls and let
them play in the village.

7. "A Seed Store"

(Reported by Miss Marcita Halkyard, Joliet, Illinois)

We observed that the flowers in our room, golden-rod, asters,
sunflowers, cat-tails, were withering. Breaking them apart, we
found something which a few children were able to identify as
seeds. This gave opportunity to talk of seeds — what they were
good for, where to get them, etc. Some seeds, I was told, one had
to buy at the store. At this point the children were asked if they
would like to have a seed store in school and they, of course, were
most enthusiastic.

From this opening there resulted: (1) making a seed store of
big blocks, (2) making boxes for seeds in store, (3) printing labels
for different kinds of seeds — flower seeds, fruit seeds, tree seeds,
weed seeds, etc., (4) making baskets in which to gather seeds, (5) a
trip to a vacant lot for seeds, and (6) selling of the seeds.

The last day of our store the children cut money out of paper
and went to the store to buy seeds. Out of these purchased seeds
they were encouraged to make something — baskets and dolls out of
burrs, necklace of milkweed, pipes of acorns, a watch chain of sun-
flower seeds, and designs out of eome of the seeds which could not
be strung, were among the things suggested.

Some results of this store were: (1) some little knowledge
about seeds, (2) a keen interest in various kinds of seeds, (3) a few
new words in the children's vocabulary, (4) a linking together of
home, out-of-doors, and the schoolroom. Many mothers helped the
children gather seeds for the store.

8. " Dressing a Doll"

(Reported by Miss Edith Adams, State Normal College, Ypsilanti,

Michigan)

The kindergarten purchased a doll without clothes. One little
girl, seeing the doll, wished to dress it. The need of each article
of clothing arose naturally in the following manner: First, a dress

MATERIALS FOB TEE E1NDEEGABTEN 7

was made which was such a good product that the kindergarten
director decided to take it to the State Teachers' Association to
illustrate a talk. If the doll was to take a trip, the little girl
thought it should have a coat and hat to keep it warm. She chose
her material, even to such details as cloth for a handkerchief and
for a pocket to hold the handkerchief. The hat was made with
turned-back corners, like a Dutch cap. After finishing the hat, she
discovered it would not stay on, so she sewed strings on far enough
back to allow the corners to stay as she had planned them first.

When the doll was dressed in a petticoat, dress, coat, and hat,
we thought she was ready for her journey, but not so with the little
girl. She decided it would not do to let the doll go in bare feet.
She asked a student to cut a paper pattern for her. This she pinned
to a piece of cloth, cut it out, and made a trial shoe. As this fitted,
she pinned the same pattern to a piece of wide velvet ribbon which
she found in the cloth box and made a pair of shoes. The doll was
then ready for its journey.

9. "A Doll House and Furniture' '

(Reported by Miss Blanche Lovett, State Normal School, Milwau-
kee, Wisconsin)

A three-inch celluloid doll was given the children to play with
at the beginning of the school year. They then wished to dress
the doll, and each child was allowed to select the material from
pieces of cloth or crepe paper furnished and decide how a dress
could be made. The children then wished to make a bed for the
doll and did so from spool or other boxes, fasteners, and paper and
paste. The making of three walls of the room like a screen was
suggested by the teacher. This led to the making of a chair, a
dresser, bed clothes, and a rug, each child working out the plan
for himself.

10. "Furnishing a Play House' '

(Reported by Miss Elizabeth Hannan, Louisville Normal School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

The children of this class were given an opportunity to choose
something to make that they might take to the first grade with them

g THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

on promotion day. After much discussion, they decided to furnish
a play house. One group of children papered the walls, hung the
curtains, cut and decorated the rugs; another group made the
furniture; while a third group cut out a paper doll family and
dressed the dolls appropriately. The teacher was consulted from
time to time by the various groups. When the play house was com-
pleted, it was criticised by the class and teacher, a few changes made
by the children, then taken with the class to the first-grade room.

11. "A Toy Shop"

(Outline submitted by Florence Williams, Richmond, Indiana)

Shop built with blocks, including counters, shelves, etc.

Toys of various kinds constructed of clay, paper, wood, etc.

Problems involved — building shop, constructing toys, buying
and selling, counting, wrapping parcels, etc.

General excursions made to toy store.

Experimental results criticised by teachers and children, and the
best chosen.

Tools of learning involved — language through conversation, dis-
cussion, dramatization ; handwork, number work, drawing.

12. "An Entertainment"

(This project and Nos. 13, 14, and 15 are reported by Miss Allene

Seaton, Louisville, Kentucky)

Kindergarten children selected and arranged the program from
stories, rhymes, dramatizations and songs which they had learned
during the year. They also suggested very simple costumes for
the parts they took, and made them. First-grade children made
and sold the tickets, made cardboard money, posters for advertis-
ing and cards for announcing program ; they also acted as ushers,
finding number of seat corresponding to number of ticket.

13. "A Train"

This project continued several days with accumulating interest
as the needs arose for new materials and new characters. The idea
was initiated by children who had traveled during the summer.

MATERIALS FOB THE KINDEBGABTBN Q

The first step was the construction with large floor blocks of a pas-
senger train with seats ; the second, the tickets ; the third, a dining
car with small tables and chairs; the fourth, a Pullman, using
tables for berths. Detailed problems arising within this project
were the representation of satchels, trunks, money, tickets, pocket
books, ticket office, train yard and signs indicating proper train.
Character dramatizations were the conductor, the waiter, the porter,
the fireman, a family, the chauffeur and the baggage man.
Compare with this project No. 20.

14. "A Grocery Store' '

This was a group project developed in a locality where the
patrons work in neighboring shops. Smaller groups cooperated in
carrying out the larger group project. One group built a store;
another modeled and painted vegetables and fruits; another con-
structed market baskets ; another a grocery wagon ; others, grocery
books and paper bags, etc. One boy made a sign for the grocery.
This project was stimulated by an excursion to a grocery store.

15. "Christmas Celebration for Parents of Kindergarten Children"

This subject was launched by the teacher, but developed by the
children, the mothers, and the teacher. The mothers were asked
(without the children's knowledge) to allow the children to do some
little service for which they might be paid a small sum. This money
they used to buy the tree which they (the children) selected. All
the ornaments were made and the tree was decorated by the children.
They also made invitations and simple presents which they deliv-
ered in person to their parents. This plan was preceded by a con-
scious consideration of the child's interests at this season, and he
was, of course, remembered in the festivities planned, but this was
a surprise and incidental to the real pleasure of the occasion.

16. "A School Cafeteria''

(Outline submitted by Miss Prances M. Berry, Baltimore,

Maryland)

Discussion of materials used, things to be sold, signs, labels, and
price marks.

10 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Experimentation (discussion, judgment, decision) visit to real
cafeteria. Visit to store, dairy, and garden for sources of supply.

Children visited school cafeteria, took tray, bought milk and
crackers, ate at table, and paid at counter on going out.

Visits and excursions modified and amplified.

Much oral language was involved, also dramatization, number
work, and manual training.

Project used in kindergarten and first grade.

17. "A Mother Goose Show"

(Outline from Miss Prances Berry, Baltimore, Maryland)

In a summer school preparing non-kindergarten children for
the first grade, a Mother Qoose show furnished material for six
weeks' work. The following are some of the features:

Telling Mother Goose rhymes by children and teacher.

Singing, repeating, and acting rhymes by children.

Making characters and objects in plasticine and day for the
sand table.

Beading rhymes attached to pictures.

Suggestion of a show was made by children and worked up for
public exhibition.

A third-grade child was "Mother Goose" in costume.

First-grade children sang the songs as "Mother Goose" intro-
duced her children, who appeared one by one in costume on the
stage.

Much reading was involved, also dramatization, manual train-
ing, music, and drawing.

18. "A Kindergarten Circus"

(Beported by Marion Watson, State Normal College, Ypsilanti,

Michigan)

A circus in town had created the interest and many conversa-
tions resulted. It was then decided to have a circus in the kinder-
garten. Then followed a discussion about what was needed to have
a good circus.

MATEB1ALS FOB THE KINDERGARTEN H

The following participants were chosen:

(1) Manager

(2) Band (6 persons)

(3) Costume Committee — "Clothes to dress up"

(4) Actors

Next followed a discussion about the "stunts" that they could
do and many children illustrated their capacities. A lively prac-
tice was the result that was heartily enjoyed, and then the "best
stunts" were decided upon.

Costumes were brought from home and some were made by the
children, though very crudely, from paper cambric and paper.
These were placed in an empty drawer when completed.

The audience was discussed and the position of chairs, ring,
etc., decided upon.

They played this game several days, adding something each day,
until it was voted good enough to invite the first grade in to see it.

19. "The Rainy Day"

(Reported by Miss Lillian E. Stege, Louisville, Kentucky)
A morning of unusually steady, heavy rain before school and
during assembly roused the interest of children and became a natu-
ral topic of conversation. A suggestion by the teacher to do or make
something connected with this unusual rain met with enthusiasm.
Drawing, cutting, dressing dolls in rainy weather clothes, construc-
tion of umbrellas, etc., resulted. Later, when called on for a story,
a rhyme or a song pertaining to rain, contributions were readily
given. The well-known Mother Goose rhyme — "Rain, rain go
away" — proved most popular, and as no song was forthcoming for
it, it was requested that the children try to sing it. Many responses
followed, one of which proved so very good that it was published
in a local paper.

The excellent thing about this project was that for the re-
mainder of the session we had many spontaneous bits of music for
rhymes or original words, and now in the new session of 1920-21
the name of the child whose effort proved most singable is remem-
bered with real respect, and the desire to emulate his example is
still proving a real stimulus.

12 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

20. "Building a Railway Station"

(Reported by Miss Mary A. Goodwin, Richmond, Virginia)

The building of this, like the building of the church, Project
No. 5, might be a step toward the larger community project later.
It grew out of the story of a visit to the station by one of the chil-
dren, and was carried out in the following order :

1. The attempt to make an engine.

2. A visit to the station by a group of children.

3. The making of a full-fledged train, consisting of the engine
and tender, baggage and passenger cars.

4. Making the station itself.

5. Making trunks and suit cases by one group of children, and
cutting paper dolls or dressing china dolls by othern.

6. Making signs, such as "Union Station," "Ticket Office,"
"No Smoking," etc., and putting these up. In the ticket office
there were two groups of dolls representing people waiting for
the train.

This project stimulated the children to several other lines of
work later on, and was of special interest to the boys.

COMMENT

There are many additional projects that have been successfully
worked out illustrating other phases of the year's thought. Among
these are: a park play ground; a farm yard, using construction
paper ; a winter play-ground in the sand table, the sand being cov-
ered with cotton for snow. Some projects representing out-of-door
life have been successfully worked out in Summer Observation
Kindergartens. In the Milwaukee Normal School a summer band
concert was successfully worked out by a group of children under
the direction of Miss Blanche Lovett. The children made the band
stand and the seats for the audience, making the scats with large
blocks, large enough for the children to sit on. They then devised
musical instruments of different kinds and gave a concert to their
friends.

The projects above described have been confined to one kind —
those requiring the use of materials. Many kindergarteners have

MATEBIALS FOB THE KINDERGARTEN 13

worked out game and story projects, but these have been omitted
as they will probably be well represented in the work of the pri-
mary grades. To be of maximum value all these projects need a
fuller description than could be given in the brief space allowed.
The conditions as well as the equipment in the grades are fairly
uniform and a brief description will suffice for the projects used
there. Those in the kindergarten have not yet become standardized
and a more detailed statement is therefore needed. Several of the
projects named could not be carried out in the average kinder-
garten because of the lack of the needed material and of adequate
floor space. A project requiring floor space and several days of
work for its development is practically impossible if the room must
be used by different groups of children in the forenoon and in the
afternoon.

The work here given will have value, however, if it gives an
added insight into the nature and purposes of kindergarten edu-
cation, and shows the unity of aim and effort in the work of the
kindergarten and in the grades that follow. The recognition of the
project is bringing about a truer relation between the kindergarten
and the primary grades than has ever existed, because it is based
upon the principles that subject matter must grow out of the ex-
periences of the children and that it must have real content, which
finds expression in many kinds of material.

CHAPTER n

NEW MATERIALS FOR THE PRIMARY GRADES

The materials assembled by the sub-committee on the primary
grades are presented in this chapter in three sections, according as
they are designed for use in the first, the second, or the third grade.
The project materials for the third grade naturally fell under
classification of school subjects, as : history, geography, arithmetic
Those for the first and second grades, because each project involved
several of the tools of learning, were more difficult of organization,
therefore more inclusive terms were used as: seasonable, special
occasions. The chairman regrets that much valuable material came
too late to be used. Readers may find it of interest to refer also to
the "Reading Exercises Based on Children's Experiences" pre-
sented as Chapter I of the earlier report in the Nineteenth Year-
book, Part I, of the Society.

A. MATERIALS PRIMARILY FOR THE FIRST GRADE

21. "Our Garden Fair"
(Reported by Miss Mary L. Dougherty, Mankato, Minnesota)

In the spring the children of the Primary Department ordered
seeds from the Children's Flower Mission and made plans for their
gardens at home. These they cared for all summer and when school
opened were ready for the Fair, which had been planned for the
second week when the County Fair would be in progress.

In preparation, the children made doilies on which to display
the vegetables and flowers, labels bearing the name of the exhibit
and the name of the exhibitor, posters for advertising. The third-
grade pupils each made a poster, while the second-grade used that
as a group project. Invitations were taken home by all. The pupils
of the second and third grades wrote their own. The first-grade
pupils composed theirs and made decorated folders for the type-
written copies which were made for them. The science instructor
in the school acted as judge and gave red and blue ribbon awards

14

MATERIALS FOB THE PB1MABY GRADES 15

just as was done at the County Pair. A large attendance of par-
ents and general appreciation for the work rewarded the children
for their efforts.

Third-grade children wrote to a teacher who was ill, letters tell-
ing about the fair, and so had drill on correspondence forms and
a general summary of the experience.

22. A Series of Suggestive Projects

(Submitted by Aschah May Harris, State Normal School,

Emporia, Kansas)

1. A Kite Tournament (see No. 25, further on)

2. A Puppet Show (to raise money to purchase a canvas for our
new play house)

3. A Bed Time Story Book (for a wee girl *s Christmas)

4. A Picnic for the Three B. Class (planned by the Three A. Class)

5. A Bobert Louis Stevenson Program (for chapel)

6. A Bossetti Program (for chapel)

7. An Entertainment " Christmas in Other Lands," for the first and
second grades or for our mothers (third grade)

8. A Mother's Day Program

9. An Easter Greeting for the Home (a small potted plant grown
from seed, planted in the school-room window-box — the pot deco-
rated with paper cuttings representing the flowers and leaves
conventionalized, then the pot covered with shellac)

10. A Picture Show "Little Black Sambo" (by the first grade to
entertain the kindergarten or the second grade)

11. A Play — Dramatization of Little Black Sambo (by the second
grade — costumes all made by children in their "Free Choice
Boom")

12. Making a School Garden (to earn money for purchasing new
books)

13. Making a Dictionary for Grade One (planned by the third grade)

14. Making Christmas Presents (to be distributed by the Welfare
Association to the needy children in the city)

a. Noah's Ark (made by the first grade)

b. Picture Puzzles (made by the second grade)

15. Planning a Christmas Dinner (third grade)

16. A Christmas Present for Father (box of stuffed dates)

23. "The Spirit of Spring"

(Reported by Miss Prances M. Berry, Baltimore, Maryland)

Subject Matter

Mother Nature's work, her care for her children. Awakening
life. Preparation of garden, planting of seeds, study germination.
Care of garden. Study of flowers. Kinds — garden, field and
woods. Their beauty and use. Poems and stories in correlation.

16 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Activities

1. Illustrate "Mary Quite Contrary." Use the sand table.
Make house, wall, and garden. Cut and paint tulips, daffodils,
sunflowers, lilies. Trees and wall in background. Make a paper
doll ; dress in spring costume with a watering can for Mary. Cut
and dress a man with wheelbarrow, a boy with rake or lawn mower.

2. Illustrate a "May Pole Dance." Construct of cardboard
houses, a church, and fences, hedge and gardens. The "Village
Green,' ' with May pole. Paper or real dolls (15 cent celluloid)
dressed in costumes of crepe paper, dancing around May pole.

3. Weave May baskets of raffia. Take trip to fields or woods ;
fill baskets with flowers. Present them to a friend.

24. "A Flower Shop' '

(Reported by Mildred Dickinson, Richmond, Indiana)

Easter and the spring flowers suggested the project ; one child
thought of a flower shop and the others accepted the idea. Patty
Hill blocks made the shop, shelves, tables, etc. Flowers were made
of crepe, tissue, and drawing paper ; pots of paper, clay and plas-
ticine ; baskets of various original forms, of paper. One child sug-
gested that gold fish be placed in the shop, and one day all went out
of doors with the toy wagon and brought back violet-plants in
bloom. A long narrow sand tray was placed in the center of the
shop, the gold-fish bowl put in it, and the violets planted about it.
The children bought, sold, and delivered the flowers.

25. "A Kite Tournament' '

(Reported by Aschah May Harris, Emporia, Kansas)

The making of kites this sp.ing, which started in the "Free-
Choice Room," led to a kite tournament. The result was that
every child in the primary department made a kite. Honors were
given to the child making the largest kite that would fly and the
smallest kite that would fly, also to the one making the prettiest
kite, and the kite that would sail the highest in five minutes. The
children selected their own judges and invited them to assist in
the tournament. They wrote their notes of invitation.

MATERIALS POB THE P&IMA&Y Q&ADES If

Work that grew out of this project was as follows :

(a) Beading for Information

"Our Little Japaneso Cousin"
"When I Was a Little Boy in China"
"Home-made Toys for Boys and Girls"
"Harper's Out-of-Door Books for Boys"
"Child Life in Japan"

(b) Beading for Inspiration and Appreciation

Stevenson— "The Wind"

Bossetti— " Who Has Seen the 'Wind! "

Steadman— "What the Winds Bring"

JSsop — "The Wind and the Sun"

Bailey— "The Windmill"

"The Foolish Weather Vane"

"The Little Half Chick"— from Kansas Second Header

"The Windmill "—from Ebon Rinkel's Primer

"Ulysses and the Bag of Winds"

(e) Language, Writing and Spelling

Dramatization of the Wind and the Sun (first grade)

Writing quotations that have been memorized (second and third

grades)
Invitations to judges.
The Work of the Wind.
Story made by the One B. reading class.
"I have a kite.

I made my kite.

It is a red kite.

I can fly my kite.

See the pretty kite fly."

(d) Singing

Knowlton's Nature Songs for Children. ("March Wind")
Normal Institute and Primary Plans, March. 1920. ("The March

Wind")
Primary Education, March, 1918. ("I should Like to Be a Kite")

(e) Band Work

Making kites — two-piece frames and three-piece frames.

Decorating kites with birds, butterflies, etc., calling for free choice

in selection of colors, careful paper-cutting, pasting, etc.
Chapel programs, using the wind songs, poems, stories and rhythm

work.

(f) Number Work

Measuring string, sticks for frames.
Kite sales (playing store).

26. "A Halloween Party"
(Reported by Florence Williams, Richmond, Indiana)
Decorations were made for the room by using the pumpkin Jack-
oljantern, comical cats from circles of black paper, apples, etc., as

18 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

units for border design. The room was so pleasing that the chil-
dren wished others to see it, and so decided to give the kindergarten
a party. Invitations were planned, designed, and sent (using oral
composition). An entertainment committee was chosen, also a re-
freshment committee. After much discussion, first without, then
with, the teacher, plans were made. The entertainment consisted
of games suitable for the occasion and a story. The refreshments
were pop-corn which the children popped themselves and animal
crackers which were donated. These were served in baskets made
of orange-colored paper and appropriately decorated.

27. "A Toy Shop"

(Reported by Alison Hayne, Detroit, Michigan)

The shop was constructed from materials borrowed from the kin-
dergarten. The children made toys, dolls, doll clothes, beads, doll
house and furniture, picture books, blocks, animals, picture puz-
zles, clay dishes, vases, etc. The arranging and selling of toys was
also done by the children. Their plans and discussions formed the
basis for board reading lessons. The buying and selling involved
the use of numbers. The prices were marked from five to twenty
cents.

28. "The Christmas Spirit"

(Reported by Prances M. Berry, Baltimore, Maryland)

Subject Matter

The legendary Santa Claus, his home, his work, his visit. The
Santa Claus spirit — a kind thought taking human form never passes
away. A beautiful spirit enters people's hearts, telling what to do
to make others happy. Santa Claus of the home, the school, the
shop, the natural world. Work of father and mother to give people
happiness. Presents, toys. History of Santa Claus. Santa Claus
of other lands.

Activities

1. On the sand table make a room. Show mantel, fire-place,
and chimney. Construct bed ; place dolls in bed, dressed in night
gowns. Cut out and dress a Santa Claus with bag. Secure small

MATEBIAL8 FOB THE PBIMABY 0BADB8 19

fir tree. Children make the ornaments for tree. Paper icicles,
cornucopias, chains, drums, stars, trumpets, lanterns and flowers.
String pop-corn and cranberries.

2. Make a community toy bag of burlap. Each child make or
donate a toy.

29. " Fairyland"
(Reported by Floy Campbell, Kansas City, Missouri)

The class took a May walk, gathering pretty pebbles, bits of
moss, and other materials. Each child brought the lid of a shoe
box, covered it with green paper, and arranged in it his treasures,
making a bit of fairyland by adding paper bridges, little paper
trees, tiny fairies cut from paper or fairies made from white-headed
pins dressed and arranged in a circle. The children had listened
to stories of the "Legend of the Fairy Eing" and of the return of
the fairies in the spring, and this little project resulted therefrom.

30. "A Country Home on the Sand Table"
(Reported by Frances M. Berry, Baltimore, Maryland)

In this first-grade project there was involved the building of
house, fences, barns, out-buildings, chiefly by paper construction.

The problems involved were such as the following : the selection
of materials best suited for the construction of each part — experi-
mentation, criticism, judgment, decision, final construction, the
best product then chosen by group.

The materials used were paper, cardboard, clay, wood, twigs and
branches, seeds.

The project involved much oral language, also dramatization,
drawing, manual training, number work, and measuring.

31. "A Post Office"

(Reported by Frances Berry)

There was a discussion of the use of the post office in the com-
munity. One was built of blocks and rough boards.
Use was made of it in play thus:

20 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

When entering, child is given card with names upon it, becomes
familiar with it, returns it when leaving. Gradually card is filled
with full names, address, name of school teacher, principal, janitor,
nurse. Envelopes addressed to these people are supplied. Child
selects one he wants, mails in it some of his own work, an invitation,
thanks, greetings, etc. Teacher supplies type-written stories, poems,
songs, etc. Child chooses one of these, reads at home to someone.

The tools of learning involved are reading, oral language, com-
position, and dramatization.

32. "The County Fair" 1

(Reported by Prances Berry)

The fair grounds were made on the sand table, using clay, sand,
and paper. There were represented the band stand, boohs, stalls,
various exhibit buildings, people, and animals.

This project led to abundant free conversation and supplied
stories for reading lessons.

33. "The Family"
(Reported by Frances Berry)

Subject Matter

The family members — mother, her scrvice3; father, his services;
children, how they may help. Family pleasures, activities, food,
shelter, clothing.

Activities

Cut out paper dolls to represent various members of the family.
Paste on faces cut from advertisements in magazines. Cut kimona
patterns. Use for petticoat — scallop edge. Use for dress, make of
checked tissue paper. Trim dress with pockets and belt. Hat of
cardboard or tag board; cut slit for head; trim to match dress.
Cut short coat of paper ; color with crayola to match hat.

1 Compare the use made of the County Fair in the primary grades at Janes-
ville, Wisconsin, as described in the Nineteenth Yearbook, Part I, pp. 20-23. —
Editor.

MATER1AL8 FOB THE PRIMARY GRAVE 8 21

These dolls may be dressed in cotton when studying Eskimo Life
in January. Also may be dressed as Dutch children when study-
ing Dutch Life, and used in Dutch village on sand table in March.

34. "A Mother Goose Party' '

(Reported by Alison M. Hayne, Detroit, Michigan)

There were presented attractive pictures of "Jack and Jill,"
"Little Miss Muffct," "Little Jack Horner," "Little Boy Blue,"
"There Was an Old Woman," etc., by Jessie Wilcox Smith.

The dramatization, memorizing, and discussion which followed
led to plans for a Mother Goose party. This party was distinctly
a first-grade party and only first-grade games were used. These
were: (1) marching around, as in "Musical Chairs," having pho-
netic sounds on cards; puzzles getting the words and pictures
matched; (2) matching words in different places; (3) labeling
actors in dramatization, removing labels and having children recog-
nize the names ; and many other games recalling such association.

The children made the costumes to be worn in dramatization.
The dances were chosen by the children from the course of study
in physical training. The music teacher furnished the songs. The
boys made the tuffet, Bo Peep's staff, sheep's coats, the pie, etc.
The girls painted the cardboard plates and made doilies, and all
helped with the costumes. Each individual had an important part
in making the occasion successful for the group as a whole.

35. "An Exchange of Houses"

(Reported by Alice C. Porter, Louisville, Kentucky)
This project was carried over from the kindergarten. A two-
room house completely furnished by a kindergarten group was
brought to the first grade when the group was promoted in Feb-
ruary. The house was occupied by a family of paper dolls. The
first grade had two rag dolls and the children began playing vis-
itors. One child suggested that the rag dolls were country cousins
who had come to visit the paper dolls in the city. There was but
one bed. How were the visitors to be made comfortable? The
children asked for wood to make another bed. The bed was made,

22 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

but where was it to be placed? One child said a larger house was
needed, and asked for floor blocks. Several groups built houses,
but they realized that the block houses were not as stable as the
little house. The teacher suggested that perhaps the large boys
would make a four-room house, if asked. The class dictated a note
asking help. The sixth-grade boys agreed to build, but the first
grade must furnish measurements. The best block house was meas-
ured and the new house was built. At the suggestion of the class,
a note which was dictated to the teacher was sent to the builders,
thanking them for their cooperation. The next problem was what
to do with the old house. One group visited the neighborhood to
see how empty houses were advertised. They printed a "For Sale"
sign and advertised in a newspaper, which fell into the hands of the
kindergarten children, who sent a note inquiring the price of the
house. The note was read by the first grade. They had a sale and
the house was bought by the kindergarten for ten dollars. The next
problem: additional furniture was needed for the larger house.
The class divided into three groups for this work. One group vis-
ited a neighboring store and bought material for draperies. On
their return, this was measured and made up to fit the windows.
The kitchen needed a cabinet and this was made by the child who
had discovered the need. A miniature bath-tub was sent by an
interested parent and a real iron stove by another parent. A child
brought a tiny telephone. Many other lines of thought were sug-
gested by the class and were worked out. The project furnished
material for thought and work for a period of five months.

36. "A Doll Sale"

(Beported by Marguerite DeLano and Myrtle L. Kaufmann,

Springfield, Illinois)

It was desired to raise money enough to buy rubber tips for
the chairs in the first-grade room. The children suggested means
of raising the money and finally decided to sell paper-bag dolls to
children in other rooms in the building.

In making the dolls cotton was put in the bottom of the bag
and tied to make the head. The top of the bag, when inverted,
served as a skirt stiff enough to support the doll in a standing

MATERIALS FOB THE PBIMABY GBAVE8 23

position. A face and hair were painted on the head. Variation in
facial expression made each doll different from the others. Rolls
of paper put through slits in the dress and fastened with paper
fasteners formed the arms. Dresses and caps were made of col-
ored crepe paper. The variety of dolls made included : witches,
Red Riding Hood dolls, sun-bonnet babies, and dolls with and with-
out aprons.

The children were in charge of the sale. Five cents was the
price of each doll. Advertising posters were planned and made.

The plan called for:

1. Language

(a) Oral : discussion of plana and the announcing of the sale in
other rooms.

(b) Written: addressing of package sent out of city to a visitor
who had left an order.

2. Heading of posters.

3. Art: Selection of pictures for posters, and arrangement of the

same. Cutting of letters for posters. Decorations of doll
heads. Planning color combinations for the dresses.

4. Occupation work : Preparation for making the dolls was given in

the period set aside for project work. Later children were
able to work unsupervised at tables and workbenches. After
the sale the children made dolls for themselves.

5. Number: The class felt the necessity of learning to make change.

As a result, every chair in the room is rubber-tipped.

37. "An Egg Hunt"

(Reported by Wezette Hayden and Myrtle Kaufmann,

Springfield, Illinois)

The children (IB Grade) talked about the approach of Easter
and planned for some observation of the day. Some of the chil-
dren told about experiences with colored eggs. It was decided to
have an egg hunt and to invite another first grade to participate.

The children brought eggs to school and boiled them, timing the
process. Later, they decorated them with water colors, — in some in-
stances applying flat washes and then designs in contrasting colors.

The eggs were hidden in the grass at the foot of shrubs and
trees in a small park near the school. At the time set for the egg
hunt, the children of the two rooms went to the park and had a
happy time finding the nests. Those who found several voluntarily
gave to those few who found none.

24 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

The plans for the egg hunt furnished interesting language work,
and the records of the experience were used as reading material.
Word study and writing grew out of the plan to send invitations
to the other children. The decorating of the eggs made very in-
teresting work in color and design.

B. MATERIALS FOB THE SECOND GRADE

38. "Old Pipes and the Dryad"

(Reported by Fannie L. Ballou, Kalamazoo, Michigan)

The second grade was given charge of " Assembly.' ' The
children conferred together and decided on the dramatization of
"Old Pipes and the Dryad." Committees were appointed, five
scenes were finally decided upon and arranged and children chosen
for the parts. Costumes were gathered from various sources and
were simply made. Scenery was made in the art class on huge
sheets of bogus paper and was pleasing, though crude. Oral and
written language and hand work were involved in this project.

39. "The Easter Rabbit"

We determined the acts for this dramatization, to be outlined
by the children as follows:

Act I. In the woods, just before spring.

Act II. Springtime in the woods.

Act III. Easter morning in the town.

The characters were not chosen until everything else was ready.
The daily language lesson was the rehearsal of the various parts
of the story by different individuals. Then the selection of the
characters was left entirely to the children.

This particular story called for much investigation on the part
of the pupils in order to have a more perfect understanding. The
following were some of the children's questions which they an-
swered for themselves:

it

When is Spring duet"

What are the first spring flowers and birds t"

MATERIALS FOB THE PEIMABY GRAVE 8 25

"Do bears really sleep all winter t"
"What kind of homes do foxes have? Etc."

Occupational activities concerned were :

Writing invitations
Posters
Programs
Tickets
Costumes
Stage settings

Decorations for room, picturing different scenes and writing
a few sentences to explain the picture.

Writing "What I would like to be in the play and how I
would do it." (Here the children came to the teacher
for the spelling of very difficult words. She often di-
rected them to one of the class who had asked for the
same information at some previous time.)

Beading these stories by the children to the class.

The undertaking involved language, nature work, reading, writ-
ing, a limited conception of number, much spelling, handwork of
every description, and most of all, the cooperation and directed
effort of every child in the room. These children had one hour
every morning in which all worked toward one goal — the presenta-
tion of "Bunny's Easter Trip."

40. "The Party"
(Reported by Fannie L. Ballou, Kalamazoo, Michigan)

Suggested by the offering of some child of his bag of cookies
or box of candy.

The host chooses an entertainment committee and refreshment
committee, each after a short conference. The entertainment is
decided upon, which takes the form of a short play, stories, or
games. Many lessons are learned regarding manners and simple
courtesy during these parties and much training is given in social
etiquette.

26 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

41. ' ' Making a Story and Picture Book for the First-Grade Library

Table"

(Reported by Ruth E. Davis, Bridgewater, Massachusetts)

The children selected from a number of bird pictures a few in
which they were interested. These were trimmed and mounted in
a brown paper book, and were made a basis of conversation, the chil-
dren contributing from a study of the pictures and from experi-
ence. For each picture the facts were organized into story form,
for each child wrote his own story. Encouragement was given when
necessary to assist in mastering the difficulties in spelling. The
corrected draft was used as penmanship material and the best
final result chosen for one page in the book.

42. "Seed Planting"

(Reported by Neva I. Lockwood, Bridgewater, Massachusetts)

This question was raised by the children, "How do seeds grow?"
Beans were soaked and examined. Other seeds were placed on
damp blotting paper and in damp sawdust that the first stages of
growth might be observed. Each pupil made a flower pot of oak
and planted seeds of his own choosing. He was responsible for the
care of his pot and reported to the class what he observed. When
the plants were ready for transplanting, each pupil took his home
to put in his garden. In the fall a number of the children brought
to school flowers or vegetables which their plants had produced. A
little manual work and much oral language grew out of this study.

43. "Bird Diaries"

(Reported by Fannie L. Ballou, Kalamazoo, Michigan)

As the birds began to return in the spring, the children became
so interested in them that some of them wanted to keep a report of
what they were seeing each day. "Bird Diaries," with attractive
covers were made in the art class and each day, the date and the
birds seen were recorded. The children saw many they did not
know and wished to have a near-by place where they could solve
their problems. A table was put in the back of the room, and all

MATERIALS FOB THE PBIMABT GBADE8 27

the bird books available from home and library were collected there.
Frequently, we met together for a nature conference to share in-
dividual bits of new information with the group.

44. "A Wool Book"
(Reported by Fannie Ballou)

Children were interested in the study of wool. As informational
material was difficult to find in a form simple enough to read, the
teacher answered their questions, and the pupils decided to make
books of their own. Different groups worked together, and as a
result there were several compositions which were mimeographed
and used as reading lessons. These were bound into book form.
Covers and illustrations were made in the art class. Original stories
and poems were prepared in the same way.

45. "Making Bank Books"

(Reported by Fannie Ballou)

During the war, the children brought money to school for the
purchase of thrift stamps. One day, someone suggested that we
have a savings bank in our room, so that pennies and nickels would
grow to quarters without the danger of being spent for candy. The
children decided that they needed bank books as well as a bank, so
each made his own book, ruling the columns on the pages and using
the words In, Out, and Left, instead of Deposit, Withdrawal and
Balance. Each child kept his own account; the teacher kept a
duplicate on filing cards. It was interesting to see how quickly
the children knew when they had saved twenty-five cents. They
learned much arithmetic easily and naturally through their "Thrift
Stamp Bank.' 1

46. "A Health Code"
(Reported by Jessie O. Kennedy, Kansas City, Missouri.)

The day after the coming of the Health Exhibit to our school,
for language we talked about Miss Brown's visit, each one telling
what interested him most. After a number had said "We must do

28 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

this" and "mustn't do that," I asked them if they would like to
make their own health rules. They wanted very much to do it.

Then some one suggested that we make posters of them, like
Miss Brown's. To the question, "Where will we get pictures to
illustrate them," one little girl said, "I saw in a magazine a picture
of an, open window ; we could let that tell us to keep our windows
open at night. ' ' Others thought of pictures they could bring.

That afternoon l he first picture was brought by a little boy
whom I hadn't before been able to interest in anything. As he
handed it to me, he said, "That picture tells us to go to bed early."
He was one who had been accustomed to spend as many nights at
the picture show as he could get nickels to pay his admittance. As
each picture was brought, the class decided whether it was suitable
for a health rule and then we made the rule.

Of course, a number of the pictures that were brought could not
bo used. If they disagreed with what the "Health Lady" taught,
they were at once discarded. We spent several weeks in planning
for the posters.

During this time all of the writing period was spent in writing
the health rules. We also took all of our spelling words in the
second grade from this source. We used the language and hygiene
period in talking about our pictures and making all our plans. In
the hand work period the pictures were cut out and mounted. The
cutting of the letters for the folder was part of our art work for the
month. (The children used half -inch ruled paper, but we found the
letters too large to use, so the teacher made the letters and the chil-
dren colored them.)

Many new words were added to their reading vocabulary, as
the rules made one day must be read the next day before they were
used for writing. We also had a number of supplementary reading
lessons on the board with our health project for its basis. I also
found a number enjoying reading a few health stories we had on
our reading table.

Before we took up this work the health lesson seemed something
foreign to the children, but while we were doing it and afterwards,
it seemed a part of them. Often the first thing in the morning
and afternoon session, they would say "I did a health rule; I

MATERIALS FOB TH& P&1MAR? GRADES gg

brushed my teeth." "I washed my hands before eating." "I
drank milk for breakfast." "I ate something green for lunch."

Working out the health project was not only a very pleasant and
profitable school experience, but I am sure the lesson learned will
stay with the children and carry over into their everyday life.

47. "The 'We Like It' Cafeteria"
(Reported by Jessie G. Kennedy, Kansas City, Missouri.)

We had just finished making a health project, based upon the
Health Exhibit, in which we illustrated health rules with pictures
cut from magazines (No. 46).

In waiting to be served at our school cafeteria, I noticed that
sometimes pupils were not courteous in the way they asked for food.
I thought if my pupils could have a cafeteria, we could teach the
proper way of serving and being served. The next day in language
time, I found that all of the pupils had eaten at a cafeteria, either
at school or elsewhere. When I asked if they would like to have
one in the room, they were enthusiastic. To the question, ' ' Where
will we get the food?" they replied, "Out of magazines." At the
next session the pictures began coming in.

I was very much delighted at the resourcefulness they showed
in getting pictures. To illustrate : we were unable to find suitable
pictures of butter. One day we had a visitor who asked for butter.
The girl serving said, "I am sorry but we have no butter."

The next day a boy brought to school a half-pound butter carton
with a small butter mould on the end. This was too small to use,
but some one said, ' ' We have a pound box like that at home. " So it
was brought and that problem was solved.

We decided to follow as nearly as possible our own school
cafeteria, both as to food served and prices asked.

The pictures were pasted on card-board and then cut out. These
were given to a group who decided which ones should stand and a
way to make them stand.

Then came the question of plates. A paper plate was brought
to school for a pattern. The teacher ventured a suggestion, but
found it wouldn't work, so one boy said he could make them of the

30 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

sort he ate ice cream from down town. He was given material and
made his own and showed the rest of us how to do it. We decided
to use forget-me-nots to decorate our dishes.

We used lids of large boxes for trays. In choosing a name for
our cafeteria, three or four names, any one of which was thought
suitable, were placed on the board and the class voted. "We Like
It Cafeteria" was chosen.

Names for those to serve were suggested by the class and then
voted on. The different helpers were changed after serving a while,
so as to give a number a chance to help.

Food was divided into meats, vegetables, breads, fruits, and
desserts. Milk was served with the meats, soup and crackers with
the bread, and lemonade and cookies with the fruits.

We borrowed three individual desks from our neighbor (ours
rerc screwed down tight) and these with a table in the room were
used for serving tables. The teacher's desk was the checker's
stand and a kindergarten table was our dining table. The cashier
used a box lid on top of a desk. On the board back of each serving
table was written the names of the food served, with its price.
Advertisements that had been made at the writing period were
placed where it was thought the customer would see them.

Each person in charge of a food had her own box and displayed
her food and put it away when through with it. Others removed
the chairs and placed the various tables. We elected a manager
who looked after all this.

A customer got his tray, knife, fork, spoon, and plate. He
passed along the various tables and selected his food, stopping at
the checker's stand to have his tray valued. Those at their seats
would often have paper and pencil and, as the food was taken, put
down the price and then see if their addition agreed with the
checker's. We would often discuss the food chosen to see if the
meal was a balanced one.

The person served sat down to enjoy his meal. At first on leav-
ing the table, he merely left his check with the cashier. Later toy
money was used and change made. These checks were saved and
used to find out the day's business (drill in adding and carrying).

MATEEIAL8 FOR THE PRIMARY GRADES 31

48. "The Store"

(Reported by Fannie L. Ballou, Kalamazoo, Michigan)

A group of boys decided to make a store, so gathered grocery
boxes and boards of different lengths and sizes. The making of
the store occupied two weeks' time. Other boys joined, and finally
the entire group was involved, the leader giving orders to sub-
groups. They made paper money, signs, price tags, articles to sell,
etc. Through their play came recognition, addition, subtraction,
and a splendid motive for drill.

49. "The Grocery Store' '

(Reported by Frances Berry, Baltimore, Maryland)

After a visit to a grocery the children brought cereal boxes, can
wrappers, soap wrappers, etc., from home. Boards supported on
boxes answered for shelves. The children copied fruit and vegetable
wrappers on manila drawing paper and made hollow cylinders
(without top or bottom) for cans. Cereal boxes were folded, deco-
rated and pasted; representations of match boxes, bars of soap,
soap powder, Dutch Cleanser, packages of vegetable and flower seeds
were made. On the table was a show case for the candy. This was a
large gray box with a sloping lid and a large piece of window glass
set in with glued corners. A cash register, various trays and baskets
were evolved and constructed, and each child made his own paper
money and a purse to contain it. The stock was invoiced and a
grocer was asked to make a price list. Small price cards were
made and articles bought and sold. As articles were sold, they were
replaced by the ' ' farmers, " " canners, ' ' and ' ' manufacturers, ' ' thus
affording wholesale, as well as retail exchange.

Conversation, reading, composition, arithmetic, manual training
were involved.

50. "Health Charts"

(Outline from Frances Berry)

Topic: "What the good citizen tries to do."
Takes care of his health.
Tries to be neat and orderly.

32 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Tries to be courteous and considerate.
Tries to be honest and trustworthy.
Tries to be fair and generous.
Tries to be prompt.
Discussion of each of these, and a chart made for each, such as
the following on care of health.

"I wash my face, neck, ears, hands and arms every

morning."
"I wash my hands and clean my nails before each meal."
"I wear my rubbers when it is wet."
Illustration of these by pictures from magazines.
Individual books may be made, containing related readings and
pictures.

51. ' ' Dramatization of Arab Life * '

(Reported by Florence E. Williams, Richmond, Indiana)

At the outset pictures were shown and discussed, and there were
lectures to the children by a native of Jerusalem.

The children then made and wore Arab costumes, e. g., tunics,
head-dresses, veils. They made camels by turning down small
chairs, making head and neck of brown construction paper and
gluing to a ruler, then tying the ruler to the back of the chair and
draping a coat over the chairs for the bodj\ They constructed an
Arab tent in the corner of the room and sat there to weave their
rugs, which were made of rags dyed by themselves.

An oasis was made in the sand table. Palm trees were made
of green and brown construction paper (the fronds by folding green
paper slashed diagonally — five or six tied together and glued to the
end of a roll of brown paper) . A spring of water was represented
by a tin lid ; sheep were made of plastico covered with white cotton ;
goats and camels of clay ; dolls were dressed in Arab costumes, some
sitting before the tent weaving tiny rugs on tag board looms. The
camels laden with rugs were being ridden across the desert.

52. "Watching Caterpillars Turn into Butterflies"
(Reported by Ethel Salisbury, Berkeley, California)
A caterpillar was brought into the classroom. Several children
were afraid of it. It was put into a glass case and given leaves to

MATEEIAL8 FOB THE PBIMAEY GRADES 33

cat. Other children brought more. The children found out all they
could about them. Its metamorphosis was watched and one morn-
ing a beautiful mourning-cloak butterfly emerged from its brown
cradle. It dried its wings in the sun and flew away as the children
watched. They were told that after awhile it would lay little black
eggs which would make pretty brown caterpillars and then more
beautiful butterflies. Several of the children who were afraid of
caterpillars found and brought some in the following days and
put them in the case.

53. "Doing Something for a Sick Classmate' '
(Reported by Lucia M. Densmore, Ypsilanti, Michigan)

A few weeks ago a little boy in our room met with a serious
accident which necessitated his removal to the hospital at once. As
his seat was vacant the next morning, we began a "conversation"
about this absence — why he was not in school, etc. I stated briefly,
without going into detail, the reason he was not there, telling the
children Glen would not be with us for several weeks, as the acci-
dent was serious.

Then followed several questions. "What can we do for him
while he is away?" "What do you think he would like to have
us dot" "What would he enjoy most?"

These questions were answered quickly by the children as fol-
lows: "We could make picture books." "We could write him a
letter." "We could send fruit and flowers." "We could send
toys."

As a result, apples, grapes, pears, oranges and flowers have
come in abundance. These we have arranged tastily in boxes and
sent to him with a little written message suggested by the children.
They have also written a letter, made picture books, pages of which
were their own drawings, illustrating stories. Other books have
been made of paper cuttings.

By letting two or three sit at a small table which is in the corner
of our room, the children have made several toys for him — among
them boats, wagons, baskets and aeroplanes.

This project will 'carry on' several weeks, as some of the chil-

34 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

dren are just beginning their activities. All are eager to do some-
thing.

0. MATERIALS FOB THE THIRD GRADE

54. "A Library"

(Outline from Jennie Smith)

Election by the class, of librarian, assistants, etc. Books
brought from home and from public libraries. Rules for manage-
ment, care of books, etc., worked out by committee on rules and
adopted by the group. Card system used. Name for library chosen
by group. Oral and silent reading.

55. "A Health Club"

(Outline from Jennie Smith)

Class organized and selected their leaders, chose name for club,
etc., using standard leaflet of Health Chores published by Tuber-
culosis Society. Reports of successes, questions, problems, etc.,
came in to the business meetings of the club. Discussions were car-
ried on here also. All records, inspection of same, and charge of
buttons issued for chores completed in hands of officers of the club.
The teacher works through these officers, as a guide to the group.

56. "An Indian Entertainment"

(Outline from Gertrude E. Pollard, Atlanta, Georgia)

History : Life, customs, dress, etc.

Reading: Indian stories.

Literature: Hiawatha.

Composition: Arranged an original play based on Hiawatha.
Each child wrote of his Indian adventure to tell around the camp
fire.

Music : Part of Hiawatha. Indian records on Victrola.

Dance : Made up a corn dance from a reading lesson.

Construction : Measured and made head gear. Made costumes
from cambric.

Drawing: Drew borders and designs for their costumes after
studying Indian design.

MATEBIAL8 FOB TEE PB1MABY GBADBS 35

57. "Making the School Garden Pay"

(Reported by Ellice B. Burk, Cleveland, Ohio)

The seeds for the garden were provided by the school and the
garden was a class project. The children did all the work with the
exception of plowing. When the vegetables were ready for the
market, the class was divided into committees, each one having a
particular responsibility, such as keeping in touch with the market
prices, soliciting customers or delivering goods. At regular inter-
vals the crops were harvested, weighed, measured, put in bags
with labels attached giving quantity, prices, and name of customers.
The arithmetic lesson for that day consisted in finding out how much
the sales amounted to and of keeping the record in good form. A
strict account was kept, and at the end of the season, after paying
back the amount advanced for seeds, the class had a nice little sum
which was spent in buying some much desired apparatus.

58. "Making a Notebook"

(Reported by Isabel W. Riddell, Quincy, Massachusetts)

A notebook was needed for some arithmetic work and the chil-
dren were asked to choose between a book made by themselves and
one furnished by the school. They decided that they would like to
make one. A discussion took place as to materials for covers, num-
ber of pages, manner of binding, etc. These materials were pro-
vided and estimates made as to how much would be needed for one
notebook, and then for notebooks for the entire class. Each child
measured his own covers and pages, and where help was needed, it
was given in most instances by the children. After they were fin-
ished, it was suggested by the teacher that they find out whether
these notebooks had cost more or less than those furnished by the
school. The cost of the materials was computed as accurately as
possible and compared with the cost of the ready-made notebook.
The pupils seemed to take pride in the fact that a small sum had
been saved.

36 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

59. "Construction of a Japanese Village on a Sand Table"

(Reported by Isabel W. Riddell, Bridgewater, Massachusetts)

The desire to construct a village arose while the children were
reading stories of the life customs of the Japanese people.

Pictures and stories were collected from outside sources by the
children. These were examined and discussed for some time before
the village was started. Through the kindness of the instructor in
drawing, some plans were obtained, and the class was divided into
groups, some working on houses, some on jinrikishas, some making
figures, lanterns, flowers, etc. Another group prepared the table,
making a miniature lake. When the models were ready, another
group had charge of placing them on the table, and members of
the class offered suggestions.

60. "Making Product Maps"
(Outline from Ellice E. Burk, Cleveland, Ohio)

The aim in this project was to make maps to indicate such items
as : location of our school, streets leading to the market, important
buildings on these streets, location of the market, also to study
products, like fruits, vegetables and meats, dairy products and
poultry.

The following activities were developed : Making a trip to the
market, making a map showing the route we took, locating streets,
buildings and our school, collecting pictures of products, making
charts, like a fruit chart, a vegetable chart, a dairy products chart;
taking a trip to a truck farm, constructing and decorating a market
stall of cardboard, making fruits of clay and painting them in colors,
making a price list and the name of the owner of the stall, buying
and selling, making out bills, making a book describing the trip, with
pictures of products.

«

61. "Dramatization of 'The Hardy Tin Soldier.' "
(Reported by Isabel W. Riddell, Bridgewater, Massachusetts)

The story was discussed by the children and scenes and char-
acters decided upon. Several groups were chosen to try the parts,

4
MATEBIALS FOB THE PRIMARY GRADES 37

and a final choice was made by the class. Of those not taking part
in the play, one group attended to making the programs, while
another wrote the invitations to guests.

Out of this language project grew projects of a different type,
such as the making of crepe paper costumes by the girls, and the
making of a few simple stage settings by the boys.

62. "Preserving Tomatoes"
(Reported by Mary L. Dougherty, Mankato, Minnesota)

The children of the third grade were given some ripe tomatoes.
They decided to make preserves for refreshments at a Hallowe'en
party, which the primary department was enjoying. Each child
inquired at home for a recipe for preserving tomatoes. These were
reported in a composition period and the method of procedure set-
tled. The domestic science teacher offered the use of her kitchen,
so the thirty-two children could all take part — two at a stove. The
teacher scalded the tomatoes and the children finished the cooking.

The second day, an arithmetic lesson was based upon the use of
the scales in weighing the fruit and sugar. Then the fruit was
boiled down and lemons were sterilized by two other groups of
children. The fruit was put in jars and when cold, covered with
parafine. The children washed all dishes and cleaned up the
tables. None of the fruit was burned or spilled.

Following this work the children wrote a note of thanks for the
use of the kitchen, prepared a report to go in their book of records
of work, and in the art period made labels for the jars.

63. "The Doll Museum"

(Reported by Florence "Williams, Richmond, Indiana)

The children were asked to make dolls of any material they
chose. The only condition was that it should be the child's own
work. Boys as well as girls entered into the fun, and dolls of every
sort, some dressed, some not, were brought. The following were
some materials used: paper, paper bags, cardboard, cardboard
boxes (cylindrical shapes), rags, stockings, beads, corn cobs, clothes

38 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

pins, chestnuts, raisins, candy, potatoes, gourds, bottles, spools,
raffia, yarn, and string.

A little exhibit was held and all the dolls were inspected and
criticised.

Later, these dolls were used for suggestion materials from which
to make dolls for the various projects carried out in connection
with history and literature.

64. "Robinson Crusoe"

(Outline from Bllice E. Burk, Cleveland, Ohio)

From the book the following points are learned : His life in Eng-
land. Home, family, love of sea, his running away. Life on ship,
shipwreck. Life on the Island. Food, shelter, clothing. Weapons.
Transportation. Records. Return to England. What he learned
from life on the Island. The children then made a collection of
pictures of ships, took a trip to the park to see the artificial island,
illustrated on sand table Robinson Crusoe's Island, constructed a
house, built a stockade, pen for animals, and palm trees, made a
canoe for sand table, kept a weather chart, and made a community
poster : ' ' Life on the Island. ' '

CHAPTER III

NEW MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI

There are grouped in this chapter materials, mostly of the type
now frequently referred to as "projects," which have been actu-
ally used in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. Many of them will
be found useful in more than one grade, but they have been ar-
ranged within the chapter as projects for the fourth, the fifth, or
the sixth grade according to the grade in which they were originally
developed. Within each grade they are also grouped roughly to
bring together those that feature a given aspect of school work, like
geography, nature study, composition, etc.

A. MATERIALS FOB THE FOURTH GRADE

65. ' ' The Neighborhood Map ' '

(Reported by Floy Campbell, Bancroft School, Kansas City,

Missouri)

The teacher draws on the board a rectangle representing the
schoolgrounds, and at the dictation of the children, she adds all
the streets in the district, with their names. The children follow
at their seats. Each child then comes to the board, and traces on
the map his route to school, and draws his house where it belongs.
It is wise to use different colors for the various children. The best
of these maps is framed, and hung beside the Room Constitution,
the idea being that it is an adjunct to the Boom Club, helping us
all to find at once the home of any one who is ill or in trouble.

66. "A Live Map"

(Reported by Floy Campbell)

Children of a Porto Rico school went to the town "plaza," or
square, and there paced off all the main dimensions, and noted them
on paper. Regathered at school, each one with a piece of plotting
paper, the teacher at the board with a large sheet of heavier paper,
the entire group worked out a plan or map of the square. Each

39

40 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

child was now given one house or store to study, and one tree.
Thejc he drew, making a front elevation only of the house, and
using the same scale the teacher had used in her large map. Box-
forms were made, and the "elevations" were pasted on the box
fronts. The teacher's map was placed on a table of suitable size,
the houses put in the proper place on it, the tree-drawings cut out
and placed where they belonged, sand-paper cut and pasted for
streets and walks, green crepe paper for grass, and colored papers
for the flower beds. Benches were made of paper. By this time the
class was enthusiastic about the work, and asked to finish it by
indicating the type of life that went on in the square. They made a
wedding procession coming out of the church, people in front of the
stores, autos, horses, wagons of all kinds, dogs, etc. Each child was
permitted to add what he thought especially characteristic and
interesting, unless vetoed by the rest of the class or the teacher.
Scale was observed throughout. One pace in the original estimate
of sizes was counted 3 feet, and the rest of the construction planned
accordingly.

Following this, a committee of boys volunteered to make a map
of the entire village, as none existed, and outside school hours they
paced off every street in town, and drew a very good little map.
The town was about a mile wide and two miles long.

67. "Learning About Bread"
(Reported by Anne den Blykes, Normal School, Pittsburg, Kansas)

The children made a collection of grains, different flours, and
things made of wheat, bran, puffed wheat, cream of wheat, etc.
They exhibited on a bulletin board all the stages from planting to
the finished products. Then they made bread. Each child brought
a small package of flour. The bread was made in school and placed
by the window where they could see it rise. It was put into three
small pans and three little girls took it home and baked it. When
it was brought back, each child was given a piece of bread to eat.

The class wrote to a bakery and asked if they might visit. They
were allowed to do so, and a very interesting and instructive time
they had. The children were told to ask questions if they wanted

MATERIALS FOE GRADES IV, V, AND VI 41

to. They asked how many loaves of bread the baker could put in the
oven f How many loaves he baked a day f etc. They learned that
a lb. loaf cost them 10 cents, a two-lb. loaf cost 20 cents, and 1%-lb.
loaf cost 15 cents. The baker boy showed how he weighed each loaf.
They were interested in watching the pies being made and marked
"A" for apple, etc.

The children were told to make up arithmetic problems for the
next day about this visit to the bakery.

This project led to two little girls entertaining the teachers of
the training school. They wanted to make some little cakes and
have a party. This was allowed, and they served hot chocolate and
cake.

68. "A Study of Kansas City ' '
(Reported by Floy Campbell, Kansas City)

For six weeks the topic in geography was Kansas City. After
considering all the textbook had to give on the subject, each child
took one local activity (manufacture, organized charity, former in-
habitants of place, etc.), and found out all he could about that one
subject. When the topic allowed, the child made a Saturday visit
to the manufacturing plant or office he was studying, and reported
to the class all that he saw or learned. He reported on his topic
in the class, wrote a theme on it, made a slogan, which he lettered,
with or without illustration, on a large piece of cardboard, and de-
signed and made a costume that would express the especial char-
acter of his investigations. For instance, the child who reported
on newspapers made his costume of the daily papers. The child
who reported on the care of the old and poor wore a cap, spectacles,
a shawl, and walked with a cane. They tacked their posters on
long poles, and, in their costumes, marched through the school halls,
and around the block, to the great enjoyment of the class, the very
vivid interest of the school at large, and the edification of the neigh-
bors. We had a photograph made of the procession.

In addition to the study of local geography, the project was of
great social value, gave excellent work in reading, writing, oral
language, lettering, and design.

1

42 THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

69. "Getting Acquainted with the City's Public Buildings' '

»

(Reported by Hedwig Carlson, Rockford, Illinois)

The class became interested in the buildings of Rockford through
their study of the city. They expressed their desire to see the
buildings. They planned several trips through the city, being
careful to choose the places where the most buildings could be seen.
When they returned, they traced their trips on the map of Rock-
ford. As the class became more interested, they brought in pic-
tures of Rockford buildings. The pictures were all classified and
hung up. Before the^semester was over, we had a large collection
of pictures.

/'") 70. "The Making of Leather"

(Reported by Mary May Wyman, Louisville Normal School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

In connection with the study of world geography the question
arose as to where leather came from. Through pictures of hides
in a tannery and cattle grazing on the plains, enough of an answer
to stimulate further interest was given. The children found a
number of pictures of cattle on the plains and in Argentina. They
divided themselves in two groups, one to study ranch-life in the
United States, and the other to study cattle raising in Argentina.
Prom suggestive pictures, each group worked out his country in
the sand table. At the invitation of a stock broker, we visited our
local stockyards to see branded cattle from the west. One boy re-
ported that his father (a butcher) sold skins to a Louisville tannery.
The boy wrote for permission for the class to visit the tannery. The
entire class made the trip. The processes were discussed in class ;
the class divided itself into small groups each to represent one
process in the sand table. All worked to a scale so as to have a
complete tannery. Books were consulted to see if all tanneries were
alike. The tanner gave us the address of a Louisville shoe manu-
facturer who used his leather. Permission was granted to the class
to visit the factory. Permission to share their experiences with the
school in an assembly period was granted. The class selected the
most important topics and the children to represent them. Letters

MATEBIAL8 FOB GRAVES IV, V, AND VI 43

were written, at the suggestion of the children, to thank the busi-
ness men for their kindness.

71. " Making Industry Books ' '
(Reported from Joliet, Illinois)
Each fourth-grade class in Joliet made a special investigation of
an industry and illustrated it with charts and booklets.

When the projects were completed, the charts and booklets were
brought together and then sent from building to building in order
that all the fourth-grade classes might study the collection.

72. "Iron Ore — from Minnesota to Youngstown"
(Reported by Virginia Mariner, Youngstown, Ohio)

As Youngstown is one of the great steel centers of the world,
iron ore seemed to us a peculiarly suitable project around which to
build geography work. The children were first sent to the mills
to secure iron ore with which they filled a large sand table. They
were given a description of the iron mines of the Mesaba range of
northern Minnesota. Using the sand table, they modeled in suc-
cession shaft mines, open-pit mines, the Mesaba range itself, the
railroad leading to Duluth, the docks at Duluth, the loading ma-
chinery (made with a steel "Constructo" set), wooden boats, the
Great Lakes, the locks of the "Soo" canal, the docks at Cleveland,
the railroad connection at Youngstown, and finally a blast furnace.
Meanwhile, a blackboard map of the Great Lakes region was devel-
oped day by day connecting up the story as shown through the
models. The teacher merely provided the outline and organized the
material. In the actual work itself the children were allowed to use
their own initiative. Socialized recitations were carried on and
papers were also prepared by the pupils, thus correlating the work
with English.

73. "An Imaginary Trip Around the World"

(Reported by Marie Higgins, Joliet, Illinois)

After reading "Around the World with the Children" for
silent reading, it was suggested that the class take an imaginary
trip around the world.

44 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

The class was divided into groups and each group chose the
country through which they would like to conduct the others. They
then planned how best to make their country attractive to the
travelers. The pupils found pictures to show and visited the library
to find interesting facts.

The group who worked on Japan made a sand table, a repre-
sentation of the country in cherry blossom time. One group gave
a dramatization and another used lantern slides. This called for
much reading, careful group planning, and was altogether an en-
joyable project.

74. "A Christmas Trip to Palestine"

The study of the Holy Land was held for the pre-Christmas
season, and this Kansas City class made a trip there. They wrote
or called for pamphlets giving all routes by rail and steamer from
their home town to the Holy Land, figured the time needed for the
trip, the cost of it, estimated how much " extra' ' they should pro-
vide, found out what type of clothing they would need for each
stage of the journey, etc.

They decided what stop-overs they should demand, and read

up on all of the things they would see in each place they stopped.

They collected pictures dealing with the places visited, and also

pictures illustrating events of great importance that happened in

Palestine. They made a list of words and names met with —

Bethlehem, Raphael, Magi, Handel, etc., and used these as spelling
lists.

Having reached Jerusalem, they wrote a letter home, telling of
their journey and their plans, and illustrating it with the pictures
they had collected, treating these as kodaks of their own, and telling
under what circumstances each was snapped. While making this
study, they constructed a large modelled map, and placed on it at
the proper places the figures of animals or vegetation they would be
likely to see there.

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 45

75. "An Irish Museum and Play"

(Reported by Anne den Blyks, Manual Training Normal School,

Pittsburg, Kansas)

A small exhibit of Irish pictures and laces was collected. The
children brought shamrock and peat to school. Some Irish songs
were learned and music brought for the victrola. The children
made bobbinct lace upon spools.

The talk of the Irish belief in fairies motivated a play. Anabel
brought a story by Eugene Field called "The Fairies of Pesth"
and asked to play it. Under her management this was done. The
children made and collected their own costumes.

The elves wore brownie costumes of brown cambric. The chil-
dren made crepe paper dresses for the fairies. The fairy queen
was furnished with several tinsel crowns before it was decided to
use a crown of real apple blossoms. Her wand was a pointer with
a tinsel star.

The prince of the elves wore a scout suit and a German helmet.
The poet appeared in overalls and wore a man 's coat and hat. He
wore spectacles and carried a cane. The play was given in the
gymnasium. The music was furnished by a fifth-grade child who
played a waltz for the fairies to dance. The dancing was impro-
vised. The children wrote invitations asking the other grades to
attend.

76. "Central Africa versus Eskimo Land"

(Reported by Hattie E. Cox, Louisville Normal School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

After a study of Central Africa and the Eskimo country the
question arose among the children as to which country they would
rather live in. After an informal discussion in which the advan-
tages of each country were enumerated, the class was divided into
groups, each group to be held responsible for representing life in
one of the above countries. Imaginary trips were taken from
their home to each place, which led to a study of maps and direc-
tions. Clothing needed was also studied. Each group accounted
for what it had seen. This was written and illustrated in book-

46 TEE TWENTIETH TEABBOOK

lets. The sand table was used to represent the life of the two
countries. Original plays were worked out by the children in each
group. Much number work was developed from this series of
lessons.

77. ' ' What Was Kansas Like When the First White Men Came ! * '

(Reported by Anne den Blykes, Manual Training Normal

School, Pittsburg, Kansas)

The story of Coronado's search for the cities of gold and his
visit to Quivira were studied.

The project was worked out on the sand table. The sand table
formed the map of Kansas. The children made the rivers in the
sand. The Pawnee village of Quivira wa3 built upon the Kansas,
or "Kaw," river.

The children made the Indian tents from brown paper and deco-
rated them with Indian borders and signs. The winter lodges were
made from clay and grasses. The children wove mats from grasses,
splints and wool yarn. Some of the white yarn they dyed with
berry juices. These looms were very simply made from cardboard.
One boy made a large wooden loom and started a rug of carpet rags
for his own room. This same boy made a large work basket of cat-
tail rushes, while the other children were making small baskets of
reed.

Clay was used for making ovens and pottery and also for a herd
of buffalos and the ponies which Coronado's men rode. The chil-
dren constructed canoes from paper and bark. The bark was soaked
so that it would be pliable. One child made a canoe out of a
Nabisco box.

The trees along the streams were made of paper, evergreen and
hemlock branches. Tansy blossoms made the prairie flowers. The
fifth-grade pupils were invited to see our sand table and hear the
stories about it.

78. "Visiting Our French Orphan"

(Reported by Florence Jelly, State Normal College*

Ypsilanti, Michigan)
This project originated in the question: "What can we do for
Michael this winter !" (Michael is our French Orphan. He lives

MATEBIAL8 FOB GBADE8 IV, V, AND VI 47

near the Vosges Mountains.) The children decided to go and visit
Michael, to tell him what they are doing and relate to him the ex-
periences of their journey.

There were instituted inquiries about railroad and steamship
rates. Then we set up a bank, using toy money, and drew this
money from the bank for tickets and spending money. There was
a ticket office for buying tickets, and we converted American money
into francs.

Business letters were written to Mr. C. P. Leidich (Detroit) for
information regarding ocean trip, followed by "Thank you" letters
for the information. The children selected the letter to be sent in
each case.

After a visit in Paris, the children sent letters home to the
first-grade teacher telling of their experiences thus far. The organ-
ization of material for oral reports of places visited and things
seen included :

Eastern United States.

Important cities passed through on train

Character of country — mountains, plains, etc.

Rivers crossed; Erie canal

New York City

Crossing Ocean
Weather conditions
Study of sea life
France (compared with America)
Character of land, customs of people, occupations, etc
Visit with Michael at his home
Trip home by southern route

Finally, there was a general discussion, on our return home, of
what we had seen and done and what we would do differently if we
went another time.

79. "Making Maps"

(Reported by Ruby M. Harris)

A fourth-grade class was making a study of the geography of
Kansas. The only available map of Kansas was a detailed, uni-
formly colored, political map. During a class exercise the pupils
who were sent to the map had great difficulty in locating the cities
required in the lesson. When questioned as to the cause of their
failure, one pupil said, "On the outline map at home I can find
these cities.' 9 Further questioning brought out the fact that a

48 THE TWENTIETH TEABBOOK

series of maps, each for a definite purpose, would be desirable. The
class expressed a desire for such maps as: relief maps, railroad
maps, product maps, and forest maps.

The project thus suggested by the class was: "Let us make a
series of these maps large enough for the class to use."

The procedure involved:

1. Listing materials needed and plans made for obtaining them.

2. Division of the class into groups.

3. Decision as to kind of map each group wished to make.

4. Plans for making the maps. (As a large number of outline maps

were needed, a pattern was suggested and used to save time.)

5. Similar outline maps made on the board.

6. Small-sized maps selected for copying.

7. Board outline maps made as lessons were developed.

8. Wall maps made by the pupils.

80. "Making a Miniature California Department of the

State Library' '

(Reported by I. McLeod, Berkeley, California)
The teacher told of her recent visit to the California section of
the State Library. The class decided to make a collection of all
things Calif ornian. Letters were written by the pupils and sent all
over the state to the Federal Board, State Library, Bureau of the
Interior, development boards, etc., asking for bulletins and other
material. A suitable place for exhibition purposes was made by
the boys. Collections of postcards, pictures, flowers, pictures of
birds, minerals, names of California authors, etc., were made and
organized. Birds and flowers were drawn and painted. They
measured, drew, painted, sewed, pasted, and cut, in the making of
California flags. They made California out of clay, salt, and flour
and water, sticks, cardboard, chalk. They became early California
settlers and did things which they did. Short plays were given,
poems recited, and articles read to other classes about California.

81. "Writing a Local History" 1

(Reported by Clarice Houston, Rockford, Illinois)
Stories of the early settlers were read and retold by the children
in class, afterwards being written as group work. The writing of

1 Compare in this connection the material reported in Chapter VIII of the
Nineteenth Yearbook, Part I.

MATERIALS FOB GBADE8 IV, V, AND VI 49

these stories in short form gave a splendid opportunity for work in
English, as good sentence structure was very necessary. The Eng-
lish was also emphasized when the children gave oral talks about
the early settlers.

When these stories were written, they were gathered together
and preparations were made to put them into permanent form.
They were taken to the school printer, who had them printed in
small books. To illustrate their work, the children cut out a block
picture of a log cabin and tree which represented Rockford as it
looked in early days. This picture was printed on the second page.

One hundred copies of these books were printed ; the books were
bound, and the children presented each fourth grade in the city of
Rockford with a copy. The children then felt that they had
accomplished a valuable piece of work which would help other
children in the city.

82. ' ' History of Pioneer Life ' '

(Reported by Ethelyn Yount, Experimental School, State

University of Iowa)

Many projects grow out of the Pioneer Study of Iowa. The
projects may be worked out under about the same conditions that
the Pioneers solved them. Some of the most interesting projects
coming out of this study have been : the building of a log cabin,
the oiling of paper (for windows), the starting of a fire with flint
and steel, the churning of butter (as the pioneers did), the making
of paraffin candles, the making of hominy, of lye, of a butter ladle,
of a wooden husking peg, and of a flail.

In connection with this study, other activities arose which came
under the head of language, such as the writing of letters by the
children to pioneers, asking for information about the problems
and conditions they had to face when they came to Iowa, the ex-
plaining of the processes which the projects involved, the account
of a trip made to the carpet weaver or the log cabin (in the city
park).

50 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

This work may be carried on accurately if the directions in the
following books are noted carefully:

Earle, Home Life in Colonial Day*, MacMillan Co., New York.
Aurner, Iowa Stories, Book 1, Clio Press, Iowa City, Iowa.
Nida, Letter* of Polly, the Pioneer, MacMillan Co., New York.
Stone & Fickott, Everyday Life in the Colonies, D. C. Heath & Co.,
Boston.

83. "A Celebration for Columbus Day"
(Reported by Floy Campbell, Kansas City, Missouri)

The children collaborated in writing the story of Columbus' life;
each child took a certain part of the story to investigate. As part
of the work, the child had to look up a picture illustrating his
"chapter," and to arrange for that picture to be posed by class
members. The boys made a frame for the pictures ; the girls fur-
nished curtains to draw in front of the frame. The children spent
several hours in the library, studying details of costume, flags, etc.
Finally, they put on a program, all their own work, including the
making of the costume. The "Story of Columbus" was read aloud,
chapter by chapter, by a reader chosen by the class. At the end
of each episode, another child announced the title and artist of the
picture that illustrated the episode, the curtain was drawn aside,
and the living picture shown for nearly a minute. The entire class
was engaged in giving the program, and the school auditorium was
filled with the children from the other rooms.

84. "The Story of Columbus"

(Reported by Mrs. A. F. Douglas, Franklin School, Louisville,

Kentucky)

It was decided by the members of the group that they would
dramatize the Story of Columbus, and invite other grades of the
school to see the play. The visitor who was to be present was invited
particularly to see the "surprise" involved in the last act of the
play.

First, in order to get the necessary data, children read and
reported what they had gathered in regard to the story of the
discovery of America.

MATEBIAL8 FOB 0BADE8 IV, V, AND VI 51

Second, the class decided what acts would be necessary to tell
the story of Columbus and just which experiences in his life must
be selected in order to get the essential episodes.

Third, it was necessary to select the characteristics of the time
of Columbus that showed the most decisive contrast to the present
day, as the children planned in the last act of the play to have
Columbus return and see the wonders of the present.

These problems were discussed, and a boy selected by the class
to represent Columbus.

The children planned the extremely simple costumes. By intro-
ducing sailors, courtiers, and Indians, a part was arranged for each
member of the class.

The last act was extremely informal. The small Columbus came
to the American children and in surprise and bewilderment asking
such questions as: "What is this little glass ball (touching an
electric-light bulb) !" "What is that strange bird that I see in
the sky t" The American children took great pleasure in explain-
ing to Columbus. Finally, the young Columbus closed the play with
the conclusive remark. "All this is too much for me. I think 111
go back where I came from."

85. "Our Pilgrim Father*— a Booklet"
(Reported by Alma Van Der Kar, Rockford, Illinois)
The class studied the Pilgrims — a detailed account of their ex-
periences from the time they left England, including their life with
the Indians in this country. Group composition, as well as
individual compositions, were written during this study, which was
begun in October and reached its climax in November, when a
Thanksgiving party was given for their parents and friends. The
planning of the party included invitations, room decorations, two
original sand tables. These involved the making of windmills,
boats, log-cabins, cradles, spinning wheels, Indian tents, canoes,
and a scene in Holland developing the program which included an
original playlet. All this and more was worked out by the class.
After the party they decided to write about it Later, a book-
cover was designed and all the details completed for the printing
of the chapters in an elementary print shop.

52 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

86. "Colonial Life"

(Reported by Catherine Morgan, Teachers College, Detroit,

Michigan)

"From the time a little Colonial boy arose in the morning until
he went to bed at night, how was his day different from yours t"
The class suggested many phases in which they were interested
as games, amusements, occupations and school. They formed com-
mittees, made reports, visited museums, libraries and other places
of public interest. They listed the advantages and disadvantages
of both boys.

87. "The Pageant-' End of the School Year* "

Planning this pageant furnishes the best possible type of review
of the work of the entire year. The final result cannot be twice
alike.

Every student sits dreaming over the year that is past, and
the vacation that is near. Memory, leading the past months, enters,
and each month carries a representation of the most significant and
worthy project the class worked with during that month. The selec-
tion and representation of these projects must be the result of class
discussion, which should be fully as illuminating to the teacher as
it is valuable to the child as review. Designing appropriate cos-
tumes and planning the general color scheme is splendid art work.
Following the school months, the summer months frolic in, beckon-
ing the children to the fields, and bringing Nature with all her
riches to help them have a happy time.

88. "Dramatization of Joseph and His Brethren"

(Reported by Harriet Bcale, State Teachers College,

Mankato, Minnesota)

The teacher told the story, using the version in Hodges' Garden
of Eden. After considering the possible ways of retelling it, the
fourth grade chose to dramatize it. Because of its length, they
decided to work it out in two units. One class was responsible for
the part laid in Canaan and the stronger class for that in Egypt.
The knowledge gathered by this second class included the location
of Egypt and the Nile, the idea of "B. C," the customs of that

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 53

time, particularly as they bore on costumes and action, the use of
the lotus flower in art. They turned to versions of the story to
get typical phrasing for their play. They worked out the acts as
they had planned them: Act I, In Canaan, The Coat of Many
Colors; Act II, In Egypt, The Seven Years of Famine. They
planned costumes and held try-outs for parts. Then the classes
met, and each presented to the other its part of the play. They pro-
posed presenting it in the gymnasium for a larger audience. The
teacher suggested inviting the third grade, because they had loaned
costumes, and the children decided to invite the librarian, who had
lent many books and pictures, and others who might enjoy it. They
cut and colored a lotus design for the front page of the typed pro-
grams. They asked the aid of the gymnasium instructor in planning
a set drill based on the idea of the wheel with spokes, in which they
used f ans they copied from pictures. The music teacher provided a
march from Aida to accompany it.

89. "Booklets on Vacation Fun"

After examination of a few well-planned pamphlets, and free
reading of Roosevelt's letters, Daddy Long Legs (the latter for the
sake of the illustrations), the class members wrote a booklet with
free illustrations, telling the funniest or most interesting thing
they did during the summer. We emphasized cover and title-page
design, margins, decorations, and expressive freedom of illustration.
The books were placed on the table where all the class could get
them. The ones that were best liked were given in assembly as chalk
talks, and finally the whole small library was sent to a sick comrade,
or a last year's class member who had left the city, or a hospital for
children.

90. " Valentine and Hallowe'en Celebrations"

A Kansas City fourth grade had 'adopted' a certain Old Ladies'
Home, and every holiday they planned some special treat for "their
old ladies." On Valentine Day they made valentines, with original
verses, and many original decorations, and took them to the Home.
They had practiced "Annie Laurie," "Believe Me if All Those En-

54 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

clearing Young Charms," " Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes,"
" Love's Old Sweet Song," and other songs, and these they sang for
the old people, who thoroughly enjoyed the entertainment. One
of the boys dressed as Saint Valentine, in a white beard, red robe,
and pointed cap, and distributed the valentines with appropriate
speeches.

The same Kansas City fourth grade planned a nutting party
shortly before Hallowe'en, and afterward made baskets that would
hold about a pint each. These they decorated, filled with nuts,
placed on top of each a little witch with a head made from a nut,
and gave a basket to each old lady in the home. Christmas Carols,
and the distribution of Christmas cards; and an Easter Song
Festival, with Easter Greeting Cards, were other class projects of
the same nature.

91. "A Class Story Book"

(Reported by Harriet E. Gannett, Bridgewater Normal School,

Bridgewater, Massachusetts)

This book contained stories of birds, reproductions of fables,
conundrums, and history stories. These stories were written repro-
ductions of some told by members of the class, by student-teachers,
and by the regular teacher, or were based on some of the pupils' own
reading. Some were written in letter form ; others were descrip-
tions of animals and objects written as conundrums. Many of these
conundrum letters were written to different teachers, who guessed
the name of the animal described. Oral work always preceded
the written. The work was then read to the class, criticized by it,
and corrected by pupil and teacher, and then rewritten. The best
story, as to language and penmanship, was chosen sometimes by
the teacher, but more often by the class, and pasted into a book
which was illustrated with free-hand drawings.

92. "Writing a Letter to St. Paul, Minnesota"

(Reported by Irene McLeod, Berkeley, California)

A pupil in my class, having come from St. Paul, Minnesota, told
the class a few facts about this city. It was decided that more

MATERIALS FOR GRADES IV, V, AND VI 55

knowledge could be gained by receiving letters from other pupils
of that city. Therefore, each individual in the class wrote a letter
to a teacher (whose name was furnished us by our new pupil) ask-
ing permission to correspond with members of her class. After the
letters were finished, the best paragraphs from each were selected,
and these were combined to make one long letter. The final letters
were written by pupils elected to be the best in penmanship in the
class.

Other letters were written in similar fashion on the following
subjects:

1. To absentees.

2. To janitor for favors received.

3. To principal for favors received.

4. To Lincoln Day Speaker.

5. To a school- visit or for stories' told.

6. To Educational Foundations for store materials.

7. To Baker's Chocolate Co. for exhibit.

8. To California State Library for materials and acknowledgment.

9. To California Development Board for minerals and acknowl-

edgment.

10. To United Fruit Company for books.

11. To Oakland Museum acknowledging exhibits received.

12. To Seed Co. for catalogues.

13. To San Diego for folders.

14. To parents inviting them to visit an exhibit.

15. To Colgate Co. for sample Dental Cream tubes.

93. "Illustrating Stories on the Blackboard' '

(Reported by Harriet Beale, State Teachers College,

Mankato, Minnesota)

The children decided that they woul^T like to tell the story of
"The Boy Who Discovered Spring," by Raymond Alden, which
they had enjoyed hearing their teacher tell. At their request, she
retold it, while they listened to note characters and settings. They
discussed suitable backgrounds for the four scenes, fall, winter,
spring, and summer. The teacher made the series of crayon back-
grounds as a blackboard border. The children cut the characters
out of colored poster paper and placed them on the blackboard.
They told the story to entertain another section of the fourth grade.
A different child told each of the four scenes. Comment by visitors
to the room on the beauty of the pictures several times called forth
a telling of the story to explain the pictures.

56 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

94. "A Health Play"

(Reported by Gertrude Olson)

A health play was written and given by the third, fourth, fifth,
and sixth grades. The children planned a suitable program to
present for the Fresh Air group of boys and girls, who had been
invited for an afternoon. Besides a spelling contest, readings,
music, and games, a health play of four acts was decided on as most
suited to our work and needs. The four grades were arranged in
four groups, each group to write one act. The acts were then
read, discussed, criticised, and finally rewritten by the groups.
Suitable costumes were discussed and most of them made by the
children. A program and the invitations were written.

95. "A Health Crusade ' '
(Reported by Georgia Davis, Muskogee, Oklahoma)

In each school, the children were stimulated to think about
health. The following are typical problems :

1. What does Muskogee do to protect the health of its people!

2. What can we do as boys and girls so that we may grow up
to be strong men and women?

3. What can those of us that are under weight do to increase
our weight t

In working these out, many ways of bringing the important
points before the rest of their classmates were devised by the pupils.
Drills, plays, and pageants were written by the children in their
language classes and given in the school auditoriums. Compositions
dealing with health were written, read and exhibited. Posters and
banners illustrating the 'high points' of the project were made in
the art classes and shown about the buildings and grounds. Spelling
lessons based upon the work in health were given. Problems deal-
ing with the costs of proper and improper food and clothing were
stated and solved by the children.

The children not only learned the health facts and rules but
actually put them into practice. Ways of bringing the health facts
before the children throughout the year were devised by the pupils
and teachers in order that the pupils might more surely form the

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 57

habits of good health. The pupils not only covered the course of
study in a more thorough way, but they also covered it with an
enthusiasm and interest that is seldom seen in any work on health.

96. "The Friendly Club"

One of the first things this class did was to organize into a club,
with the usual officers, and to adopt a constitution and by-laws.
The constitution sets out the purposes of the class for the year;
the by-laws, such rules as they believe essential to carrying out
those purposes. Everyone in class now plans, letters, and illumines
a copy of the constitution and by-laws; or if it is too long for
lettering, they write it. In either case, they observe correct mar-
gins, and try for a beautiful effect. The best copy is framed by
the manual training class, and hung in a prominent place in the
room. This has been done in Grades 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, the formality of
the procedure being increased as the grade grows older. The class
enforces its own rules, once it has adopted them, and the result is
excellent. This idea was worked out partly in Kansas City, partly
in Porto Rico.

97. ' ' Making a Toy Shop ' '

(Reported by Mrs. Velma Cuddeback, Berkeley, California)

The school had decided to have a bazaar to raise funds for a
printing press. This class decided that their part should be the
making and selling of toys. Patterns and scraps of wood were
obtained from the manual training shop, and toys made and
painted. The prices were calculated, and the articles tagged for
sale. The amount realized from this project was commendable.

98. "What Is the Best Soil for a Garden !"

(Reported by Constance Brown)

Either from class discussion or from a supervised study period
(depending upon the ability of the class), the class was led to
discover :

1. The names of the various kinds of soil.

2. The qualities of soil desired in a garden.

58 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

After this short and general preparation the assignment was
made. The class was divided into three groups according to ability
(the more difficult problems being studied by the more able groups).
Each group worked out one of the following problems:

1. How do sand, clay, loam differ when dryf When wetf

(Examined by feeling, weighing, use of hand lena)
In which will bean seedlings grow bestt

From your observation, which soil do you think is best suited
for a garden soilf

2. Which soil is better — an acid or a sweet soilf

a. How to determine whether soil is acid or sweet.

b. Grow bean seedlings in each kind of sandy, clayey, and

loamy soil.

c. How to sweeten the soil.

From your results which kind of soil do you consider best for
the garden f

3. How does water act on sandy, clayey, and loamy soilf

a. Pour the same amount of water on each kind of dry soil

arranged in lamp chimneys and time the results.

b. Place another set of lamp chimneys arranged as above in

a pan of water so that the same amount of water is
available to each kind of dry soil and time the
results.

c. Place the same amount of each kind of dry soil in pans

and pack with the parts tilted at the same angle.
Pour the same amount of water on each soil to
determine the effect of surface water.

From these experiments which kind of soil would you desire for
your garden f

The work of each group was planned for by the leader of the
group and the teacher. The leader in turn worked out the problem
with his special group. The teacher supervised the work of all
groups. After results were obtained, each group prepared an
organized report, which was given to the class by the group leader
in the next recitation period. While the report was being given,
the chief points were placed on the board by the teacher. At the
close of the last report, the work of the several groups was put
together and the whole class allowed to decide the original question,
"Which soil is best for a garden?"

As a home assignment, the class was asked to test the soil found
in the school or home garden.

MATEBIAL8 FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 59

99. "How to Rid the Garden of Weeds' '

(Reported by Constance Brown)

The dandelion was chosen as a typical garden weed. In the
preparation for the assignment the class was led to discover the
various means by which plants in general protect themselves. The
dandelion itself was then studied, each group taking one part, as
seed, flower head, stem, leaf, and root, to discover whereby the
dandelion protects itself. The actual material was examined by
each group during the supervised study period. The children were
guided by the teacher and books placed at their disposal.

Thus each group came to its own conclusions and presented its
report to the class. The class in turn drew up a set of directions
whereby the dandelion might be exterminated from the garden.

In application of the fact gained various garden weeds, plantain,
mullein, burdock, horse-nettle, wild lettuce, were studied with the
same question in mind — how to rid the garden of them. The home
reports were given in class.

100. "Raising Money by Selling Garden Produce' 9

(Reported by Irene McLeod, Berkeley, California)

Some money was needed for the school's French orphan. The
children decided to form a garden club. The object of the club was
to make gardens, raise vegetables, and sell them.

They held a meeting, and elected officers. It was decided that
it would be nice to let the whole school know about this project. It
was voted to have a parade and to give a talk in each classroom.
After these things were done and catalogues and seeds obtained, the
gardens were made and a fence was built around them. Enough
money was raised from the sale of vegetables to give the proper
amount to the French orphan, to buy a classroom picture, and a
Victor record.

101. "Keeping a Library in the School Room"

(Reported by Irene McLeod, Berkeley, California)

Books were borrowed from the public library. A librarian and
assistants were appointed from among the pupils. The books were

GO THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

catalogued, indexed, and loaned to pupils in the room by the usual
library system. Children who had never taken library books and
read very little at home, at first did not avail themselves of this
opportunity. Before the term was over, most of these were bor-
rowing regularly and not only enjoyed the class library books, but
were also regular visitors at the public library.

B. MATERIALS FOR THE FIFTH GRADE

102. "Making a Candle as Primitive Man Did"

(Reported by Florence King, Southern Illinois State Normal
Training School, Carbondale, Illinois)

After studying how primitive man discovered and tamed fire,
it is interesting to follow with a series of lessons on lighting, lead-
ing up to candle making.

The children think about what was probably the first light used,
as the bonfire. Then they see that some other kind of light might
be needed in going from one place to another, so a torch might have
been used, then a shallow dish with oil and a wick, leading to the
tallow dips and the candles, or the old kerosene lamp.

Then the children tried to think how candles were made. They
greatly enjoyed 'trying out' suet. They dipped a string in the
hot oil, let it cool, then dipped again and again until a tiny candle
was made.

The next problem was how a number of candles could be made
at once and so save time. Several wicks were tied on one stick and
all dipped at once. These were found to be rough when compared
with our beautiful Christmas candles. One child found a piece of
gas pipe which the children filled with warm oil. The following
morning the oil had hardened and they found a fine smooth candle.

103. "A Weed Book and Museum"

(Reported by Katherine Thompson, Macomb Normal School,

Macomb, Illinois)

Preliminary observations during the preceding spring, while
extensive, must of necessity have been rather unorganized and

MATERIALS FOU CBADEB IV, V, AND VI fll

scattering, but they widen the children's experience, make them
discriminating weed destroyers during the summer, and keep their
interest in weeds, and in plants in general, fairly keen in most cases.
On the return to school in the fall they are ready to organize the
knowledge they have gained and to go on with the study of weed
seeds, which are the most abundant and interesting phase for fall
study.

The organization work culminates in a booklet in which are
set down the collective experiences of the class, plus some of the very
interesting facts made available in the reports of certain of the
state experiment stations. Each pupil is allowed a good deal of
individuality in the organization and decoration of his booklet.

In addition to this written account, seed charts are made by
pasting the seeds to show methods of distribution ; the seeds of a
single plant of many different species are gathered, counted, bottled
in tiny glass vials, and mounted. Charts are made to show the parts
and growth of typical annuals and biennials from seed to seed,
and of perennials from seed to maturity. A resourceful teacher can
find many such problems, fitting the ones she uses to her local
environment.

Books which have been helpful are :

Manual of Weeds, by Ada Georgia. Macmillan Co.

Indiana Weed Book, by W. S. Blatchley. Nature Publ. Co.,
Indianapolis.

Unlawful and Other Weeds of Iowa, Bulletin No. 31, Iowa State
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts.

104. ' ' The Home Garden ' '

(Reported by Frances Trainor, Ada M. Tea, and Maude Kelley,

Joliet, Illinois)

Many children in our building had their individual home gar-
den. The homes were located near the school building, consequently
close supervision during the preparation of ground and early
growth of the plants was easily arranged.

Very little money was expended for seed, as we obtained many
packages from the United States Department of Agriculture.

62 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Early in the spring, meetings were held ; our clubs were organ-
ized; the preparation of ground and the selection of seed were
discussed.

A record card of each child's garden was kept by him and the
teacher. In this was recorded a diagram of the plot drawn to a
scale, the date of each visit, expenditures, and receipts, the condi-
tion of the garden, and the help given. At the end of the season
each child checked up an account of receipts and reported same on
his card. These amounts ranged from four to fifteen dollars.

When early vegetables were removed, a second crop was planted.
If possible, the surplus was canned.

Our garden work closed in the fall with an exhibit of the best
vegetables out of each garden, canned vegetables, and any choice
seeds that had been saved. Blue, red, and white ribbons were
pinned on the first, second, and third choice of each kind.

105. "Learning About Beef"
(Reported by Dorothy B. Marx, Louisville, Kentucky)

Charts and graphs were made to show the reasons for cost and
scarcity of meat, also to show the distribution of cattle in North
America. Life on a cattle ranch was approached through pictures,
and oral discussions were given. Written descriptions soon fol-
lowed. Blackboard sketching and modeling in the sand table were
used to bring out the surface features; animals and buildings were
made out of plasticine; people of clothes-pins. Shipping and
marketing of cattle were studied, especially the packing house. A
trip was made by the teacher and a group of children to a provision
company. Names of the meat procured from different parts of the
animal were studied, and also the uses of cattle products. The
class divided itself into groups ; each group took a special topic on
which to give an oral report and to bring out the most important
points in this industry.

106. "A Coffee Plantation"
(Reported from the Marr Training School, Detroit, Michigan)
The children decided upon working out a Sao Paulo coffee
plantation. The room was divided into two groups. They wished

MATERIALS FOR GRADES IV, V, AND VI 63

the girls in one group and the boys in a second, because the boys
were to make use of their manual training. The mill was made from
a large box, a roof put on, and papered by the boys; they also
made the cement (white paper pasted on a wide board) drying
floor, the machinery (worked out from pictures from the Art
Museum), the plantation railroad, etc. Each boy submitted print-
ing, from which selections were made. Such signs as "Sao Paulo
Plantation," "Private," "Dangerous," were printed. The girls
made the sacks for the coffee; collected green, roasted and dry
coffee, and filled the sacks. They carried the process through from
the picking of the berry to the shipment to the United States.

107. ' ' Making Old-Fashioncd Hominy ' '

(Reported by Hose Baumgarten, Bockford, Illinois)

In discussions of pioneer life, methods of preparing food then
and now were contrasted. In order to appreciate these contrasts,
the class decided to make some hominy just as the pioneer women
did. The work, as done by the class, consisted of these steps:
making of old fashioned hopper, making of lye, soaking and wash-
ing corn, cooking it. When the hominy was prepared, the children
enjoyed eating it.

108. "A Fifth-Grade Pupil's Account of Tanning Leather"

(Written by Tom Ewing, Williams Street School, Atlanta, Georgia)

"We have been studying leather and found it very interesting,
so we decided to tan a piece of it. One of the girls in our class
brought us a piece of skin with the hair on it. We put it in a strong
solution of lime water to make the hair come off easily. Then we
took it out and scraped it. The hair came off easily and we washed
it. Then we sent to the drugstore and got three boxes of red oak
bark. We put an ounce of red oak bark to one gallon of warm
water, and after we had mixed the red oak bark well in the water
and it had cooled, we put the skin in and left it for three days.
Then we put in more red oak bark to make the solution stronger.
Three days later, we put in half an ounce of red oak bark and one-
third of an ounce of tannic acid that a boy in our class brought us.

64 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

We let it stay in it for about a week and then put it on a board and
stretched it. Then we put it up to dry. After it has dried, we will
grease it to make it soft."

109. "A Fifth-Grade Pupil's Account of Making Cheese"

(Written by Helen Witherspoon, Peoples State School,

Atlanta, Georgia)

"We made some cheese at school about a month ago. The reason
we made it was that we were studying about cheese and butter. So
we decided we would try and make some cheese.

' ' The first thing we had to do was to get a coffee can. One of the
children got the can and melted the bottom off, so it would not
have any top nor bottom. Five other children brought sweet milk.
With all the milk put together we had a gallon. Another child
brought a saucer. Another brought a crockery bowl. Then we
were ready to make cheese. First, we heated the gallon of milk just
a little, then we dissolved four junket tablets in a little cold water,
and put it into the milk, which was in the crockery bowl, and let it
stand until the next day. The next day the milk had been changed
into curds and whey. We strained the whey out, raked the curds,
and added a teaspoonf ul of salt. We lined the can with white cheese
cloth, which had been greased, and set it in a plate. Our curds were
packed in the can and covered with a saucer. At the end of the
second day, we had a half a can of cheese. This was all our gallon
of milk made. We decided to eat it. Some of the girls brought
crackers, our teacher made sandwiches, and we had enough for
everybody in the class.

"We really enjoyed making our cheese more than eating it. We
were proud of it, too, and had its picture taken."

110. "Making Bricks"

(Reported by Latrelle Meadors, Atlanta, Georgia)

The children did all the planning themselves. One of the boys
volunteered to bring the clay, another the mall to beat the clay with,
and a box to prepare it in. Another child had a mold. Two of the
boys placed the clay in a box and beat it until it was in powder form,

MATEBIAL8 FOB GBADE8 IV, V, AND VI 65

then they mixed a bucket of water with it and stirred the mixture
well. Then they placed the clay in a mold, pressed it as hard as
they could and put it in the sun to dry. In two days' time, they had
a sun-dried brick like those of antiquity.

111. "A Booklet About Cotton' '

(Reported by M. McBroom, Detroit Teachers College)

Letters were written to friends in the south asking for samples
of cotton bolls, for descriptions of fields, etc., letters to New Orleans
Cotton Exchange asking shipping rates on a bale of cotton to New
York, letters to mills in the east and south as to the wages paid in
the mills, letters to the Weather Bureau in southern parts, asking
for rainfall reports. Charts were made containing samples of
articles made from cotton and showing the prices as compared with
a few years ago. Members were delegates to go to the natural
science department to get material on the work of the boll weevil.
In arithmetic classes graphs were made showing the comparative
production in the last few years. A book containing charts, letters,
and reports was made to send to two members of the class who had
been absent during the study.

112. "Life in a Lumber Camp"

(Reported by Tippa Coleman, Louisville Normal School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

In connection with the study of lumbering the class asked to be
permitted to go to the woods for a day and live the life of the
lumbermen. They divided themselves into groups, with a chairman
for each group. Their object was to plan the day, with the activities
as nearly as possible like those of a lumber-camp. One group
planned the lunch, one the games to be played, and one worked on
the things that should be observed while they were in the woods.
Much reading was done while planning the trip. Charts were made
showing the products from trees, forest scenes, forest animals, and
lumber camps. The day of the trip happened to come during fire-
prevention week; a camp-fire was built for cooking the lunch, and
the children observed how easily it could spread and the difficulty

66 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

of putting it out. The children were asked to give a demonstration
lesson that would show what they had learned. They wrote and
gave a one-act play showing the life in a lumber camp.

113. ' ' A Book on Lumbering ' '

(Reported by Charlotte J. Flood, Eagle School, Cleveland, Ohio)

The class is divided into groups and given different aspects of
lumbering. The library is used to get the reading matter, supple-
mentary to geography textbook.

Every group is assigned a day on which it is to be prepared.
The group having Topic 1 bring books from which they read ex-
tracts relating to their topic or they tell stories of it and, if possible,
bring illustrations. The others are given time to discuss, ask ques-
tions or contribute pictures. That group then prepares a spelling
lesson with words from its material. This lesson is given the next
day. Then the group prepares to write the story. Also, a short
general statement is chosen for a writing lesson.

Next day, the second group bring materials on Topic 2 and
follow the procedure of Group 1. So each group continues.

When all stories are well written, and all illustrations well
mounted, they are bound as chapters of a book. In drawing time,
title pages are made, letters cut and pasted, illustrations mounted,
and chapters and book bound.

Every day, an original problem is made for the arithmetic class.
These problems include the abstract difficulties of the grade, and
are made concerning cutting, shipping, measuring, etc.

When completed the "bound volume* ' is placed on the table for
reference.

114. "Reports of Home and School Gardens"

(Reported by Mary 'Sullivan and Dorothy Marx, Louisville
Normal School, Louisville, Kentucky)

The study grew out of a request for a report of the gardens cul-
tivated by the children during the spring and summer months.
Points to be considered in this report were suggested by the pupils
and listed on the board. To determine the size of the school garden

MATEBIALS FOB QBADE8 IV, V, AND VI 67

the class divided itself into groups; each group was responsible
for the measurement of a part of the garden. After the measure-
ments were gotten, the irregularity of the plot called for much
discussion as to how to get the area. At the suggestion of a pupil
a diagram of the garden was drawn to scale, and the pupils worked
out how to get the areas of the triangles and rectangles included in
this diagram. After the report of the school garden was completed,
pupils found the area, cost of plants or seeds, and value of crops
in home gardens. Graphs were made showing comparative sizes of
the gardens, and expenditures and returns. A discussion of the
reasons for the failures of some of the gardens led to a considera-
tion of rainfall and temperature. In connection with this study a
trip was taken to the Weather Bureau. Arithmetic problems of
various kinds grew out of the work. A form of report was recom-
mended by the class that was afterwards adopted by the other
schools of the city in reporting the results of home and school
gardens.

115. "A Home Garden Fair"

(Reported from the Bancroft School, Kansas City, Missouri)

The children were prevented from having a school garden this
year by lack of suitable ground. The seed was therefore distributed
in the spring, and the children made their own gardens at home.
This fall they had a Home Garden Show in the gymnasium. They
brought the kindergarten tables to the room, decorated them with
crepe paper, choosing each his own color scheme. There were flower
tables and fruit tables. The most artistic table and the table offering
the greatest variety of products grown by one person were given
blue ribbons. The children made written reports to the principal,
covering the amount actually raised on each garden, the sum it
would have cost if bought at the store, and the amount, if any,
sold, and the saving to the family from use of the garden products.
The reports indicated a 'saving to the family of from two to thirty
dollars, and cash sales from one to seventeen dollars. Those chil-
dren who had no gardens wrote- on the value of a garden to a home.
The reports furnished a basis for many arithmetic problems.

68 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

116. "Paper Making"

(Reported by Elizabeth McEvoy, Rockford, Illinois)
The class made a study of paper making and printing, beginning
with the earliest history. After securing as much material as possi-
ble, suitable for the grade, a composition was neatly written on
uniform paper.

The engine room in the building was made into a work shop
where paper could be made more conveniently and with less annoy-
ance to the other classes. Each member of the class made two pieces
of paper, one to be taken home and one which was to be mounted.
The latter, together with the composition, was bound into a book
with title in cut letters as a design for the cover. Some volunteered
to give their extra pieces to be used as place cards for the Eighth-
Grade Graduation Banquet. The members of the eighth grade
printed them suitably for the occasion.

The lower classes were allowed to watch the process of paper
making.

117. "A Museum of Home Manufacture"

(Reported by Mrs. Beulah Johnson, Rockford, Illinois)

The class had studied the different occupations of Illinois, and
was interested to learn that manufacturing was carried on so ex-
tensively. Choosing Rockford as their type city, the children cut
out "ads" of various concerns. The story of Illinois was written,
the pages illustrated with pictures cut out, and a large chart was
entirely covered with pictures, pieces of steel, tiny knit stockings,
miniature bags of flour, knives, watches, doll chairs, etc., represent-
ing all sorts of articles manufactured in Rockford.

118. "A Zone Exhibit"

(Reported by A. L. Benson, Bennett School, Boston, Massachusetts)

In the early part of the geography course for the fifth grade,
a short time is given for the consideration of zones. Types of life
in these various belts appealed so strongly to the class that it was
decided to portray them in such a way that a direct comparison
could really be made by eye.

MATERIALS FOB GBADE8 IV, V, AND VI 69

The frigid zones were easily mastered with cotton-batting artifi-
cial snow, dogs, fur dressed dolls, mirrors, toys in the shape of polar
bears and walruses.

The torrid zone brought us wet moss for our jungle and sand
for a desert. We had black dolls and dark brown dolls engaged in
several activities. A strong desire to have the activities of this
region shown brought us a toy train with the cars belted with
broken rubber erasers. An orange, banana, lemon, etc., illustrated
the typical fruits.

For the temperate zone we had a typical village with house,
animals, people, and so forth.

119. "A Sand Table Map"

(Reported by Jennie Williams, Kansas State Normal,

Emporia, Kansas)

A fifth-grade class of children studying Europe was taking up
the study of Holland. They asked if they could not represent the
country in a sand pan, size six feet by four and a half feet. They
planned that the class be divided into three equal groups. Two
groups should see which could make the best representation, and the
third group was to study in order to be capable of judging which
group had the best work. The pan was divided into two sections.
Each group elected a captain and proceeded to work. It was sur-
prising the amount of good work that was done in a week's time.
They volunteered to do much outside work.

The same class made a sand pan representation of Switzerland,
but they planned to do this differently. One group made the whole
map, but it was divided into smaller groups. One took the surface
features, another the rivers and lakes, another the cities and several
groups took different industries.

120. ' ' A Floor Map of Africa ' '
(Reported from a Summer School at Kansas City, Missouri)

The class made a large map on the floor covering a space about
12 feet across. They modelled the mountains on this map, strewed
sand for the desert, constructed palm-trees of paper, painted and

70 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

cut out a camel train crossing the desert, made pyramids of clay,
and placed them properly, made jungles for the wild beasts, and
placed the beasts in them, represented every crop grown, in its
proper place, painted red roofs for the cities, and put them where
they belonged. The animals and trees, etc., were too large for the
map, of course, but a scale was observed in making the individual
things. The elephant, for instance, was larger than the horse or the
lion. The class visited the 'Zoo' several times during the progress
of the work.

121. "A Travel Club"

(Reported from Youngstown, Ohio)

The class formed an imaginary travel club. With their home
town as a starting point they journeyed to Ellis Island where they
studied the various nationalities. On suggestion of the class they
divided themselves into groups, each group representing a country
of Europe. Guides were appointed to supply the class with time-
tables, maps, travel books and descriptions of routes that were
secured from steamship lines. The route voted on by the majority
was selected and preparations made for the trip. The groups then
set out for the various countries assigned them.

One group journed to Italy. They made a study of the physical
conditions, social and industrial life. A model Italian farm was
built in the schoolroom. Small dolls dressed in the native cos-
tume of the country represented the family. The house, furniture,
and farm implements were constructed by the group.

Other countries were similarly studied.

Bulletins on Immigration Laws were secured from the U. S.
Department of Labor. An outline of the laws was placed on the
board and discussed by the entire class.

The conditions of the foreigner in America were taken up. An
attempt was made to list the nationalities represented in the differ-
ent lines of work, such as, Portuguese, textile; Spaniards, cigar
manufacture; Russians, mining, iron and steel; Magyars, sugar
refining plants; Italians, clothing.

Conditions of work in factories, mills, etc., were studied and
ways of improving those conditions were discussed.

MATERIALS FOB BABES IV, V, AND VI 71

122. "A Norway Book"

(Reported by Jennie Williams, State Normal School,

Emporia, Kansas)

After the children had finished their study of Norway, they
asked if they might write a book. The teacher, recognizing this
as an excellent means for review, consented.

The class proceeded with their plans. It resulted in each child
contributing a chapter to the book. Supervised study followed.
When the chapters were written, each was read to the class. Any
points not clear were revised. As the work progressed, some one
suggested making a book cover in the industrial arts class. The
one having the best would be selected. The one chosen had a picture
of North Cape and the midnight sun painted in black on white
paper. This was posted on a gray cover, edged with a black line
and the word Norway for the title printed across the upper half
above the picture.

The contents of the book were as follows:

Introduction: A poem, "The Building of the Long Serpent" (pic-
ture of a viking ship).

Chapter I. Christiania (picture of the city).

Chapter II. Bergen (picture of the city).

Chapter III. Trondhjem (picture of the city and of a cathedral).

Chapter IV. Tromso (illustrated).

Chapter V. The Food of the Norwegians.

Chapter VI. Lumbering in Norway.

Chapter VII. Sardine and Herring Fishing (picture of a fisn

market).
Chapter VIII. Farm Life in Norway (picture of drying hay).
Chapter IX. Bailroads of Norway.
Chapter X. Manufactures.
Chapter XI. The Children of Norway.
Chapter XII. The Sports of Norway.
Chapter XIII. The Midnight Sun (three pictures, "The Fiery Ball

of the Midnight Sun," "Landing Stage at the

North Cape," and the "Steam Yacht at North

Capo").

Chapter XTV. Labels found on Packages: "Halden's Electric

Matches," "Giraffe Safety Matches," "Safety
Matches packed in Norway for Fred Harvey,"
"Norway Smoked Sardines," "Norwegian Sar-
dines. ' '

72 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

123. "A 'See-the-United-States-First' Exhibit"

(Reported by Bess M. Hayden and Zoe A. Thralls, State Manual

Training Normal, Pittsburg, Kansas)

Each child selected an industry for which he was to work up a
chart, using pictures, clippings, drawings, and also write an account.
The charts were about 24 by 36 inches. After finishing one chart,
several of the children asked of the class permission to make
another, and a number made as many as three charts. They did
the same with the chief cities of the United States. They wrote to
chambers of commerce, industrial concerns, and railroads for ma-
terial, and secured a large amount of valuable and unusual
material.

They borrowed the kindergarten's sand table and made a large
sand map of the United States. For the map they made tiny oil
derricks, ships, etc., to illustrate the industries. On a table they
J aid out the books and magazines which they had used for references.
They also mounted a number of pictures of historical and scenic
interest.

Then they asked the printing class to make them some tickets
which they distributed. The afternoon of the tour the class acted
as guides and explained to their interested guests, the charts and
exhibits.

124. "An Oriental Bazaar"

(Reported from the Marr Training School, Detroit, Michigan)

Collections of pictures, fabrics, coins, and articles of Asiatic
countries were made. Committees were chosen to solicit the co-
operation of other departments. The Art Department produced
some splendid posters; the Physical Education Department helped
with the Japanese dance ; the Music Department taught the class
Japanese and Chinese descriptive songs. A second-grade class
gave an oriental dance. A visit to the Art Museum was made by
the whole class.

Some of the boys and girls dressed dolls to show the native
costumes; others made product maps; others collected pictures.
A large exhibit from the Art Museum helped swell the collection.

MATERIALS FOR GRADES IV, V, AND VI 73

Invitations were written by the children, inviting the parents to
attend on "Open Day" the culmination of the project, which was
the work of several months. The arrangement of the program was
in the hands of the children and was thoroughly enjoyed.

125. "A History of Bridgewater"

(Reported by Jane Bennett, State Normal School, Bridgewater,

Massachusetts)

Class discussed freely and decided what subjects should be in-
cluded in this history. Groups of pupils visited the library to con-
sult old records. Research was made for local Indian names. Maps
were made and various industries visited by groups of pupils.
After the class had contributed all it could, short chapters were
written. The illustrations were in charge of the drawing teacher.
Observations and drawings of old colonial houses and a colonial
church were made. Old doorways and windows were drawn. Pupils
made collections of pictures of colonial days. The drawings and
language papers were bound with attractive covers under the title
"History of Bridgewater." Under the direction of the manual
training supervisor, groups of pupils made models to illustrate
colonial kitchen, well sweep, the stocks, etc. The boys did the
wood work ; the girls dressed the colonial dolls. These models are
to be used as permanent illustrative material for the school.

126. "A Columbus Day Program"
(Reported by Floy Campbell, Kansas City, Missouri)

The children were asked: "Did Columbus really discover
America? If not, who did? Why do we honor Columbus rather
than any other man? How shall we, as a room, show our respect?"

The suggestion was made that his name be lettered on the board,
with the date of his birth, his death, and the date of his discovery
of America, the whole surrounded by a border of oak leaves. That
on the Day itself every child in the room come prepared to give
a poem, a song, or a story about Columbus, or to show and explain
a picture of him. To prevent duplication, and make things go
smoothly, a committee was appointed, to which each child reported

74 THE TWENTIETH YBABBOOK

his intended contribution; the committee arranged the program,
and warned the child if his theme was already taken, or if his con-
tribution took too much time.

Another class dramatized the story of the landing of Columbus,
making the flag, costumes, etc., out of paper and old clothes rescued
from attics.

The discussion of our reason for honoring Columbus was most
valuable, and gave meaning to the entire program. The painting
of brilliant oak leaves from nature was a preliminary step to the
design on the blackboard, which was patterned after a very fine
"Roll of Honor' ' in bronze.

127. "A Columbus Play"

(Reported by Ada M. Tea, Joliet, Illinois)

After talking the matter over, we decided that we should like to
celebrate Columbus Day by writing a play, dramatizing it, and
inviting our parents and friends to see it.

A knowledge of the story of Columbus' life was found to be
necessary. To gain this information, books were consulted, stories
told, pictures studied, and questions asked.

The composition of the play, invitations, and letters required
many language and writing lessons. As each part of the play was
finished and practiced, articles that were needed to make the play
effective were listed. These were mostly made by the children ; a
few were borrowed, or brought from home. For instance, a cap
worn by the boy Columbus came from Italy; Indian beads, re-
quested by letter, were made from straws and colored papers, by
the beginners.

The play was written in six parts :

Scene I. Columbus as a Boy.

Scene II. Failure to Get Help.

Scene III. At the Convent of La Rabida.

Scene IV. Before Queen Isabella.

Scene V. The Voyage.

Scene VI. The Discovery of the New World.

As a finale a child called "The Spirit of America" told of the
wonderful resources and advantages of this new country.

MATBBIALS FOB OB AD E 8 IV, V, AND VI 75

128. "An Historical Play"

(Reported by Tippa Coleman, Louisville Normal School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

The desire to write a play was expressed by the children in
this class after the reading of several mediaeval stories as a back-
ground for American History. The children suggested contrasting
the life of the middle ages with the life of to-day. Pictures were
studied, castles worked on the sand table and blackboard; stories
were read ; a Health Crusade was carried on, with the knighting of
each child who kept the health rules ; and finally a plot was sub-
mitted by each child. Prom these, the class chose the one they
deemed the best. Committees were formed to be responsible for
(1) the costumes, (2) the stage properties, and (3) the stage man-
agement. The play was written on the board during the English
periods with one child as the scribe. Each child made an attractive
book cover for his play during the art periods, made his costume
during the industrial periods and learned the music used in one
of the scenes during the music periods. A production of
the drama — "The Goose-girl and the Knight" — was given the last
week of school as an assembly program.

129. "Making Bird Sticks"

(Reported by Heber M. Cubberley, Bartlett School,

Lowell, Massachusetts)

The children in this grade were growing bulbs, and at the same
time a study was being made of the winter birds. The blossoming
bulbs, being rather top-heavy, needed support badly, and in dis-
cussing how to furnish that support it was brought out that orna-
mental sticks were sometimes used. It was suggested that we might
make sticks with bird forms perched upon them. The teacher pro-
vided each child with the outlines of the winter birds. These out-
lines were traced on boards of white pine a quarter of an inch thick,
and a strip was marked out one-half inch wide and about fifteen
inches long extending from the bird's feet. The children were
taught the use of a coping saw, and then they proceeded to saw out
the bird stick, sawing just outside of the marked outline. With a

76 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

knife and sandpaper the edges were rounded and smoothed. The
birds were then colored naturally with wax crayons. In every case
the name of the bird was taught to the child.

These sticks were used to support the bulb blossoms. A piece of
raffia was used to attach the stem to the supporting bird stick.

130. "ASpeakwellClub"

(Reported by Agnes Scanlin, Buffalo, New York)

The purpose of the club was to keep up a lively interest in the
use of correct English. This club keeps its thoughts on not more
than two or three common errors at one time. When these are con-
quered, other new ones are attacked. Some excellent rules were
devised by the club as follows :

1. No child shall use any incorrect form which is listed on
the blackboard for that week.

2. Any member noticing another member using one of the in-
correct forms shall write down on a paper the name of the trans-
gressor and his offense.

3. Errors shall be reported to the class once a week, during a
language period.

4. Any member reported three times for the same error shall
be placed on the black list, which is kept somewhere on the black-
board.

. 5. Members may get themselves off this list by being free from
complaint the following week.

131. "Dramatizing King Arthur Stories' '

(Reported by Elizabeth B. Small, Buffalo State Normal School,

Buffalo, New York)

The dramatization, a pantomime, "How Arthur Was Chosen
King," given on the school campus as a part of the May Day exer-
cises, was the culmination of many simple dramatizations of the
daily reading lessons. It was out of these lessons there grew the
desire and decision to make a play from one of the King Arthur
Stories.

MATERIALS FOB GBADE8 IF, V, AND VI 77

The large sections into which the story naturally fell were
considered acts ; and the points that made the acts were organized
as: first, the introduction, explaining the situation; second, the
sequence of events leading into, third, the problem to be settled.
The dialogue was lifted bodily from the text and indirect discourse
changed to direct discourse. The working up of the speeches
afforded opportunity for applying the requisite standards of the
paragraph which the grade had already been taught Mary Mac-
Leod's adaptation of the Malory stories was used as the basis for
the play.

132. "A Class Book"

(Reported by Ella Wilson, Michigan State Normal Colleges,

Ypsilanti, Michigan)

This booklet was made by the fifth and presented to the seventh
grade. It contained acrostics based on each child's initials, expan-
sions of nursery rhyme themes, short nature poems and stories. The
material for the booklet was selected by a grade committee after
the standards for criticism had been worked out by the grade. The
booklet was made, a presentation speech was composed, and the
booklet was delivered to the grade.

133. "A Literary Society"

Organization by the children was according to parliamentary
procedure, and there was a business meeting each day preceding the
program. The president acted as chairman; the secretary kept
records; sergeants-at-arms were responsible for order, etc. The
programs consisted of debates, original stories and poems, dram-
atizations written and prepared by children, first-aid demonstra-
tions, etc

134. "The Reading Period as a Contest"

The class was divided into rival groups. Each group chose a
leader, prepared material and presented it to the other groups.
The class as a whole worked out standards for judging material
presented. Score cards were kept and scores gathered at close of

78 TEE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

each class period. The class, after sufficient training in self-control,
co-operation, self direction and judgment of their own work, car-
ried on their contest without the teacher's help.

135. "A Hawaiian Entertainment' '
(Reported by Jennie Williams, State Normal, Emporia, Kansas)

Purpose : To represent life in Hawaii in pantomime with music
and dancing for the entertainment of the intermediate grades in
General Assembly.

Books, pictures, pamphlets and maps were placed on tables in
the library. The children were told that this material about the
Hawaiian Islands was placed there for them to read, that they
might select anything of interest to discuss at the next recitation.
An hour was thus employed. In the discussion the next day the
girls asked if they might represent the native girls dancing for a
program number. A boy said he could learn to play a Hawaiian
piece on his mandolin, accompaning a Victrola. Some other chil-
dren wished a part, but did not know what they could represent.
The teacher said that probably they hadn't read enough to be able
to decide. All plunged into reading to perfect their plans for a
program. There were eight girls and eight boys. Their plans grew
and materialized. One girl brought in a dress she had made of wild
grass, another one made of raffia. These served as patterns for the
other girls. They made mats of raffia and corn husks, and dishes
for squashes to substitute for those of gourds and calabashes. The
gymnastic teacher helped with the dancing. Some boys suggested
having sugar and pineapple plantation owners; others, Chinese
and Japanese as laborers. They could carry sorghum stalks and
canned pineapples. One wished to be a surf-board rider. This
could represent a scene described by someone. This description was
written by all in the class under the title ' ' A Trip to Hawaii. " The
best was selected to be read.

In the final program "A Trip to Hawaii" was read first. The
curtain was drawn aside and showed the girls seated in a semi-
circle eating poi, later changing to make leis. Back of them stood
the surf -board rider holding his board, the plantation owners and

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 79

the Chinese at work. Jack sat at one side playing his mandolin.
He had no nkelele. As the last strains were played, the boys and
girls moved to one side to clear the stage for the five dancing
girls. The curtain was drawn at the close of the dance.

136. "Story-Telling"

(Reported from the State Normal Training School,

Westfield, Massachusetts)

This project takes for granted the usual story-telling in the
classroom by individual pupils, and provides in addition for:

(1) The choice by the children of the stories most suitable for
the audiences mentioned below.

(2) The arranging by a committee for the interchange of
class visits and the re-telling of stories for the entertain-
ment of the visitors.

(3) The arranging by the committee for telling stories in the
Training School assembly hall and at the Normal School.

(4) The arranging for groups of story-tellers to visit " shut-
ins,' ' the Children's Home, The Home for Aged People,
and the State Sanatorium.

These activities all involve the offering of services, either by
personal interview or by letter, the planning of the different pro-
grams, the arranging when necessary for transportation, and the
acquiring by the story-tellers of the niceties of conduct that such
occasions demand.

137. "An Operetta"

(Reported by Mrs. Maude Meyer, Decatur, Illinois)

The fifth-grade class of the Lincoln School at Decatur wrote an
operetta entitled "Fairy Flowers' ' and gave it at an evening enter-
tainment in connection with the annual money making event of
the Mothers' Club.

All the planning and execution of suggestions adopted, was
carried on by the pupils under the guidance of the teacher. Oral
and written English, music, art, and physical education were
motivated for a period of four weeks.

As a rounded finished product and to preserve the work in
some permanent form, a booklet was made for the supervisor of

80 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

elementary grades. The book contains one or more papers from
each child and includes copies of program, invitations, posters, stage
arrangement carrying out color scheme, design of costumes, descrip-
tion of dances, songs used, letters of thanks to mothers who made
the costumes or who played for their practices or who gave other
general assistance on the night of the performance.

138. "A Riddle Book Made for an Absent Member 1 '

(Reported by Edith M. Robbins, State Normal, Westfield,

Massachusetts)

When Victor broke his leg, the class wished to show their sym-
pathy by making something for him. They discussed whether it
should be a joke book, a scrap book, or a riddle book. They decided
upon a riddle book. They decided to set aside a time for making it
They brought in a large collection of riddles and through class dis-
cussion selected those that appealed to them as being the most
enjoyable and the cleverest. The next part of the project was the
making of the book. Each child copied a riddle and, realizing that
Victor should have a chance to guess, wrote the answer on the back
of the sheet. Then the class selected a committee to plan and make
the cover and another committee to carry the book to Victor with
a note, the outcome of community composition, expressing greetings
and good will. Should occasion arise for repeating this project,
there will be included in the book a preface, the result of community
composition, stating what the children have been able to find out
about the origin of riddles and the nature of the earlier ones.

139. "Learning Thrift by Keeping Accounts' *

(Reported by Bertha A. Morse, Rockford, Illinois)

Inexpensive bookkeeping sets, especially prepared for each
study, were purchased to keep daily accounts of all money received
(allowances, earnings, etc.) and spent, as well as a form to account
for ways in which the money was disposed of or saved. A scale
for the class as a whole was arranged to show weekly percents spent
on luxuries as compared with entire expenditures; besides each
pupil kept his individual percent of progress. Gradually, pupils

MATERIALS FOE GBADES IV, V, AND VI gl

handled their own accounts with interest and confidence in their
own accuracy, as was, of course, necessary to balance their records
each week.

140. "A Pageant: 'To Arms for Liberty' "

(Reported by Marguerite F. Maloney, Dearborn School,

Boston, Massachusetts)

In our oral English class we were reading Miss Catherine
B rice's fine patriotic pageant, "To Arms for Liberty." Some of
the children asked if we could not play it. We started to do this
for our own amusement, and we found that it grew and grew. It
entered into our work in history, geography, English, music, draw-
ing and manual training.

Our music was the national anthem of each country with which
the pageant was making us acquainted. Our history and geography
were the stories of their people — the fears, joys, sorrows, customs,
and everything we could find that made us better acquainted with
them and their problems.

The hearts of the children were in this enterprise to such an
extent that when they gave the entertainment as a whole, they
interested many people outside of our school in the attainment.
We gave it for our neighbors and earned money enough to have a
wonderful Christmas party which we shared with them again. We
gave it for a social centre where we were strangers. Later we
gave it for teachers and supervisors who were surprised that such
a serious message could be given in such a simple way by children.

141. "Building and Furnishing a Cardboard House"

(Reported by Charlotte J. Flood, Eagle School, Cleveland, Ohio)

This fifth-grade class was divided into groups and to each group
was assigned a certain part of the work of building and furnishing
a house of cardboard and paper. The house had three rooms on
the ground floor and three rooms and a bath on the second floor.
The furniture was stained to resemble oak, mahogany and pine
and was shellacked to give it stiffness. The exterior was painted

g2 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

gray brown with dark brown trimmings, a green roof and red
chimney.

The measurements for the building and its furnishings were
worked out and the paper cutting was done during the drawing
periods. Original arithmetic problems were submitted by each
group daily having to do with measuring, drawing to scale, figuring
costs of furniture, papering, etc.

When completed, the house was donated to a summer school play
ground.

142. ''Staging Toy Scenes"

(Reported by Anne H. Stewart, Cleveland, Ohio)

One project to be worked out in thin wood was a stage group
representing some phase of the colonial period which the children
were studying. Each pupil selected his own subject and made his
designs for it. He found for himself helpful pictures from which
he made the drawings needed to tell his story. He made his draw-
ings in right proportion, cut them out of paper, transferred them
to the wood and sawed them out. He finished and assembled the
parts. He then painted the wood in a color scheme which had been
tried out on the paper template. Each child made a base of thicker
wood on which to mount his group. This base or stage was pierced
with many holes. A peg was placed in the base of each unit, thus
affording choice and variety of arrangement.

Some of these groups showed "Dutch Life," "The Landing of
the Pilgrims," "The Return of the Mayflower," "Paul Revere 's
Ride," etc. When all were finished, the children constructed a
large stage by placing together many small ones. Units were taken
from the small stages; enough trees were collected for a forest;
there were animals in the woods, dancing warriors and Indians on
the hunt and in the camp.

In another fifth-grade room a different subject was chosen. The
children had written original fables and each child illustrated his
own in the working out of similar stages. The problem makes vital
appeal to the children.

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 83

143. "Making a Toy Circus for the First-Grade Class' '

(Reported by Marguerite Reasor, Mary D. Hill School,

Louisville, Kentucky)
The class listed articles to be found in every good circus. Each
boy decided what he wished to make and then worked out a way
to saw the wood most economically. Some boys chose to work alone.
Others, working out individual problems, grouped themselves as
they chose, some members of the group sawing, others sand-
papering, etc. One group volunteered to make all animals
"stand," using different methods for different toys. Several boys
made articles for which patterns were not obtainable. A committee
of four, acting as " finishers,' ' inspected the completed toys and
passed them on to an art class to paint. Several boys well ad-
vanced in woodwork worked out their own plans and made the
tent of unbleached muslin. Others brought rings and sawdust and
arranged an entire circus. In their English work, the 5-B class
wrote about the animals, making their stories simple enough for
first-grade children to read.

144. ' ' A Picture Museum ' *

(Reported by Francis D. Young, Berkeley, California)

Through the interest aroused by a talk given by the teacher the
class decided to try to make a worth-while collection of pictures with
facts about each picture. This grew into ideas of contests on the
part of individuals of the class to see who could learn the most
about the pictures. Reprints of forty different pictures were pur-
chased at a cost of one or two cents each. The children, with the
help of the teacher, took up the study of five different artists with
the important pictures painted by each. They classified the pic-
tures as follows: portraits, animals, landscape, history, sacred,
decorative, still life. The children then developed and wrote stories
for booklets. The class developed some of the outlines by means
of a socialized recitation. A stereoptican lecture on pictures was
given by the class for other classes in the building. Children
selected by these classmates contributed interesting facts about their
favorite pictures. The children wrote to Milton Bradley Company

84 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

for pictures and spent some fourteen dollars for copies to place
in their booklets. The subject matter covered was that of oral
language, picture stories, discussions, descriptions, biographies,
silent reading, use of library, penmanship. Pride was stimulated to
make the work in the booklets look neat and legibly written.

145. "Writing Music for a Play"

(Reported by Catharine E. Strouse, State Normal School,

Emporia, Kansas)

A class in English were dramatizing "The Maid of Orleans."
The text gave the words of a song supposed to occur at intervals,
but no tune. The class asked the English teacher if they might
request the music teacher to find a suitable tune so they could sing
it. The music teacher suggested that it might be more desirable to
make a tune than to find one ready made. The class took the sug-
gestion eagerly, and they studied diligently the successive steps
involved in matching music with words as these steps were pro-
posed by the teacher. They wrote the music and when the play
was given in public, the song was used as made by class.

146. "Music Naming Contest"

(Reported by Effie E. Harmon, South Bend, Indiana)

Fifty compositions have been selected for the pupils to study in
order to be able to recognize them whenever played or sung. After
three months' study, the contest is held. Twenty of the selections
are played or sung. The pupils try to write the name of each com-
position and its composer. The contest is an annual affair, and ten
selections are added each year to the list of the previous year.

147. ' ' Class Self Government ' '

(Reported by Miss Tippa Coleman, Louisville Normal School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

In a fifth-grade civics class there had been a discussion as to
why certain rules of conduct were necessary when people live
together in groups. "How can we improve our deportment, as a

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 86

class, this termt" was the question left with the children. The
following day the class voted to adopt the suggestion made of
organizing a club that should take care of the deportment of the
class when the teacher was not present. A president, secretary,
girl and boy governor, and a jury were elected. Definite laws were
formulated and written during the English period. Penalties were
decided upon by the club. Great improvement was noted in the
general deportment of the class during recitation periods as well
as times when the teacher was not in the room.

148. "A Jury of Fifth-Grade Pupils"
(Reported by Marguerite F. Maloney, Boston, Massachusetts)

A new boy entered our schoolroom about the middle of Febru-
ary. From his habits, I judged that he must have come from a
school where the "be good while the teacher is looking" idea is
the custom.

When I had occasion to leave the room, he poked the girl beside
him, annoyed the boy in front of him by looking over his shoulder
and made himself generally disagreeable. The class surprised me
one afternoon by saying that a certain boy was breaking their rules
and deserved punishment.

We gave our attention to the case, heard everyone in the room
who had anything to say, and asked for any defense which could
be offered. Not a child in the room offered a word in behalf of the
offender. Seven children were selected to decide what his pun-
ishment should be, while I waited fearful lest they should decide
to take his case to the highest powers of the school, or to put him
back into the fourth grade. I was immensely relieved to hear the
decision. — " James is to have his seat changed to the fourth row,
first seat, where he can be under the eye of everyone in the room.
If at the end of the month he has proved he can be trusted, he may
return to his own seat again. We were easy with him because he is
new in our room."

The solemnity and firmness with which this was all carried out
proved beyond a doubt the sacredness of self-imposed law.

86 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

C. MATERIALS FOR THE SIXTH GRADE

149. "A Ground Map of the United States"

(Reported by H. H. Ryan, St. Louis, Missouri)

On the floor of a large room or an out-door vacant space con-
struct an outline map of United States, using two tape lines, small
map, and scale. Points on large map are located by their respective
distances from two set points as found by proportion. Have chil-
dren bring in objects and materials to represent the products, and
place them in position on the map. Miniature flour mills, elevators,
packing houses, cotton mills, hardwood forests, etc., can be con-
structed of cardboard.

150. "A Products Contest"

(Reported by H. H. Ryan, St. Louis, Missouri)

Place in position on a ground map cardboard discs to represent
fifty principal products, taking care that each state has some discs :
naturally several will be needed for "cotton," several for "coal,"
etc. Divide the class into two sections, and play some contest game
like racing, jumping, etc., for possession of each disc, the victory
depending upon number of discs, aggregate value of annual crops,
outputs, etc.

151. ' * The Japanese Festival ' '

(Reported by Grace Ellis, Rockford, Illinois)

A play, representing Japanese festivals, was written and staged
by the class. After making a careful study of Japanese home-life,
the children selected the "Dolls Festival" and the "Flag Festival"
as the most enjoyable holidays for boys and girls. Japanese games,
music, and folk-lore connected with these festival occasions fur-
nished the material for a two-act play, "Sunrise." Besides being
an interpretation of happy childhood, the play was written to show
the intense religious feeling and patriotic devotion of the Japanese
people.

MATERIALS FOB GBADES IV, V, AND VI 87

152. "A Trip Over the Lincoln Highway"

(Reported by Catherine Morgan, Teachers College, Detroit,

Michigan)

The class decided that a trip over the Lincoln Highway would
make both an interesting and profitable vacation. They formed into
committees to approximate the necessary time, expense, and places
of interest to be visited. They collected pictures and souvenirs
interesting from the standpoint of history and geography and,
in the best English at their command, gave the account of their
trip to the seventh-grade class.

153. "Making Potato Starch"

(Reported by Louise A. Dawson, Rockford, Illinois)

Having learned that one-fifth of the potato was composed of
starch they wondered why potato starch wasn't used. This led to
inquiries about it. The suggestion was made that we make some
potato starch. The class was divided into working groups, which
learned the various processes, and then began the operation of
them. The potatoes were peeled, grated to a pulp and placed in
cold water. This pulp was washed through a very fine sieve sev-
eral times until only the pure starch remained. The comparative
cost and values of corn starch and potato starch were discussed.
The starch was used in Domestic Science by the girls, and made
into a "potato-starch pudding," which was served to the class.

154. "Discovering the Reasons for a Military Move"
(Reported by Marguerite Reasor, Louisville, Kentucky)

In this sixth-grade class we sought an answer to the question :
"Why, during the recent World War, were the Germans so anxious
to obtain possession of the Po Valley!"

The conclusions reached were that the Po Valley must be excel-
lent in some features, and that a study of Italy would reveal them.
Free discussion determined the following method of procedure :

I. Class selected topics of study necessary, such as location of
Italy, size and population, raw materials, etc

88 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

II. Class divided itself into committee*, children selecting the
topics they preferred studying. Each committee selected its own
chairman, who directed the work of the group.

III. Each group outlined points to consider under its topic,
then discussed sources of material. Beprcsentatives were sent for
supplementary and reference books.

IV. Class study began, children preparing charts, graphs, maps,
tables, statistics, etc., to illustrate certain points. Teacher assisted
individuals and made suggestions only when necessary.

V. Children reported on topics, answering original question. All
reasons were summed up.

155. "A Museum of Nations"

(Reported by Ploy Campbell, Kansas City, Missouri)

In one large school, the space down the middle of the hall was
filled with a line of show cases, and a series of small models of for-
eign lands was made, covering Egypt, Japan, Prance, Italy,
Greece, etc. As these became dusty, or were discovered to be faulty,
they were replaced with improved representations. The following
description of the Hawaiian scene will indicate the general method.

A large hat box was used. One side was removed, and the other
three covered with blue paper on which the mountains, a volcano,
etc., were drawn. Sandpaper represented the beach, and a painted
sea with white breakers met its edges. A group of paper palms
(cocoanut) was fastened to the beach by a touch of sealing wax.
A raffia hut was built on the edge of the beach, with a mat under
the front thatch, to eat on. Clay utensils were made and decorated.
A surf -board and two canoes rode at the edge of the water. Drying
poles with fish nets on them stood near. A brown man stood in
the edge of the surf, fishing. The scale was about half an inch
to a foot. Broad reading, and the consultation of many pictures,
and help from a returned missionary were helpful factors in the
making of this picture.

156. "An Illustrated Diary of a Trip to South America"

(Reported by Sue Bishop, Government School, Quincy,

Massachusetts)

The children and their teacher talked over a "Raymond Whit-
comb Tour Through South America' ' just as if they were actually
to take the"mp. The "Autumn Tour" was selected because of

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI gg

places included and expenses. The tour was planned on the map ac-
cording to dates scheduled by Raymond Whitcomb. Children vol-
unteered to be responsible to act as guide through places visited at
each given date. Each volunteer, together with his two or three
helpers, then withdrew to discuss how to find the interesting points
about which to tell the class on the trip. For example, Santos,

m

Brazil, would call for a study of the Brazilian coffee region. Sim-
ilarly, the industries, resources, or historical facts associated with
each place visited were discussed. Each group wrote and illustrated
its page in the diary.

157. ' * The Mythology Play : * The Greeks Sailing to Troy ' ' f

(Reported by Mary S. Shelley, Victor H. Engelhard School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

After the episode was read, one act and six scenes were decided
upon. Six groups of children were arranged, each group responsi-
ble for the scene assigned it. A chairman was selected and con-
sulted with each of his group. Introductions for the scenes were
written. These were read before the class for approval and the
best were selected. The characters were studied, and the pupiU
chose the child whom they thought best suited a particular part.
All the members took part, either in a leading role or as pages,
heralds, or a member of the army. After selecting the characters,
the time and place were considered. The costumes and customs
of those days required a great deal of search, and the library was
frequented many days while the work was in progress. The manual
training and domestic art periods were used for constructing the
shields, the war weapons, the costumes and head dresses for the
girls. Use of measurements was brought in many times. Various
decorations in gold and silver were done in the art period. In
literature the myths and stories of the Greeks and Trojans were
consulted. In geography the climates, soil, dress, and nature of
the people were reviewed. The sixth grade gave their play as a
program for the Parent-Teachers Association. They worded their
invitations, wrote them, addressed and sent them.

90 TEE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

158. "Folk-lore and Story Representation' '
(Reported by Grace Ellis, Rockford, Illinois)

Polk stories connected with the Siege of Troy were told by
members of the class, then a miniature stage setting representing
the region around Troy was painted on tag board 13 by 27 inches.
Brilliant orange, blue, and purple, the favorite colors of ancient
Greeks, made a gorgeous background for tiny figures of papier
mache that formed the opposing armies. Simple materials, such as
pipe-stem wire, tissue paper, and paste were developed into other
historical characters that aroused interest and aided in visualization.

159. "A Scrapbook of Classical References in Modern Business' '
(Reported by Ruth Craig, Rockford, Illinois)

The class was ready to take up the study of Europe in geogra-
phy, the study of Greek and Roman history, the study of Greek
stories and myths in reading. By lecture, and by study and dis-
cussion of reading work in Gordy's American Beginnings in
Europe, pp. 11-104, we produced an exhaustive list of modern
traces of ancient influence in architecture, other art, sports, etc.
Such a list included styles of pillars on modern local buildings, road
construction of stone, Olympic sports, theatre buildings, etc. At
the same time we studied modern Greece, Italy, and other Balkan
states to compare the ancient and modern. (Tarr and McMurry,
Geography, Book II, p. 334). We followed these countries'
courses through the World War, finally bringing in the study of
the rest of Europe with the history of the invasions and crusades
(Gordy). In the Elson Reader, Book II, we read the stories of
Greek heroes and gods. After nearly four weeks of this we dis-
covered that advertisements had expressed many modern uses of
ancient arts and customs. We then collected advertisements of this
sort, succeeding in finding a different advertisement for nearly
every child. They included Atlas cement, Ajax tires, Athens, the
Home Journal symbol, etc. With these in hand each child hunted
up the story of his hero or god, and told the story to the class.
Then the advertisement was pasted on a large sheet of school paper
on which was the story neatly copied from a corrected paper.

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 91

Below the story was an explanation as to why that god or hero was
used for that 'ad.' We had nearly thirty leaves to bind. A cover
design, made by one lad, was chosen after competition. Another
child bound it with raffia.

The children connected the ancient and modern peoples in this
experiment, making the ancients, real people. They got drill in
speaking and in composition and penmanship. In hunting up
their stories they learned how to use the reference books in the
Public Library. The cover offered an opportunity in design.

160. "To the Rescue''— a Play

(Reported by Edith Stewart)

The motive for the play was furnished by our desire to earn
money for the support of a French orphan ; the theme was supplied
by current events. Uncle Sam's problem of meeting war demands
was solved when his natural resources, one by one, came "to the
rescue." The signing of the armistice, before we were ready to
present the play, furnished a fitting climax. Each child of the class
prepared a suggested part from day to day. A committee of three
— different every day — selected from all the papers the most in-
teresting portions and combined them. Class work included criti-
cism by the children — a study of the natural resources of the United
States, writing of invitations to parents and friends, planning of
simple costumes, printing of tickets with a child's printing outfit,
keeping account of funds from the sale of tickets, writing of news-
paper accounts, and finally, the presentation of the play.

161. "A Diary of Beauty"

(Reported by Ruth Craig, Rockford, Illinois)

Beginning with April Pool's day we kept a five-cent note book
for a "pretty thing a day." The schoolroom was on the second
floor, with an exposure to open country. Often we had watched
clouds and rain effects across the hills and trees. Now we watched
color effects of coming spring. Doing this in the classroom led them
to looking for sounds and smells of spring in their own world out
of school. Some of them began to find beauty in their friends and

92 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

their actions. Each day developed a picture of nature, a little
story of a kind act, or a little talk of a beautiful thought they had.
This took but fifteen minutes a day. I went from seat to seat
correcting and advising. The last day of the month we made our
booklets. I had a supply of heavy paper in six different colors.
We studied color combination and made paper-cutting designs
which we pasted on the cover. After tying the booklets together
with colored raffia, we copied our diary. The booklet was about
four and one half inches by six inches and contained twelve double
leaves. The children thought a good deal of these, because they
were something they could keep, and something worth keeping.

162. "Publication of a Monthly Magazine' 9

The material suitable for a magazine, the number of copies to be
sold, the price per copy, cost of printing, suitable covers, etc., were
discussed and investigated. The group elected an editorial staff
and divided themselves into committees according to their choice
of work. The editor-in-chief acted as chairman of all meetings and
each committee selected its own chairman. Each pupil wrote for
the magazine what he could. This material was judged by the
group before being accepted or rejected. Standards were set up,
and if material did not come up to these standards, its author
worked it over and presented it again. The business managers in-
vestigated various printing concerns and brought reports to the
group before a contract was entered into. Advertising was solicited,
and in some cases this covered the expense of printing. Covers were
made during the drawing period. One hundred copies were sold at
ten cents each. The pupils handled all money, paid all bills, etc
The interest in this activity carried for several months. Each issue
had an entirely new organization. Three issues were published.

163. "Conducting a Real Library"

Upon the information that books might be secured from the
Public Library or brought from home, a library organization con-
sisting of librarian, assistants, secretary and treasurer was worked
out by the children. Committees chosen by the group arranged

HAtEblALB FOB GRADES IV, P, AND Vl 95J

shelves in the room, visited the public library and secured cards,
rules, etc., for the use of children's books. Another committee
brought books from the library. Each pupil was asked as a favor
to keep a record of each book read and his opinion of each book. A
certain period was set aside each day for book reports, dramatiza-
tions, etc, chosen from books in the library. Standards for both
preparing and presenting material were set up here and judg-
ments made by keeping scores. Each pupil measured his speed in
silent reading and kept records of progress.

164. "Writing a Class Creed"

(Reported by Josephine E. Maloney, Milwaukee Normal School,

Milwaukee, Wisconsin)

Different creeds were read to the class by the teacher. The
meaning of a creed was discussed by the class. The teacher asked
the children if they would like to write a class creed of their own.
At first it seemed quite an undertaking, but they thought they
would like to try. The following day each one was to bring a
suggestion that would be helpful in writing the creed. The next
day the suggestions were given, and what the creed ought to stand
for was discussed. It was decided that each member of the class
would write a creed, and then a vote would be taken to decide which
one was best. This one was to be accepted as the ' ' Class Creed. ' '
The following one, written by Dorothy Morgan, was chosen :

A Class Creed

I believe in Class Spirit — the foundation of all motives in
school life.

I believe that success and achievement are only obtained by class
and school unity, co-operation and team-work.

I acknowledge that to be a member of a progressive and worth-
while class, I must attend to myself only — not to others.

I believe that it is the little things of life, done well, that fit us
to accomplish greater things when the opportunity comes.

I believe that each individual of this eighth-grade class should
set a good example, that the boys and girls to come may find it worth
their while to foUow, so they may be good citizens.

When the creed was re-read after the voting, one of the boys
who liked to print volunteered, for his work during free periods,
to print a copy of the creed on a large sheet of paper, to tack up in

94 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

the front of the room. He did such a splendid piece of work, that
when it was finished, the class suggested that it ought to be framed,
so it was taken to the Manual Training room, where with the help
of the Manual Training teacher it was very artistically framed. It
now hangs in the most conspicuous place in our room.

165. "Writing and Performing a Play"

(Reported by Gertrude Brown, State Normal School,

Emporia, Kansas)

The sixth grade read in the Bolenius Sixth Reader the selec-
tion from "New Chronicles of Rebecca,' ' called "The Flag-Raising
at Riverboro." Part of it is in conversation form, and while read-
ing those parts in dialogue fashion in the class, a pupil suggested
the selection could be made into a fine play. With this as a start,
the work began. The story easily divided itself into two acts and
the 6-A class wrote Act I, while Act II was assigned to the 6-B class.
There were no parts for boys, so at the outset the children proposed
a scene by which the boys could be brought into the play. The
play was written, speech by speech ; the class decided which parts
they wanted or often combined parts of several to make a certain
part. Interest was keen throughout the eight days taken for the
writing of the play. Many explaining parts had to be dramatized,
and much original material was added to give parts to all. Long
before it was completed, it was decided to print it in the magazine
of the department, "The Searchlight.' '

The class chose the cast of characters, having an understudy for
each important part, and rehearsals began. These showed that
many changes must be made. It was the children's own play and
interest did not once lag, especially as they were asked to hasten
their work on it and give it at the Lyon County Pair. It formed the
basis for all work in literature and composition for over two weeks.

166. "A Debate"

(Reported by Julia E. Norris, State Normal School,

Dillon, Montana)

In the study of the Greeks the pupils were much interested in
the Trojan War and its leading heroes. They divided, naturally,

MATERIALS FOB GBADES IV, V, AND VI 95

in their opinions on matters pertaining to the two sides in the
struggle. It was decided to hold a series of debates on the question,
"Resolved that Achilles was braver than Hector." This was done,
first in private, and afterwards in public. The final victory lay with
the side supporting the claims of Hector.

We give a sample paper from each side of the debate.

I think that Hector was just as brave as Achilles. Achilles was
immortal, as the Elson Reader said. When Hector took the armor
of Achilles he didn't know the weak spot in it. Achilles got a new
armor from the gods. It was of immortal make. Achilles had horses
from the gods, too. Hector didn't have anyone to help him fight
either but Achilles did. Wouldn't you be afraid if you saw fire on
another man's headf If two men fought and one got killed wouldn't
you call the one who got killed just as brave as the one who lived f
If one man was small and the other large the smaller one would be
brave to fight the larger one.

I think Achilles was the bravest man in the Trojan war. When
Achilles appeared on the scene of battle unarmed, the whole Trojan
army fled in terror. Achilles did not know what fear meant. Achilles
went out to the battle in the Trojan war without any armor on and
was not afraid.

I think that Hector was not as brave as Achilles. When Hector
saw Achilles coming he was afraid to stand and fight at first. He
thought the people would rebuke him so he stayed outside the walls.
He ran from Achilles.

167. "Publishing an Annual"

(Reported by Gertrude Brown, State Normal School,

Emporia, Kansas)

The children of the intermediate department of our training
school publish a magazine called ' * The Searchlight. ' ' From its be-
ginning, it has been a wonderful stimulus toward good work in
composition. Last spring the children heard the students of the
Normal talking much about their " Annual' ' and in a fifth-grade
composition class, it was suggested that our spring magazine take
the form of an annual. This was followed by much discussion as
to what should be included in such a number, differing from what
we had had in previous numbers. The wish of the children was that
any outsider, reading the magazine, should get a good idea as to
the scope of our year's work. To accomplish this, our organization
was fully written up — the year's work of all our committees, our
school planning periods, our special programs, our regular pro-

96 TES TWENTIETH TSABBOOK

grams which are the result of classroom activity, a "point" con-
test at the gymnasium in which the entire department was greatly
interested, an account of our annual operetta, a sketch regarding
the French orphans we are supporting, full accounts of the year's
work in industrial arts, our spring poems, echoes from the geogra-
phy, arithmetic, science, history, and literature classes, a dramatiza-
tion worked out by one of the classes, and a few of the best original
stories of the year.

For nearly two months the children eagerly worked on this num-
ber, gathering material, making and rejecting suggestions, and
working as a unit to make this number the best of the year. Each
child wrote on themes of particular interest to him ; on some of the
larger themes the work would be divided, and group work would
be in order later to compare results and to judge them. All these
articles passed before the critical eyes of the editorial staff, and
while the first and basal question was always, "Is it interesting?"
the second was, "Is it well written, properly planned and punc-
tuated ?" The children paid for the printing of the magazine by
giving plays, selling sandwiches at ball games, etc. The sandwich-
selling gave rise to a splendid project in arithmetic.

168. "Editing Poems of the Great War"

(Reported by Mary McCrory Pierce, Rockford, Illinois)

The children read poems of the war in current magazines, news-
papers and books. They selected the ones they liked best and read
them to the class. Questions were asked about them and criticism
made. In this way they collected several hundred poems. The class
was divided into groups of four or five; one of each group was
appointed leader, to read and talk over several poems. Many class
periods were spent in this way. Each group saved the poems they
liked best and discarded the poorest. We applied to every poem
two tests — Is the thought enduring? Is it well expressed? They
selected thirty-one poems to be made into a book. This book was
printed by the pupils of a neighboring school in their print shop.
The children were intensely interested in the making of books,
their shape, size, material, preface, dedication, copyright.

MATERIALS FOB GBADES IV, V, AND VI 97

The Board of Education paid for the printing materials, and
sent a set of the books to every school in Rockf ord to be used as
supplementary reading.

169. "Search for Poems Describing the Sea"

(Reported by Harriet Beale, State Teachers College,

Mankato, Minnesota)

The teacher read a poem descriptive of the sea to a class familiar
with it from vacation experiences. The lack of response caused her
to ask questions which brought out the explanation that her choice
did not describe their favorite aspects of the sea. One after another
described his favorite picture, and much diversity appeared. One
pupil asked, "Do you suppose there is a poem describing 'the surf
after a big storm' ?" So a search was begun which gave an en-
riched appreciation of the ocean, as well as familiarity with library
aids and methods and valuable training in reading to determine
the experience realized by the poet and to judge his success in
expressing it. They became interested in one another's search, so
that the work was increasingly socialized.

170. "A History Play"

(Reported by Gertrude R. Lynch, Wells School, Boston,

Massachusetts)

One of my girls owned Miss Hubbard's Little American History
Plays for Little Americans. One day she asked if the class might
act some of the plays. I agreed, provided she took charge and the
class was willing. They were delighted, so with a few helpers she
copied the parts of "Columbus," since we were studying Columbus
at the time. After a class discussion, the parts were assigned to
appropriate girls. At the first rehearsal of the play the class offered
suggestions for improvement in expression and action, which were
gratefully accepted. Many plays were thus learned, and every
girl in the room had a chance to act in more than one play. These
were entirely class projects with little or no aid from me. The stage
manager took entire charge of the 'stage setting,' arranging chairs,
collecting rulers for guns, etc. Every child was responsible for a
part and was kept busy and interested.

98 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

171. "A School Fair"

(Reported from Kansas City)

This fair was given in a school of 18 rooms, with three floors and
a basement. A general committee decided. what booths to have,
where to place them, what room to make responsible for each one,
what type of advertising to do, etc. This committee appointed
sub-committees, one for each floor. The sub-committees decided on
color schemes and general plans for the decorations on their floor,
sizes of booths, etc. Booths were drawn and constructed by the
Manual Training boys, and detailed plans for their decoration made
by the different rooms. The general committee bought materials
and carried out these designs. Price tags and signs were lettered
and posters made. The general committee saw to the proper plac-
ing of the posters in stores, picture shows, etc. Handbills were
mimeographed and sent around the district; the writing and
arrangement of the handbill was a careful study in design. Invi-
tations and programs were designed and decorated.

A continuous dramatic entertainment was carried on in the
assembly room to which each room contributed some 'stunt.' The
children made all scenery and costumes, and wrote all 'stunts' or
plays, and even wrote the words of many of the songs given.

The amount of design and color work required was unlimited.
The opportunities for drawing from nature, in connection with
posters, were numerous. And the chance for studying the question
of advertising, its methods, and its relation to modern public ques-
tions, was not neglected. Excursions to billboards, talks from ad-
vertisers, the question of the cost of advertising, and who pays it,
were all part of the work. The social aspect of the project was
emphasized all along the line. It was so successful that it had to
be repeated three times, and its financial returns were astonishing;
but we hope that its results as a lesson in co-operation, and its dis-
cussions of ethical advertising were of greater value.

MATERIALS FOB QBADES IV, V, AND VI gg

172. "An Arbor Day Pageant' '

(Reported by Agnes Cavanaugh and Lillian McNulty,
Albert S. Brandeis School, Louisville, Kentucky)

A bare avenue leads up to the Brandeis School. The school
grounds, themselves, are beautiful. The children of the upper
grades desired to set out an avenue of trees on Arbor Day, after
having studied about trees in the science classes. They wished to
have a ceremony on the occasion of the planting and settled upon
a pageant as a fitting entertainment. The problems arose: (a) to
select trees, (6) to plan the planting, (c) to prepare the enter-
tainment.

First, a study of the shade trees of the neighborhood was made
by the class to determine what trees flourished best. Next, the
children canvassed the neighborhood to secure consent from the
property owners to do the planting. Then a letter was written to
the city for a permit to plant on the city streets. A survey of the
street was made to ascertain the number of trees needed for the
avenue. Then a trip was made by members of the class to the
nursery of the State Department of Forestry to get the trees,
which were 'heeled in,' in the garden, till needed. In the mean-
time, the class had made a study of the life, structmre, care, use,
and economic importance of shade and forest trees. The scientific
facts so obtained were used as the basis for writing the pageant
under the direction of the English teacher. The art department
aided in providing opportunity for designing and making costumes
and decorations. As the pageant was to end with the tree-planting,
each room-group submitted a plan for the ceremony ; the best was
selected by the vote of the groups. Invitations were then written
and delivered to all the people in the neighborhood. This has been
the means of interesting the neighborhood in the school in a way
hitherto impossible.

173. "A Hygiene Book"

(Reported by Jennie G. Ramp, Gastman School, Decatur, Illinois)

At the first meeting of the hygiene class for the term, a member

suggested that it would be more interesting to find out things which

c0&>

\

100 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

would make Decatur a healthier city than to follow the regular
lessons. So together the class listed topics for study. On looking
into the book for suggestions it was found that the regular topics
assigned to them would fit in well, so they were embodied in the
list. Health of School Children, the Park System, Milk Supply,
Water Supply, Cleaning of Streets, Junior Sanitation League, and
Hospitals were among the topics chosen. At the next class meeting
it was suggested that each pupil make a book treating and illustrat-
ing each topic. It was decided that each child should be free to
arrange his book as he thought best, with regard to illustrations,
clippings, chapters, and addition of topics. The class meetings were
discussions of topics, in which the children contributed from ex-
perience, reading, and conversations with others, and in which
questions were asked and answered. Periods were set aside for
book work. Trips were taken to waterworks, etc. At close of the

term the books were read and enjoyed by all.

*

174. "The Cleaning of the Lunch Room"

(Reported by Kate Hardin, Geo. D. Prentice School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

Suggestions from the children, both oral and written, were
made as to how to make the lunch room attractive. Talks on sani-
tation were given to instruct the children about the importance of
the subject and to awaken their enthusiasm to the point that they
would be eager to do the work. The social aspect of the subject
was emphasized in the need of sanitary surroundings as good citi-
zens. A day was appointed, materials assembled, work assigned.
The lunch room emerged transformed.

This project was carried into all their subjects: e. g., in his-
tory, the cleaning up of Cuba and the Canal Zone ; in geography,
the location of these places ; in mathematics, the cost of materials
used in cleaning the lunch room ; in science, the effect of differ-
ent cleansers on grease and dirt; in language, their written work;
in spelling, the new words used. We finished with an observation
lesson by paying a visit to the Public Institution for the Blind and
writing a letter of thanks for the courtesy extended to us.

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 101

175. "A Campaign for Good Diet"

(Reported by Mary McDermott, State Normal College,

Ypsilanti, Michigan)

For the purpose of seeing what sort of lunches the children
would bring, they were told to bring a portion of their lunches from
home. These were to supplement the school lunch, which was fur- *
nished. Many of them brought three and four thick meat sand-
wiches, one or two doughnuts and either a piece of pie or cake. It
was also noted that a great many of the children did not care to eat
vegetables.

When it was found that this combination made the lunches
too heavy, they were told to bring from home only two thin bread
and butter sandwiches or one thick one and some fruit, but nothing
more. They were also told that they should eat whatever the kitchen
matron provided for them.

Some of the children asked the teacher why they could not bring
cakes and pie if they wanted them. The question led to a study
of proper food for children of their ages. The lessons were grouped
under three headings : what and how much to eat for (a) breakfast,
(6) lunch, (c) dinner.

Some of the menus which they worked out were tried out in
the kitchen by the children themselves. Recipes were collected from
which language lessons were made. Lists of misspelled words were
made and corrected. Arithmetic problems came from their work
in the kitchen. The children had to buy the groceries. Interesting
posters were also made by the children. Appropriate pictures and
clippings were cut from magazines and arranged as menus — break-
fast across the top, lunch in the center and dinner at the bottom of
the poster. One had the heading, ' ' Don *ts for Eating. ' ' Pictures of
a number of things children should not eat and drink followed.
Another had colored pictures of a few healthful foods with original
couplets under each.

The results were: first, a better understanding of food values;
second, an interest in the kind and variety of the foods they had to
eat; and third, vegetables were not spurned as before.

1Q2 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

176. "Popularizing the Shower Bath"

(Reported by Mrs. Harry B. Whiteside, Geo. D. Prentice School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

The institution of new shower baths necessitated arousing the
children's desire to use them. We chose the sixth grade to inspire
the entire school. The boys visited public baths and reported about
them to the class. Each child reported baths typical of his own
country (the school was in a foreign neighborhood) : the Russian,
the Turkish, the Hebrew, the American Y. M. C. A. Groups
studied at the library, "Greek and Roman Baths," and reported
on these. The class studied the physiology of the bath — hot, cold,
etc., cleansing, tonic, etc. The sixth-grade children then went to
the other grades of the school and gave them the benefit of their
work, both written and oral. When the day came to open the
showers, nearly every hand went up to be allowed to take a shower
bath. Now it is quite the fashion.

177. "A Little Mothers' League"

(Reported by Mrs. Harry R. Whiteside, Louisville, Kentucky)

Many girls 'tended the baby' at home. After a talk with them,
they decided to invite a trained nurse from the Louisville Public
Nurse Association (who was willing to co-operate) to come each
week and lead them in a Mother Craft Class. With actual demon-
trations in washing, dressing, feeding baby, etc., they formed a
"Little Mothers' League." Requirement for membership was the
obligation to make an attractive booklet in which each week's lesson
was to be reported. The content, English, penmanship, etc., was
to determine whether the member at the end of the course was to
receive a printed certificate, or little diploma, certifying that she
was a member of the League and that she had completed the course
satisfactorily. Their interest was intense and the result gratifying.

178. "Playground Arithmetic"
(Reported by Edith Cheney, Berkeley, California)
The bond issue had made possible the playground expansion for
the Emerson School. The children were eager for larger and better

MATEBIALS FOB GBADE8 IV, V, AND VI 1Q3

equipped grounds. The playground director was approached by
the teacher and agreed to accept and use the ideas shown in the
three best plans worked out by the class for equipping and arrang-
ing the playground. The children were eager to make plans
acceptable to him. This involved a large number of problems
which extended not only into arithmetic but into various other sub-
jects. They found the size and value of the property, the cost of
preparing and equipping it, cost for labor, gravel, etc. ; they asked
experts from Oakland and Berkeley to speak to them on various
ways of equipping the playground ; they wrote to Superintendent
Wilson to ascertain how much had been allowed for equipping the
Emerson playground; they sent for a Spaulding catalog, and as
prices had advanced twenty percent, there arose the necessity of
solving percentage problems; they sought information in their
homes and visited numerous playgrounds to secure ideas. The sub-
ject matter involved might be classified as follows :

1. Arithmetic. Linear, square, cubic, liquid measures, board measures.
Drawing maps of grounds and building to different scales thereby
bringing in fractions and decimals. They found need for % inch
which the ruler did not show and this led to the comparison of %"
with %".

2. Language. Oral discussions relative to the work; letters asking for
information; notes of acknowledgment to informants; invitations
to classwork ; information secured by the pupils from various sources
and given to the class; stating problems.

S. Spelling. Words used in the written work.

4. Geography. In connection with surfacing; tracing the principal
highways in California from map secured at the Ferry and ascertain-
ing the type of surfacing used.

5. History of Playground. Very general; bibliography furnished by Mr.
Hetherington, State Director of Physical Education.

6. Hygiene. Health value of playground; ascertained how nearly the
rooms met the requirements of a model schoolroom as regards light
surface and blackboards, according to Bapeer.

7. Penmanship. No remarks necessary.

8. Map drawing to a scale.

9. Line work.

10. Lettering. In the arrangement of the apparatus the playground
directors gave 'pointers,' then the children cut from pasteboard to
the scale of their maps, patterns containing the necessary square feet
of each apparatus and placed them as they thought best. There was
a variety, no two were exactly alike.

Bamifications into Informational Arithmetic

1. Bonds, (a) School (why not raise large amounts by taxes) ; (b) mu-
nicipal; (c) commercial, U. S. bonds, and Liberty bonds.

104 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

2. Taxes, (a) school taxes; (5) personal; (e) real estate; (&) license
— why necessary; («) income; (/) inheritance; (g) poll — who abol-
ished t (discussion pro and con).

3. Banking, (a) commercial accounts; (ft) savings; (c) checks — how
to write.

4. What is meant by foreign exchange.

5. Purchase of public property: Process; condemnation proceedings.
Letters were written to the principal comparing the textbook problem

method and playground arithmetic. Each child stated which he preferred
and why. Out of 44 pupils, all but two chose the playground work. They
mastered the term 'a work and enjoyed it.

Types of Examples Derived from the Work

1. The school ground is 205' long on the west, 196'%* on the north,
172'6" on the south, 205' on the east with a jog 22' long for sand
piles on the girls' side; find perimeter of yard. How many yard*
around the yardf How many rodsf

2. Find perimeter of acquired property t

3. Find square feet in school yardf In property purchased f

4. How many feet of lumber will be required to build a solid fence 205'
long and six feet high using 12" boards. Find cost at $54.00 per
thousand feetf

5. How many cubic feet of crushed rock will be required to build a
solid fence 205' long and six feet high using 12" boards. Find cost at
$54.00 per thousand feet.

6. One bbl. of oil, containing 42 gal. will spray 100 sq. feet. How many
gals, will be needed for our school yard, which contains 37,617 sq. feetf
Find cost at $5.00 per gal.

7. Apparatus had advanced 20% since the issue of Spaul ding's catalog.
How can you get the right price f

179. ' ' An Expenditure Card ' '

(Reported by L. C. Call, Emporia, Kansas)

A thrift card was hung on our wall upon which each child had
a space to record all money spent for penmanship paper, scratch
paper, drawing paper, pencils and erasers. These are the things
that are bought too lavishly. At the end of six weeks, each child
reported his total expenditure. A committee of ten found the room
total to be $30.08. Each child found the average per pupil, and
if his expenditure was more than the average he made a special
effort to buy with more care and use with economy. We know now
where we can get the very best tablet for seven cents, and the most
satisfactory pencil for five cents.

Our pencils are in better shape and we work with much less
'lost motion. 9

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 105

180. "Care of the Feet"

(Reported by Zelpha E. Shumate, Rockford, Illinois)

The children were given a good idea of the general structure
of the foot, by comparing it with the hand, etc. For this much good
reading material may be had by writing any of the large shoe
companies. Ours, through a local dealer, came from the Brown
Shoe Company, St. Louis. From the Y. W. C. A., 600 Lexington,
New York City, we received "Foot Charts," one on "Good and
Bad Arches" and one testing the straight line of the foot from heel
to toe. Each child made two impressions of each foot, according
to directions on the chart, testing each arch and line and com-
paring them with charts. Many defects were discovered, most of
which could be cured by corrective exercises, which were also ob-
tained from the Y. W. C. A. This study led with interest to the
proper care of the feet, which in turn led to a study of shoes. Com-
parisons of good and bad shoes were made through charts, pictures,
and shoes.

181. "Philanthropic Efforts for Tuberculous Children"

(Reported by Ada O. Bache, Emmet Field School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

Two hundred fifty pupils in an elementary school (grades one
through six) and the Parent-Teacher Association of a well-to-do
residential suburb joined efforts to give sunshine to sixty-two chil-
dren in a tuberculosis sanatorium. The Parent-Teacher Associa-
tion raised several hundred dollars from business men. The auto-
mobile committee saw to all transportation. The philanthropy com-
mittee made reports to the association. The children had a class
play and home "penny shows" to add to fund. A group of four
adopted one child to whom it sent hand-painted cards, letters, cloth-
ing and presents on holidays and class booklets written about holi-
days. Sixth-grade children were bookkeepers and correspondents
for the project, buying, wholesale and retail, cloth for gowns,
bloomers, stockings, underwear and having shoes mended. The
fifth- and sixth-grade girls did the sewing as well as the mending
of old clothes, while the boys made and mended toys. Three groups

106 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

of twenty-five went, one with the Thanksgiving Party, a second with
the Christmas Party, and a third with the Easter Hunt. The
best descriptions of trips, etc., were read in the auditorium. The
work resulted in the appointment of a business manager to care
for clothing, etc., for the children at the sanatorium. This year
the girls have asked to furnish materials and to make clothing for
the babies in the Home of the Innocents.

182. "A Thrift Society' »

(Reported by Jeannette Owens, Gavin H. Cochran School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

A program committee was elected. This committee, in turn,
elected a chairman. The committee met on Monday after school
in the schoolroom to arrange the week's program, which was given
on each Friday at 10 :15 a. m. The meetings were conducted in a
corner of the room without any suggestions or supervision — the
teacher took care to be otherwise employed. No one in the class
could refuse to do what the committee requested. One aim was to
get everyone to do something. The programs were live and
effective, as is proved by the result. Original plays were written
and produced ; living pictures impressed the lesson desired ; short
talks were made; short papers were read on topics that aroused
the interest of the hearers, and increased stamp buying ; personal
experiences on "How I Make My Money" were unique and in-
spiring. Every member of the class bought stamps. In sixteen
weeks the class of forty bought $1,067.69 worth of War Stamps
and Thrift Stamps.

183. "Savings Deposits Earned by an Easter Party and Sale"

(Reported by Myrtle Sproule, Victor H. JSngelhard School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

The registration of the school (something over six hundred) of
whom one hundred and fifty were dependent children from orphan
homes and fifty additional children from extremely poor homes,
necessitated a plan to help thirty-three and a third percent of the
school who could not otherwise hope to become depositors. The
means adopted was an "Easter Party and Sale," the proceeds to

MATERIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 107

be divided equally among six hundred members of the school for
their School Savings Bank.

The manual and drawing periods of the month preceding the
sale were devoted to a study of basket designs and the making of
cardboard baskets by fifth- and sixth-grade children. Sewing periods
were used in these grades to cover baskets with crepe paper. Artistic
color combinations were studied. The manual periods of third and
fourth grades were used for similar work simpler in construction,
and those of the first and second grades were devoted to cutting
tissue paper grass and filling baskets with candy bought from
manufacturer and novelties bought at wholesale. In arithmetic
periods the work included measuring in construction of baskets, and
in cutting paper for covering, marking novelties to sell at ten per-
cent profit; figuring actual cost of basket and determining how
many and what sized eggs could be placed so as to allow a gain of
ten percent on each basket sold, totalling receipts, estimating profit,
distributing the funds among six hundred children. A little pro-
gram offered by different classes consisting of dramatizations, music,
and folk dances, a baby show where dolls were babies and baskets
were offered as prizes, added to the interest and fun, also to the
profits of the occasion. Every child in school contributed some form
of work, had a good time, added six cents to its school bank account,
bringing up our school to one hundred percent depositors.

184. "The Play Store and Bank"
(Reported from the Marr Training School, Detroit, Michigan)

Requests having been made to have a bank, the topic was placed
before the class for discussion, resulting in a decision that we must
obtain money first and that this could be done by means of a play
store.

Organization of the store was taken over by the children ; com-
mittees were appointed to see that money was made, grocery pack-
ages brought in, price lists obtained, and other minor details at-
tended to. The construction of a counter and shelves was taken
by the boys to Manual Training and very carefully done, while
the making of necessary signs as a means of advertisement was
taken up in the Art work.

108 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

The actual class activity was of a two-fold nature: the store
activity (use of money and store bill forms) and the class work on
the problem most pertinent to the store work at that time (the chil-
dren passing to and from the class and the store as their turn as
the customer came) . Simple accounts were kept by each child while
the manager and store officials kept books (open to class inspection)
and took a monthly inventory, at which time new officers were
chosen.

This project, covering a term, carried out the entire course of
study, using the textbook as a reference only to help when new
problems presented themselves. Many of these came from the
children (as a discount sale). This suggestion came from a news-
paper advertisement and at once we gave a week to such a sale,
referring back to our text for a study of discount. Others, such
as giving the clerks a commission, determining buying and selling
prices on the basis of gain and loss, were presented by the teacher.
When such a problem arose, the store work was suspended and the
problem taken back to the class as a whole.

As the store progressed, the children felt they were ready to
organize a bank in which to place their extra funds. Visits were
made to various banks, books and pamphlets read, and checks, entry
blanks, deposit slips, etc., were obtained. Accounts were opened,
checks endorsed, receipts made, and all forms of simple banking
carried on.

185. "Making Blocks and a House for the Kindergarten"

(Reported from Kansas City)

The sixth-grade boys made building blocks, after the suggestion
furnished by the kindergarten teacher, to supplement the sorts pur-
chased. Grooved corner pieces, and grooved window and door
frames were made, and light boards fitted into the grooves, so that,
when built, it made a little house about three feet high to the roof,
and large enough for three or four kindergarten children to get
into. The lumber was very light, and the largest children could
handle it with little or no help from the teacher. Grooved pieces
were made for the roof, also. The project proved equally valuable

MATERIALS FOR GRADES IV, V, AND VI JQ9

for the boys and for the kindergarten. The boys had to make their
own drawings, plan all proportions, purchase material, etc., originat-
ing the whole detail of the building.

186. "Making a Stenciled Tray Cloth"

(Reported by Helen S. Patterson, Rockford, Illinois)

The class, after studying various ways in which design is applied
to textiles, decided to stencil linen. They planned a linen tray
doth to fit a tray or top of a tea wagon. The stencils were made
from cut leaf forms in two values and later cut from stencil board.
The stencils were small and formed a pattern by repeating several
times near ends of cloth. Dark tones in oil paint were used. Later
the ends were connected across the cloth by 'running' stitches in
embroidery silks, using two colors. A margin was left on each side
and linen was turned back to edge of design and sewed by hand.

187. "A Book on Book Making"

(Reported by Helen Stockton, Trenton, New Jersey)

The children of Westfield, N. J., had been studying lettering in
their art classes and had become intensely interested in the different
types of letters and their derivations. Many of them had begun
collecting examples of types from magazines and newspapers.
These they kept in boxes or envelopes, according to individual
taste. All felt the need of a container of some sort, so it was decided
that a scrap book be made. A lesson was spent in a discussion of
types of scrap books and content of such a book. During the dis-
cussion the idea of writing a book which would contain the neces-
sary information upon lettering developed. The children were most
enthusiastic and decided to write, bind, and own a book containing
this desired information. They suggested numerous references and
places where material relative to the subject might be obtained.
The teacher supplemented this list, and work on the project began
in earnest. Next followed a discussion of reference work done and
selection and rejection of topics for the book. After much dis-
cussion, five topics were decided upon. These five topics were then
divided into sub-topics, and each child chose one or more of them

108 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

The actual class activity was of a two-fold nature: the store
activity (use of money and store bill forms) and the class work on
the problem most pertinent to the store work at that time (the chil-
dren passing to and from the class and the store as their turn as
the customer came). Simple accounts were kept by each child while
the manager and store officials kept books (open to class inspection)
and took a monthly inventory, at which time new officers were
chosen.

This project, covering a term, carried out the entire course of
study, using the textbook as a reference only to help when new
problems presented themselves. Many of these came from the
children (as a discount sale). This suggestion came from a news-
paper advertisement and at once we gave a week to such a sale,
referring back to our text for a study of discount. Others, such
as giving the clerks a commission, determining buying and selling
prices on the basis of gain and loss, were presented by the teacher.
When such a problem arose, the store work was suspended and the
problem taken back to the class as a whole.

As the store progressed, the children felt they were ready to
organize a bank in which to place their extra funds. Visits were
made to various banks, books and pamphlets read, and checks, entry
blanks, deposit slips, etc., were obtained. Accounts were opened,
checks endorsed, receipts made, and all forms of simple banking
carried on.

185. "Making Blocks and a House for the Kindergarten"

(Reported from Kansas City)

The sixth-grade boys made building blocks, after the suggestion
furnished by the kindergarten teacher, to supplement the sorts pur-
chased. Grooved corner pieces, and grooved window and door
frames were made, and light boards fitted into the grooves, so that,
when built, it made a little house about three feet high to the roof,
and large enough for three or four kindergarten children to get
into. The lumber was very light, and the largest children could
handle it with little or no help from the teacher. Grooved pieces
were made for the roof, also. The project proved equally valuable

MATEEIAL8 FOB GRAVE 8 IV, V, AND VI JQ9

for the boys and for the kindergarten. The boys had to make their
own drawings, plan all proportions, purchase material, etc., originat-
ing the whole detail of the building.

186. "Making a Stenciled Tray Cloth"

(Reported by Helen S. Patterson, Rockford, Illinois)

The class, after studying various ways in which design is applied
to textiles, decided to stencil linen. They planned a linen tray
cloth to fit a tray or top of a tea wagon. The stencils were made
from cut leaf forms in two values and later cut from stencil board.
The stencils were small and formed a pattern by repeating several
times near ends of cloth. Dark tones in oil paint were used. Later
the ends were connected across the cloth by 'running' stitches in
embroidery silks, using two colors. A margin was left on each side
and linen was turned back to edge of design and sewed by hand.

187. "A Book on Book Making"

(Reported by Helen Stockton, Trenton, New Jersey)

The children of Westfield, N. J., had been studying lettering in
their art classes and had become intensely interested in the different
types of letters and their derivations. Many of them had begun
collecting examples of types from magazines and newspapers.
These they kept in boxes or envelopes, according to individual
taste. All felt the need of a container of some sort, so it was decided
that a scrap book be made. A lesson was spent in a discussion of
types of scrap books and content of such a book. During the dis-
cussion the idea of writing a book which would contain the neces-
sary information upon lettering developed. The children were most
enthusiastic and decided to write, bind, and own a book containing
this desired information. They suggested numerous references and
places where material relative to the subject might be obtained.
The teacher supplemented this list, and work on the project began
in earnest. Next followed a discussion of reference work done and
selection and rejection of topics for the book. After much dis-
cussion, five topics were decided upon. These five topics were then
divided into sub-topics, and each child chose one or more of them

HO THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

upon which to write. The compositions were then submitted for
class criticism, and the best selected for the book. (Care was taken
that something was selected from each contributor). The copy
ready, the next step was a visit to the printers. The class journeyed
to a near-by print shop and there witnessed a demonstration of
modern printing. They were shown different styles of type and
also various samples of paper. A discussion of papers and the
manufacture of paper followed. The class thereupon decided to
make paper. They organized themselves into groups, and each
group was responsible for one process in the manufacture of paper.
The paper was duly made and dyed, and each child given a sample.
The proof was sent up from the printers, corrected, and returned to
be printed. The question of a design for the cover of the book next
claimed attention. Each child designed a cover. These designs
were criticized by the class, and eight were selected to be cut of
linoleum. The children worked together on the cutting, then each
chose his color scheme and block-printed his cover. The books were
then assembled and bound. Illuminated letters were placed at the
beginning of each chapter and photographs of the class making
paper and of the moulds and deckles made by the boys, and used
in making the paper, were mounted in the books. A list con-
taining the names of the contributors, which comprised the entire
class, was then added.

188. "A Ribbon Sale for Drill in Fractions' '

(Reported by Mary E. Icke, State Normal School,

Emporia, Kansas)

The children of the 6 B class knew, from the results of a frac-
tions test, their weakness in multiplication of mixed numbers. They
were shown the process again.

84%

.08%

%
11%
4
272

2.87%

MATERIALS FOE GBADE8 IV, V, AND VI HI

They planned a play ribbon sale to provide for this need. The
ribbon sale was chosen because yards provide halves, fourths,
eighths, and thirds, with which to work, whereas the measures in
the grocery store (also suggested) only include the fractional parts
halves, fourths, eighths. The children secured paper from ribbon
bolts, pasted strips of colored paper together and were given some
material. They made a line on the counter of the school grocery
and marked off inches and the half, fourths, eighths and thirds of
yards. They fixed the prices of ribbon so that all had fractional
parte— $1.87y 2 , $.66%, $.06%. The children selected two clerks by
vote. The teacher offered them toy money ($50.00 each) and asked
that every penny be accounted for in the final reckoning. The chil-
dren decided that they would need four days of this drill to become
rapid and accurate in the multiplication of mixed numbers.

The following is a bill prepared by a child :

1% yd. cream ribbon @ 18%e
% yd. wide ribbon @ $1.87 Mi
4% yd. pink plaid @ 9%c

The children revised their plan the second day, by electing five
clerks instead of two. They decided to change the whole group of
storekeepers the next day, so that all could be clerks in thetr turn.

The bills were noticeably longer (usually five or six items), and
nearly all completed them at their seats before going to the store.
They compared their work with the clerk's at every step. The
teacher was called in when disagreement appeared.

It was found unnecessary to continue drill the fourth day. The
time was spent checking accounts and returning money left over.

189. "Fixing the Bowling Alley"

(Reported by W. G. Cisne)

A class of sixth-grade boys decided they needed a return alley
in their bowling game in their play room. They presented the
matter to their teacher, who immediately saw opportunities for a
practical lesson and encouraged them. As a group they made the
required measurements, decided upon the width and thickness of
the boards needed, made allowance for standards, and then with the

112 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

price of lumber from the local yard they counted the total cost,
including ten cents extra for nails. The average cost was then
computed and this amount collected from each member. The
money was given to a committee, who went to the lumber yard and
purchased the supplies. The required tools were secured from the
manual training shop and the alley soon constructed. The entire
class had come in contact with actual business procedure in finding
cost of materials, estimating lumber, finding average cost, and in
making change through collection. All the situations encountered
were not only of great interest, but also real, in the sense that they
were connected up with actual business.

190. "Making a Frieze Illustrating the Story of Miles Standish"
(Reported by Emma C. Juth, Berkeley, California)

From the interest which had grown up while making the booklet*
came the suggestion that they make a frieze for their room showing
the story of Miles Standish. The class selected the quotations which
seemed best to show the progress of the story. The fact that they
had previously selected quotations for the booklets for the same
purpose helped in this work. The frieze was a composite of the in-
dividual efforts put forth on the booklets. In this co-operative
project they proceeded as follows; they described scenes which
would best illustrate the quotations and listed the details which
would be needed to make each picture in the frieze. In some cases
these details were ships, trees, and costume figures ; in others, the
detail of the Colonial interiors. In order to get the information
regarding articles which would appear in a Colonial home they
referred to their histories and read extensively. They examined
many pictures, also. They then practiced drawing the various
articles or figures needed. This involved drill in the drawing of
trees, figure drawing, etc.

The work of all children was saved, and when the principal
things needed in a picture were ready, they were assembled and
arranged by the class. The efforts of various children were selected
on the following basis: fitness as to proportion, perspective, and
merit

UATEBIALS FOB GRADES IV, V, AND VI 113

When the frieze was finished, every child was represented in
the work. The project extended throughout the semester and cov-
ered work in silent reading, appreciation in English and composi-
tion, proportion, and perspective in art. It was of such interest to
sixth-grade children that the teacher's problem was to try to include
all of the suggestions made by various individuals rather than to
push the work. A lower class asked to be allowed to work on the
project, although they were not, at the time, studying "Miles
Standish."

191. " Helping the Humane Society ' '

(Reported by Jennie C. Bakewell and Cordelia Sims, Louisville
Normal School, Louisville, Kentucky)

To help the work of the Humane Societies of America was a
project undertaken by a class of children who resented the fact that
the birds and squirrels of the neighborhood were being killed. Each
child wrote to the national headquarters at Albany, N. Y., stating
his reasons for writing and asking for literature, which came in
abundance. The class divided itself into groups. One group
undertook to find out about the organization in the state and city i ,
another decided to collect noted pictures of animals by Landseer
and Rosa Bonheur and also to report on the life and work of these
artists. Another group wished to read and give oral reports on
• ' The Bell of Atri ' ' and ' ' The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. ' ' The
director of the humane work in Louisville was invited by one group
to give an illustrated lecture. The school was invited to be present.
The chairman of one group explained what had been done by the
various groups and then introduced the speaker. The lecture was
reported by one of the class for a daily paper. Every child in the
class and many others in the school took the pledge required by the
Humane Society. Interest throughout the neighborhood was
aroused.

192. "A Sixth-Grade Orchestra' '

(Reported by Prances Viola Newton, Rockford, Illinois)
A class in the study of violin is organized each year under the
direction of Mrs. Eloise Spoor Morgan, violin teacher. Both class

114 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

and private lessons are given during school hours. As soon as a
pupil is sufficiently advanced, he is admitted to the school orchestra.
Last year the orchestra consisted of sixteen members ; this year it
is even more promising. Regular weekly rehearsals are held. A
plan is being worked out whereby the school will purchase some of
the instruments. The orchestra and the children study them, thus
making it possible to have a better balanced orchestra than could
be obtained otherwise. The orchestra is often called upon to play
at entertainments given outside the school and in this way is
of service to the community as welL

193. "Original Composition of Poetry and Music"

(Reported by Zelpha E. Shumate, Rockford, Illinois)

Choose the best two or three original poems written by the chil-
dren in the fifth or sixth grades and have the boys and girls in the
seventh or eighth grades compose original melodies for them. Select
the best two or three ; teach them, perhaps by rote, to the children
in the fifth or sixth grades and let those in the higher grades work
the melodies out by note. Sing the songs and enjoy them.

CHAPTER IV

NEW MATERIALS FOR THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS *

INTRODUCTION

(H. G. Lull, State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas)

On the whole the following brief records of projects deserve
high commendation. They indicate the beginnings of a new and
vitalized course of study and improved methods of procedure in
junior-high-school instruction.

The projects submitted from the junior-high-school grades are
essentially like those submitted from the grades below. This is, no
doubt, due in part to the fact that many of the projects came from
seventh, eighth, and ninth grades which are not yet included in
junior-high-schocl organization, and also to the fact that much of
junior-high-school instruction still follows the traditional curricu-
lum and methods of procedure of the seventh, eighth, and ninth
grades not organized as junior high schools. This lack of change in
harmony with junior-high-school aims is shown by the records of
many of the projects, the assigned purpose of which is to provide
motivation for the various subjects of the school. While such a
project attitude is entirely appropriate for the primary grades,
the situation should be, for the most part, exactly reversed in the
junior high school. Here the projects should be the important
matters and the several school subjects should occupy a position of
secondary importance, except in so far as they are needed as tools
in working out projects. A conservative statement of the matter
would be something as follows: the outcomes of the project method
of learning in the primary grades, and to a lesser degree in the

1 On account of limitations of space nearly one half of the materials trans-
mitted by Professor Lull have been omitted in the final editing. I have
sought, however, to retain examples sufficiently varied in character to afford
the reader an adequate idea of the scope and quality of the projects now in
use in the junior high school. The projects omitted were, for the most part,
similar to others that were retained or were descriptive of activities that are
already in operation in many schools. — Editor.

115

116 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

intermediate grades, should require the development of by-products
in the technics of reading, writing, spelling, numbers, etc. The
projects of the junior high school, on the other hand, should require
the use of the technics of reading, writing, language, number com-
binations, and the like, in working them out. The projects of the
junior high school should, therefore, be more valuable in themselves
and only indirectly valuable as means of securing by-products in the
school skills. It follows, also, that the tendency for developing
projects outside of school subjects should increase as the pupils
pass from the lower grades to the junior-high-school grades. The
records of many of the following projects do show a marked tend-
ency to break over the boundary lines of the separate subjects and
to find their setting in significant community life and extra-
curricular interests.

Many of the records submitted do not fully meet the require-
ments of the project method of learning, but do indicate good
subject matter for junior-high-school instruction. Some records
exemplify the project method of learning quite well, but do not
show a good selection of subject matter. A few of the records,
however, are good in both subject matter and method.

The examples of projects for the junior high school show in
general a need for two lines of improvement — (1) a better selection
of subject matter, more in keeping with the outstanding aims of
junior-high-school instruction, and (2) a better understanding of
the procedures required by the project method of learning.

There seems to be a unanimity of agreement among those who
have studied the question carefully regarding the great objectives
or aims of the junior high school. These objectives may be stated
briefly as follows: (1) the need for moral guidance and training,
including personal morality and social morality, or citizenship;
(2) physical development and health guidance and training, in-
cluding personal hygiene and social sanitation; (3) vocational
guidance and training; and (4) avocational and cultural guidance
and training.

The curriculum should be made up in the first place of those
common elements of knowledge and training which should become
the social inheritance of all pupils. The first two objectives, above

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL \n

stated, provide the organizing principles of this group. Those ele-
ments of guidance and training should constitute the constants of
the junior high school. In the second place, the curriculum should
be composed of those differentiated elements of knowledge and
training for which the last two objectives, above indicated, provide
the organizing principles. These elements should constitute the
electives of the junior high school.

If these great objectives are to be reached, teachers must venture
out boldly away from much of the traditional organization of sub-
ject matter. We are not confronted with the old problem of the
correlation of the subjects as they stand, but rather with the
problem of throwing the curriculum out into the life of society,
and then utilizing such parts of the present curriculum as prove to
be good instruments in working out the significant projects and
problems of junior-high-school pupils. Of course, such a movement
would not annihilate all of the present curriculum, but would
retain much that has already been vitalized in the effort to reach
the real objectives of the school.

Already the fields of subject matter included under the headings
of civics, general science, geography, and hygiene, respectively,
overlap in large areas. History is, more and more, coming to be
historical civics, and it furnishes a perspective for present civic
projects. Civics includes the elements of economics, government,
and sociology. Teachers of the various subjects are being held re-
sponsible for English composition as an effective tool in their own
work.

The project method of learning cannot be used effectively to
any great extent in connection with the traditional organization of
subject matter. This is true for the simple reason that the pupils
do not find themselves vitally related to the traditional organization
of the separate subjects, and hence they are unable to initiate
worth-while purposes and plans. But pupil-purposing and pupil-
planning are the unique requirements of the project method of learn-
ing. The teacher who persists in using the project method of
learning will, and must, go in search of a course of study which is
more significant in the lives of the boys and girls. We need a
thorough-going series of social surveys as the first step in organ-

118 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

izing the curriculum of the junior high school. In this respect
vocationalists have opened the door for us.

The records of projects submitted may be classified in a general
way under the following headings : A, school activities and inter-
ests; B, community civic interests; C, general civic and patriotic
interests; D, avocational and cultural interests; E, vocational
interests; F, business interests; and G, home interests. Many
of the projects have been placed under one or another of these
classifications regardless of the fact that they were used by the
teachers to motivate various school subjects. It is easy to see, how-
ever, that the pupils were interested primarily in the projects
themselves and not in their use in motivating school subjects.
These projects would have been of more value to the pupils if the
teachers had considered them as having real values in themselves
rather than as a means of learning portions of the separate sub-
jects. In other words, the projects would have been more success-
ful if the teachers had assigned the same values to them as the
pupils did and had helped them to develop those values. Moreover,
the development of the separate subjects would not have suffered,
for they would have been brought into play even more than they
were in the attempt to make the projects motivate them.

A. PROJECTS CONCERNED WITH SCHOOL ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS

194. "A Civics Club"

(Reported by Ida von Donhoff, Monsarrat School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

Each class formed itself into a civics club, electing its own
officers and committees. Two delegates were chosen to represent
each class, and these delegates constituted the Civics Conference,
or governing body. At the preliminary meeting of the conference
they chose their offices and chairmen of committees. Among others,
a welfare committee and complaint committee were formed. Sug-
gestions for improvements were submitted to the chairman of the
welfare committee; complaints were submitted to the chairman of
the complaint committee. The president of the conference selected
members of the conference for yard and hall duty. At the end of

MATERIALS FOE THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL HQ

each week a different group was selected for this work. Reports of
their work were submitted to the conference at each meeting. The
delegates of the various classes reported to the home-class the mat-
ters of importance that came before the conference. Those who
broke the laws adopted by the conference and ratified by the vari-
ous classes were warned by the officers on duty, and if a continued
lack of co-operation was evidenced the offender was brought before
the conference and given a trial by jury. We have especially
emphasized the importance of the rights of others, the care of school
property, the safety of all while on the play-grounds, and cleanli-
ness and order in halls, rooms, and yard.

A spirit of mutual helpfulness, pride in the school, and efficiency
in self-government were evidenced by the enthusiasm with which
the children have taken up affairs where we dropped them at the
end of last term. Through our Civics Conference our school is
becoming unified in thought and action.

195. "Installing Electric Bells"*

(Reported by Louise S. Steinway, Western State Normal School,

Kalamazoo, Michigan)

A science class had been studying electricity and its practical
applications. The pupils noted that the people in the recitation
rooms had no clocks, and classes were not dismissed promptly, so
they suggested the installing of an electric bell system as a remedy
for the difficulty. The pupils made out a requisition of the materialu
that would be needed, estimated the cost, and planned their work.
The data were then submitted to the principal, who accepted the
report of the committee and ordered the necessary material. After
the bells were installed, the pupils decided they should be able to
locate breaks in the circuit so that the system could be kept in
working order. The teacher of the class broke the circuit at different
times, and members of the class proceeded to locate the "trouble"
and repair damages. Then someone suggested a switch so the current
might be shut off completely, or only for the room not in use. The
reason given for installing a switch was that by so doing the bat-

■Cf. Project 262.

120 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

teries would last longer. The push button was conveniently located
near the teacher's desk. Later when a pupil assumed the responsi-
bility for ringing the bells, the button was moved nearer to his seat

196. "A School Magazine"*

(Reported by Ploy Campbell, Kansas City, Missouri)

The class appointed an editor-in-chief and an art editor each
month, and no pupil could hold the office twice in a term. The
editor-in-chief appointed the rest of his staff. The entire work was
done by hand. Only one copy was made for each month ; but the
last number, composed of the best work from all of the copies, was
printed and sold. The advertisements for the last copy and the
sale of it paid fully for all expense connected with it. There was
a cover-design for every number of the magazine, at least one
illustrated story, and several cartoons, news items about class mem-
bers, comic incidents of the classroom, and all the usual school
news. Every page was carefully margined, carefully planned,
after study of the best models available. The writing was the best
the class could produce, the drawings in ink, and the cover a poster
in color. All the book designing of the year was done in connec-
tion with this magazine, and its publication was the event of each
month.

197. "Printing a School Paper" 4

(Reported by Josephine Maloney)

The printing of the first issue was done by a single boy by hand
on a sheet of composition paper, and when finished was a most
interesting piece of work. The head lines advertised the basket-
ball game which was to be played the following Friday night. Then
the most conspicuous place in the paper was given to a detailed

• Accounts of somewhat similar school magazines,were reported by Alice E.
Bussell, State Normal College, Dillon, Montana; Vensen E. Gorman, Thomson.
School, Portland, Oregon; and Augusta M. Tappan, State Normal Training
School, Westficld, Massachusetts. — Editor.

4 A somewhat similar account of a paper written and published by an
eighth-grade class is reported by Sterling A. Leonard, the Wisconsin High
School, Madison, Wisconsin.

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 121

account of the game. These, with reproductions of other interesting
activities of the school, an editorial, news items, jokes, etc., made up
the paper. When finished, it was put on the bulletin board and
the enthusiasm over it was as great as the enthusiasm over the most
successful basket-ball game. The editor was so encouraged that
he decided to continue his work. Realizing his responsibility, how-
ever, he concluded he must have help with the next issue. So he
asked two of his friends to be his assistants. The following three
numbers were printed by hand, but there was growth and improve-
ment in each one. After the boys had printed the fourth copy,
they thought it was so well received that they ought to have a "real
paper." So they investigated and found that it would be possible
to have the paper printed in the shop. The first copy consisted of
only one page, but it continued to grow until it contained six pages.
The paper was published once a week and closed the year with a
Commencement Annual of sixteen pages. There were numerous
by-products of this project. We covered all our work in compo-
sition, in the writing of stories, poems, descriptions, editorials, per-
sonals, etc. Careful punctuation, spelling, and sentence-structure
were necessary. So we had to use our grammars. Arithmetic was
also very essential, for careful bookkeeping was needed. Subscrip-
tions had to be collected, bills sent out, contracts for advertising
were solicited and followed up. Then, too, our art lessons were
more interesting, for posters had to be made to advertise the paper,
and cartoons drawn for it. It also brought us nearer the home,
for parents were able by reading the paper to come more closely in
touch with the activities of the school and were interested in seeing
their own children's work in print. The greatest gain of all, how-
ever, was the fact that it gave the boys and girls something worth
while to write about, made them enjoy composition, and stimulated
them to do their best.

198. "A Monthly Paper"

(Reported b}r Agnes Snyder, Newark, Delaware)

The children read and discussed newspapers in class, learned

what are the essential parts of a newspaper, and decided to run a

monthly paper themselves. A committee was appointed to visit

the printing office of the village newspaper and inquire into the

122 THE TWENTIETH TEABBOOK

possibility of having their little paper printed there. The owner
agreed to do this if the children could turn in such copy as could
go to press and needed no supervision or correction from the
foreman.

The class discussed the general appearance of the sheet, and
agreed upon the size and number of pages of the paper, the size
and spacing of print for titles, for columns, the width of margins,
etc. Much calculation and measurement were involved in this.

The class also discussed the contents and finally selected
the following : editorial column, school-news by classes, athletics,
jokes, short stories and advertisements. Many newspapers were
examined before this decision was reached.

At a business meeting they selected and voted for editor-in-chief
and assistant editors, a staff of reporters, members of business
committee. A vote was also taken as to what to charge for a single
copy and what to charge a yearly subscriber.

During supervised study periods, the editorial staff composed
editorials, the reporters worked up their news-stories, jokes were
originated or recalled and written down, and short stories were
composed and written.

In the discussion periods each committee presented to the entire
class the work accomplished in the study period. The class rejected
and accepted as it saw fit.

In the instruction period the children were taught those specific
things that would aid them in producing the effects they were
desirous of making. These instructions included the selection of
a good topic, how to organize it into paragraphs, how to make each
paragraph strong and effective by arrangement, sentence structure,
diction and the like ; how to write original stories or how to write
good reproductions ; standards for selection of good jokes ; how to
write jokes in the most effective way and the like.

199. "A Weekly Paper"

(Reported by Alice B. Russell, State Normal College,

Dillon, Montana)

The pupils look upon this work with great interest. The class
chooses those who are best fitted for the different departments and

MATBBIALS FOB THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 123

for the position of business manager. The many mechanical details
are so well taken care of that very little supervision is needed by
the teacher. New editors are chosen for the different departments
each month. These editors in turn choose certain pupils to con-
tribute articles. In this way each one in the class contributes some-
thing to each issue. Usually no editor is allowed to choose the same
person to contribute to his department twice ; thus practice is given
to each one in the different types of work. The work of criticism
rests chiefly upon the editors, but those in the lower classes some-
times hand in criticisms. The teacher finds in this paper all sorts of
suggestions as to topics that have to be reviewed more carefully and
type errors that must be eradicated. A sample index of contents
will show the nature of the work.

Volume Four. Number Four, Feb. 19, 1920.

Editorials

The New Band in Dillon L. 8.

Spelling Contest J. W.

The New Klein Block M. 6.

Literary Department

Two Deer D. P.

An Unexpected Discovery. M. H.

The End of the Old Brewery D. P.

Black Ants P. C.

Society Notes

Shaw Family Left for Butte G. P.

8ociety Assembly Notes B. G.

jrprBo imi B . . . ••••••••••••••••••••••••«««»«x« \j»

Miss Hatch's Becital L. T.

Athletics

First Team Leaving for Butte C. P.

Junior Second vs. Seniors B. G.

Dillon vs. Butte W. K.

The Coming Game with Sheridan B. G.

The Game with the Juniors E. M.

Jokes

A New Name L. B.

A Strange Being L. B.

124 THE TWENTIETH TEABBOOK

200. "An Assembly Program on the History of the School* '

(Reported by M. L. Johnston, George W. Morris School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

The topic, "Morris School," was suggested to the class as one
of general interest. A discussion was held and it was decided to
find out the history of the building from its inception to the present
day, the change in the character of the school population, the
differences between the school activities of early days and of present
days. Committees were elected and each group was to be responsi-
ble for a certain part. The only school records available were the
registration slips of 1920 from which one group gathered informa-
tion concerning the present school population, and from which the
children worked out the percentages of foreign and of native-born
children. A second group wrote letters to ex-principals, teachers,
and former pupils of the school and asked for information concern-
ing the building and the use to which it had been put during the
Civil War. Another group visited a pupil of the first class which
attended Morris School, and from her obtained much interesting
data. After the papers were written, the class selected the papers
which could be given in the usual thirty-minute assembly period.
The work of collecting and preparing the data for the program was
accomplished in two weeks.

201. "Christmas Celebrations"

(Reported by Alma R. Gold, State Normal Training School,

Westfield, Massachusetts)

The class organized a club at the beginning of the year and
chose for their December work a study of Christmas celebrations in
various countries. Each pupil, having made his choice of the coun-
try to be investigated, made search for material, books, pictures,
etc., at his home, at the town library, and elsewhere, and then gave
an illustrated talk to the club. The project was of special value in
this class, composed largely of foreign children, since it gave oppor-
tunities for presenting first-hand knowledge, often supplemented
by actual reminders of the celebration — costumes, sweetmeats, etc.
The project was enlarged by the class selection of the most inter-

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOR BIGB 8CH00L 125

esting speakers to represent the room in a Christmas program in
the assembly hall, where, on the day before vacation, these pupils,
dressed in native costumes and provided with other illustrative
material, gave vivid accounts of Christmas in those countries
where they or their parents had lived.

202. "Class Day Exercises' '
(Reported by Carrie T. Booker, Atlanta, Georgia)

The class was organized; officers were elected; college com-
mencements were studied. A banquet, graduation with diplomas,
and class exercises, with a bonfire, were decided upon. The class
was divided into groups — one to finance, another to plan the ban-
quet, another to arrange the literary part, and still another to take
charge of the bonfire. After discussion, chairmen for the groups,
class historian, poet, prophet, trophy orator, executor of the will,
composer of class song, chaplain, pall bearers, and torch bearers
were elected. The music was supervised by the teacher of that
subject. A printing concern was visited by the teacher and finance
committee to get samples and quotations on diplomas. The prin-
cipal was consulted in regard to plans for raising the money ; the
Parent-Teacher's Association was consulted for the preparing of
the menu, and a florist was visited regarding decoration. Invita-
tions, and place cards for the sixth grade, and the school officials
were made by the class. Everything was done by the class groups,
supervised by the seventh-grade teacher, except the actual prepara-
tion of the food and the service at the banquet. The domestic science
girls of the Normal School served. Accurate accounts were kept
of all money spent ; money was deposited in the bank by the com-
mittees; the bills were paid promptly after the class had verified
each. A fund of two dollars and thirty cents was left in the treasury
and willed to the next seventh grade.

203. "A Pageant of Spring"

(Reported by Clara A. Dobbin, Baltimore, Maryland)
In preparing a suitable spring entertainment for our Patron's
Association, the following steps were developed in our seventh and
eighth grades :

126 THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

Step I. Class discussion of all types of entertainments that,
might prove satisfactory. All agreed finally upon a pageant having
a "Spring Motif."

Step II. Children and teacher brought in for examination and
criticism many plays, pageants, and books dealing with festivals
and festival making. Among them were "A Flower Wedding."
"Flower Wedding" was chosen for their play.

Step III. Discussion of plots based upon stories and plays read.
A plot was adopted. A little girl is overcome with sleep in a garden,
dreams she overhears the gossip among the wall flowers concerning
a wedding they had just witnessed.

Step IV. Class discussion of flowers and shrubs that could be
used as characters. This involved a trip to the woods and the
identification of many common wild flowers. The following were
selected:

Time, Four O 'Clock; Place, Steeple Bash Church; Belle, Blue
Bells; Minister, Jack-in- the-Pulpit; License Clerk, Solomon's Seal.

The Wedding: Bride, gowned in Lily White; Groom, Sweet
William; Train Bearer, Baby Blue Eyes; Matron of Honor, Orchid;
Bride's Maids, Pinks; Mother, Lavender.

Quests: Miss Daisy, Miss Phlox, Miss Bagged Robins, Miss
Marche Neil, Miss Rose La France, Miss Blue-Eyed Mary, Master
Johnny Jump-up, Miss Violet, Miss Black-Eyed-Susan, and Master
Bleeding Heart.

Befreshments : Partridge (Berry); Flavors, Mint and Sage;
Butter and Eggs; Sweet Peas, Snow Balls, Cherry Wine; Waitress,
Bouncing Bet.

Gifts: Lady Slippers, Pitcher (Plant), Butter Cups, Arrow Head,
Flags.

Step Y. Class divided into committees, each responsible for
the following items :

a. Staging — Worked out in manual training department; in-
volved preparing drawings to scale to report to class before actual
construction could begin. Many changes were worked out in
original plans after such discussions.

b. Composing the dialogue for the various characters. Many
lessons in English involved. Competitive prize offered for best
verses submitted for use in play. Several good ones were accepted.

c. Costuming the characters. Involved study of the flowers.
Making drawings to show design and coloring to class before actual

UATEB1ALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 127

work on material was undertaken. Many of the parents came to
the school daily to aid the girls in the actual work of seaming,
stitching, and the like.

d. Songs to be used in the play. Many were presented, class
made selections. These were taught under direction of instructor
of music.

e. Program-Making. Folders bearing original or copied de-
signs were submitted for class criticism. This lead to adoption of
some, rejection of others. Every child in the school wrote two (no
printing presses were available), and these were tied in the folder
for distribution to the patrons.

/. Booklet made by those children having cameras. These
children took pictures of the stage, of the characters and of some
striking scenes, arranged them in an attractive manner, and pre-
sented the booklet to the school.

204. "Earning and Spending Money for Graduating Expenses"

(Reported by Cora Campbell, Kansas City, Missouri)

It has always been the custom for the children of the seventh
grade in the Bancroft School to leave a graduating present with
the school and to pay for their own programs, ribbons, class party,
etc. Last year they felt that they should not ask their parents to
bear these expenses, so they decided to earn the money themselves.
There were two rooms of graduates. One room appointed leaders
who visited all the other rooms in the school, asked for reports as to
stores of old papers they might collect for sale, when such papers
could be called for, and what boys in the room had small wagons
they would rent for the use of collectors. They wrote to the firm
that purchases paper, and arranged for them to call at the school
at 2 o'clock on a stated afternoon. The morning of that day they
had all wagons engaged and ready, the district mapped out, boys
appointed to make all calls, girls to take the papers in and sort them
and tie into bundles, boys to weigh and stack, an accountant to
keep tally, etc. At two, all papers were ready for the purchaser.
The actual work took about three fourths of one day. The proceeds
were about $50.00.

128 THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

The other room decided to give a play. A little girl who was
a natural leader with a strong sense of the dramatic was appointed
stage manager. The play was chosen from the volume of dramas
written by Louise Alcott as a girl. The manager chose her cast,
drilled them, arranged for the school orchestra to give the open-
ing music and numbers between acts. The janitor and the manual
training boys put up a stage in the kindergarten room, draped
green curtains for the background, dressing rooms and stage cur-
tains. The manager, with her helpers, saw to the costumes, drilled
the players, and, with the cooperation of the room, and entirely
without teachers' assistance, gave the play. There were two per-
formances, one in the evening, one in the afternoon, so that pupils
and parents could both come. The proceeds were about $80.00.

The pupils designed book cases, one for each of the two rooms
in question, to fill spaces available for such use. They estimated
the amount of lumber necessary to build the cases, selected and
bought the hardware, and the glass for the doors. The boys visited
the lumber yards and personally selected the lumber. The manual
training boys of the two rooms built the cases, which are now in use
in the rooms.

The class appointed a committee to see the printer, and get bids
on the programs for the graduating exercises. They planned, or
selected, the make-up of the programs, and saw to distributing
them. Committees of children attended to purchasing the class
ribbons, and arranging for the decoration of the stage. The girls
made their own dresses, which the custom of the school decrees
shall be only a middy and a white skirt, with a tie of school colors.
The dresses were made in the sewing classes. Each girl purchased
her own material for her dress.

All the money remaining after the necessary expenses were
met, was used for a class party and dance one afternoon shortly
before graduation. The kindergarten room was cleared, the floor
waxed slightly, and the school orchestra engaged for the afternoon.
The girls had been conducting private dancing lessons for the boys
for several months, as a former party, about Easter, had indicated
a need for such training, and the physical director was willing to
supervise the lessons. A committee ordered refreshments and an-

MATEBIALS FOB THE JUNIOB HIGH 8CH00L 129

other committee served them. The entire management was in the
hands of the pupils. A treasurer's report, turned in at the last
class meeting, showed in detail all receipts from every source and
all expenditures, with a perfect balance.

205. "Choosing and Hanging a Picture for the Hall"

(Reported by Ploy Campbell, Kansas City, Missouri)

The class surveyed the halls to decide what spot most needed the
addition of a picture. After selecting the wall, pieces of cardboard
of various sizes and shapes were tried in place, to see which gave
the best proportion for the space selected. The color of the wall
was matched in watercolors, and the pupils made color schemes
which they thought would look well in a picture, against that wall,
and in the light that obtained there. These color schemes, while
merely daubs of color, or arrangements of colored paper without
form, were large enough to be seen at some distance. The schemes
were next tried against the wall, and the class voted for the most
agreeable ones. Some four or five were selected and several shapes
and sizes were chosen, also. A committee was appointed to visit
the art stores, and look over all prints in stock, and bring back to
school those that most nearly fulfilled the requirements of size,
shape, and color. When the pictures were tentatively selected by
the committee and were delivered, they tried them out by hanging
them on the spots of the wall previously selected, and those which
seemed unsuitable were sent back. The two or three pictures
thought to be good were left hanging in place for a week apiece,
the class meanwhile finding out all they could about the painter and
the meaning of the picture. At the end of the period the final vote
was taken, and the picture chosen was permanently framed and
hung.

206. "Decorating the Reception Room"

(Reported by Louise S. Steinway, Western State Normal School,

Kalamazoo, Michigan)

The pupils noticed that the reception room was not attractive.
It was a north room and the walls were decorated in a light grayish

130 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

green. Most of the furniture was green and the whole effect was
cold and cheerless. The children decided it needed warmer color
and draperies to make it more hospitable. Colors were discussed,
and after several samples of cretonne had been examined, the class
decided upon one which had a variety of warm colors. The cre-
tonne was used in draperies for the windows and doors, and in
combination with a neutral color, in making pillow covers, table
scarfs, etc Then the class discussed the value of putting a border
on the wall to relieve the monotony. They examined the cretonne
again, and using suggestions gained from this source, each child
made a stencil pattern for the border. The class chose the design
which they considered the best, and a stencil was cut. Then the
members of the class worked at spare moments painting the border.

207. "Earning Money to Buy Pictures for the Schoolroom' *

(Reported by A. Alice Nolan, Bockford, Illinois)

After much discussion on ways of earning money, the class
decided to form a corporation known as "The Blake School Com-
pany." A meeting was held and officers and board of directors
elected. As "it pays to advertise," sample candies were sent to
each room one week previous to the sale. Following this, a study
was made of the overhead expenses of a corporation, including
insurance (fire, liability, and life), taxes (real-estate, personal, and
income). The first sale was held when sugar was eleven cents a
pound and other materials corresponding in prices. The sale netted
a profit of 213 percent. All the candy was made under supervision
by firm-members in the domestic-science kitchen. Drill in multipli-
cation and division of fractions and whole numbers resulted. The
treasurer deposited in a local bank the money earned, and this led
to a study of banking. At the time of our second sale, the necessary
money was withdrawn by the treasurer. Owing to rapid advance
in costs, only about 70 percent profit was made. Two pictures were
purchased, and each pupil received par value for his stock before
the class entered the high school.

' A similar undertaking is reported by Mabel Miller, Kansas City, Kansas.
—Editor.

MATERIALS FOB THE JUN10B HIGH SCHOOL 131

208. "Comparing the School Marks of Boys and Girls"

(Reported by Drusilla Keller, Kansas City, Kansas)

Because of questions put to the class as to whether the boys or
the girls were doing the better work of the class, it was proposed
by a member of the class that a comparison be made of all the work
being done. Each member furnished his portion of the necessary
data. The percents of I's, II 's, Ill's, IV 's, and V's for each pupil
were found and these percents were graphed. The interpretation
of the graphs was made, and it revealed that the girls were doing the
better work. The data were also used for word problems made by
members of the class and used for practice in equation solving.

209. "A 'Better-Speech' Crusade"

(Reported by Katharine Gladfelter, Louisville Normal School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

This crusade was composed and staged by seventh- and eighth-
grade classes as part of a school program in connection with "Better
Speech Week." It was motivated by an attempt to eradicate the
most glaring class errors and to portray in a forceful way the ideal
of good English. The children first discussed the handicap of in-
correct English in business or social life. They then selected their
most glaring errors and pledged themselves to eliminate them. To
accomplish this and to convince their school-mates of the necessity
for waging active warfare upon the use of incorrect English, they
decided to write a play. After discussion of several ideas the frame-
work of the King Arthur stories, suggested by the teacher, was
chosen. The six class errors, "I Seen," "I Had Went," and so on,
thus became the villains of Bad Speech who were opposed by "I
Saw" and "I Had Gone," the Knights of King Arthur, or Good
Speech. The actual composition of the play was done orally by the
entire class of twenty-one children. They first outlined the story
and divided it into acts. The first act showed the departure of
the Knights of Good Speech on their quests in search of Bad Speech ;
the second, the contest ; and the third, the sentence imposed upon
Bad Speech. The next step was the creation of a cast of twenty-

132 THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

one speaking parts and the selection, by vote, of the children to
play those parts. The play was then acted out ; words and motions
were fitted to the story as previously conceived. Each child was
left free to create his own role, subject to the group criticism.
Necessary costumes and stage properties were made by the chil-
dren. Shields and helmets were made by all under the direction of
the art teacher, while swords were made by the boys in the work-
shop, and dresses by the girls in the sewing class.

210. "A Play for a Halloween Party"

(Reported by Sterling A. Leonard, The Wisconsin High School,

Madison, Wisconsin)

The ninth grade wanted to provide entertainment for a
Halloween party and several suggestions were considered. The
teacher proposed dramatizing Hawthorne's Feathertop, and read it
to the class. Here the suggestion was the teacher *s, because the class
could not have provided it

Scenes were at once planned, and the work divided so that sev-
eral pupils wrote each one. Much of the dialog (chiefly monolog)
in the first was already in the story, and so for the street scene and
the final, brief catastrophe. But most of the dialog of Justice
Gookin's house had to be imagined, and several pupils' efforts
were combined for this. The play when completed had in it some-
thing from each one in the class, contributed in writing or dis-
cussion, and each pupil had written at least one scene, in length
from two or three pages to ten or twelve. Early in rehearsal a boy
who had previously done poor work in English carried the hero's
part by acclamation. Btst understudies practiced for each place,
and in some cases contested it hotly, till the final rehearsal. No
one told any actor a gesture, word, or inflection; but the query:
"What sort of person was he?" or "How did he probably say or do
that?" was frequent, and various suggestions were made and tried.
The performance was thus wholly the pupils' cooperative attempt to
interpret ideas they formed of characters, costume, and setting.
Their gain was through trying to make the details fit the time and
idea of the story and the enunciation distinct for an audience of

MATEBIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 133

their friends ; the spirit of the whole was genuine and fine. Every
one had at least a line in the street scene, as well as work on prop-
erty, stage, or costume committee.

This play was adapted from Chapter IX of The Teaching of
Literature and Reading (forthcoming), by permission of The J. B.
Lippincott Co.

211. "A Study of Stories"

(Reported by Florence Bamberger, Johns Hopkins University,

Baltimore, Maryland)

Step I. A study of interesting short stories. Teacher told or
read several. The following assignments were made. "Bring to
class those stories you like. Be ready to read or tell them to the
class." The class enjoyed several periods in this way. Finally
the pupils asked if they might tell stories to other classes. Arrange-
ments were made for this to take place. Some of the children visited
the primary classes and found they had no stories of interest for
the young children. They returned and asked their teacher "What
kind of stories do little primary children like?"

Step II. A study of children's stories was made which resulted
in a selection of ten to be tried out on the children themselves.
Great success attended this second attempt. The eighth-grade chil-
dren then decided to write a story for the first-grade class, put it
into book form and present a copy of it to each pupil of that grade.

Step III. Helen Banncrman's story of Little Black Sambo
was selected as a model. The entire class made a careful study of
its plot, the climax of the story, the selection and arrangement of
details, the animals interesting to children it contained, the actions
and words of the little boy hero ; and the many attractive repeti-
tions occurring throughout the story which make so strong an
appeal to the little ones.

Step IV. A series of supervised study lessons in which the
children attempted to invent original plots using the model as a
guide, to weave a story around the plot, to secure good diction.
Discussions followed each study period. The children submitted
their ideas as to plot, arrangements, and the like. The class finally
agreed to accept certain parts and weave them into the class story.

134 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

As a result, a most ingenious little story entitled "Golden Haired
Letty," was evolved. This is a real story with a plot, a most
original climax, many quaint and interesting repetitive phrases,
and a little girl heroine, who has terrifying experiences in which
animals appear. While it bears a strong resemblance to its model
in plot, the situation and climax are distinctly original.

Step V. Committee work. Children with a talent for art
painted water-color illustrations in the book and on the cover.
Others wrote the story in the book. Enough copies were made to
distribute one to each first-grade pupil. These were placed at the
foot of their Christmas tree and formed a much desired gift.

212. "Dramatization of 'The Pied Piper' "

(Reported by Miss Nelle Warden, Portland School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

After class discussion, the pupils, under the direction of the
teacher, wrote a scenario of the entire play. Then followed the
dialogue, suggested by pupils, chosen after criticism and discussion,
written by the teacher on the blackboard, and lastly, copied by the
pupils. As the scenes were finished, each one was tried out by the
pupils, and altered if necessary. The pupils of the seventh grade
wrote the words to the song for the play; the teacher of music
taught them the song. The boys in the workshop made a "Ben
Greet" screen to serve as a background; they also made some of
the furniture. The play was presented at the school for the pur-
pose of defraying the expenses of a social given at the end of the
term. It was accepted by Popular Educator. The money is to be
given to the Victrola fund.

B. PROJECTS CONCERNED WITH COMMUNITY CIVIC INTERESTS

213. "An Americanization Club"

(Reported by Laura E. Ryan, Rockford, Illinois)

This club was organized by the class for the purpose of study-
ing the civic life of the community. Officers were elected and com-
mittees appointed to carry on the work—- one committee to invests

MATEBIALS FOB THE JUNIOB HIOH SCHOOL ]&

gate the Americanization work of other communities, one to inter-
view the heads of various civic organizations, and one to make a
general survey of our own district Letters were written to Cham-
bers of Commerce and Directors of Americanization in various parts
of the country. The vast amount of Americanization material re-
ceived was preserved in a large scrap book and formed the basis of
the work. In the classroom the committees gathered to exchange
information, discuss community problems and their solutions, and
to propose ways in which the Americanization club might help.

Heads of various civic organizations and city officials addressed
the club from time to time, outlining plans in which the club could
be a power for good in the community. Children were made re-
sponsible for actual labors to be performed. They furnished
Americanization pamphlets, books, and papers for the foreign homes
of the district, participated in the naturalization ceremonies at the
Court House and observed every national holiday throughout the
year in a manner most suitable to the particular significance of
the day. The club provided ample opportunities for practicing citi-
zenship and became a power for good in the community.

214. "The Government of Our City"

(Reported by Katherine C. McGaughey, Youngstown, Ohio)

On account of the great number of nationalities represented in
Youngstown, Americanization is a great and ever-increasing prob-
lem. Of all the agencies at work, the public schools seem to come
nearer to the heart of the situation. Because of these facts, we
chose to make the "Government of Youngstown" the project upon
which to build our Civic Course. Working through the Public
Library, the officials of the public buildings and court house, the
local members of Congress and Legislature, the children were able
to obtain an immense store of information. This was applied first
to the early history of the city and .its industries, their growth and
development, and in making comparisons with the present condi-
tions, giving reasons for the same. The local form of government
was studied ; committees of pupils made frequent visits to the City
Council, courts, police station, waterworks, parks, Butler Art

136 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Gallery, and wherever practical, actual reproductions of these
departments were dramatized in the classroom, for example, the
Council and Jury Trial. Comparisons were made from time to
time between the work of the branches of the various departments
of our city government with those of other cities. The practical
side of this was carried through a system of student control by
means of which pupils assisted materially in the school govern-
ment. This plan was found to work so well that it has been con-
siderably extended this present year. On the completion of the
city government the pupils found it an easy step to that of the
State and Federal Government, which was taught by comparison
with what they already had of local affairs. The pupils took the
initiative in all, as far as possible; the teacher only assisted in
organizing the work and in making necessary suggestions.

215. "Earning Membership in the Junior Bed Cross* '

(Reported by Jennie C. Bake well, Louisville Normal School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

It was decided by this eighth-grade class that enrolling as mem-
bers in the Junior Bed Cross Society was a question to be brought
before its Civic Club for discussion and settlement. Since a mone-
tary fee as well as certain work must be pledged, the Club decided
that an entertainment to raise the necessary amount must be given.
Two minute speeches and original verses on the theme of the
"Junior Bed Cross" were written by the English class and used
to help advertise the entertainment. A committee from the Club
submitted for class criticism its program consisting of a play and
tableaux. The play had been dramatized several weeks before by
the class from a story emphasizing service to country. The tableaux
represented the I}ed Cross posters and illustrations found by the
class in the Red Cross Magazine. Committees were formed to look
after each detail — tickets, door keepers, ushers, stage properties,
costumes, lighting, and so on. The result was enough money to give
the school a one hundred percent membership in the Junior Red
Cross Society and quite a large sum left over. The Club was con-
fronted now with a problem — more money than it needed. The

MATEBIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 137

members decided it should be used to enroll another school. A
letter was written to the superintendent asking information about
the various schools. The club acted upon recommendation of the
superintendent, and sent the money to the school he suggested. The
initiative and cooperation shown by this group of eighth-grade boys
and girls was one of the chief values of this piece of work.

216. "Our Park System' '

(Reported by Jennie C. Bakewell and Agnes Cavanaugh, Louisville

Normal School, Louisville, Kentucky)

This study grew out of a discussion among the children of the
way they had passed their leisure time during the summer vacation.
Questions asked by the children concerning the supervision and
' l up keep ' ' of the parks finally led to a profitable study of the * ' Park
System of Louisville." The class, after suggesting topics to be
investigated, divided itself into small groups for the work. Each
group chose the topic in which it was most interested. The park
commissioners were interviewed through writing. Older people in
the neighborhood were* consulted. Newspapers and magazines were
searched. All the information was assembled in book form and
presented to the library at the end of the study. Various groups
visited the different parks and reported to the class on the things
of interest, as trees, flowers, birds, animals, fountains, bridges,
statues, shelter houses and recreation grounds. Original nature
myths as well as nature poems were written. The class realized
the advantages to be gained from the city parks and were ready
to do their part toward making further improvements in the park
system.

217. "A 'Stay-in-School' Campaign"

(Reported by Jessie M. Law, Springfield, Massachusetts)

This experimental class was composed of lads who had found
the conventional high-school subjects so difficult that they had failed
in one or more and were obliged to stay an additional half year in
the Junior High School. The boys, however, furnished the best
kind of material for a group with which to discuss live problems,

138 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

because in the capacity of newsboys, errand boys in large factories,
or telegraph messenger boys, they had come in contact with the
business world and were more worldly wise than their teacher upon
certain business tactics. Among the subjects considered were dig-
nity of labor, conservation, and the H. C. L., business ethics, capital
and the trusts, labor and the unions, cooperation and profit sharing,
personal and family budgets, public office and the franchise. The
project method was pursued throughout the semester.

In the spring of 1920, Springfield, Massachusetts, conducted a
"Stay-in-School" campaign by movies, pamphlet propaganda, ser-
mons and lectures. The class chose this campaign as a subject of
study. In order to eliminate snap-shot judgments each boy was
given the following questions upon which to ponder over night:

1. Why do boys of fourteen leave school?

2. What places are open to boys of fourteen to sixteen f

3. What work is open to senior-high-school graduates f

4. What positions await college graduates f

5. What must a boy consider in choosing his life workf

The lads knew perfectly the motives which led their mates to
leave school. The chief one was the lure of high wages, they all
agreed. They opined that in some cases the money was actually
needed by the family, but they felt that in many instances the boy
wished more spending money for recreation. More than one of
the class thought there was a distinct advantage in starting early
to learn such a trade as printing or plumbing. The teacher at this
point got the class to discussing the dangers of 'dead alley 9 jobs.
One lad ventured the opinion that some fellows found school prosy,
but honest expression brought out the fact that this particular group
found in the curriculum rather more oases than plain desert sand.
In the consideration of the openings for the high-school graduate,
the old platitude that the lad of eighteen has to start upon the same
earning basis as the grammar-school boy was brought up. For-
tunately, Dr. Piexotto's tests of the New York situation furnished
adequate answer to the earning capacity of the comparative groups.
When the class arrived at the discussion of the managerial and pro-
fessional work open to college graduates, the boys took fire. Like

MATBBIAL8 FOB THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 139

Caesar, they were all * ' ambitious. ' 9 Each man saw himself a future
Bosenwald or a Dr. Mayo. The training necessary for expert work
was considered from the standpoint of kind of work, time, money,
and effort. Then the members of the class swung very naturally
into this line of thought: "What must I consider in choosing my
life work?" The discussion evolved these points: training for
future ability rather than for immediate compensation, the joy of
doing a thing well, better standards of living, thrift, service to the
community. These recitations were punctuated by illustrations of
such personal nature that they would never have passed the censor
and in a vernacular that would have shocked the purist.

Of course, the obvious criticism of this whole lesson is that it
is an inadequate treatment of so large a subject, but the answer
is that several lads admitted to their principal that they had re-
mained in school because of this same course in " social economics."

218. "A Cleanliness Campaign"

(Reported by Florence G. Billig, State Normal School,

Emporia, Kansas)

The fact that several pupils had been coming to school in an
untidy condition had been noted by many of the boys and girls. As
a result, in one of the science classes the question arose: "What
can we do to make everyone come to school clean and tidy?" After
some discussion, the class laid the situation before all the members
of the junior-high-school grades and asked their cooperation. After
a general discussion of the situation, it was agreed by every member
of the school that each pupil should come to school with his person
and dress clean and tidy. A committee consisting of members from
each class drew up general rules which were posted on the bulletin
board for one week in order that each boy and girl might study
them. At the following school assembly, the rules were accepted
without a dissenting vote. The committee also planned that a pro-
gram should be given every other week in the regular assembly
period in which topics as the following should be considered : the
care of the teeth, hands, hair, and clothing ; the value of soap, and
the making of soap. The members of the general committee were

140 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

elected to hold office for six weeks. When new officers were installed,
the outgoing officers gave a summary of the work which the class
had performed. At this time, also, the new officers stated what
they hoped to accomplish. The work was conducted by the various
committees during the entire year. By the close of the year's work
a health-index card had been worked out by the pupils. Copies of
this card, made by the State Printer, were filled out by the mem-
bers of the committee at the opening of the school term. Many
posters emphasizing cleanliness were made. Many rhymes were
written and used on the posters. From time to time articles and
rhymes relating to the work of the "Clean Up Committee" were
published in the school paper. Pupils spoke in Parent-Teachers'
meeting regarding the work. The plan of the campaign for clean-
liness, which was made and carried out entirely by the pupils, not
only served its purpose during the year, but was continued and
expanded the following year.

219. "The City's Water Supply"

(Reported by Eva T. Mason, George Rogers Clark School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

The school is located near the filter house. The question arose
as to why a city should have pure water. It was found that the
class did not have the necessary information to answer the ques-
tion satisfactorily, so a letter was written to the chief engineer
asking for literature on the subject and permission to visit the
plant. Another committee was formed to visit the City Health
Office and get data on the health situation in the city before and
since the installation of the filter. The class divided itself into
eight groups. Each group was made responsible for a certain phase
of the work and gave it to the class through its reporter and artist.

220. "The City's Milk Supply"

(Reported by Elizabeth D. Zachari, Louisville Normal School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

The class selected the project: "How Louisville attempts to
have the city provided with a pure milk supply." The class pre-

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 141

pared an outline which included the proper care of milk from the
milking until received by the consumer. The class then divided
into groups and began work on the topics. In some instances indi-
viduals worked out a topic Groups of individuals reported on (1)
visit to a certified dairy farm; (2) packing and care of milk in
shipment; (3) experiments or demonstrations by those reporting,
on (a) temperatures at which bacterial growth ceases, and (6)
pasteurization. These experiments were decided upon after the
class had visited a large dairy and had watched the process of pas-
teurization. Another group studied the work of the Health Depart-
ment in analyzing the quality of Louisville milk. The group then
made a graph of the results. Questions from the children led to a
study of the food values of milk compared with other beverages.
Experiments were sought which disclosed the composition of milk.
One group collected data for a graph showing the comparative fuel
value of milk, cocoa, tea, and coffee. A program, which consisted
of a summary of the project, was planned by the class and given.

221. "A Health Play"

(Reported by Jennie C. Bakewell and Gladys Wyatt, Louisville

Normal School, Louisville, Kentucky)

The class had suffered during the recent epidemic of "Spanish
influenza." They had studied causes and the means of controlling
such epidemics. As a civic duty, they expressed a wish to show
the community that the rules of the Board of Health should be
strictly enforced during times of communicable diseases. Their
problem was to choose the best medium, and after consideration
of possible ways, they decided to write a play. The plot of their
story was outlined and separated into four divisions. The first act
was then developed and written as a class exercise — the children
dictating and criticizing. The class next divided itself into three
groups ; each group assumed the responsibility of one act. When
the whole play was written, the chairman of each group submitted
his part for class criticism. When finished and accepted by the
class, the title "The Costly Party" was agreed upon. Shakes-
pearean dramas were consulted for form; government pamphlets

142 ' THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

and bulletins issued by the Board of Health were studied; phy-
sicians, district nurses, and lawyers were interviewed ; and a trial
in the common pleas court was witnessed in order to verify the sub-
ject matter and stage procedure. The English classes of the de-
partment were the critics during the rehearsals. The play was
given three times : first, to the English and science teachers of the
city; second, to the children and teachers of the public schools
during the Spring Health Pageant ; and third, to the school nurses
and members of the Board of Health.

222. "An Exercise in School Hygiene

»>

(Reported by Louise S. Steinway, State Normal School,

Kalamazoo, Michigan)

The exercise consisted in determining whether the classroom
occupied by the pupils had sufficient floor space, air space, and
lighting surface. Practical measurements, approximate and actual
were the important by-products of this project. In the civics class
the question of crowding in schools was discussed. This led to the
question of the conditions in their own schoolroom and whether or
not those conditions met the accepted standards. A committee of
the class reported the number of square feet of floor space, the num-
ber of the cubic feet of air space there should be on an average for
each child, and the ratio between the floor space and the surface of
window glass. The pupils then saw the need of gaining certain
room measurements. No yard stick was immediately available, and
the question of approximate measurements was raised and dis-
cussed by the pupils. This led to the discussion of measuring one's
pace or measuring with the arms extended. (The distance between
finger tips with arms extended horizontally is about equal with a
person's height.) The pupils discovered that the height of a room
could be judged by comparing the height of a person who stood
close to the wall with a total height. Several lessons were spent in
making actual and approximate measurements and the value of
each kind was noted*

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 143

223. "City Health Graphs"

(Reported by Julia M. Bay ha)

Various statistics were collected by the pupils from various
ources, chiefly the city health department. Special attention was
;iven to the death report of children. The idea of a scale was taught
md then used in the preparation of graphs. Each child selected
i list of statistics most interesting to him, and by using the scale,
>repared a graph. These graphs were used as material for a lesson
n hygiene, and afterwards were posted in conspicuous places for
he pupils of other places to observe.

224. "Acquiring Habits of Good Posture While Studying"

'Reported by Louise S. Steinway, Western State Normal School,

Kalamazoo, Michigan)

The class discussed the importance of straight bodies and well-
leveloped lungs as a means of keeping well. This led to a realiza-
ion of the need of sitting in good position when working. They
lecided it was difficult for a person to find out for himself if he were
itting in a healthy posture, so the Physical Training teachers were
nvited to come in and watch them at work. The pupils did not
mow when they were being observed and as a result assumed their
justomary postures. The next day the pupils were taken indi-
ridually and told their weaknesses and how to correct them. Cer-
ain defects in posture were common to many members of the class.
Phey discussed the evil results of these incorrect postures, and a
campaign to rectify them was planned. Individual troubles were
igain discussed privately with the teacher of the room, and a
nethod of correcting the difficulties was formulated and carried
rat by the pupils individually with the help of teacher and friends.

225. "A Supplementary Text for Community Civics"

(Reported by Sarah Mark Imboden, Decatur, Illinois)

A text for use in home geography has been written by the pupils
in Grades V to VIII, inclusive, of the schools of Decatur, Illinois.

144 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

The book contains eleven chapters of 192 pages. The table of con-
tents is :

I. History of Decatur

II. Decatur as an Educational Center

III. Institutional Decatur

IV. Industrial Decatur

V. Decatur's Transportation Facilities

VI. PubUc Buildings

VII. Churches and Civic Organizations

VIII. Decatur Department Stores

IX. Government of Decatur

X. Beautiful Decatur

XI. Future of Decatur

The information was gained through observation, study and re-
search. Where it was impracticable to visit a factory, the necessary
data were gotten by the pupils by writing letters to the heads o£
concerns, listing questions that they wished answered, or as in many
cases, inviting the person to talk to them. In many classes English
and geography were thus motivated for a period of three months.
All of the art work, which includes cover design and tail pieces to
chapters, was done by the pupils of the junior high school. One
hundred copies were also hand-bound by the same pupils. Two
thousand copies of the book were published at the cost $1,300. In
a vigorous four-day campaign, 1,200 copies were sold to children,
parents, and citizens at $.75 per copy.

226. "The School Service Club"

(Reported by Alberta Rowell, George Rogers Clark School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

The 8-A class has been organized as a club for two years. Offi-
cers are president, vice-president, secretary, treasurer, and business
director (teacher). At the suggestion of the director, the club
undertook four kinds of services for the term (community, school,
patriotic and charitable). As a community service, a committee
volunteered to assist smaller children across two dangerous corners
near the school. As a school service, the boys undertook to see that
the playground was in readiness each day for directed games. They
removed grass, marked off and lined three volley courts, they put
up and take down nets daily and see the balls are placed on triangle,

MATBB1ALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 145

corner, scrimmage, end-ball and volley courts. The club appointed
a committee of girls who provide our assembly room with cut flowers
and plants. The girls volunteered to act as waitresses at Parent-
Teacher luncheons. They addressed post cards to parents of the
entire enrollment inviting them to Parent-Teacher meetings. As a
patriotic duty, the club decided to show respect to the American
flag and national hymn on all occasions. As a charitable duty, the
members of the club contribute weekly from their allowance to the
school milk fund for providing indigent children of a neighboring
school with daily milk. The girls are making scrap books and joke
books for the Children's Free Hospital and the Children's Ward of
the City Hospital. All of these duties are still being actively per-
formed.

227. ''Establishing a Quiet Zone Around the School Building' '

(Reported by Irma B. Spangler, Emporia High School,

Emporia, Kansas)

The class in Community Civics had completed the study of the
city and had drawn plans for an ideal city with a civic center, well-
located school buildings, hospitals, restricted zones, quiet zones,
and other features which make a city safe, convenient, and beau-
tiful. For several days the class had been disturbed by heavy
trucks passing the schoolhouse. To the class it seemed as if the
noise interrupted the recitation and distracted study for several
minutes daily. Finally, one day, one of the pupils exclaimed: "I
don't think this school is well located." "Why not?" was asked.
"Because it is so noisy here all the time. " The class then discussed
what could be done about the situation. Several remedies were sug-
gested, until one boy said that he couldn 't see why a quiet zone
would not be placed around the high-school building. The class
thought this a valuable suggestion. Then arose the problem of the
method by which to secure such a zone. A petition was suggested,
and the class undertook for the next day to find out how a petition
should be written and to whom it should be addressed. Each mem-
ber of the class was then to submit a petition. This was done, and
a committee elected to read the petitions and select the best one.
The committee reported the best ones, but the class was not satis-

146 TEE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

fied. The petitions seemed weak because there were no facts upon
which to base definite statements. A pupil suggested that the class
find out just how much the time lost cost the tax payers in money.
Accordingly, committees were appointed. Some who had watches
were appointed to keep account for a week of the time actually lost
each day. Another committee was to interview the superintendent
and learn how much each child cost the school. The third com-
mittee was to take these two sets of facts and discover how much
the time lost per pupil cost the city in a whole year. Still another
committee was to find out how many and what signatures were
necessary to the petition. The committees all reported on the same
day. The petitions were then rewritten and a committee selected
the best one. This was typewritten by two members of the class
and given to another committee to secure signatures. When this
had been accomplished, the petition was presented to the mayor by
three members of the class. This project, by allowing the pupils to
use their newly acquired knowledge and by stimulating them to
seek further knowledge, made Community Civics a subject alive
and of active interest to the class. By working upon the petition,
the children realized the right and duty of every citizen to be inter-
ested in his city and make helpful suggestions. By carrying the
project to completion the pupils learned the process provided by
a democratic government by which a citizen may in a peaceful and
lawful manner take steps to remedy laws or conditions which are
obnoxious to him.

228. "An Election"

(Reported by Irma B. Spangler, Emporia High School,

Emporia, Kansas)

. The class had been studying nominations and elections and
were confused as to the function of the primary election.

In working out plans for the two elections the class discovered
that there were many things it would have to know before it could
carry out the project. Therefore, committees were appointed to re-
port concerning the registration of voters, nomination by petition,
form of ballot, officers and conduct of elections. These committees
reported the following day, when election officials were appointed,

MATERIALS FOB TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 147

ballots made ; aspirants for office secured signatures to their peti-
tions, and registration took place. On the third day both the pri-
mary and general election were held. In working out and carrying
through this project the students realized the need of the different
steps in the nominations and election procedure which became
actualities to them rather than mere definitions. By taking part in
both elections the pupils understood clearly the function of the two
elections.

C. PROJECTS CONCERNED WITH GENERAL CIVIC AND

PATRIOTIC INTERESTS

229. "An Historical Museum"
(Reported by Francis Forsaith, Boston, Massachusetts)

While studying the early history of Boston my pupils made a
really valuable collection of material relating to that period, con-
sisting of pictures, magazine articles, brochures, etc. Besides
soliciting from relatives and friends, they wrote to several banks
and business houses of the city, from which they secured many
interesting contributions.

We found this an excellent method of correlating history and
English. The pupils came to realize (some, possibly for the first
time) the importance of being able to produce a courteous, well-
written letter.

230. "An Assembly Program on Famines"

(Reported by Pearl A. Yocum, Gavin H. Cochran School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

After somewhat intensive studies in geography and science of
the physical features, resources and existing conditions in many
countries of war-torn Europe, as well as special studies, such as
wheat of the United States, Cochran girls and boys proposed a pro-
gram on "Famines" for the benefit of an audience of several classes.
They planned to present the program mainly as a tableau, supple-
mented by discussions and advice as to how America should aid in
the problem of reconstruction. The class was divided by the class
president into four committees to present bread, meat, butter, and

148 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

sugar conditions of the world, to stress world needs, and to show
the nations that should come to the rescue. Each of these com-
mittees secured loaves of bread, grocers ' advertising meats, such as
hams and bacon, butter on dishes, and sugar in bowls to make the
situation vitally interesting and concrete. One committee pre-
pared the slogans, diagrams, graphs, and maps of famine areas.
The entire class eagerly searched newspapers and magazines for
reports regarding the famine stricken countries and provided some
valuable information for the occasion. One of the articles of great
interest was on the potato crop of 1918-19. The presentation met
with marked success and true class satisfaction.

231. "How to Help Starving Children in Poland and Armenia"

(Reported by Louise S. Steinway, Western State Normal School,

Kalamazoo, Michigan)

Much interest was aroused by hearing a lecture by Jane Addams
on the suffering of the children in the war-stricken countries of
Europe. The pupils decided something must be done by them to
alleviate this suffering, and a committee was appointed to interview
Miss Addams and ask advice. Her suggestion led to the pupils 9
writing to their congressmen at Washington requesting that they
do what they could to get our government to provide relief for the
suffering and starving people in Europe and contiguous countries.
The class decided to raise money to send to Mr. Hoover, who was
in charge of the distributing of the funds raised for the starving
children. In the course of the next six weeks many letters were
written to Mr. Hoover, Miss Addams, and others. The pupils
raised the question : "To what countries shall we send our funds?"
Poland and Armenia were chosen. The decision was based upon
knowledge gained in classes in current events and geography and
upon the feeling that the Poles and Armenians were friends of the
United States. Several lessons in geography resulted from a desire
to know more about the countries to which the money was to be
sent. This knowledge was afterwards used to good advantage in a
stereopticon lecture given to earn money. The interest in current
events was materially stimulated. Practical work in mathematics

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL \4Q

resulted from their efforts to raise money. Graphs were kept to
show the progress of the three teams which had been organized to
increase interest. Lessons on thrift resulted from a desire to see
how much could be saved from allowances. The children studied
methods of keeping accounts of money received and spent. Methods
of sending money were discussed. Business experience was gained
from buying and selling pencils and post cards designed by the
teacher of art. They learned how to finance a play and a stereopti-
con lecture.

One of the means of earning money to send to the starving
children in Poland and Armenia was the giving of a play. Choos-
ing a play stimulated the work in reading. Many stories were read
in the effort to find one that could be dramatized successfully.
The class finally chose "The Courtship of Miles Standish." The
poem was studied, dramatized, and produced. The pupils assumed
practically all of the responsibility. The art periods were used in
making posters to advertise this play and also to advertise the candy
sales and the stereopticon pictures. The scenery was also made in
the drawing classes. A knowledge gained in classes in cookery was
applied in making candy for the candy sale. The printing group
made tickets. The typewriting class wrote some of the letters and
notices. Many lessons in ethics resulted leading to discussions in
the following questions: (1) "Is it right to help your enemies ?"
(2) "Should children be allowed to suffer for the wrong doing of
others ?" (3) "Is getting money from people who can afford to
give and don't as worthy as getting it from one's own manual
labor?" (4) "Is it honest to sell something for more than its real
value, if you are giving the profits to a worthy cause?" (5) "Is it
fair to use social disapproval to make a slacker in your group do
his share?" (6) "Is it necessary to be able to tell just how much
you received from people solicited?"

232. "Civil Service vs. the Spoils System"

(Reported by Clella Stufft, State Normal College,

Dillon, Montana)

Pupils suggested the kinds of positions locally which are a part
of this department, civil service. The pupils wrote these on the

160 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

board as suggested, and volunteer groups, or sometimes pupils in
rows, acted as committees to investigate personally the postoffice
department, mail carrier's department, mail clerk's work on pas-
senger trains, and forest service office. Some worked in groups to
secure material on the Indian reservation work in the state, while
others worked to show how the government work was handled under
the old system and to show why the new method was an improve-
ment over the old. The group chose members to give one report,
and after all the reports were given, several pupils summarized the
points necessary for the conclusion of the project. The materials
were organized and put in good English. Friendly and helpful
criticisms and group responsibility developed.

233. "A Pageant Representing the Pioneer Period in Wisconsin' '

(Reported by Louise W. Mears, Normal School,

Milwaukee, Wisconsin)

The entire work was performed and planned by the pupils. The
materials for the pageant were furnished by the members of the
class and discussed daily by them for several weeks.

The work was motivated by a contest in pageant-writing, con-
ducted by the Wisconsin State Teachers' Association. The best
Wisconsin pageants were to be presented at the meeting of the
State Teachers' Association.

234. "A Pageant of Old St. Louis"

(Reported by Cornelia A. Forbes, Ben Blewett Junior High School,

St. Louis, Missouri)

This pageant grew out of interest aroused by reports given on
"What my grandparents remember about St. Louis," gathered
from personal interviews made by members of the civics classes.
They then went to work to give these pioneers a glimpse of St.
Louis before their time. This led to the pageant.*

"Details of procedure were similar to those described for other pageants
reported in this volume. — Editor.

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 151

>!

235. "The Making of Americans

(Reported by Mrs. John A. Baird, Eastern Departmental School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

Each child in the class related all information available as to
when, whence, where, why, and how the ancestors of both parents
came to America. Pictures of different races of Europe were
exhibited ; nativities of ancestors were located on maps of Europe ;
manners and customs of foreign nations and their effect upon
American life were considered. Graphs showing how their class,
composed of one hundred percent Americans, derived from many
different races, were prepared by the children. Under the topic of
"Americans by Choice," the lives of the following naturalized citi-
zens were reviewed : Alexander Hamilton, Albert Gallatin, Stephen
Girard, Edmund Genet, Carl Schurz, John Ericcson, Louis Agassiz,
Andrew Carnegie, James Hill, Jacob Riis, S. S. McClure, Edward
Bok, Mary Antin, Theodore Thomas, Mme. Schumann-Heink,
Nazimova, and Anna Howard Shaw. Copies of first naturalization
papers were obtained from the Customs House and were made out
by the children. Some of the children displayed the second papers
of their forebears. Pictures, newspaper clippings, and magazine
articles dealing with immigration and Americanization were put
in note-books and discussed by the class. Maps showing propor-
tion of foreign elements in the United States, and diagrams indi-
cating the line of increase or decline of immigration since 1820
were prepared and explained. After study of the immigration
problem, themes were written on the following topics: "How I
Came to be an American," "The United States, the Melting Pot of
the World," "The Old and New Immigration," "Desirable and
Undesirable Immigrants," "The Soviet Ark," "Our Immigration
Laws," "How to Become a Naturalized Citizen," "Ellis Island, the
Front Door of America," "The Immigrant at Ellis Island," "Pres-
ent Congestion at Ellis Island," "Where the Immigrant Goes and
Why," "The Yellow Peril," "Why so Pew Post-War Immigrants
Come to Louisville," "Our Interest in the Immigration Problem,"
"The Promised Land," "Immigration and Labor," "Americans by
Choice," "America, the Land of Opportunity."

152 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

236. "Our American League"

(Reported by Ida M. Bennett, State Normal School,

Trenton, New Jersey)

The idea of what constituted a real American arose in a class
discussion one day. The class then decided to form an American
League. This league project required the use of several subjects.
The following points indicate only a few of the many ways by which
the idea was carried out.

1. Opening Exercises. Bules for self government worked out,
American ideals discussed, independence in managing of program.

2. History. Study of real Americans both past and present.
What made them real Americans.

3. Art. Working out of American posters and slogans, choosing
of class colors, block printing for materials for room, designing of
programs for American festivals, costumes for a play, "America
First. ' '

4. Industrial Arts. Making of booklets to be sent to soldiers,
making of articles needed in room, garden work.

5. Nature study. A good American must be strong: How can
we become strong. Good health posters.

6. English. American League Pledge, writing of play of
"America First," planning of programs for American Holidays,
planning to entertain our friends (other grades) and our parents.

7. Music. American songs, National and Folk songs. The class
learned some of the Negro Christmas melodies as well as some of the
folk songs of the foreign born.

8. Beading and Literature. Beading of classics for grade, indi-
vidual books read and reports made by class. Headings from current
magazines. For the literature we not only had many of the early
American folk stories, but also stories about the making of the foreign-
born into real Americans. Of course, the children were much interested
in talking over the Promised Land and many other stories by Ameri-
cans by adoption.

237. "Dramatization of the Constitutional Convention"

(Reported by Cornelia A. Forbes, Ben Blewett Junior High School,

St. Louis, Missouri)

Each member of the class impersonated a prominent member
of the convention. Groups representing each state made badges,
banners, etc., to designate their respective states. Each representa-
tive formulated his opinions on each point discussed in the con-
vention from his reading "Madison's Journals of the Constitutional
Convention." Individual references to Journals, committee plan-

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 153

ning, etc, were accomplished during two recitation periods of the
week; the last was taken up with the dramatization of the con-
vention. The three features stressed by dramatization were the
Compromises on Representation (which took two dramatization
periods), the Presidential discussion and Compromises, and the
Report of the Committee on the writing of the Constitution, to-
gether with the Signing. The teacher was consulted only on the
most difficult problems of selection from the Journals and in giving
the previous drill for parliamentary procedure. The class after-
wards engineered the working out of a school self-governing code
of laws.

238. "History Booklets on Kansas"

(Reported by Zoe A. Thralls, State Normal School,

Pittsburg, Kansas)

"Why is Kansas an attractive state for home-seekers t" With
no textbook and only a few reference books, the class decided to
make a book of Kansas and work out the material as they went
along. Each pupil got two note-books, one for rapid notes in class
and the other for permanent record, and a map of Kansas.

The first project which the class worked out was: "Why is
Kansas an attractive state for home-seekers V 9 In working this
out the class covered the geography of Kansas through climate, soil,
water, surface advantage of location, etc. Then the class turned to
the history, tracing out the early Spanish and French explorations
and their influence in making Kansas known to the world. They
also compared their accounts of Kansas with conditions as we know
them to-day. The old trails were of special interest. The Santa
Pe and the Oregon were traced, and reasons were given for their
location and stories of the trail told. Important incidents of the
state as a territory and its struggle to become a state, and inci-
dents in it» statehood were collected. Usually the class selected
incidents that marked Kansas as a leader, as, for example, the pro-
hibition movement, women's suffrage, and the industrial court
law.

After completing the historical side, the class returned to the
geographical. The pupils wanted to know Kansas' rank among
other states among agriculture, mining, and manufacturing. So the

154 THB TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

different products were studied, and product maps were made. The
final work was on the cities of Kansas. Each member of the class
selected one of the larger cities and was responsible for an adver-
tising booklet on his chosen town, which he made and presented to
the class. Some of the booklets would have given excellent sug-
gestions to a Chamber of Commerce.

239. "A Pageant of the States"

(Reported by Margaret J. Long, Rockford, Illinois)

An original pageant entitled "Our Union of Forty-eight
States," was worked out and staged by the pupils. Banners, posters,
and sashes lettered with the names of the states were designed and
made by the pupils under the supervision of the art teacher. Appro-
priate costumes were designed and made, or secured by the pupils
assisted by the teachers. The special stair platform was made in
the manual training department by the boys, and the tickets were
printed by the boys in the print shop. The pageant was a blending
of story, song and poetry in such a way as to make a pleasing and
lasting impression of the history, growth and development of our
country into forty-eight states, with a brief tribute paid to Wash-
ington, Lincoln, and Our Flag. More than one hundred dollars
were raised for school purposes.

240. "The Sailing of the Mayflower"

(Reported by S. E. Lovell, Lowell, Massachusetts)

A play was written and staged by the class entitled * ' The Sail-
ing of the Mayflower, ' ' from ' ' The Courtship of Miles Standish. ' '
The object was to celebrate the Pilgrims ' Tercentenary. (Details
omitted as similar in spirit to other projects here described.)

D. PROJECTS CONCERNED WITH A VOCATIONAL AND

CULTURAL INTERESTS

241. "The Arithmetic of the Sport Page"

(Reported by Mary A. Ruth, Horton, Kansas)

The keen interest felt by the boys concerning the outcome of
the world series was turned into mathematical channels by using

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOB HIGH 8CH00L 155

the various figures given as the basis for much interesting work in
beginning the study of literal equation. We figured the standing
of the teams in the various leagues, the batting average and the
fielding percentage of the various players, first working out the
formula and then using the figures obtained from the newspapers.

242. "A Pantomime Written and Staged by the Class

»»

(Reported by Louise S. Steinway, Western State Normal School,

Kalamazoo, Michigan)

The class was unexpectedly requested to participate in the cele-
bration of Shakespeare's birthday. The class contribution was to
be a unit in itself and was to consume not over twenty minutes.
The acoustic properties of the hall were bad. The audience was to
be large, and the pupils had only four days in which to prepare a
program. After discussing all of these phases of the problem, the
class divided itself into groups of six each and planned a line of
action. Reports were then given and the best plan was chosen and
carried out. The pupils decided to give a pantomime because it
would be impossible for most of them to make themselves heard,
and they would not have time to learn speaking parts. They chose
the Fairy Scene from "Midsummer Night's Dream' ' which had
been read in Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare a few weeks before.
They adapted this part to meet the needs of the occasion, then
selected the actors and actresses, and chose the best reader in the
class to read the story. The costumes in the school property room
were supplemented by the children and their older friends. The
physical training teacher taught the fairies a very simple dance.
The latter part of the program was a musical selection, Mendel-
sohn's Overture to Midsummer Night's Dream. After the reader
had given a few words of explanation about this selection, he played
it on the Victrola. This composition had already been studied by
the class in connection with the reading of the play and the short
talk about it was a result of this work.

156 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

243. "Organizing a Beading Table"

(Reported by Jane Holm, Atchison, Kansas)

Most of the pupils in these classes knew very little about any
kinds of magazines except the Farm and Fireside and McCaJl's
Weekly. The teacher presented some attractive copies of new maga-
zines to them and immediately their curiosity was aroused about
the contents. Just before this, the classes had organized by elect-
ing a president, secretary, and treasurer, and they had learned the
order of business. Accordingly, the pupils decided to use this
organization in carrying out the reading table project. They voted
to pay dues every two weeks, each one paying ten cents the first
time and any convenient amount later. They further voted to use
this money to purchase magazines. In order to have this reading
matter where it could be used, one boy brought a good-sized reading
tabic, which was placed in the front of the room with two chairs
near. The first lot of magazines included: Geographic Magazine,
The Outlook, Popular Mechanics, Asia, Travel, Review of Reviews,
Baseball, Current Opinion, American Boy, World's Work, Kansas
City Star, etc. Following this, almost everyone purchased a new
magazine or reported that they were going to subscribe for some
magazine of their choice. We use this reading material every day
in our class work. At the passing periods the reading corner is
crowded and quiet. On Friday afternoons the Social Science Club
uses some of this material for current events. Some pupils have
asked the teacher to nominate them as members in the National
Geographic Society. Others have mentioned other magazines in
which their parents were becoming interested. Most of the homes
from which these pupils come had very little if any reading matter
in them before this project was undertaken.

244. "Illustrating Life in Egypt by the Use of the Sand Tray"

(Reported by Alice Corwin, Monsarrat School,

Louisville, Kentucky)

Egypt was studied intensely. Much outside reading was done.
Numbers of pictures were collected and studied very carefully. The
class was then divided into groups. For several days at recesses

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HlGB SCHOOL 157

these groups met for work. Each group was responsible for all
necessary material. Pyramids, obelisks, and a sphinx were made
out of plaster of Paris. Plasticine was molded into caravans,
natives, wells near the oases, etc. A complete irrigation system
was shown. The whole was assembled upon the sand tray as
artistically as possible. The finished product was displayed in a
class period when each pupil told the history or use of his contribu-
tion and its bearing upon Egyptian life. This was voluntary out-
side work in which the teacher played no part at all, except to sug-
gest reference books or to decide a question of perspective or some-
thing similar.

245. "A Reading Club"'

(Reported from the State Normal Training School,

Westfield, Massachusetts)

In order to promote an interest in outside reading that shall
continue beyond grammar-school life, especially in the case of those
whose course ends with the grades, the pupils of the eighth grade
are formed into a club (with a name of their own choosing) for
reading ten of thirty books in a list selected and published by the
principal. The course is to be finished in one year, and its com-
pletion brings the reward of a certificate signed by the principal and
the room teacher and presented with the graduation diploma — u
certificate by no means lightly earned, since it stands for some sort
of written commentary on each book read, and a more formal and
comprehensive examination when the course is finished.

The club meetings are held monthly and their conduct is modeled
on accepted forms. The pupils learn parliamentary procedure,
and! under the teacher's careful supervision, they make and carry
out their own programs. One book makes the subject for each
meeting. A roll call, briefly responded to by each member, gives
information as the program demands, of the author's life or some
other pertinent topic. The one or two chief speakers are, of course,
those who have chosen to read the book assigned for the day. Their

'One of the projects omitted from this section describes plans for stimu-
lating the use of good books for borne reading. It was submitted by Louise
Steinway, Kalamazoo, Michigan. — Editor.

158 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

talks are often supplemented by readings and dramatizations based
on the text. Occasionally, two pupils prepare a conversation upon
the book with the object of thus acquainting the others with its
contents.

The project is still young, but it is confidently believed that it
will be most effective in developing a lasting love for good reading.

246. " A Kaffir Village in Miniature"

(Reported by Bertha King Mason, David Prince Junior High

School, Jacksonville, Illinois)

The class was studying Africa and I wanted them to get a clear
idea of the life of the people in a primitive village. The pupils
secured pictures of the people and homes of the natives of Central
Africa, and I procured a book at the Public Library giving a
description and pictures of a Kaffir village. Interest in this work
led the pupils to ask to be allowed to make the Kaffir village in
miniature on the sand table. All of the members of the class con-
tributed material and a group of pupils carried on the work. They
made circular huts of cardboard covered with clay, and roofs were
covered with corn husks for thatch. Kettle-shaped containers were
made of cardboard covered with bark. These held the grain for
the tribe. The entire village was arranged in the form of a circle,
with a circular enclosure in the middle for the live stock of the
tribe. One palisade inclosed the live stock, and another inclosed the
village. The water supply for the tribe was a spring at a little
distance from the village. It was made on higher ground, and a
lake made with a small mirror was just below the spring. A forest
made of twigs of trees surrounded the village outside the palisade.
I assisted by giving suggestions as to the proportions and materials
used and by blackboard drawings. I also helped the class make
the proper arrangement of their village.

247. "The Tales of the Wayside Inn"

(Reported by A. L. McGregor, Washington Junior High School,

Rochester, New York)

The pupils were seated in seven rows. Each row read one of
the following poems from Longfellow: Paul Revere' $ Ride, The

MATEB1AL8 FOB TEE JUNIOB HIGH 8CH00L 159

Fdcon of Sir Federigo, The Vision Beautiful, Robert of Sicily, The
Birds of KiUingworth, The Bell of Atri, The Monks of CasaL
Maggiors.

The meeting at the Inn was then dramatized. One pupil repre-
sented the landlord, and seven represented the guests who tell the
stories. Each row was allowed to choose its own representative to
tell the story read by that row. When all stories had been told the
pupils voted upon the most interesting story and this story was read
to the pupils.

248. "A Robert Louis Stevenson Program* '

(Reported by A. L. McGregor, Washington Junior High School,

Rochester, New York)

Interest was created in this project by showing a copy of the
St. Gaudens bas-relief of Stevenson writing while propped up in
bed. The class read "Treasure Island." Individual pupils read
the "Master of Ballantrae," " Kidnaped' ' and "Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Hyde," reporting upon them to the class. A committee of three
pupils searched Stevenson's essays for quotations giving evidence
of the optimistic spirit. Another committee selected and read let-
ters from the "Vailima Letters." One pupil prepared and pre-
sented an account of Stevenson's life, bringing out its heroic quali-
ties. A committee of ten read selections from the "Child's Garden
of Verses." The class memorized the "Prayer at Morning" and
the "Requiem." A Stevenson program was given before another
class as a culmination of the study.

249. "Enlarging Vocabularies"

(Reported by Louise S. Steinway, Western State Normal School,

Kalamazoo, Michigan)

As a result of reading some excellent descriptions and of trying
to entertain the class by giving one, a group of pupils suggested
that one spelling period in every two or three weeks be given to the
study of new words, that their vocabularies might be made adequate
to their need. The pupils suggested that the words be taken from
daily reading or from words heard in conversation. When a pupil

160 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

saw or heard a desirable word lie wrote it in a note book. The day
before the lesson, about eight words were written on the board by
the pupils, the teacher having previously decided what words should
be chosen from the many submitted. Each pupil was responsible
for teaching the class the word he wished added to their vocabu-
laries. He gave the word in a sentence, its meaning and derivation
when it could be linked with something already understood, the part
of speech and an explanation of any difficulties in pronunciation or
spelling. Other pupils were then asked to give sentences using the
word. At the close of this lesson or at the next one each pupil was
asked to put all the words in sentences. Dictionaries were fre-
quently used to settle discussions and doubts.

250. "A Lesson at the Zoo"

(Reported by P. Crecelius, St. Louis, Missouri)

The class made a trip to the "Zoo," which is located in a park
near the school. This was in the nature of a general observation
lesson ; the pupils were permitted to wander about at will, stopping
to observe anything that interested them. The following day the
class was divided into four groups, each group to study one animal
that had seemed particularly attractive. The animals finally de-
cided upon by the children were the lion, the Polar-bear, the Vir-
ginia deer, and the elephant. Each group chose one of its members
to act as leader. The following outline was planned in class with
the aid of the teacher, and each pupil carried a copy to refer to
when the class returned to the Zoo the next day.

1. Form.

a. What is his general shape f

b. What is the shape of his beadf
c Describe his footprints.

d. Describe his eyes (size, color, expression)

e. Can you see his teeth f What use does he make of themf

2. Color.

a. What is his chief color f

b. Has he any special markings f Can you describe or draw themf

8. Movements.

a. Describe his walkf

b. Can he run fastf What makes you think sot

c. Can he jumpf

d. How does he move when he eatsf

e. How does he move when he is frightened f

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOB EWE 8CE00L 161

4. Odor.

a. Has he any distinguishing odorf

b. Does this help or hinder him in any wayf

5. Food.

a. What does his keeper feed himf

b. What does he eat in his native haunts f

6. Care of Young.

a. How does he care for his young t

b. How does he protect them from enemies f

e. Does he provide a homef Can you find out what it is liket

7. His Value.

a. Is he worth anything to manf

(1) Good to eatf

(2) Furnish fur or leather?

(3) Can he do workf

(4) Does be protect man in any wayf

(5) Should man protect himf

b. Is he harmful to manf

(1) Is he dangerous f

(2) Does he destroy plants or animals that are necessary to manf

After the second trip to the Zoo, the pupils were encouraged to
resort to books for information which they could not get by observa-
tion. Each group then organized the information for the final
report which was made to the class by the leader.

251. "A Winter Bird Study"

(Reported by P. Crecelius)

The pupils were asked to observe the birds for a week and keep
a list of the birds they saw in the vicinity of their homes. In case
they were unable to recognize the bird, they were told to look for
some distinguishing feature such as the color, unusual size or shape,
topknot, etc. They were able in most cases to establish its identity
with the aid of a bird-guide. From the number reported in this
way, the four which were named oftenest were selected for study.
They were the English sparrow, crow, jay, and junco. Each pupil
in the class chose the one he wished to learn about, and in this way
the class was arranged in four groups, each of which chose its
leader who would act as spokesman for the group when the pupils
were ready to make their final report. The following outline was
planned by the pupils under the teacher's guidance to help them

152 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

in their study. For a week the subject was laid aside in the class-
room while the pupils were making their observations.

1. Form.

a. What shape is hef Make sketches.

b. Is he large or small f

e. What kind of bill has hef (Long, short, slender, strong, etc.)
d. Describe his feet.

2. Color.

a. Does he seem to be all one color f

b. Has he special markings?

c What color can jou see when he flies f

3. Food.

a. What did he eatf

b. What else can he eatf

4. Where found.

a. Keep a record of all the places where yon have seen him, such as
in tree, shrub, on a fence, in street, etc.

b. Does he usually spend the winter in St. Louis f
c Can you find his nestf

5. Flight.

a. Does he fly highf

b. Does he fly in a straight linef
c Does he fly in a zigzag linef

d. Does he fly in short jerky flights f

e. Does he fly slowly and gracefully f

6. Song.

a. Did you hear him singf

b. Did you bear him calif

c Did you hear him make any other sound f
d. Can you imitate himf

7. Habits.

a. Is he quarrelsome f

b. Is he noisy f

c. Is he vicious toward other birds f

d. Has he any peculiar habits f

8. Value.

a. Does he do any goodf

b. Does he do any harmf

c Should one protect himf Howf
d. What can we do for him in winter f

When the pupils were ready to make their reports, stuffed
specimens from the Educational Museum were at hand to give
every pupil an opportunity to observe the bird at close range. For
additional information the pupils used the Bird-Ouide, Jackman's
Bird Life, Mrs. Comstock's Handbook of Nature Study, Burroughs
Winter Sunshine.

MATBBIAL8 FOB THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 163

This study proved so interesting that the pupils frequently asked
to have the work in bird study continued.

252. "Repairing the Electric Bell" 1

(Reported by P. Crecelius)

The class studied the problem of the door-bell in order to learn
how to repair one. The pupils were led to see that they would need
to understand the construction and installation of an electric bell
before they could attempt any repair work. They examined the
bell system in their homes and read what they could find in the
books available. When they got this far they had a number of
questions which puzzled them. These questions were put on the
board and left to be answered by the teacher if the combined efforts
of the pupils failed to bring out the facts. A few of them are given
to show what puzzled the boys :

1. ' ' When the bell fails to ring, where should one begin to look for the

trouble I"

2. "When the bell fails at intervals and works at other times, what is

wrong! ' '

3. "What makes a bell keep on ringing when the finger has been removed

from the push-button f "

4. "Is it better to use wet or dry cells! "

Three of the boys volunteered to act as a committee to demon-
strate the working of an electric bell by setting one up in the school-
room where the others could trace the circuit and see every part
clearly. They put diagrams of the various parts upon the board,
which they used in explaining to those boys who were not able to
understand as readily. A fourth boy made an electro-magnet with
a couple of iron nails and some copper wire and with this succeeded
in demonstrating the principle of the electric bell very well. When
they had completed their study, they put in their note-books, under
the supervision of the teacher, a drawing of a bell circuit, a list of
the important features, a list of possible causes for trouble, and a
set of suggestions for the best way to remedy each. This project
was tried in the same way with a class of girls and proved to be

• Cf. Project 195.

164 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

just as interesting to them as it had been to the boys. The books
used were:

Fall — Science for Beginners,

Elhuff — General Science.

Clark — An Introduction to Sciences,

Millikan and Gail— A First Course in Physics. (Eevised Edition)

253. "Making a Fire-Extinguisher"

(Reported by P. Crecelius)

During a study of the subject of fire prevention a group of boys
undertook to find out how a modern fire-extinguisher worked and to
explain it to the class. They decided to make and demonstrate one.
With the aid of an old tin can, a small bottle, a piece of rubber
tubing, and some sealing-wax they made a fire-extinguisher which
worked well enough to put out a small fire which had been built
on the demonstration table. Before the lesson they put on the board
these questions which they undertook to answer:

1. What does a fire-extinguisher contain f

2. Why most it be turned upside downf

3. What is it that puts out the fire and how can it do this!

4. Can a fire-extinguisher be used more than once without refilling f

Their information was gathered from the following general
science texts: Van Buskirk and Smith, Science of Everyday Life
(pp. 25-27) ; Elhuff, General Science (pp. 57-58).

254. "Dissections and Demonstrations by Seventh-Grade Pupils"

(Reported by Jennie Hall, Francis Parker School,

Chicago, Illinois)

The following account is transmitted as it was prepared and
written by two seventh-grade boys :

"Yesterday James gave a report on the body. He has been
dissecting for a while and has found out many things. About a week
ago he dissected a sheep 's head in front of us and showed us where the
brain and a lot of other things were. Then he showed bow the eye
worked by the light coming in from the front and through the lens,
which is a little oblong mass. This takes a picture of an object upside
down on the retina; thus we see.

' ' On every tongue in the world there are little knobs which are
called taste buds: some taste salted food, others sweets, and every kind
of a taste is tasted there. James showed us taste buds.

MATEBIALS FOB TEE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL HJ5

"You hear by the sound coming through the hole in your ear
which makes the ear drum vibrate, causing us to hear. We saw the
parts of the sheep's ear.

4 ( James also dissected a frog and a rabbit. When the heart was
out of the frog it still kept beating, like a chicken moving with its
head off. When he dissected the rabbit he showed me where the heart,
the liver, and the lungs are placed. Then he carefully took apart the
rabbit's joints in his front legs and found them to be like ours. But
the rabbit's front leg is not attached to the skeleton at all. Only
muscles hold it to the body.

* ' Muscles are the tools that make you move. They seem to be like
cords that are fastened to the bone. When these are pulled you move.
We saw fine working muscles on the rabbit's foot. Leif and James
found two pairs. By pulling one they opened and spread the toes. By
pulling its mate they closed and bent the toes into a sort of fist. The
other pair threw the whole foot forward and backward. It was very
strange to see a dead foot move as a boy pulled the strings. Leif was
playing the part of the rabbit's brain.

"Your finger nails and hair are made up of the same substance,
which is hardened skin which is very queer, I think. And did you ever
know that a man has ten ribs and a woman eleven f All this is most
miraculous and inconceivably wonderful."

255. "A Music Contest' '

(Beported by Edward B. Birge, Director of Music, Public Schools,

Indianapolis, Indiana)

A list of fifty representative musical compositions was approved
by a citizens' committee. The list was printed and distributed to
the pupils of the high schools. Every opportunity was utilized
to have the pupils hear these selections in school, at home, at con-
certs, and at the movies. After several months of this preparatory
effort, preliminary contests were held in each school, and a team
of ten students was chosen to represent the school at the final con-
test. The Rotary Club offered a banner to be contested for annually
and held for one year by the winning team. Individual cash prizes
were offered by various musical organizations. At the contest, the
principal chamber music organization of the city played parts of
twenty selections, chosen from the list. The Contestants wrote the
title and name of the composer. While the judges were conferring,
the audience sang. The superintendent of schools awarded the
prizes.

The project was successful in arousing interest in music study
and we shall repeat the contest this year.

166 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

E. PROJECTS CONCERNED WITH VOCATIONAL INTERESTS

256. "Vocational Questionnaire"

(Reported by Cornelia A. Forbes, Ben Blewett Junior High School,

St. Louis, Missouri)

The inability to secure up-to-date material for study in voca-
tion classes led to the pupils' taking the initiative in collecting this
much needed material for the school library. Each pupil volun-
teered to obtain personal interviews from at least five prominent
persons in the professions, trades, commercial lines, management,
manufacturing, or farming, and to report these to class for discus-
sion. A series of questions was agreed upon by the class. Com-
mittees were formed to take charge of each type of interview, as
lawyers, physicians, etc., and to work over material collected and
formulate one comprehensive report on its vocation. Each one be-
came a member of the committee representing work he or she was
most interested in. One member of each committee received con-
tributions of pictures, magazine clippings, and references con-
tributed by the class and arranged these in folders. The spirit of
active cooperation was here very marked. Contributions were ex-
changed daily. At this point several classes doing the same work
agreed to combine their respective reports for the final report for
file and arranged for general "show day" for all . The chairmen of
each class met weekly for this summary.

The result was a folder filled with pictures, clippings of success-
ful careers, references, and a well-rounded tabulation of a ques-
tionnaire on fifty different live lines of work that a girl or a boy
might choose from, all properly labeled to be turned over to the
school library. The prime value lay in the doing, and in the fact
that it brought out local conditions, that the information was up-
to-date and not an average struck from conditions all over the
country.

257. "The Bulletin Board"
(Reported by J. L. Burns, Boston, Massachusetts)

One noon a boy came to me early and said: "Eight of us boys
from the class belong to a club at the church and we want a bulletin

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 167

board. Could we make one! Of course we want to pay for the
lumber. M I said, "Yes, if you will do it all." And before they
were through, they discovered that doing it all meant more than
paying for the value of the lumber and the actual work of making
the board.

The first question that came up was : what kind of lumber should
they use! This meant a study of the different kinds and the kinds
best suited for individual things. Then they became curious about
where these trees grew, and their geographies were consulted. Some
wondered what the "sweet gum" and the "tulip" trees were like,
and these went to the nature books.

One boy found it convenient to go to the lumber yard to inquire
the price of two or three kinds of lumber and he returned with his
mind full of things he had seen and of expressions he had heard
with which he was unfamiliar. After his report, the boys began
reading up about the process of logging and milling and inquiring
the meaning of "board feet," "dressed" and "rough" lumber
and other expressions he had brought back with him.

There was a real live lesson in arithmetic when they determined
how many board feet they needed, and another in composition
when they wrote out their order to the dealer, in a business-like
letter.

Then the problems in proportion, contour, printing and spacing
were solved by the aid of their instruction in drawing and manual
training.

They wanted each boy to do the part on the board that he could
do better than anyone else, so that they might have a fine board and
the zeal exhibited every day in thoughtful, careful work was very
great, for each wanted to show what a good workman he was.

The result of their labors was finally borne away in triumphal
procession, not to be the possession of any one boy, but a prized
possession of the whole club — a thought which in itself made its
slight contribution to good citizenship.

168 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

258. "Study of the Spring Canker Worm"

(Reported by Florence G. Billig, Kansas State Normal School,

Emporia, Kansas)

The spring canker worm was destroying many beautiful trees
of the town. During a general discussion of the situation by the
class, many questions were asked. After various suggestions had
been made by the members of the class, one pupil stated the gen-
eral question as follows: "Why are. people banding and spraying
the shade trees t" After further discussion by the class, the follow-
ing attack was made and carried out by the pupils. An excursion
was made to examine trees which had been banded and sprayed.
Many egg colonies, larvae, and adults which had wings and some
which did not have wings were found. While none of the pupils
had seen the adults emerge from the ground, one pupil reported
the fact that the adults do come from the ground. After a studj
of a circular from the State Department of Agriculture giving
information regarding the spring canker worm, a careful study was
made of the insect in its various stages of development. Specimens
of the different stages in the life history of the insect were collected,
preserved, and added to the school museum. All available informa-
tion in the library and in the community was obtained. Other ex-
cursions were made to study the banding of trees. The class visited
one m&n who was engaged in banding his trees and another who
was spraying his trees. Some of the pupils assisted the man in
banding his trees. Many of the pupils helped their fathers band
trees. The advantages and disadvantages of both banding and
spraying trees as methods of control of the spring canker worm
were discussed. Reports of the study were made in the school
assembly in order that everyone in school might be informed re-
garding this pest of the shade trees.

259. "Cleaning a Vineyard and Planting Trees' '

(Reported by Maude M. Myers, Kansas City, Missouri)

The School Board of Kansas City, in buying ground adjoining
a school building, acquired a piece of land containing an abandoned
vineyard. The boys of the sixth and seventh grades were allowed

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 169

the grapes if they would clear the ground of the undergrowth and
small trees, mostly elms. They dug a line of holes on two sides of
the school yard where there were no trees and planted the trees
which they dug up in the vineyard. As yet they have had no
grapes to market, since this year's crop was damaged by frost.
Under the direction of the school gardener they were shown how
to take out the trees without injury, how to trim, how to sight and
plant in straight rows, how to determine the best trees for trans-
planting. A study of the different kinds of shade trees and their
use was afforded at this time as well as the study of the grape and
wine industry of California and southern Europe.

260. "Railroad Salary Increases"

(Reported by Mary A. Ruth, Horton, Kansas)

Since ours is a shop town, the question of railroad increases in
salary is rather vital. We first discussed the increases in the differ-
ent departments represented by the fathers of pupils in the class,
figuring rate of increase by the hour and by the day. As interest
developed, we were able to secure a list of comparative figures from
the C. R. I. & P. store house. This list gave us the number of men
employed in the various shop projects, their hours of labor, and
the rate of payment per hour at different periods during the last
few years. This gave us a fund of material for work in the funda-
mental operations, and the various phases of percentage.

261. " Raising Potatoes' '

(Reported by W. G. Cisne, State Normal University,

Carbondale, Illinois)

The boys of the Junior High School decided to try raising
potatoes. They secured a plot of about an acre from a farm near
the school. A contract was made with the farmer to the effect that
he would plow the ground, work it down in good condition, and
furnish the seed. The boys were to do the planting, tending, and
harvesting and were to get half the crop. This contract was made
under the usual conditions. Many of the boys knew nothing what-
ever about growing potatoes. The field was measured accurately

170 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

and was found to contain .92 of an acre. A surveyor's chain was
used in the regular way in this measurement. There were 42 rows
of potatoes and 28 boys. Two boys were assigned to a certain three
rows and were made responsible for the condition of these rows
during the entire season. In order to make the work interesting,
contests of various sorts were organized and small prizes given.
Certain points were given for absence of weeds in the entire three
rows, for loose dirt between the hills, for absence of bugs, etc. The
time spent in labor was carefully tabulated. Extra cost, such as
spraying material and the expense of a team for plowing when the
ground became hard, was noted. At the opening of the fall term
the crop was harvested, divided according to contract and the boys'
part sold in huckster style. They then computed the amount per
hour each received for his season's work. The money was turned
over to the Junior Red Cross.

The whole experience was of much value to the boys, both from
a social and business standpoint. They will not forget how to
measure land nor the approximate size of an acre. They now
realize more fully the items that go to make up the total cost of
production and the vital influence of climatic conditions. They
came in contact with this experience in such a way that the im-
pression will be lasting.

262. " The Care of Gardens During the Summer"

(Reported by Florence G. Billig, Emporia, Kansas)

Near the close of the school year the question arose: "How can
we care for our gardens during the summer?" Since the products
were not all mature, and since several members of the class expected
to be out of town during the vacation period, various plans for the
care of the ^chool gardens were discussed. The other gardening
classes of the school were invited to cooperate in the undertaking.
A member of each class, together with four members of the seventh
grade, composed the general committee of the school which adopted
the following plan. A sale day was planned on which each person
unable or not desiring to care for his garden plot might sell it.
General posters announcing the sale were made by the art classes.

MATERIALS FOB THE JUN10B HIGH SCHOOL 171

Individual posters announcing the good points and indicating the
selling price of the gardens were made. Each person desiring to
buy a garden had ample opportunity to visit the plot, to estimate
the value of the growing crop and to estimate the gain which might
be derived from a second planting. Business was transacted in the
presence of some member of the committee. The buyer and two
witnesses signed the following contract which was then sent to the
supervisor of the garden work. Her endorsement signified her
approval of the transaction.

Garden Contract

I, the undersigned, hereby promise that during the summer of

I will faithfully take care of my garden and in payment for

this ground I will help keep the paths and side lines free from weeds.
If I violate any of the above provisions I will forfeit my garden to
some one designated by the overseer.

Signed :

Witness:

Approved :

After the sale, the land owners met and elected one of their
number to act as "overseer." His chief duty was to make certain
that the obligations of the contract were observed. Each land
owner was requested to keep an accurate account of the amount of
time which he spent on his garden and the value of the produce
which he grew. During the summer, the gardens were visited regu-
larly by the various workers. In some instances, the gardens were
not properly worked, and after two notifications from the "over-
seer," were forfeited. As soon as the first crop was mature, the
ground was cleared, and a second crop was planted. When school
opened in the fall, the gardens were visited and found to be in good
condition. Many of the products had been gathered ; most of the
gardens had been cleared and were ready for the fall plowing. The
overseer then made a detailed report of the work to the members of
the school. The report indicated that the undertaking had been a
profitable one. This work was conducted entirely by the gardeners,
t. e., the pupils, with advice from the instructor when it was asked.

172 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

263. "Building a Bungalow"

(Reported by Minnie A. Muttfeldt, Rockford, Illinois)

An interesting discussion among the pupils arose regarding the
character of a good house, kind and cost of materials, etc The
boys laid off the lot on the school grounds, and the corners of the
house were staked out by the use of the carpenter's tape line. They
decided to make the lot 50' by 150' and the house 28' by 38'. The
pupils went out into the city to investigate for themselves the vari-
ous stages in house construction. Instructive talks with contractors
and carpenters followed. Pupils brought in plans and pictures of
houses for inspection. Each pupil drew a plan of his own. The
best plan was chosen by the class and placed on the blackboard. All
pupils copied the plan to the exact scale of y± to 1'. At this point
the manual training teacher became interested and agreed to have
the boys build the house under his supervision, as the various prob-
lems were worked out in class, e. g. f problems of excavation, concrete
work in walls and floors, brick work for foundation, lumber, roof-
ing, etc. The house, on the scale of 1" to 1', was built in every way
exactly like a real house. The house was painted and electric
lighted, and the girls of the domestic science classes made the cur-
tains under the supervision of the domestic science teacher.

F. PROJECTS CONCERNED WITH BUSINESS INTERESTS

264. "Starting a Business"
(Reported by Jennie M. Ferguson, Forest Park, Illinois)

The boys pretended that they started business with a capital of
$2,000. They wrote to several firms for catalogs, and from these
secured prices for machines and all necessary supplies for a small
shop. They kept the accounts for all the work done by the print
shop with different departments of the school : the office, the news-
paper, and the English, Art, and Practical Arts Departments. This
involved many problems in arithmetic, as they had to figure the
price of paper for each piece of work, and the cutting of it to ad-
vantage, the cost of labor by the hour or by the job, the necessary
percentage for overhead expenses, etc. At the end of two months,

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 173

their balances showed that they had paid all running expenses and
had made a small profit.

265. "A Clearing House"

(Reported by Drnsilla Keller, Kansas City, Kansas)

The children desired to know how checks cashed in Kansas City,
Missouri, reached the bank in Kansas City, Kansas. The teacher
took two boys and three girls who had time for it to a Clearing
House on Saturday morning. They then planned a clearing house
for the next week's work. Each aisle was a bank from which a clerk
and messenger was appointed. A president of the clearing house
was elected ; each aisle had one vote. Checks were written and were
cashed in banks other than those on which check was written.
Pupils who had visited the clearing house instructed clerks and
messengers as to their duties, furnished the clerks with the sheets
which had been given them at the Clearing House, and directed the
work so that it was done as they had seen it done, even to placing
a fine for those who made mistakes in addition. The pupils know
how checks reach their makers, and the work of returning them
when books were balanced was not taken up at this time.

266. "Teaching Thrift by a Thrift Bank"

(Reported by Emma Hyde, Agricultural College,

Manhattan, Kansas)

Thrift week was being emphasized by talks on how and why
thrift was advisable. The temptation to spend could be overcome
if the money was out of reach or if a special object was kept in
view. A Thrift Bank was organized and operated for the class by
class officers, directors and employers. Deposits of one cent up
were taken. Deposit slip and pass book were made by each pupil,
and the money kept in the school vault. Deposits were saved from
picture shows, car fare and Hersheys. The books were audited once
a month by members of the class, when the cashier and bookkeeper
were changed. Principle of debit and credit methods of opening
an account with a bank, and of writing checks were taught The
largest amount saved by one pupil was $2.67. Combined deposits

174 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

in real banks increased during this period from $625 (including
bonds) to $1,175.80.

"Reorganizing a Bank"

Later the thrift bank 'failed' and was reorganized. Shares of
common stock, of preferred stock, and so many $1,000 bonds were
issued and sold by class brokers, below par. Receipts and broker-
age were calculated, everything being paid by draft or check.
Yearly expenses were calculated and deducted, surplus decided
upon, and the rest invested in oil stock at the current price. At the
end of two months holdings were sold at a good profit. Capital stock
was deducted; interest on bonds and preferred stock was com-
puted and paid. Dividend was declared and paid. Examination
on Stocks and Bonds very satisfactory.

267. "The Finances of a Cafeteria"

(Reported by Helen M. Eckstein, Wichita, Kansas)

The Alexander Hamilton Intermediate School Cafeteria fur-
nished fine material for many project lessons developing accuracy
in arithmetic and algebra. Graphical problems were motivated and
made interesting by submitting to the pupils the checks issued in
payment for the various articles used in our cafeteria from Sep-
tember 22, 1919, to March 1, 1920. The checks were grouped by
the pupils and the amount expended obtained. From this ma-
terial furnished by the principal, graphs were made. The daily
receipts furnished the basis for other projects. Accuracy was
stimulated, as correct graphs depended upon correct addition. The
invoice of groceries on hand, amounting to $166.98, also furnished
material for other problems.

268. "Forming a Mercantile Company' '

(Reported by Maude M. Myers, Marlborough School,

Kansas City, Missouri)

The class formed a mercantile company. Each pupil was per-
mitted to buy a limited amount of stock. Bonds were sold to those
who preferred them to stock. A supply of school materials, such

MATEBIALS FOB TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 175

as pencils, pens, tablets, rulers, erasers, etc., was bought by pupils
who acted as buyers for the company ; the teacher acted as adviser.
A bookkeeping department was established, and when the selling
price was determined npon, some pupil became salesman, being on
duty between 8 :30 and 9 :00 A. M. The girls made pencil cases,
candy, and several other articles to sell to the company. The di-
rectors of the company determined what articles should be pur-
chased. Dividends were declared when profits justified. Each
stockholder received his profits. In this case there were no over-
head costs.

269. "Harvesting and Marketing the Hay of the School Yard"

(Reported by Maude M. Myers, Kansas City, Missouri)

The school yard contained five acres of fairly good hay. The
same pupils who constituted the Cooperative Mercantile Company
just described harvested and marketed the hay. They figured on the
cost of gathering and marketing and employed some one to cut and
Take the hay. Since there was no place for storage, the hay had
to be sold green. The crop was insured. In bargaining for the
gathering and the selling of the crop the pupils consulted the
teacher and their fathers. There was little chance for a loss; on
the contrary, a profit for the stockholders was realized.

270. "An Alphabet Game of Products"
(Reported from Buffalo, New York)

The pupils of the seventh g rade, with very little help from their
teacher, have compiled two lists of products, one for New York
state, and the other for the world.

The game is played in this manner. One pupil starts to name
products beginning, say with ' * s, ' 9 and continues until he makes a
mistake. In every case when he names a product, he must give the
location where found or manufactured.

The list for New York includes aeroplanes, apples, automobiles,
beans, bicycles, books, boots, bottles, brass castings, brooms, butter,
cannon, canned goods, carpet, car wheels, cheese, cigars, china ware,
clothing, cotton cloth, dairy products, deer, electrical supplies, engines,
fire arms, floor, furniture, glass, gloves, graphite, hay, hats, hops,

176 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

hosiery, iron, knit goods, kodaks, limestone, lumber, matches, milk, oil,
optical instruments, phonographs, pianos, peaches, potatoes, cement,
pottery, salt, sandstone, scales, ships, silk, silver ware, starch, steel,
talc, typewriters, upholstery, wagons, wire, woolen cloth, yachts, yarn,
yeast.

The pupils have not only enjoyed the game, but have added
materially to their knowledge of geography thereby.

O. PROJECTS CONCERNED WITH HOME INTERESTS

271. "Furnishing an Apartment"

(Reported by Martha Bucher, Kansas City, Kansas)

A man with six hundred dollars capital was supposed to rent
and furnish a small apartment. First the apartment was chosen, a
committee of children interviewing local real estate agents. The
apartment was then furnished room by room. A list of the articles
purchased, the names of the dealers from whom they came, and
the cost was kept. The expense of the furnishing for each room
was estimated. The amount owed to each dealer was paid by check,
whereby a study of banking was introduced. As some of the pupils
found it necessary to borrow money, this was also studied.

272. "The Home Budget' '

(Reported by Mary A. Ruth, Horton, Kansas)

These pupils secured and planned budgets for their homes,
based upon the salaries earned by their fathers. Budgets were
worked over in the class, compared, discussed and changed if the
class found them to be faulty. Later the budgets were compared
with model plans worked out by economic experts. Much valuable
work in keeping accounts, percentage, interest, and a great variety
of problems developed, since some parents were buying homes upon
the payment plan, others carried large amounts of insurance and
in fact each budget had its individuality. Care must be taken in
this type of work to avoid becoming too personal, and this was the
teacher's chief work. From the home budget we went to the sys-
tem employed by our local school board and city administration.
This material was obtained by the pupils from the offices of th&
school superintendent and city clerk.

MATERIALS FOB THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL ffl

273. "The Fircless Cooker' '

(Reported by P. Crecelius, St. Louis, Missouri)

The class was making a study of the modern conveniences found
1 the kitchen. A group of girls undertook to make a study of
le fireless cooker and to present the results of their work to the
lass. With the help of the other pupils they drew up a set of
aestions, twenty in all, which they agreed to answer when they
Eid completed their study. The following samples are given to show
le kind of questions asked by the class :

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

'What makes it cook!"

'Why does not the food burnt "

'How long will it cook I"

'Who invented itt"

'Is it anything like a Thermos bottle!"

mug
diffc

'Are there different kinds t"

The girls read all they could find on the subject in the general
cience books at their disposal, carefully examined and tried out a
ireless cooker in the home of one of the girls, interviewed a dealer
a the neighborhood as to the merits of the various makes, and
tnally reported the results of their study to the class. They re-
ferred to Elhuff, General Science (p. 108) ; Clark, Introduction to
Science (p. 30) ; and Clute, General Science (p. 88).

274. "Fitting up a Bedroom"

(Reported by Katherine Morrison and Hazel Steibling, Kansaj

State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas)

A committee reported to their class-fellows the following needs
of their practice house bedroom : pictures, dresser cover with color
if possible, dressing-table accessories, clean woodwork, floors, win-
dows, and rugs, and a well-made bed. The need for suitable pic-
tures led them to visit the librarian to ask for discarded magazine
covers to frame in industrial art. The need for a dresser cover
finally developed a desire for an inexpensive bedroom set of un-
bleached muslin, appliqued in fabrics dyed to harmonize with the
color scheme of the room. The need for dressing table accessories
suggested the collection and decoration of small boxes which lent
themselves readily to enamel decoration. With great satisfaction

178 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

one child contributed a pair of glass candlesticks to be enameled
ivory as a part of the dressing table appointments. A desk set for
the table was also designed and constructed. The need for clean-
ing the woodwork and floors led to a study of the effect of various
cleaning agents on enameled, oiled and varnished surfaces, followed
by a lesson on practical cleaning and bedmaking. The art side was
carried on in the industrial art classes and the housewifery was
carried on in the household arts classes. The teachers cooperated
to the extent of interchanging and combining class hours as the
needs of the project demanded.

CHAPTER V

NEW MATERIALS FOR SPECIAL CLASSES

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the special class work is to teach pupils to be-
come useful members of society. This type of child usually leaves
school early. He should then have had proper health habits estab-
lished and should then know what kind of work he can do as well
as where he can get a job.

Everything in this child's life should lead toward fitting hin?
for some useful work. The subjects to be taught should be those that
would arouse the individual will and the impulse to do. He should
be encouraged to produce what he has seen, heard, or experienced.

Much (if not all) of this child's school work could be made to
revolve about some center. As tie child's interest at all times
should be encouraged, the center or purposeful activity should be
something that will contain his experience, work that will hold his
interest, while the work is being executed, and give him satisfaction
when completed.

The following projects or purposeful activities are some that
have been used with subnormal children.

•

275. "Hand Work and Arithmetic for Adolescent

Subnormal Girls"

(Reported by Blanche M. Towne, Michigan State Normal College,

Ypsilanti, Michigan)

The purpose was to make money to buy a sewing machine, by
making rag rugs. The cost of the warp for one yard of a rug was
determined, and also the waste between the rugs was measured
and the cost ascertained. A fair price was added to this for labor.
Then a few friends were told about the plan. They sent in their
rugs. The borders were carefully planned. When the rugs were
finished, the price was found. Then the girls made the deliveries
and collections.

179

180 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

276. "Hand Work for Pre- Adolescent Children"

(Reported by Blanche M. Towne)

They desired to make something for one of the pupils who was
sick at the hospital. After many suggestions, a scrap book was
decided upon. A friend donated eight yards of dark green cambric
which was divided and cut into leaves. The kind of pictures, size,
arrangement, and theme were discussed. The pictures were cut
from magazines secured from home, neighbors, and friends. These
were carefully sorted, pages planned by laying the pictures on
them, then they were pasted into the books. Two of the children
then visited the hospital and took the book to their little friend.

277. "Arithmetic for Pre- Adolescent Subnormal Children"

(Reported by Blanche M. Towne)
"Can't we play store t" was answered in the affirmative by the

r

teacher, provided the children would make the store. Boards were
obtained from the manual training room and a counter constructed.
Clean, empty cartons were brought from home. Then newspapers
and storekeepers were consulted from time to time to get present-
day prices. Money was made from pasteboard. Shopping lists
were made next, and the articles purchased at the store. An item-
ized bill of each purchase was made and often these were totaled
only once a week, when payment was made.

278. "Lesson in Decorating for Pre- Adolescent

Subnormal Children"

(Reported by Blanche M. Towne)

The children desired a Halloween party and were asked if they
thought the room was pretty enough for a party. They decided
to decorate the room. All the ideas that they had seen or could
get from pictures were brought together and discussed. It was
decided that they needed corn stalks, pumpkins, and autumn leaves,
also that owls, bats, cats, witches, squirrels, etc., should be hung
from streamers at the windows and put around the room for a
border. The children brought the corn stalks, pumpkins, and

MATERIALS FOB SPECIAL CLASSES igi

autumn leaves from home, some of them even saving their pennies
to buy pumpkins. The teacher was asked for patterns for most of
the bats, cats, etc., and out of a box of various and sundry patterns,
those that would best fit the spaces were chosen. The exact num-
ber needed was counted, and the number of sheets of each color of
paper was estimated. The children put up the border and arranged
the other material, criticising and changing their own work until
the desired effect was obtained.

279. "Adolescent Subnormal Children Cooking Noon-Day Meal"

(Reported by Blanche M. Towne)

The children planned to serve a meal to the teachers in the
building in order to obtain money to buy a piano. Properly bal-
anced menus were made by the girls ; prices of foods were ascer-
tained, and advertisements in the newspapers were studied to find
the best places where they might buy. The cost of each meal was
figured, and the price to be charged was then determined. The
girls prepared the food, set the table, and served the meal. Then
they put away the food, and washed the dishes. Afterward they
washed and ironed the table linen. At the end of each week the
profits were figured and the girls themselves made the payments
upon the piano.

280. "Reading Signs by Pre- Adolescent Subnormal Children"

(Reported by Blanche M. Towne)

The children desired to know what certain signs, as "Take One, "
"Forest Ave.," etc., said. A walk was taken to seethe signs; then,
to remember them, several of the children wrote them on pieces of
paper. It was decided to make signs like those which were seen,
so they could be kept in the school room. This was done with rubber
stamped letters on cardboard. The children also suggested that
they could make their own reading books and some games with
the words. Pictures were drawn or cut out of old magazines
wherever it was possible to use them. The writing in both the
book and the games was practiced before it was written in the
books.

1S2 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

281. "Adolescent Subnormal Girls' English"

(Reported by Nellie R. Olson, Faribault, Minnesota)

In story-telling hour, a girl told the story of Rip Van Winkle.
Someone immediately asked if the class might make a play out of
the story and see what good English they could use. The teacher
said that if they did real well, the class might give the play at the
High-School Auditorium. Immediately they set to work. They
planned the names of the acts, and then the acts themselves. One
girl planned and secured the improvised costumes. Then the class
divided into groups of three and each group wrote the words for
Act I, "The Home Scene." A day was given each group to prac-
tice their parts. Then each group presented its act to the class.
The best work was selected, as well as the most suitable actors.
In the first act, meal time was shown. The table linen and dishes
were brought from home. Table etiquette was discussed. As the
play was being practiced, the other members of the class were on
the lookout for places where the English could be improved. The
places, as they were improved, were noted in their English note
books. Then the other acts were similarly prepared. Finally, the
whole play was given. The play was also written and put in book-
lets, properly decorated with pictures. These booklets were kept
to be shown at the school exhibit. As the play progressed, the girls
decided to invite their mothers to see the play when it was complete.

282. "An English Exercise for Adolescent Subnormal Boys"
(Reported by Nellie A. Olson, Faribault, Minnesota)

A boy brought an army booklet. Someone said, ' ' Can 't we be
an armyf" The teacher, after finding out if the class wished to
do this, asked how this could be carried out. The class divided into
companies, each in charge of a corporal, who was appointed by the
captain. The captain had been selected by the class, by balloting.
The teacher was appointed by the captain as his assistant. The
captain was to have charge of the class for two weeks. Each cor-
poral was responsible for the work of his own company and at
the beginning of each day reported to the captain the results of
the previous day's work, which was shown in individual graphs.

MATERIALS FOB 8PECIAL CLA88E8 183

The winning company had the stars and stripes placed in front of
their company. The next captain was the corporal of the company
who had had the flag the greatest number of times. The class de-
cided to salute the captain each time they recited. The captain
appointed an inspector, whose business it was to keep a record of the
daily inspection of the "soldiers'" faces, teeth, hair, shoes and
clothes.

The following things necessary to the making of a good Amer-
ican soldier were studied by the class :

1. How to become an American.

a. Experiences of parents were tola.

b. Teacher told of her visit to Ellis Island. Pictures were shown.

2. The training that a soldier must have.

3. Learned and gave the * * Flag salute ' ' each day.

4. How we could become good Americans.

a. Have good habits.

b. Associate and talk to good Americans, on topics of interest and

value as —

(1) What I am going to be when a man,

(2) News items.

(3) Inventions.

(4) How to improve our city.

(5) Short debates.

6". Select and read good newspapers and good magazines.

6. Select, read and report on good books.

a. Visited the city library.

b. Prepared a small school library containing books and magazines.

(One boy acted as school roomlibrarian.)
e. Teacher told parts of good books.

d. Decided on a brief book-review outline.

e. Gave book reviews.

f. Stories dramatized.

7. Prepared the spelling of words Americans ought to know.

a. Lists of fifty words foreigners ought first to learn were prepared

by the class, each making his own list and seeing if the othe/
members of the class could spell his words.

b. Words needed in different kinds of business.

c. Election Day words.

d. Armistice Day words.

8. Ability to write good letters.

a. Friendly letters to ' shut-ins ' and friends.

b. Business letters.

(1) Ordering a good boy's magazine for the class.

(2) Wrote to the Youth's Companion, and ordered it for the

teacher.

(3) Sent for some catalogue, or booklet about trapping, fann-

ing, electricity, etc

184 THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

9. Improved the penmanship.

a. Special drills, where needed, were given.

b. Samples of pupil's penmanship for each month were collected

and kept.

10. Stories were read and told, which would help pupils to become good

Americans.

11. Improved the English at all times.

a. New words were collected and used.

b. Errors in speech were corrected. Certain errors were corrected

each month.

12. "Good Americans " posters were made showing:

a. Errors and how to get rid of them.

b. American soldier pictures.

13. Pictures were collected at all times.

14. Good American games were made and played.

15. Suitable poems and memory gems were studied.

16. Jobs for the members of the class were studied and discussed.

17. Studied thrift.

18. Made ballots and voted in the schoolroom on election day.

283. "Arithmetic Exercise Based on Street Paving for Adolescent

Subnormal Boys"

(Reported by Nellie R. Olson)

Sand piles and paving machinery occupied the street near the
school building. Questions like these were asked by the children:
"What are they going to do with the sand?" "How do they make
cement ?" "Who pays the workmen?" "How do they mix
cement ?" "Who pays for the cement ?" "Can the city get money
to pay for the paving ?" "Does it pay to spend so much money to
pave the street? " The last question became the project, end the
class set about to solve the different points that had to be consid-
ered, such as the expense of the paving to the city, and to the
owners of homes along Fourth Street, how the cement is made, the
money paid the men, the effect of the paved street on the value of
the homes, and on the rent of the homes. They also found the sav-
ing to the city in the amount paid for sprinkling, oiling and street
repairs. When difficulties in the arithmetical processes arose, the
class stopped and drilled on that difficulty. Work was collected in
a "Paving Booklet.' 9 Pictures of paved and unpaved streets and
drawings of paving machinery were collected. The class were fully
convinced that it had more than paid to pave Fourth Street.

MATEBIAL8 FOB 8PECIAL CLA88E8 185

284, "Arithmetic Exercise for Adolescent Subnormal Girls

Based on Home Building"

(Reported by Nellie B. Olson)

The first day of school the teacher and the girls discussed the
kind of homes they would like to have some day. The teacher
showed the class a picture of the home that she liked. The class
decided each to bring a picture of a house plan that he liked.
They then decided each one to work out everything that needed
to be thought of in starting a home of his own. The following
things were done:

1. Studied cost of lots in different parts of the city.

2. Went through procedure of buying a lot

3. Found the cost of digging and making the basement and foundation.

4. Found and decided on a house plan suited to a family of four.

5. Some drew the house plan. Others made pasteboard models of

the house.

6. Wrote contractors 1 sealed bids, giving estimates of the cost of

building.

7. Opened the sealed bids on a certain date. Selected the most

sensible and economical bid.

8. Found the amount of lumber, kinds of lumber, and wrote the bills.

(Visited a house being built.)

9. Studied kinds and cost of wood for flooring.

10. Found how many square yards of plastering were needed and the

cost. (Visited plasterers at work.)

11. Found the cost. Decided to tint the walls as it was cheaper.

12. Found the cost of different kinds of windows and purchased them.

13. Found the cost of finishing the floors. Practiced finishing a small

section of a floor.

14. Found the cost of the heating plant, plumbing, electric wiring,

and lighting. Showed on the drawings of the house plan
exactly where the wiring and plumbing would be placed.

15. Bought curtains and furnishings for each room of the house.

Found where discounts were given, and made use of the dis-
counts in their purchases.

16. Wrote payrolls for the laborers employed.

17. Found the total cost of the home. Decided whether the contractor

made any profit.

18. Found the cost of clothing for the family for one year.

19. Figured the grocery and meat bills for one year.

20. Decided where and what the men in each family earned a year.

21. Decided how the salary should be used — what percent for each ex-

penditure — how much saved.

22. Decided how to invest the savings.

23. Figured how much would be had in five years, if savings were

placed in a local savings bank.

24. Figured the teacher's and pupils' savings accounts.

186

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

This work was kept in individual booklets. Each child had his
own book and a composite booklet made for the teacher. This work
gave the girls a greater realization of how to use money intelligently
and gave them a larger respect for honesty, intelligence, and good
management.

285. "Arithmetic Exercises for Adolescent Subnormal Boys

Based on a 'Farm Book* "

(Reported by Nellie R. Olson)
All were interested in farm work and had worked on farms.
The first day of school they discussed their own farm work. They
finally decided that each one would make a 'Farm Book' showing
a real farm and the transactions involved in farming. The lessons
from day to day were shown in this book. Interesting pictures were
also added. Original problems arose in connection with the follow-
ing points which were suggested by the pupils :

Problems and Discussions on:

1. Size of the farms in this com-

munity

2. Location of farms where boys had

worked

3. Value of farms in this vicinity and
where boys had worked

4. Comparison of values of different

farms

5. Decide on having a 320-acre farm.

Each one laid out his farm into
grains, orchard, garden, pas-
ture, barnyard, farmhouse with
yard, etc.

8ome of the DriU Work as It Came Up:

1. Comparison of size of 320 acres

with 160 acres and 40 acres

2. Size and drawing of a township, a

section and quarter section

3. Realization of fractions and their

values as:

% section = f acres

% section = f acres

1 section = f acres

1% section = f acres

4. Multiplication of numbers as

320 X *120
160 X *HX>

80 X *U5

40 X *150

5. Drill on needed tables as of 2%

5's, etc

6. Short way to multiply by 10 and

100

7. Subtraction and multiplication

8. In drawing the farm, careful

reasoning was needed in decid-
ing length and width of farm
so that the farm would be 320
acres in size, as:
20 by 16

4 by 80

8 by 40

MATBSIAL8 FOB 8PECIAL CLA88S8

187

Probleme and Discueeioni on:

6. Building farm buildings, as barn,
granary, hoghouse, chickencoop,
farmhouse, garage, etc

a. Excavating for basement

b. Lumber

c Plastering
cL Concrete work

e. Painting

f. Plumbing

g. Electricity
h. Heating

L Laying of floors

j. Furnishing the farmhouse

(one room at a time)
k. Payroll of workmen

7. Buying and upkeep of machinery

8. Buying and keep of horses, cattle,

chickens, etc.

9. Planting and harvesting

10. Farm labor problems

11. Banking

12. Drawings were made. Paper and

pasteboard buildings were con-
structed. Pictures were brought

8ome of ike Drill Work a* It Came Up :

9. In apportioning the farm into
parts as it is in this commu-
nity. 8eeing that all parts
added would make 320. This
gave practice in addition and
reasoning

10. Fractions and pereents were also

taken up with the apportioning
of the parts of the farm

11. Finding the amount of lumber

needed (board measure)

12. Writing lumber bills

13. Drawing plans to an agreed scale.

Comparison of values of num-
bers, as: "If the length of the
barn is 40 ft. and the width 30
ft. or 20 ft., how long ought the
lines be drawnf" Much rea-
soning was here demanded

14. Cubic measures were needed in the

excavating

15. Square measure was needed in the

plastering, painting, etc

16. Need for multiplication and divi-

sion often arose. Pupils knew
where to look for tables wheu
in need of them. Often some
tables needed special drill by
the whole class

17. Buying at a discount. Sensible

and usable pereents were de-
cided on and learned

18. Writing of bills, checks, notes,

etc

19. Payrolls furnished much drill in

multiplication and addition

20. Discounts offered by machine

shops in this city were con-
sidered. The amount saved was
estimated

21. Profit and loss considered in con-

nection with cattle, chickens,
etc

22. Profit and loss of farming

23. Farm accounts

24. Saving '8 Account, problems solved

Practice in percentage was here
needed

188 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

By the end of the year each boy felt that he knew more about
a farm than ever before. Information and problems were gotten
from farmers, the agriculture teacher, boys' fathers, arithmetic
books, farm papers, and the boys themselves. Each boy's book was
proudly taken home at the end of the year.

CHAPTER VI

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OP THE PROJECT METHOD
IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, THE JUNIOR HIGH

SCHOOL, AND THE HIGH SCHOOL 1

willis h. kerr, Librarian

jessie luther, Reference Librarian

anita hostetter, Research Secretary

Kellogg Library, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas

ARRANGEMENT OF CONTENTS
I. FOUNDATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Bibliography

2. Philosophical and psychological foundations

3. Definitions

4. Technique and administration

IL SPECIAL APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES

5.

Curriculum and program

6.

Dramatization

7.

Elementary education

8.

Kindergarten education

9.

Library correlation

10.

Measurements and tests

11.

Socialization

12.

Study, thinking, learning

13.

Teacher-training

1 The bibliography by Herring and the list by the IT. S. Bureau of Educa-
tion, both cited below, have been used freely, although sometimes adapted and
frequently re-arranged. The advice of Dr. H. G. Lull, Director of Training,
Kansas State Normal School, is acknowledged.

An error in the enumeration of the references in the original manuscript
brings the numbering ten units too high in items following the 179th. This
error was unfortunately not detected until too late for correction. The total
number of references is, therefore, 394 instead of 404. — Editor.

189

190 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

EEL SUBJECTS OP INSTBUCTION

14. Agriculture

15. Agriculture — High schools

16. Citizenship, civics, ethics, and religion

17. English

18. English — Elementary schools

19. English — Junior high schools

20. English — High schools

21. Geography

22. Geography — Elementary schools

23. Geography — Junior high schools

24. History

25. History — Junior high schools

26. History — High schools

27. Home economics

28. Hygiene and physical training

29. Industrial education

30. Industrial education — Elementary schools

31. Industrial education — High schools

32. Mathematics

33. Mathematics — Elementary schools

34. Mathematics — Junior high schools

35. Mathematics — High schools

36. Science

37. Science — Chemistry and physics

38. Science — Elementary and ' ' General ' '

IV. PEEIODICALS INDEXED IN THIS BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. FOUNDATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Bibliography

1. Geyer, D. L. Beferences on the problem-project method. Chicago School*

Journal, 2:18-19, Sept. 1919.

2. Herring, J. P. Bibliography of the project method. Teach. CotL

Record, 21:150-174, March, 1920.

3. Herrold, B. E. Bibliography of the project method. Gen. Science

Quarterly, 4:283-91, Nov. 1919.

4. Kansas State Normal School (Emporia). Kellogg Library. Select list

of references on the project method in education. Teaching No. 51,
Feb. 1920, pp. 30-32.

5. U. S. Education Bureau. Library division. List of references on the

project method in education. (Library Leaflet No. 9, Nov. 1919.)

t . Philosophical and Psychological Foundations

6. Allen, I. M. Notes. Illinois State Teachers Assoc, Proo. 1917: 126-33.

— Reviews C. H. Johnston's philosophy of education as to discipline,
method, socialized recitation, and supervised study. The absolutist's
and the experimentalist's positions are stated antithetically for each
of the topics named. (Herring)

7. Bogardus, E. S. Essentials of Social Psychology. 159pp. 1918. Uni-

versity of Southern California, Los Angeles. — Written to develop the
'problem getting 1 method of education in the student of psychology.
At the close of each chapter is a list of problems. (Herring)

8. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching Developed From a Functional

Standpoint. 255pp. 1909. Bow-Peterson, Chicago. — A suggestive
reading on the multiplicity of aims, tho relations of method and con-
tent, the intrinsic function of subject-matter, structure and subject
matter, motives, control of values, methods, order, concreteness, and
drill. (Herring)

9. Colvin, S. S. Learning Process. 336pp. 1915. 'Macmillan, N. Y. — Chap-

ters 20-22 analyze logical thinking, judgment, and reasoning, and dis-
cuss instruction in the form of the problem. (Herring)

10. Dewey, J. Activity. In Monroe, Cyclopedia of Education, 1:33. —

Philosophy, psychology, logic, practice and equipment as related to
the concept of activity. (Herring)

11. Dewey, J. Child and Curriculum. 40pp. 1902. Univ. of Chic Pr.—

From the point of view of Dewey 's philosophy of education, the basis
and background of project learning are presented in relation to the
learner and what is learned. Principles for the guidance of teaching;
education as its own end ; society as its own end ; interest and motive.
(Herring)

12. Dewey, J. Democracy and Education: an Introduction to the Philosophy

of Education. 434pp. 1916. Macmillan, N. Y. — The general phil-
osophic background and basis of the problem-project method.
(Herring)

191

192 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

13. Dewey, J. Interest and Effort in Education. 101pp. 1913. Houghton

Mifflin, Boston. — An integral portion of the Dewey philosophy and
psychology of education that is the basis and background for the pro-
ject method. Deals with ethical educational problems sure to arise
in the earlier stages of experiment with the project method. Virtually
a later edition of the author's Interest as Belated to Will. (Herring)

14. Dewey, J. Interest as Related to Will. (Herb art Yearbook, second sup-

plement.) 40pp. 1895. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington,
111. — A philosophic consideration of the first rank, dealing with cer-
tain illogical and harmful dualisms frequently held as true and of
certain logical and beneficial monistic aspects of the problem of
interest aa related to will. Propulsive, objective, and emotional phases
of interest, work, and drudgery; pleasure, desire, ends, ideals, effort,
strain, and discipline are treated. (Herring)

15. Dewey, J. Method. In Monroe, Cyclopedia of Education, 4:202-5. — An

exposition of a part of the philosophy fundamental to the project
method. Method as related to institutional agencies and to subject
matter; educational method; logical method; general method;
method as an aspect of content; purpose and interest; relation of
scientific method to educational method. (Herring)

16. Dewey, J. Moral Principles in Education. 60pp. 1909. Houghton

Mifflin, Boston. — Morality as an aspect of method and of content;
moral purpose of the school; moral training given by the school com-
munity; social nature of the coarse of study; psychological aspect
of moral education. The philosophical source, as opposed to the dual-
ism of much that is common in practice. (Herring)

17. Dewey, J. Nature of method. In his Democracy and Education, ch. 13,

pp. 193-211. 1916. Macmiilan, N. Y. — Treats of method as an aspect
of content, as general and individual; of self-consciousness, open-
mindedne8s, single-mindedness, and responsibility as traits of indi-
vidual method. A piece of philosophy fundamental to the problem-
project method. (Herring)

18. Dewey, J. Problem. In Monroe, Cyclopedia of Education, 5:47. — A

brief statement of the philosophy of the problem as fundamental in
educational method. (Herring)

19. Dewey, J. School and Society. 164pp. 1915. Univ. of Chic. Pr., Chi-

cago. — Treats of the relation of active occupation to the development
of spirit in the school, and of certain projects as recapitulations of
race experiences. A fundamental discussion of the psychology of
occupation for common ends. (Herring)

20. Kilpatrick, W. H. The project method. Teach. Coll. Becord, 19:319-35,

Sept. 1918. Also reprinted in separate form with title, The project
method : the use of the purposeful act in the educative process. 1918.
Teachers College, Bureau of Pub., Columbia Univ., N. Y. — A philo-
sophical and psychological base of the problem-project movement. A
contribution presenting the psychology of the project, a concept which
serves to unify three factors of education: activity, the laws of learn-
ing, and conduct. Effective purpose is the essence of project method.
The purposeful act is the typical unity of worthy life and should be
that of school procedure. Four types of project are distinguished.
(Herring)

21. Moore, E. C. What is Education? 357pp. 1915. Ginn, Boston. — A very

live presentation in everyday terms from the point of view of the

BIBLIOGRAPHY 193

Dewey philosophy and the Thorndike psychology. Presents strikingly
the relativity of process, concept, etc., and the project idea of educa-
tion. Especially chapters on the place of method in education and on
learning by problem getting. (Herring)

22. Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N. How to Teach. 297pp. 1917. Mae-

millan, N. Y. — The chapters entitled "How thinking may be stimu-
lated ' ' and ' ' How to study ' ' are especially relevant and worth care-
ful reading by those who teach. Our scientific knowledge of learning
and of the improvement of function is here related to the processes of
education. (Herring)

23. Thorndike, £. L. Education, a First Book. Chapters 9 and 10, pp.

168-202. 1912. Macmillan, N. Y. — Really, if not professedly, con-
cerned with aspects of project method. Assuming the scientific atti-
tude and the relevancy of purposes in educative processes, these chap-
ters give concrete and illuminating direction. (Herring)

24. Thorndike, E. L. Education for initiative and originality. Teach. Coll.

Record, 17:405-16, 1916; also in Teach. Coll Bulletin, series 11, No. 4,
1919. — Two virtues basic in project method, in ethics in use, and in
civic practice. "From the standpoint of education in a democratic
state and for the sake of efficient democratic citizenship." The
definitions proposed do much to clarify ethical educational thought.
Certainly one of the best analyses of these traits. (Herring)

25. Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology, 3v. 327, 452, 408pp. 1913-14.

Teach. Coll., Bur. of Pub., Columbia Univ., N. Y. — Pertinent to pro-
ject study because every method of education must concern reflexes,
instincts, capacities, laws of learning, and the factors and conditions
of improvement. A scientific correlate of the John Dewey philosophy
of education as a base of the problem -project method. (Herring)

26. Thorndike, E. L. Principles of Teaching. 293pp. 1906. A. G. Seiler,

N. Y. — Invaluable for teachers making the transition to methods in-
volving reasoning by children. Very helpful on the technique of
handling the element of interest, on habit formation, and on much
else. (Herring)

27. Wilson, H. B., and Wilson, G. M. Motivation of School Work. 265pp.

1916. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. — Treats of the basis of motive, and
of motivation in school subjects and in extra-curricular activities.
Much concrete illustration. Very helpful. (Herring)

28. Wright, W. R. Some effects of incentives on work and fatigue.

Psychological Rev., 13:23-4, 1906. — One of the few experimental
studies bearing on the arousing of initiative. The conclusions are
of prime interest in their bearing on the problem-project method.
(Herring)

3. Definitions

29. Branom, M. E. Project Method in Education. 282pp. 1919. Badger,

Boston. — Should be generally available. A full and systematic
presentation. Excellent criticism of definitions thus far proposed;
relation of method to instincts and to adult activities; illustrative
material. The first book in its field. (Herring.) — Has been criticized
as interpreting "project" too broadly.

30. Courtis, S. A. Teaching through the use of projects or purposeful acts.

How provide for the development of fundamental skills f Teach. Coll.
Record, 21:139-49, March, 1920. — Faces squarely certain considerations

194 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

very often urged as limitations of the project method. Searching
positive and negative criticism, both of project method and of drill
methods; of existing practice and theory. The broad outline of a
constructive program synthesizing project and drill. (Herring)

31. Davis, E. An inquiry into the nature of the project-problem. Sch. and

800., 12:346-8, Oct. 16, 1920.

32. Fogle, O. M. Some real project teaching. Maryland 8tate Teachers

Assoc., Proc n 1917:94-9.

33. Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. Education through Concrete Experi-

ence. 187pp. (Francis W. Parker 8chool Yearbook, v. 4, 1915.) —
There is as yet, perhaps, no fuller single source of clear and sound
illustrations of education that has been accomplished through pro-
jects. (Herring's annotation for the whole series. See the following
two titles, also under Socialization and under Science.)

34. Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. Expression as a Means of Training

Motive. 188pp. (Francis W. Parker School Yearbook, v.3, 1914.)

35. Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. Studies in Education, v.6, 1920.

(Formerly Francis W. Parker School Yearbook.)

36. Hall, J. The individual project method. In Francis W. Parker School

Studies in Education, 6:5-46, 1920. — An account of a year's trial of
the individual project method. The basic problems and the detail
of the daily work are fully explained.

37. Henry T. S. Problem method in teaching. Sch. and Home Educ^

36:162-8, 1917. — Education as problem solving; characteristics ot
real problems; developing the problematic situation; scope and limi-
tations; dangers. A comprehensive discussion from the point of view
of the Dewey philosophy. (Herring)

38. Holycross, H. W. The problem idea in teaching. Ohio Educ. Monthly,

67:105-7, March 1918.

39. Horn, E. What is a project f El. 8ch. J., 21:112-6, Oct. 1920.— Dis-

cussion of the prevalent interpretation of project.

40. Hosic, J. F. Outline of the problem-project method. English J.,

7:599-603, Nov. 1918. — Treats of the definition, name, nature, value,
procedure, pitfalls, and difficulties of the problem-project method.
Project is defined as a single complete unit of purposeful experience.
A very compact and usefully suggestive series of theses. (Herring)

41. Judd, C. H. Initiative, or the discovery of problems. El. 8ch. Teacher,

13:153, 1912.

42. Kilpatrick, W. H. Problem-project attack in organisation, subject-

matter, and teaching. N. E. A. Proc* 1918:528-31. Same art., School,
29:396-7, 1918. Since the unit of worthy living is the project, the
project should be the unit of school procedure; it utilizes the laws
of learning; it leads to moral living. Four types of projects are dis-
tinguished. (Herring)

43. Kilpatrick, W. H. Project teaching. Gen. Sci. Quarterly, 1:67-72,

1917. — A compilation from notes by several persons who heard the
author speak. (Herring)

44. Kilpatrick, W. H. Teaching by the project method. School and home,

1-4, Winter 1920. — Extract from an address delivered before the
Pennsylvania State Teachers Association. (U. S. Educ Bur.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY 195

45. Leonard, 8. A. Social recitation. Chicago School* J., l:No. 10, 2-9,

1919. — The project method is not soft pedagogy. The teacher must
strongly influence the purposing of the pupils. A sound discussion of
certain points of modern method which are frequently called into
question. (Herring)

46. Lull, H. G. Project-problem instruction. 8ch. and Home Educ., 38 : 79-82,

1918. — Definition of the term project. A thorough treatment covering
much of the author's "What are projects and problems f" (q. v.),
and in addition presenting a very comprehensive and detailed analysis
of the activities involved. This analysis does much to suggest the
technique of the method. (Herring)

47. Lull, H. G. What are problems and projects! Chicago 8chooU /.,

2:19-25, Sept. 1919. Also in Teaching, No. 45, Febr. 1919.

48. Lull, H. G., and Finch, A. V. The project-problem method. Journal of

Educ, 92:378-9, Oct. 21, 1920.-— An outline.

49. McMurry, C. A. Teaching by Projects; a Basis for Purposeful Study.

257pp. 1920. Afacmillan, N. T. — Treats of the growing tendency to
adopt large projects and of the simplifying and enriching of study
through large projects. Presents in detail a number of such projects.
Relations of projects to classroom method. (Herring)

50. Mayberry, L. W. Individualizing problems for pupils. EL ScK J.,

18:133-37, Oct. 1917.

51. O 'Shea, M. V. " Project, " " Problem, » " Motive, " " Interest. ' ' Nor-

mal Instructor and Prim, Plans, 29:18, Nov. 1920.— Editorial.

52. Owen, W. B. Problem method. Chicago Schools J., 1:3-6, 1918.— Treats

of the problem method as a synthesis of the philosophy of experience,
the logic of purpose, the psychology of the act, the method of science,
and the processes of industry. Discloses clearly the vitality of rela-
tionship between the method and certain contemporaneous phases of
thought and life. The psychology of purpose is dominant. (Herring)

53. Bandall, J. A. Project teaching. N. E. A. Proa, 1915:1009-12.

54. Buch, G. M. Contribution to the psychology of the project. ScK and

8oa, 11:386-8, March 27, 1920.

55. Sharpe, B. W. The project as a teaching method. Sch. Science and

Math., 20:20-26, Jan. 1920.

56. Stevenson, J. A. Problems and projects. Sch. and Home Educ.,

38:209-15, 1919. — Method; definitions; projects and problems differ-
entiated and classified; summary. (Herring)

57. Stevenson, J. A. Project Method of Teaching. Announced, Autumn

1920. Macmillan, N. Y.

58. Stewart, B. M. The project as a method of teaching. Sch. Science and

Math^ 20:594-601, Oct. 1920. — A definition of project and a statement
of the standards of teaching. Discussion of how the project method
meets these requirements and the possibilities of its further develop-
ment.

59. Stockton, J. L. Project Work in Education. (Riverside educ. monog.)

166pp. 1920. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. — An explanation of the
theory of the project method of teaching school subjects. It has a
background of educational history worth while reading in itself, and a
breadth of view which makes the book valuable in aiding any teacher
to orient himself in the maze of modern fads and methods. (The
Booklist)

196 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

60. Teaching, No. 50, Jan. 1920. The project method of instruction. — Con-

tents: 1. H. G. Lull, The function of the project, pp. 3-11. 2. Achsah
Harris, First-grade project: A Christmas present for father, pp. 11-15;
3. Ruby Minor, A school magazine project, pp. 15-19; 4. Katherine
Morrison, Industrial art, pp. 19-21; 5. Jennie Williams, Belgium
interpreted through local environment, pp. 21-23 ; 6. Florence G. Billig,
A study in lawn planning, pp. 33-39. — The January 1920 number of
Teaching is devoted to the project method. Function, types, descrip-
tive illustrations, verbatim reports, means of measuring progress in
project education in widely different fields. A large range of sugges-
tion and concrete help useful to those experimenting with the method.
(Herring)

61. Wilson, H. B. Problem attack in teaching. El Sch. J. t 17:749-55, 1917.

— The problem attack in the presence of conscious difficulty is requisite
to good school work and results in real learning and economy. Two
types of problems are presented, and one illustration from history is
given in some detail (Herring)

4. Technique and Administration

62. Lull, H. G. • The Project Method of Learning: 1. The word project and

its function. 2. Method of procedure, and use of observation score
cards. 12pp. 1920. Kansas State Normal School, Bureau of Educ.
Meas. and Tests, Emporia.

63. Lull, H. G. Schoolroom technic in problem instruction in grammar

grades. Sch. and Soc, 5:496-99, Apr. 28, 1917.— Socialisation,
motivation, problem instruction, supervised study, changed relationship
of recitation to study, and suggestions as to what to avoid are dis-
cussed from the point of view of education through purposeful
activity. (Herring)

64. Lull, H. G., and Wilson, H. B. The Redirection of High School Instruc-

tion. In press, November, 1920. Lippincott, Philadelphia. — Contains
important chapters on the project, both in junior and senior high
school.

65. Meister, M. Guiding and aiding the pupil in his project. Gen. Sci-

ence Q., 3:209-15, 1919.— Suggestions are made as to certain elements
of the technique of project method, such as use of references, card
indexes, conferences, questions, lists of experiments, etc (Herring)

66. Minor, Buby. Supervision of project teaching. Educ. Admin, and

Superv., 5:357-63, 1919. — Several definitions are presented; the value
of the method is considered ; a very detailed analysis of the values is
presented. Selected bibliography. (Herring)

67. Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in Sigh Schools. 529pp. 1915.

Ginn, Boston. — Contains much that is pertinent to the technique of
supervised problem study and to the difficulties of transition from
other methods to the project method. Well organized. (Herring)

68. Parker, S. C. Problem-solving or practice in thinking, 4 parts : 1. Prob-

lems of everyday life. El Sch. J., 21:16-25, Sep. 1920. 2. Actual
lessons illustrating problem-solving in school. El. Sch. J., 21:98-111,
Oct. 1920. 3. How skilled problem-solvers think. El Sch. J.,
21 : 174-88, Nov. 1920. 4. Rules for training pupils in effective problem-
solving. El. Sch. J., December 1920 ( f — not yet published at date of
this entry).

BIBLIOGRAPHY 197

69. Snedden, D. The project as a teaching unit. Sch. and Soc, 4:419-23,

1916. — Discussion of various units: the question and answer, the
lesson, the topic, and the project. Characteristics, definition, history,
and classification of projects. (Herring)

70. Teaching, No. 45, February, 1919. Examples of project-problem in-

struction, by H. G. Lull and others. (Out of print.) — Treats of the
definition, stimuli, processes, relations to the study period, the recita-
tion, the teacher, facilities, and examples of projects. Contains an
adequate and detailed manual of practice. Twenty pages are de-
voted to the reproduction of children's notes, plans, revisions, out-
lines, and expositions of projects in geography, English, arithmetic,
and science. An attempt to define certain details of procedure
implicit in Dewey's philosophy of education. (Herring)

H. SPECIAL APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES
5. Curriculum and Program

•

71. Bigelow, G. I. The course of study and the program in the project

method. (Horace Mann studies in primary education.) Teach. Coll.
Record, 21:327-36, Sept. 1920.

72. Bonser, F. G. The Elementary School Curriculum. 466pp. 1920. Mac-

millan, N. Y. — Ch. 6, The project method and the curriculum. Ch. 7,
Illustrations of two types of project organization.

73. Columbia University. Teachers College. Speyer School. The Speyer

School Curriculum, by the staff and supervisors of the experimental
and demonstration school of Teachers College. 180pp. 1913.
Teachers Coll., Bur. of Pub., Columbia Univ., N. Y. — The interre-
lation of the content of the subjects of the curriculum, with projects
and sources of data. Projects and sources accompany each grade
curriculum. Projects are found most frequently with the subject of
industrial arts. Rich in concrete suggestion from the kindergarten
through the eighth grade. Excellent lists of books needed by children
and teachers. (Herring)

74. Lull, H. G. Relation of project-problem instruction to the curriculum.

Sch. and Home Educ, 38:114-15, 1919. — The boundaries between sub-
jects. Drill subjects and use subjects (applied technique) in ele-
mentary and junior high schools. Acquisition of the technique of
subjects of the curriculum. (Herring)

75. Stevenson, J. A. The project and the curriculum. Sch. and Home

Educ., 38:146-51, 1919. — Some principles of curriculum making. An
analysis of a first-grade project: making a flower garden. " Pro-
jects need not cut across subjects of the curriculum. 1 ' Project as
the basis of curriculum organization. (Herring)

6. Dramatization

76. Charters, J. A. The problem method of teaching ideals. English J.,

8:461-73, Oct. 1919. — The problem must grow out of some interest
which the children already have. Emphasizes dramatization; many
subjects, such as civics, history and literature, lend themselves to
dramatization. (U. S. Educ. Bur.)

77. Clark, A. B. Experiment in problem teaching. English J., 6:535-38,

1917. — Describes the writing and production of a play in one year

198 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

br seventeen high-school pupils. Preliminary writing of plots and
plays; earning money to see Forbes-Robertson; interviewing the
great actor; conversations with miners and mining experts; com-
munity suggestions; type-writing, producing, and printing. A long,
complex, but well-sustained problem-project. (Herring)

78. Cook, H. C. Play Way; an Essay in Educational Method. 367pp. 1917.

Stokes, N. Y. — Unique, undoubtedly possessing style, full of epigram-
matic wit and pedagogical wisdom. Discusses principles and methods
of education; as play, self-government, "littleman lectures," a play
town, acting, and play making. Easily skimmed for its kernels, yet
sustained in quality. "The basis of educational method is regard
for the interests of children," suggests a dominant attitude. (Herring)

79. Weller, Mrs. H. Finlay-Johnson. Dramatic Method of Teaching. 199pp.

1912. Ginn, Boston. — History, geography, arithmetic, composition,
nature study, and manual arts taught through plays written or
adapted to purpose by the pupils. (Herring)

7. Elementary Education

80. Batchelder, M. I. Materials and activities in the second grade. (Horace

Mann studies in elementary education.) Teach. CoU. Becord,
20:205-10, May 1919. — A typical day's program is described and an
account given of activities in an experimental room largely dominated
by the spirit and method of the project. (Herring)

81. Bonser, F. G., ed. Studies in elementary school practice. Teach. CoU.

Becord, 12:1-59, Jan. 1911.

82. Brady, A. M. Motivation in primary work. Kinder g, and First Grade,

5:155-56, April 1920. — Children make butter for a party.

83. Branom, M. E. Value of the problem-project method in elementary edu-

cation. El. 8ch. J., 18:618-22, Apr. 1918.— Treats of four steps and
nine advantages. The teacher can no longer afford not to be master
of the method. The illustrative material is excellent. (Herring). —
Discusses plan as worked out in the St. Louis schools. (U. 8. Educ.
Bur.)

84. Burke, A. First-grade materials and stimuli. (Horace Mann studies in

primary education.) Teach. Coll. Becord, 20:118-25, March 1919.

85. Detraz, M. J. Materials and activities in the third grade. (Horace

Mann studies in elementary education.) Teach. CoU. Becord,
20:210-18, May 1919.— Tells of the social difficulties in a self -directed
group, of which the teacher is an influential member, and of their
solution by the group. The narrative is vivid, dignified, and con-
vincing. The curriculum content is given. (Herring)

86. Dewey, J. Prospective elementary education. In Bapeer, L. W., ed.,

Teaching Elementary School Subjects, pp. 552-69. 1917. Scribner,
N. Y. — Such topics as pragmatism and intelligence, former theories,
the new theory of mind, thinking, method, subject matter, occupation,
and values are presented from the point of view of education through
purposeful activity. (Herring)

87. Dobbs, E. V. Transformation of the primary school. Kinder g, and

First Grade, 2:313-15, Oct 1917.— Address given before the Inter-
national Kindergarten Union, Boston. The factors necessary to
transform a school of the old type into one of the new type, and the
chief features of the old and the new type. (U. 8. Educ Bur.)

BIBLIOGBAPET 1QQ

88. Freeland, G. E. Modem Elementary School Practice. 1919. Macmillan,

N. Y. Ch. 2, The problem method; ch. 3, The project.

89. Frits, J. A. How a project was worked out in a 1 B room. Kinderg.

and First Grade, 4:20, 1919. — A good illustration of the rise and
leads of a simple project. (Herring)

90. Fritz, J. A. Motivated Christmas work in the first grade. Kinderg. and

First Grade, 2:423, 1917.

91. Garrett, L. B. Study of Animal Families. Bulletin No. 2, Bureau of

educational experiments, 70 Fifth Ave., N. Y.

92. Good health project. Pop. Educator, 38: 194, Dec. 1920.

93. Grout, £. B. Power of the project. Prim. Educ., 22:212-14, Apr. 1920.

94. Herr, L. A. Making a merry-go-round, a Christmas project. Indus.

Arts Mag., 9:476-79, Dec 1920.

95. Imboden, S. M. A co-operative community study. El Sen. J., Nov. 1920.

96. Jenkins, A. U. Project teaching in the elementary school. Pop. Edu-

cator, 38:136-7, Nov. 1920.-~-Outlines four types of projects, with
suggestions for their application.

97. Jennings, H. S., and others. Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning

Education. 1917. Macmillan, N. Y. — Eather general application to
the project in the elementary school, but the following parts are
especially suggestive: H. S. Jennings, Biology of children in rela-
tion to education; J. B. Watson, Practical and theoretical problems
in instinct and habits.

98. Kendall, C. N., and Mirick, G. A. How to Teach the Fundamental Sub-

jects. 1915. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. — Project in the sense of mak-
ing the work practical.

99. Kilpatrick, W. H. Theories underlying the experiment. (Horace Mann

studies in elementary education.) Teach. Coll. Becord, 20:99-106,
March, 1919. — What children are to learn of common affairs; of
social ideals and skills, of self-reliance, and of school arts; learning
to do by doing; the child's method; child doing under teacher guid-
ance. A presentation before patrons of the Horace Mann School of
the theories of a significant experiment. (Herring)

100. Rrackowitzer, A. M. Projects in Primary Grades. 221pp. 1919. Lippin-

cott, Philadelphia. — A presentation from the point of view of the
Dewey philosophy; play, construction, social ethics, nature, and the
formal subjects are all treated as ' ' purposeful activity. ' ' Discussion
of problem and project, and of criteria. Eich with illustrations of
projects for the primary grades. A type of book bound to appear
more and more frequently. (Herring)

101. Linke, E. A. An experiment in teaching in response to children's ques-

tions. Teach. Coll. Becord, 21:55-67, Jan. 1920.

102. McKee, J. W. Primary experiments. Kinderg. and First Grade, 5:95-98,

March 1920.

103. Mackie, M. Story of the Pilgrims, a fourth-grade project. Prim. Educ.,

28:547-49, Nov. 1920.

104. McMurry, F. M. Elementary School Standards. 218pp. 1914. World

Bk. Co., Yonkers, N. Y. — Interesting, searching, qualitative criticism
of a school system in the light of four standards, which are standards
for problem teaching; provision for motive on the part of pupils, con-
sideration of values by pupils, attention to organisation by pupils, and

200 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

initiative by pupils. The book will long be vitally pertinent.
(Herring)

105. Meadowcroft, F. M. Specimen activities of the first grade (Horace

Mann studies in elementary education.) Teach. Coll Record,
20:106-18, March, 1919.

106. Miller, I. E. Education for the Needs of Life. 1917. Macmillan, N. Y.

— Ch. 5, Principles of method, is particularly on the project.

107. Minor, B. Project teaching in grade six. El Sch. /., 20:137-45, Oct

1919. — The rise of problems; fists of problems and of pupil activities;
titles of compositions; relationships among subjects of the curriculum;
results; how the work of the grade as a whole was handled. Con-
cretely helpful. (Herring)

108. Moore, A. £. Use of children 's initiative in beginning reading. Teach.

Coll. Record, 17:330-43, 1916. — The purpose of the experiment was
to "see what could be accomplished in beginning reading through
self -directed individual effort/' and to select those reactions which
were most effective. A most promising first-grade project, with a
list of pictures, apparatus, and books used. (Herring)

109. Morris, M. Third-grade project. Central Normal Bulletin, 15:1, 1919.—

Valuable as suggesting that teachers who move to new fields may put
their new pupils into communication with their former ones. Leave*
of timber trees, peanuts on the stalk, cotton, etc., were exchanged and
utilized as drives for letter-writing, spelling, and geography. (Herring)

110. Parker, 8. C. General Methods of Teaching in Elementary Schools. 1919.

Ginn, Boston.

111. Patri, A. A School-Master in a Great City. 1917. Macmillan, N. Y.

112. Powell, P. A. Projects for primary grades. Prim. Educ, 28:480-83,

546-7, 622-23, Oct., Nov., Dec. 1920.

113. Project in an English school, by a London Teacher. Prim. Educ^

28:484-86, Oct. 1920.

114. Bapeer, L. W., ed. Teaching Elementary School Subjects. 569pp. 1917.

Scribner, N. Y. — A symposium of more than a score of leaders of
thought and practice in education. Each author treats of a subject of
the curriculum. In numerous places the content is related with pro*
jects. (Herring)

115. Bich, F. M. Projects in plant study; autumn term. Pop. Educator,

38:200-201, Dec. 1920.— For Grades 1-8.

116. Bussell, L. Christmas disorganization, a remedy. Pop. Educator,

38:138-40, Nov. 1920. — A project to restore morale when attention
has been away from the regular round of study.

117. Stone, C. B. Some illustrative silent reading lessons. El. Sch. J., Sep.

1920.

118. Storm, G. E. Project for the second grade: pt. 1, Trimming a bird's

Christmas tree, a bird study unit; pt. 2, A morning assembly based on
a bird study unit. Prim. Educ., 28:550-52, 620-21, Nov. and Dec
1920.

119. Sweeney, E. L. Problem-project method in primary grades. Kinder g.

and First Grade, 5:177-79, May 1920.

— See also following section, Kindergarten, and entry No. 78, above.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 201

8. Kindergarten Education

(Note: Project ifl here interpreted rather generally as any activity lead-
ing to self-expression. Hence considerable general material on kindergarten
theory is included.)

120. Aultman, E. M. Odds and ends of hand work. Kinderg. and First

Grade, 5:204, May 1920.

121. Bailey, C. S. Summer constructive play. Kinderg. and First Grade,

3:246-48, June 1918.

122. Banta, C. M. Individuality developed through self-expression and free

play. Kinderg. and First Grade, 2:14, Jane 1917.

123. Barbour, G. W. The free period as an educational factor. Kinderg. and

First Grade, 3 : 133-39, Apr. 1918. — Some of the values resulting from
the free period. (U. S. Educ. Bur.)

124. Bureau of educational experiments. Catalogue of Flay Equipment.

(Bulletin No. 8.) 70 Fifth Ave., N. Y.

125. Bureau of educational experiments. Experimental Schools. (Bulletins

3, 4, and 5.) 70 Fifth Ave., N. Y.

126. Bureau of educational experiments. Playthings. (Bulletin No. 1.) 70

Fifth Ave., N. Y.

127. Chambers, W. G. Childhood education. Kinderg. and First Grade,

1:334-38, Oct. 1916.

128. Crawford, S. W. Some problems of industrial art worked out by chil-

dren. Kinderg. and First Grade, 2:166, Nov. 1917.

129. Dixon, E. D. An experiment illustrating spontaneous group work.

Kinderg. and First Grade, 3:13, Jan. 1918.

130. Dobbs, E. V. Primary Handwork. 1914. Macmillan, N. Y. — Sugges-

tive guide to use of sand table, scissors, clay, cardboard, etc. Outlines
methods tested by actual practice and organizes them for the use of
untrained teachers with a view to the limitations of a small-town
school. (A. L. A. Booklist.)

131. Ellis, E. Comparison of results of the kindergarten and Montessori

methods. Kinderg. Bev., 26:209-14, Dec. 1915. — Given before the
Boston Froebel club. Frankly and enthusiastically in favor of
Montessori. (U. S. Educ Bur.)

132. Fad dis, J. B. Belation of the kindergarten and elementary grades.

Kinderg. and First Grade, 1:66-72, Feb. 1916.

133. Greenwood, B. Development of the curriculum. Kinderg. and First

Grade, 1:117-21, March 1916.

134. Griffiths, N. W. Four-year-old child and the project method. Kinderg.

and First Grade, 5:187, May 1920.

135. Hegner, B. H. Home activities in the kindergarten. Beprint from

Kinderg. Mag.

136. Henley, F. Spontaneous group work vs. organized group work. Kinderg.

and First Grade, 3:10, Jan. 1918.

137. Hetherington, Mrs. C. W. Demonstration play school of the University

of California. Kinderg. and First Grade, 2:59, Feb. 1917.

138. Hill, M. D. Educational values which the child carries over from the

kindergarten into the primary grades. Kinderg. and First Grade,
1:371-75, Nov. 1916. Also in Kinderg. Prim. Mag., 29:53-56, Oct

2Q2 T BE TWENTIETH YEAEBOOK

1916. — Plan for basing early first grade work directly upon last work
done in kindergarten.

139. Hill, P. 8., ed. Experimental studies in kindergarten theory and prac-

tice. Teach. Coll. Becord, 15:1-60, 1914. Also in separate pamphlet,
same title, 1914, Bureau of Pub., Teachers College, Columbia Univ.,
N. Y.

140. HilL P. 8. Kindergarten of yesterday and tomorrow. Kinder g. and

First Grade, 1:331-33, Oct. 1916. Also in Kinder g. Prim. Mag.,
29:4-6, Sep. 1916.

141. Holmes, E. G. Plan for Kindergarten course of study. Kinderg. Bev.,

26:148-65, Nov. 1915. — An outline for a kindergarten course which is
suggestive of project method.

142. Hoxie, J. L. A child's garden. Kinderg. and First Grade, 1:164-65,

Apr. 1916.

143. International kindergarten union. Proceedings (of the annual meetings).

144. International kindergarten union. Sub-committee on curriculum of the

Bureau of Education committee. The kindergarten curriculum. (U. 8.
Educ. Bur., Bulletin, 1919, No. 16.) Govt. Pr. Office, Washington,
D. 0.

145. Krackowitzer, A. M. Social enterprises of little children: gardening.

Kinderg. and First Grade, 5:142-45, Apr. 1920.

146. Loeb, J. An experiment in a public school kindergarten. Kinderg. and

First Grade, 5:58-63, Feb. 1920. — Results of an experiment to ascer-
tain just what kindergarten children would do with as little interfer-
ence and as few suggestions from the teacher as possible. (U. 8.
Educ. Bur.)

147. Moore, A. E. Beport of I.K.U. committee on minimum essentials in

kindergarten and primary grades. Kinderg. and First Grade, 2:283-90,
Sep. 1917.

148. National council of primary education. Beport of second annual meeting

at Kansas City, Mo., Feb. 27, 1917, and of the third annual meeting
at Atlantic City, N. J., Feb. 26, 1918. (U. S. Educ Bur., Bulletin,

1918, No. 26.) Govt. Pr. Office, Washington, D. C.

149. National council of primary education. Proceedings of the fourth annual

meeting, Chicago, HI., Feb. 25, 1919. (U. S. Educ Bur. Bulletin,

1919, No. 69.) Govt. Pr. Office, Washington, D. C.

150. National education association, Department of kindergarten education.

Reports of addresses, in N. E. A., Proe., any year.

151. Paine, M. D. Suggestions for fall nature study. Kinderg. and First

Grade, 1:348-55, Oct. 1916.

152. Robinson, B. H. A building project with large floor blocks. Kinderg.

and First Grade, 3:373, Nov. 1918.

153. Sargent, W. Beginnings of art for little children. Kinderg. and First

Grade, 2:370, Nov. 1917.

154. Schaffer, L. I. Christmas in the kindergarten. Kinderg. and First

Grade, 2:316, Oct. 1917.

155. Scott, C. A. Self -organized groups. Kinderg. and First Grade, 2:316,

Oct. 1917.

156. Shute, M. C. Practice of democracy in the kindergarten. Kinderg. and

First Grade, 3:89-94, March, 1918.— Training "in freedom " trains

BIBL10GBAPET 203

child "for freedom" and for responsibility. Method is evidently
project. See also entry No. 267.

157. Sies, A. C. Problems in sensory-motor education involving the selection

of play materials and apparatus for small children. Kinderg. and
First Grade, 1:49-55, Feb. 1916. — Specific sense-training through play
to form habits which will be useful in life.

158. Smith, M. Beport of the experiment in primary education in the School

of childhood of the University of Pittsburgh. Kinderg. and First
Grade, 1:288-90, Sep. 1916.

159. Temple, A. The kindergarten-primary unit. El Sch. J., 20:498-509

618-27, March and April 1920. — An account of what the school of
education has done... "to bring the work of the kindergarten into
organic relationship with that of the rest of the school. ' ' Discusses
language activities in the kindergarten-primary period. (U. S. Educ.
Bur.)

160. Temple, A. Survey of Kindergartens of Biehmond, Indiana. 1917.

Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.

161. Tupper, H. B. A farm project. Kinderg. and First Grade, 5:249-50,

June, 1920.

162. Wall, A. D. What are we going to do with the war in the kindergarten f

Kinderg. and First Grade, 3:320-22, Oct. 1918.— A unit of work de
veloped through the project method. (U. 8. Educ Bur.)

163. Watkins, C. Industrial arts in the kindergarten. Kinderg. and First

Grade, 1:160-62, Apr. 1916.

164. Watson, J. B. The pre-kindergarten age; a laboratory study. Kinderg.

and First Grade, 5:14-18, 68-72, 105-109, Jan., Feb., March 1920.—
Beport of various experiments to test reflexes.

165. Wells, H. G. Floor Games. 1912. Small, Boston.

166. Wilson, C. O. Problem method of attack. Kinderg. and First Grade,

2:200, May, 1917.

167. Wolford, B. W. Individual and group play. Kinderg. and First Grade,

1:380-84, Nov. 1916.

— See also the preceding section, Elementary Education, and entry No.
78 (Cook, Play way).

9. Library Correlation

168. Kerr, W. H. Problem method and its library correlation, a librarian's

reaction. Libr. J., 42:686-87, Sep. 1917. — The writer approves the
problem method of study and plans generously to adapt library
methods to the needs of children who use the method. (Herring). —
Written as discussion of Lull 's paper, entry No. 170, below.

169. Lauler, L. F. A practical project in library work. Fop. Educator,

38:196-98, Dec. 1920.

170. Lull, H. G. Problem method of instruction and its probable correlations

in library service and administration. N. E. A. Proe. t 1917:562-66.
Discussion, pp. 566-72. Same article, abridged, Libr. J., 42:683-5,
Sept. 1917. — Problem instruction requires the pupil to seek informa-
tion from a variety of sources, of which the library is one of the most
important. Writer discusses how the necessary library facilities may
best be supplied. (U. 8. Educ. Bur.)

204 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

10. Measurements and Tests

171. Herring, J. P. Measurements of some abilities in scientific thinking.

Journ. of Educ. Psych., 9:535-58, 1918, and 10:417-32, 1919.— Inti-
mate relation of project method and scientific method; definition of
certain phases of scientific method; a test composed of 33 problems
designed as measures of defined aspects of scientific ability; aim,
history, and limitations of the test. The text of the test is presented,
and a scale is developed. (Herring)

172. Lull, H. G. Observation and Score Card, Project Method of Learning.

Revised 1920. Kansas State Normal School, Bur. of Educ. Meas.
and Tests, Emporia, Kansas. — Three excellent cards presenting an
elaborate analysis of project-problem abilities in five parts: I A and
IB, Pupil activities and teacher activities in the recitation period;
IIA and IIB, Pupil activities and teacher activities in the supervised
study period; III, Drill projects. (Herring). — See also, Lull's hand-
book to accompany these score cards, entry No. 62, above.

173. McCall, W. A. Measuring the Horace Mann Elementary School. Teach.

Coll. Becord, 19:472-84, 1918. — Beports measurements in an experi-
mental school where the project method is used in several rooms.
(Herring)

174. McCall, W. A., and others. Experimental measurements. (Horace Mann

studies in elementary education.) Teach. Coll. Becord, 20:218-28,
May 1919. — The measurement of experimental groups using the project
method and of control groups not using it justified the conclusion that
the project method secured the conventional " intelligences " of the
primary grades almost as well as the older methods. The project
method, being new, it is suggested, may or may not later outstrip the
more formal methods in the intellectual requirements of minimum
essentials, and may or may not outstrip them in certain as-yet im-
measurable qualities. (Herring)

175. Thompson, C. J. Study of the socialized versus the academic method of

teaching written composition. Sch. Bev., 27:110-133, 1919. — An ex-
perimental and a control group are compared through measurements,
with the conclusion that the method which utilizes the social elements
of the composition and group stimuli gives decidedly better results.
Recommendations as to procedure are included. (Herring)

— See also entry No. 271.

11. Socialisation

176. Burks, J. D. Environment of the school. Teach. Coll. Becord, 3:273-91,

1902. — The environment is that of the Speyer School. This article
admirably illustrates one kind of knowledge needed in education
through projects. (Herring)

177. Burns, H. P. Group socialized recitation. Education, 39:176-81, 1918.—

Develops somewhat elaborately a plan of discussion in small groups
as preparation for recitation. The plan is reported as having been
warmly approved by certain high-school pupils, who say that it is
broadening, it is interesting, it develops coherent expression and co-
operation, and that it provokes thought. (Herring)

178. Chicago Normal College students. Suggestive outline for project-problem

teaching. Chicago Schools J., 2:17-20, 1919. — Questions to stimulate
interest and bring out the suggestion by the group that a club be

BIBLIOGRAPHY 205

formed to study Chicago's achievements and needs. The plans made
by the group are presented, including the organization of a dramatic
club.

1. Dewey, E. New Schools for Old: the 'Regeneration of the Porter School,

337pp. 1919. Dutton, N. Y. — A solution of difficulties typical of
rural education through means typically accessible in the country. The
things done in the school were done with an eye to the education of
the community. School and community interest were made one.
(Herring)

). Dewey, E., and Dewey J. Schools of Tomorrow. 316pp. 1915. Dutton
N. Y. — A contemporary source of current thought on purposeful
activity in education, as related to natural development, freedom,
individuality, play, education through industry, and democratic edu-
cation. Certain " schools of tomorrow," now famous, are here
described. (Herring)

L. Fell, E. E. Socializing the school and the community. Moderator Topics,
38:453-55, 469-71, 1918. — Describes the organization, subsequent man-
agement, and benefits of clubs for parents and teachers. (Herring)

2. Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. Morning exercise as a socializing

influence. 198pp. (Francis W. Parker School Yearbook, v.2, 1913.)

5. Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. Social motive in school work. 139pp,
(Francis W. Parker School Yearbook, v.l, 1912.)

L Lull, H. G. Socializing school procedure. Amer. J. of Sooiol., 24:681-91,
May 1919. — The free-play ways of children utilized in teaching. Two
assignments are presented, one that hampers the free purposeful attack
of pupils and one that furthers that attack. Stenographic report of
class conversation. Application of the project way to discipline and
planning. (Herring)

5. Newby, M. I. The socialized recitation. Sierra Educ. News, 15:70-2,

1919. — A school magazine published by pupils, debating clubs for oral
language, imaginary ownership of real estate, and oil prospecting are
used to socialize the curriculum. Suggestive of projects possible in
most communities. (Herring)

6. Quick, H. Brown Mouse. 310pp. 1915. Bobbs, Merrill, Indianapolis. —

Fascinating fiction of a farmer lad with a country education, who
was inveigled to teach the country school and who quasi-instinctively
based his procedure upon an informal survey of community needs.
A book that makes its own educational appeal on a basis of common
sense and plain humor. The ways of the novice here strikingly sug-
gest the project method. (Herring)

7. Roberts, A. C. An experiment in socialization. Sch, Rev., 26:25-34,

1918. — Details an experiment in the adaptation of high-school
education to certain purposeful community demands. (Herring)

8. Scott, C. A. Social Education. 298pp. 1908. Ginn, Boston. — Describes

certain atypical schools, such as the George Junior Republic and the
Dewey School. Discusses self -organized group work. (Herring)

9. Scott, C. A. Social significance of self -organized group work. In King,

I., ed., Social Aspects of Education, pp. 377-93. 1912. Macmillan,
N. Y. — Presents a method of initiating the project plan in a school
room to which it is new, and describes a number of projects. Socializa-
tion is seen intimately related with project. A most interesting, vivid,
and frank narrative concerning certain difficulties and solutions in
socialization. (Herring)

206 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

It. Study, Thinking, Learning

200. Dearborn, G. V. N. How to Learn Easily. 221pp. 1916. Little-Brown,

Boston. — One of the how-to-study books from which one may take
helpful suggestions for his own method in its general aspects.
(Herring)

201. Dewey, J. How We Think. 224pp. 1910. Heath, Boston. — A main

source of the philosophy and psychology of education through prob-
lems, with much specific advice as to procedure in the school. (Herring)

202. Dewey, J. Reasoning in early childhood. Teach. Coll. Record, 15:9-15,

1914. — The improvement of reasoning power is perhaps impossible
through teaching, but the conditions which permit its development may
be provided. Three constant conditions of thinking: end, means, dis-
covery. A writing of importance as showing through what means
reasoning capacity may grow and through what means it will not
(Herring)

203. Earhart, L. B. Experiment in teaching children to study. Education,

30:236-44, 1909. — Can fourth-grade pupils be taught to study a read-
ing lesson independently f The question is answered affirmatively, and
a detailed account of the method of investigation is presented. Very
useful on the problem side of the project method (Herring)

204. Earhart, L. B. Systematic Study in the Elementary Schools. 97pp. 1908.

Teachers College, Columbia Univ., N. Y. — Treats of the usual lack of
effective study by children and of its possibility, of the recognition
of problems, collecting data, scientific doubt, verification, memorizing,
and of recognizing individuality. Illustrative material is included.
An excellent analysis of the educational situation as to children's
study, and of valid methods. (Herring)

205. Earhart, L. B. Teaching Children to Study. 181pp. 1909. Houghton

Mifflin, Boston. — Treats of the inductive and deductive methods of
study, of the textbook in study, of children 's abilities for study, and
of present attainments. Very useful on the problem side of the
problem-project method. (Herring)

206. Earhart, L. B. Types of Teaching. 277pp. 1915. Houghton Mifflin,

Boston.— See especially ch. 14, Training children to study. Treats of
finding the aim, judging of hypotheses, collecting and evaluating
data, organizing data, suspending judgment, testing conclusions, and
thoughtful memorizing. Valuable for the problem aspect of the
problem-project method. (Herring)

207. Jones, W. H. 8. How We Learn, 64pp. 1916. Putnam, N. Y. — The

psychology and practice of scientific method as employed by boys.
Induction, deduction, examples of scientific discoveries, the method of
discovery, analogy, fallacies, learning, and authority. The illustrative
material is well developed. (Herring)

208. Kitson, H. D. How to Use Your Mind. 217pp. 1916. Lippincott,

Philadelphia. — One of the how-to-study books from which one may
take helpful suggestions for his own method in its general aspect
(Herring)

209. Lull, H. G. University how-to-study class. Sch. and 8oc, 4:961, 1916. —

How the author in co-operation with instructors in the engineering de-
partment of a university taught engineering students how to study.
Suggests a type of work probably much needed in many schools.
(Herring)

BIBLIOGBAPHT 207

210. McLaughlin, K. How to study. El Sch. J., 15:22-24, 1915.-— Three

common difficulties are presented and remedies proposed. (Herring)

211. McMurry, F. M. How to Study and Teaching How to Study. 324pp.

1909. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. — Nature of study; provision for
specific purposes; supplementing thought; organizing ideas; judging
soundness and worth; memorizing; using ideas; tentative attitudes;
individuality. An important early contribution to the project method,
with special emphasis on the problem. (Herring)

212. McMurry, F. M., and others. Symposium on study in the elementary

school. Education, 30:242-44, 311-15, 1909-1910.— Opinions of a score
of educators in response to pertinent questions. (Herring)

213. Merriman, E. D. Technique of supervised study. Sch. Bev., 18:35-38,

1918. — Very helpful, detailed, concrete outline for this phase of
problem study. (Herring)

214. Miller, I. E. Psychology of Thinking. 298pp. 1910. Macmillan, N. Y.—

Useful as an analysis of the physiological and psychological bases of
thinking. Includes many specific suggestions as to procedure in guid-
ing children in their thinking. (Herring)

215. Borem, S. O. Supervised study as a school project. Junior High School

Clearing House Bull, 1:23-24, April 1920.

216. Sandwick, B. L. How to Study and What to Study. 170pp. 1915.

Heath, Boston. — A how-to-study book that repays reading. Discussion ;
pithy summary ; positive recommendation ; analysis of process, aspects,
types, and factors of study. Good for junior- and senior-high-school
students and for adults who feel the need of help on the technique of
their study habits. (Herring)

217. Whipple, G. M. How to Study Effectively. 44pp. 1916. Public Sch.

Pub. Co., Bloomington, HI. — Clear, sound, detailed directions for
guidance of study in the elementary school, high school, and college.
Contains much that will help many an adult. (Herring)

IS. Teacher Training

218. Kelly, F. J. The problem method applied to teachers' institutes.

Teaching, No. 39, Oct 15, 1917, pp. 5-10.

219. Miller, H. L. University of Wisconsin plan for the preparation of high

school teachers. 18th Yearbook, Pt. 1, pp. 7-165. — A vigorous, sug-
gestive presentation of the plan of preparation through participation,
in which the project method is central, and from which one may learn
much of the actual working of the method in one school and almost
sense how it feels to learn to teach well. The earnest daily reports of
the college seniors who are preparing to teach are illuminating.
(Herring)

220. Nolan, A. W. Project methods in teacher training in vocational agri-

culture. In N. E. A. Proc, 1918:276.

221. Taylor, W. S. Project methods in teacher-training courses. Sch. and

Soc, 8:487-90, Oct. 26, 1918. Same N. E. A. Proc, 1918:276-78.—
Instruction in agriculture in the secondary school was lifeless until
projects were used. The beneficial results and the criteria of the
method in agriculture are discussed. (Herring)

208 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

TEL SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION

14. Agriculture

222. Association of Land Grant Colleges. Teaching by the problem method

was the theme of the 34th annual meeting of the association, at
Springfield, Mass., Oct. 19-22, 1920. Secretary, J. L. Hills, Burling-
ton, Vt

223. Bawden, W. T. Agricultural education through home projects: the

Massachusetts plan. Voc. Educ., 3:86-105, Not. 1913.

224. Bennett, C. B. Study of the wheat industry in the fifth grade. Teach.

Coll. Record, 12:50-54, Jan. 1911.

225. Benson, O. H. Project demonstration. J. of Educ., 82:125,129, Aug.

19, 1915.

226. Bricker, G. A. Home projects. In his Agricultural Education for Teach-

ers, pp. 147-53. 1914. Am. Bk. Co., N. Y.

227. Carris, L. H. Vegetable gardening as a school project. Atlantic Educ. /*

12:146-51, Nov. 1915.

228. Cook County, Illinois. Public instruction dept. Achievement course.

(School-home project outline 1918, Cook County schools.) 19pp.
1918. Chicago.

229. French, W. H. Home projects in agriculture for Michigan schools and

school credits. (Bulletin No. 17, Michigan Agricultural Coll., East
Lansing.) 15pp. 1916.

230. Gibson, H. H. Relating the work in agriculture to home and community

problems. Midland Schools, 31:146-48, Jan. 1917. — Poultry work,
home project work. (U. S. Educ. Bur.)

231. Hawkins, L. S. Plans and records of home project instruction. In Nat.

8oc. for the Promotion of Indue. Educ., Proc., 1916:312-24.

232. Heald, F. E. Lessons in Poultry for Sural Schools. (Bulletin 464.

U. S. Agric Dept) 34pp. 1918. Govt. Printing Office, Washington.

233. Heald, F. E. The project in agricultural education. Gen. Science Q.,

1:166-69, March, 1917.

234. Heald, F. E. School Credit for Home Practice in Agriculture. (Bulletin

385, U. S. Agric. Dept.) 27pp. 1916. Govt Pr. Office, Wash.

235. Indiana. Public instruction dept. Supervised home project and clnb

work. (Indiana. State Board of Education. Educational Bulletin
No. 39, Vocational Series No. 19.) 61pp. 1919. Indianapolis.

236. Indiana. Public instruction dept. Supervised home project work.

(Indiana. State Board of Education. Educational Bulletin No. 19,
Vocational Series No. 15, Jan. 1917.) 12pp. 1917. Indianapolis.

237. Indiana. Public instruction dept., Vocational division. Courses in agri-

culture on the home basis. (Indiana. State Board of Education.
Educational Bulletin No. 27.) 395pp. 1917. Indianapolis.

238. Lane, C. H., and Heald, F. E. Correlating Agriculture with the Publie

Schools in the Northern States. (U. 8. Agric Dept Bulletin 28L)
42pp. 1915. Govt. Pr. Office, Washington.

239. Massachusetts. Education board. Agricultural Project Study. (Agri-

cultural education service, Bulletin, 1912, No. 4.) 38pp. 1912.

240. Massachusetts. Education board. The part-time and project method

necessary to an effective system of agricultural schools for Massa-

B1BL100BAPHY 209

chusetts. In its Beport on Agricultural Education. January 1911,
pp. 41-61. Boston.

241. Massachusetts. Education board. Project Study Outlines for Vegetable

Gardening. (Agricultural Education Service, Bulletin, 1912, No. 5.)
30pp. 1912.

242. New Hampshire. Public instruction dept., Division of institutes. Home

projects in horticulture and field crops. Requirements for standard
(N. H.) schools. (New Hampshire. Department of Public Instruc-
tion. Institute circular, series 1917-18, No. 83.) 18pp. 1917. Con-
cord, N. H.

243. New York (State). Education dept. Home project work in agriculture.

In its Schools of Agriculture, Mechanic Arts, and Homemaking.
(University of the State of New York, Bulletin 543, May 15, 1913.)
pp. 11-16. 1913. Albany, N. Y.

244. Nolan, A. W. Home Projects for School Agriculture. 37pp. 1913.

Agricultural College, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana,

245. Selvig, C. G. The home project as the center vs. the home project as the

outgrowth of agricultural instruction. School Education, 35:4-5,
Feb. 1916.

246. Spanton, W. T. The home project method of instruction in vocational

agriculture. Ohio Teacher, 41:12-15, Sept. 1920.

247. Stimson, B. W. Effect of rural continuation school on agricultural

efficiency. In N. E. A. Proc, 1918 :291-93.

248. Stimson, B. W. Massachusetts Home-Project Plan of Agricultural Edu-

cation. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1914, No. 8.) 104pp.
1914. Govt. Pr. Office, Washington.

249. Stimson, B. W. Vocational Agricultural Education by Home Projects.

468pp. 1919. Macmillan, N. Y.

250. U. S. Vocational Education, Federal board for. The home project as

a phase of vocational agricultural education. (Bulletin 21, Agricultural
Series, No. 3.) 43pp. 1918.

251. Use of the home farm in agricultural teaching. Sch. Science and Math.,

16:584-94, Oct 1916.

252. Watson, C. W. School home-garden project. Nebraska Teacher,

20:293-97, 1918. — Presents the organization and results of a project
involving the co-operation of boys and girls of a state. (Herring)

253. Welles, W. S. Home-project work too small; something bigger needed;

a substitute in operation. N. E. A. Proc., 1918: 283-5.

254. Wilson, G. M. Home project work in agriculture. Midland Schools,

30:14-17, Sept 1915.

15. Agriculture — High Schools

255. Barrows, H. P. Home Projects in Secondary Courses in Agriculture,

(U. 8. Agric. Dept., Bulletin 346.) 20pp. 1916. Govt. Pr. Office,
Washington.

256. Dennis, L. H. Home project work in secondary-school agriculture.

N. E. A. Proc, 1916:622-26.

257. Doughty, W. F., and others. Project work. In their Courses in Agricul-

ture for Secondary Schools of Texas. (Joint bulletin of the Texas
State Department of Education, University of Texas, and Agricultural

210 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

and Mechanical College of Texas, No. 1, Oct. 1, 1914.) pp. 24-5.
1914. Austin, Texas.

258. Hummel, W. G. Utilization of land by high schools teaching agriculture,

pt. 2, Home projects. Univ. of Calif. Chronicle, 17:309-19, July, 1915.

259. Lane, C. H. Aims and methods of project work in secondary agriculture.

8ch. Science and Math., 17:805-10, Dec. 1917.

260. New York (State) Education dept. Home projects. In its Agriculture

in the High School. Univ. of the State of N. Y., Bulletin 563, March
15, 1914.) pp. 7-21. 1914. Albany, N. Y.

261. Selvig, C. G. Home project work vs. laboratory and school garden plat

work for high school students. In Agricultural Teaching: Papers pre-
sented at the fourth annual meeting of the American association for
the advancement of agricultural teaching. (U. S. Bureau of Educ,
Bulletin, 1914, No. 27.) pp. 8-17. 1914. Govt. Pr. Office, Wash-
ington. — Discussion by W. R. Hart, pp. 17-29.

262. Sneddon, D. New type of school for farming. 8ch. and Soc. t 10:281-84,

Sept. 6, 1919.

263. Snedden, D. Two important current problems of agricultural education.

Sch. and Soc, 9:347-51, March 29, 1919.

16.— Citizenship, Civics, Ethics, and Religion

264. Davidson, P. E. Educational reform and the manly virtues. Sch. and

Soc, 8:361-67, 1918. — Discusses Flexner's Modern School, raising
questions regarding modern education, particularly regarding the rela-
tion of interest and effort to preparation for life. The author feels
the need of a legitimate compromise between interest and effort.
(Herring)

265. Jilek, Annie L. Project method in teaching civics. El 8ch. J. f 21 : 216-19,

Nov. 1920.

266. Kilpatrick, W. H. Education of adolescents for democracy: a general

view and evaluation of present methods. Relig. Education, 14:123-35,
1919. — A contribution of the very first importance as proposing that
we agree upon criteria and proceed to evaluate the organizations in
which our adolescents are educated. Phases of educational psychology
are related; criteria are proposed; a long list of institutions such as
the Boy Scouts, high schools, technical schools, Y. M. C. A., and school
fraternities are evaluated and ranked. (Herring)

267. Shnte, M. C. Practice of democracy in the kindergarten. Kinder g. and

First Grade, 3:89-94, 1918. — Usefully suggestive discussion of the
problems of democratic education, e. g., that of the individual and
society. (Herring)

268. Simpson, J. H. Adventure in Education. 207pp. 1917. Sidgwick, Lon-

don. — An interestingly written and carefully analytic description of
an experiment in the educative effect of self-government in one of
the lower forms of Rugby School, England. (Herring)

269. Smith, G. C. Citizenship pageant as a school project. Normal Instrue.

and Prim. Plans, 29:28-9, Nov. 1920.

270. Tallman, L. New types of class teaching. Relig. Education, 12:271-80,

1917. — Discussion of project method. Illustrative material. Emphasis
on real life situations, and upon natural method and socialized activity.
Bearing of project method upon religious education. (Herring)

BIBLIOGRAPHY 211

271. Upton, 8. M., and Chassell, 0. F. Scale for measuring the importance of

habits of good citizenship. Teach. Coll Becord, 20:36-65, 1919. — A
scale in which certain virtues important in project method find prom-
inent place. (Herring)

272. Valentine, P. P. How can we teach citizenship! Sierra Educ. News,

14:129-32, March 1918. — School project plan and the importance of
motivation in the teaching of citizenship. (U. S. Educ. Bur.)

273. Young, J. T. Problem method in the teaching of social science. Penn-

sylvania, Univ. of, Schoolmen's week, 1916, pp. 271-73.

17. English

274. Clark, A. B. Problem method in teaching English. Education, 40:371-78,

Feb. 1920.

275. Gaston, C. B. Social procedure in the English classroom. English J.,

8:2-7, 1919. — Beports work done by a socially active group, the ad-
vantages for teacher and pupil, and a number of questions to be used
as criteria for this type of work. (Herring)

276. Green, J. L. An English project motivated by history. English J.,

9:557-69, Dec. 1920.

277. Ziegler, C. W. Problem-project method in English teaching. Penn

sylvania 8ch. J., 65:520-24, May 1917.

18. English — Elementary Schools

278. Bolenius, E. M. Elementary Lessons in Everyday English. 1920. Amer.

Bk. Co., N. Y. — A systematic application of the project.

279. Johnson, A. Written composition in the fourth grade. Central Normal

Bulletin, 15:7-8, 1919. — Through group criticism and incidental teach-
ing of minimum essentials in composition, high standards in para-
graphing are attained. (Herring)

280. Parker, E. P. A sixth-grade English unit. El Seh. J., 15:82-90, Oct.

1914. — Excellent practical example of project method of organizing
subject matter. Description of pupils' work. Topic, "Ships and
shipbuilding."

281. Wilson, H. B., and Wilson, G. M. Motivation of language and com-

position. Motivation of School Work, pp. 71-100. 1916. Houghton
Mifflin, Boston.

19. English— Junior High Schools

282. Johansen, F. O. Projects in Action English; Socialised Becitations in

Composition and Grammar. 207pp. 1920. Badger, Boston. — In this
original method of teaching English grammar, pupils singly or in
groups present some action, usually a very simple one, before the class.
Then the pupils make original sentences of various types based upon
this action, and readily learn the principles of grammar and compo-
sition. (U. S. Educ. Bur.)

283. Wilson, J. H. Eighth-grade English. Teaching No. 45, pp. 15-18, Feb-

ruary 1919.

1 0. English— High Schools

284. Clark, A. B. Another experiment in problem teaching. English J.,

8:218-28, April 1919.— Third-year high-school English. See also entry
No. 77.

212 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

285. Ffa<fl»™»«, W. S. Beading clubs instead of literature classes. Sch. and

8oc, 4:417, 1916. — Each boy reports upon a book he has read from
time to time, the report being followed by class discussion. The fact
that the teacher is never quite prepared is one of the educative features
of the plan. Boys are found to read about two and one-half times as
much under this scheme as before its use. (Herring)

286. Lasher, G. S. English and the project method. Journal of the Michigan

School Masters 1 Club, 53 : 61-67, 1918.— Describes the writing of a book
about Chicago by a freshman high-school class, and other projects.
(Herring)

287. Mclntyre, H. I. Giving purpose to students of high-school English, Eng-

lish J., 6:539-41, 1917. — Describes the beginning of an attempt to
increase the interest of freshman and junior English students by sur-
veying their needs and organizing the course to meet the needs ex-
pressed. (Herring)

288. Stratton, E. Project method of teaching oral composition. High 8ch. J.,

3:35-38, Feb. 1920.

289. Struble, M. C. A big business-English project. English J., 9:463-66,

Oct. 1920. — A class in EUensburg, Wash., high school.

290. Ziegler, C. W. Laboratory method in English teaching. English J., 8:3,

1919. — Describes, as in a friendly interview, aspects of a new method
in high-school English: lengthened school day; supervised study;
equipment; relations in the curriculum; content; spirit of industry;
responses in educative activities beyond school requirement; aim and
method in poetry; difficulties; textbooks. (Herring)

tl. Geography

291. Allen, N. B. Teaching geography by the problem method. Normal

Instruc. and Prim. Plans, 29:43, 66-67, Nov. 1919.

292. Branom, M. E. Problem method of teaching geography. Jn. of Geog.,

19:233-42, Sept. 1920. — Nature, development, and practice of the prob-
lem method.

293. Branom, M. E. Project-problem method in the teaching of geography.

Jn. of Geog. t 16:333-38, 1918. — A general discussion of the nature of
solutions, the advantages, the difficulties, and the dangers of the
method, with a number of illustrations. (Herring)

294. Hausman, L. A. Making relief maps. Jn. of Geog., 16:97-100, 1918. —

A method by which pupils who are developing projects in geography
or history may build contour or relief maps. (Herring)

295. Lockwood, I. Problem method in geography. School Education,

39:34-35, Nov. 1919.

296. Minor, B. Problem teaching : how to plan for it. Jn. of Geog ^ 19:61-69,

Feb. 1920. — Formulates a plan based upon an illustration drawn from
experience, a study of Japan. Gives references to books on Japan
suitable for children. (U. S. Educ Bur.)

297. Semple, E. C. Influences of Geographic Environment. 683pp. 1911.

Holt, N. Y. — An invaluable source of problems and their solutions, for
the teacher who realizes the necessity of being, upon her own level, a
student, if she is to guide students. (Herring)

298. Weisend, W. T. Problem method applied to geography. Education,

41:166-70, Nov. 1920.

BIBLIOGBAPHY 213

299. Wilson, H. B., and Wilson, G. M. Motivation of geography. In their

Motivation of School Work, pp. 133-57. 1916. Houghton Mifflin,
Boston.

300. Write, B. Socialized recitation. Atlantic Educ. J., 13:175-81, 1917.—

A socialized recitation in geography. (Herring)

tt. Geography — Elementary Schools

301. Johnson, M. T. Chile and other South American countries by the prob-

lem method. Pop. Educator, 38:218-19, Dec 1920.

302. Knight, E. B. Collecting and making use of local geography material.

El. Sch. J., 20:459-65, Feb. 1920.

tS. Geography — Junior High Schools

303. Goodwin, E. C. A geography project. Pop. Educator, 38:78-79, Oct

1920.

304. O'Neil, W. J. Teaching geography through the problem method. Pop.

Educator, 37:22-23, Sep. 1919.

305. Parker, E. P. Partition of Africa, a seventh-grade geography unit.

El. Sch. J., 20:188-202, 1917.— Nine periods of sixty minutes each
sufficed to develop this project. Each child chose his own part. Vivid
narrative of how problems lead to solutions and solutions to problems.
(Herring)

306. Williams, J. Project-problem instruction in eighth-grade geography.

Teaching, No. 45, February 1919, pp. 11-15.

U. History

307. Birdwell, A. W. Problem method of teaching history. Texas History

Teachers' Bulletin, 5:5-8, Nov. 15, 1916. (Univ. of Texas, Bulletin,
1916, No. 64.) 1916. Austin, Texas.

308. Branom, M. E. Project-problem method in history. Historical Outlook,

11:107-10, 1920. — Information projects, enjoyment projects, and
problem projects. Effect-to-cause and cause-to-effect problems in his-
tory. Illustrations. The initiation of projects. Steps in the project
process. (Herring)

309. Branom, M. E. Project-problem method in the teaching of the history

of Missouri. Missouri Sch. J., 35:61-63, Feb. 1918.

310. Hatch, B. W. Project-problem as a method for teaching history. His-

torical Outlook, 11:237-40, June 1920.

311. Keatinge, M. W. Studies in the Teaching of History. 232pp. 1910.

MacmUlan, N. Y. — A most suggestive work on the use of problems in
teaching history. A masterly discussion of the difficulties inherent in
historical problems. Many illustrations of the quality of criticism of
which students are capable. (Herring)

312. Levin, S. M. Use of the problem method in history teaching. Educa-

tion, 40:111-20, Oct. 1919. — Emphasizes the importance of history
teaching and advocates the problem method as " an instrumentality of
inestimable worth." (U. 8. Educ Bur.)

313. O'Neil, W. J. Problem idea in the teaching of history. Normal Instruc

and Prim. Plans, 26:50, 68, March 1917.

214 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

314. Roberts, E. M. Problem method in history teaching, an argument. Pop.

Educator, 35:132-33, Nov. 1917.

315. Rosenberger, W. E. Problem method in teaching history. Normal

Instruc. and Prim. Plans, 26:33-34, 74, Nov. 1916. — Shows how the
problem method may be applied to the study of political history,
economic and industrial history, and social history. (U. S. Edue. Bur.)

316. Traner, F. W. Socializing the study of history. Sch. Bev., 25:714-21,

1917. — Presents criteria for the selection of content. Favors the
''topical or problem method.'' The aim of education is stated to be
adjustment to social environment. (Herring)

317. Wilson, H. B., and Wilson, G. M. Motivation of history. In their

Motivation of School Work, pp. 101-32. 1916. Houghton Mifflin,
Boston.

t5. History — Junior High Schools

318. Wilson, G. M. Motivation of seventh and eight-grade history work.

El. Sch. Teacher, 13:11-16, 1912. — A very interesting suggestion. An
8B class in United States history used Madison 's Journal of the Con-
stitutional Convention and organized itself into such a convention,
the teacher being elected to play the role of Washington. Other
members of the group played other roles. The dramatic treatment
aroused undoubted interest. (Herring)

te. History— High Schools

319. dark, L. A. Good way to teach history. Sch. Bev., 17:255-66, 1909.—

A record of events in a high school with evidence of keen interest and
successful outcomes. ' ' No teacher is equal to the dynamic force of the
class before her." (Herring)

320. Johnson, B. T. Problem method of teaching history in the high school.

(Missouri, First district normal school, Kirksville, Bulletin, 16:14-22,
Jan. 1916.)

27. Home Economics

321. Adams, M. G. Home project work in vocational home economics in

secondary schools. Jn. of Home Econ., 10:358-62, 1918. — Suggests
projects in food, textiles, and clothing, giving general directions, steps
of preparation for the teacher, projects for different years of the
course, and pupil outlines. (Herring)

322. Charters, W. W. Project in home economics teaching. Jn. of Home

Econ., 10:114-19, March 1918. — Definition, relation to curriculum,
advantages, and limitations of projects. (Herring)

323. Heyle, E. M. School lunch as a project in teaching cookery in the

elementary schools. Jn. of Home Econ., 9:205-10, 1917. — Describes
and evaluates a method in which the preparation of the school lunch
is at once educative and efficient. (Herring)

324. Home project work in Utah. Jn. of Home Econ., 12:67-8, Feb. 1920.

325. Snedden D. Project method of teaching homemaking. Educ. Admin.

and Superv., 5:94-6, Feb. 1919. — Notes of an address suggestive as
to method and containing a list of relevant projects. (Herring)

326. Texas. Agriculture dept., Home economics division. Home Projects for

Agriculture and Home Economics, by Mrs. E. M. Barrett. . . (Texas,

BIBLIOGRAPHY 215

Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 47, January-February.) 32pp.
1916 f Austin, Texas.

tS. Hygiene and Physical Training

327. Case-System Corporation, Trenton, N. J. Case-system of teaching

hygiene . . . 28pp. 1916.

328. Haight, H. W. Case system of teaching hygiene and preventive medicine

in the upper grades. Educ. Eev. t 49:503-9, May 1915.

329. Haight, H. W. Case system of teaching hygiene in graded schools.

Educ. Bev., 52:385-91, Nov. 1916.

330. McCloy, C. H. Project method of teaching. Physical Training, 17:53-62,

Dec. 1919.

331. Stocking, K. Health chores, a hygiene project. Prim. Educ., 28 : 552-53,

Nov. 1920.

— See also entry No. 92, Good Health project.

29. Industrial Education

332. Burton, M. G. Eight thousand desks refinished in the schools of Kansaft

City, Missouri. Indus. Arts Mag., 9:16-17, Feb. 1920.

333. Burton, M. G. Shop Projects Based on Community Problems. 135pp.

1916. Ginn, Boston.

334. Carman, K. V. Basing work in industrial arts on the construction of a

new building. Teach. Coll. Record, 17:247-62, 1916.— "In basing
the larger portion of a year 's work in industrial arts upon the erection
of a new high-school building, he has given a practical demonstration
in the enrichment of school work by deriving its motives from com-
munity activities . . . Cooperation of the teachers came as the
most natural thing . . . Mr. Carman's successful experiment should
stimulate other teachers to similar effort." F. G. Bonser. (Herring)

335. Craigo, B. T. New idea in trade training. Artisan, 1:6-7, 1919.— At

Dunwoody Institute interest in learning is said to be created by a
little participation in actual industry at the outset. Students about
to study framing, rafter-cutting, and flooring, first build a small
building. (Herring)

336. Foulkes, T. B., and Diamond, T. Argument for larger projects suggestive

of community activity. Manual Training Mag., 21:5-8, 1919. — Study
of projects, made and used by 1532 pupils in Wisconsin, showed that
many articles made are not used. Such projects as the summer cottage,
the garage, the highboy, are suggested. (Herring)

337. Industrial Arts Magazine. Problems and projects. A department which

presents each month class and shop projects in the industrial arts.
Directions and diagrams.

338. Jackson, L. L. Project — sinning and sinned against. Indus. Arts Mag.,

7:138-9, 1918. — An application of certain criteria of project educa-
tion to a typical industrial arts project. (Herring)

339. Skinner, B. Practical problem for the drawing class. Indus. Arts Mag.,

9:70-72, Feb. 1920.

340. Whitcomb, F. C. General project method of teaching the industrial arts.

Indus. Arts Mag., 9:131-35, Apr. 1920.

216 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

341. Whitney, H. J. Project method of manual training. Manual Tr. Mag.,

22:57-61, Sep. 1920.

342. Woellner, B. Project analysis. Manual Tr. Mag., 21:159-61, Jan. 1920.

SO. Industrial Education— Elementary Schools

343. Bonser, F. G. Industrial arts. In Bapeer, L. W., ed. Teaching Ele-

mentary School Subjects, pp. 281-98. 1917. Scribner, N. Y. — The
need, values, organization, and content of a curriculum in industrial
arts, with provision for projects. Will repay analysis by any one pur-
posing to make curricula. (Herring)

344. Dopp, K. E. Place of Industries in Elementary Education. 270pp. 1913.

Univ. of Chicago Pr., Chicago. — Suggestive in many parts, but
especially in ch. 5, which treats of the problem of the teacher who is
not furnished with the equipment needed for industrial projects.
(Herring)

345. Payne, £. G. Experiment in motivation. El Sch. J., 17:727-33, 1917.—

An experiment undertaken with boys. The plan was of two parts:
visits to factories, and study and discussion growing out of the visits.
Contains a general outline for the study of any industry. (Herring)

346. Towne, M. E. Developing a class project. Indus. Arts Mag., 9:442-44,

Nov. 1920. — Development of a project on rope, suggested in a sixth-
grade history class.

347. Trybom, J. H. An application of the project method; elementary

manual training, fifth grade. Manual Tr. Mag., 22:129-33, Nov. 1920.

348. Vaughn, S. J. Assignment and planning of projects. Indus. Arts Mag*

8:392-96, Oct. 1919.— Woodworking in the elementary schools. (U. 8.
Educ Bur.)

349. Wiecking, A. Some suggestions for primary industrial projects. School

Progress, 1:3-6, 1919.

SI. Industrial Education — High Schools

350. Blackburn, S. A. Boy Activity Projects. 143pp. 1918. Manual Arts

Press, Peoria, HI.

351. Blackburn, S. A. Problems in Farm Woodwork for Agricultural Schools,

High Schools, Industrial Schools, and Country Schools. 128pp. 1915.
Manual Arts Press, Peoria, HI.

352. Illinois, University. High school conference, 1918. Beports on projects

by Smith-Hughes teachers. Proceedings of High School Conference,
University of Illinois, Nov. 21-23, 1918, pp. 106-110. Urbana, HI.

St. Mathematics

353. Breckenridge, W. E. Applied problems. N. E. A. Proc, 1910:515-19.

354. Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers. Mathematics

section. Beport of committee on real applied problems in algebra and
geometry, by J. F. Millis and others. Sch. Science and Math.,
9:788-98, Nov. 1909. — Analysis of problem method. Method and
results of the investigation of the committee. Illustrative problems.
Bibliography of sources of problems. (Herring)

355. Miller, G. A. Case method of teaching mathematics. Sch. Science and

Math., 19:344-49, Apr. 1919.

BIBLIOGBAPHT 217

33. Mathematics— Elementary Schools

356. Wilson, H. B., and Wilson, G. M. Motivation of arithmetic In their

Motivation of School Work, pp. 152-82. 1916. Houghton Mifflin,
Boston.

357. Wright, A. Project-problem instruction in arithmetic Teaching, No.

45, February 1919, pp. 18-21.

34. Mathematics — Junior High Schools

358. Breslich, E. B. Junior-high-school mathematics. ScK Bev., 28:368-78,

May 1920. — Says that the algebra and geometry of the junior high
school should deal with concrete problems of the classroom, home, field,
and park. (U. 8. Educ. Bur.)

359. Lindquist, T. L. Up-to-date problems in junior-high-school mathematics.

Sch. Science and Math., 20:305-11, Apr. 1920. — Advocates project
problems, the formation of the problems by the pupils themselves.

360. Beavis, W. C. Social motive in the teaching of arithmetic. El. Sch. J. t

18:264-67, 1917. — Describes a plan of teaching stocks and bonds to
an eighth-grade class. A mock bank was organized, in which each
member of the class became a stockholder. (Herring)

35. Mathematics — High Schools

361. Eaton, E. S. Some applications of the project method in high school

mathematics. Sch. Science and Math., 20:443-47, May 1920.— Con-
tends that projects give comparatively little training in true mathe-
matical thinking; the pupil acquires mathematical facts but not
mathematical reasons. But says that the project method can be made
a valuable supplement to instruction in mathematics. (TJ. S. Educ
Bur.)

362. Bich, F. M. A few live projects in high-school mathematics. Sch. Science

and Math., 20:34-45, Jan. 1920.

36. Science

363. Clute, W. N. Some objections to project teaching. Oen. Science Quar-

terly, 2:379-80, March 1918.

364. Dewey, J. Method in science teaching. Gen. Science Q., 1:3-9. Nov.

1916. Same art., N.E.A. Proc., 1916:729-34. — Stages of the educational
development of science. The dynamic point of view contrasted with
the merely informational. The extremes of memorizing for task-
masters and of aimless freedom are to be avoided. (Herring)

365. Hofe, G. D. von, Jr. Giving the project method a trial. Sch. Science

and Math., 16:763-67, Dec 1916. — Abstract of an address given to the
Physics Club of New York, January 1916. (U. S. Educ. Bur.) — Cer-
tain aims are erected and cautions suggested. (Herring)

366. Kilpatrick, W. H. Project teaching. Gen. Science <j., 1:67-72, Jan.

1917.

367. Lott, D. W. Twenty minute project. Gen. Science Q., 1:122-26, 1917.—

Contains the quoted conversation of the classroom, illustrating one
project which left the pupils with drives toward other projects.
(Herring)

218 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

368. Mann, C. B. Project teaching. Gen. Science Q., 1:13-14, Nov. 1916.

369. Meister, M. Method of the scientists. Sch. Science and Math., 18:743,

1918. — The method of scientists is essentially like that of the project.
An analysis of the processes of scientific investigation and discussion
of the methods used by many scientists. (Herring)

370. Moore, J. C. Project science, progressive. Sch. Science and Math,,

16:686-90, 1916. — "The results of science teaching do not measure up
to reasonable expectancy." Project method is analyzed and dis-
cussed. (Herring)

371. Moore, J. C. Projects. Gen. Science Q., 1:14-16, Nov. 1916. — Proposes

for teachers of science a card catalog system of projects in outline,
accompanied by references to literature. One illustration is given.
(Herring.)

372. Pearson, K. Grammar of Science. 548pp. 1900. Macmillan, N. Y. —

A work of the first rank dealing with the facts, conditions, concepts,
and conclusions of science, and with the relations of the sciences. Per-
tinent because of the intimate relation of scientific method with
problem-project method. (Herring)

373. Stevenson, J. A. Project in science teaching. Sch. Science and Math. t

19:50-63, 1919. Same art., Sch. and Home Educ., 38:110-14, 1919.
Same art., Gen. Science Q. t 3:195, 209, 1919. Same art., University
of Illinois, Proceedings of High-School Conference, Nov. 21-23, 1918,
pp. 57. — Concept, implications, and description of the project; stand-
ards; related concepts in common use, including that of scientific
method. A sound, comprehensive, suggestive study, in which Dewey's
philosophy of purpose is central. (Herring)

374. Twiss, G. B. Outlook for the application of scientific method to the

problem of science teaching. N. E. A., Proc, 1914:723-28. — Contains
a series of theses bearing upon the project method. (Herring)

375. Twiss, G. B. Textbook in the Principles of Science Teaching. 458pp.

1917. Macmillan, N. Y. — A thorough-going text on scientific method
as fundamental in the progress of the race and of the child's educa-
tion ; replete with excellent suggestions of method in teaching and of
the materials of equipment. Many principles of scientific method
and subjects of the curriculum are treated. Problem-project method
is in the last analysis scientific method. (Herring) — See especially
pp. 419-28, The project and problem method.

376. Woodhull, J. F. Aims and methods of science teaching. Gen. Science Q. y

2:249-50, 1917. — An analysis of the project method as that used by
the masters of investigation of all time. Its advantages as against
topical methods. A convincing presentation. (Herring)

377. Woodhull, J. F. Natural method. Sch. and Soc, 3:64-65, 1916.— We

can teach concepts only through experiences. Intimate relation of
projects in physics with life. The presentation is suggestive and
forceful. (Herring)

878. Woodhull, J. F. Project method in the teaching of science. Sch. and
Soc, 8:41-44, 1918. — What the method is and is not. The method is
that of the masters of all time. It must be thoroughly acquired by
teachers and used habitually by them; then we may expect results
from their pupils. Sound and suggestive. (Herring)

379. Woodhull, J. F. Science teaching by projects. Sch. Science and Math.,
15:225-32, 1915. — Project method is presented as research, scientific

BIBLIOGEAPHT 219

method, the method of the masters, and the method of everyday
effective living. There is considerable range of pertinent quotation.
The absurdities of certain commonly used methods are rehearsed.
A widely suggestive and important reading. (Herring)

380. Woodhull, J. F. Studies of the masters: l)Lyell. Gen. Science Q. t

3:141-46, 1919. 2) Scientific orthodoxy, Gen. Science Q. 9 3:216-18,
1919. 3) Darwin. Gen. Science Q., 4:275-82, 1919. — Evidence is here
adduced to prove that the method of work of certain masters of
investigation is that since called project method. (Herring)

381. Woodhull, J. F. Teaching of Science. 249pp. 1918. Macmillan, N. Y.

— ch. 13, Science teaching by projects. A sound view and a wealth of
pertinent quotation. Ch. 14, Projects in science. Ch. 15, Natural
method. (Herring)

Science— Chemistry and Physics

382. Lunt, J. B. Illuminating gas projects. Gen. Science Q., 1:213-15, 1917.

— A detailed account of a project. (Herring)

383. Phipps, C. F. Value of project study in the teaching of physics. Uni-

versity of Illinois, Proceedings of High-School Conference, Nov. 21-23,
1918, pp. 285-89.

384. Busk, B. D. Project science and the physics method. Education,

41:58-63, Sept. 1920.

385. Shepherd, J. W. Project studies in high-school physics and chemistry.

University of Illinois, Proceedings of High-School Conference, Nov.
21-23, 1918, pp. 289-98.

386. Smith, E. L. Project of everyday machines. Gen. Science Q., 3:31-33,

1919. — An introduction to physics through everyday machines, like
door-knobs, crowbars, and egg-beaters. Complex machines are finally
analyzed into the simple machines of which they are composed.
(Herring)

387. Stone, C. H. Making a match, a project. Gen. Science Q., 3:89-90,

1919. — The process of making a match and its meaning in education.
(Herring)

388. Stone, C. H. Optional project work in chemistry. Gen. Science Q. 9

1:233-36, May, 1917.

389. Williams, B. H. Introductory fire lesson. Gen. Science Q., 1:216-21,

1917. — Detailed account of a project and of class conversation con-
nected with it. (Herring)

390. Workman, L. L. Project in ventilation. Gen. Science Q., 3:33-34, 1919.

— An interesting project described. (Herring)

S8. Science — Elementary and "General"

391. Billig, F. Project-problem instruction in elementary science. Teaching,

No. 45, February 1919, pp. 21-32.

392. Billig, F. Study in lawn planning, a project in general science. Teach-

ing, No. 50, January 1920, pp. 23-29.

393. Briggs, T. H. General Science in Secondary Schools. 21pp. 1916. N. Y.

—-Contents: General science in secondary schools, T. H. Briggs; Pro-
jects in science, J. F. Woodhull; The mill-pond, a project, W. G.
Whitman; Cutting off a limb, a project, L. D. Higgins. The articles

220 THS TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

by T. H. Briggs and J. F. Woodhull are reprinted from Teachert
College Record, January 1916. (U. S. Edue. Bur.)

394. Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. The Course in Science. 168pp.

(Francis W. Parker School Yearbook, v.5, 1918.)

395. Hofe, G. D. von, Jr. Development of a project. Teach. CoXL Record,

17:240-46, May 1916. — "The sixth grade in the Horace Mann School
are studying science regardless of every artificial division. The class
chooses a project . . . the teacher then presents the information to
follow ... the trend of the thought of the pupils." One project is
presented. (Herring)

396. Hofe, G. D. von., Jr. General science is project science. 8ch. Science

and Math., 15:751-57, Dec 1915.

397. Howe, O. M. What eighty teachers think as to the aim and subject

matter of general science. Gen. Science Q„ 2:445-58, 1918. — An
analysis of responses to a questionnaire. (Herring)

398. Meister, M. Science work in the Speyer school. Gen. Science Q.,

2:429-45, 1918. — Thoughtful, detailed outline of the projeet method
with concrete suggestion on certain methods in class work in the high
school. (Herring)

399. Parker, E. P. Sixth-grade science projects. El Sch. J., 20:297-307,

1919. — Describes the making of telegraph instruments and magnetic
toys, and the wiring of a toy theatre for electric lights. (Herring)

400. Van Buskirk, E. F., and Smith, E. L. Science of Everyday Life. 416pp.

1919. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. — A book of projects for the junior
high school: air, fire, breathing, health, water, soil, foods, control of
nature, homes, clothing, lighting, heating, machines, transportation,
and the origin and betterment of life. A goodly wealth of the matter
and spirit of projects in general science, with many and excellent illus-
trations. Of undoubted value for the courses in general science in
junior high schools. (Herring)

401. Wake, W. S. Project in general science. Sch. Science and Math.,

19:643-50, 1919. — A stimulating, well-organised article dealing with
aspects of the project method as follows: need of the method;
laboratory; definitions by nine authors with the author's criticisms;
approaching, beginning, developing, culminating, and closing projects;
attitude; twelve types of projects; induction and deduction; the
textbook. (Herring)

402. Woodhull, J. F. General science. Sch. Science and Math., 13:499-500,

1913.— -Correspondence is invited with reference to suggestions as to
a survey of children's interests, the ignorances of adults, etc
(Herring)

403. Woodhull, J. F. General science, — Summary of opinion under revision.

Sch. Science and Math., 14:600-602, 1914. Same art., Edue. Rev.,
48:298-300, 1914. — Some unusually significant conclusions regarding
children's interests, with implications regarding method. A drastic,
but sound arraignment of ' ' preparatory science. ' ' (Herring)

404. Woodhull, J. F. Project of a frozen water-pipe. Gen. Science Q.

3:107, 1919. — Edited from a boy's note-book- A piece of education
in a natural setting. (Herring)

BIBLIOGRAPHY J#l

IV. PERIODICALS INDEXED IN THIS BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Journal of Sociology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Artisan. Artisan Publishing Co., Holyoke, Mass.
Atlantic Educational Journal. Baltimore, Md. (Ceased publication.)
Chicago Schools Journal. Chicago Normal College, Chicago.
Education. 120 Boylston St., Boston.

Educational Administration and Supervision. Warwick and York, Inc., Balti-
more, Md.
Educational Review. Geo. H. Doran Co., New York.
Elementary School Journal. Geo. Banta Pub. Co., Menasha, Wis.
Elementary School Teacher. Now Elementary school journal.
English Journal. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
General Science Quarterly. Salem, Mass.
High School Journal. Chapel Hill, N. C.
Historical Outlook. McKinley Pub. Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
Industrial Arts Magazine. Bruce Pub. Co., Milwaukee, Wis.
Journal of Education. 6 Beacon St., Boston.

Journal of Educational Psychology. Warwick and York, Inc., Baltimore, Md.
Journal of Geography. Appleton, Wis.

Journal of Home Economics. 1211 Cathedral St., Baltimore, Md.
Journal of the Michigan School Masters ' Club. Ann Arbor, Mich.
Junior High School Clearing House Bulletin. Sioux City, Iowa.
Kindergarten and First Grade. Milton Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass.
Library Journal. B. R. Bowker Co., 62 West 45th St., N. Y.
Library Leaflet. Library, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.
Manual Training Magazine. Manual Arts Press, Peoria, HI.
Midland Schools. Des Moines, Iowa.
Missouri School Journal. Jefferson City, Mo.
Moderator-Topics. Lansing, Mich.
Nebraska Teacher. Lincoln, Neb.

Normal Instructor and Primary Plans. Dansville, N. Y.
Ohio Educational Monthly. Columbus, Ohio.
Ohio Teacher. Columbus, Ohio.
Pennsylvania School Journal. Lancaster, Pa.
Popular Educator. 50 Bromfield St., Boston.
Primary Education. 50 Bromfield St., Boston.
Psychological Review. Princeton, N. J.
Religious Education. 1440 East 57th St., Chicago, HI.
School and Home Education. Public School Pub. Co., Bloomington, 111.
School and Society. The Science Press, Substation 84, New York, N. Y., and

Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y.
School Education. Now National School Digest. 1401 University Ave., S. E.,

Minneapolis, Minn.
School Progress. State Teachers College, Mankato, Minn.
School Review. Geo. Banta Pub. Co., Menasha, Wis.
School Science and Mathematics. 2059 East 72nd Place, Chicago, III
Sierra Educational News. Monadnock Bldg., San Francisco, Calif.
Teachers College Record. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia

University, N. Y.
Teaching. Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas.
University of California Chronicle. Berkeley, Calif.
Vocational Education. Now Manual Training Magazine. Manual Arts

Peoria, HL

CONSTITUTION OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOB THE STUDY

OF EDUCATION

Abtich I

Name. — The name of this Society shall be "National Society for the Studj
of Education."

Article II

Object. — Its purposes are to carry on the investigation and to promote the
discussion of educational problems.

Article m

Membership. — Section 1. There shall be three classes of members — active,
associate, and honorary.

Sec. 2. Any person who is desirous of promoting the purposes of this
Society is eligible to active membership and shall become a member on approval
of the Executive Committee.

Sec. 3. Active members shall be entitled to hold office, to vote, and to
participate in discussion.

Sec. 4. Associate members shall receive the publications of the Society,
and may attend its meetings, but shall not be entitled to hold office, or to vote,
or to take part in the discussion.

Sec. 5. Honorary members shall be entitled to all the privileges of active
members, with the exception of voting and holding office, and shall be exempt
from the payment of dues.

A person may be elected to honorary membership by vote of the Society
on nomination by the Executive Committee.

Sec. 6. The names of the active and honorary members shall be printed
in the Yearbook.

Sec. 7. The annual dues for active members shall be $2.00 and for asso-
ciate members $1.00. The election fee for active and for associate members
shall be $1.00.

Abticle IV

Officers and Committees. — Section 1. The officers of this Society shall be
a president, a vice-president, a secretary-treasurer, an executive committee, and
a board of trustees.

Sec. 2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the president and four
other members of the Society.

Sec. 3. The president and vice-president shall serve for a term of one
year, the secretary-treasurer for a term of three years. The other members of
the Executive Committee shall serve for four years, one to be elected by the
Society each year.

Sec. 4. The Executive Committee shall have general charge of the work
of the Society, shall appoint the secretary-treasurer, and may, at its discretion,
appoint an editor of the Yearbook.

Sec. 5. A board of trustees consisting of three members shall be elected
by the Society for a term of three years, one to be elected each year.

222

CONSTITUTION 223

The Board of Trusees shall be the custodian of the property of the Society,
shall have power to make contracts, and shall audit all accounts of the Society,
and make an annual financial report.

Sec. 6. The method of electing officers shall be determined by the Society.

Abticle V

Publications. — The Society shall publish The Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education and such supplements aa the Executive Com-
mittee may provide for.

Article VI

Meetings. — The Society shall hold its annual meetings at the time and
place of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Asso-
ciation. Other meetings may be held when authorized by the Society or by the

Executive Committee.

Article VII

Amendments. — This constitution may be amended at any annual meeting
by a vote of two-thirds of voting members present.

MINUTES OF THE 1920 MEETING

of the

NATIONAL SOCIETY FOB THE STUDY OF EDUCATION

AT CLEVELAND, OHIO

The annual meeting of the National Society for the Study of
Education was held in the ball room of the Hotel Hollenden, Cleve-
land, Ohio, Monday evening, February 23rd, President J. C. Brown
presiding. Some 1200 persons listened to the following program :

I. The Education of Gifted Children

1. The 'Yearbook 9 on Gifted Children (15 min.)

Theodore 8. Henry, Professor of Psychology, Western State Normal
School, Kalamazoo, Michigan.

2. Detroit's Experiment with Gifted Pupils (12 min.)

Elizabeth Cleveland, Supervisor of Special Activities, Detroit Pub-
lic Schools.

3. Some Features of the Educational Development of Gifted Chil-

dren (12 min.)

Guy M. Whipple, Professor of Experimental Education, University
of Michigan.

II. Plans for 1921

The Proposed ' Yearbook 9 on " The Content of Courses for the Train-

ing of Teachers in Normal Schools" (10 min.)

H. A. Brown, President of the State Normal 8chool, Oshkosh,
Wisconsin.

111. New Materials of Instruction

1. The 'Yearbook 9 on New Material of Instruction (15 min.)

Charles H. Judd, Dean of the College of Education, University of
Chicago, and Chairman of the Society's Committee on New Ma-
terials of Instruction.

2. The Organization of Lessons in English for Americanization

Classes (10 min.)

Charles F. Towns, Associate Principal, Lasell Seminary, Auburn-
dale, Massachusetts.

224

MINUTES 225

S. Projects for Grades IV to VI to Afford Training in School
Skills (15 min.)

Frederick J. Kelly, Dean of the School of Education, University of
Kansas.

The discussion, which was led by Superintendent Jesse H.
Newlon, of Lincoln, Nebraska, was participated in by various mem-
bers of the Society.

Particular interest was manifested in the first section of the pro-
gram dealing with problems arising in the education of gifted
children.

At the business meeting which followed, there were reported the
following items from the meeting of the Society's Executive Com-
mittee earlier in the day :

1. At the request of the Secretary-Treasurer, the annual finan-
cial report was audited by representatives of the Board of Trustees.

2. The Secretary-Treasurer was re-elected for a period of three
years.

3. It was voted by the Executive Committee, that, while no
criticism has been made of the practice that has heretofore prevailed,
it would be desirable that hereafter nominations for officers should
be presented from the floor by a nominating committee appointed
by the president rather than by the Executive Committee itself.

4. The Executive Committee formally approved the election of
various persons who had applied for active or associate member-
ship during the year.

5. The Secretary presented a letter from Dr. W. V. Bingham
inviting the Society to appoint representatives to cooperate with
the Division of Psychology and Anthropology of the National Re-
search Council in the furtherance of investigations of mutual con-
cern to the two organizations.

6. The Executive Committee voted that Professor Ernest Horn
be made the chairman of an informal committee to prepare a Tear-
book on Silent Beading, and that Messrs. H. A. Brown, B. R. Buck-
ingham, S. A. Courtis, W. S. Gray, M. E. Haggerty, D. Starch,
E. L. Thorndike, Q. M. Whipple, and others of the active members
who might be interested in this topic should be invited to become
members of this committee. Professor Horn was requested to speak

226 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

briefly concerning the plans for this Yearbook at the evening
meeting.

7. The resignation of Professor Charles H. Judd, as chairman
of the Society's Committee on New Materials of Instruction was
accepted and Professor Frederick J. Kelly was appointed to the
chairmanship of the Committee.

After this report of the activities of the Executive Committee,
the following nominations were made by this Committee for officers
for the ensuing year, and the persons thus nominated were unani-
mously elected:

For President, Harry B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools,
Berkeley, California ; for Vice-President, David Felmley, President
of the Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois ; for mem-
ber of the Executive Committee, Stephen S. Colvin, Brown Univer-
sity, Providence, Rhode Island; for member of the Board of
Trustees, Frank W. Ballou, Assistant Superintendent of Schools,
Boston, Massachusetts.

The Secretary, in accordance with the vote of the Society at
the preceding annual meeting, reported briefly concerning the de-
sirability of continuing the two classes of membership, active and
associate, and on motion, it was voted that no change be made in
the prevailing classification.

The secretary presented the following resolutions, which, after
brief discussion, were carried with a single dissenting vote :

Whereas, Mr. Charles E. Chadsey, one of the former presidents of this
Society, a man of national repute, of unquestioned integrity and sincerity of
purpose, who has stood conspicuously for the scientific investigation of educa-
tional problems, has, as shown by the decision of the Appellate Court, been
subjected by a political board, to indignities that constitute a scandal in the
teaching profession ; and

Whereas, This Society desires to go on record in support of the mainte-
nance of the highest ideals in the professional relations between the schoolmen
of our country and the public that they serve;

Therefore, Be It Besolved, That this Society conveys to Charles E. Chadsey
this expression of its heartiest good will and this assurance that he has the
full confidence of its members; and

Be It Further Besolved, That these resolutions be incorporated in the
minutes of this meeting, and that a copy of them be transmitted to Mr. Chadsey.

The Society then adjourned.

Guy M. Whipple,
J. C. Brown, Secretary-Treasurer.

President

HONORARY AND ACTIVE MEMBERS OF THE
NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF

EDUCATION

(Corrected to January 31, 1921)

HONOBARY MEMBEES

Cook, John W., 5644 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, 111.
DeGarmo, Charles, Cocoanut Grove, Fla.
Dewey, John, Columbia University, New York City.
Hanus, Paul H., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

ACTIVE MEMBERS

Abel, Benj. L., Prin. School No. 45, Auburn Ave. & Baynes St, Buffalo, N. Y.

Adams, Bay H., Dearborn, Mich.

Alexander, Carter, State Dept. of Education, Madison, Wis.

Alexander, Thomas, Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn.

Alger, John L., Normal School, Providence, R. I.

Alleman, S. A., Supt. of Schools, Napoleon, La.

Allen, Fiske, State Normal School, Charleston, 111.

Allison, Samuel B., Prin. Lewis-Champlin School, Chicago, HL

Andrew, Wm. W., 27 Holyoke St., Cambridge, Mass.

Ankeney, J. V., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.

Arbaugh, W. B., 503 County Bldg., Detroit, Mich.

Ashley, Myron L., 7113 Normal Blvd., Chicago, HI.

Bacon, Miss G. M., Buffalo Normal School, Buffalo, N. Y.

Badanes, Saul, P. S. No. 84, Glen More, Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Bagley, Wm. C, Teachers College, New York City.

Baldwin, Bird T., Child Welfare Research Station, Iowa City, Iowa.

Ball, Stewart F., Dept. of Public Instr., Supt 's Office, Buffalo, N. Y.

Ballou, Frank W., Supt. of Public Schools, Franklin School Bldg., District of

Columbia, Washington, D. C.
Bamberger, Miss Florence E., Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md.
Banes, L. A., Prin. Mark Twain School, 1226 S. Quaker, Tulsa, Okla.
Barnes, Harold, Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa.
Barnes, Percival S., Supt. of Schools, East Hartford, Conn.
Bell, J. Carlton, Brooklyn Tr. School, 1032 A. Sterling Place, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Bender, John F^ Box 625, Pittsburg, Kas.
Benedict, Ezra w., Prin. High School, West Coxsackie, N. Y.
Bennett, Mrs. V. B., Moorhead School, Pittsburg, Pa.
Benson, C. E., Apt. 212, 509 W. 121st St., New York, N. Y.
Benton, G. W., 100 Washington Square, New York City, N. Y.
Berry, Frances M., Dept. of Education, Baltimore, Md.
Beveridge, J. H., Supt. of Schools, 508 City Hall, Omaha, Neb.
Bjornson, J. S., Supt. of Schools, Vermillion, S. Dak.
Bobbitt, Franklin, The Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
Bolenius, Miss Emma Miller, 46 S. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa.
Bolton, Frederick E., Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
Boyden, Wallace C, Boston Normal School, Boston, Mass.
Boyer, Supt. Chas., Atlantic City, N. J.
Boyer, Philip A., 6320 Lawnton Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.

227

226 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

briefly concerning the plans for this Yearbook at the evening
meeting.

7. The resignation of Professor Charles H. Judd, as chairman
of the Society's Committee on New Materials of Instruction was
accepted and Professor Frederick J. Kelly was appointed to the
chairmanship of the Committee.

After this report of the activities of the Executive Committee,
the following nominations were made by this Committee for officers
for the ensuing year, and the persons thus nominated were unani-
mously elected:

For President, Harry B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools,
Berkeley, California ; for Vice-President, David Felmley, President
of the Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois ; for mem-
ber of the Executive Committee, Stephen S. Colvin, Brown Univer-
sity, Providence, Rhode Island; for member of the Board of
Trustees, Frank W. Ballon, Assistant Superintendent of Schools,
Boston, Massachusetts.

The Secretary, in accordance with the vote of the Society at
the preceding annual meeting, reported briefly concerning the de-
sirability of continuing the two classes of membership, active and
associate, and on motion, it was voted that no change be made in
the prevailing classification.

The secretary presented the following resolutions, which, after
brief discussion, were carried with a single dissenting vote :

Whereas, Mr. Charles E. Chadsey, one of the former presidents of this
Society, a man of national repute, of unquestioned integrity and sincerity of
purpose, who has stood conspicuously for the scientific investigation of educa-
tional problems, has, as shown by the decision of the Appellate Court, been
subjected by a political board, to indignities that constitute a scandal in the
teaching profession ; and

Whereas, This Society desires to go on record in support of the mainte-
nance of the highest ideals in the professional relations between the schoolmen
of our country and the public that they serve;

Therefore, Be It Resolved, That this Society conveys to Charles E. Chadsey
this expression of its heartiest good will and this assurance that he has the
full confidence of its members; and

Be It Further Resolved, That these resolutions be incorporated in the
minutes of this meeting, and that a copy of them be transmitted to Mr. Chadsey.

The Society then adjourned.

Guy M. Whipple,
J. C. Brown, Secretary-Treasurer.

President.

HONORARY AND ACTIVE MEMBERS OF THE
NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF

EDUCATION

(Corrected to January 31, 1921)

HONOBABY MEMBERS

Cook, John W., 5644 Kimbark Ave., Chicago, 111.
DeGarmo, Charles, Cocoanut Grove, Fla.
Dewey, John, Columbia University, New York City.
Hanua, Paul H., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

ACTIVE MEMBEBS

Abel, Benj. L. f Prin. School No. 45, Auburn Ave. & Baynes St, Buffalo, N. Y.

Adams, Bay H., Dearborn, Mich.

Alexander, Carter, Slate Dept. of Education, Madison, Wis.

Alexander, Thomas, Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn.

Alger, John L., Normal School, Providence, B. I.

Alleman, S. A., Supt. of Schools, Napoleon, La.

Allen, Fiske, State Normal School, Charleston, 111.

Allison, Samuel B., Prin. Lewis-Champlin School, Chicago, I1L

Andrew, Wm. W., 27 Holyoke St., Cambridge, Mass.

Ankeney, J. V., University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.

Arbaugh, W. B., 503 County Bldg., Detroit, Mich.

Ashley, Myron L., 7113 Normal Blvd., Chicago, HI.

Bacon, Miss G. M., Buffalo Normal School, Buffalo, N. Y.

Badanes, Saul, P. S. No. 84, Glen More, Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Bagley, Wm. C, Teachers College, New York City.

Baldwin, Bird T., Child Welfare Research Station, Iowa City, Iowa.

Ball, Stewart F., Dept. of Public Instr., Supt 's Office, Buffalo, N. Y.

Ballou, Frank W., Supt. of Public Schools, Franklin School Bldg., District of

Columbia, Washington, D. C.
Bamberger, Miss Florence E., Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md.
Banes, L. A., Prin. Mark Twain School, 1226 S. Quaker, Tulsa, Okla.
Barnes, Harold, Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa.
Barnes, Percival S., Supt. of Schools, East Hartford, Conn.
Bell, J. Carlton, Brooklyn Tr. School, 1032 A. Sterling Place, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Bender, John F., Box 625, Pittsburg, Eas.
Benedict, Ezra W., Prin. High School, West Coxsackie, N. Y.
Bennett, Mrs. V. B., Moorhead School, Pittsburg, Pa.
Benson, C. E., Apt. 212, 509 W. 121st St., New York, N. Y.
Benton, G. W., 100 Washington Square, New York City, N. Y.
Berry, Frances M., Dept. of Education, Baltimore, Md.
Beveridge, J. H., Supt. of Schools, 508 City Hall, Omaha, Neb.
Bjornson, J. S., Supt. of Schools, Vermillion, 8. Dak.
Bobbitt, Franklin, The Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
Bolenius, Miss Emma Miller, 46 S. Queen St., Lancaster, Pa.
Bolton, Frederick E., Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
Boyden, Wallace C, Boston Normal School, Boston, Mass.
Boyer, Supt. Chas., Atlantic City, N. J.
Boyer, Philip A., 6320 Lawnton Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.

227

228 IE* TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Boyett, Rev. B. W., 8upt of Schools, Charleston,

Breed, F. 8., 5476 Univ. Ave., Chicago, 111.

Brigg** Thos. H.. Teachers College, Columbia Univ., New York City, N. Y.

Brown, Gilbert L., Marquette, Mich.

Brown, Geo. E., City Schools, Greeley, Colo.

Brown, J. C, Pres. State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn.

Brown, J. H., 1242 Quaker, Tulsa, Okla.

Brown, J. Stanley, Pres. State Normal School, DeKalb, HL

Bruner, Dr. F. G., 812 Tribune Bldg., Chicago, Dl.

Bryan, W. J. S., Asst. Supt. of Schools, 6060 Berlin Ave., St. Louis, Mo.

Buchanon, Wm. D., Dozier School, 5749 Maple Ave., St. Louis, Mo.

Buckingham, B. B., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, 111.

Buchner, Edward F., Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md.

Buckner, Chester A., Univ. of Pittsburgh, School of Education, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Burnham, Ernest, State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.

Buthod, Charles, Prin., 924 Galveston, Tulsa, Okla.

Butterworth, Julian E., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.

Byrd, C. E., Supt. Shreveport, La.

Byrne, Lee, 916 N. Haskell Ave., Dallas, Texas.

Calmerton, Gail, 601 W. Wayne, Fort Wayne, Ind.

Cammack, I. I., Supt. of Schools, Kansas City, Mo.

Camp, Frederic S., Supt. of Schools, 52 Hoyt St., Stanford, Conn.

Carmichael, Perry, Prm. Central Grade Sch., 1136 8. Frankfort, Tulsa, Okla,

Cavan, Jordan, Butler College, Indianapolis, Ind.

Chace, S. Howard, 19 Thorndike St., Beverley, Mass.

Chadsey, Charles E., University of Illinois, Urbana, HL

Chadwick, B. D., Morgan Park School, Duluth, Minn.

Chambers, Will G., Univ. of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Chandler, J. A. C, Pres. William & Mary College, Williamsburg, Va.

Chapman, Ira T., Supt. of Schools, New Brunswick, N. J.

Charters, W. W., Carnegie Inst, of Tech., Pittsburgh, Pa,

Chew, Samuel L. f Supr. Diet. No. 9, 6th St. & Erie Ave., Philadelphia, Pa,

Clarahan, Miss Elizabeth, Board of Education, 800 Central Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Clark, Will Mosher, Prin. School 22, Huntington Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

Clement, J. A., Northwestern Univ., 2665 Orrington Ave., Evanston, HL

Cleveland, Elizabeth 909 Empire Bldg., Detroit, Mich.

Cobb, Margaret V., Falls Church, Va.

Cochran, T. E., Crozer Seminary, Chester, Pa.

Cody, Supt. Frank, 1354 Broadway, Detroit, Mich.

Coffman, Lotus D., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.

Colvin, Prof. S. 8., Brown Univ Providence, B. I.

Condon, Randall J., Supt. of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Connor, William L., Longwood H. S. of Commerce, Cleveland, Ohio.

Cook, Albert 8., St. Supt. of Schools, Station A., Towson, Md.

Cooke, Flora J., Francis W. Parker School, 350 Webster Ave., Chicago, HL

Cooley, Dr. H. C., Lawrence College, 690 Lawrence St., Appleton, Wis.

Cooper, Homer E., 342 W. Craig, St., Pittsburgh, Pa.

Coppers, A. E., Lowell School, 1029 E. Davenport, Tulsa, Okla.

Courtis, S. A., 246 Eliot St., Detroit, Mich.

Cox, Supt. H. S., Covington, Ky.

Cox, P. W. L., Headmaster, The Washington School of New York, 17 East

60th St, New York City, N. Y.
Coxe, Warren W., 1347 Paxton Road, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Cram, Fred D., 2272 Clay St., Cedar Falls, Iowa.
Crane, J. E., Prin. Summer Ave. School, Newark, N. J.

MBMBBB8 229

Crew, Miss Amy C, 300 Park Ave., Baltimore, Md.

Crowley, James A., John Winthrop School, Brookford St., Dorchester, Mass.

Crow, C. S., 32 Grant Ave., New Brunswick, N. J.

Cubberley, Ellwood P.. Palo Alto, Calif.

Cummins, Robert A., State Normal School, Dept. of Education, Natchitoches, La.

Cunningham, Besdon J., Bozeman, Mont.

Davidson, Percy E., Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford Univ., Calif.

Davis, S. B., Univ. of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Davis, S. E., State Normal College, Dillon, Mont.

Davis, Solon P., Henry Barnard School, Hartford, Conn.

Deahl, Jasper N., Univ. of W. Va., Morgantown, W. Va.

Dean, W. A., Prin. Springdale School, 2823 East 4th St., Tulsa, Okla.

Dearmont, Washington S., Pres. Southeast Missouri State Teachers College,

Cape Girardeau, Mo.
Deerwester, Frank, State Normal School, Pittsburg, Kan.
Dickson, Geo. A., Oceanside, Calif.

Didcoct, J. J., 1501 Compton St, care of Geo. Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn.
Doyle, Mary E., Mount Angela, Great Falls, Mont.
Dunkelberger, Geo. F., Vice Pres., California, Pa.
Dyke, Charles B., Supt. of Schools, Millburn, N. J.
Earhart, Lida B., Teachers College, Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.
Eby, Frederick, Univ. of Texas, Austin, Texas.
Eby, Harvey L„ 1726 Walnut St., Berkeley, Calif.
Ehler, H. F., Hughes High School, Cincinnati, O.
Elliot, C. M, 250 Moss Ave., Highland Park, Mich.
Elliot, E. A., 426 N. 10th St., Fredonia, Kan. •
Elliot, Edward C, Chancellor, Univ. of Montana, Helena, Mont.
Elliott, C. H., Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J.
Ellis, A. Caswell, University of Texas, Austin, Texas.
Ebon, William H., 633 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, HI.
Emmons, Supt. Frederick E., Elizabeth, N. J.
Emmons, P. C, Supt. of Schools, Kendallville, Ind.

Englehardt, N. L., Teachers College, Columbia Univ., New York City, N. Y.
Ernst, Miss L. B., Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo.
Evans, Albert W., Farragut School, 2336 S. Spaulding Ave., Chicago, HI.
Evans, Edna S., 33 Walter St., Salem, Mass.

Evenden, E. S., Teachers College, Columbia Univ., New York City, N. Y.
Fagan, Charles, Cascade School, Seattle, Wash.
Farrington, Frederic E., Chevy Chase Schools, Chevy Chase, Md.
Feeney, T. L., Miami Univ., Oxford, Ohio.

Felmley, David, Pres. Illinois State Normal University, Normal, HL
Fitzgibbon, T. F., Muncie, Ind.

Flanders, J. K., Prof, of Edu. & Psy., Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, T. H.
Flemming, Mrs. Cecile White, Dept. of Public Instr., Superv. Educational

Measurements, Madison, Wis.
Fletcher, W. H., Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.
Foreman, W. 0., Whittier School, 24 N. Zunis, Tulsa, Okla.
Foster, F. M., University of Wyo., Laramie, Wyo.
Foster, H. H„ University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.
Foster, J. M., Supt. of Schools, Corning, N. Y.
Frantz, Supt. A. L., Hartford City, Ind.
French, W. C, Drumright, Okla.
Froelicher, C. Mitchell, Headmaster, The Country Day School, Kansas City,

Mo.
Frost, Norman, Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.

230 ™^ TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

Qambrill, Bessie, Lee State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.

Gard, Willis L., Obio University, Athens, Ohio.

Gaylord, J. S., Winona, Minn.

Germane, G. E., 219 L. A. Bldg., Iowa City, Iowa.

Gift, Elmer B., Manhattan, Eans.

Gosling, Thoraaa Warrington , Superv. of Secondary Education, care of State
Dept. of Education, Madison, Wis.

Grape, Jacob, 333 E. 22nd St., Baltimore, Md.

Gray, Miss Olive, Dept. of Education, Montgomery, Ala.

Gray, Wm. S., University of Chicago, School of Education, Chicago, HL

Greene, C. A., 405 N. Pa. Ave., Webb City, Mo.

GreesoiL Wm. A., Supt. of Schools, Grand Rapids, Mich,

Griffin, Margery, 4045 McPherson, St. Louis, Mo.

Griggs, O. C, 312 S. Victor, Tulsa, Okla.

Groves, J. W., 309 El Morada Court, Ontario, Calif.

Gruenberg, Benj. C, 418 Central Park West, New York City.

Gullette, Albert, Prin. Holmes School, 2522 Fillmore St., N. E., Minneapolis,
Minn.

Gwinn, J. M., Supt. of Schools, New Orleans, La.

Hackendorf, W. M., Biverview School, Tulsa, Okla.

Hake, Miss Anna M., High School, Gettysburg, Pa,

Hall, John W., Dean of School of Edu., Univ. of Nevada, Beno, Nevada.

Hall, Madison, Supt. of Schools, Van Alstyne, Texas.

Halleck, Beuben P., 1154 S. Third Ave., Louisville, Ey.

Hamilton, Miss Cora M., State Normal School, Macomb, HI.

Hamilton, Eatherine, Dept. of Education, 715 Commerce Bldg., St. Paul, Minn.

Hanifan, L. J., State Supt. Rural Schools, Charleston, W. Va.

Harris, Miss Ada VanStone, 4506 Fifth Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa,

Harvey, Nathan H., 1029 Ellis St., Ypsilanti, Mich.

Hatfield, W. R., 6030 Kenwood Ave., Chicago, HL

Heckert, J. W., Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.

Hendrix, Supt. H. E., Mesa, Arizona.

Henry, T. S., State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.

Herron, Miss Helen, 1933 Elysian Fields Ave., New Orleans, La,

Hill, A. B., 3508 High St., Little Bock, Ark.

Hobson, Miss Elsie G., Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa.

Hoke, Eremer J., Dean of Education, College of William & Mary, Williams-
burg, Va.

Holmes, Prof. Henry W., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Horn, Ernest, 934 Eirkwood Ave., Iowa City, Iowa.

Horn, John Lewis, School of Education, Mills College, Oakland, Calif.

Horn Paul W., Supt. of Schools, Houston, Texas.

Hornbaker, Mrs. Esther P., 1710 West 104th St, Chicago, HI.

Hosic, James F., Chicago Normal College, Chicago, HI.

Hudelson, Earl, West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.

Imboden, Miss Sarah Mark, Super. Elem. Grades, P. S., Decatur, HI.

Ingler, Francis M., 674 Durkee St., Appleton, Wis.

Inglis, Prof. Alexander J., Harvard Univtrsity, Cambridge, Mass.

Israel, Miss Selma, Box 894, Helena, Mont.

Jeffers, Fred A., Supt. of Schools, Painesdale, Mich.

Johnson, Franklin W., 60 Edgecliff Terrace, Yonkers, N. Y.

Johnson, S., Box 1073, Orlando, Florida.

Johnson, Willis E., Pres. State College, Brookings, S. Dak.

Johnston, B. H., Prin. Kendall School, Tulsa, Okla.

Johnston, Miss Kathryn, Box 738, Helena, Mont.

MEMBEB8 231

Jones, Arthur J., University of Pa., Philadelphia, Pa,
Jones, Elmer £., 1115 Church St., Evanston, 111.
Jordan, B. H., Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H.
Judd, Charles H., University of Chicago, Chicago, HL
Keeling, A., Prin. Jefferson School, Tulsa, Okla.
Keith, Allen P., 20 Locust St., New Bedford, Mass.
Keith, Edna, Elementary Supervisor, Joliet, Illinois.
Kelley, Boy B„ Supt. of Schools, Solvey, N. Y.

Kelley, Truman L., Prof. Stanford Univ., Stanford University, Calif.
Kellicott, Gertrude, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
Kelly, F. J., University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
Kent, Harry L., Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas.
Kent, Baymond A., Supt. Schools, Duluth, Minn.
Kemp, W. W., Pres, Normal School, San Jose, Calif.
Kerr, W. H., State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas.
King, LeBoy A., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Kirby, Thomas J., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.
Kirk, John B., Pres. State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.
Kirk ham, Louisa, Super, of Elementary Schools, Fort Smith, Ark.
Knapp, E. F., Super, of Grades, Syracuse, N. Y.
Koch, C. D., Dept. of Public Instr., Harrisburg, Pa.
Kohs, Samuel C, 748 Irving St., Portland, Oregon.
Kolbe, Miss Julia, Harris Bldg., Norwood, Ohio.
Konold, Arthur W., Elwood, Ind.
Koonce, B. E., Prin. Lee School, Tulsa, Okla.
Koontz, Norman C, Supt. of Schools, Jamestown, N. Dak,
Koos, L. V., University of Minn., Minneapolis, Minn.
Lappin, J. C., Phillips University, East Enid, Okla.
Latham, B. H., Winston-Salem, N. C.
Lawrence, Isabel, State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn.
Layton, S. H., Supt. of Schools, ^ltoona, Pa.
Light, N. 3., Hartford, Conn.

Logan, Anna E., Asst. Supt. of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Longshore, W. T., 520 West 40th Street, Kansas City, Mo.
Lord, Dr. L. C, State Normal School, Charleston, HI.
Lowry, Charles D., 1643 Kenilworth Ave., Chicago, HI.
Luckey, G. W. A., 1439 B. Street, Lincoln, Neb.
Lukens, Herman T., 330 Webster Ave., Chicago, HI.
Lull, H. G., Univ. of Lima, Lima, Peru.
McAllister, Cloyd N., Berca, Ky.
McCabe, E. M. S., Supt. of Schools, Copan, Okla.
McCarthy, J. C., 789 Orange St., New Haven, Conn.
McDonald, Bobert A. F., Bates College, Lewiston, Maine.
McFarland, Geo. A., State Normal School, Williston, N. Dak.
McKenny, Charles, Pres. State Normal, Ypsilanti, Mich.
McLeod, J. A., 1225 Quaker, Tulsa, Okla.
McMurry, Frank M., 9 Hillside Drive, Yonkers, N. Y.
MacMillan, D. P., Suite 806 Tribune Bldg., Chicago, HI.

McMullin, Walter G., Oliver Wendell Holmes Junior High School, Phila-
delphia, Pa.
Magee, M., Prin., Osage St., Tulsa, Okla.
Maguire, Alice G., 34 Sherman St., Boxbury, Mass.
Maguire, Anna A., 34 Sherman St., Boxbury, Mass.
Manahan, J. L., Univ. of Virginia, University, Va.
Mangun, Vernon L., Pres. Forestry S. N. S., Bottineau, N. Dak.

232 IE* TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Marguerita, Sister, St. Ursula's Academy, Toledo, Ohio.

Marrs, 8. M. N., Chief High School Super., Austin, Texas,

Marsh, Arthur L., Toppenisb, Wash.

Martin, J. W., 4428 W. Belle Place, St.. Louis, Mo.

Maybcrry, Lawrence W., City Hall, Wichita, Kan.

Maynard, M. M., Dept. of Edu., Monmouth College, Monmouth, HL

Mead, Arthur, Ohio Wesleyan Univ., Delaware, Ohio.

Mead, Cyrus D., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif.

Meek, Chas. S., Supt. of Schools, Madison, Wis.

Melcher, George, Library Building, Kansas City, Kansas.

Mellyn, Mary C, care of School Com., Mason St., Boston, Mass.

Merriam, J. L., 204 Edgewood St., Columbia, Mo.

Miller, Irving E., State Normal School, Bellingham, Wash.

Miller, J. A., Prin. Washington School, Tulsa, Okla*

Miller, Harriette M., New York University, Washington Square, New York (Sty

Miner, Dr. James B., Carnegie Inst, of Tech., Pittsburgh, Pa.

Minnich, H. C, State Normal School, Oxford, Ohio.

Monroe, Edwin S., Supt. of Schools, Hammond, Ind.

Monroe, Walter S., Asst. Dir. Bureau of Educational Research, Urbana, JJL

Morey, Chas. C, Prin. School No. 59, Buffalo, N. Y.

Morris, Fannie M., Plummer School, East Boston, Mass.

Morrison, H. C, The University of Chicago, Chicago, HL

Morton, B. L., 18 Maplewood Drive, Athens, Ohio.

Morton, Wm. M., 330 East 22nd St., Chicago, HI.

Muerman, J. C, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C

Munson, O. F., Supt. of Schools, Fort Morgan Colo.

Murphy, Frederick J., 574 Eighth St., South Boston, Mass.

Neuharth, John J., Athol, S. Dak.

Neverman, P. F., Supt. of Schools, Marinette, Wis.

Newlon, Jesse H., Denver, Colo.

Newman, Hugo, 538 W. 150th St., New York City.

Newton, George A., Trinity University, Waxahachie, Texas.

Nichols, C. A., Southers Meth. Univ., Dallas, Texas.

Nifenecker, Eugene A., 390 Wadsworth Ave., New York City.

Noble, Stuart G., Millsaps College, Jackson, Miss.

Oberholtzer, E. E., Supt. of Schools, Tulsa, Okla.

Olson, Miss Nellie B., 612 W. Second St., Faribault, Minn.

O'Neal, Joseph A. F., John Winthrop School, Boston, Mass.

Orman, Clarence, 2719 East 9th, Tulsa, Okla.

Osburn, W. J., Dept. of Pub. Instr., Madison.

O 'Shea, M. V., Univ. of Wisconsin; Madison, Wis.

Otterman, Charles, 3301 Observatory Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Outcalt, Mrs. Adele M., 4201 Bandolph St., San Diego, Calif.

Parker, Edward A., 6822 Mitchell Ave., St. Louis, Mo.

Parker, Samuel C, University of Chicago, Chicago, HI.

Partridge, Mrs. Clara Martin, 2413 Milvia St., Berkeley, Calif.

Penfold, Arthur, 332 Beard Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

Perkins, Geo. W., 71 Broadway, New York City.

Perrine, C. H., Parker High School, Chicago, HL

Phelan, W. W., 536 Chautauqua St., Norman, Okla.

Philhower, Chas. A., Westfield, N. J.

Phillips, Edna K., N. Y. Training Sch. for Teachers, 220 West 120th St., New

York City.
Pillsbury, W. H., Board of Education, Buffalo, N. Y.
Pittenger, B. F., University of Texas, Austin, Texas.

MEMBERS 233

Porter, David C, Bridgeton, N. J.

Powers, Boger A., Oliver Wendell Holmes School, Dorchester, Mass.

Powers, 8. B., Univ. of Ark., College of Edu., Fayetteville, Ark.

Pratt, O. C, Supt. of Schools, Administration Building, Spokane, Wash*

Price, £. D., Enid, Okla.

Prunty, M. C, Central High School, 313 N. Tacoma, Tulsa, Okla.

Pryor, Hugh C., Northern Normal & Indus., Aberdeen, S. Dak.

Rail, E. E., Pres., Northwestern College, Naperville, 111.

Bawland, Albert, Dept. of Public Instruction, Harrisbnrg, Pa.

Beam, C. H., Supt. of Schools, Clear Lake, Iowa.

Beeve, Wm. D., Univ. High School, Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.

Beinoehl, Chas. M., Dept. Public Instruction, Helena, Mont.

RhotoD, Prof. A. L., Pcnn. State College, Box 282, State College, Pa.

Richards, J. P., Sequoyah School, 921 So. Cheyenne, Tulsa, Okla.

Bobbins, Chas. L., Prof, of Education, 1049 Woodlawn, Iowa City, la.

Roberts, George L., Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.

Boot, Chas. C, Ltate Normal School, Buffalo, N. Y.

Bosier, Joseph, Normal School, Fairmont, W. Va.

Bounds, C. B., Supt. of Schools, Ft. Thomas, Ky.

Boy, Victor Leander, Natchitoches, La.

Buediger, W. C, Geo. Washington Univ., Washington, D. C.

Bugg, Harold O., Lincoln School, 640 Park Street, New York City.

Bynearson, Edw., Prin. Fifth Ave., High School, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Sachs, Dr. Julius, Columbia University, New York City.

Sailer, T. H. P., Englewood, N. J.

Sanger, Wm. T., Bridgewater College, Bridgewater, Va.

Schenck, Mrs. Kate S., 320 North Street, San Antonio, Tex.

Scott, Thomas, Horace Mann School, 605 N. Cheyenne, Tulsa, Okla.

Scott, Z. E., Supt. of Schools, Louisville, Ky.

8enour, Alfred C, 1714 136th St., Indiana Harbor, Ind.

Sexson, J. A., Sterling, Colo.

8hankland, Sherwood D., Andrews Institute, Willoughby, Ohio.

Shepherd, H. P., Junior High School, Kansas City, Kan.

Slauson, Herbert M., 433 So. Fifth Ave., Ann Arbor, Mich.

Slutz, Frank D., Moraine Park School, Dayton, Ohio.

Smart, Frank L., Supt. of Schools, Davenport, Iowa.

Smiley, Wm. H., Asst. Supt. Schools, Commonwealth Bldg., Denver, Colo.

Smith, Eugene B., Headmaster, Park Sen., Baltimore, Md.

8mith, H. L., Dean, School of Edu., University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.

Smith, Jesse L., Supt. of Schools, 141 So. 2nd St^ Highland Park, HI.

Smith, Leon O., Asst. Supt. Schools, Boom 602, City Hall, Omaha, Neb.

Smith, Mrs. Margaret M., Prin., Maria Mitchell Sen., Denver, Colo.

Smith, Marion C, 2524 Beveridge Ave., Berkeley, Calif.

Smith, Wm. F., 316 N. West St., Tipton, Ind.

Smoot, Lucy J., 4011 Baltimore, Kansas City, Mo.

8nedden, David S., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City.

Spencer, W. L., State Dept. Education, Montgomery, Ala.

Sprague, H. A., 16 Laurel Ave., Summit, N. J.

Starch, Daniel, 89 Trowbridge, Cambridge, Mass.

Stark, William E., Supr. Prin. of Schools, Hackensack, N. J.

Stilwell, W. E., Headmaster, Univ. Sch. Cincinnati, Ohio.

Stockinger, W. A., Supt. of Schools, Noblesville, Ind.

Stone, Cliff, W., 603 Linden St., Pullman, Wash.

8toutemyer, D. Howard, 1930 8th Ave., Kearney, Neb.

Stowe, A. Monroe, Toledo Univ., Toledo, Ohio.

234 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Strayer, G. D., Teachers College, New York City.

Strecker, John K., Baylor University Library, Waco, Texas.

Strong, B. Norman, Arsenal School, Hartford, Conn.

Stuart, Josephine B., 87 Mill St., New Bedford, Mass.

Study, Harry P., 309 B. St., Atchison, Kan.

Sutherland, Dr. A. H., Board of Education, Security Bldg., Los Angeles, Calif.

Suzzallo, Henry, Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Wash.

Swan, £. Q., Ironton, Ohio.

Swift, Dr. W. B., 110 Bay State Road, Boston, Mass.

Tall, Lida Lee, The Lincoln School, 646 Park Ave., New York City.

Tanger, Landis, Supt. of Schools, Homestead, Pa.

Taylor, J. S., 2275 Loring Place, Bronx, New York City.

Terry, Paul W., University of Chicago, School of Education, Chicago, HI.

Theisen, W. W., Dir. Board of Edu., Cleveland, Ohio.

Thompson, Clement O., Prof, of Education, Hanover College, Hanover, Ind.

Thompson, Frank E., University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.

Thorndike, E. L., Columbia University, New York City.

Thurber, C. H., Editor, Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass.

Tibbets, Anna Fargo College, Fargo, N. Dak.

Tippett, Jas. S., Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn.

Tirapegui, Luis A., Teachers College, Columbia Univ., Box 154, New York

City
Toaz, Bobert K., Huntington, L. I., N. Y.

Tompkins, Jonas M., Dist. Supt. Schools, 587 Windsor Ave., Hartford, Conn.
Towne, Chas. F., Lasell Seminary, Auburndale, Mass.
Trabue, M. B., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City.
Traner, F. W., University of Nevada, Beno, Nev.
Truesdell, Benj. W., 412 N. Emporia Ave., Wichita, Kan.
Trumper, May, Helena, Mont.

Updegraff, Harlan, University of Penna., Philadelphia, Pa.
Vanderslice, H. B., Supt. of Schools, Coatesville, Pa.
Vandewalker, Mrs. Nina C, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.
VanSickle, Jas. H., Supt. of Schools, 16 Buckingham St., Springfield, Mass.
Van 't Boer, Cecelia, Statistician, Bd. Educ, Fort Smith, Ark.
Verplanck, Fred A., So. Manchester, Conn.

Vincent, H. D., Prin., Pub. Sch. No. 3, Cor. 5th Ave. & J. St., Troy, New York.
Volker, Wm., Main, 2nd and 3rd Sts., Kansas City, Mo.
Wagg, Alvin P., Oliver Wendell Holmes Sch., Dorchester, Mass.
Waldo, Dwight B., State Normal Sch., Kalamazoo, Mich.
Walls, W. A., Supt. of Schools, Kent, Ohio.
Walker, Prof. E. T., El Paso Public Schools, El Paso, Texas.
Walters, B. J., Supt. of Schools, Bocky Ford, Colo.
Washburne, Carleton W., Supt. of 8chools, Winnetka, HI.
Watkins, C. B., Prin. Emerson Sch., 17 E. Independence, Tulsa, Okla,
Watts, Rowland, 3315 Powhatan Ave., Baltimore, Md.
Weber, A. W., Normal Training School, Cleveland, Ohio.
Weber, O. F., Supt. of Schools, Belleville, HI.
Weber, S. E., Supt. of Schools, Scranton, Pa.
Weglein, David E., Western High School, Baltimore, Md.
Welsh, Wm. Henry, 17th & Pine Sts., Grant Building, Philadelphia, Pa.
West, Henry S., Supt. Public Instruction, Towson, Md.
Whipple, G. M., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Whitney, Prof. A. 8., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Whitney, F. L., 715 University Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
Wilber, Flora, Normal School, Fort Wayne, Ind.

MEMBEB8 235

Wilde, Arthur H., 125 Fair Oaks Park, Needham, Mass.

Williams, £. I. F., 42 Circular St., Tiffin, Ohio.

Williston, Arthur L., Prin. Wentworth Inst., Boston, Mass.

Wills, Benj. G., Estancia, New Mex.

Wilson, H. B., Supt. of Schools, Berkeley, Calif.

Wilson, G. M., Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.

Wilson, Mrs. L. L. W., Southern H. S. for Girls, Philadelphia, Pa.

Witham, Ernest C, Supt. of Schools, Southington, Conn.

Wood, £. B., Model High School, Univ. of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Wood, O. A., 4213 E. 58th St., Kansas City, Mo.

Woody, Clifford, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.

Yocum, A. D., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.

Young, Leonard, Prin. High School, Duluth, Minn.

Ziegler, J. W., care of John C. Winston Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

Information Concerning the National Society for the

Study of Education

1. Pubpobb. The purpose of the National Society U to promote the
end discussion of educational questions. To this end it holds en annual
publishes a aeries of Yearbooks.

3. Eligibility to Mbmbbbship. Any person who is interested In reeervine;
publications may become a member upon application to the Secretary and ml
approval by the Executive Committee. Membership may not be had by libraries
institutions.

•r*

Item*.

8. Period of Membership. Applicants for membership may not
entrance back of the current calendar year, and all memberships terminate autotSBAlealy
on December 81st, unless the dues for the ensuing year are paid as indicated in

4. Classes 07 Mbmbkb8. Application may be made for either actiTe or
membership. Active members pay two dollars dues annually, receive two copies of
publication, are entitled to vote, to hold office and to participate in discussion,
members pay one dollar dues annually, receive one copy of each publication, may
the meetings of the Society, but may not vote, hold office or participate in discussion,
names of active members only are printed in Part I of each Yearbook. There
1920 about 250 active and 800 associate members.

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L '

;r

GUY It WHIPPLE, Seo^tary-Treasurer.

University of Michigan,

Ann Arbor, Michigan.

PUB

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(AU QaxUw YntatMtaa in Ar«ll*Ue &Uir,)

i niaiii.

The

'wentieth Yearbook

NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE
OF EDUCATION

PART II

REPORT OF THE SOCIETY'S COMM'
SILENT READING

THE

Twentieth Yearbook

OF THE

NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY

OF EDUCATION

PART II

REPORT OF THE SOCIETY'S COMMITTEE ON

SILENT READING

Prepared by the Committee from Material Submitted

BY

J. A. O'Brien, Mat Aybes Burgess, S. A. Coubtis, G. E. Germane,

W. S. Gray, H. A. Greene, Reginia B. Helleb, J. H. Hoover,

J. L. Packer, D. Starch, W. W. Thbisen, G. A. Yoakum,

and

Representatives of the School Systems of Cedar Bapids,
Denver, Iowa City, and Racine

Edited by Guy Montrose Whipple

THIS YEARBOOK WILL BE DISCUSSED AT THE ATLANTIC CITT

MEETING OP THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, SATURDAY

PEBRUARY 26, 1921, 8:00 P. M.

PUBLIC 8CHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY

BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS

1921

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY
for the Atlantic City Meeting

President

Harry B. Wilson
Superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, California

Vice-President

David Felmley
Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois

Secretary-Treasurer

Guy Montrose Whipple
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Executive Committee

(The Year Indicates Date of Expiration of Term)

Ernest Horn (1921)
State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa

Frederick James Kelly (1922)
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas

Paul Whitfield Horn (1923)
Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas

Stephen S. Colvin (1924)
Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island

Board of Trustees

Daniel Starch (1921)
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts

W. W. Kemp (1922)
State Normal School, San Jose, California

Frank W. Ballou (1923)
Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction vn

Ernest Horn, Chairman of the Committee

SECTION 1

CHAP.

I. Factors Affecting Results in Primary Reading .... 1

W. W. Theisen, Director of the Division of Reference
and Research, Cleveland Public Schools

II. Controlling Factors in the Measurement of Silent

Reading 25

May Ayres Burgess, Department of Education, Busaell
Sage Foundation

III. Individual Difficulties in Silent Reading in the

Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grades 39

William S. Gray, The University of Chicago

IV. The Development of Speed in Silent Reading 54

John A. O'Brien

V. Motivated Drill Work in Third-Grade Silent

Reading 77

J. H. Hoover, Cape Girardeau, Missouri

VI. The Effect of a Single Reading 90

G. A. Yoakum, Director of Teacher Training, Nebraska
State Normal School, Kearney, Nebraska

VII. Outlining and Summarizing Compared with Re-
reading as Methods of Studying 103

Charles E. Germane, Department of Education, Des
Moines University

VIII. Measuring Comprehension of Content Material... 114

Harry A. Greene, State University of Iowa

IX. The Vocabularies of Ten First Readers 127

J. L. Packer

X. The Contents of Readers 145

Daniel Starch, Harvard University

SECTION 2

I. Exercises Developed at Detroit for Making Reading

Function 158

Beoinia R. nELLER and S. A. Courtis, Detroit Public
Schools

II. Silent Reading Exercises Developed at Denver,

Cedar Rapids, Racine, and Iowa City 162

Information Concerning the National Society for the Study

of Education 173

INTRODUCTION

As stated in the introduction to the Eighteenth Yearbook,
Part II, of this Society, it was hoped by those who contributed
that the book would serve to stimulate further investigation in the
various fields of work which were reported. This hope has been so
well realized for the subject of reading, that at the Cleveland meet-
ing the Executive Committee of the Society decided that it was very
important to collect and publish the results of such studies as have
been completed since Dean Oray made his report two years ago.
This work was assigned to the committee whose names are signed to
this report. These members were asked to suggest others who had
something to contribute. Dr. Thorndike and Dean Haggerty found
it impossible to finish their manuscripts in time to have them in-
cluded in the Yearbook. Dr. O'Brien's study was submitted
through Dr. Buckingham, under whose direction the investigation
was made. Other contributors are indicated in the table of contents.

After considerable correspondence among members of the com-
mittee it seemed best to arrange the Yearbook in two sections, the
first part dealing with investigations which presented data bearing
on the problem of reading, the second part containing examples of
concrete exercises which have been actually tried in the classroom.
It was hoped to give a large proportion of the space to these class*
room exercises, but the difficulty of gathering and editing them was
so great that it has seemed necessary to include at this time only a
few samples of lessons which were submitted, and to suggest that
an entire Yearbook be later given to this work.

It is very essential that such studies as are described in the first
part of this report be made. Teachers are particularly ready just
now to undertake any new method which goes under the name of
"silent reading." No doubt, the teaching which results from this
interest will, in general, be superior to that which we have had in
the past. On the other hand, many mistakes will be made, some of
them perhaps quite serious. This is particularly likely to be true
in the case of certain types of speed exercises. In a way, it is un-

vn

vin

fortunate that changes in methods cannot be delayed until we have
more assurance as to the efficiency of the methods which are being
recommended.

The problems which need investigation are almost without limit
Most of them, however, may be grouped under five heads : first, the
thorough-going analysis of the various types of reading abilities
required in life outside the school; second, the construction of a
course of study which would show the proper relation, on the one
hand, between oral and silent reading, and, on the other hand, be-
tween reading and literature; third, a study of the problems of
reading in the area where reading overlaps study ; fourth, the dis-
covery of exercises for the development of each of the major types
of reading abilities; fifth, an investigation of the diagnosis and
treatment of individual cases. These problems naturally overlap ;
each is a center of focus rather than an isolated problem.

In attacking any of these groups of problems it is important
to distinguish among four qualities and to study the relation
existing among them. These are speed (including skimming), com-
prehension, organization, and remembrance. There are, in addition
to these, certain technical skills, such as the use of reference ma-
terial in libraries, the use of encyclopedias, dictionaries, etc. There
are also the various abilities involved in the proper use of indexes
and tables of contents. Each of these abilities needs to be studied,
moreover, in relation to the various types of materials which are
commonly read and in relation to the various purposes for which
these types of material are read.

The exercises which are given in Section II represent but a
small sampling of a great number which were submitted. Since it
was impossible to print all of the really excellent lessons which
were reported, it seemed wise to include only exercises for the
first three grades. Even with these limitations there was space but
for a small part of the lessons which were submitted. The effort of
the Chairman has been to select lessons which represent a wide
range of types of exercises.

These lessons embody attempts to work out methods of teaching
under the guidance of the data which have been disclosed by such
investigations as were summarized by Dr. Gray in the Eighteenth

IX

Yearbook, Part II, and as are also reported in the first section of
this Yearbook. In this sense they represent experimental work.
They are for the most part in the stage where the technique of
practical method is being worked out. So far, little has been done
to isolate and test the effect of any one exercise, but we have evi-
dence that satisfactory results can be obtained from certain com-
binations of exercises. Studies like those of O'Brien and of Hoover
in this Yearbook, for instance, lead to just such conclusions. The
conclusions seem to be substantiated also by the superior scores made
on the standard tests by schools which have featured such work, and
by the rapid improvement which has resulted when such exercises
have been introduced.

It is the opinion of the Committee that this or some similarly
constituted committee should continue the study of these problems.
As rapidly as possible the efficiency of each type of exercise should
be scientifically determined. Investigation must of necessity be
slow. Meanwhile, an exhaustive search should be made for all types
of silent reading exercises which seem to give good results. These
may be subjected by the Committee to a critical examination made
in the light of present knowledge, and printed with explanatory
notes as a future Yearbook.

Committee on Silent Beading,
H. A. Brown,
B. B. Buckingham,
S. A. Courtis,
W. S. Gray,
M. E. Haggertt,

D. Starch,

E. L. Thorndike,
G. M. Whipple,
Ernest Horn, Chairman.

SECTION 1
CHAPTER I

FACTORS AFFECTING RESULTS IN PRIMARY BEADING

W. W. Theisbn

Director of the Division of Reference and Research

Cleveland Public Schools

INTRODUCTldR'

Reading instruction may be said to be in a process of transition
as regards aims, methods and content. If one examines the older
literature, one frequently encounters such terms as "expression,"
"enunciation," "articulation," "pitch," "inflection," and "em-
phasis," while today "silent reading," "thought," "content
value, " " rate, ' ' and ' ' individual differences f ' are terms which chal-
lenge the attention of the student. It is not difficult to locate the
cause. The development of a more scientific attitude toward edu-
cation has tended to make educators more critical. Studies of
failures (16)\ the development of standard educational and intelli-
gence tests and the use of methods of classroom experimentation
have served to point out some of the shortcomings of the old sys-
tem and to indicate some of the possibilities of the new. Even so,
there has been far too little actual testing of results and too little
experimentation to discover possible achievements. When we con-
sider the time that is ordinarily given to primary reading and the
bearing of reading achievement upon the future success of the
child, it is important that we bring together such evidence as we
have, concerning the effect of various factors in producing results.
This article is offered as a brief summary of experimental evidences
and current thought concerning factors affecting results in primary
reading.

FACTORS

1. Attendance. For a group of children just learning to read,
attendance is a factor that may be important. It is a matter of

1 Numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of this
chapter.

1

2 THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

observation that normal children sometimes fail to acquire satis-
factory proficiency in primary reading, because of excessive absence.
However, absences that aggregate less than two months in the course
of a year probably have little effect upon attainment in primary
reading as compared with such other factors as intelligence, quality
of teaching and amount of reading done. The writer found the
correlation between attendance and attainment on the Haggerty
Achievement Beading Tests to be negligible for the children who
had had kindergarten training, and who had attended school for
130 days or more at the time of the test in May.* The Pearson
correlation between attendance and score for 210 first-grade chil-
dren, selected at random, was .017 for Test I, — .003 for Test II, and
.008 for the two tests combined. For 190 second-grade children,
similarly selected, the corresponding figure in the case of Test I
was .073 (31).

Long periods of interruption would probably interfere materi-
ally with progress. Packer and Anderson found in the case of rate
of reading that summer vacation lowered it materially. Children
in 1 B, who read 50 words per minute in May, read but 44 in Sep-
tember. Corresponding figures were : for 1 A, 84 and 49 ; for 2 B,
125 and 68; and for 2 A, 145 and 125, respectively (21).

2. Time Devoted to Reading. At first thought, many persons
would probably say that results in primary reading vary directly
with the time given to reading on the daily program. If all other
factors were equal, this would probably be true within limits.
Under present ways of teaching, other factors apparently over-
shadow it. The Pearson correlations obtained in our own study
between total time (including recitation, study and phonics) and
score on the Haggerty tests for 200 first-grade children, selected at
random from a group of nearly 600, were slightly negative, being
—.035 for Test I, —.153 for Test II, and —.102 for both tests com-

1 Figures recently given us by Miss Engel, of the Psychological Clinic at
Detroit, indicate that a percentage of absence greater than 15, or a lesser
amount of continuous absence, is causally related in a definite way to first-
grade failure. The operation of this factor might not be revealed by the method
of correlation, but it is revealed when differences in intelligence are first allowed
for and the pupils then classified into those who are promoted and those who axe
not promoted. — Editor.

FACTORS AFFECTING RESULTS IN PBIMABY BEADING 3

bined (31). The Spearman correlation obtained by Woody for
Grades III, IV, and V between the number of minutes per week de-
voted to reading recitation (actual reading, phonics and word drills,
exclusive of study) and the scores attained in the Monroe reading
test were those of Table 1.

table 1

OOBULATIOHS BlTWUX TlMl DEVOTED TO READING AND SCOEBS IK MONBOl READING

Tl8T (WOODV)

Grade

Number of
Teachers
Reporting

Correlation
between time
and comprehen-
sion scores

Correlation

between time

and rata

scores

rn

IV
V

51
52
60

.18
.06
.06

.17
.20
.06

This lack of correlation, he concludes, seems to indicate that
other factors are more influential in determining the score attained
than the time element (33). While these two studies are by no
means conclusive, they indicate how completely other factors may
submerge the time factor. It is entirely possible, e. g., that many
children may gain more from ten minutes spent in independent
silent reading than they would in a twenty-minute oral-reading
recitation period of the conventional type. Similarly, a class pos-
sessing a high average intelligence may make greater progress in
half the time taken by one of low intelligence. Again, one teacher
will use the entire period profitably while another squanders two-
thirds of it. The teacher should endeavor constantly to have each
child spend his reading time in ways that will be the most profitable
to him.

3. Kindergarten Training. Does kindergarten training influ-
ence the character of the reading work done by children in the
primary grades t No comprehensive studies of this problem have
been made. Our own results with the Haggerty tests in the first
grade showed that the group that had attended kindergarten ex-
ceeded the group that had not, even though their median ages were
the same. The median score for the kindergarten group was 7.5 in
Test I, and 4.2 in Test II, and for the non-kindergarten group 6.0
and 3.6, respectively. In the second grade, the kindergarten group

4 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

scored 13.8 in Test I, and 9.6 in Test II, while the non-kindergarten
group scored 12.6 and 7.4, respectively. In the third grade the
non-kindergarten group excelled. The number of pupils, however,
was less in this grade, as the figures in Table 2 will show. The
average difference between the kindergarten and non-kindergarten
groups is roughly equal to one-fourth of the interval between the
first and second grades (31).

TABLE 2

liBDIAH SCOUS OH

THE HAGG1BTY ACHUVHflNT READING Tl8T FOB KnTDKBGABTlV
AND NON-KlNDIBOABTBN GBOUP8

Grade I

Grade II

Grade III

Test I

Teat II

Teat I

Test II

Test I

Test II

Kindergarten

Group
Non-k i ndergarten

Group

7.5 (526)
6.0 (92)

4.2 (516)
8.6 (91)

18.8 (878)
12.6 (77)

9.6 (878)
7.4 (70)

17.8 (106)

18.9 (70)

15.6 (106)
16.8 (59)

Figures in parenthesis indicate number of children.

4. Intelligence and Mental Age. Dickson had children of the
low first grade segregated on the basis of intelligence quotient and
mental age. After an experiment covering a year and a half, he
concluded that "mental age and I. Q. are important factors in re-
vealing a child's chances for success in his school work." Children
who tested low were very slow to learn to read. They had little
initiative. What they appeared to learn one day was not retained
to the next. Much repetition was necessary. Their reading was
marked by a tendency to name words without thought of their
meaning. In a group of "borderzone" children (I. Q. 85 or below)
only 6 could read in an easy primer after nearly a year and a half
of effort under a strong primary teacher. Of 42 pupils who tested
normal or above, "all but five passed the work of the first grade
at the end of the term. The teacher attributed the failure of four
of these to irregular attendance, and of one to excessive timidity."

In another school, thirty of the pupils, who tested below six
years mentally, and who classified in the "dull normal" group, or
below, were placed in a special first-grade division. Ten were re-
peating the work of the grade. At the end of two terms, under the
experiment, two pupils out of the thirty were promoted into the
high first" grade, regular class. Near the end of the third term,

t<

FACTORS AFFECTING RESULTS IN PEIMARY BEADING 5

five more were ready (7). While this is but one experiment, the
results are exceedingly significant for primary education. Hag-
gerty has found that there is a significant correlation between
intelligence and ability to perform the exercises of his primary
reading tests (12) . He correlated teachers' estimates of intelligence
when weighted according to grade location, with scores on his read-
ing tests. In the case of 200 pupils in Grades I to III the Pearson
coefficients were .71 for Test I, .69 for Test II, and .76 for the two
tests combined. Similar figures for 144 eight-year-old pupils were
.67, .67, and .71, respectively. Using the scores obtained with his
intelligence test, the figures were .65, .67, and .70 for the same
group. For 200 pupils of Grades I and II the intelligence and
reading tests yielded a correlation of .84. Terman reports five third
grades tested by Dickson in the results shown in Table 3.

TABLE 8

DltTBIBUTIOW OV IKTBLLIGSNOI IN FlYB THIBD-OEADB ROOM8 (ATTBB DlOXSOH)

Boom

Median

Mental

Age

Median
I. Q.

Percent

below
5.5 men-
tal Age

Percent

a bore

7 mental

Age

A
B
O
D

B

6-0
5-7
6-0
7-2
7-8

87

76

85

108

112

81
46
20
14

10
6

20
60
71

He points out the average mental age of Room E was fully two
years above that in Room B, and the median I. Q. 36 points higher.
"One third of the pupils in Room A, and half of those in Room B
were incapable of doing standard first-grade work." The lack of
progress in Room B was so evident that the teacher was in despair
and the superintendent doubted her efficiency (28).

Of all the factors which make for progress in primary reading,
intelligence is probably the most significant. It has not, however,
been sufficiently recognized in dealing with children.

5. Chronological Age. Chronological age at any stage of school
life is less indicative of probable success than mental age, or mental
maturity. The younger children of a grade on the whole excel the
older in reading (e. g. 9 see 9, 30). Their superior intelligence
enables them to do so. The six- and seven-year-old first-grade pupils

6 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

in St. Louis read better orally than the eight- and nine-year-olds.
Similarly, in the second grade the seven- and eight-year-olds aver-
aged better than the nine- and ten-year-olds. The average rate of
silent reading in the second grade was found to decrease with
age (9).

It is not surprising that our results showed no correlation be-
tween score on the Haggerty tests and age. For 210 first-grade
pupils, and 190 second-grade pupils, selected at random, the corre-
lations between age and score were zero, except one correlation of
0.13 between Test I and age in the second grade These figures
are too small to be of significance. If age were one of the strong
factors in producing results in primary reading, we should expect
to find a decided positive correlation between it and reading per-
formance. Such a condition would mean, in general, that the older
the child in a given grade, the better his reading. This, however,
is not the case. Only in the event that we selected children of about
the same intelligence quotient should we expect to find a positive
correlation between chronological age and reading achievement.

6. Nationality and Home Influence. Foreign language spoken
in the home is a distinct handicap to a child's reading development.
This agrees with common observation. It is difficult, however, to
determine the influence of nationality. Intelligence, rather than
nationality per se, probably accounts for a large part of the differ-
ences in attainments of different language groups. The Rochester
studies tend to show that Hebrew children can be expected to read
better than foreign children of other nationalities, and that Italian
children do not read as well. 'Hern concluded from the Rochester
studies that foreign children made relatively better showings in
oral than in silent reading. But even in oral reading tests "the
children seemed to labor under a distinct language handicap. This

TABLE 4

Oral Riadinq Sooris in thi Gray Test bt Pbkdomhutuo Natxovautt

(Arm Judd)

Cleveland Polish and

Grade Average American Italian Bohemian Jewish

I 81 87 21 21 82

H 42 44 25 40 48

XII 46 47 28 44 60

FACT0B8 AFFECTING RESULTS IN PRIMARY BEADING 7

was decidedly noticeable in the case of Italian children. The differ-
ences due to nationality were more marked in the silent reading
scores than in oral reading scores" (20). In Cleveland, as Table 4
shows, the oral reading of Jewish children was distinctly above
that of the average, and that of Italian children much below. Poles
and Bohemians were reported as making slow progress during the
first year but approximating the average in the next four grades
(16). In St. Louis, English-speaking and German-speaking chil-
dren represent average achievement. "Jewish children rank above
the average, and Italian pupils rank distinctly below the average.
With the exception of German and Jewish children, practically all
foreign-speaking children are seriously retarded by language handi-
caps." In quality of silent reading "foreign children made lower
scores than did English-speaking children. Jewish children formed
an exception to this rule. There seemed to be little correlation be-
tween rate of silent reading and nationality." The exact figures
are not shown. In the case of oral reading, the report recommends
that selections "be provided which are simple in construction and
phraseology, and that will enable the pupil to develop gradually in
the mastery of language forms as well as in the recognition of
symbols." With reference to silent reading it recommends the
extensive reading of simple selections which relate to familiar ex-
periences (9).

7. Oral Versus Silent Reading. For many years, oral reading
has played a lone part in our schools, particularly in the primary
grades. The growing dissatisfaction with reading progress and
the evident superior merit of practice in silent reading is now result-
ing in a movement to introduce a larger proportion of the latter
into all grades. To what extent silent reading can be profitably
substituted for oral in the primary grades is a matter that should
be determined by careful experimentation. In the light of the evi-
dence we now possess, there is nothing that would justify the
amount of oral reading commonly found. It is becoming more and
more evident that mechanical accuracy does not imply an under-
standing of the thought. Comprehension is less than in silent
reading and rate is slower. Individual needs are not well satisfied.

8 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Experimental evidence sufficient to establish the greater effect-
iveness of training in silent reading is not yet available. What we
have is confined largely to the intermediate grades and has not
always been produced under carefully controlled conditions. Woody
correlated the estimated proportion of recitation time devoted to
silent reading and class scores on the Monroe tests. Using the
Spearman method, he obtained correlations of only — 21, .00, and
.01 in Grades III, VII, and VIII, respectively, when based upon
comprehension scores, and .00, .10, and — .13, when based upon rate
scores (33).

Pintner and Gilliland concluded that oral and silent reading
were about equally effective in the third and fourth grades, but
neglected some important factors (22). Both Mead and Pintner
(cited by Gray) secured better reproduction in the intermediate
grades from silent reading (10, 18, 24). These experiments pre-
sumably were performed on children who had been reared largely
on an oral reading diet. Had these children had equal amounts of
training in silent and oral reading, the results would probably have
been more strongly in favor of silent reading. The greater facility
with which thought may be acquired in silent reading results from
the fact that attention need not be directed to mechanics. Among
older children and adults, at least, eye pauses in oral reading com-
monly occur at short intervals. In silent reading, pupils are free
to take in longer units, and this permits a better organization of
the thought (17). Of 26 persons ranging from fourth grade to
college, tested by C. T. Gray, 21 made fewer pauses per line silently
than orally (8). Schmidt found the average number of pauses per
line for 45 adults to be 6.5 in silent reading and 8.2 in oral
reading (27).

The tenacity with which primary teachers have clung to oral
reading is probably due to two causes. They know of no way to
bring about improvement in oral reading except through oral read-
ing, and they have not known how to conduct silent reading exer-
cises. We firmly believe that experiments will prove that, even in
the primary grades, oral reading ability can be developed through
training in silent reading. Hawley secured marked gain in silent
reading performances in the sixth grade through the use of daily

FACTORS AFFECTING RESULTS IN PRIMARY BEADING Q

thought drill exercises and weekly thought tests. Without being
emphasized, oral reading improved at the same time (13).

In the matter of reading rates in primary grades, the bulk of
the evidence favors silent reading. W. S. Gray found that "the
rate of silent reading for the second and third grades was less
rapid than that of oral reading, when using selections of about
equal difficulty" (10). He accounts for it by the fact that, "when
a pupil is asked to read a selection for the content, he may read it
more slowly than if he were reading it orally without directing
special attention to content." It was probably due also to the fact
that previous training had been chiefly in oral reading. He does
not compare thought mastery in the two cases. Of the experi-
menters cited by him, Oberholtzer found the rate of silent reading
in the third grade, as well as that of higher grades to be higher
than that for oral. He obtained an oral rate of 2.1 words per
second in the third grade and 2.2 words in the fourth. The silent
reading rates in these grades are 2.3 and 2.6, respectively (19).
Hendricks found that first-grade children read faster silently than
orally (14). Judd's results showed that a greater number of lines
per minute were read silently than orally in all grades. The sec-
ond grade read thirteen lines orally and sixteen lines silently per
minute from the Jones Reader (16). Unfortunately, much of the
material used in making rate comparisons was not standardized.
Lines, and even words, as Courtis has pointed out (5), are far from
uniform in length.

The average variation in rate is much less in oral reading. This
means that when children in a grade read orally their rates are
more nearly alike than when they read silently, unhampered by the
physiological mechanism of the voice. This may be seen from the
figures of Table 5, which have been computed from those of the
Cleveland Survey (16).

TABLE 5
Average Variation nr Rates or Oral and Silent Reading

Grade II

Grade III

Average of Ave schools having lowest moan

Oral Silent
1.5 5.8
2.8 10.8

Oral Silent
1.4 4.8

Average of five schools having highest mean

2.0 12.5

12 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

later when it is necessary to keep the word units dear. At any
rate, phonic analysis is probably, best taught outside of the regular
reading period. This matter was treated in the Eighteenth Year-
book, from which we quote: "If such studies are made during the
regular reading period, there is danger that attention will shift
from the content of what is read to the study of individual words.
If the basic training in the analysis of words is given during drill
periods, the information and skill thus secured can be applied
quickly and effectively during reading exercises without withdraw-
ing attention from the content of what is read" (11).

The question of phonics or no phonics is perhaps of less im-
portance than those of just what, how much, and for whom. Pres-
ent practice is exceedingly wasteful. It is not uncommon to see an
entire class spend several minutes daily in studying phonics with
but scant thought of individual needs. Let those who need train-
ing on particular elements be given that training, but excuse those
already familiar with them. The phonic content taught should
have a direct bearing upon the reading in hand. Time is frequently
wasted on material for which there will be no use except in the
remote future. Whatever time is spent upon phonics should be
spent profitably. That it is so spent can scarcely be said when
classes that spend 15 or 20 minutes daily on phonics do no better
than others that spend only five and ten, or when the correlations
between the time devoted to phonics and the results of reading tests
are zero or negative. The Pearson correlation coefficients obtained
in our own study between time devoted to phonics and scores on
the Haggerty tests for 200 first-grade children, selected at random,
were —.148 for Test I, —.173 for Test II, and —.178 for the two
combined (31). The correlation obtained by Woody in the third
grade between the estimated proportion of time devoted to phonics,
as reported by 47 teachers, and scores on the Monroe test was
slightly positive. The Spearman correlation between time devoted
to phonics and comprehension score was .31, and that between time
devoted to phonics and rate score .23 (33). While these figures
are by no means conclusive, they make it doubtful whether the
teaching of phonics, as now practiced, has much bearing upon suc-
cess in silent reading in primary grades.

FACT0B8 AFFECTING BE8ULT3 IN PBIMABY BEADING 13

11. What Phonic System Is Most Effective in Teaching Pri-
mary Reading? This question has often been raised, but never
satisfactorily answered. Most publishers of systems in current use
could probably be persuaded, with little difficulty, that their own
system is second to none. The investigations made previous to 1919
were reviewed, and their limitations pointed out in this Society's
Yearbook for that year (11) . For the most part, these studies have
been very narrow in scope ; usually they have been limited to a few
classes, and often to a single school system. Only a few phonic
systems were considered in any one investigation. In some of these
studies the attendance factor has been controlled and efforts have
sometimes been made to control the teacher factor, but in no case
has the factor of intelligence been taken into account. The latter
two factors are probably of much greater importance than any
particular phonic system itself.

In May, 1920, the writer secured results with the Haggerty
reading tests from 15 school systems. The records of classes and
schools using different phonic systems were compared. Records of
those individuals who had been present less than 130 days, who
were transferred from other schools, or who had not had the advan-

tablb 7

ifrotAw Class Soobis fob Test I or thc Haggxbty Reading Test, Olasufhd

ACCOBDIKO TO THE PHONIC SYSTEM USBD

M

•

•0*

3

a
8

m

g

H

O
O

1

m

•3

a

i

is

— p

OS

•

8.4

6.0

2.8

6.8f

0.8

6.8

6.1

8.3

5.3

10.5

•0

0.0

6.5

4.8

7.5

1.5

8.5

6.5

12.0

»4

8.0

4.5

8.0

4.8

9.2

10.5

18.2

O

10.8

4.8

6.0

6.5

16.8

5.0*
5.0
5.4
7.0

9.8
0.5
0.8

10.0

10.1
18.8

11.7

10.8

M ttW>

11.8

mmmmmmmmmnm9m

8.0 1

11.5

12.5

.,,. m

0.5

12.01

12.3

12.8

9.5

13.0

17.0

12.8

B

16.5

13.0

11.8

15.2

i

17.0

18.8

11.8

15.5

18.8

15.8

14.4

15.8

17.5*

16.0*

17.2

O

18,8

tTwo pupils (kipped to 2nd Grade in half a year.

'Class did not haYe kindergarten training.

tOlass had 4 different teachers during lit semester of Grade II.

14 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

tage of kindergarten training were excluded. Although reports
were received from 41 first-grade and 29 second-grade classes, the
numbers were insufficient to warrant final conclusions. Not all of
the good, nor all of the poor records were confined to classes trained
in any one of the phonic systems, as Table 7 shows.

The system which produced the best class record in the first
grade produced another that was among the poorest three. Two
of the four best records were made by classes not reared by any
of the commercialized systems, but on adaptations arranged by the
teacher or the supervisor in charge (31).

12. Eye Habits. Most of the efforts to study eye habits have
been confined to older children. C. T. Gray and Judd have noted
that good readers tend to have fewer pauses per line in silent
reading than poor readers of the same grade (8, 17). Gray's data
show that the average number of eye pauses for 8 elementary-school
pupils rated as good readers was 6.1 per line, while that of 9 poor
readers observed in the same grades was 10.8. The good reader
exhibits a tendency to group his words into phrases as the adult
does. The records of the poor readers indicate a tendency to pause
on every word or even oftener. Sapid readers commonly make
only a few pauses within each line. Huey cites evidence showing
that slow readers read a word at a time, while rapid readers take
in longer units. Some rapid readers, however, were found by C. T.
Gray to make large numbers of short pauses per line. The slow
reader makes frequent regressive movements. The most efficient
reading was done by those who made few pauses and used longer
periods of assimilation. Gray's results show that the eye- voice span
in oral is longer in the case of good readers. Phrasing practice,
particularly of the flash type, will probably tend to reduce the
number of eye pauses per line and increase both comprehension and
rate. The writer has found repeatedly through informal flash test-
ing in primary and intermediate grades that the quantity of repro-
duction is decidedly larger in the case of pupils who are in the
habit of phrasing. Practice in the type of work probably tends to
decrease the number of eye pauses per line and consequently to
facilitate thought mastery. C. T. Gray's study shows that prac-
tice in rapid silent reading decreased the number of eye pauses

FACTOBS AFFECTING RESULTS IN PRIMABY BEADING 15

per line. Twenty days' practice in the case of one poor reader
reduced the average number from 15.5 to 6.1 without decreasing
comprehension in any material way (8). s

13. Vocalization. Vocalization during silent reading is com-
mon among primary children. The origin in most cases can prob-
ably be traced to oral reading. Having become accustomed to the
process of oral reading, many children employ the same laborious
process in silent reading, though not allowing the oral expression
to become audible. Instead of proceeding directly from the symbol
to the idea expressed, they tend to give it oral expression first.

The effect of vocalization, as far as evidence goes, is to retard
rate. Its effect on comprehension is less clear. Of the investigators
referred to by W. S. Gray, Hendricks found that among first-grade
children there was no appreciable difference between lip movers
and non-lip movers, but among fourth-grade and eighth-grade chil-
dren, the non-lip movers read faster. The ten slowest adult readers
studied by Quantz showed nearly twice as much lip movement as
the most rapid (10, 14, 23). Pintner, also experimenting with
adults, found that "practice in reading without articulation in-
creases the ordinary rate of reading ;" that "articulation during
the reading process is a habit which is not necessary for that pro-
cess ; that practice in reading without articulation can make such
reading as good as the ordinary reading of the same individual ;
that practice in reading without articulation tends to aid ordi-
nary reading most probably by shortening the habitual practice of
articulation" (25).

C. T. Gray found that twenty days of practice in reading with-
out vocalization decreased the amount of motor accompaniment of
reading and increased rate. While more of his pupils lost than
gained in comprehension, it is not a fair assumption that vocaliza-
tion increases comprehension (8). It is both conceivable and prob-
able that children who have been trained primarily in oral reading
may lose in comprehension when first asked to read without vocal-
izing. But that they will continue to suffer in comprehension, we

*Sce the chapter by W. S.Gray in thisT>ar&oofc for further Ulustrations. —
Editor.

16 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

have no evidence, nor have we any that they would do so at all, if
trained to read silently from the beginning.

14. Amount of Reading. "Learn to read by reading" is a
familiar maxim. We have not yet witnessed a sufficient amount of
experimentation under controlled conditions to enable us to say
just what influence the quantity of material read has. It is con-
ceivable that children may read large quantities of material in
a slipshod fashion and gain but little as a result. On the other hand,
it is also conceivable that a smaller amount of careful reading may
produce a good reader. The general trend of teachers ' opinions
seems to be that good readers are produced by a large amount of
reading. This contention is not without merit. Schools in which
a large number of books is read in primary grades as a rule pro-
duce strong readers, in comparison with those where little is read,
e. g., city vs. rural schools. In the St. Louis survey a large pro-
portion of the pupils were found to be reading many books silently
during the second and third grades. In some classes the children
read as many as one book a week. The tests showed that these
children were markedly superior to those who did not have such
opportunity (9, p. 179). The extensive reader acquires a wide
field of experience, secures much practice in silent reading for the
thought, the thread of the story, or the points of interest. He be-
comes practiced in phrasing. His vocabulary is increased through
acquisition of words whose meaning is gathered from the context.

There is also to be considered the question of the relation of
amount read to the rate of reading. We luay well ask whether
children read more because they read rapidly, or whether they can
read fast because they read much. We know that, other factors
being equal, the child possessing the higher rate reads more in a
given period, but we are not at present able to say how much a
child's rate will be improved as a result of a given amount of
reading. It is very likely true that for many children extended
reading improves rate materially.

Correlations between quantity of reading and reading test scores
have been computed in only a few instances. Miss Zirbes' data
for fourth-grade children show an average Spearman correlation for
three separate measurements of .53 between rate and number of

FACTORS AFFECTING RESULTS IN PBMABY BEADING tf

books read at home (32). Woody asked teachers in Grades III, IV,
and V to estimate the number of pages their classes read (both
regular and supplementary reading) during a current semester.
He then correlated this figure with comprehension and with rate
on the Monroe test (33). His figures, by the Spearman method,
are embodied in Table 8, where it will be seen that the third-grade

TABLE 8

Grade

No. of Teachers
Reporting

Amount and Com-
prehension

Amount and
Rate

in

IV
V

81
84
88

.46
.02
.16

.85
.02
.04

correlation is rather marked but that of the other grades is not.
Our own Pearson correlations (31) between score on the Haggerty
reading tests and books read by each individual during the year, as
reported by teachers for Grades I and II are shown in Table 9,

TABLE 8

OOttBLATIONS BXTWHK AMOUNT RlAD AND 8 COR* 8 IN READING TlSTS (THEISM*)

Grade

No. Pupila

Amount and
Score on Teat I

Amount and
Score on Teat II

I
II

210
180

.47
.14

.44
.08

where, again, the figures are significant in one grade and not in the
other. A more refined method of recording the amounts read would
probably have raised the correlation, since the good reader in the
primary grades is likely to choose longer selections.

For the relatively unskilled teacher, at least, quantitative silent
reading should undoubtedly be urged, even though well-trained
teachers may secure very good results with a much smaller quan-
tity. Each schoolroom should have a library of its own, with single
copies of many books and arrangements for frequent exchange with
other schools.

15. Difficulty of Reading Materials. The reaction of the aver-
age adult toward a selection that presents any considerable number
of new and difficult words, or that is difficult to comprehend, is
usually to lay it aside in disgust. The reaction of the beginner

18 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

would probably be much the same, were he less naive and sub-
missive. Material in which the vocabulary offers numerous obstacles
necessitates constant shifting of attention from the thought, and
consequently from story interest, to mechanics. The vocabulary is
likely to be so far in advance of the reader's that he cannot appre-
ciate the thought. Easy material is conducive to organization into
longer thought units. This in turn stimulates rate. For the aver-
age primary teacher, more satisfactory results will be obtained by
the use of easy reading materials. Brinkerhoff concluded as a re-
sult of his study that "probably an extensive use of easy reading
books throughout the primary grades will produce rapidity. The
present practice of having pupils read difficult books in the lower
grades is vicious, because it prevents the establishment of proper
reading habits" (3).

16. Trovisian jor individual Differences. To our knowledge
no one has yet attempted to measure the advantage to be had from
careful ^VoVfs'iln for fr^a^ilal abilities and needs^as against the
conventional form of class teaching. Primary children differ not
only in intelligence, maturity, experience and interest, but in their
proficiency in each of the various elements that go to make up pri-
mary reading ability. They differ materially in breadth of vocabu-
lary, in knowledge of phonics, in eye habits, in amount of vocaliza-
tion, in fluency and correctness of oral reading, in type of material
they can comprehend and in rate of reading. In the usual class-
room procedure, few of these facts are taken into consideration.
Were primary children to be placed, when occasion demands, with
others whose acquirements and abilities were similar, and treated
accordingly, it is not improbable that we should need to establish
newer and higher standards of accomplishment for them.

A recent inquiry (29) brought out, among others, these valuable
suggestions for adapting primary reading instruction to individual
differences: (a) voluntary reading in free periods, (b) arranging
pupils into small groups on the basis of ability, (c) testing of
reading ability and intelligence to determine what may be expected
of each pupil, (d) independent silent reading, (e) permitting the
rapid reader to cover longer portions, (f ) specific help and treat-
ment of individual defects, (g) individual word, phonic and phrase

CT0B3 AFFECTING RESULTS IN PEIMABY READING jg

^> *5 x fhich do not require children to spend time on what they
/ ]^ > If * know well for the sake of the few who have such difficulties,
jght drills, (i) grading of materials to fit individual ability,
with easy material placed in the hands of the weaker, and more
advanced in the hands of the stronger, (j) home reading, (k) choice
of materials on the basis of individual interests, (1) stimulation of
individual efforts through motivation, and (m) rate drills. The
justification for such measures is obvious. To this list should be
added such provisions as can be made for promotion and for proper
attention to physical needs.

We have pointed out elsewhere what may be expected where
provision is made for differences in intelligence. Just what to ex-
pect when adequate provisions are made for individual differences
in other respects is still a matter of conjecture that needs to be
determined experimentally.

17. Diagnostic Study and Treatment of Individual Needs. As
Anderson and Mcrton have expressed it, "Much of the weakness in
our methods of teaching reading is due to our system of mass in-
struction, which does not attempt to discover the sources of the
reading ailments of individuals, but which prescribes a patent nos-
trum that, it is hoped, will cure all reading ills" (1). Uhl diag-
nosed the reading of the third-grade children along with higher
grades. He found the accuracy of diagnosis such that no poor
reader made good records in all tests, while the specific defects of
poor readers could be detected. He concludes that for many who
fail to profit by class instruction, carefully planned individual
treatment will produce as rapid growth as is produced in the case

TABLE 10

Distribution of 009 Errors in the Oral Reading of 01 Pupil*

(Anderson and Mxrton)

Types of Error No. Percent Types of Errors No. Percent

Repetitions 138 15 Additions not changing

Insertions 125 14 meaning 21 2

Omissions 71 8 Vowel sounds 15 2

Substitutions 220 24 Confusing letters not goT-

Mispronunciation 30 8 erned by rule 1

Accent 83 4 Wrong syllables 24 8

Portions omitted 65 7 Repetition to correct errors 25 8

Portions inserted 90 10 Not attempted 6 1

Omissions not changing

meaning 88 4

20 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

of many apparently brighter pupils by class instruction (32).
Anderson and Mcrton found that 909 oral reading errors of 91
pupils were distributed as in Table 10.

Such studies of the frequency of different types of error in both
silent and oral reading form a definite part of the reading instruc-
tion in the schools at Stoughton, Wisconsin. Treatment is given
poor readers in accord with the diagnosis of their cases. They
report what was accomplished with a second-grade pupil demoted
after a trial in the third grade. He could not read primer material
satisfactorily. His case was diagnosed as "lack of familiarity with
the printed words and an utter lack of phonetic power." He was
given instruction in phonics for one month, and from then on, a
combination of phonics, oral reading, and silent reading for rate
and quality, with the emphasis upon oral reading for quality. In
all, he received 36 special lessons. His record on the Gray Reading
Test at the beginning and at the end showed: "(1) Rate almost
doubled; (2) quality more than doubled and 4 points above the
standard for his grade; (3) lip movement eliminated." In this
school system, where special efforts were made to study and to treat
individual needs, "the median rate of the second grade increased
from 74 words per minute in November to 193 in May. The third
grade increased from 113 to 200." "Before a teacher can do
efficient work with a reading class, she needs to know what prob-
lems she is meeting, what defects must be remedied. Her work
must bo with small groups of three or four pupils, rather than with
masses. She should work with these groups to overcome reading
defects" (1).

18. Interest. Interest is a factor the exact effect of which is
still undetermined. It is a commonly accepted principle of psy-
chology that effort is proportional to interest. Motive conditions
results. Writers of primary reading materials have not always
been careful to provide for the item of interest. Some of the books
to be had for primary children are particularly lacking in this ele-
ment. Of those purporting to be interesting, many are based only
upon shallow, superficial interests. In their earnest desire to have
beginning children master a particular phonic system, teachers are
in grave danger of overlooking the factor of interest. Most teachers

Not
Mi

C **WACTOBS AFFECTING BESULTS IN PBJMABY BEADING 21

Firm

I .bly do not make sufficient attempt to discover the particular
muss and dislikes of each child, and to build accordingly. In re-
sponse to an inquiry on provisions for individual differences sent
to a group of successful teachers, it was found that " only 15 percent
of the primary teachers apparently made serious efforts to fathom
the interests of the individual child." In grammar grades, where
teachers are forced by circumstances to study interests, the percent
was more than twice that in the primary grades (29).

The interests of primary children differ with age, maturity,
home surroundings, experience, school training and previous read-
ing. Differences are frequently exhibited by the members of a
class. The teacher's problem is to discover each child's interests,
and to develop and broaden them. Some teachers make progress
in this direction by observing each child carefully, discussing with
him his likes and dislikes, and noting his home and out-of-door
interests, or what he reads when free to choose from a large variety
of material.

19. Supervision. Very few figures are available on the effects
of supervision, but the few that are available tend to show that a
small amount of supervision is likely to produce large gains. Miss
Reichert, at Madison, by six weeks 1 supervision secured a compre-
hension score of 11.3 on the Monroe reading test, Form II, for
the supervised class, where the two control classes scored 8.5 and
8.1. At the beginning of the experiment the classes had scored
5.5, 5.3, and 5.3, respectively, on Form I. In the supervised class,
a diagnostic study of individual needs was made. Pupils were
grouped on the basis of ability, and training in thought-getting
was given. The proportion of silent reading was increased. Ma-
terial varying from difficult first-grade to difficult fourth-grade
was used, depending upon the ability of the child. Phonic training
and phrase drill were given to those needing it. Home reading was
encouraged (26). In many schoolrooms, a supervisor would prob-
ably need but to show the teacher how to put the most obvious steps
into operation to produce marked gains. There is so much sheer
wasting of pupils' time on the part of unskilled teachers that im-
provement is easily possible. The presence of a reading supervisor
properly equipped for the task is to be welcomed.

22 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

20. The Quality of the Teaching. Aside from intelligence,
none of the factors affecting results in primary reading is more
important than the quality of the teaching. Just how much influ-
ence a given quality of teaching has, when spread over a given
interval of time, has unfortunately never been accurately deter-
mined. This is due in part to the difficulty of securing reliable
measures of the quality of the teaching, and in part to the fact
that until recently we have lacked standardized tests of primary
reading achievements. The improvement secured by Miss Reichert,
previously cited, is indicative of what may be expected when
superior teaching is secured (26).

While all of the various factors we have discussed do evidently
enter into the teaching, their sum does not make the teacher. The
quality of the teaching will be improved, it is true, by a due regard
for the importance of each of these factors, but their sum, we repeat,
does not make the teacher. The additional elements of judgment,
regard for values, encouragement, ability to stimulate children,
executive skill and classroom management must be supplied by her.
Unless she is a master of the technique of instruction, knows the
tendencies of her children, and is familiar with the subject matter,
she will not achieve the best results. It is not at all improbable
that when a school obtains a highly favorable condition with refer-
ence to all of these factors, we shall reach new and unheard-of
standards of achievement in primary reading.

REFERENGU

1. Anderson and Merton. Remedial work in reading. El. Sch.

Jour., May and June, 1920.

2. Boggs, Lucinda. How children learn to read. Ped. Sent.,

12: 1905.

3. Brinkerhoff, Geo. I. Aims in primary reading. Education,

38: Sept. 17th.

4. Cattell, J. M., Mind, 1886.

5. Courtis, S. A. The Measurement of Classroom Products.

Gary Survey, 1919.

6. Currier and Duguid. Phonics or no phonics. EL Sch. Jour.

17 : December, 1916.

FACTOBS AFFECTING BESULT8 IN PRIMARY READING 23

7. Dickson, V. E. What first-grade children can do in school as

related to what is shown by mental tests. Jour, of Educ.
Research, 2 : June, 1920.

8. Gray, C. T. Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited Through

Tests and Laboratory Experiments. University of Chi-
cago, Sup. Educ. Monograph, Vol. I, No. 5.

9. Gray, W. S. Reading, in the Survey of the St. Louis Schools,

Vol. V.

10. Gray, W. S. Studies of Elementary School Reading Through

Standardized Tests. University of Chicago, Sup. Educ.
Monograph, Vol. I, No. 1.

11. Gray, W. S. Principles of method in teaching reading.

Eighteenth Yearbook, Part II, 1919.

12. Haggerty, M. E. Discriminative Capacity of Reading Exam-

ination Sigma 1. (An unpublished study, Univ. of Minne-
sota.)

13. Hawley, W. E. The Effect of Clear Objectives on the Teach-

ing of Reading. (An unpublished study at Rochester,
N. Y.)

14. Hendricks, E. L. A Study in Reading. Silver, Burdett & Co.

1911.

15. Huey, E. B. The Psychology & Pedagogy of Reading. New

York. 1908.

16. Judd, C. H. Measuring the Work of the Public Schools.

Cleveland Survey Report, 1916.

17. Judd, C. H. Reading, Its Nature and Development. Chicago

Univ. Educ. Monograph, Vol. II, No. 4.

18. Mead, C. D. Silent reading versus oral reading with one

hundred sixth-grade pupils. Jour. Educ. Psych., 6 : 1915.

19. Oberholtzcr, E. E. Testing the efficiency of reading in the

grades. Elem. Sch. J., 15 : Feb., 1915.

20. O'Hern, J. P. The reading problem in the public schools as

affected by actual measurements. Jour. N. Y. State
Teachers Ass'n., April, 1916.

21. Packer, P. C, and Anderson, H. W. The loss in reading ability

during the summer vacation. Midland Schools, 30 : No-
vember, 1915.

22. Pintner, R. a/tid Gilliland. Oral and silent reading. Jour.

Educ. Psych., 7 : April, 1916, 201-212.

23. Pintner, R. Inner speech during silent reading. Psych. Rev.,

20 : March, 1913.

24. Pintner, R. Oral reading of fourth-grade pupils. Jour. Educ.

Psych., 4: 1913.

24 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

25. Quantz, J. A. Problems in the psychology of reading. Psych.

Rev. Hon. Supplement, Vol. II, No. 1, 1897.

26. Reichert, C. Lorena. Paper read before the Educational

Measurements Section of the Wisconsin State Teachers
Association, Milwaukee, Nov. 1919.

27. Schmidt, W. A. An Experimental Study in the Psychology of

Reading, Univ. of Chicago, Sup. Educ. Monograph, Vol.
1, No. 2.

28. Tcrman, L. M. The use of intelligence tests in the grading of

school children. Jour. Educ. Research, 1 : January, 1920.

29. Theiscn, W. W. Provisions for individual differences in teach-

ing reading. Jour. Educ. Research, 2 : September, 1920.

30. Theisen, W. W. Reading, Some Standard Test Results and

Teaching Observations. Studies in Educational Measure-
ment No. 2. Wis. State Dept. of Instruction (un-
published).

31. Theisen, W. W. Some Factors Affecting Results in Primary

Reading as Measured by the Haggerty Achievement Read-
ing Test (an unpublished study, State Dept. of Public
Instr., Madison, Wis.)

32. Uhl, W. L. The use of results of reading tests as bases for

planning remedial work. Elem. Sch. Jour., Vol. 17.

33. Woody, C. Some Factors Affecting Reading Achievements

(an unpublished study, Univ. of Washington, Seattle).

34. Zirbes, Laura. Diagnostic measurement as a basis for pro-

cedure. Elem. Sch. Jour., 18 : March, 1918.

35. Zornow, T. A. The use of the Gray oral reading test in a

Rochester school and some deductions from the results.
Jour. N. Y. State Teachers Ass'n., April, 1919.

CHAPTER H

CONTROLLING FACTORS IN THE MEASUREMENT OP

SILENT READING

May Ayees Burgess
Department of Education, Buasell Sage Foundation

During the past year the Department of Education of the
Russell Sage Foundation has conducted a scries of studies in the
measurement of silent reading. This work has produced a scale
for measuring the silent reading of children in grades three to
eight. The scale itself consists of a large sheet of paper on which
are printed 20 little pictures with a paragraph under each one,
telling the pupil to make a line or mark with his pencil to sup-
plement the picture. The number of paragraphs that he can read
and mark correctly within the time limit of five minutes is taken
as the measure of his ability, in this particular sort of careful
silent reading. The scale is designated as Picture Supplement
Scale 1, or PS-1.

It should be noted that the testing material of this new silent
reading scale is of uniform difficulty throughout, and that a defi-
nite time limit has been set. That is, difficulty and time have been
held constant, and the variable which has been measured is the
amount which the child can do. These characteristics of Picture
Supplement Scale 1 were not found in all of the earlier testing
material used by the Foundation in its silent reading experi-
ments. They are the results of many changes which have been
carried on in the effort of the Department to make the test con-
form to the fundamental principle of measurement, "the law
of the single variable." It is with some of the problems arising
in the endeavor to apply this principle to the measurement of
silent reading that this article is intended to deal.

25

26 THB TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

THE LAW OF THE SINGLE VARIABLE

A few months ago, newspapers in different parts of the coun-
try were filled with humorous references to the troubles of the
Mayor of Providence, Rhode Island, who had come in conflict
with the law of the single variable. According to the newspaper
accounts, an Italian, who had formerly lived in Providence, and
wished to show his affection for the city, left in his will a sum
of money which was to be awarded by the mayor to the most
beautiful and virtuous girl in the city. The mayor devoted con-
siderable thought to his problem. It might be possible to measure
the beauty of the young women of Providence. It might be pos-
sible, although the difficulties involved were rather staggering,
to arrive at some measure of womanly virtue; but to contrive
a measure which would successfully discover the girl possessing
the most perfect combination of beauty and virtue was too dif-
ficult a task for even the courageous mayor, and the newspapers
say that he refused to accept the trust. He could not measure
two variables in combination.

Measurement is the process of comparing a given sample with
a standard sample, and stating the proportion it bears to the
standard, in terms of the standard unit. Length is measured in
feet, time in seconds, weight in pounds; always the results of
measurement are given as specified amounts of a single standard
unit. Tests may furnish simultaneously several different kinds
of results, and each of these results may be measured in terms
of its relation to the standard unit of its kind. It is clear, how-
ever, that if different results are to be compared with each other,
they must be of the same sort; they must be expressed in com-
mon terms. The law of the single variable is to the effect that,
in the measurement of comparative attainments, only one ele-
ment can be measured at a time ; and when one element has been
chosen as the variable to be measured, every other conditioning
element which might affect the result shall be held constant.

The principle of the single variable is accepted, not only by
the Mayor of Providence, but by chemists, physicist*, and biolo-
gists ; by carpenters and clerks, by schoolboys, and milkmen, and
professional pugilists. It is the universally accepted principle

MEASUREMENT OF SILENT BEADING 27

of measurement in the affairs of everyday life. We measure, for
example, "How far this man can run in a given time," and "How
fast he can run a given distance," but we do not even attempt
to measure "How far he can run how fast." Whether we have
clearly formulated it for ourselves or not, in practice we obey
the law of the single variable. In comparative measurement, we
try to measure only one thing at a time.

SCALES MEASURE QUALITY, DIFFICULTY, AND AMOUNT

As part of the experimental work in connection with the silent
reading study, a careful examination and tabulation was made
of the principal existing scales for the measurement of ability in
classroom subjects. It was found that without exception every
scale seeks to measure one of three elements. It seeks to answer
one of three questions: "How well can he dof" "How hard
can he do V 9 or "How much can he dof" It measures quality of
product, difficulty reached, or amount done. If the term amount be
taken to include its companion term, time — and it must be so treated,
since the two are mutually dependent; time implies amount, and
amount implies time — then every careful comparative measure that
we make will be found upon close examination to be primarily con-
cerned with one of these three elements. In dancing we compare
quality ; in jumping we compare difficulty ; in swimming we com-
pare time or amount.

Moreover, we successf uly compare only one sort of measure at
a time; and when we try to compare measures in combination
we open the way for endless arguments and misunderstandings.
In diving contests, for example, where the difficulty is set, so that
contestants all make the same sorts of dives, it is easy to judge
them on the basis of comparative quality. Where, however, each
contestant is allowed three dives of his own choosing, and the
judges try to decide who made the most difficult dive best, de-
cisions are continually questioned and become matters of hot
controversy with little hope of satisfactory settlement. Such
judgments are of the crudest sort and do not pretend to scientific
accuracy. Scales which seriously attempt comparative measure-

28 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

mente always chose one of three elements — difficulty, quality, or
amount — and only one, as the variable they seek to measure.

In any scheme of scientific measurement, after the variable
has been chosen, the two remaining factors must be carefully
studied. Either methods must be devised to hold them constant
or it must be shown that they are without power to affect the
scores in the particular field where the measurements are to be
made. That is, where one of the three factors of quality, diffi-
culty, and amount is chosen as the variable, the results of which
are to be noted, the remaining two factors must be restrained
from influencing those results. In some cases it can be shown
that no special restraints are required, since variations of one
factor have no influence upon the other; but such mutual inde-
pendence cannot be taken for granted. It must be definitely
proved, and the burden of proof rests upon the person who is
responsible for making the scale.

READING NOT MEASURED BT SCALES FOR QUALITY OF PRODUCT

The first problem in studying silent reading is to decide which
of the three factors — quality, difficulty, or time — shall be chosen
as the variable to be measured. In the study here described the
conclusion was reached that reading is a classroom activity which
does not readily lend itself to measurement by means of scales for
quality of product. Quality in reading is an elusive thing which
varies not only with different people, but with the same person from
moment to moment as he reads. There are as many different re-
actions which children get out of reading as there are children,
and as there are times that children read. The reading process
awakens in consciousness thoughts and memories of the most
varied character. In re-reading even a simple passage, the same
individual gets new meanings from the page, new and different
mental reactions from the same stimuli.

Moreover, outside of the psychologist 's laboratory, the shades
of quality of reading are not of great import. For practical pur-
poses, the problem of measuring reading involves finding out how
rapidly the subject reads the material with a sufficient degree
of comprehension to get from it the essentials of its meaning.

MEASUREMENT OF SILENT BEAD1N0 20

As the material increases in difficulty, the ability to read it is
rarer; but the important question is not "How full and varied
is the meaning the reader draws from itf" but rather "Is he
able to grasp the gist of the material V The quality element is
reduced to the very simple one of, "Well enough to get the es-
sential thought."

BEADING NOT MEASURED BY SCALES FOR DIFFICULTY REACHED

There are several well recognized tests which consist of graded
series of progressively difficult tasks, where the hardest task
successfully completed is taken to measure the degree of accom-
plishment shown. No time limit is set, since it is assumed that
the results achieved in the test are independent of the time
needed. These are scales for difficulty reached.

In the early experimental work of the Foundation, a tenta-
tive reading scale of this kind was devised, which was similar
to the present Picture Supplement Scale 1 in that it consisted
of little pictures with paragraphs of instructions about them.
In the former scale, however, instructions were graded in read-
ing difficulty, so that in the earlier paragraphs sentences were
short and the words were those most commonly used, while para-
graphs towards the end of the scale consisted of longer sentences
and words so rarely used that they do not enter inty the speaking
vocabularies of most high-school or college students. Children
were allowed to work as long as they wished, and it was as-
sumed that the hardest paragraph attempted and read success-
fully would mark the limit of the child's reading ability.

To the embarrassment of those conducting the experiments,
it was found that under these conditions, almost every child was
able to read everything. That is, if the thought and style were
easy to grasp, and there was no time limit, even the littlest chil-
dren showed an amazing ability to puzzle out the meaning of
the hardest words. For example, a picture of the cross used in
the anti-tuberculosis campaign was accompanied by the following
instructions :

"Since TB is the usual abbreviation for tuberculosis, print the two initials
closely eontinguous to this celebrated emblem of the American Tuberculosis

30 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Association. In doing so, be careful to select snch locations as will result in
the separation of the initials by the intervention of the emblem between them."

Third-grade children, Italians, on the lower east-side of New
York City, who were counted by their teachers as exceptionally
poor in reading, and were not themselves able to use English flu-
ently, read that paragraph, re-read it, and finally with shining
eyes grasped their pencils and printed T on one side and B on
the other side, closely crowded against the central cross. They
could not have defined the words, but they could discover what the
paragraph meant if given long enough time to puzzle it out. The
same result occurred over and over, with other forms of test ma-
terial, even such as, under the picture of the veiled lady, requested
the children to "perpetrate an incision in the facial vesture im-
mediately anterior to the buccal orifice through which the fas-
tidious female may procure aliment."

In these early silent reading experiments, the three funda-
mental factors of quality, difficulty, and time had been recog-
nized. The quality requirement had been held constant, at the
low level of "well enough to get the gist," and it had been as-
sumed that where the reading material was difficult, the time
consumed was of no great importance. It was thought that a
child either could, or could not, read so as to understand a given
selection, and that no amount of additional time would materially
improve his performance. The experiments established that, far
from being unimportant, time is in reality very nearly the most
powerful controlling factor in silent reading. It must either be
measured or controlled.

An easy solution of the problem thus confronting the investi-
gators would have been to keep the test material as it stood in
gradually increasing steps of difficulty, and set a time limit. It
seemed clear, however, that this solution would not be satis-
factory, because it would violate the fundamental law of measure-
ment, which declares that only one variable can be measured at
a time. The difficulty of equating time and accomplishment is as
great as the difficulty confronting the Mayor of Providence of
equating beauty and virtue. Girls of equal virtue might be ar-
ranged in order of beauty, or girls of equal beauty according to

MEASUREMENT OF SILENT READING 31

their relative virtue ; but the two attributes could not be mixed
in unknown and varying proportions and the results compared
or interpreted. Similarly, in measuring reading there seemed to
be no statistically valid way of equating "Difficulty 10 reached
and three paragraphs wrong," with "Difficulty 6 reached and
none wrong," or "Difficulty 12 reached in four minutes" with
"Difficulty 16 reached in five minutes." The results are not com-
parable because they are the sums of two variables, in unknown
proportions.

If difficulty was to be measured, the time element must be re-
strained from influencing the result. It might be possible to allow
the difficulty of each paragraph to vary, and to record the rate
of each child on each paragraph. This would, in effect, be the
same as giving the children a series of tests, one at each level of
difficulty, and measuring the amount done at each level in a given
time. Such a measurement would be defensible from the purely
scientific standpoint, but would entail a number of practical dif-
ficulties of administration, with which the classroom teacher is
hardly able to cope.

Another alternative was to increase the difficulty by means of
abstruse thought, unusual style, catches, puzzles, and technical
phraseology, to such a degree that no amount of increased time
would assist in interpreting the meaning. This second method
raised the serious question whether material so hard that the child
cannot understand it, either when reading to himself or when
listening to some one else reading or repeating it aloud, can prop-
erly be used to measure reading. Such material would appear
to test general intelligence rather than ability to secure meaning
from the printed symbol. In the experiments here described,
the conclusion was definitely reached that reading ability cannot
legitimately be measured by exercises in which difficulty has been
created artificially through complicating the thought, confusing
the style, or inserting puzzles or catches intended to trip the
reader.

The experience of the investigators in trying to construct
scales for difficulty in reading, suggests that there will probably
be found very few classroom subjects in which difficulty can be

32 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

measured directly, without reference to time. It will be noted
that most of those who have devised scales for difficulty have
been obliged to set time limits, even while declaring that time is
not a conditioning factor. Where such a time limit is set for the
scale as a whole, but none is set for individual paragraphs or
problems of varying difficulties, the scores made must necessarily
be affected by the rate at which the child works. He may have
stopped at a certain point because he could not do work any
harder or because he could not work any faster. Nothing in the
score enables the examiner to tell what portion of it is attributable
to ability, and what to speed. The most that such a test can tell
is "Who reached the highest difficulty first." It cannot tell
"Who would have gone highest had enough time been given,"
or ' ' Who is the fastest worker. ' '

If scales are to be of help to the classroom teacher, they must
furnish more definite information than that. She already knows
that some of her children can do harder work than others. What
she needs to know, and what the scales that are given her should
be designed to tell, is which children should be warned to go
more slowly and which encouraged to work faster; who needs to
be scolded for careless work, and who should be taught the dif-
ficult art of neglecting unimportant details. Then, in addition to,
and separated from, these diagnostic facts of rate and accuracy,
she must know at what points children are failing to understand
her teaching. Scales which are to be of diagnostic help, must
result in simple scores, which can be relied on, and readily in-
terpreted. There is reason to believe that, in the future, scales
to measure comparative ability in classroom subjects will gen-
erally fall into the two groups of scales for quality and scales
for amount ; and it is probable, also, that difficulty will eventually
be measured indirectly, by means of series of carefully graded
scales for amount.

READING MEASURED BY SCALES FOR AMOUNT DONE

Having decided that reading cannot readily be measured
either by scales for quality or by scales for difficulty, it was nec-
essary to ascertain whether it could be measured by the third

MEASUREMENT OF SILENT BEADING 33

remaining method, that of scales for amount done. Scales which seek
to measure amount must be so constructed that quality, difficulty,
and time, and their subsidiary elements, are all held constant, and
the variable which is to be measured and compared is the amount
of work which the child can do under such standard conditions.
In the measurement of silent reading, therefore, the measurement
by scales for amount demanded that quality, difficulty, and time
be maintained constant. It was decided to adopt as the standard
of quality, the ability to secure the fundamental meaning of a
paragraph well enough to act in accordance with it. The child
must read well enough to get the gist of the material ; his read-
ing must be of the quality necessary in the ordinary reading of
everyday life. Through the most careful sort of writing, testing,
and re-writing, the difficulty of each paragraph must be main-
tained at a given level throughout the test; and a time limit,
during which the children should be allowed to work, must be
determined. With these general considerations well in mind, the
measurement of silent reading through scales for amount was
finally undertaken.

FACTORS INVOLVED IN TIME AND DIFFICULTY

The decision to treat amount as the variable and to hold
quality, difficulty, and time constant, immediately brought into
question all those subsidiary elements which also must be con-
trolled and held constant if the scores resulting from measure-
ment are to be purely in terms of quantity done, under uniform
testing conditions. It is clear, for example, that if a paragraph
is constructed in such an involved style that the child has to stop
to puzzle out its meaning, his score will be lowered, not because
the child is a poor reader, but because the author of the test is a
poor writer. So again, a paragraph calling upon the child to
compute the age of Uncle's Father may give the child a poor
reading score which should really be charged to lack of skill in
arithmetic.

Accordingly, having decided that the required quality should
be the passing mark of "well enough to get the gist," and that
time and difficulty should be maintained at constant levels

34 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

throughout the testing material, three further steps were neces-
sary before the material itself could be used as a basis for con-
structing the final scale. The first step was to identify and list
as many as possible of the elements which tend to affect either the
difficulty of the reading material or the time required to read it.
The list actually used in preparing Scale PS-1 is here presented :

Controlling Factors in Silent Beading

(Subsidiary elements of time and difficulty which must be eliminated or
held constant.)

To Be Eliminated
Complex thought
Abstract thought
Technical thought and language
Catches, puzzles, accidental leads
Demands for spatial imagination
Irrelevant dramatic appeal
Ability to reproduce
Ability to remember
Ability to reason, or infer
Involved style

To Be Held Constant Throughout Test

Memory span requirements

Attention span, multiple strains

Difficulty of action demanded

Time required for complying with instructions

Vocabulary difficulty

Sentence structure

Word arrangement

Amount of material to be read

Uniformity of print

Uniformity of space relations between pictures and print

Ease of finding place on paper

Interest and corresponding eliort on part of child

The second step was to eliminate as many as possible of these
dangerous subsidiary factors; and the third step, to contrive
methods by which the remaining factors could be rendered harm-
less by equalizing their influence in all the sections of the test.

After the list of controlling factors had been compiled, certain
of them were chosen as those which might, or clearly should, be
eliminated. It was decided, for example, that the thought should
always be simple. The child should not be called upon to reason
or to infer. He should not be expected to grasp abstractions, or
complexities of thought. Technical language should be avoided,

MEASUREMENT OF SILENT BEAD1NQ 35

and there should be no demand for special technical knowledge.

Puzzle questions were ruled out, and so, more difficult to avoid,

but equally dangerous, were the accidental catches or leads, in

which unwisely emphasized words tricked the child into wrong

responses.

In the particular scale under discussion, one of the extraneous

factors most difficult to rule out was that of irrelevant dramatic

appeal. There was the picture of the dog, for instance, which

still appears at the top of the first column in the present scale.

As originally written, the paragraph underneath the dog read

as follows:

This dog sees a cat in the street. He does not like eats, and he hates
this one. He will watch her and if she comes too near he will bark at her
and chase her up a tree. We do not want him to chase the cat. Take youi
pencil and draw a strong rope about bis neck so that he can not run after her.

That was an easy paragraph to read, but it proved to have
more catches than any other in the entire collection. In the first
place, while most of the children drew the "strong rope about
his neck" in a single rapid stroke, there were one or two extra
bright children who did not intend to be caught that way. In
each set of papers there were always a few in which "strong
rope" was represented by a cable of huge size, with every twist-
ing strand carefully drawn and shaded, to prove to the teacher
that the child taking the test knew exactly what a rope looks
like, as contrasted with the possible string or chain.

Then again, when the "strong rope" had been deleted, the
paragraph still made trouble because of its dramatic appeal. It
practically always made the children laugh. They looked up
at the teacher to see if she enjoyed the joke as well as they
did. They smiled across the aisles and pointed to the picture to
show their neighbors that it was the first picture, the one with
the dog, which struck them as particularly funny. After they
settled down, the dramatic possibilities worked havoc, for the
brighter children could not resist the temptation to make draw-
ings with fences — picket fences — to keep the dog in, a sturdy
tree for the cat to climb, and even the cat herself, half way up
the tree, with fluffed out tail, and claws digging desperately into

36 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

the wood. It was an excellent exercise for the imagination, but
disastrous in a carefully timed reading test. In his latest form,
the dog has stolen two bones and forgotten about the cat. The
children do not like him so well, but he is much better material
for testing!

Demands upon the ability to reproduce, to remember, and to
answer questions were carefully excluded, because of the danger,
as in arithmetical tasks, of unintentionally testing qualities com-
monly associated with reading, but not genuine elements in read-
ing ability. The responses called for were made so simple that
even very young children, far below the grades for which the
scale is intended, were readily able to comply with them. The
number of main ideas in each paragraph was carefully restricted
to well within the attention span and memory span of the younger
children, and these ideas were distributed through the paragraph
in such a way as to make guessing difficult. Length of paragraph,
size of print, size of picture, and relation of picture to print were
kept uniform throughout the test, so that differences in style and
make-up would not be responsible for differences in scores.

It was found that close attention had to be paid to the chil-
dren's own reactions towards what they read. One illustration
showed an open book, and the instructions were to make a small
cross upon the right-hand page, so that the reader would be able
to find his place again. This was a mistake. In school, children
are taught never to mark their books, and they were obedient,
even at the cost of failing in the reading test. The paragraph
was re-worded, so that the children were told to draw a line rep-
resenting a ruler lying straight across the book to hold the pages
open. This wording proved to have an unforeseen catch, because
the idea of one line was not sufficiently emphasized, and many
children carefully drew rulers, with all the inches marked and
numbered. The final wording runs "Draw a single straight line,
to represent a ruler," and the paragraph now seems to be in
satisfactory shape.

The children wanted the examiners to be reasonable and logi-
cal. If the tasks required offended them, they worked slowly
or carelessly. To keep interest and effort high enough, but not

MEASUREMENT OF SILENT BEADING 37

too high, and to keep them uniformly at the same pitch through
the entire duration of the test, was one of the most difficult of
all the problems met in the preparation of the testing material.

TEST MAKING IS A TWO-FOLD PROCESS

It will be seen from the foregoing illustrations, that the
process of preparing test material was an alternating one of
painstaking scrutiny and analysis within the office, and careful
testing of the new material in the classroom. It seemed clear that
neither part of the process could be dispensed with. Testing
alone left undiscovered many alien factors which tended to per-
vert the results. One of the paragraphs showed a football player,
and asked the children to draw the football soaring through the
air. Classroom trials seemed to indicate that the paragraph was
too easy to read, since few children failed on it. Office consul-
tation, however, with critical scrutiny of paragraph and picture,
showed that the paragraph had never really been tested. Given
that picture, with no print at all, if told to make a mark the
children would always draw a soaring football. The perfect
scores represented, not reading ability, but familiarity with the
game. Most extraneous elements fail to show in classroom test-
ing. They can be detected only by the most painstaking exami-
nation and scrutiny of the testing material. Testing must fol-
low upon preliminary critical revision, and further revision must
be verified and stimulated by testing. Neither process can be
effectively carried on without the other.

SUMMARY

1. The law of the single variable declared that, in the com-
parison of relative attainments, one element, and only one, shall
be chosen as the variable to be measured, and other conditioning
elements, which might affect the result, shall be held constant.
This is a universally accepted principle, which applies to every
sort of careful scientific measurement of comparative attainment.

2. Scales for comparative attainment measure quality, diffi-
culty, or amount. These are the three fundamental factors. One
of them may be chosen as the variable to be measured. The other

38 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

two must be restrained from affecting the results secured. Where
it is assumed that one of these three factors is non-operative, the
burden of proof rests upon the person making the scale.

3. Heading is a classroom activity which is not readily meas-
urable by scales for quality, or scales for difficulty. It is measur-
able by scales for amount.

4. There is reason to believe that most classroom subjects
may best be measured by scales for quality or for amount. Be-
cause of the influence of time and rate, which are not easily
controlled, difficulty rarely can be measured directly. It is prob-
able that difficulty will eventually be indirectly measured through
series of carefully graded scales for amount.

5. If difficulty and time are to be maintained as constants,
the subsidiary elements of difficulty and time must also be main-
tained as constants. This means that, in the preliminary prepa-
ration of testing material, far greater care is necessary than has
usually been exercised. In reading, for example, the practice of
hastily compiling heterogeneous masses of paragraphs of differ-
ent lengths and arrangements, indiscriminately calling upon the
child's ability to do arithmetic, solve puzzles, reason, remember,
reproduce, moralize, and imagine, should not be tolerated in the
field of educational measurements. The common practice has
been to assume that paragraphs on which equal per cents of
failures occurred were of equal reading difficulty. Such an as-
sumption is clearly unsafe, unless it can be shown that care has
been taken to keep all the difficulties measured genuine reading
difficulties. Unless extraneous, non-reading elements have been
weeded out, paragraphs of equal reading difficulty may result in
totally different percentages of failures; and so, conversely,
paragraphs of different reading difficulties may result in iden-
tical percentages of failures. Equal difficulty cannot be secured
merely by testing and computation. It can be arrived at only
through keen inspection, merciless criticism, and the rigid de-
termination to eliminate every alien influence which might per-
vert the findings, and result in mongrel scores. The law of the
single variable must be conscientiously followed in the writing
of every sentence, and the formulation of every paragraph.

CHAPTER in

INDIVIDUAL DIFFICULTIES IN SILENT READING IN THE
FOURTH, FIFTH, AND SIXTH GRADES

William S. Gbat
The University of Chicago

Two years ago a boy who now ranks slightly above the average
of his age-group in general intelligence began his public-school
career. He advanced rapidly through the primary grades until
the autumn of 1920. At that time it became necessary for him to
discontinue regular school work because he was unable to read. In
class discussions, in ability to solve problems, and in all phases
of school work which did not involve reading he equalled or ex-
celled his classmates.

A careful analysis revealed the fact that the boy had not
established the habit of moving his eyes regularly from left to
right along a line. At times the first fixation was near the end of
the line ; frequently it was near the middle of the line ; and some-
times it was near the beginning. The remaining fixations were
irregular and followed no definite order. Drill exercises were
organized which consisted of series of short words typewritten
with half -inch horizontal spacing. The boy was required to read
these words for five minutes each day in order to cultivate regu-
lar habits of eye-movement. That there was rapid reorganization
of his method of procedure was clearly evident in his reading.
After considerable progress had been made, a simple story was
typewritten, again with a half -inch space between words. After
a few exercises of this type, the words were grouped in thought
units with a half-inch space between each unit. Finally, stories
were read, still during the drill periods, directly from books. The
facility and accuracy with which he soon read indicated that
one of his major difficulties had been corrected. Other prob-

39

40 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

lems, such as increasing the span of recognition, were then at-
tacked. At the present time the boy is making very rapid progress
and will doubtless be able to resume work with his class at the
end of the first half of the school year.

This case has been cited as an illustration of the failure of
regular instruction to meet individual needs. There are doubtless
thousands of boys and girls who fail each year and are unable to
continue with their classmates because of peculiar defects which
could be readily remedied. The results are discouragement,
retardation, and elimination in far too many cases.

Progressive schools are taking definite steps to provide facili-
ties for discovering and remedying these defects. The work of
Superintendent C. J. Anderson and Elda Merton in the public
schools of Stoughton, Wisconsin, is described in the Elementary
School Journal, May and June, 1920. The work which has been
carried on in the Elementary School of the University of Chicago
is described in Reading: Its Nature and Development, by
Charles H. Judd. The valuable results which have been secured
in public-school systems such as Stoughton, Wisconsin, and Roches-
ter, New York, thoroughly justify these recommendations: that
Bureaus of Educational Research give special attention to the prob-
lem of diagnosis ; that a special teacher be provided for each large
elementary school to devote her entire time to the problem of test-
ing and instructing pupils who encounter fundamental difficulties
in reading and other subjects; and that classroom teachers be in-
structed in the technique of recording facts in order that special
difficulties may be discovered and corrected as early in the child's
school career as possible.

The cases which are described in the sections which follow illus-
trate in a limited way the wide variety of difficulties which pupils
encounter in silent reading in the middle grades. Each of these
pupils was retarded in reading because of a peculiar difficulty.
When appropriate remedial devices were employed, each responded
satisfactorily to treatment. The purpose of the discussion which
follows is to present a limited number of interesting cases, to de-
scribe the methods of treatment, and to stimulate supervisors and
teachers to cooperate actively in similar studies. Improved meth-

DIFFICULTIES IN SILENT BEADING 41

ods of group instruction will do much toward increasing the abil-
ity of most boys and girls to read and to study independently and
effectively. We shall learn how to meet the needs of pupils who
encounter unusual difficulties only through detailed, accurate
studies of individual difficulties and application of appropriate
remedial devices. Progressive teachers and supervisors can make
studies of very great value in this connection.

A FLUENT ORAL READER IN THE FOURTH GRADE WHO COMPREHENDED

VERY LITTLE READ SILENTLY 1

This pupil was a fourth-grade girl who was described by her
teacher as slow and indifferent. When given the Gray Oral Read-
ing Test in December she made a score of 41.25, which is 5.75
below the standard for her grade. In the silent-reading test she
made unusually slow progress and was unable to reproduce what
she had read or to answer questions. Evidence that she read all
of the words was secured from noting her lip movements.

Tests were next given to determine the ability of this girl to
read the materials ordinarily assigned in the reading class. A
passage from page 57 of the Merrill Fourth Reader was used in
this connection. The girl was instructed to read the selection
silently for the purpose of getting the thought well enough to re-
produce it later. She read at the rate of 1.05 words per second.
She reproduced more or less inaccurately only a very small per-
centage of what she had read. Her lip movements were very pro-
nounced. She answered only one of the eight questions asked and
that inaccurately.

To discover if mechanics of reading was causing the difficulty,
she was asked to read the same material orally. She read fluently
and with expression at the rate of 1.01 yrords per second, making
only four errors. After studying carefully all the data which had
been secured, the following conclusion was reached in regard to her
difficulties: "Knowledge of the rudimentary mechanics permitted
her to read material far beyond her comprehension. She read

* Reproduced in part from "Remedial Work in Reading, Part I." By 0. J. Anderson
and Ella Morton. Ths fftanentory 8ehool Journal, May, 1020: pp. 687-602.

42

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

words as names and not as symbols of ideas. The problem was
plainly that of training her to read for content.' '

The remedial exercises consisted of passages cut from second-
and third-grade readers. The first passage was very short and
contained few ideas. Each succeeding passage was somewhat longer
and made increasing demands on the reader in order to get the
meaning. When exercises were assigned, the attention of the sub-
ject was directed to meanings rather than pronunciations. "After
she had given a reproduction of the 'story' and had answered a
number of specific questions about it, she was asked to re-read the
selection in search of any thoughts she had overlooked during the
first reading. She then gave a second reproduction. This last re-
production was, no doubt largely a result of the specific questions.
Nevertheless, it was valuable in training the pupil to see the rich-
ness of content in the selection."

The training period lasted for six weeks. One thirty-five-min-
ute lesson was given each week with the exception of one week in
which two lessons were given. From five to seven paragraphs were
assigned at each lesson in accordance with the methods described
in the preceding paragraph. In May the oral- and silent-reading
tests were given again. A comparison of the December and May
records led to some interesting observations. It is to be noted that
there is no change in the rate, but the quality shows a decided im-
provement. Her score in this test rose to 50, which is 3 points above
the standard for her grade. This improvement is significant when
it is remembered that no instruction was given in oral reading in
these special-help periods.

TABLE 1
Progress in Rati and Quality or Stlint Reading

Words
per See.

Before
Practice

Words
per Sec.

After
Practice

Quality

Before

Practice

Quality After Practice

Selection

Repro-
duction

Questions

Quality

•Tiny Tad"

"The Grasshoppers"

1.11
1.05

1.81
1.21

82
7

60
80

46
18

Table 1 gives the silent-reading records for December and May.
It shows a decided increase in silent reading rate and in quality.

DIFFICULTIES IN SILENT BEADING 43

In December she was unable to reproduce a single thought or to
answer a single question. In May she showed marked improve-
ment along both lines and had become fairly efficient

A FIFTH-GRADE PUPIL WHO READ SLOWLY BECAUSE OF WORD

DIFFICULTIES 2

Pupil G was a fifth-grade girl who read very slowly and in-
effectively. Her fourth-grade teacher described her as "a slow
reader who reads hesitatingly and haltingly, repeating words and
phrases." In the preliminary study of her difficulties photographic
records were made of her eye-movements while reading. Oral- and
silent-reading tests were also given. In the oral reading test the
pronunciation of unfamiliar words caused much difficulty. The
rate of silent reading was unusually slow, being six-tenths of a
word slower per second than her oral-reading rate. The photo-
graphic records showed clearly that she "could not unravel the in-
tricacies of the printed lines which proved easy to her classmates."
A careful analysis of all of these facts made it evident "that her
difficulties were due to a lack of familiarity with printed words and
a lack of method of working out new or unknown word forms."

"In an effort to help her overcome this handicap she was given
various types of training during eighteen weeks. The first six
weeks were devoted to a great deal of oral reading. The second
six weeks were spent on drills in phonics and in word analysis.
During the last six weeks silent reading was emphasized. While
each period of six weeks thus stressed some one phase of reading,
all three types of work were carried along throughout the eighteen
weeks. For example, oral reading was continued with less em-
phasis during the last twelve weeks."

During the first six weeks the oral-reading exercises were con-
ducted in ways familiar to most teachers. The selections for read-
ing were made along the line of the pupil's school interests in
history and geography. Records of rate and accuracy were secured
at frequent intervals for purposes of comparison. The improve-
ment made by the girl in rate and accuracy of oral reading during
the eighteen weeks is shown in Table 2.

"'Reading, Its Nature and Development." by Charles H. Judd. SuppUmanimrp
Educational Monographs, Vol. II. No. 4 (July, 1918), pp. 83-91.

42

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

words as names and not as symbols of ideas. The problem was
plainly that of training her to read for content.' '

The remedial exercises consisted of passages cat from second-
and third-grade readers. The first passage was very short and
contained few ideas. Each succeeding passage was somewhat longer
and made increasing demands on the reader in order to get the
meaning. When exercises were assigned, the attention of the sub-
ject was directed to meanings rather than pronunciations. "After
she had given a reproduction of the 'story* and had answered a
number of specific questions about it, she was asked to re-read the
selection in search of any thoughts she had overlooked during the
first reading. She then gave a second reproduction. This last re-
production was, no doubt largely a result of the specific questions.
Nevertheless, it was valuable in training the pupil to see the rich-
ness of content in the selection."

The training period lasted for six weeks. One thirty-five-min-
ute lesson was given each week with the exception of one week in
which two lessons were given. From five to seven paragraphs were
assigned at each lesson in accordance with the methods described
in the preceding paragraph. In May the oral- and silent-reading
tests were given again. A comparison of the December and May
records led to some interesting observations. It is to be noted that
there is no change in the rate, but the quality shows a decided im-
provement. Her score in this test rose to 50, which is 3 points above
the standard for her grade. This improvement is significant when
it is remembered that no instruction was given in oral reading in
these special-help periods.

TABLE 1
Progress in Rati and Quality or Sndiirr Rbadtjto

Words
per See.

Before
Practice

Words

per Sec.

After

Practice

Quality

Before

Practice

Quality After Practice

Selection

Repro-
duction

Questions

Quality

•Tiny Tad"

•The Grasshoppers"

Grades IV, V, VI

1.11

1.05

1.81
1.21

89

7

60

80

46
18

Table 1 gives the silent-reading records for December and May.
It shows a decided increase in silent reading rate and in quality.

DIFFICULTIES IN SILENT BEADING 43

In December she was unable to reproduce a single thought or to
answer a single question. In May she showed marked improve-
ment along both lines and had become fairly efficient

A FIFTH-GRADE PUPIL WHO READ SLOWLY BECAUSE OF WORD

DIFFICULTIES 2

Pupil G was a fifth-grade girl who read very slowly and in-
effectively. Her fourth-grade teacher described her as "a slow
reader who reads hesitatingly and haltingly, repeating words and
phrases." In the preliminary study of her difficulties photographic
records were made of her eye-movements while reading. Oral- and
silent-reading tests were also given. In the oral reading test the
pronunciation of unfamiliar words caused much difficulty. The
rate of silent reading was unusually slow, being six-tenths of a
word slower per second than her oral-reading rate. The photo-
graphic records showed clearly that she "could not unravel the in-
tricacies of the printed lines which proved easy to her classmates."
A careful analysis of all of these facts made it evident "that her
difficulties were due to a lack of familiarity with printed words and
a lack of method of working out new or unknown word forms."

"In an effort to help her overcome this handicap she was given
various types of training during eighteen weeks. The first six
weeks were devoted to a great deal of oral reading. The second
six weeks were spent on drills in phonics and in word analysis.
During the last six weeks silent reading was emphasized. While
each period of six weeks thus stressed some one phase of reading,
all three types of work were carried along throughout the eighteen
weeks. For example, oral reading was continued with less em-
phasis during the last twelve weeks."

During the first six weeks the oral-reading exercises were con-
ducted in ways familiar to most teachers. The selections for read-
ing were made along the line of the pupil's school interests in
history and geography. Records of rate and accuracy were secured
at frequent intervals for purposes of comparison. The improve-
ment made by the girl in rate and accuracy of oral reading during
the eighteen weeks is shown in Table 2.

•"Reading, Its Nature and Development." by Charlea H. Judd. 8uppUm*nUry
Educmtionml Monographs, Vol. II. No. 4 (July, 1918), pp. 83-91.

44 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

TABLE 2

Pbogbzbs in Rats and Accuracy in Obal Rjudino

Errors por
Period Words per 8ee. 100 words

First six weeks 2.4 4.5

Second six weeks 2.5 2.1

Third six weeks 2.7 1.1

"Phonics and word analysis were emphasized during the sec-
ond six weeks. Various systems of phonics, wtih some modifica-
tions to suit the particular needs, were used. Words mispro-
nounced in oral-reading lessons were worked out phonetically, and
lists of words similarly pronounced were built up and reviewed
from time to time. There seemed to be a gradual growth in abil-
ity to attack an unfamiliar word. In the earlier period the pupil
frequently looked at the word helplessly or pronounced a known
syllable, but was unable to attack it at all phonetically. She usually
asked the instructor to pronounce it. Later, she began immedi-
ately to sound the new word phonetically, and though sometimes
making a mistake in the length of the vowel or in the position of
the accent, her manner of attack indicated that she had confidence
in her own ability to work it out." The records which were se-
cured from time to time showed clearly that there was a reduction
in the number of mispronunciations, even though the selections
which were used gradually increased in difficulty.

"Silent reading was emphasized during the last six weeks, after
some training in silent reading had been given throughout the first
twelve weeks. For special training, paragraphs or selections deal-
ing with topics of particular interest to the pupil were used. In
many instances, the original selections were edited, and the words
which had been used in the phonic exercises were woven into the
text. Frequently, before the silent reading began, a question was
raised the answer to which was to be found in the text. Oral or
written reproduction or a discussion of the thought of the selection
usually followed the reading. It is interesting to note in passing
that, though no effort was made to reduce the vocalization so per-
ceptible at first, it entirely disappeared except when an unusually
difficult passage was encountered." The records for rate and com-
prehension in silent reading which are summarized in Table 3 in-
dicate clearly the value of the special training.

DIFFICULTIES IN 81LENT BEADING 45

TABLE 8.

Pboobbis nr Rati and Compbihinsiow nr Silbnt Reading
Period Words per Sec. Comprehension.

First six weeks 2.4 22 percent.

Second six weeks 8.4 60 percent.

Third six weeks 8.6 74 percent.

At the end of eighteen weeks the oral- and silent-reading tests
given before the practice period began were repeated. A second
pupil who had received no special instruction also took the same
tests both before and after the training period. "By comparing
the records of the two pupils, it is seen that the special Pupil G
made a net gain of .63 in oral rate and 2.5 in silent rate. Further-
more, she is beginning to establish a silent-reading rate, while the
second pupil continues to read silently at the same rate as she does
orally. The gain made by Pupil O in rate of silent reading is even
more significant when it is remembered that her silent rate was less
than her oral rate of reading before practice began. The gain in
comprehension, while not striking, places Pupil G at a normal level
for the grade, while the other student is still below average."

A FOURTH-GRADE PUPIL WHO READ SLOWLY AND INEFFECTIVELY BE-
CAUSE OF WORD-BLINDNESS 3

The subject of this study was a fourth-grade girl nine and one-
half years old. At the time the study began she was unable to read
and could not carry her school work without the aid of a tutor.
* ' The child had been in the University Elementary School for two
years, including the first grade, and had therefore received the
ordinary instruction in reading, which included a considerable
amount of sight reading in which phonetic analysis is also em-
phasized. In addition to this, the child had been instructed for
a year by a tutor, and this instruction had included a very largo
emphasis on phonetic drill. Moreover, in her second year she had
been given special help in reading by her teacher. In spite of all
this intensive training, the child, when first seen, was unable to
read a primer as well as is a first-grade child before the end of
the year."

•"Clinical Study m a Method in Experimental Education," by Frank N.
Journal •/ App#*d Psychology. Vol. IV, 1020; pp. 126141.

46 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Before the child was brought to the laboratory she had been
tested with the Gray Oral Reading Test and the Courtis Silent
Beading Test, No. 2, and had failed to score in each test. At the
time of the examination she was tested with the Gray Silent Bead-
ing Test for second- and third-grade children. She read at a rate
of 0.5 words per second, and her comprehension score was 23.
The average rate for the second grade is 1.96 words per second,
and the comprehension score is 25. In order to equal the compre-
hension standard of second-grade pupils, the girl had to read at
one-fourth the standard rate.

Photographic records of the eye-movements of the girl were then
secured and analyzed. A highly irregular and unusual condition
was discovered. "Instead of going forward step by step, it [atten-
tion] skips about, sometimes jumping to a point ahead of where
it should be and at other times moving backward over the part
which has already been read. This irregularity is in all probabil-
ity due to the child's failure to grasp the meaning of the words
which were fixated by the eye. Failure to grasp the meaning re-
sults in the return of the eye to the parts already fixated and in
a slow wandering movement or a succession of movements made
at short intervals rather than a series of clear-cut movements just
long enough to cover the space which can be fixated at a single
pause."

In addition to the tests just described a general mental test was
given and also other tests which related more or less closely to
reading and to speech processes. Among these tests was a test of
the recognition of visual symbols, the Binet Picture Test, and tests
which included the matching of geometrical forms, the pronuncia-
tion of nonsense syllables, and the spelling of simple words. As
a result of the diagnosis it was concluded that there was no de-
ficiency in general intelligence, that the child's vision was entirely
normal, and that there was no general motor deficiency or language
disturbance. The data showed that the difficulty was a highly
specialized one and consisted in an inability to make the associa-
tion between the visual symbols and the sounds of the words. Fur-
thermore, the conclusion was reached that "for this child, at least,
phonic drill had been carried beyond the point where it was use-

DIFFICULTIES IN SILENT BEADING 47

ful. Instead of being the means to the recognition of word mean-
ing, it had become an end in itself, and really blocked the recogni-
tion of the meaning. The treatment, therefore, had as its first
object the short-circuiting of this round-about association and the
attempt to develop a more direct association between the sight of
the words and their meaning."

Early in the training, easy reading material was selected and
the child was encouraged to read the passages for their meaning.
In this connection, however, difficulty was encountered because the
child had not developed coordinated eye-movements or a regular
progression of attention. It became necessary, therefore, to re-
strict her reading of larger units for some time and to direct her
attention specifically to each part that she read. Various devices
were employed in this connection. (1) Passages were broken up
into sentences, and the child read these one at a time from slips
of paper on which the sentences had been typewritten. (2) A card
was sometimes placed on a page and moved forward across the
line as rapidly as the child read. (3) Flash card exercises were
given and some use was made of printed directions to which the
child responded by appropriate action.

"In addition to these drill devices the child was given continu-
ous reading material which at the beginning was very easy. This
was for the purpose of encouraging fluency without the loss of
meaning. The difficulty of material was advanced as rapidly as
the child could go, and a certain amount of work was also given
with still more difficult material because of its inherent interest to
the child. Comparatively brief periods of intensive work with
difficult material were found to be stimulating and to be helpful in
carrying her to a higher level of recognition than was habitual."
Parallel with this specific instruction there was practice in spelling
and in writing words and sentences. Furthermore, a great deal
was done to direct the child's attention to the meaning of what
was read. Before assigning a passage, the topic was discussed and
the child's curiosity in it was aroused. Difficult words were also
written on the board and studied in order to avoid the habit of
slurring over unknown words or of pausing too long to study them.

48 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

After about eight weeks of training the pupil was tested again.
In the Oray Oral Reading Test she made a score of 36.25 as com-
pared with complete failure at the beginning of the training period.
This represents the equivalent of a year and one-half of progress.
In the Courtis Silent Reading Test she read 3.2 words per sec-
ond. This is six times as rapid as the rate of reading at the be-
ginning and equals the standard for the sixth grade. The num-
ber of questions answered in the time allowed was 34, which is
half way between the standard for the fourth and and fifth grades.
The index of comprehension was 62, which is between the stand-
ards for the second and third grades. After the results had been
carefully analyzed, it was evident that specific training for one-
half hour each day had resulted in progress "equivalent to per-
haps three years 1 ordinary progress in school."

A FIFTH-GRADE PUPIL WHO BEAD SLOWLY BECAUSE HE RECOGNIZED A

VERY SMALL UNIT AT EACH FIXATION 4

Frequent tests and observations revealed the fact that this pupil
read very slowly. An analysis of his difficulties showed clearly
that he did not recognize words in groups or thought units. In
order to provide training in the rapid recognition of groups of
words, eight phrase books were prepared in which a phrase was
pasted on each page. The first book contained ten very simple
phrases cut from a primer. Each succeeding book in the series
contained a similar number of longer and more difficult phrases.
The eighth book contained phrases from a sixth reader. In con-
ducting drill exercises the teacher flashed each page so quickly
that the pupil had time for only one fixation. As soon as a phrase
had been exposed, the pupil immediately told what he had seen.
A grade of ten was given for each entirely correct response. Since
each book contained ten phrases, the scoring was very simple.

The record of the progress through six books in fourteen les-
sons is shown in the following table. As a rule thirty phrases
were presented each day; occasionally, the drill was limited to

The record of thii case wm supplied by Miss Eld* Merton, Stockton, Wisconsin.
It wm secured from the progress book of Miss Edna Burull, teacher of mfth and
sixth grades, Central School.

DIFFICULTIES IN SILENT BEADING

40

TABLE 4
PmoGHff nr Phbasb Ricoonitiov

Book I

Book II

Book III

Book

. IV

Book V

Book VI

Lesson Score

Leuon Score

Lesson Score

Leseon Score

Leuon Score

Leuon Score

X

90

II

60

V

60

VIII

60

XI

60

XIV

60

100

60
70

70

80
80

80

70
90

II

100

VI

80

XII

80

ni

80
80

90
90

IX

80

90

100

XIII

90

70

100

IV

90

100

VII

90
100

X

100
90

XIV

100

V

100

VIII

100

1

XI

100

twenty ; sometimes it included forty. A given book of phrases was
not discontinued until the boy had scored 100 in two successive
lessons. For illustration, Table 4 shows that a score of 100 was
made the second time the phrases of Book I were presented. Drill
was discontinued until the next day. On repeating the exercise
a score of 100 was again made. Book II was then begun and the
exercise was repeated seven times before a perfect score was made.
At the conclusion of an exercise the pupil was shown his score.
(A score of 90 means that 9 out of 10 phrases were correct.)

TABLE 6
Pbogbiss nr Rats of BiAonro

I

60

II
69"

III
70

IV
79

V
80

VI
86

vn

VIII

IX

IX IXI

XII

XIII
"100

XIV

Words per min

86

70

80

f"06 1 90

98

105

At the close of each lesson the boy was given a selection from
his reader and allowed to read for one minute. His rate for each
lesson is shown in Table 5. The entries in the table indicate clearly
that the drill exercises proved effective in increasing his rate of
reading.

A SEVENTH-GRADE PUPIL WHO RANKED LOW IN COMPREHENSION BE-
CAUSE OF A SMALL VOCABULARY OF MEANINGS 5

This seventh-grade boy was fourteen years, ten months, old
when the training began. In the report of his case he is described
as follows: "In general school standing he is rated as a poor

•"Reading, Its Nature and Development," by Charles H. Jndd. Ittppfonsntery
BduomtUnul Monofraphs, VoL II, No. 4, July, 1018, pp. 100-118.

50 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

student, although he is given a grade of good (B) in the manual
arts, music, and physical training. In all other subjects he is poor.
During the past two and a half years he has received no grade
higher than C in history, geography, science, literature, composi-
tion, and grammar. In this connection it is interesting to note
that progress in these subjects after the fourth grade is dependent
to a large degree on ability to get thought from the printed page.

"His teachers report him as a shy, timid boy, easily embar-
rassed, lacking in self-confidence and initiative in the classroom,
though very energetic and responsive on the athletic field. He
rarely takes part voluntarily in class discussions, and when called
on to do so, responds in a few brief fragmentary sentences, badly
expressed, but usually containing a thought or an idea on the topic
being considered. His English teacher finds great difficulty in get-
ting him to read with any degree of expression, for he makes no
attempt to group words into thought units. He reads in a dull,
monotonous tone, slurring words and phrases. When asked to tell
what he has read, he reproduces a few ideas in short, scrappy sen-
tences, for apparently he makes few associations as he reads. His
teachers in history and geography explain his poor standing in
their subjects as attributable to an inability to get ideas from the
text. He apparently reads as rapidly silently as any in the class
but gets and retains less of the thought.' '

Tests in oral and silent reading were given which revealed
other very interesting facts. He read aloud fairly rapidly, pro-
nouncing the words mechanically and enunciating poorly. Periods
were disregarded and adjoining sentences were read as a single
unit of thought. The test in silent reading showed that this boy
ranked below the poorest readers in the two preceding grades in
comprehension. This result supported the judgments of his teach-
ers of history and geography. A review of all the facts which were
secured led to the conclusion that he had acquired ability to pro-
nounce words which exceeded very much his ability to understand
their meanings.

This diagnosis emphasized the importance of taking steps, at
once to develop a background of meaning as a basis for intelligent
interpretation. " Because of his interest in animal stories and tales

DIFFICULTIES IN SILENT BEADING 51

of camp and pioneer life emphasis was laid throughout the eighteen
weeks on literature dealing with these topics. The Boy Scouts 9
Manual, Custer's Boots and Saddles, Roosevelt's Winning of the
West, Southworth 's Builders of Our Country, Book II, the Merrill
and the Horace Mann Fourth Reader and Fifth Reader, Burroughs
Stickeen, Coffin's Boys of '76, and Seton Thompson and Sapling
stories, and similar literature were drawn upon freely. Silent read-
ing was continued throughout the eighteen weeks, but was especially
emphasized during the first six weeks and again during the last
six weeks. After reading a selection the pupil reproduced it orally
or in writing. These reproductions at first were so meager and
inadequate that he frequently had to re-read several times before
he could answer the questions raised. Many selections were read
in this way, paragraph by paragraph, and the main points jotted
down to assist in the organization of the thought

"Before the work had progressed very far it became apparent
that definite word study was necessary in order to build up a back-
ground of meaning. Words were studied in the context for mean-
ing, and certain ones were chosen for detailed analysis of prefix,
suffix, and stem. A stem word analyzed in this manner became the
nucleus for grouping together other closely related words more
or less familiar to the pupil. The word 'traction' encountered in
an article on the 'Lincoln Highway' brought out a discussion of
traction engines, their use in plowing, road-building, and trench
warfare, why so called, etc. This centered attention upon the
stem 'tract.' As its meaning became clear the following list was
elaborated :

subtract

distract

attraction

contract

extract

distraction

detract

retract

subtraction

attract

contraction

extraction

"A study of the prefixes in these words gave a point of leverage
for attacking the meaning of words containing them. In this type
of prefix study only those words were listed whose stems were
familiar to the pupil, as, for example:

recall

rebound

retake

reclaim

retain

reinforce

rearrange

reform

return

regain

remake

reframe, etc

indomitable

fearless

brave

heroic

courageous

bold

resolute

daring

maul/

plucky

52 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

In a similar manner an acquaintance was made with the most
common suffixes.

"The meaning of some words was approached by the study of

synonyms and equivalent idiomatic phrases. These were, as far

as possible, studied in the context and discussed at length to bring

out shades of difference in meaning." An "indomitable hero"

met in the pioneer tales brought forth the following synonyms and

idiomatic phrases :

stout-hearted

intrepid

audacious

defiant

undismayed

to look dinger in the face

to screw one's courage to the sticking-point

to take the bull by the horns

to beard the lion in his den

to put on a bold front.

The type of training which has been described continued
throughout the first six weeks. It was supplemented by incidental
word study during the remaining twelve weeks of the training
period. Oral reading was given special emphasis during the sec-
ond six weeks and continued during the following six weeks. In-
asmuch as this type of training is not directly relevant to the
special problem under consideration, it will not be discussed here in
detail. Suffice it to say that the special training given in this con-
nection, resulted in a 50 percent reduction in error and a gain in
rate. *

In order to determine somewhat accurately the result of the
special training given to this seventh-grade pupil his progress in
both oral and silent reading was compared with that of another
poor reader in the same grade who did not receive special training.
Both pupils made more progress in silent reading than in oral
reading. The boy who received special training developed a higher
rate in silent reading than in oral reading, while the check pupil
maintained practically the same rate in both types of reading. In
comprehension the subject of the experiment made far greater
progress than the check pupil, although at the close of the experi-
ment he was still behind the standard for his class.

DIFFICULTIES IN SILENT BEADING 53

In conclusion the following interesting and significant judg-
ment was expressed in regard to the value of this type of training:
' ' The training of this pupil has apparently affected the mechanical
side of his reading very little. His improvement has been rather
in the comprehension of what he reads. It seems proper to infer
that training in the upper grades, at least training of the type given
in this case, is unlikely to be effective in changing the mechanical
habits of pupils.' 9

CHAPTER IV

THE DEVELOPMENT OP SPEED IN SILENT READING

John A. O'Brien

This article will briefly sketch some of the results obtained from
an investigation of factors conditioning the development of speed
in silent reading. 1 The investigation was conducted by the writer
under the auspices of the Bureau of Educational Research at the
University of Illinois.

Hucy, Dearborn, Schmidt, Judd, C. T. Gray and others have
demonstrated the superiority of silent over oral reading as a
thought-getting instrument. They have also pointed out the un-
mistakable advantages of ability to read rapidly and yet with good
comprehension ; but how the teacher was to develop in her pupils
this desirable habit of rapid silent reading remained for the most
part unanswered. Accordingly, this investigation was undertaken
primarily to secure an answer to the practical school question:
How can speed in silent reading be increased without decreasing
comprehension?

Among the other queries on which the investigator endeavored
to secure data for the formulation of at least tentative answers
were the following : Can training to accelerate silent reading rate
be developed into methods adapted to pupils under the ordinary
conditions of the classroom? How does an increase in speed of
reading affect comprehension? In other words, is comprehension
thereby decreased, unaffected, or increased ? What grades show the
greatest susceptibility to improvement in rate ? To what extent can
the rate be increased by training without causing the reading to
degenerate into skimming? What are tentative grade norms for
pupils who have been trained in rapid, silent reading? How do
such norms compare with the present standards for rate? Is in-

1 For a complete statement of the method of procedure, the types of train-
ing, the interpretation of results, see: O 'Brien, John A. Silent Beading. New
York: Macmillan Co., 1920. 268 pp.

54

DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT BEADING 55

creased speed effected physiologically chiefly by a decrease in the
duration of the fixation-pauses, or by a lessening of their number T
A survey was made of the studies of reading, including both
laboratory and classroom investigations, in which any light was
thrown, directly or indirectly, upon the factors affecting the rajfe.
The evidence concerning these factors is summarized next

FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OP SPEED

1. Practice in rapid silent reading. The investigations of
Peters (12), % of C. T. Gray (7), of Miss Bowden (2), of Oberholtzer
(11), clearly demonstrate that practice in rapid reading has a
marked effect in increasing the reading rate.

2. The decrease of vocalization in silent reading. The experi-
ment of C. T. Gray (7), and the observations of Miss Abell (1), of
Huey (9), and of Dodge (5), reinforce the conclusion reached by
Quantz (13) as a result of his investigation: "the motor tendency
(as manifested by lip movement) in any degree has an influence
detrimental to rapidity of reading."

3. Training in perception by means of short exposure exer-
cises, combined with practice in rapid reading. The experiment
reported by C. T. Gray shows the effectiveness of this two-fold
type of training.

4. Familiarity with subject matter. Dearborn's investigation
(4) offers experimental corroboration of the favorable influence of
this factor upon the rate — a factor which has obvious a priori
grounds of plausibility.

5. Habits of regular, uniform, rhythmical eye-movements.
Fordyce (6) reports the doubling of his speed by replacing his
defective motor habits with those "of a regular, rhythmical na-
ture." TW observations of Huey (9) and of Dearborn (4) like-
wise emphasize the influence of these habits of regular, rhythmical
eye-movements.

'Numberi in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the close of this
article.

56 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

6. Purpose for which the subject matter is read. The investi-
gations of Whipple and Curtis (16), of C. T. Gray (7), and of
W. S. Gray (8), show that the mental 'set,' the mode of attack,
the amount of reflective thought, and logical association — all of
which influence the rate — depend very largely upon the end for
which the reading is done.

7. Concentration of attention. The results of the present ex-
periment strongly support the conclusion of Quantz (13) that
rapid reading is characterized by an absence of 'day-dreaming 1
and 'wool-gathering.'

8. Ability to grasp the meaning of contents. The observation
of Ruediger (14) and the positive correlation generally found to
exist between rate and comprehension point to the influence of
the central factor of assimilation.

9. Recognition of the value of the habit of rapid, silent, read-
ing, combined with the determination to acquire this habit. The
cases of Huey, of Fordyce, and of others, show that this factor is
of fundamental importance in any attempt to accelerate the reading
rate.

10. The pressure of a time-control. Preliminary experimenta-
tion in this investigation demonstrated that the awareness of a
clock accurately measuring the rate, induces a mental 'set' which
militates directly against lackadaisical poring and leisurely dawd-
ling and for increased speed in reading.

11. Individual graph and class chart. The graphical represen-
tation of the individual daily performance, enabling the pupil to see
at a glance how his rate compared with yesterday, proved instru-
mental in arousing in the pupil the strong determination to "make
the line go up, ' ' to surpass yesterday 's record. It stimulated rivalry
among the pupils and especially that more wholesome type of rivalry
between the pupil and his own previous record. The class chart
portraying the median rate of the class for each day, proved a
valuable supplement to the individual chart. It enlisted the interest
of the class as a whole in the effort to develop speed, and made the
pupils enthusiastic to see the class median rise above the record for

DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT BEADING 57

yesterday. This earnestness and enthusiasm radiated to all the
members of the clans, even to the less ambitious, appealed to their
class pride and loyalty, and created an esprit de corps that was
favorable to the success of the experiment. The individual graph
and the class chart are devices for motivation. They are applicable,
of course, not only to training in speed, but also to other types if
work as well. They are included in this enumeration of the factors
merely because of their pronounced influence in evoking the type
of effort necessary to overcome habits of slow dead-level poring and
to build up the opposite type of habits of rapid, effective reading.

12. There are other factors which investigations have shown to
have some effect upon the reading rate, such as the size and kind of
type, character of paper, and similar typographical considerations.
But as factors of this nature are obviously not susceptible to
incorporation into types of training to develop speed, they are
not considered further.

TYPES OP TRAINING

Three types of training were developed. In Type I, practice in
rapid, silent reading was made the basic factor; in Type II, the
stress was placed coordinately upon the decrease of vocalization
and practice in rapid, silent reading; while in Type III emphasis
was directed upon training in perception by means of short exposure
exercises, supplemented with practice in rapid reading. In Type I
all the eleven foregoing factors except Nos. 2 and 3 were incor-
porated ; in Type II, all except No. 3 ; and in Type III, all except
No. 2. All three types of training have much in common — the
same auxiliary devices, the same technique. They differ chiefly in
the factor which has been made the basic one in each method.

Type I — Training in rapid, silent reading — will be outlined
briefly, as it is typical of the general procedure in the other two
methods.

The teacher was instructed first to point out to the pupils the
advantages of a rapid, effective rate of reading, and to enlist their
whole-hearted effort in the attempt to develop such a habit. The
method consisted essentially of alternate reading and reproduc-

58 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

tion. The reading period was broken into several reading stretches,
consisting of 2, 3, or 4 minutes. During each stretch the pupils
were instructed to read as rapidly as possible — consistent, of
course, with an understanding of what was read. The periods were
made quite brief, in order to evoke the greatest possible speed by an
intensity of effort which could not be sustained over a longer period.
The idea was to break up the old order of eye-movement habits as
quickly as possible, and to build into a habit an ocular-motor re-
action of a more advantageous type. The short period safeguarded
against fatigue, as well as against a relapse into the customary
leisurely reading rate. In short, speed was the dominant note in
the entire set of directions.

The amount read was quickly determined and marked. The
pupil then reproduced what was read — sometimes by free para-
phrase, orally or in writing, and sometimes by answers to specific
questions based on the text. The reproduction was usually brief.
Its function was merely to show both the teacher and the pupil
whether the matter was properly grasped. The aim was to devote
about two-thirds of the time to actual rapid reading. Interesting,
familiar material was preferred. Difficult words were explained
beforehand. Whenever thought preparation was deemed neces-
sary, the teacher was instructed to give it briefly. At the end of
the total reading period the pupil immediately entered upon the
chart his average rate of speed as the record for the day.

In Type II the conscious effort to decrease vocalization was
added to the above group of factors. To secure uniformity in
the application of the training and in the method of control, a
representative from each of the schools was brought to the Uni-
versity of Illinois to witness a demonstration of the method by a
teacher and her class from a Champaign public school.

STATEMENT OP PROCEDURE

To test the efficacy of the first two types of training, they were
applied to the pupils in 40 classes and 18 elementary schools in 9
cities in Illinois. One was a parochial, the rest were public schools.
In these classes there was a total of approximately 1200 pupils.

DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT BEADING 59

Because of the lack of a tachistoscope suitable for class use, Type
III — short exposure exercises — was not applied to the subjects in
this particular experiment. The methods were used in Grades III
to VIII, inclusive.

The length of the reading period for all the grades was 30 min-
utes. Each class was divided into two groups whose aggregate
scores in rate, as determined by the Courtis Silent Reading Test,
No. 2, Form I, were approximately equal. One group received the
experimental training and was called the Experimental, or A
Group ; the other continued the conventional work in reading and
was called the Control, or B Group.

Besides this group control, an effort was made in the present
investigation to secure a more refined type of control. Accord-
ingly, each class was further subdivided into pairs of pupils of
approximately equal speed in reading. One member of each of
the pairs was placed in the experimental, the other in the control
group. This afforded a control not only for the experimental group
as a whole, but also for each individual member in the group. This
enables a comparison to be instituted, not only between the final
aggregate scores of the experimental and the control groups, but
also between the final achievements of each of the members in the
series of pairs. It thus enables one to penetrate behind the group
totals to determine the number of pupils in each group who surpass
their corresponding control mates. This method of individual con-
trol necessitated the elimination from the final statement of results,
of the records of the pupils who could not be properly matched.
The total period of training extended from April 8, 1919, to May
29, 1919, a period of 39 school days. At the middle and at the end
of the training period, the Courtis Silent Reading Tests No. 2,
Forms 2 and 3, respectively, were administered to all the classes to
determine how much improvement in speed and comprehension
had been effected in the first half of the training period and how
much in the latter half. The tests were also given to the control
groups at the same times in order to secure a check for each half
of the training period.

60

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

STATEMENT OF RESULTS

The development of speed effected by the experimental training
in Grades IV to VIII, as compared with the progress made by the
control pupils, is shown in Table 1. Because of the comparatively
small number of third-grade pupils — there were but 32 — their rec-
ords are not included in this table. In this grade, however, the
average gain in rate of the experimental pupils is slightly more than
twice the average gain of the control pupils.

Table 1 shows that the amount of gain increases as the grade
advances. At the end of the training the average for the experi-
mental groups rises from 236.4 words per minute in the fourth
grade until it reaches 393.0 in the eighth grade. Reducing the
average gains in number of words read per minute to a percentage
basis, it becomes possible to express the amount of improvement
for the experimental pupils in all the grades in a single quantity,
56 percent. The average gain for the control pupils in all the
grades is 25 percent. - This shows a final average superiority in

TABLE 1

Average Rate ot Reading fob Experimental (A) and Control (B) Pupils at

Beginning, Middle and End or Training Period, as Determined bt

Courtis Silent Reading Test fob Grades IV-VIII

A'a Superior*

Test I

Test II

Test III

Gain

ity in Gain

No. of

In

In

Grade

Pupils

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

Words

Pet,

IV

236

155.7

155.1

241.9

189.5

230.4

188.2

80.7

33.1

47.6

31%

V

154

190.7

191.9

265.4

225.6

277.8

222.1

87.1

80.2

56.9

80%

VI

128

197.8

204.4

284.7

235.4

292.6

235.0

94.8

80.6

64.2

83 ft

VII

206

205.6

202.5

298.5

287.2

821.6

249.7

116.0

47.2

68.8

83%

VIII

92

220.8

211.7

361.2

290.5

393.0

801.8

172.2

90.1

82.1

35%

Average gain of A for all grades = 56% ; of B = 25% ; A's superiority over B = 81%.

Table 1 is to be read thus: In Grade IV there was a total of 286 pnpila. At the
beginning of the training period, the Experimental, or A, pupils averaged 155.7 words
per minute, the Control, or B, pupils 155.1; at the middle of the training period, the A
pupils averaged 241.9, the B pupils 189.5; at the end of the training period, the A
pupils averaged 236.4, the B pupils 188.2 ; the A pupils gained 80.7, the B pupils 83.1.
The superiority in gain of the A pupils over the B pupils was 47.6 words per minute*
or 81%.

gain for the experimental pupils over their control mates of 31
percent. In terms of the number of words read per minute the
average gain of the A Group is 110.2 as against 46.2 for the B
Group — an average superiority in gain of 64 words per minute in
favor of the Experimental, or A Group.

DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT BEADING

61

As determined by the method of individual control, the effect of
the training upon the rate may be seen from the following com-
parison of the scores of the experimental and control pupils. At

table a

Atiiaoi Oompmhinsion in Reading fob Experimental (A) and Contbol (B)
Pupils at Beginning, Middle, and End op Training Period, am Determined

by Coprtis Silent Reading Test

Test I

Test II

Test III

Gain

A's Su-
periority
in Gain

Grade

No. of
Pupils

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

236
154
128
206
92

77.4
82.5
91.0
91.2
95.8

78.6
86.8
92.0
91.8
90.5

81.2
87.0
90.8
94.1
94.8

78.0
89.9
90.4
98.5
96.8

81.6
85.6
88.2
92.8
94.8

79.1
88.6
88.5
91.4
94.1

4.2

2.9
-2.8

1.1
-1.0

0.5
2.8

-4.1
0.1

-2.4

8.7
0.6
1.8
1.0
1.4

Average gain of A for all grades — 0.9% ; of B = — 0.7% ; A's superiority over B = 1.6%.
Table 2 is to be read in the same manner aa Table 1.

the end of the training period the results for all grades combined
were: One pair of pupils had scores identically equal; 86 controls
were superior to their correspondents in the experimental group,
but 314 experimental were superior to their controls — a final net
superiority of 228 pairs for the cxpcrimcntals. Subtracting from
this total the amount of A's initial superiority of 48 pupils, the
results show a final superiority in gain of the experimental over
the control group of 108 pupils, or 45 percent

The effect of the training in speed upon comprehension, as de-
termined by the Courtis Index, is presented in Table 2; as
measured by the number of questions correctly answered, the effect
upon comprehension is shown in Table 3. In regard to the effect of
the training in speed upon comprehension, the result of the applica-
tion of the method of individual control shows a final superiority in
comprehension of 32 pairs, or 8 percent, for the experimental pupils
over their controls.

The results of the method of individual control, it will be seen,
serve as a powerful reinforcement of a refined type of the con-
clusions issuing from a comparison of the aggregate scores of the
two groups. This method of control shows furthermore that the
superiority in rate of the experimental group over the control

62

TEE TWENTIETH YBABBOOK

group is not due simply to a very marked superiority of a com-
paratively small number of pupils, but that the superiority is spread
very largely throughout the whole group.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

A. The Effect of the Training Upon the Rate of Beading

The data contained in Table 1 are shown graphically in Fig. 1.
The latter clearly shows the differences in amount of improve-

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DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT READING

63

ment in reading rate achieved by the experimental pupils and the
controls. While in every grade the two groups start at practically
the same level of reading rate, yet in every grade the experimental
pupils far outstrip the controls. The bulk of improvement, it will
be noticed, is effected in the first month of the training. With
the exception, however, of the fourth grade, in which there occurs
a very slight decrease, improvement of a lesser character continues
during the second month. It is to be noted that the increases in
speed are very marked. Thus, the pupils iu the seventh grade are
able to increase their rate 116 words per minute, while the eighth*
grade pupils succeed in almost doubling their rate — reaching the
high average of 393 words per minute.

These quantitative results would seem to justify three con-
clusions:

1. The present average rates in silent reading in Grades III
to Till are needlessly slow and inefficient.

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84 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

2. These rates can be greatly increased by systematic training
extending over a period of two months.

3. The improvement effected in the first month is considerably
greater than that effected in the second month of training.

Besides the Courtis Test, the growth in speed of reading was
also measured by the daily class chart, which shows the median rate
of reading for each day. The fact that the class chart records the
progress for each day causes it to reflect the character of the growth
in speed, gradual or otherwise, which the three Courtis Tests
naturally could not show. Fig 2 reveals the character of the growth
in speed as shown by the daily medians of the experimental pupils,
totaling 67, in four fifth-grade classes. The dots in the graph
represent the actual medians, the line shows the smoothed median
increase in speed. The daily class charts reveal an increase in speed
greater even than that reflected by the Courtis Test. They serve, on
the whole, to corroborate the conclusions based on the scores in the
Courtis Test. The growth in speed, it will be noted, is fairly regu-
lar, though the bulk of the improvement occurs in the first half of
the training period.

B. The Effect of the Training Upon Comprehension, as Deter-
mined by the Courtis Index

The Courtis index is so computed that it reflects only the accur-
acy of the response. It does not reflect the efficiency of compre-
hension as measured by the number of questions correctly answered
in a given amount of time. As determined by the Courtis index, the
accuracy of the comprehension was not greatly affected, either
favorably or adversely (see Fig. 3). It remained constant to a
large extent in both the experimental and control groups. The
slight superiority in gain that does exist, however, is, in each grade,
in favor of the experimental pupils. The conclusions that would
seem to follow from the performances of the pupils in accuracy of
comprehension in this study are :

1. Marked increases in speed of reading may be effected with-
out any impairment of comprehension.

2. The setting up of habits of rapid reading does not per se
increase the accuracy of comprehension.

DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT BEADING

66

3. To secure marked improvement in accuracy of comprehen-
sion, special stress must be placed upon training designed spe-
cifically to secure that effect.

While the experimental training outlined in this study succeeded
in safeguarding and even slightly improving the accuracy of com-

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DlTOMINKD BY COUBTIS SlLZNT BBADINO TBST

prehension, yet its predominant effect was the marked augmenta-
tion of the reading rate. To produce such an effect upon the rate
was precisely the end for which the training was devised.

C. The Effect of the Training Upon Comprehension, as Determined
by the Number of Questions Correctly Answered

Efficiency in comprehension is reflected not only by the pro-
portionate accuracy of the response, but also by the number of re-
sponses correctly made in a limited period of time. To measure
this latter phase of comprehension, the number of questions cor-
rectly answered was employed as a supplementary measuring device.
The increase in the number of correct answers reflects, furthermore,
the increase in the rate of reading of a passage in which the com-

66

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

prehension is required and upon which it is tested. This device
makes it possible, moreover, to determine whether or not the in-
creased speed of reading effected by the training persisted in differ-
ent situations. For the mental attitude assumed in reading a
passage to answer questions on it immediately, is considerably dif-
ferent from that assumed in reading a passage rapidly simply to 'get
the gist' of it. It is thought that the employment of this device in
the present study obviates the one serious weakness inherent in the
Courtis Reading test. The performances of 274 experimental
pupils collected at random from different grades were subjected to
this sort of analysis. The results are presented in Table 3.

TABLE 8

Gain in Comprehension of the Experimental Pupils, as Determined bt the
Number of Questions in Courtis Tests Correctly Answered

Grade

Number of Pupils

Beginning

End

Gain

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

97
47
57
50
46

23.9
29.6
88.7
45.8
47.1

84.8
42.1
48.4
58.0
57.8

10.9
12.5
14.5
12.7
10.7

A very marked increase is shown in the number of questions
correctly answered by the experimental pupils in all the grades.
In fact, the number of questions correctly answered by the pupils
after receiving the training in rapid reading, is greater than the
norms, or the average number of questions attempted, as reported
by Courtis. The average number of correct answers for the fourth
grade, as shown in Table 3, is 34.8 as against Courtis' norm of 30
questions attempted ; for the fifth grade, it is 42.1 as against 37 ;
for the sixth grade, 48.4 as against 40. No norms have been sug-
gested by Courtis for the seventh and eighth grades. The average
number of questions correctly answered by the different experi-
mental classes at the beginning and end of the training are com-
pared in Fig. 4 with the norms reported by Courtis for the num-
ber of questions attempted, whether answered correctly or not.

The conclusions that would seem to follow from this phase of
the investigation are:

DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT BEADING

67

1. Marked improvement in comprehension, as measured by the
number of questions correctly answered, resulted from training in
rapid silent reading.

2. This phase of the efficiency of comprehension is measured in
no way by Courtis' 'Index of Comprehension,' which is, more
strictly speaking, an index of accuracy.

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THE TWENTIETH TEAB800K

3. The marked gain in the number of questions correctly an-
swered demonstrates the persistence of the improvement in reading
rate in a changed situation involving a different mental attitude,
i. t., in careful reading, and reading to answer written questions.

D. The Relative Amount of Gain Made by Different Grades
A comparison of the amount of gain in rate, as determined by
the Courtis Teat, made by the experimental and control pupils in
each of the grades is shown in Fi^,. 5. This graph brings out
clearly the fact that the amount of gain increases as the grade ad-
vances. In the experimental groups the gain made by the higher
grade is in every case superior to that made by the lower. With
the single exception of the sixth grade, this is true likewise of the
control group.

Gttfnf (Pre

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The gains in rate made by the different grades were also meas-
ured by the daily class charts. The rates of all the grades at the
beginning and at the end of the experimental training, as recorded
on the class charts, are shown in Fig. 6. The shaded blocks in the
figure call attention to the amount of gain made by the different
grades. The records of the daily charts, it will be noted, offer a

DEVELOPMENT OF 8PEEP IN SILENT LEAVING 69

striking corroboration of the results obtained from the Courtis test.
They serve to reinforce powerfully the conclusion illustrated in
Fig. 5 that, on the whole, "the amount of gain increases as the
grade advances."

This superiority in gain in rate by the upper grades over the
lower is quite the opposite of what has usually been reported con-
cerning the relative gains made by the different grades. The third
and fourth grades have been of late generally regarded as corre-

pcpir, Birrai Aire Arm Tmur-
it t»» Individual Obaitb

Bponding to the crucial school periods during which any appre-
ciable increases in rate are to be effected. The results reported by
W. S. Gray (8), Judd (10), Courtis (3), and Waldo (15), show
that, from the fourth grade on, the rate is practically at a stand-
still. Thus Waldo reports that, after a year's work in reading,

70 TEE TWENTIETH TEABBOOK

gains of 2.1 and 11.7 words per minute were effected in the sixth
and eighth grades respectively — gains so meager as to be scarcely
perceptible.

This difference between the amount of gains in the various
grades as reported by the previous investigators and those reported
in the present study is due to the fact that the gains previously re-
ported were the results of the conventional type of instruction in
reading with almost the entire emphasis upon the oral phase;
whereas, in the present study the development of speed was made
a conscious problem in the upper as well as in the lower grades.
This is in marked contrast to the conventional type of instruction in
reading in the upper grades where rate in silent reading is generally
completely ignored. From the quantitative results of this phase of
the investigation four conclusions would seem to follow :

1. Marked increases in rate can be effected in the upper grades
when speed in reading is set as a definite problem for the pupils.

2. When training in rapid silent reading is given to pupils not
previously trained therein, the increase in rate tends in a general
way to advance pari passu with the advance in the grade; the
higher the grade, the greater is the increase in rate.

3. As compared with the gains which can be readily effected
by systematic training in rapid silent reading, the increases ordi-
narily obtained in rate in the upper grades are so small as to indicate
a condition almost pathological in character. They constitute a
serious indictment of the present school regime in the teaching of
reading, with its grotesquely misplaced emphasis on oral reading
and its utter neglect of reading in the true sense of the term — the
silent interpretation of the printed symbols.

B. The Average Rates Attained by Pupils After Training,

Compared with Existing Norms

A comparison of the averages of the experimental pupils in
Grades IV to VIII, with the results reported by Courtis, Brown,
Gray, Starch, and Oberholtzer, and by Courtis in the Gary Survey,
is presented in Table 4. There is a common basis of comparison
between the averages of the experimental pupils and the norms

•>

DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT BEADING

•JJ

/

1

*

(

+

...

Jh

S

'

-

*

'

-4S ..

'

s'

l, M

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^ av

7

V

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72 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

reported by Courtis. Both were based on the Courtis test and the
directions to the pupils were in both cases identical. The norms
reported by Courtis represent the smoothed averages; the norms
presented by the writer are the actual averages. A comparison of
these two norms is shown in Fig. 7. This figure brings out strik-
ingly the superiority in reading rate of pupils who have received
training in rapid, effective silent reading and pupils who have been
nurtured on the conventional pabulum, drill in oral reading. The
superiority of the experimental pupils in every grade is very
marked. Not less noticeable is the superiority over the norms re-
ported by W. S. Gray and by Oberholtzer, as also shown in Table 4.
The norms reported by W. S. Gray for the three different selections
in his reading test have been adjusted here to the basis of the easiest
selection, "Tiny Tad."

The highest norms reported are those by Brown. They repre-
sent, however, not the averages of all the pupils tested in the differ-
ent grades, as in the case of the other investigators, but the highest
averages reached by various single classes tested by Brown. Con-
sequently, they are offered as norms or standards to be striven after,

' 2 * ^ f f 7 * to n 9 '/ /J

!«i*i I Java tji^a alL" he ajtid, *x»ll lide jthiJ/
h h * f a XI f io to 7 * 1

X / 3 f H 6 7 T q to

ditty Lrajed aid M ut intl thc.oioh^nl. lhat |
Xx. i* 2 > * X ix li /$ 3+ to li

3 x * / f f» ? r $ '? v 9 ? '} *y

f

10 19 1 f O. /& *tf t\ 7 f h 7 is IH

3 2 1 I * c t 1 7 '* it) /x

|h;Jxj ajlitjle br^therf tj h|Lp iith aeJ l should Je
#£ t 1 f f i¥ JO i% * " ?<} /fi

Pl4tb 1. Er»-moraaurr o» Foubtb-Gradb Subject A.P. bjbtobi TmAnraro.

jiif »5" & 1 f X 10 ft '3 tl 11/

DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT BEADING

73

rather than indices of the present average attainment of the dif-
ferent grades. These standards mentioned by Brown come closer
to the averages actually reached by the experimental classes than
those of any of the other investigators. They are still, however, very
considerably below them, as shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4

Avibagm iv Rati Attained bt Pupils Aftbb Training (O'Bbun) Compabxd with

Norms of Previous Investigators

Grade

rv

V

VI

VII

VIII

O'Brien

286

278

293

822

898

Oberboltier

156

186

234

282

288

Courtis

160

180

220

250

280

Gary

140

166

185

198

204

Starch

144

168

192

216

240

Brown

218

269

272

279

290

Gray

180

204

216

228

284

The previous norms for reading rate have all been derived from
the performances of pupils who have been trained in the conven-
tional type of oral reading. In the vast majority of cases they have
received no training in rapid silent reading. What the norms will
be after the schools begin to train in rapid silent reading is an

little tpadj jump

/ 2 3 f r 7 f

ed out ff thej watejr and hoijpe<|
// t t 11

Lt oil the tank, .n# was veryj mall
' lb II: i 7

I y J **

too snLll for hie little] leje that wfbbl^d unde*

9 but pom

//

>/

i/

r if

3 * f i r f

him. l\ wjs Jify, the yo^ng wad* |
,1 7 /x " if n

Plats 2. Ey*-Motbm»ht Rsoobo of Fouwth-Gbam Subjbct A.P. avtwi Tbadtoto.

z indicate* that it waa impoeaibla to determine with accuracy the duration of the
flxation-panee.

74 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

interesting question which the future alone can answer. As a result
of a pioneering effort in a virgin field, the actual averages attained
by the experimental pupils in the different grades in the present
investigation are suggested as tentative norms. The degree of re-
liability of the averages for the different grades has been com-
puted in terms of the P. E. which are presented in Table 5. It is

TlNTATIVl NOBMS

TABLE 5
worn Pupils Tbainbd nr Rapid Silxkt RBAonra

Grade

Average

P. E.

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

236.4
277.8
292.6
821.6
898.0

12.18
8.87
8.71
7.01

12.77

noted that the P. E. is relatively small, which indicates a good
degree of reliability for the averages.

F. Physiological Basis of Development of Speed

Photographic records of the eye-movements of ten pupils in
Grades III to VIII were taken before and after the training in rapid
silent reading. In each case the pupil developed habits of rapid
silent reading. A study of the records showed that the improve-
ment on the physiological side was effected chiefly by a lessening of
the number of the fixation pauses rather than by a decrease in the
duration of these pauses. Plates 1 and 2 are presented in illustra-
tion of this modification of the eye-movement habits. The lines
indicate the places of fixation; the numbers at the top show the
order of the pauses and those at the bottom, the duration of the
pauses in fiftieths of a second. The development of speed was also
accompanied by a marked decrease in the number of regressive
movements and by the setting up of habits of regular rhythmical
eye-movement

DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED IN SILENT BEADING 75

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(This bibliography includes only those studies referred to in
the article.)

1. Abell, Adelaide M. "Rapid reading: advantages and meth-

ods," Educational Review, 8: October, 1894: 283-86.

2. Bowden, Josephine. Learning to Read. (Master's thesis, Uni-

versity of Chicago, 1911.)

3. Courtis, S. A. "Standards in rates of reading." Fourteenth

Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa-
tion, Part I, 1915 ; pp. 44-59.

4. Dearborn, W. F. The psychology of reading. (Columbia

Contributions to Philosophy and Psychology, v. 14, no. 1.)
New York : Columbia University. 1906.

5. Dodge, Raymond. Die Motorischen Wortvorstellungen. Halle:

N. Niemeyer, 1896. 78 pp. (p. 65.)

6. Pordyce, Charles. "Testing the efficiency in reading." Ad-

dresses and Proceedings of the National Education Asso-
ciation, 55 : 818-21, July 7-14, 1917. (p. 821)

7. Gray, Clarence T. Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited

through Tests and Laboratory Experiments. (Supple-
mentary Educational monograph, v. 1, no. 5, August,
1917.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917.
196 pp.

8. Gray, William S. Reading, Survey of the St. Louis Public

Schools, v. 2. St. Louis : Board of Education, 1917.

9. Huey, Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading.

New York : Macmillan, 1913. 469 pp.

10. Judd, Charles H. Measuring the Work of the Public Schools.

Cleveland, Ohio : 1916.

11. Oberholtzer, E. E. "Testing the efficiency of reading in the

grades," Elementary School Journal, 15: February, 1915;
313-22.

76 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

12. Peters, Charles C. "The influence of speed drills upon the

rate and effectiveness of silent reading. ' ' Journal of Edu-
cational Psychology, 8 : June, 1917 : 350-366.

13. Quantz, J. 0. "Problems in the psychology of reading,"

Psychological Review, Monograph Supplement, v. 2, no. 1,
December, 1897.

14. Ruediger, William C. "Field of distinct vision," Columbia

Contributions to Philosophy and Psychology, v. 16, no. 1,
1907.

15. Waldo, Karl D. "Tests in reading in Sycamore schools,"

Elementary School Journal, 15 ; January, 1915 : 251-268.

16. Whipple, Q. M., and Curtis, Josephine N. "Preliminary in-

vestigation of skimming in reading." Journal of Educa-
tional Psychology, 8 ; June, 1917 : 333-349.

CHAPTER V

MOTIVATED DRILL WORK IN THIRD-GRADE

SILENT READING 1

J. H. Hoovze
Cape Girardeau, Missouri

The general problem toward the solution of which this study is
directed is : what is the value of games and devices in providing
motivated drill in the fundamental process of silent reading f Be-
fore describing the material and the methods that were employed in
this particular experiment with pupils in the third grade we shall
discuss some of the theoretical considerations that, in our opinion,
bear upon the efficiency of drill work in general.

NATURE AND CONDITIONS OF EFFECTIVE DRILL

Drill is the name given to that kind of repeated activity which
has for its purpose the increasing of one's physical skill or dex-
terity or the permanent fixing in memory of certain useful asso-
ciations. Stated in another way, drill is an activity which has for
its purpose the reducing of certain mental or physical operations to
an automatic basis.

If drill is to be made effective and economical, it must be freed
from some of its monotonous and unattractive aspects. Instead, it
must be made attractive, profitable, and varied. Unless this con-
dition is realized to a greater or less degree, drill periods can be
scarcely more than periods of drudgery for both teacher and pupils.
A feeling of satisfaction should accompany every drill period and
a feeling of discontent should follow every unsuccessful effort. It
must be quite generally conceded that responses, or reactions, in
order to be often repeated, must be pleasant to the performer, and
it is equally true that unsuccessful or unpleasant responses tend to

1 The study from which this material is drawn was made at the University
of Kansas with the co-operation of Dean F. J. Kelly.

77

78 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

be duffed off or eliminated. One of the chief characteristics of
successful drill work is repetition, not meaningless, thoughtless
repetition but clear cut, vivid, and interesting repetition. If a feel-
ing of dissatisfaction or annoyance accompanies a series of efforts,
it will not be often repeated. Now if this repeated activity is to be
voluntarily realized, which, of course, should be the case, only one
alternative remains open for the educator ; namely, make drill work
interesting in itself. Let the results of the activity be an incentive
to further effort. Let the process of the development of skill be
inviting to the learner. Pleasure brings success, and success spurs
the learner on to greater effort, while unpleasant duties or activities
have a depressing, retarding effect.

Interest, as used above, does not imply mere fun or entertain-
ment It does not imply 'taking things easy.' In fact, when teach-
ing deteriorates to this level, interest invariably dies out. Students
should be led to see a distinct need for making a process automatic.
Once seeing this need, it should serve as an impelling force, being
responsible for the expenditure of effort even when the attitude of
mind and body is not entirely favorable. If possible, drill lessons
should occur when the children see that, without these fundamental,
automatic abilities in their school subjects, future progress will be
materially handicapped, if not finally arrested. Let the nature of
the material presented to children be such that they will really care
to master it. Let them enjoy it, let it be a game for them.

riay may be used in school in a very useful way. A child's
play interests may be used as a means of bringing about the repeti-
tion of those acts which need to be fixed in the mind as habits of
thought. In other words, play could be profitably used as a means
of making drill interesting. Numerous repetitions of a single
activity must of necessity become monotonous to the child unless a
motive, like winning the game, for carrying on this activity is
provided. Play can with profit enter more thoroughly into the edu-
cation of children and if we mistake not, the natural play activities
of children are capable of furnishing numerous suggestions that
can profitably be employed within school walls. Organized games,
making use of the child's instinct for play and based on play mo-
tives, should form a part of the regular curriculum, especially

MOTIVATED DRILL WORK IN SILENT READING 79

during drill periods. Since young children play much, play should
be included in their school activities. Much of the unattractive,
toil attitude which young children have towards their school tasks
could thus be eliminated.

Dramatization is another form of play activity that can be suc-
cessfully used in the drill work of the lower grades. This fact is
especially true in the teaching of reading. Children love to make
a situation real by going through the motions it suggests. Abstract
ideas are often not comprehended, and the child is not sure of his
understanding of the passage read. Allow him to act out or
dramatize the idea and it becomes real to him. If it is not thus
made real to him, his lack of understanding is shown by his actions,
and the teacher has a rather definite means of knowing the abilities
and inabilities of her pupils. This means of diagnosis should be
useful to the teacher in planning individual assignments and tasks
for the future. Let action be the test of comprehension. In other
words, learning by doing is a more efficient way of learning than is
learning by passive listening.

Again, one is safe in saying that drill is futile when it relies
on the device of formal external repetition to achieve results. In-
stead, there must be repetition with attention. Careless, blunder-
ing repetition is valueless from the standpoint of improvement in
the desired activity and is a hindrance to the introduction of cor-
rect, economical methods of procedure. The teacher should strive
to focus the attention of the student on what he is doing and how
he is doing it. Exceptions to right methods must be positively dis-
couraged at every opportunity. A child learns to read his lesson
intelligently not by fifty or a hundred inattentive readings ; rather
the most economical method of learning to read requires that the
maximum of focalized attention be given during the reading
process.

Drill, to be most efficient, must be individual in character. Mass
drilling of pupils does not meet the individual needs of the different
class members. Class drilling of pupils often gives practice to
certain pupils when in fact they do not need it, hence it is often
worthless. To be effective in its highest degree, drill should be
conducted for each pupil in the light of his particular abilities and

80 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

according to his needs. Much group drill work shows little atten-
tion given by many of the class members, except as it is necessary,
in a parrot-like fashion, to follow the leaders in the work. Such
work is doubtless beneficial to the leaders, but it is of little benefit
to the others who take part.

READING MATERIALS

The fundamental aim in devising reading materials for this
study was to have drill work in reading assume the form of a game
in which the elements of comprehension of what is read and speed
of reading would play a prominent part

Since the love for activity, or motion, is one of the characteristics
of childhood, it was decided to make use of this fact in developing
the reading materials for this study. Printed cards containing
'action' sentences which lend themselves readily to dramatization in
the schoolroom were devised.

We believe the psychological principles stated in the foregoing
paragraphs are fundamental in the teaching of reading in the lower
grades of the elementary schools, and the materials, to be described
presently, have consequently aimed to bring these principles into
the foreground. In determining the content of the sentences which
should appear upon these reading cards, the environment, interests,
and every-day activities of children as a whole were kept constantly
in mind. In order to appeal to the needs and interests of various
types of children in the matter of the response to be given, four
different kinds, or sets, of cards were devised, which, for con-
venience, we will call Set A, Set B, Set C, and Set D. These dif-
ferent sets of cards are described in the "Rules for Reading Game,"
which are given later.

The A, B, G, or D, as the case may be, which appears in the upper left-
hand corner of each card indicates to which set this particular card belongs.
There are 150 AN, 150 B's, 250 C's, and 100 D's. The cards are arranged
serially in order of difficulty (least difficult first, most difficult last), and the
number which appears in the upper right-hand corner of each card indicates
the position in the series to which this card belongs. For instance, A 125
means that the card belongs to Set A and is the one hundred and twenty-fifth
card (based upon the author's judgment) in Set A, in order of difficulty.

MOTIVATED DBILL WORK IN SILENT BEADING

81

A sample card from each of the 4 sets of reading cards is shown
below. Each card is 2 inches wide and 4 inches long.

A 125

School closes at four
o'clock in the afternoon.
Show how the face of a
clock looks at that time.

B 67

A donkey was loaded
with salt. He lay down in
the water. What happened
to the salt T

C 239

Shetland ponies are lit-
tle horses which children
like to ride. Show how tall
a Shetland pony is.

D

87

Mosquitoes are larger

than elephants.

Their

wings are made

of brass

and copper.

In order that the reader may gain an accurate knowledge of the
content of the reading materials devised for this study the first
10 cards and the last 10 cards of each set will now be given.

Sit A

1. Face tho rising fan.

2. Lay your book in the nearest window.

3. Place your right foot in front of you.

4. Cover your eyes with your hands.

5. Place your left elbow on a piece of wood.

6. Take three long steps towards the door.

7. Handle your arm as if it were broken and very sore.

8. Stretch both arms out as far as possible.

0. Ask your mother for a piece of bread and butter.
10. Place your right hand on the left knee.

141. Our President is a very good man. It is his duty to see that people
obey the laws of the United States. Write his name on the blackboard.

142. Fall asleep and snore loudly. Bemain asleep until you think one
minute has passed.

82 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

143. Act as if you were tired and sleepy by leaning against the wall and
nodding your head.

144. Put your left hand against the blackboard. Now take a piece of
chalk and mark around your hand so as to make a picture of it on the black-
board.

145. Sit down in your seat, then lean backward until the back of your
head strikes the desk behind you.

146. Take a piece of chalk in each hand. Now make two marks on the
blackboard just as far apart as you can reach.

147. "Paul Piper picked a peck of purple peppers." Write this sentence
on the blackboard. Cross out the letter "p M every time it appears.

148. The vowels of the alphabet are: A, E, I, O, and U. Write "In-
dianapolis ' ' on the blackboard, then draw a mark through each of the vowels.

149. Snakes crawl on the ground. They haven 't any feet. Some snakes
catch mice and are useful to the farmers. Draw a picture of a snake on the
blackboard.

150. The children played tag on the lawn. They soon felt tired and
went to sleep. There were eleven children in the group. Make the figure
"eleven" on your paper.

SrB

1. Name some good winter games.

2. Tell how many boys there are in the classroom.

3. Repeat the names of two pupils that you know.

4. What are shoes and boots made off

5. Spell the word "rabbit" three times.

6. Name four articles that can be seen in the classroom.

7. Name three things used in cooking our food and heating our houses.

8. Are cows useful to us in any wayf If so, howf

9. Name different kinds of animals that may be seen at a circus.
10. Whisper the names of two animals raised on the farm.

141. Clyde went to the barn to gather the eggs. He put them in his cap.
He dropped his cap on the hard ground. You tell the rest.

142. Suppose you are lost and cannot find your way to the school-house.
Inquire of Mr. Jones which way to go.

143. Mamma had a good dinner. I was playing in the yard under the big
tree when she called me. Dinner is eaten about the middle of the day. What
is the morning meal called f

144. Milk is sold by the pint and by the quart. A quart of milk is bigger
than a pint How many pints does it take to make a quart!

MOTIVATED DRILL WORK IN SILENT BEADING 83

145. The little girl is pretty. Her hair is black and curly. She is now
thirteen yean old. How old was she four years ago?

146. The boys went to the woods on Wednesday. They gathered sticks for
the fire and cooked their own dinner. What day comes just before Wednesday I

147. Make a sentence out of the words that follow: "eat grass cows."

148. My grandmother lives on a farm. I am going to visit her. I
shall see ducks, geese and chickens on the farm. In what way are ducks and
geese alike?

149. Hiawatha was a little Indian boy. He lived in the woods with wild
animals all around him. Name some wild animals that lived in the woods with
Hiawatha,

150. Last year I bought some roses for twenty cents a dozen. How many
things does it take to make a dozen?

SktO

1. Show how mother rocks the baby's cradle.

2. Lay the football on the floor, then kick it.

3. Act as if you are buttoning your coat.

4. Baby has some sand in his shoe. Loosen the string and pour it out.

5. Act as if you were cutting a piece of cloth with the scissors.

6. Pretend that you are trimming your finger-nails.

7. Aid Mary who is trying to read her lesson.

8. Go through the motions of splitting wood with an ax.

9. Catch the basket-ball. Now toss it back to Henry.
10. Light the lantern and set it on the table.

241. The hoe was left out in the rain and it is now rusty. Papa scoured
the rust off with sand-paper. Act as if you were rubbing the hoe with a piece
of sand-paper.

242. The wheat was threshed last Saturday. Now it is in a bin in the
granary. Charles likes to wade in the wheat. Show how he walks when wading
in the wheat.

243. Daniel's new coat fell from the hook on to the floor. When he
picked it up, the sleeves were covered with dust. He brushed the dust off with
a clothes brush. 8how how he did it.

244. A hickory nut or a walnut has a hard, thick, shell. We have to crack
them with a hammer. Act as if you were cracking a walnut.

245. The dog can dig a hole in the ground with his fore-paws.' He
makes a hole in the ground and hides away a bone until he wants it. Show
how a dog digB a hole with his fore-paws.

84 THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

246. You have seen a cat waiting patiently at the hole for a mouse to
eome out. When Mr. Mouse comes out, the cat springs upon him and eats
him. Show how a cat springs upon a mouse.

247. The dog is a swift runner. After he has been running, his tongue
hangs from his mouth and he breathes very rapidly. Show how a dog breathes
when he is warm and tired.

248. The cat has very sharp claws. 8he is very active and strong. She
can walk so quietly that the mice cannot hear her coming. See if you can
walk across the room without making any noise.

249. When papa gets up from the supper table, he gets a toothpick and
begins picking his teeth. Pretend that you are picking your teeth.

250. Mr. Wilson is digging potatoes to-day. He plows them out with a
big team of mules and a plow. He then puts them in a sack and carries them
to the cellar. Act as if you were picking up potatoes.

SetD

1. Apples and peaches grow on the ground.

2. Do you like to climb high up in a treef

3. Do farmers cut oats and wheat in the winter?

4. Does a baker make shoes, boots and slippers I

5. The moon is just ten feet from the ground.

6. Do we know whether kittens have the head-ache f

7. Mamma sews the buttons on my clothes with binder-twine.

8. My hair is green and my eyes and teeth are yellow.

9. The sun is no bigger than the palm of my hand.
10. When it rains the sun is always shining brightly.

91. Horses can gallop very fast. Their hoofs make a noise when they
hit the ground. Can you ride in a gallop?

92. Dreams are queer things. They come to us in the night while we
are sleeping. Did you ever dream of falling from some high placet

93. Clarence went to bed and his mother blew out the light. The room
was then dark and still. Are you afraid in the dark?

94. The grocer sells soap, sugar, and beans. I think he is fair and
honest. Would you ask for a dozen beans and a bushel of soapf

95. It is interesting to read story-books. Stories about animals some-
times make us afraid. Did you ever read the story about ' ' Little Bed Biding
Hood?"

96. Frost makes the leaves turn red and brown. They soon fall to the
ground. Are the leaves red and brown now?

MOTIVATED DRILL WORK IN SILENT BEADING 85

97. Houses used to be made of logs. Mud was placed between the logB
to keep out the wind and rain. Are houses still built in this way?

98. Harkl I hear the school bell ringing. I must hurry or I shall be
late. I do not want to get a tardy mark. School begins a little while before
sunrise.

99. A neat-looking boy came to school to-day. His hair was combed
and his shoes were polished. Do you think his hands and face were clean?

100. We went to church last Sunday. Uncle John and Aunt Lena came
home with us. They took us out riding in the afternoon. Do you enjoy
riding in a cart

METHOD OF PROCEDURE

The general plan of procedure was as follows: The experiment
was carried out with 1,139 children (571 in non-drill sections and
568 in drill sections) in thirty different third-grade rooms. Only
third-grade children were used, as the materials were developed
with this idea in mind.

1. At the beginning of the study, December 29, 1919, stand-
ardized tests in reading (Monroe's Standardized Silent Reading
Tests) were given to all the children. These tests revealed the
standings or abilities of the children at the beginning of the study.
The methods of scoring provided by the authors of the tests were
strictly adhered to in every case, both at the beginning and at the
end of the study.

2. After these tests were given, the attempt was made to divide
the pupils of the thirty different rooms into two groups of equal
size and mental attainments. In making this division the advice
and assistance of the superintendent of schools was sought. This
method of division seemed advisable, as it was desirable to begin
the study without delay rather than to wait until all of the papers
had been scored and to make the division then upon the basis of the
results thus found. The superintendent's judgment in this matter
was exceedingly accurate, as will be noted by referring to data in
Table 1. A better division of the children into groups of equal
size and mental ability could not have been realized even if the
division had been based upon the results of the tests.

The division into groups accomplished, fifteen of the rooms
were provided with the materials and the teachers were given in-

86 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

structions in their use. This was done both by demonstration and
by a set of printed rules with which each teacher was provided.

The teachers of drill classes were requested to use the materials
10 minutes a day on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays.

Since the aim was to compare the improvement made by the
drill section upon its previous record and the improvement made
by the non-drill section upon its previous record, it was quite
essential that the same amount of time be spent by each section in
improving reading. Therefore, the time spent in the extra drill
work by the drill section was deducted from the regular amount
of time given to reading improvement. In other words, the time
element in the two groups was identical; the only difference was
the way in which this time was utilized. In order to leave the work-
ing conditions of the drill group as nearly normal as possible, the
extra drill work was given during the regular lesson period. The
drill classes were to cover the same daily textbook assignments as
the non-drill section.

The experiment was in operation from January 1 to April 1,
1920. At the end of the study, as at the beginning, the tests in read-
ing were given to all children. The improvement in rate and com-
prehension was then determined.

For the purpose of making clear just how the work was actually
conducted during the drill period, the rules for playing the read-
ing games are reproduced.

RULES FOB THE READING GAME

The reading cards are divided into four main divisions, or sets. Set A
is a group of 'Action Cards. 9 These cards are primarily, simple commands or
requests. The child works with things actually present. No pretense is in-
volved. ("Place your right hand on your left knee.") Bodily activity is re-
quired in each case.

Set B is a group of 'Language Response Cards. 1 Response to these cards
is made wholly through the medium of spoken or written words. ("Name
some good winter games.") Bodily activity is not required. Language
responses may be written or oral, depending upon the teacher's judgment as
to the needs of the particular group of children in question.

Set C is a group of 'Pretense Cards. 1 Here the children are asked to
pretend that they are doing this or that particular thing. They work or pre-
tend to work with things not actually present. ("Act as if you were hoeing in
the garden.' 1 ) Muscular activity is required in all cases.

MOTIVATED DRILL WOBK IN SILENT BEADING 87

Bet D is a group of 'One Word Response Cards.' Response to these cards
may be made by using one of the four following words: Yes, No, Bight, or
Wrong. ("Is ten greater than nine?") (" Horses have two feet.")

The cards in each of the four sets have been arranged in order of difficulty,
least difficult first. The teacher will do well to keep this in mind in giving out
the cards. If a group of children need exercise in giving correct oral or written
language responses, they should be given cards from Set B. If children need
exercise in accurately getting the thought from the passage read, so that they
can with accuracy perform the desired activity, thus giving visible evidence as
to their understanding or misunderstanding of the passage read, they should be
given cards from Set A or Set C. If children need practice in selecting the
correct answer where other answers are possible, they should be given cards
from Set D.

PLATING RULES (BET A)

The children are arranged in pairs according to some convenient plan.
Each child is given a sufficient number of cards to occupy his time for the
entire reading period. If the time allotted to a reading period is fifteen min-
utes, ten cards given to each child will probably be enough.

For convenience, let us say that Ruth and James are playing together.
Each is given (say) ten cards from Set A. Each has a pencil and paper
on which to keep the score or his or her opponent. James picks up one of
his cards, reads it silently, hands it to Ruth who reads it carefully, then pro-
ceeds to perform the required activity. By his performance, Ruth judges
whether or not James has gotten the thought of the passage which he has just
read. She now gives him a score of "1" if he has performed his task cor-
rectly, and "0" if he has failed.

The teacher will do well to be in the midst of the children while the
game is in process, to watch the performances of the children being judged
and the scoring of the ones doing the judging. Fairness, accuracy, and speed
are things to be encouraged.

Ruth now reads one of her cards and James becomes judge. Thus the
game proceeds until the twenty cards are exhausted or until the reading period
has been consumed. The one having the greatest number of perfect scores
tones) at the end of the play period wins the game.

The rules for playing with cards from Sets B, G, and D are the same
as the above directions which are based upon Set A, the only difference being
in the nature of the responses given, and these varied responses do not effect
the rules for playing.

RESULTS

The accompanying table summarizes the results for the fifteen
classes of the non-drill section (A to 0) and the fifteen classes of
the drill section (a to o). The table indicates the scores both for

88

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

comprehension and for rate — in each case in such a way as to con-
trast the January scores and the April scores.

Improvement may be indicated in two ways; increase in the
median performance and decrease in the absolute or the relative
variability of the class. The table is arranged to show the altera-
tions that appeared in both these respects and for every one of the
thirty classes under test.

Disregarding the individual classes and referring now only to
the average performance of the drill and the non-drill sections, the
following facts appear. Between January and April the non-drill
section increased its median comprehension score from 3.9 to 7.0,
while its average deviation increased only 3.3 to 3.7 (the coefficient
of variability, or relative degree of variation, accordingly, decreased
from .84 to .53). Correspondingly, between January and April the
drill sections increased their median comprehension score from 4.0
to 9.0, while their average deviation increased from 3.1 to 4.5 (the

TABLE 1

Scores in Comprehension and Rati of Reading of 15 Non-Drill and 15 Drill

Classes in January and tn April

Comprehension

Kate

January

April

January

April

fc

Class

Med. A. D.

Med. A. D.

Med.

A. D.

Med.

A. D.

o

A

4.3 2.7

8.0 4.4

87.5

21.4

57.8

17.2

s

B

3.9 8.0

6.9 8.8

42.1

21.8

60.0

15.4

C

3.8 4.0

7.0 8.8

88.8

24.2

46.4

17.6

w

D

82 2.6

5.7 4.2

27.8

17.8

40.0

24.0

00

E

8.9 4.7

9.8 5.0

86.9

22.9

57.0

28.0

J

^

P

2.1 2.6

6.5 8.6

22.5

16.6

47.7

16.4

•J

O

6.5 8.7

4.1 3.2

51.6

18.0

42.5

21.0

tf

H

1.7 2.8

11.0 3.2

20.0

17.8

56.8

17.2

Q

I

4.1 8.4

5.9 2.8

81.8

189

83.5

12.6

•

J

3.3 3.8

7.2 40

27.0

16.2

46.0

21.0

O

K

3.7 37

6.5 3.2

85.5

17.0

42.5

22.0

25

L

3 3 3 3

6.0 3.4

80.8

18.2

44.5

15.6

M

4.0 3 7

5.4 8.2

85.0

22.2

44.4

17.6

N

60 31

8.9 8.4

88.7

20.0

51.7

14.2

O

5.1 2 5

5 « 4ft

40.8

19.0

45.0

21.0

A*.

3.9 A :\

TO 3 7

7,1 J U

34.7

194

46.7

190

a

8.9 3«

85.6

19.4

55.0

21.0

b

2.8 2.1

9.0 4.4

82.5

15.8

65.0

16.6

»

e

4.0 8.2

8.5 .5

87.7

21.8

55.0

24.0

O

d

4.4 3.0

9.0 4.8

85.0

17.4

58.6

28.0

C

6

5.3 3 3

12.4 38

88.3

19.4

68.3

12.0

o

f

8.8 3 1

120 5.2

84.4

12.2

71.0

20.0

00

*

1.7 2 4

5.9 4.4

21.0

16.7

45.0

22.0

h

4.0 3

H.3 8.2

88.7

15.8

48.0

20.0

* *

i

4.5 2.2

8.9 4.0

859

13.6

68.8

16.6

i

5.5 4.1

10.0 5.8

50.0

21.8

68.5

22.0

3.0 2.8

7.7 5.8

33.6

18.2

49.5

22.0

Q

1

4.8 2.4

9.6 4.0

84.1

14.8

57.7

16.8

m

3.6 2.9

8.7 5.4

83.0

18.8

57.7

26.0

n

5.6 4.1

9.0 6.4

46.2

21.8

650

26.0

8.7 8.5

9.0 40
9.0 45

84.3

18.2

57.0

22.0

At.

4.0 3.1

85.7

17.7

56.9

21.0

MOTIVATED DRILL WORK IN SILENT BEADING 89

coefficient of variability, accordingly, decreased from .78 to .50).
In brief, then, the drill section increased its comprehension 5 units
as against 3.1 units of the non-drill section and at the same time re-
duced its class variability to a slightly lower point than that of the
non-drill section.

Turning to rate of reading, the following facts appear. Between
January and April the non-drill section increased its median score
from 34.7 to 46.7, or 12 points, whereas the drill section increased
its score from 35.7 to 56.9, or 21.2 words per minute. The reduction
in the coefficient of variability was, for the non-drill section, from 56
to 41 percent ; in the drill section from 50 to 37 percent.

It follows from this studj r of over 1100 third-grade pupils in
thirty classrooms of Kansas City, Kansas, that in every phase of
reading considered in this study the improvement made by the
classes that were drilled in reading by the games devised by the
writer was more pronounced than the improvement made during a
corresponding period by the classes that devoted the same amount of
time to other forms of reading exercises.

CONCLUSIONS

The following generalizations are definitely indicated by this
investigation :

1. Uneconomical methods of drill are now being employed in
the lower grades of our public school system.

2. Greater use must be made of the doctrine of "Interest in
Education," especially as it applies to drill work. Drill work
should be motivated or vitalized by being connected with some
dynamic purpose.

3. Bodily activity (dramatizations, handling of objects, etc.)
can be profitably connected with exercises in silent reading.

4. Drill, to be efficient, must be made individual in character.
Drill should be conducted as nearly as possible according to each
child's needs and particular abilities.

5. Intensive focalization, in connection with attentive repeti-
tion, is an essential characteristic of efficient drill work and by
appealing to the play instincts of children this desired character-
istic is effectively provided.

CHAPTER VI

THE EFFECT OF A SINGLE BEADING

G. A YOAKAM

Director of Teacher Training,
Nebraska State Normal School, Kearney, Nebraska

It is curious that in the studies of silent reading no attention
has been given directly to the determination of the effect of a
single reading of different types of reading matter, because this
would seem to be the first step in experimental work in reading.

It is true, however, that there is some indirect evidence on
the matter. Ebbinghaus and others experimented with the ef-
fect of learning periods of different lengths on the retention of
meaningless material. Later experimenters used logical materials
in their efforts to learn about memory; and from their studies
and those of the earlier experimenters, certain valuable laws of
memory were formulated. But none of these studies gives an
adequate idea of the extent of the memory of logical materials
as the result of a single contact. Nor do the reports of Brown,
Gray, Starch, Waldo, Pintner, and others bear directly on this
point.

The problem is a particularly important and fundamental one.
No one will deny that many children consider the lesson learned
if they have read it through once. Indeed, the ordinary teacher
in the elementary or the high school may consider herself fortu-
nate if the child has read understandingly through the assignment
a single time. How much has been learned as a result of this
single reading! We have not fully adequate answers to this
question. And so far as we know at present, the economy of
re-reading a lesson again and again until, as in the early district
school, it is "learned by heart" is wholly problematical. The
logical procedure is to begin at the bottom by determining the
effect of a single contact with different types of reading ma-
tt)

EFFECT OF A 8IN0LE BEADING Ql

terials. The problem opens up a very significant field of experi-
mentation which, no doubt, will be followed through by succeed-
ing experimenters until the economy of various re-readings has
been determined. The present study is only a partially success-
ful attempt to supply some data which have been lacking and
to call attention to the importance of measurement in this field.

MATERIALS

The materials used in this series of experiments are, with one
exception, almost exclusively factual selections of varying lengths,
taken from school textbooks or adapted from other sources for
use in the elementary school. The selections include materials
from geography, history, agriculture, civics, economics, language,
and literature. This last selection was used merely for the pur-
pose of comparing the results of reading narrative material with
the results of reading factual material particularly adapted to
silent reading. There follows a list of the selections with their
approximate lengths :

1. On the Use of Abbreviations. Language material taken from the
intermediate book of a language series by Jean Sherwood Bankin; length,
1200 words.

2. Peanuts. Adapted for experimental purposes from Farmers' Bulle-
tin No. 431, United States Department of Agriculture; length, 1900 words;
similar to textbook material in geography or agriculture. Prepared by C. E.
Germane and used by him in connection with his doctor's thesis, "The Value
of Summarizing as Compared with Re-reading of the Same Article. ' n

3. The Government of Switzerland. Prepared by O. H. Alderman for
experimental purposes and borrowed by the writer; civics material; length,
1200 words.*

4. Medieval Castles. Adapted by the writer from Robinson and Breasted,
Outlines of European History, pp. 387-392; length, 600 words.

5. Chasing a Rainbow. Adapted from an old Harper's Fifth Reader;
narrative material; length, 1000 words.

6. Tuberculosis. Adapted by C. E. Germane from a pamphlet, "What we
Should Know about Tuberculosis, ' ' by New York State Department of Health ;
length, 1900 words.

*State University of Iowa, 1920. Unpublished.

'Used In doctor's thesis, "The Lecture Method of Teaching Versus the Question and
Answer Method." Bute University of Iowa, 1020. Unpublished.

92 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

7. Pyramid Age. Adapted by the writer from Robinson and Breasted,
Outlines of European History, Part I. pp. 27-31; length 600 words. This
article was rewritten in order to make it as nearly like article number four
as possible.

8. The Admiralty Islanders. Adapted from The Living Races of Man-
kind, by H. N. Hutchinson; geographical material; length, 1000 words.

It is seen that these materials are representative of those
studied in the elementary school, that they are sufficiently varied
in length, and that they so differ in character as to give an op-
portunity to investigate the manner in which pupils will retain
different types of material, an aspect of the problem which is,
however, only touched upon in this series of experiments.

Articles 2 and 6 were printed pamphlets; the others were
typewritten or mimeographed, with care to provide clear copy.

Two main types of tests were used for measuring the reten-
tion of these materials after a single reading: (1) controlled
completion tests; and (2) tests consisting of short questions re-
quiring a short written answer. These tests were mimeographed.
Sample questions from each of these tests are given herewith:

Test I
They were first visited by (Columbus, De Soto, Narveycz, Balboa, Carteret,
John Cabot) in (1121, 1776, 1850, 1767, 1492.)

Test II

In what two ways did the armed followers help the master of the castle f

1

2

It will be understood that in the first test, the child was re-
quired to cross out the words in the parentheses which correctly
completed the meaning of the sentence as he remembered it, while
in the second test he was required to write his answer which
might consist of a word, a phrase, or a sentence. The first type
of test is very detailed, requires no writing, and tests the pupil's
power of choosing the right word to complete the true state-
ment of the original fact as he remembers it. The second test
is not so detailed and makes a greater demand upon the power
of recall. Both tests have the advantage of being objective in
scoring, of requiring little or no writing, and of actually serving

EFFECT OF A SINGLE READING 93

as a measure of the retention of the ideas in the original selec-
tion. The first test probably is a greater stimulus to recall ; the
second is more difficult to answer correctly. The results of the
two tests are, of course, not directly comparable numerically.

The tests were scored by giving one point for each correct
answer, adding the total points earned, and expressing the final
score as a percent of the total possible score. Thus, a score of
50 means that the pupil has answered correctly 50 percent of
the total possible score, or has reproduced approximately 50
percent of the total ideas in the article as a result of a single
reading. It is acknowledged that there are some objections to
this method, on the ground that it does not consider the effect
of the relative difficulty of questions. It is thought, however,
that, for the purpose of this study, the method of scoring is suf-
ficiently accurate to give a fairly reliable idea of the amount
gained as the result of a single reading.

METHOD OF EXPERIMENTATION

The series of experiments with the foregoing materials were
conducted according to two methods: (1) a rough method in
which no attempt was made to measure accurately the effect of
motivation produced by an initial test previous to reading or the
effect of an immediate recall upon a delayed recall; and (2) a
more refined method in which an attempt was made to measure
the effect of these factors. In all the experiments the pupils
were allowed to take as much time as was necessary to complete
the reading and the tests. Each pupil was allowed to proceed at
his own rate. The elapsed time between reading and testing was
in most cases merely long enough to allow a pupil to lay aside
the reading and take up the test paper. Thus, inequalities in
rate of reading were offset and the time elapsing between read-
ing and immediate recall was approximately the same in all cases.

The general procedure in the first series of experiments was
to give a test to measure the amount of previous knowledge of
the material and then to follow this test by a single reading and
an immediate recall. In this series, the initial test and the im-
mediate recall test were the same. Later on, a delayed recall in

Q4 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

the form of the same test was given. Pupils were not told what
the test was to be, but it is easily seen that the effect of this test
was to motivate the reading in the first place and to furnish
practice in taking the test in the immediate and delayed recall
exercises.

In the later series of experiments the classes were divided into
three groups by a chance selection of pupils and a different
method of procedure was used with each group. The scores of
each group were then used interchangeably to compute correc-
tions for the effect of previous knowledge of the material, the effect
of giving the initial test, and the effect of repetition of the test
upon power of subsequent recall. In this series of tests every
effort was made to keep the conditions of the experiment con-
stant and to eliminate the effect of all uncontrolled variables.
The pupils were encouraged to do their best work, not to guess
at the answers, and to regard the experiments in the light of
interesting exercises not affecting their class standing. The ex-
perimenter feels that in the large majority of cases the experi-
ments successfully measured the effect of a single reading and
that the pupils gave their best efforts to the experiments.

RESULTS OP THE EXPERIMENTS

The results of the experiments as conducted in four schools
and involving in all 417 pupils are summed up in this section.
Experiments with several of the articles, namely, Peanuts, Ab-
breviations, and Admiralty IslandSk, involved pupils in Grades IV
to VIII, inclusive, in four schools. Experiments with the other
articles were conducted in a single school. Three of the schools
were typical Iowa public schools, and the fourth was the Obser-
vational School, State University of Iowa, Grades IV to VII,
inclusive.

The following tables will give a general idea of the results of
the experiments. Table 1 gives the. distribution of scores made
by Grades IV, V, and VI on the article Peanuts, after a single
reading.

It is seen from Table 1 that the ability to reproduce the ideas
in this article after a single reading preceded by an initial test

EFFECT OF A SINGLE BEADING

95

TABLE 1

DllTKIBUnOH OF SCORES MADE Airs* A SINGLE READING OF THS ARTICLE OH PlAJTUTt

Interval*

Grade IV

Grade V

Grade VI

85-80.0

1

1

80-84.0

4

75-70.0

1

2

70-74.0

1

1

65-60.0

4

2

60-64.0

2

1

55-50.0

2

1

4

50-54.0

1

8

2

45-40.0

2

7

40-44.0

4

1

8

85-80.0

1

8

4

80-84.0

1

4

2

25-20.0

4

6

8

20-24.0

8

8

2

15-10.0

11

8

2

10-14.0

4

4

2

5- 0.0

6

1

0- 4.0

8

1

1

Total

48

87

48

Average

24.5

86.2

47.6

Median

18.0

81.8

46.2

Quartile Deviation

14.

15.5

14.0

•The intervale are in terms of percent* of the total possible score. Thus, the score
85-80.0 inidicates that the pupil who made this score performed correctly 86 to 80.0
percent of the total possible answers in this test.

varies widely among individuals in the same grade, that there
is marked over-lapping of grades, and that distinct progress is
shown from grade to grade. This distribution is typical of those
obtained.

Table 2 gives a summary of the average initial scores and the
immediate and delayed recall scores made by the different grades

TABLE 2
Effbot of a Single Reading as Measured bt Immediate and Delated Recall

Selection

Grade No Initial Range
Pupils Test

Immediate
Recall

Range

Delayed
Recall

Range

1. Peanuts 4

2. Peanuts 5

8. Peanuts 6

43 10.5
87 15.8
48 21.0

4. Adm'ty Islanders.. 8 22 17.0

5. Adm'ty Islanders. . 7 10 18.7

6. Adm'ty Islanders. . 6 24 11.4

7. Adm'ty Islanders.. 5 24 11.0

8. Adm'ty Islanders. .4 8 6.0

9. Abbreviations 8 8 28.0

0-29.0
0-44.9
0-54.9

0-39.9
10-29.9
0-29.9
0-29.9
0-19.9

47.5
86.2
24.5

53.8
54.1
40.4
81.2
19.0

0-74.9
0-89.9
0-89.9

0-89.9

80-79.9

10-79.9

0-79.9

0-89.9

49.7
41.0
80.8
19.0
17.5

20-69.9

80-59.9

10-59.9

0-89.9

0-89.9

16-42.0 46.0 28-70.0 47.0 28-66.0

With the first eight of these selections the controlled completion test was used, with
the ninth a yes-and-no test, with paired answers to test recull. The time between im-
mediate and delayed recall, in the experiment with Admiralty lelandere was 20 days;
in the experiment with Abbreviation*, 6 days.

Initial test is the test given to measure previous knowledge; immediate recall Is
the test given immediately following a single reading; delayed recall the test given after
t> lapse of 20 or 6 days.

96

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

(one group in each grade) in four schools on three different arti-
cles. The scores are typical of those found in all the experiments.

Table 2 shows that the amount retained after a single reading
of the articles, uncorrected for the effect of motivation due to
the initial test, ranges from roughly one-fifth of the total ideas
in Grade IV to one-half in Grade VIII on the material Admiralty
Islanders; on the article Peanuts, the range is from one-fourth in
Grade IV to one-half in Grade VI ; on Abbreviations, the amount
is roughly one-half in Grade VIII. The effect of previous knowl-
edge ranges from 6 percent in Grade IV to 30 percent in Grade
VIII. The effect of the lapse of time on the retention of the facts
in the article Admiralty Islanders represents a loss ranging from
4 percent in Grade IV to 12 percent in Grade VIII after 20 days.
After 6 days the pupils in Grade VIII reproduced better than on
immediate recall.

Table 3 summarizes the results of a series of tests in a sixth
grade on various articles of different lengths. Two types of tests
were used in measuring the effect of reading. The results are
therefore only roughly comparable, but they are suggestive of
differences due to the character and length of the materials.

TABLE 8

EFTIOT OV A SlNGLI RXADING ON VARIOUS TYPlS OF MATERIAL XV A SIXTH GSADl

_ , Af Initial Immediate Delayed Teat Day*

Selection Scoro Rccal i R^all xJaed Elapsing

1. Gov't of Switzerland 10.0 43.9 25.0 A 54

2. Medieval Gaslles 16.3 87.4 27.3 B 81

8. Chasing a Rainbow 84.8 78.0 70.8 A 89

4. Tuberculosis 14.8 31.6 21.1 B 88

5. Peanuts 21.9 47.5 ... A

A indicates a controlled completion test, B a teat of short questions. The scores
are in every case percent* of the total possible score.

Assuming equality of tests, differences in the difficulty of the
various materials are clearly indicated in the above table. The
amount which pupils were able to score correctly before reading
the article a single time ranges from 10 percent to 34.8 percent.
It is possible that this amount is due partly to their ability to
answer the completion test questions without reading the original
article and that this ability is the direct result of native intelli-
gence. It is probable, however, that the score made on the test

EFFECT OF A SINGLE BEADING 97

of short questions, Test B, is the result of previous knowledge,
since in this test no chance was given to guess the answer; the
form of the question required a knowledge of the fact. The range
of correct answers after a single reading shows that either the
ability to reproduce the ideas is not so great on factual material
as on narrative material, or that the tests were very unequal in
difficulty. It is true, of course, that the difference shown here may
be due entirely to differences in the difficulty of the tests, rather
than to differences in the difficulty of the reading matter.

The foregoing scores are representative of the gross average
scores made by pupils in the series of experiments in which no
attempt was made to measure any variable other than the effect
of previous knowledge possessed by the pupil and the effect of a
single reading preceded by an initial test. When the pupil read
the article under such conditions, the reading was strongly moti-
vated by the initial test. The result is a measure of a single read-
ing under extremely advantageous conditions. The writer felt
that in order to get at the effect of a single unmotivated reading,
he ought to make an attempt to measure the effect of the repeti-
tion of the test on subsequent recall and the probable influence
of the motivation on the single reading. This demanded another
series of experiments, the results of which are set forth in the
following tables.

The method of isolating the variables in these experiments
was to divide the grade into three groups, A, B, and C. The
teacher furnished a list of the pupils in each grade divided into
three parts, good, medium, and poor pupils, according to their
ability in reading. The experimenter then grouped these pupils
into three divisions, one-fourth in Group A, one-half in Group B,
and one-fourth in Group C, endeavoring to have an equal pro-
portion of good, medium, and poor pupils in each group. Pupils
were drawn at random by the experimenter from each group.
When the divisions had been made, Group A was given an in-
itial test, allowed to read the article once and then given an im-
mediate recall. Group B was not given an initial test, but read
the article once and then took an immediate recall test. Group C
read the article once, but performed no test of previous knowl-

gg THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

edge nor of immediate recall. Then, after a lapse of some day*
or weeks, all three groups were given a delayed recall. The
scores of Group B were then corrected for the effect of previous
knowledge by subtracting the initial scores of Group A from the
immediate recall scores of Group B. In a like manner, the scores
made by Group C were used for purposes of correction. The
results of these corrections are given in the following paragraphs
and tables.

The validity of this procedure rests, of course, upon the
method of dividing the groups and upon the assumption that the
groups when divided are equal in ability. The writer had to rely
upon the judgment of the teacher in dividing the grade into good,
medium, and poor pupils, and then upon random placing of these
pupils into three representative groups. It would have been bet-
ter to have divided the grades on the basis of their standard
scores in silent reading, perhaps, but these were not available.
As a means of making the resulting averages, obtained from
the three different groups, somewhat more reliable, the writer
smoothed them according to the following formula given by Rugg
in his Statistical Methods Applied to Education, page 184.

The effect of this smoothing upon the original measures is
shown below. The original grade averages on immediate recall,
selection Admiralty Islanders, were:

Grade VIII Vn VI V IV

53.8 54.1 40.4 31.2 19.0

The result of the first and second smoothings was to reduce
the inequalities between the scores of the different grades as
follows :

Grade VIII

1st Smoothing 53.4

2nd Smoothing 52.4

The averages, after the second smoothing, were used in com-
puting the corrections and in estimating the effects of various
factors in the experiment 8 .

vn

VT

V

IV

49.4

41.9

26.8

23.0

48.2

39.3

30.5

24.2

•The writer believes that these smoothed •▼erases represent more nearly what the
actual average* would have been, had more pupils been measured. It is recognised that
such a procedure is rather arbitrary and perhaps of dubious value, but the results ob-
tained are at least suggestive that there are many factors operating In reading which
are ordinarily not considered and which deserve careful study.

EFFECT OF A SINGLE BEADING QQ

Table 4 gives the scores of Grades IV to VIII, inclusive, in
three schools on the article Admiralty Islanders, after these aver-
ages have been smoothed in accordance with the method just men-
tioned. The general effect of this smoothing has been to reduce
the irregularities in the grade averages which were probably due
to faulty selection of the different groups within the grade and
to differences in ability among the several schools. That is to
say, in the long run, one would naturally expect Qrade VIII to
read better than Grade VII and Grade VII to read better than
Grade VI.

TABLE 4
Avbbaob Scobss or Gboup A with this Abtiolb oh Admibaltt Islahdvm

Grade

Cases

Initial

Immediate

Recall

Test

Recall

After 20 Days

8

9

10.0

52.4

48.7

7

10

15.6

48.2

48.1

6

8

18.2

80.8

81.7

5

8

10.1

80.5

28.5

4

8

8.5

24.2

22.8

Table 4 shows that the power to handle the various tests in-
creased from grade to grade.

Table 5 shows the scores for Group B for immediate and de-
layed recall, but no initial test.

TABLE 5
Avbbaob Soobbs or Gboup B with thi Abtioli oh Admibaltt Islahdvm

Grade

Cases

Immediate

Delayed

Recall

Beeall

8

17

87.8

82.5

7

21

84.6

80.1

8

20

20.8

26.0

5

16

24.7

10.0

4

16

17.0

16.1

The scores of Group C for the same selection, as measured by
delayed recall only, are shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6

AYHBAQB SOOBBS OF GBOUP 0. WITH THB ABTICLB OH ADMIBALTT ISLAHDVM

Grade Oases Delayed Beeall Only

8 10 18.2

7 8 16.8

6 10 15.0

5 18.0

4 8 18.8

100 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

By using the averages in the previous tables a correction of
the various scores for the effect of different variables is attempted
as shown in the tables that follow. Thus, in Table 7 it is argued

TABLE 7

Effect or Various Factors as Measured by Initial Test and Immediate Repaid
(Using Scores of Groups A, B, and on The Admiralty Itlanderg

Interchangeably for Correction)

Grades

VIII

VII

VI

V

IV

Effect of a Single Reading

. . . 20.9

15 6
19.0
13.6

13.2

16.6

9.5

10.1

14.6

5.8

8.5

7.5

7.7

that in our experiments there are three large factors that effect
the retention of material read; namely, previous knowledge,
motivation due to the initial test, and a single reading of the arti-
cle. Now the effect of previous knowledge in the above table is
indicated by the scores of Group A. This amount subtracted from
the scores of Group B made on immediate recall, gives the effect
of a single reading by Group B, or the figures under the caption
"Effect of a Single Reading." But when there is subtracted from
the immediate recall score of Group A, this effect of previous
knowledge, there is still a remainder, as given under caption "Ef-
fect of Motivation." This may or may not be due to motiva-
tion. Probably it could be due to superior ability on the part of
Group A, but there is a likelihood that motivation is a primary
constituent in it, since it is found quite consistently in all the
grades.

TABLE 8

Effect of Various Factors as Miasurkd by Delayed Recall
(Scores on The Admiralty Itlandtrt)

Grades VIII VII VI V IV

Effect of a Single Reading on Delayed Recall. . 1.8 0.7 2.7 8.8 5.1

Effect of Immediate Recall 14.5 18.0 10.1 6.0 0.5

Effect of Reading and Two Tests 82.8 25.4 17.6 0.9 0.0

Effect of Reading and One Test 15.8 14.5 12.8 0.8 7.6

Effect of Two Tests 80.5 28.7 14.9 6.1 4.0

Effect of One Test 14.9 18.0 10.1 6.0 2.6

The effect of these various factors when measured by delayed
recall is even more striking. By using the scores of Groups A,
B, and C interchangeably to correct for the effect of motivation,
repetition of the test, and previous knowledge as measured by
delayed recall, we obtain the material embodied in Table 8. In

EFFECT OF A SINGLE BEADING 101

that table, to be more specific, the scores are obtained by sub-
tracting from the scores of Group B on delayed recall, the
amounts due to the effect of a previous knowledge, as shown by
the initial score of Group A, and due to repetition of the test,
as shown by the difference between the delayed recall scores of
Oroups B and C. In a like manner, by manipulating the various
scores, corrections for the variable factors have been computed.
It appears that, after the variable factors have been considered,
the effect of a single reading upon power of delayed recall is very
slight. The writer docs not claim a high degree of precision
for these statistical manipulations, but the general significance
of the table is clear. The motivation due to the initial test and
the effect of the repetition of the tests apparently far outweigh
in importance the brief, though indispensable, contact with the
material. This bears out the general laws of memory very clearly.
Strongly motivated repetition is necessary if ideas of this kind
are to be retained for any length of time, at least with children
of the elementary grades.

CONCLUSIONS

There are no startling novel conclusions to be drawn from
these data, but the conclusions of other experimenters who have
been working along this line are made more secure through the
addition of numerical evidence. Broadly speaking, the result of
the experiments is to show how inadequate a single reading really
is when taken alone and to suggest that in seeking for means to
improve our methods of study we need to determine experi-
mentally the relative efficiency of various devices for improving
methods of studying. For instance, it is hoped that later ex-
perimenters will investigate the efficiency of various re-readings.

Some particular conclusions that have a direct bearing on our
educational problems and which may be directly applied to the
pedagogy of reading are enumerated below.

1. As far as the elementary school child is concerned, from
a single reading of factual material like that we employed only
a small proportion will be retained.

102 THE TWENTIETH YEAEBOOK

2. Giving an initial test that shall determine the amount of
existing knowledge brings about better retention of the material
subsequently read.

3. Repeated testing is an efficient method of securing perma-
nent retention of material; whether more efficient or less efficient
than other methods remains to be seen.

4. Ability to reproduce one type of material after a single
reading does not imply equal ability to reproduce another type
of material in equal amount. There are differences in the dif-
ficulty of reading due to the length of the material, its charac-
ter, the number of facts it contains, and the interest it has for
pupils, which deserve careful consideration.

5. A single reading without immediate recall, or review, of the
ideas probably leaves little effect on the mind of an elementary-
school pupil after a lapse of 20 or 30 days, unless the material
is highly motivated or strikingly interesting.

6. The ability of pupils in the elementary school to reproduce
ideas after a single reading increases from grade to grade, but
cannot be regarded as highly developed even in the eighth grade.

7. There are wide individual differences in this ability, as in
others. There are a few gifted individuals who can read material
like ours once and retain 80 percent of its entire content (see
Table 1), but the average child is far from this efficiency. The
educational implication is therefore obvious.

8. Teachers will do well to investigate what takes place be-
tween the assignment of the new lesson and the recitation that
follows in order to insure that more than a single reading of the
new material takes place; particularly in schools where exten-
sive reading occurs, must the reading and study habits of the
pupils during the study periods be investigated.

CHAPTER VH

OUTLINING AND SUMMARIZING COMPARED WITH RE-
READING AS METHODS OP STUDYING 1

Charles E. Germans
Department of Education, Dee Moines University

Much has been said and written by those working in the field
of education concerning the value of outlining and summarizing
as methods of studying. Nevertheless, there are so few scientific
data on the subject that it seemed worth while to try to determine
by direct experimentation in the classroom the comparative values
of certain forms, at least, of summarizing.

I. THE VALUE OF THE SELF-MADE SUMMARY

The Problem

Stated briefly, the problem which we first set ourselves was:
What is the value of making a "corrected summary-outline' ' of an
article as compared with re-reading the same article for the same
length of timet

The procedure in making what we may term a "corrected sum-
mary-outline,' ' or a "self-made summary," involves the follow-
ing steps :

1. The article is read once through as a whole.

2. A brief summary-outline is written from memory.

3. The article is glanced over to discover what points of im-

portance have been forgotten or overlooked in making
the summary.

4. The summary is corrected by adding points omitted or by

altering incorrect statements.

1 This study was completed at the University of Iowa under the direction of
Professor Ernest Horn and embodied in Dr. Germane 's doctorate dissertation.

103

104 TEE TWENTIETH YBABBOOK

Method of Experimentation

1. Selection of Material. After considerable preliminary ex-
perimenting, an eight-page article on "What We Should Know
About Tuberculosis" was selected as being suitable for the pur-
poses of this study. This article was adapted from a pamphlet is-
sued by the New York State Department of Health. It was found
not to be too difficult for the grades in which the study was con-
ducted, nor did it contain material that was covered in the usual
class work.

2. Division of the Class. In order to measure the efficiency
of the corrected summary as a method of studying, it was neces-
sary to divide the pupils taking part in this experiment into two
groups as nearly equal as possible in comprehension ability in
silent reading. This was done by having the teachers of the vari-
ous classes rank their students according to their ability to com-
prehend what they read. The pupil who ranked 1 was placed in
the first group, 2 and 3 in the second group, 4 and 5 in the first, etc.

The ranking of the teachers was compared with the pupils 1
ranks according to their intelligence quotients and the following
Spearman correlations found: Grade V, .62; Grade VI, .71;
Grade VII, .68 ; Grade VIII, .65 ; and Grade IX, .72.

3. Method of Measuring Comprehension. Two rigorous tests
were used to measure the comprehension. The first was a ques-
tion-and-answer test covering the material read and involving
points of major and minor importance. The second was a recog-
nition test. Four answers were suggested for each question, of
which only one was correct, and the pupils were asked to under-
line the correct answer. This form of test was used in con-
junction with the first because of the possibility of children being
able to recognize an answer they could not recall and also because
of the possibility of measuring finer differences.

4. Method of Scoring. One point was given for each correct
answer. The questions were all worded in such a way as to admit
of but one possible answer. All the papers were graded by the
writer and a graduate student who had worked through the
material and helped in the administration of the experiment.

OUTLINING AND SUMMARIZING 105

5. Administration of ihe Experiment. This experiment was
conducted in Grades V to IX, inclusive, of the Elementary and
Junior High Schools of the State University of Iowa. The Sum-
marizing Group was called Group A and the Re-Reading Group,
Group B. Both groups worked at the same time but in different
rooms.

The instructions to Group A were as follows :

"1. In the pamphlet is an article on 'Tuberculosis.' Bead it through
once as rapidly and carefully as you can, asking yourself as you read, 'What
is it all about and what are the main points in it that I should know and
remember f f

' ' 2. Turn the article face downward and on the paper provided make a
summary of what you have just read. That is, write down all the main points
or ideas that you think this article contains. At the same time, try to organize
the main points under headings.

' '3. Take up the article on 'Tuberculosis' and again look it over care-
fully and as you read write down the main points omitted or correct those
already written if they are wrong.' '

In order that the pupils in Group A might know exactly the
method of procedure in the experiment, ten minutes were spent in
class in summarizing three short paragraphs just as the whole
article was to be summarized. In this preliminary the experimenter
emphasized the necessity of speed and brevity. Thirty minutes
were then allowed for reading and summarizing, and at the end of
that time the two tests were given.

The method of procedure in Group B was as follows : The class
was given the article on "Tuberculosis" and asked to read it as
many times as possible in the thirty-minute period. At the end of
that time, Group B was subjected to the same two tests as Group A.

Results
In Table 1 a summary of the results is presented.

TABLE 1

Total Scorns Madb by thb Summabiuno Group (A) and thi Rr- Reading Group (B)
nr thi Frvi Different Grades on thi Reading Material "Tuberculosis"

Grade V VI VII VIII IX

Group B 167 145 177 247 227

Group A 160 _128 _147 _21« 19%

7 17 SO 81 20

Percent B Excels A 4.4 18.8 20.4 14.8 14.7

106 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

An examination of this table shows that in every grade the group
that merely re-read the article retained more than the group that
read and summarized.

Conclusions

Since this experiment was conducted in only one school and
since only one type of reading material was used, too much
emphasis should not be placed on the results. However, taken in
conjunction with analyses of the summaries made by the pupils,
they would seem to indicate that, given such summarizing ability
as these students possessed at the time of the experiment, the fol-
lowing statements are warranted :

1. The Re-Reading Group (B) shows a consistent superiority
ranging from 4.4 to 20.4 percent.

2. Since the Re-Reading Group excels in every grade tested,
the relative value of a corrected summary as a method of study is
distinctly questionable.

3. An analysis of the corrected summaries of many of the
pupils indicates that much of the thirty minutes was spent in indis-
criminate note-taking.

4. It is possible that the advantage of the Re-Reading Group
lay in the fact that the pupils in it used the entire period re-reading
the article in its entirety and perhaps also mentally summarizing it

II. THE VALUE OF THE SUMMARY WHEN STIMULATED AND DIRECTED

BY SPECIFIC PROBLEMS

As just indicated, the work of the pupils who participated in the
first experiment led the writer to believe that some form of con-
trolled summary would give better results. Consequently, the fol-
lowing study was undertaken.

The Problem

What is the value of attempting to interest pupils in an article
and placing in their hands a set of questions on that article before
reading it as compared with the re-reading of the same article f

OUTLINING AND SUMMARIZING 107

Probably the problem would be better understood if at this point
we anticipate our discussion of method by inserting an original set
of instructions to the pupils. By reading these instructions, it will
be seen how we sought to interest the pupils in their reading
about peanuts by introducing two paragraphs of general informa-
tion on the peanut industry. It was thought that by reading two
such paragraphs in concert twice, a ' problem attitude/ or mental
'warming up' would be produced.

PEANUTS

Instructions, to the Pupil fob Summarizing Through thi Use of

Specific Problems

To the Pupil:

The peanut industry in the United States has grown by leaps and bounds
during the last 10 years. Last year's crop alone was valued at $12,000,000,
which was greater than the value of the entire peach and onion crop in the
United States for the same year. The increased interest in peanut raising is
due to many causes, the chief of which is the use of the peanut as a food,
especially as a meat substitute.

Suppose that a number of Iowa fanners interested in growing peanuts
came to you for advice, and raised the following 12 questions or problems listed
below. WHAT WOULD YOU SAY IN ANSWEB TO EACH OF THESE
TWELVE PROBLEMS!

1. WHAT ARE YOUR REASONS FOB SAYING THAT THE RAIS-
ING OF PEANUTS IS PROFITABLE!

2. WHAT KIND OF SOIL IS BEST! WHY!

3. IN WHAT STATES DO YOU THINK WE COULD MOST SUC-
CESSFULLY RAISE PEANUTS!

4. WHAT EFFECT HAS BARNYARD MANURE ON THE PEANUT
CROP! HOW SHOULD WE USE IT!

5. OF WHAT USE IS LIME AS A FERTILIZER! HOW SHOULD
WE USE IT!

6. IN THE SELECTION OF PEANUTS FOR PLANTING, WHAT
ARE THE QUALITIES WE SHOULD LOOK FOR!

7. WHICH SHALL WE PLANT, THE SHELLED OB UNSHELLED
PEANUTS! WHY!

8. HOW CAN WE TELL WHEN THE PEANUTS ARE READY TO
DIG!

9. WHAT METHODS ARE USED IN DIGGING PEANUTS! WHICH
WOULD YOU ADVISE AS THE BEST!

10. WOULD YOU ADVISE STAKING OUR PEANUTS! WHY!

11. WHAT METHODS DO THEY EMPLOY IN PICKING PEA-
NUTS! WHAT, IN YOUR OPINION, IS THE BEST METHOD!

12. WHAT PRECAUTIONS SHOULD WE TAKE IF WE WISH TO
USE THE PEANUT VINES FOB FEEDING STOCK!

108 TSB TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

DIBECTION8 FOE BEADING:

In the booklet 70a will find an article on ' ' Peanuts ' ' which is taken from
a bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture. Bead it through
once rapidly and carefully. As you read, keep in mind these 12 PROBLEMS,
OB QUESTIONS, of the fanners.

When you have finished reading the article through once, write down in
the space marked "Time" the last number that you see on the blackboard.
Then on the paper provided, write down the answers to these 12 problems.
Befer to the article as often as you wish in writing down these answers.

BE SURE THAT YOU ANSWEB VEBY BBIEFLY AND YET VEBY
ACCUBATELY THE 12 PBOBLEMS.

NAME CITY

DATE SCHOOL

GBADE TIME

GBOUP

Method of Experimentation

1. Selection of Material. After considerable preliminary ex-
perimenting in the Elementary and Junior High Schools of the
State University of Iowa, the following two selections were chosen
as being suitable for the purposes of this experiment: (1) the
article on " Peanuts' ' just mentioned, and (2) an article on
" Immigration,' ' adapted from Beard and Bagley's American
History. These articles were both about 9 pages in length and were
of such a nature that it was not difficult to give them the 'problem
setting.'

2. Division of the Class. To conduct this experiment success-
fully it was necessary to divide the pupils into two groups of as
nearly equal comprehension ability in silent reading as possible.
An article on the "Sweating System," adapted from Towne's
Social Problems, was used for this purpose. This article was chosen
because the pupils in the grades in which the experiment was con-
ducted were almost totally unfamiliar with the subject matter.

To validate and justify this method of dividing the class into
two groups all three articles were given to a group of 20 students
under similar conditions. The instructions for the tests were
identical, to read the article twice and then answer a list of ques-
tions. The following Pearson correlations were obtained :
Sweating System ' ' and ' ' Peanuts ' ' .64

Sweating System" and "Immigration" .90

OUTLINING AND SUMMARIZING 109

These rather high positive correlations indicate that ability to
comprehend one article is closely correlated with ability to com-
prehend the other articles.

3. Method. The experiment proper was conducted in Grades
VI to IX, inclusive, of a representative public school in Iowa. The
Summarizing Group was called Oroup A and the Re-Beading
Group, Group B.

After the instructions to the Summarizing Group had been
carefully read in concert twice and any questions answered con-
cerning them (three minutes allowed for the reading and ques-
tioning) , the signal to start was given. A period of 27 minutes was
allowed for reading the article and answering the questions. At the
end of that time the pupils were submitted to a rigorous 15-minute
test

The Re-Reading Group was told to read the article through
carefully as many times as possible in the 30-minute period. The
same 15-minute test was given to the pupils in this group at the
end of their reading period.

It will be noted that the Be-Beading Group was given three
minutes longer than the Summarizing Group. This addition of
time seems justifiable, since the Summarizing Group, as we have
seen, spent three minutes in 'warming up' by reading the two para-
graphs of general information about the peanut industry.

Results
In Table 2 a summary of the results is presented.

TABLE 2

800RB8 OF TH1 SUMMABIUNQ GROUP (A) AND THI Rl-RlADINQ GROUP (B) WITH THI

Two Typis of Material, "Peanuts" and "Immigration"

Peanuts

Immigration

Grade

VI

VII

VIII

IX

VIII IX

Oroup A
Group B

Excels

B

311
296

4C2
461

511

480

587
547

868 441
810 415

Difference
Percent A

15
5

1

81

7

40
8

58 26
17 6

Conclusions

1. The data of Table 2 seem to indicate that controlling the
summary by presenting to the pupils a list of questions before read-

HO TUB TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

ing the article and trying to arouse their interest in it is a some-
what more efficient method than the re-reading of the article.

2. The Summarizing Oroup would have made a higher score,
had the pupils known how to skim an article for answers to
questions.

This statement is verified, first, by the fact that "time" was
called before the pupils had finished answering all the questions,
and second, by the fact that more or less confusion prevailed in the
Summarizing Group during the study period. The method of look-
ing up answers to questions rapidly and writing them was a new
method of studying and an undue amount of time was wasted in
turning from the questions to the reading material too frequently.

III. THE VALUE OF THE DIRECTED SUMMARY WHEN WRITING

IS ELIMINATED

In the second experiment it was found that the pupils in the
Summarizing Oroup were unable to finish answering all the ques-
tions on the summarizing forms given them because they lacked
ability to express the answers briefly, and hence gave too much
time to writing ; and because the continuity of reading was broken
by having to stop frequently to write the answers to the questions.

Accordingly, it was thought that a controlled summary in which
writing was eliminated would be worth trying. To this end two
experiments were conducted by the writer upon two quite different
classes of students and with two specimens of reading material
quite different in content and style.

A. Experiment with College Students

The Problem

What is the value of reading an article through once and devot-
ing the rest of a given period to finding, but not recording, the
answers to the test questions already placed in the hands of the
students as compared with the re-reading of the article for the
same length of timet

OUTLINING AND SUMMARIZING

111

Method of Experimentation

1. Material. The selection used was a nine-page article on the
Government of Germany, by Hazen. The subjects were 88 stu-
dents, mostly sophomores, in two classes in Principles of Education
in one of the colleges of Iowa.

2. Division of the Class. Monroe's Reading Test, No. Ill, was
used for the purpose of dividing the class into two groups of equal
reading comprehension ability. Thirty-five pairs who made prac-
tically identical scores on this test were selected out of the 88
students. In no case was there a pair whose difference in score
was over two points.

3. Administration of the Experiment. The time allowed was
20 minutes. The Summarizing Group was told to read the article
through once rapidly and carefully, then to take up the list of
questions and answer them mentally, being sure to skim through
the article for answers to any questions they might not be able to
recall.

The Re-Reading Group was told to read the article through
as many times as possible in the 20 minutes.

Only 20 minutes were allowed for reading the article, because
only a few students could finish reading it twice in that time. This
was judged to be the optimal time for the Re-Reading Group in
view of the interest in the article and of its difficulty.

At the end of this period, each section was given a rigorous
10-minute test upon the material just read. This test comprised
the same questions that the Summarizing Group had been mentally
attempting to answer.

Results
In Table 3 the results are presented. It will be seen that Group

TABLE 8

Scobks or thi Summarizing Group (A) and the Re-Reading Group (B) with thi

Material "The Government of Germany"

Aggregate
Score

Range

Median

Third
Quartile

Pint
Quartile

Group A
Group B

732
561

9-32
5-24

21
17

'24
20

17
11

A scores, in the aggregate, 171 points, or 30.5 percent, more than
Group B, and that its curve shows superiority throughout

112 THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

Conclusions

1. These data seem to indicate that the use by the students of
specific questions on the assignment is much more efficient than
undirected reading occupying the same amount of time.

2. The Summarizing Group, we feel sure, worked more effect-
ively because it did not waste time in writing.

B. Experiment with School Children

The problem here is identical with that of the preceding experi-
ment with college students.

Method of Experimentation

1. Material. The material used in this experiment was the
article on " Tuberculosis.' ' It lends itself readily to this method
of asking questions. The three big problems discussed in it are:
(1) sources of tuberculosis, (2) symptoms of the disease, (3) pre-
ventatives.

2. Division of the Class. The subjects were pupils in Grades
VI, VII and VIII of a representative public school of Iowa. Mon-
roe's Silent Reading Test, No. II, was used for the purpose of
dividing them into two groups of equal comprehension ability in
silent reading.

3. Administration of the Experiment. The Summarizing
Group (A) was asked to read the article through once and then
quickly to take up the list of questions on their desks and answer
them mentally. The pupils were told to refer to the article freely
in their work. At the end of 25 minutes, they were given a rigorous
15-minute test. This test was made up of the same questions that
they had been attempting to answer mentally.

The Re-Reading Group was told to read the article through
as often as possible in the 25-minute period. At the end of that
time, the pupils were given the same test as was given to those in
Group A.

OUTLINING AND SUMMARIZING H3

The Results

The results are, in summary, an aggregate score of 617 for Group
A and 401 for Group B. The difference, 216, in favor of the Sum-
marizing Group, is a 53.8 percent superiority.

Conclusion

The figures for the school children confirm and intensify the
findings with the college students. They show that the use by the
pupils of specific questions on the assignment is a much more
efficient method of studying than the expenditure of the same
amount of time in undirected reading.

CHAPTER VIII

MEASURING COMPREHENSION OF CONTENT MATERIAL

Harry A. Greens
State University of Iowa

INTRODUCTORY

Teachers have long complained that pupils do not know how to
study. Particularly has this complaint been directed to the study-
ing of those sources of information and knowledge commonly called
the content subjects. It has remained for the recent change in
emphasis which has taken place in the field of reading to bring out
the fact that, after all, the difficulty is chiefly one of reading.
Pupils who glibly read a paragraph orally fail miserably when
confronted with an exact check on the meaning of what they have
read. If we are to judge from the parrot-like precision with which
they orally reproduce the printed page, we are almost convinced
that they comprehend. However, when we carefully investigate
their real understanding of what they read, we begin to have serious
doubts as to the efficiency of our reading instruction.

The material described on the following pages was originally pre-
pared for the purpose of determining something of the extent to
which pupils in certain of the elementary school grades do com-
prehend easy, straightforward, factual material, when measured by
a rather exacting test. The chief purpose in presenting it here
is to show that it is perfectly possible and practicable for any
teacher to reproduce these tests or devise other similar tests,
superior to these, for the purpose of measuring the ability of her
pupils in reading this type of material, or of training them in this
kind of reading. The material presented is merely typical of what
may be done. It does not represent a finished product. It is not a
standardized test.

It should be pointed out at the outset that the measurement of
silent reading represents a rather complex problem. There has

114

MEASURING COMPREHENSION 115

been a tendency to break up silent reading into a number of dis-
tinct abilities, chief among which are rate of reading and compre-
hension of material read. Other factors contributing to these two
and often listed with them are : the ability to re-organize the ma-
terial, the ability to recall the essentials at a later date, and the
ability to read the proper kind of material with enjoyment. Stated
briefly, these factors become, in order: organization, memory, and
appreciation.

The objective measurement of rate of reading, while sufficiently
complicated, has been more successfully accomplished than has the
measurement of comprehension. In the data presented here the
emphasis is placed on the factor of comprehension as measured by
a distinct device, very objective and exacting in its character.

In general, the measurement of comprehension in silent read-
ing follows one of three lines. In the first the subject is asked
to read the selection and then to indicate his understanding of it
by his ability to reproduce either verbatim or idea for idea, as much
as possible of the material read. This plan is used in the test
devised by Starch and by Gray.

The second type of test checks the comprehension by means
of questions, either of the controlled or uncontrolled answer sort.
The Thorndike Scale Alpha 2 is an example of the first of these,
and the Courtis Series B, Test 2, of the second type.

The third type of test used has been called a "directions test."
In tests of this character the subject is asked to indicate the under-
standing of the material read by the completion of some act, by the
giving of some definite objective response which leaves a record.
This idea was utilized in the original Kelly Silent Heading Tests,
and followed again in Monroe's more recently developed tests. It
is this third type of comprehension exercise which is utilized in
the tests herein described, though with the difference that the
material upon which the comprehension exercises are based is
logical, factual, and related throughout. The understanding of
the selection is indicated by certain definite responses to exercises
covering the material. These responses are obtained in such a way
that an objective record is obtained.

116 THE TWENT1ETR YEARBOOK

FIRST EXPERIMENT: THE ' WHEAT TEST*

The first of these tests 1 with which experiments were made by
the writer is known as the "Wheat Test"

The following is an exact duplication of the directions, map
terial, and exercises as presented to the pupils for testing.

I want to see how carefully you can read a short paragraph. After yon
have read it, you will be asked to answer some questions about it. In answer-
ing these questions there are three things you should be sure to remember.
They are:

1. Give just the information needed to answer each question, but make
sure that the answer you give is to be found in the paragraph.

2. If any question is asked for which you think there is no answer given
in the paragraph, write on your paper "the paragraph does not tell."

3. You may read the paragraph as often as you wish to make sure that
your answers are correct.

Now that you know exactly what to do, read the following paragraph and
answer the questions just as you have been told, remembering that you may
have all the time you need.

The chief wheat belts extend through the valleys of the Missouri, the
Ohio, and the upper Mississippi. Of aU the states in this region Minnesota
raises the most wheat. There is another belt along the Pacific coast. The
present center of wheat production is about 100 miles west of Des Moines,
Iowa; since 1850 it has moved westward nearly seven hundred miles, and
northward about one hundred miles.

Answer these questions.

1. Mark on the accompanying map the chief wheat belts of the United States
by using a large letter ' ' W ' ' in the proper places.

2. Place a number one (1) in the state raising the most wheat, on the map.

3. Place a small cross (x) where the present center of wheat production is
located.

4. Show by an arrow ( ^s^H^ ) the direction on the map in which the
center of wheat production has moved 700 miles since 1850.

5. Show by a star (*) on the map about where the center of wheat produc-
tion previous to 1850 was located.

The map to which reference is made in the directions was
merely an outline map of United States. Names of states and
cities were not shown, but the names of the river valleys mentioned

1 The writer desires to acknowledge the guidance and co-operation of Dr.
Ernest Horn in the development of these test devices.

MEASURING COMPREHENSION H7

in the paragraph were printed in with a small rubber stamp outfit
(see Figs. 1 and 2). The paragraph itself was selected from a
commonly used geographical reader which is judged to be easy
enough to be read by children of the lowest grade in which the test
was given.

The test was given to a number of children in Grades IV, V, and
VI. The responses were scored by the writer on an arbitrary, but
consistent basis, by allowing zero, one, two, and three points for
a question, depending upon the exactness of the answer. Follow-
ing is the key used for scoring the tests :

Basis

"W" marking the valleys of the Mississippi, Missouri,

and Ohio riveis. and Pacific coast.

"WV marking the thrco river valleys.

" W" marking one of the three valleys.

No ' ' W ' correctly placed, or ' ' paragraph does not tell."

A number one (1) in Minnesota.

(x) in western Iowa.

(x) in Nebraska.

(x) in South Dakota, or Kansas, or further west, or

"paragraph does not tell."

Arrow in Ohio pointing toward Iowa.

Arrow elsewhere to east of Iowa pointing westward.

Arrow elsewhere on innp pointing westward.

No arrow, or arrow not pointing westward, or northwest,

or "paragraph does not tell."

A star (*) in Ohio.

A star in Illinois, Indiana, Penn., or Ky.
1 A star anywhere east of present center (100 miles west

of Dcs Moines, Iowa).

On this basis the results presented in Table 1 were obtained.
The table shows the percentage of pupils in each grade that earned
the various scores for each question. Eiprht and three-tenths per-
cent of the 24 fourth-grade children tested received the highest
possible score of three points on the first question. Twenty-five
percent of these 24 children scored two points, etc. These data
show some very interesting variations in the difficulty of the exer-
cises for the three grades under test. Clearly Exercises IV and V
are the most difficult, when it is remembered that every child was
given an opportunity to complete the test.

Question

Score

I

3

2

1

II

3

in

3

2

1

IV

3

o

*m

1

V

3

o

118 THE TWENTIETH YEABBOOK

TABLE 1
Pbbcihtaoe or Pupils Maxinq Various Scores on Each of thi Fiyi Exercises

Uff THI 'WHEAT T18T*

Grade IV V vF

EzerelM Score Pupila 24 11 22

n

in

IT

8

8.8

9.1

41.0

2

25.0

54.5

81.7

1

50.0

86.4

27.3

16.7

0.0

0.0

8

20.8

72.7

68.7

2

4.1

0.0

9.1

1

8.4

0.0

0.0

68.7

27.8

27.2

8

87.5

45.4

63.7

2

0.0

27.8

9.1

1

16.8

27.8

4.5

45.7

0.0

22.7

8

0.0

0.0

0.0

2

8.4

9.1

00

1

45.7

72.7

77.2

45.8

18.2

22.8

8

0.0

0.0

4.5

2

8.4

18.2

0.0

1

20.8

27.8

13.7

70.8

54.5

81.8

Table 2 shows the average score made per exercise by pupils
of the three grades tested, and the total average score made on the
test by each grade. The percent of possible score reported shows
that the third-grade children scored 31.6 per cent of what it was
possible for them to score on the test, etc. The fifth grade scored
only slightly over one-half of what it might have made in the test
These results may be taken as an indication that in spite of the
apparent simplicity of the reading matter, and evident definiteness
of the comprehension test, this test is to be considered rather diffi-
cult, or else it must be admitted that the pupils tested are not able
to read understanding^ content material of this sort.

TABLE 2

average scores per pupil, tor each exercise uk the 'wheat ts8t f *

Arranged by Grades

Exercise

Grade IV V VI

I 1.25 1.86 2.14
II .79 2.19 2.10

III 1.80 2.19 2.14

IV .54 .91 .78

«,y t * c * 87 - 6 * -M
Total Average Score 4.75 7.29 7 64

Percent of Possible Score 81.60 48.50 6L00

MEASURING COMPREHENSION H9

A compilation of types of responses given the different exercises
shows some astonishing variability. The outline map (Figure 1)
shows the types of answers given by fourth-grade children in re-
sponse to Exercise V. Figure 2, which embodies the results to the
same question of sixth-grade pupils, shows considerable improve-
ment. In these figures a star is placed wherever a pupil placed it in
attempting to answer the exercise. The numbers appearing by
the side of the stars indicate the number of children in addition to
the one first placing the star in the location shown who gave the
same answer.

SECOND EXPERIMENT: THE 'INDIANS TEST'

A second attempt at checking the silent reading comprehension
of elementary school pupils was made. The material selected for
this test was taken from Iowa Stories, a compilation of local history
written by Dr. Aurner, of the State University of Iowa. This ma-
terial is written in an easy, interesting style, and is read with much
interest and enjoyment by children in the third grade. However,
it was felt that the rigorous comprehension test was too difficult for
children of this grade so the test was used in Grades IV, V, and VI.

In addition to the two paragraphs comprising the reading mat-
ter, the test consisted of a page of ten exercises asking for specific
things to be recorded on the outline map of the state of Iowa which
accompanied the other material. The children were then given the
same directions as were used in the "Wheat Test." All pupils
were given time enough in which to complete the test. The two
paragraphs selected and the exercises based on it are here repro-
duced. They were also given outline maps like those shown on a
reduced scale in Figs. 3 and 4.

"Pushing thb Indians Out op Iowa"

The Indians loved their hunting grounds along the eastern side of the
Mississippi Biver and Chief Black Hawk wished to stay in the land where he
was born. But the white people kept coming over the line between their land
and the land which the redmen still claimed in Illinois. On the Illinois side
of the big river were the corn fields of the Indian tribes and there the men
and women and children had been allowed to live until trouble arose. Then the
great war broke out which is known in history as Black Hawk's War, because
thai chief led the Indian warriors.

THE TWENTIETH YBAXBOOX

Tra. 1. BUPOHUI OM SUU-GKADl FDfOI

MEA8UBIN0 COMPREHENSION 121

When the bitter fight was ended, the Indians were defeated and, of course,
the government of the United States made them give up some more of their
land. At that time a strip about fifty miles wide along the west side of the
Mississippi Biver, except for a narrow strip along the Iowa River near its
mouth, was sold to the United States for about fourteen cents an acre. The
narrow piece of land which the Indians kept en both sides of the Iowa Biver
was the hunting ground of a part of the tribes. Within this land and about
twelve miles from the mouth of the Iowa Biver, was the village of Chief
Keokuk, who was one of the great leaders of his people. In 1836 the narrow
strip along the Iowa Biver which had protected the village of Chief Keokuk
was sold to the United States government for about eight cents an acre.
Keokuk and his people moved away to other Indian lands further west.

"Pushing thb Indians Out op Iowa"

1. Show the location of the favorite hunting grounds of the Indians by
putting the letter ' ' H ' ' in the proper places on the map.

2. If Chief Black Hawk loved his land along the Mississippi Biver, write
the word * ' Yes ' ' along the bottom of the map.

3. Show the location of the corn lands of the Indians along the
Mississippi Biver by putting the letter "C" in the proper places.

4. Enclose with a line the strip of land which the Indians first sold to the
white people.

5. Anywhere within the first strip of land sold by the Indians to the
white people, write the figures showing what price the Indians were paid for
each acre.

6. Mark with crosses (xxxxxx) the land along the Iowa Biver where the
Indians kept their hunting grounds after Black Hawk 's War.

7. Place a star (*) about where the village of Chief Keokuk was located.

8. Write near the village of Chief Keokuk the date when he sold the re-
maining strip of land along the Iowa Biver to the white people.

9. If Chief Keokuk received ten cents an acre for the last strip of land
sold to the white people, put a circle around the date just written. If he
received about eight cents an acre, put a line under the date.

10. Show by an arrow the direction Chief Keokuk and his tribes moved
when forced to leave their village.

This test was given in two schools, the University Elementary
School and a public elementary school. The papers were scored by
the writer by the following key :

Exercise Score Basis

I 3 One or more "HV along the eastern side of the

Mississippi Biver.
No "H" properly located, no reply.

122 TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

n

3
2
1

in

3

IV

3

2

1

V

3

VI

3
2

1

vn

3

2

1

vni

3

IX

3

X

3
2

1

"Yes" along the bottom of the map.
"Yes" along either side of map.
"Yes" along top of map.
No response, "paragraph does not tell."

One or more "C's" along Illinois side of Mississippi
Biver.

No "C" properly located.

Line not cutting Iowa Biver inclosing area along Miss.
Biver above and below Iowa Biver
Line parallel to and west of Mississippi Biver cutting
Iowa Biver '

Line parallel to Miss. Biver cutting Iowa Biver, but
inclosing one-third or more of area of state between
river and the line
No response; line east of Miss. Biver, etc

Number 14 within area inclosed by line and the Missis-
sippi Biver

No figure; or figure outside area; "paragraph does
not tell"

x 's along both sides of Iowa Biver near its mouth
x's along both sides of Iowa Biver, but not near mouth
x's along one side Iowa Biver; not near mouth
No x's; or along another river, etc.

Star on Iowa Biver near its mouth within area marked

as hunting grounds of Indians

Star on Iowa Biver but outside this area

Star near headwaters of Iowa Biver

No star; or away from Iowa Biver; etc

Date 1836 near star above

Date not near star as in above; no date given

A line under the date 1836

A circle around the date 1836; no answer; etc

Arrow starting near star pointing westward
Arrow starting near star pointing southwest or north-
west

Arrow pointing north or south
Arrow pointing east; no answer; etc

TABLE 8

AvnAas Sooris pxb Pupil nr Schools A and B fob thi Twr Exbboxsbs

IN THI 'INDIANS TlST'

Grade

Fourth

Fifth

Sixth

Exercise

School

▲

▲

B

▲

B

I

1.4

2.8

2.85

2.6

2.07

II

8.0

2.9

2.64

2.9

2.66

rn

2.8

2.7

2.50

2.5

2.72

rv

1.1

1.0

.70

1.6

1.16

V

2.1

2.7

1.46

2.4

2.00

VI

1.4

2.1

1.26

2.1

2.16

vn

1.8

1.6

1.28

1.9

2.67

VIII

2.8

8.0

2.70

2.8

8.00

IX

2.5

2.8

1.80

2.8

2.90

X

1.0

2.2

1.60

2.5

2.28

Total

19.8

28.8

18.74

24.1

28.62

Percent of

Possible Score

66.0

78.0

62.50

80.5

78.80

UKA8UK1HG COMFKEHKJSHW^ 123

Table 3 shows that a score of 1.4 was made on the first exercise
on the average by fourth-grade pupils tested. This average score
was increased to 2.3 by the fifth-grade pupils, and to 2.6 points by
the sixth-grade pupils, etc. The average total score made by the
fourth grade was 19.8 points, or 66.0 percent of what it was possible
for the pupils to score. The fifth grade of School A made an aver-
age of 23.3 points, or 78.0 percent of the total possible score.

In this test, as in the former test, there are some interesting
variations in difficulty of the exercises in the different grades. For
example, the average score per pupil for the third exercise seems
to indicate that it becomes more and more difficult as it advances
through the grades tested. The final averages, however, show some-
thing of the expected grade growth.

In order to show something of the variation in the type of
response given by fifth and sixth-grade children to this material
Figures 3 and 4 are presented. In each case the map is an exact
duplicate of the map used in the test. Figure 3 shows the types
of answers given to Exercises VII and X by 35 fifth-grade pupils
in School B.

If one may interpret these results somewhat freely, it may be
said that the responses of the children tested by this type of test
of comprehension literally do "scatter all over the map." In the
light of these data, is it not logical to raise these two questions:
Do children vary as widely in their comprehension of content ma-
terial read silently as their responses to these tests seem to indicate f
If such is the case, is it any wonder that we find the ignorance we
do in certain of the content subjects f

To bring together the results of these tests, Table 4 is pre-
sented. The object of this table is to show at a glance how far the
actual scores were from the highest possible score (100) in both
tests, both schools, and in all three grades.

TABLE 4

Grade

IV

V

VI

Wheat Teat (School A)
Indian! Teat (School B)
Indiana Teat (School B)

81.6
66.0

. • •

48.6
78.0
62.6

61.0
80.6
78.8

124

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

i o A

w A

Fig. 8. Responses of 85 Fifth-Grade Pupil* in School B to ExerdM VH (asterisks)
and Exercise X (arrows) in the 'Indian' Test. (No answer to Exercise Til by one
pupil, none to Exercise X bj six pupils. Numbers beside stars or arrows indicate
number of pupils, in addition to the first one recorded, who made that response.)

Iowa

Fig. 4. Responses of 82 Sixth-Grade Pupils in School B to Exercise VII (asterisks)
and Exercise X (arrows) in the 'Indiana' Teat. (No answer to Exercise X by four
pupils. Numbers used as in Fig. 8.)

MEASURING COMPREHENSION 126

SUMMARY

In summary, it seems that the work with these tests warrants
certain conclusions, though these, because the data are too limited
in number of cases and scope of material, are confessedly tentative
conclusions. Further experimentation with this type of material
is going forward.

1. Children read and glibly discuss certain content material
placed in their hands, but when they are held strictly to account
by an objective indication of comprehension, the scores made are
startlingly low. Among the factors which may affect the results :
(a) silent reading ability; (b) geographical knowledge; (c)
mechanical features of the tests; (d) lack of motive on the part
of the pupils.

In respect to the second factor, it may be said that, so far as it
was possible, lack of geographical knowledge was discounted by
placing on the map itself labels indicating most of the geographical
knowledge required. There is no comment on the third factor,
except to say that the same mechanical difficulties were presented
to all grades and to all pupils tested. The question of motive needs
no discussion. The children were interested, and practically with-
out exception took special delight in undertaking the tests.

2. By the use of material such as is described in this study, an
objective determination of the ability of school children to read and
to understand certain selected content material may be made.

3. Material of a similar nature covering a large range of sub-
ject matter may be selected and prepared by teachers and super-
visors with the aid of limited school equipment. Outline maps of
the type used in these tests may be purchased in quantities from
publishers or may be made by the teachers with a hektograph. The
manifolding of all sorts of testing and teaching material is made
possible through the use of it and similar devices.

4. Information of the sort revealed by these tests should be of
great importance to teachers in connection with their regular class
work. Assignments can be adjusted to the ability of the class, and
a better understanding of the difficulties of the individual pupils
of the class will result.

126 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

5. In view of the apparent inability on the part of our school
pupils to read and comprehend accurately, material of the type
which constantly confronts them in their daily lesson assignments,
it is evident that we need much more emphasis on drill on content
material for the purpose of developing this ability. Suitable ma-
terial is easily found. Straightforward, factual material that per-
mits close checking is best. Map and diagram material is excellent
for drill purposes. Charts, graphs, and tabular presentations of
facts are excellent, and certainly we encounter material of that
type frequently enough to warrant special emphasis on it at the
present time. Much use of unstandardized material for drill pur-
poses is to be recommended

CHAPTER IX

THE VOCABULARIES OP TEN FIRST READERS 1

J. L. Packjcb

In the Seventeenth Yearbook, Part 7, of this Society Mr. E. T.
Housh, Superintendent of Schools, Carroll, Iowa, published a sum-
mary and analysis of the vocabularies of ten second-year readers.
The present study is a similar investigation of the vocabularies
of ten first readers from the following well-known series:

1. Aldine 6. Heath

2. Beacon 7. New Education

3. Brooks 8. New National

4. Carroll and Brooks 9. Riverside

5. Cyr 10. Wheeler

Tyro tables are presented. The first is really a summary of
the second ; it indicates the total number of different words that
appear in the ten readers with the frequency specified. This
table will be useful in showing the number of words that need
to be known in order to read various proportions of these read-
ers as one proceeds from the words most commonly used toward
the words that are least commonly used. It may be noted that
of the 3,541 different words, 2,048 appear four times or less.

The second table specifies the words themselves in alphabetical
order within descending frequency groups. It is to be interpreted
thus: the word the is used 5,246 times in these ten first readers
and is found in all ten of them, etc.

"This study was undertaken by Mr. Packer when Superintendent of Schools
at West Liberty, Iowa, and a graduate student in the State University of
Iowa and was nearly completed when he died, January 19, 1918. In view
of the many requests for the summarized lists which Mr. Packer was known
to be preparing, the Graduate College made an appropriation for clerical
assistance to complete the work, which was done by Dr. and Mrs, Harry
Greene. The lists with a few words of explanation are transmitted for pub-
lication by Professor Ernest Horn. — Editor.

127

128

THE TWENTIETH TBABBOOK

SUMMARY

OF THE ]

Number

Frequenc;

Wordi

15

7WW250

6

600-690

7

500-690

5

400-499

9

850-899

10

800-849

TABLE 1

numbxe of different wobd8 occurring with certain
Frequencies in Ten First Re a per 8

Number

Frequen

Wordi

10

250-299

18

200-249

84

150-149

40

100-149

85

76-99

94

50-74

TABLE 8

Frequency

40-49
30-39
20-29
10-19
5-0

Number

Word*

60

96

164

882

514

2048

Words Used in Ten First Readers, Arranged Alphabetically by Frequency

Groups to Show the Number of Times Each Word Appears and the

Number of Readers in Which It Appears

Word Frequency Readers

700-5250

the 5246 10

end 8875 10

I 1020 10

* 1860 10

to 1856 10

you 1850 10

is 1457 10

it 1470 10

bo 1015 10

in 1058 10

little 1087 10

she 804 10

wiU 855 10

not 782 10

of 707 10

600-609

•re 667 10

do 608 10

for 688 10

uid 600 10

see 674 10

they 680

600— 500

can 562 10

here 568 10

her 520 10

mo 520 10

on 561 10

we 565 10

what 564 10

400 - 400

like 450 10

my 420 10

that 470 10

wu 408 10

with 427 10

850-800

all 880 10

bat 858 10

oome 876 10

Word

hM

hit

ono

so

there

this

st

be

fo

rood

how

some

them

then

your

hsd

hero

him

mother

no

now

out

plsy

too

birds

bey

day

did

make

must

old

protty

think

when
would

sm

Frequency Readers

850
885
875
855
871
881

800-840
848

816
804
804
884
885
812
817
811
811

250-200
264
278
252
281
276
258
208
251
270
258

200-240
205
282
285
210
206
211
281
206
207
240
248
282

150-100
106
157

Word Frequency Readers

10

away

186

10

10

baby

182

10

bit

104

10

10

bird

150

10

10

Dan

174

10

152

8

down

176

eat

188

10

10

from

188

10

10
10

A 4k

home

181
162

10

A 4k

house

178

10

10

into

178

10

10

4k

know

108

10

8

A 4k

man

158

10
10

4k

many

158

mamma

158

4

may

155

nest

178

10

10

10
10
10
10

10
10

oh

170

8

our

161

put

150

10

red

184

10

run

101

10

■hall

168

sing

156

take

164

10

us

182

Tery

177

8

want

151

7

where

165

10

yea

167

10
10
10

100-140

again
blue

106
128

8

o

came

188

o

eat

148

8

8

could

118

10

o

dear

105

8

10

does

120

10

10

dog

188

7

o

don't

184

6

w

find

108

fly

184

8

10

Fred

117

6

10

firl

182

VOCABULARIES OF TEN FIE8T BEADEB8

129

Weird

King
ar
if
Jack

fi?

let

I25f

Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers

neve
orer
ran

143
188
125
148
118
106
116
181
101
140
104
116
149
141
140

10
8
9
9
8
8
8

10
9
9
9
9
9
9
9

a

101

189

v
10

time

140

9

trees

107

9

water

186

9

wen

101
185

9
10

went

126

8

were

149

9

white

120

10

who

110

10

wind

185
75-99

10

about

91

7

Allen

88

1

any

76

9

apples

80

6

back

83

9

ball

99

4

boys

96

8

catch

87

8

children

79

8

eow

85

8

every

78

10

Fannie

90

2

fast

86

8

father

ft7

8

flag

90

5

flowers .

77

8

found

81

9

green
hand

85
94

10
6

ite

80

9

likes

87

9

milk

96

8

more

87

7

morning

85

9

or

88

9

rain

86

9

says

87

8

should

82

7

snow

92

9

soon

98

9

sun

94

9

three

80

10

told

76

6

two

87

8

under

96
60-74

10

apple
asleep

68
51

7
8

beautiful

58

7

bed

55

8

been

54

7

Bessie 58 2

blow 52 8

book 67 6

bread 55 8

bright 50 7

brook 61 6

brown 66 8

call 66 8

cold 72 10

corn 71 7

doU 61 6

drink 56 8

drive 50 7

eggs 54 10

ever 51 9

eyes 74 10

fall 65 10

fine 58 7

fire 78 6

gingerbread 50 8

girls 69 9

Grace 51 4

grass 54 8

great 58 4

ground 51 9

prow 72 9

Hans 58 1

happy 50 7

hat 51 7

head 55 8

help 66 7

hen 74 6

high 52 7

hill 51 8

horse 69 9

I'll 56 5

Kate 68 5

keep 68 8

kind 58 5

large 51 7

live 60 9

looked 59 8

love 68 8

mot 58 2

mill 65 5

Mr. 70 5

much 66 7

name 56 7

Nat 66 2

near 62 7

new 60 8

night 78 8

off 55 7

only 58 7

papa 62 4

pig 64 6

please 66 7

poor 58 6

rabbit 54 7

ride 58 7

right 52 9

round 62 9

school 58 6

seeds 65 6

sit 52 9

sky 64 9

small 57 9

sometimes 50 8

spring 50 9

still 56 8

stop 74 10

such 51 5

tall

52

6

ten

50

7

their

74

6

theae

51

7

things

68

7

Tom

61

4

top

52

8

upon

54

8

wants

62

T

why

72

8

window

68

8

wings

56

9

winter

62

T

wish

56

T

won't

70

8

work

68

8

yellow

56

6

40-

-49

acroea

46

4

after

40

7

afraid

45

6

always

40

7

barn

40

4

bee

49

8

before

46

7

best

42

6

better

44

7

bring

48

8

cake

49

7

called

45

8

cannot

48

8

can't

48

6

coat

42

5

comes

41

10

coming

45

6

cried

41

8

daisy
dead

48

6

46

5

duck

40

6

each

44

7

fan

45

8

field

42

7

four

41

8

fun

40

7

garden

47

7

gave

48

8

glad

44

6

grandma
nanda

42

6

40

8

heard

45

8

I'm

49

4

Mrs.

44

6

42

5

once

46

7

other

45

6

pail

46

5

rat

41

8

read

41

6

rest

42

4

rose

49

6

sand

40

6

sat

46

8

seen

42

8

sheep

49

6

show

44

7

sleep

49

7

something

49

8

summer

47

6

swing

42

6

than

47

6

today

44

8

130

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Word

walk

warm

watch

wheat

woods

•long
•round

bear
because

bell

black

blows

box

butter

buy

bun

calls

care

carry

chickens

Christmas

clock

ery

dogs

door

face
fat

feed

feel

feet

fell
fish
five
flower

&&

friends

fruit

full

fires

foat

foats

grandpa

fray

frew

gruff

hard

hawks

ho

hold

horses

hungry

kittens

left

lily

lion

lived

lire*

looks

makes

nies

nuts

oak

often

open

Frequency Headers

41 5

46 8

40

41

45

SO -89

80

80

80

82

88

86

80

85

86

86

88

81

88

80

88

84

87

88

80

85

80

84

88

80

80

88

80

88

86

86

81

86

84

80

80

83

88

80

84

88

86

82

88

82

85

80

80

81

80

86

82

80

85

88

85

84

80

85

88

82

80

80

81 5

87 6

Word Frequency Readers

pan

party

picture

place

plant

ring

roses

sell

sick

side

singing

sits

stay

supper

took

(own

train

try

▼iolet

wanted

which

while

without

write

Alice

another

ask

basket

beat

bees

Beunie

Billy

birdie

birthday

bite

blew

boat

books

bough

bow-wow

bridge

brings

built

buttercup

butterfly

cap

cart

cats

cheese

chick

chicken

chicks

close

cook

country

cows

cradle

creep

cross

crows

crying

days

didn't

dolls

donkey

drum

dwarf

88
80
80
87
81
88
88
80
86
81
86
85
82
80
80
84
81
81
88
88
B0
87
88
82
87

20-20

28
22
27
24
21
24
21
28
22
20
26
21
24
28
21
22
22
28
21
20
28
20
24
28
22
21
28
20
21
26
26
28
25
27
20
27
20
20
28
24
24
24
21
28

Word

eight
Elsie
far

farmer

faster

feathers

All

first

flew

flower's

food

funny

George

gone
grandmother

Helen

helped

hide

honey

horn

hurt

ice

01

isn't

Jamie

keeps

kite

kitten

kitty

knew

knows

lake

»7
leaf

legs

light

liked

looking

Marion

Mark

Mary

meadows

meadow

mean

might

mine

minute

Miss

most

Muffet

Nan

Ned

Nell

nine

north

outside

pads

pan-cakes

P«t

people

pet

pick

pie

pink

played

playing

plays

pussy

Frequency Readers

27
28
29
26
21
28
24
28
29
27
28
25
26
28
26
27
22
28
20
26
28

21 5

22 5
28 5
20
27
25
21
26
25
25
26
28
20
25
28
24
24
20
22
25
26
20
20
27
20
24
24
21
27
28
21
24
28
29
28
21
28
28
28
21
28
28
21
21
21
22
28
27
25
27

V0CABVLABIE8 OF TEN FIRST BBADEBS

131

Word

Frequency Headers

Word Frequency

Headers

Word FreqtJ

lency Beadc

ready

25

5

beside

17

dry-

18 9

river

20

6

bit

10

ducks

19 6

robin

27

5

black-smith

10

ear

14 5

room

28

7

blocks

14

east

16 8

roots

20

5

blossoms

18

eaten

10 2

Boy

20

1

blue-bird

17

eating

11 5

running

22

7

board

18

eats

18 7

runs

27

7

body

11

Edith

10 1

sail

20

6

both

12

eicg

12 4

sang

22

6

boughs

18

else

18 8

seven

28

8

bow

12

engine

18 8

sharp

26

4

bowl

15

•▼en

18 8

shining

24

6

breakfast

12

evening

18 4

ship

21

8

breezes

11

Esther

14 1

short

20

8

broom

10

eye

19 6

silver

22

4

brother

19

fairy

10 9

singer

27

1

brought

18

falling

12 4

sings

29

5

build

14

farm

18 6

sister

28

8

burn

12

8

farmers

16 9

six

28

7

busy

18

5

fear

18 4

•ly

20

8

calf

10

2

fed

11 6

smell

20

2

candy

14

4

fellow

10 8

soft

29

6

caps

10

4

Fido

14 1

south

20

5

captain

14

4

filled

10 8

spin

25

5

car

18

2

fir

11 2

squirrel

21

2

careful

10

2

flies

14 5

equirrela

25

4

carried

12

4

floor

18 4

stand

27

6

cam

11

8

flour

18 4

stores

25

2

caterpillar

14

8

flow

18 4

story

25

6

caught

15

7

foot

10 8

swim
table

20
25

8

4

cents
chair

11
19

2

4
6
4
2
8
4
4
2
2

5

8

fond
forest

11 8
18 8

Uil

takes

talk

Tatty

Ted

thank

throw

through

tired

tramp

21
22
26
20
28
24
20
22
27
20

5
7
6
1
2
7
4
5
5
9

child

city

clang

claws

clear

clouds

cluck

coal

coats

cock

ASF

18
10
17
12
18
18
16
18
10
19

Fred's

fresh

friend

frost

fur

gather

geese

geu

gold

golden

12 4
18 7

18 8
14 4
10 8
17 5

19 2
14 6
14 6
14 8

^ A SB)

wait

wake

wail

wee

west

wet

wood

woodman

26
26
21
24
28
27
29
21

7
7
7
6
6
4
7
2

colt

cookies

corner

cotton

couldn't

count

crab

cream

A SF

19
10
18
18
16
14
12
10

49

2
1
4
2
2
8
1
4

goose

got

grain

grand-mothers

grand-pa's

growing

grown

grows

guess

Gyp

hair

14 8
18 4
14 4
16 1
11 8
18 5
10 8
18 4
18 4

A A. aA

creeps

10

8

15 1

10- 20

cries

15

8

18 6

air

19

cuddle

16

2

half

11 9

almost

18

cup

14

5

half-chick

10 1

anything

12

cut

10

4

Harry

18 4

arm

13

daisies

10

8

haU

18 9

arms

11

dance

11

8

having

11 6

arrows

11

dandelion

16

8

hears

10 4

aaked

16

dark

18

7

herself

10 8

autumn

13

dash

10

1

holds

16 6

awake

18

deep

17

6

hole

10 6

baby's
bark

10

den

12

8

hood

14 1

19

diamond

12

4

Hood

15 1

barked

14

dinner

11

4

hop

18 6

bat*

16

doctor

10

9

hoppity-skip

10 1

bear's

15

doing

12

5

hot

12 4

beauty

12

dolly

17

9

hour

18 8

begins

10

done

16

7

houses

10 6

behind

10

drake

11

1

Indian

16 9

bench

12

draw

14

4

ink

11 9

berries

18

2

dream

14

4

iron

10 9

132

THE TWENT1BTK YEARBOOK

Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers

Jenny

10

1

penny

11

8

J 111

16

8

peep

14

6

Sump

16

8

pictures

18

4

jumped

12

5

pies

10

2

IX

16

5

plants

10

8

15

4

plum

15

4

killed

12

2

plums

12

4

kinc
knife

15

9

pocket

18

8

10

9

pole

10

9

lamb

12

8

poles

11

1

lambs

10

5

porridge

15

2

land

18

5

pot

17

8

wet

15

6

pull

11

4

laugh

12

8

puts

18

5

learn

11

9

queer

14

1

leere

10

6

rabbits

19

4

Lee

18

1

race

11

8

Leon

18

1

reach

10

8

letter

12

8

rice

10

2

lichen

17

1

Riding

17

1

life

14

8

rill

16

8

listen

16

4

ripe

18

5

load

10

4

road

11

8

toads

10

8

robins

10

4

loaf

10

8

rock

16

4

lock

18

2

rock-a-bys

15

8

London

10

2

rocks

15

5

longer

12

6

roll

10

2

loose

11

1

rolled

10

2

lost

18

6

rope

16

8

loud

15

5

Rose

11

1

lores

10

4

row

11

4

tow

18

4

rub-a-dub-dub

10

2

luck

14

1

Ruth

15

8

Lucy
making

12

1

safe

10

4

16

7

safely

12

8

malt

10

1

sailing

11

8

March

18

2

sailor

12

2

market

11

2

sails

18

6

mat

18

2

Santa

11

9

May

17

1

Santa Clans

10

1

men

19

4

Saturday

12

8

merry

12

6

saying

11

8

mew

11

8

season

10

2

nice

19

8

seat

17

2

middle-si sed

15

1

second

14

5

mind

19

5

seed

18

4

moon

14

4

seem

16

5

mothers

16

4

sees

19

6

mud

18

4

seemed

12

4

myself

16

4

seems

19

6

names

11

4

sells

10

8

naughty

17

2

send

11

5

nearly

11

8

sent

15

4

neat

14

8

set

16

8

neck

11

8

shine

16

7

need

10

4

shines

14

5

next

17

4

shoes

17

5

nibble

11

2

shoot

14

8

none

10

4

. tight

18

4

nose

15

4

sir

10

2

nothing

18

6

sitting

12

4

ones

16

5

skate

11

8

opened

11

6

skins

15

2

ought

12

8

sled

14

8

own

19

4

sleeping

11

4

owl

11

2

sold

11

8

ox

14

1

soldier

12

2

paint
Paul

12

2

soldiers

14

8

12

1

song

18

7

pat*

11

2

sow

14

2

paper

14

8

speak

16

9

spider

16

spin

14

spun

10

stands

18

•tar

16

stars

15

stem

16

stick

17

sticks

11

stile

10

stone

16

stool

16

stopped

12

stones

15

street

10

string

19

stripes

19

strong

15

sugar

15

summers

10

sunshine

12

suppose

12

sure

18

tea

11

teach

16

teeth

15

tells

19

that's

12

thin

10

thing

18

thinks

19

those

11

thought

18

sick

19

till

16

times

19

tiny

15

tip-top

10

titty
tock

15

10

together

11

tonight
touch

10

12

traveler

10

tried

16

turn

18

turned

12

turtle

13

uncle

12

2

used

12

8

risit

19

5

wagon
wafting

16
10

web

14

whooping

11

wicked

11

willows

10

win

11

windows

10

winds

15

Winnie

10

wise

10

wished

11

wolf

18

woman

11

women

18

wonder

11

wool

11

wow

12

wore

10

world

11

wouldn't

10

F0CABULASIB8 OF TBN FIS8T BSADBBS

133

Word Frequency

Reader

sJIWord freque

flcattle
EjCharley
J chestnut
- chestnuts

ncy Readers

Word Frequency Bands

yard

15

4

5 8

felt 8 8

year

16

4

8 1

fence 9 8

years

15

4

7 2

ferry 5 l

5 1

fields 9 8

5-

-9

k chief

5 1

fireman 5 8

above

5

chin

5 2

firemen 5 1

act

5

choose

9 9

fisher 9 t

eh

6

churn

5 1

flat 7 2

ails

7

Clark

5 1

Flossie 9 1

Allen's

5

Glaus

6 1

forget 8 9
forlorn 5 1

•lone

9

clean

8 2

among

8

climb

9 8

form 5 §

animals

9

climbs

7 2

forty 8 8

Anna

8

cloak

8 1

fort 6 1

answer

6

clocks

6 2

frolic 8 1

ant

7

cloud

9 8

April

6

clover

9 4

front 6 2

apron

7

clovers

9 1

fruits 5 8

a- riddle

6

clucker

7 1

8*7 6 4

attic

5

coast

6 2

gentle 5 %

awoke

9

coek-a-doodle-do

7 2

gentleman 6 1

ax

7

colors

7 2

rills 6 2

babies

5

coop

5 1

given 6 8

bad

8

course

5 1

golden-rod 6 8

bag

5

cover

5 8

good-bye 7 8

bake

9

covered

6 8

goodnight 5 9

baker

8

crack

5 2

grains 6 8

baker's

7

creek

5 1

frapes 6 i

band

6

creeping

6 1

grind 7 1

bare

5

crept

5 4

gun 6 1
hail 7 2

barrel

5

crown

8 8

beech

6

crumpled

6 1

hammer 7 1

beans

6

curds

7 2

handle 6 4

became

6

daisy's

6 4

handsome 9 8

beef

5

dare

5 2

Hal 6 1

begin
bells

8

Dan's

8 2

hark 7 8

8

dates

5 1

harm 9 4

bellows

6

doesn't

7 2

Harold 5 1

Ben

8

Don

8 1

Harry's 8 2

bill

6

2

Dotty

5 1

harvest 5 1

birdies

9

8

dove

6 2

hasn't 6 2

black-board

7

2

dressed

9 4

hatch 5 1

blades

6

2

drill

5 1

hats 5 8

block

8

8

drinks

5 8

haven't 5 2

blossom

8

8

drives

8 4

hawk 8 2

Bo-peep

7

1

drop

7 5

hay-cock 7 1

bowls

7

2

dropped

6 8

heads 6 4

branch

5

8

drops

8 8

heart 6 4

branches

7

8

drove

5 8

heat 9 6

brave

9

2

drowned

5 4

heavy 7 4

brayed

5

1

drowses

8 1

heaven 7 4

breaks

8

4

Duke

7 1

held 7 8

breast

8

8

dust

6 8

helping 6 8

breathe

6

1

earth

7 8

helps 7 4

W

6

2

Edna

7 1

hens 7 8

7

8

elm

8 2

hid 5 8

brooks

8

4

end

7 4

hills 6 4

bods

7

8

enough

7 2

himself 8 4

bugs
building

5

2

everywhere

6 4

hind 7 1

6

8

everything

8 4

hive 7 9

Banting

6

1

faces

7 8

homes 7 6

burrs

6

1

fair

7 2

hoo 5 1

bash

8

2

fairies

7 2

hope 7 1

bushes

6

2

fallen

5 2

hops 8 9

bushy

7

8

falls

8 6

horns 7 8

cage

carres

6

8

Fan

9 1

Horner ' 7 1

6

1

Fannie's

5 1

huge 9 1

candles

5

2

Fanny

5 1

hum 6 1

carriage

5

2

farther

9 1

humming 6 8

Carl

6

1

farmer's

5 2

hung 9 9

carpenter

8

1

fasten

8 9

hunting 6 9

catches

9

2

feelers

5 9

hurrah 8 9

134

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Word Freqmeaey

Readara

Word Frequency Readara

Word sVequeney B

•ssdi

hurry

5

2

napkina

7

Robert 8

I'd

9

needle

7

rolls 9

indeed

8

Nick

7

roof 8

Indiana

8

nights
noise

5

rooms 7

inaeeta

8

9

rooster 8

it'l

8

nowhere

5

rows 6

Jack-on-a-atiek

6

oata

5

sad 8

Jaek'a

6

o'clock

Sadie 9

Jane

6

October

6

Sally 9

Jena

7

o'er

5

8am 7

&,

5

older

6

aap 7

5

orange

7

saved 7

Jumps
June

5

orangea

7

scales 7

6

orchard

8

scold 6

Kate'a

5

others

8

scratch 6

kid

5

Otto

7

seek 6

kindneaa

6

oven

8

selfish 6

kinda

7

overhead

5

seller 7

king*

5

owner

5

seta 6

kiaa

8

pails

9

sew 5

klased

6

paints

5

shade 6

kitchen

8

pasture

5

shake 9

lad

8

pawa

7

shan't 9

laid

5

pay

9

shaven 9

lap

7

peach

9

shell 9

lark

7

peaches

6

2

■he's 5

lata

9

pear

6

2

shoe 8

learned

5

pears

7

2

shone 7

led

7

pans

6

2

shook 9

leaa

5

papoose

5

shop 6

lettera

6

pens

6

showed 7

leU

7

peeped

7

shower 5

let's

7

picked

8

shut 8

lie

6

picnic

8

silk 8

lift

5

piece

6

skates 6

8

lifted

5

piga

7

slate 8

2

lights
uRea

8

piggy

8

slatea 5

2

6

pit-a-pat

8

sleda 8

limba

6

plain

8

sleigh 7

limp

6

plate

6

sleepy 7

lips

7

plates

8

slowly 7

locket

5

playmate

6

smells 8

locka

8

2

playmatea

5

smiled 5

log

7

2

pleasant

8

smiles 9

lonely

7

2

pleaaed

5

smiling 7

longed

5

2

pool

smooth 8

loaa

8

4

pond

softly 8

louder

5

2

pony

somebody 5

Louie

8

1

pop-corn

sometime 9

lurkey

6

1

pour*

aonga 8

mag-pie
maiden

7

1

porch

sorry 9

6

2

presents

sound 8

maple

7

2

proud

speckle 7

maplea

8

8

pruned

sped 5

march

5

1

pudding

spina 5

mat*

6

2

puff

snot 5

matea

8

8

pulled

Spot 8

matter

8

8

puppies

squeak 9

meana

9

2

push

stairs 8

meat

7

2

quickly

star-fish 7

meet

7

5

quick

stayed 6

mend

8

2

quiet

stems 6

milked

6

2

rains

step 8

Miller

8

1

reached

stir 5

minutea

8

8

reap

stocking 8

mother'e

8

2

redbreast

stockings 6

month

7

8

reindeer

stolen 7

mouths

5

2

ribbon

stood 7

motor

6

1

Richie

store 9

muddy

6

2

rides

stout 8

Muff

7

1

roar

store 8

naila

7

2

Rob

straight 9

V0CABULABIB8 OF TEN FIB8T BBADBB8

135

Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers

stranger

stream

stronger

struck

stock

sun-beam

sweeps

sweets

swimming

swinging

swings

taking

talking

teacher

thanksgiving

that's

thee

themselves

there's

thick

thinking

third

thistle

thumb

shrew

throne

ticket

tick-tock

tight

tin

tip

toes

tomorrow

tools

toot

tops

torn

tossed

tracks

trap

tree- top

trot

true

trunks

trying

tuffet

turkey

turnips

turns

tweet

twinkle

use

valentine

▼aientines

riolets

voice

walked

walking

Washington's
wasn't
watched
ware

weather

weep

well

whey

whistle

whitefaot

whole

wide

5
6
6
6
7
9
8
6
8
7
6
7
6
6
7
7
6
6
8
7
7

8
8
6
7
7
8
6
6
7
8
7
5
5
8
6

8
2

a

3

1
1
1
2
2
8
2
6
8
2
1
2
2
2
2
8
8
2
2
8
2
1
1
2
2
2
8
8
2
8
1
5
2
1
2
2
2
8
8
2
8
2
1
1
8
1
2
2
1
1
8
8
1
5
2
1
8
2
4
2
2
1
8
2
2
1
5
4

wig
wild
Willie
wing

6

9
9
5

2

2
2

August
aunt
autumns
awhile

wishes

1

t axes

worked

9 4

k baa

worried

5 1

L babe

wrap

9 1

L backs

wraps

5 3

L backward

yesterday

6 1

L badly

£©rk

8 I

f bag-pipe

6 3

I bags
L baked

young

7 3

you're

7 1

I bakes

yourself

7 1

I baking
balls
Ball's

1 — 4

bananas

aboard

8

L bang

able
ache

L bangs
L bank

acorn

1 barns

acorns

\ barnyard

active

L barrels

acts

L basin

ado

L bashful

added

L baskets

admired

L bat

against

I bathing

ago
ahead

1 bay

L bays

ahoy

L beads

ail

L beak

alarm

i beaks

Alice's

1 beam

already

L bean-stalk

also

L bears

amethyst

L beard

anchored

L beast

anew

L beaten

angels
animal

L beats

L beating

Annie

1 beasts

Annie's

L beautifully

answered

1 become

answering

L becomes

answers

L beds

ants

[ bH«Me

anvil

L bedtime

anyhow

[ bcef&ieak

anyway

L beetle

anywhere

1 beets

ape

L bedroom

apes

L be*

appear

1 bestrar

applesauce

L beginning

apple-tree

L begone

aren't

L begun

a-riddle-ma-re

L behave

ark

L hfhaved

arrow

L believe

a-ruba-dum-dum

L bellowed

a-saiiing
ashamed

L below

L bend

ashore

\ bends

aside

L Bun h

asks

1 bending

assist

L beneath

aster

L bent

asters

I besides

attend

L Bess

attended

L Bessie's

8
2

1
1
8
2
1
1
1
1
4
1
2
2
1
8
2
2
2
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
8
4
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
8
2
1
1
2
1
4
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
8
4
2
4
1
8
2
2
1
1

136

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency Beaden

i Word Frequency B

«ad<

between

8 2 bubbles

2

1

chanee 2

1

bicycle

1 1

L bubbled

2

2

change 4

2

bigger

1 1

. bubbling

1

chase 2

bin

8 1

l buckles

1

chases 1

biscuit

2 1

L buckwheat

1

chased 1

bites

2 \

1 bud

2

chat 4

biting

2 1

L buffalo

2

chatter 1

bitter

1 3

L bug

2

chattering 1

black-birds

2 1

L buggy

chats 1

blacksmith's

1 1

L builds

cheat 8

blank

1 1

L bumped

cheeks 8

blankets

2 J

L bump

cheerful 1

blast

8 J

I bun eh

cherries 4

blase

2 1

t bunny

cherry 1

biasing

2 1

t buns

cheer 2

bleat

2 1

L Bunting's

children's 8

bleated

1 1

L bureau

chill 8

bleates

2 1

1. buried

chills 1

bleeding

i :

L burned

chimney 1

blink

l 1

L burning

chimneys 8

blinked

l ]

• burst

chin 1

blinks

l i

L busily

chins 1

bloom

l i

L business

chip 1

bloomed

l i

> buttercups

chocolates 1

blossoming

l 1

> butterflies

choke 1

blowing

4 1

1 buttered

chooses 2

blown

2 \

1 buttermilk

chopped 1

blue-birds

2 1

L butts

Christmastide 1

Bluebirds

2 1

> button

chuck 4

boar

1 1

!• buzzing

chuckled 1

boards

1 1

> buss-s-s

circus 8

boasted

1 1

> cabin

citron 1

boatman

4 1

> cske

2

clam 1

boats

4 I

1 caller

2

clams 4

Bobby

4 1

1 calling

2

clambered 1

bob-o-link

4 1

[ camp

2

clap 1

bobs

1 1

L camping

clapped 1

boil

2 1

cane

claps 1

boiled

2 1

cans

Clark's 1

boiling

4 :

L canvas

clay 8

bold

4 ]

• cannon

cleaned 1

bolt

i :

cape

cleared 1

bone

1 1

capes

clears 1

boo

8 1

capless

elick 8

bore

i :

capers

clicked 1

born

l i

l capering

climate 1

bother

i i

L caravan

climbing 1

bottom

8 i

t caraway

cling 2

bought

8 1

L capture

dinging 1

bounding

2 2

1 captured

clings 1
doaks 2

bow'rs

1 1

. carefully

bows

2 :

! cares

closer 1

bow-wow-wow

l :

L Carlo

doset 1

bran

8 ]

L carries

dosed 8

brand

l i

L camel

cloth 2

bray

2 ]

L ramols

dothes 4

braying

l :

L case

clothing 2

break

4 4

I castle

dosing 2

breathed

1 J

> cat-bird

cloudless * 1

bride

l :

L caterpillars

clucked 1

brighteyed

2 1

t cat-tails

clump 2

brink

2 1

L caw

elumpity 1

bringing

1 ]

L caws

clumsy 2

broad

1 ]

L cease

coachman 1

broadcast

1 ]

L ceased

cobblers 1

broken

2 3

I Cecil

cocoon 1

broth

8 ]

L cent

coffee 1

brothers

2 J

L chain

colder 2

brow

1 J

L chains

colts 2

brunette

1 1

L chained

commence 1

brush

2 ]

L chairs

2

comic 1

brushed

1 1

L chamber

1

common 1

VOCABULABIBS OF TEN FIRST BBADEB8

137

Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers

company

4 3

dandelion's

2 3

dreamed

2 1

cone

8 3

danger

2 3

dreamland

cones

1 3

darkuess

1 3

dreams

cooked

1 3

darting

2 3

drearer

cooky

8 3

dashed

2 3

drearr
drenched

cool

4 S

1 date

8 3

cooling

coopers

cord

2 2

1 daughter

2 3

dresses

1 1

dawn

2 3

L drew

1 3

L days

2 a

K dried

cords

2 1

daytime

1 3

L drifting

core

1 3

L deafness

1 3

L drifts

corners

2 3

L deal

4 J

1 drills

corn-popper

1 3

L dearly

1 3

drinking

cost

1 3

death

1 3

dripping

cottage

2 3

December

8 3

driven

eottongin

1 1

decided

1 3

driving

eonple

1 1

deeds

8 J

1 driveway

cousin

4 1

deeper

2 3

dropping

counting

1 1

L deer

8 3

droop

countries

1 3

L delight

1 3

drooped

country's

8 3

L dells

2 3

droopeth

country-side

2 5

1 desert

1 3

drooping

2 1

courage

• 1 3

L depths

1 3

drown

2 1

covering

1 3

desk

4 3

drummer

2 1

cosy

1 3

dew

8 1

\ drums

8 2

cracked

1 3

L dews

1 3

dug

8 1

crackled

1 3

Dick

2 3

L Dukes

1 1

cramp

1 3

L dickory

8 3

L dull

4 2

crane

2 3

die

8 2

1 dumb

4 1

crane's

1 3

L digging

1 3

L during

1 1

crash

1 3

L digs

8 3

L dustpan

8 1

crate

1 3

I died

1 3

dusty

2 2

crates

2 3

dimple

8 3

Dunstan

1 1

crawl

8 5

1 dimpled

1 3

L Dutch

1 1

crawled

2 ]

L dining

8 3

L dwell

8 2

crawling

1 1

L dine

1 3

L dying

1 1

creak

8 3

I ding-dong

2 3

L eager

1 1

creaked

8 3

L din

1 3

eagerly

1 1

creaks

4 3

L dip

1 3

early

4 1

crimson

8 3

L dirty

1 3

earned

1 1

cripple

2 1

L disappear

1 3

L earnestly

1 1

crisp

2 3

L dish

i :

L ease

2 1

croak

1 1

L dishes

1 2

L easily

8 2

croaks

8 2

1 displayed

1 3

L Easter

2 1

crock

2 3

L distance

1 1

L easy

8 2

crossed

1 3

L dire

2 1

L eastern

1 1

crossing

1 3

L dived

1 J

L eaters

1 1

crow

2 2

1 divide

1 3

L echoed

1 1

crowed

1 3

L disry

1 1

L Eden

2 2

crowded

1 1

l dock

8 :

L edge

1 1

crowned

2 1

l dotr's

4 ]

L either

1 1

crowns

2 1

L dollars

8 ]

L eighteen

1 1

crumbs

4 J

L dollie

1 ]

L eighty

1 1

Crusoe

1 1

L doll's

4

1 elephant

1 1

crushed

i :

L dolly's
L donkey's

2 2

1 elephants

1 1

crutch

8 1

i :

L elbows

1 1

cuff

l i

L doors

4 1

! Elsie's

8 1

cuffed

l i

L doorway

1 1

I emblem

1 1

canning

2 :

L doth

2 :

L Ellen

4 1

cups

8 2

1 doubt

8

I Emma

8 1

currant

1 3

L dough

i :

L ended

2 2

current

i :

L downstairs

l :

L engage

1 1

curled

l ]

L downy

2 :

L engines

2 1

curtains

2 ]

I Dr.

4 :

L engineer
L ends

4 1

curtsy
daffodils

1 ]

L drag

l i

1 1

1 ]

L dragged

l :

L enjoy

2 1

dainty

8 2

1 dragging
L drank

l i

L Eva

8 1

dame

2 ]

4 1

1 evenings

2 2

damp

1 ]

L drawing

i :

L ever-green

2 2

danced

8 ]

L draws

8 :

L everyone

1 1

dancing

2 2

1 dreadful

l ]

L everybody

2 2

dandelions

8 1

1 dreadfully

l i

L evU

1 X

13S

t HE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Word Frequency Readers

Eskimo

Eskimos

expected

eyed

eggshell

fabuloUS

fail

faint

fairest

families

family

fans

fare

farthest

fashion

fastens

fastest

fathers

fatter

fault

fearless

feat

feared

feather

February

feeding

feeds

feelings

ferry-boat

fetch

fetched

fever

fierce

fife

fifth

filling

fills

finds

finger

fingers

finished

fins

finding

finer

fires

firefly

fireside

fished

fishes 2

fisherman 2

fishing 2

fit 2

flu 1

flags 2

flakes 2

flap

flash

fiats

fleece

flesh

flip-flap

flit

flits

floating

flock

floated

flog

floss

flower-bud

flow*rs

flowing 4 2

flows X 1

Word

flown

fluffy

flutter

fodder

fold

folding

follow

followed

following

follows

folks

foolish

foot-stool

fonder

forehead

forests

forget

forgets

forks

forms

forts

fought

fours

forward

fowl

fowls

fox's

foxes

fragrant

frail

Frank's

frame

Freddie

Freddie's

free

freedom

frees*

French

freshness

Friday

friendly

frighten

fright

frightened

frill

frills

frisked

frisky

fritters

fro

frosting

froth

frowned

frowns

froxen

furry

gabbling

gaily

gales

game

games

gate

gates

gathered

gathers

gathering

gaudy

general

generous

gently

George's

getting

Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers

2
8
2
2
2

2

8

giant

giants

giant's

giddy

gifts

giggled

gill

filded

gin

giraffe

girl's

glee

glistening

glorious

glory

glow

gnawed

gobble

God

gone

good-by

good-looking

goosey

gooseberry

gorgeous

gown

gnats

grand-ma's

grand-father

8
2

2

grassy

grate

grateful

grary

greatest

green's

greenhouse

griddle

groceries

grinds

growl

growled

grunt

grudged

guide

guns

hairs

hall

ham

hams

hammers

handful

handed

handled

hang

hanging

hangs

hall

halls

Hal's

happen

happened

happiness

happily

harder

hardly

harness

hash

hath

hatched

haul

hay-field

VOCABULARIES OF TEN FIRST BEADEB8

139

Word

heal*

healthy

heap*

hearing

heart*

heel*

Helen's

heigh

hello

he'll

helper

helpers

Henry

Frequency Readers

her**

he's

hey

hiding

higher

highest

hillside

hiUsides

hire

bit

hire*

holding

holdeth

hollow

homely

homelike

homeless

homemade

honey-bee

honey-bees

hong

honk

Hood's

hook

hoop

hoops

hopping

Homers

horrid

horse-ear

horse-shoe

hospital

hotter

honrs

house-keeper

howl

howled

however

hoy

Hubbard

hnmble

hum-in

humming-bird

hunter

hunts

hunt-the-slipper

hush

hut

hymns

Iekory

improved

immense

indigo

Indoors

insect

inside

intend

instead

2
8
8
8
2
2
8
8
8

2
2

2
2

Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency R es dcii

invite 1 1 lamp

Irish 1 1 lamps

island 1 1 landlord

itself 8 2 landa

I've 4 % lane

Jack-daw 1 1 lantern

Ja 4 1 lanterns

jam 2 1 language

James 1 1 lapped

Jamie's 8 1 larger

January 1 1 latch

ar 8 1 later

arred 1 1 laughing

are 4 1 lasy

ay 11 leader

Jean's 1 1 leading

ally 2 1 Lee's

ennle 1 1 leafy

Jenny's 1 1 leafless

Jessie 4 1 lesk

Jessie's 1 1 leaking

ig 11 leaked

immte 4 1 lean

Jimmy 1 1 leap

Jippy 1 1 leaps

Joe 2 1 learning

John 1 1 learns

okes 1 1 lease

oily 8 2 leased

oke 2 1 leaving

leaped

leg's

lend

length

lesson

lessons

s

5

nice

nicy

umping

ewels

ewelry
Jewish
kangaroos
Katy
keeping
kennel
kernel
kettle
key
ki-l

kicked
kilt
kindly
kill*
kiUing
kisses
kites
kitten's
Knapp
knee
knits
knitting
knives
knelt
knock
knoeked
knocking
knowledge
known
labor
ladder
lady

lady-bug
lady's
lain

lambskin
lame

liberty

lick

licked

licking

lid

lifts

lightened

lighthouse

limping

line

Line's

lingered

lions

lion's

lip

lisps

listened

listening

list

listing

litter

litters

lit

living

lively

liveliest

loaded

loaves

lobster

logs

loosened

lot

loved

lovely

loving

2
1

140

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Word Frequency Headers

Word Frequency Headers Word Frequency B

•esdt

loreth

t 1

mocks

2

1 Nichols

1

lower

2 2

mocking

1

L nleer

1

loz

4 1

modest

1

L nicest

1

lullabies

1 1

mold

8

L night-cap

8

lullaby

2 1

Molly

8

1 ninety

1

lumber

8 1

Molly's

1

1 night-gown

1

lunch

4 2

moment

1

1 ninth

1

lungs

8 1

money

1

L nips
L nobody

2

lying

8 1

moo

2

1

Mabel

8 1

month

1

L nod

2

Mack

4 1

months

2

L nodded

8

Mack's

2 1

monster

1

L nodding

2

main

2 1

moonlight

2

1 nods

1

managed

1 1

Moore

8

L nook

1

man's

2 1

Moore's

2

L nor

1

mamma's

8 2

mop

2

L noses

8

manners

1 1

morn

8

3 noses's

2

marble

1 1

morning-glories

2

L note

1

marbles

4 2

mornings

8

i notion

1

marched

1 1

moss

8 1

I November

4

marching

1 1

mosquito

2

L numb

1

Mark's

8 1

mosquitos

8

L numbness

1

marrow

1 1

mosses

1

L nursery

1

married

8 1

mound

1

L nut

8

Mary's

1 1

mourned

2 \

I nutting

1

mask

4 1

mouse

i :

L oaks

2

mast

1 1

mountain

l :

L oatmeal

1

mats

4 2

more

4 :

L obey

4

Mayflower

1 1

moved

l :

L object

1

May's

2 2

mowing

2 \

L ocean

1

meal

4 1

mows

8 :

L odd

8

meals

2 2

muffin

l :

L oddly

2

meaning

1 1

munching

l i

L offer

2

meant

4 2

musio

2 :

L oft

2

mechanic

8 1

musk

l 1

L oho

2

medal

8 1

mustn't

l :

L omit

1

meeting

1 1

muscles

l ]

L omelet

1

meets

2 2

mutton

2 :

L oe-oo

8

melt

8 1

nail

2 1

\ Oh

1

melted

8 2

nailed

8 3

L o-oh

1

melting

2 1

named

8 J

1 opens

4

mending

2 1

namesnks

2 3

L orchards

8

mends

1 1

Nanny

i :

L ore

1

merrily

1 1

Nan's

2 3

L organ

8

merry-go-round

mewing

middle

4 1

nap

8 1

L orphans

2

1 1
4 2

napkin
narrow

2 3

4 3

. ostrich

L ounce

1
1

mighty
mile
miles
mild

9m *

2 2

Nat's

1 3

L outer

1

8 1

native

2 3

1 out-of-doors

1

4 2

nearer

1 1

outdoors

1

2 2

nearest

1 J

overboard

1

milk- can

1 1

neatest

1 3

owls

4

milk-man

1 1

neatly

8 3

owned

1

milks

milkweed

milkpail

Milton

miner

miners

mischief

mischievous

missed

misses

mis-firings

mistaken

Mister

2 1
1 1
1 1

necks
Ned's
needed

2 1
1 3
1 1

owners
owning
owns

1
1
1

2 1

needlecasa

1 1

overflowed

1

8 1
2 1
8 1

1 1

2 2
1 1
1 1
1 1

1 1

2 1
2 1
2 1
8 1
8 2
2 1

needs

negro

n egress

neither

Nell's

Nelly

Nero

nestle

8 2
1 1

1 ]
1 3
1 ]
1 ]
4 3
1 ]

i pace
pack
package
pad
I PMCe
L pages
pain
painted

2
2
1
1
8
1
4
2

mistress

mirrors

mite

Minnie

mittens

moans

net

new-mown

news

nibbles

nibbling

Nick's

nickle

8 3

1 ]

2 1

1 1

2 1
1 ]
1 3

painter
palace

1 pale
pair
pairs

L parrot
psss

1
8
2

2
1
1
2

2

VOCABULARIES OF TEN FIS8T BEADEB8

141

Word Frequency Readers Word Frequency Readers

passing

past

pata-cake

patch

patted

pattering

path

Paul's

pauper

paveless

Payne

Payne's

peace

peaceful

pecked

peel

pains

papa's

park

parlor

part

parts

pan

peeping

peeps

peevish

pelt

perhaps

petals

? sited
eter
pick-ax
pick-axes
picking
-pickles
picks
pieces
pigeon
pile
piled
pillow
pills
piled-np
pilgrims
pimple
pin
pine
pinks
pins
pippins
pitcher

Pity ,

placed

places

plainly

plan

piano

planes

plank

planning

plans

planted

planting

playful

playplaos

plaything

playthings

pleasantost

pleases

plenty

2

1

plucked

1

2

1

poke

1

1

1

poker

2

1

1

pokers

1

4

2

pockets

2

2

2

pod

2

2

2

pods

8

1

polite

1

1

pollen

4

2

poll

1

2

pondered

1

1

ponies

1

2

popped

8

1

popper

1

2

pops

2

2

poppies

1

2

poppy

8

2

pork

8

1

post

1

4

post-master

8

4

potter

2

2

potatoes

1

8

pour

4

2

2

pound

2

2

4

pout

2

2

8

pots

2

1

powder

8

1

power

1

1

powerful

1

8

praise

1

1

praised

8

1

prank

1

4

pranks

1

1

Pratt

2

1

pray

8

4

prayeth

1

1

preach

2

1

present

8

1

presses

1

1

prettiest

1

8

price

8

2

prick

4

2

pricked

1

8

pride

priest

primmer

problem

prowling

provoked

1
8
2

1
1

1

puddles

1

pulling

1

pulls

2

pump

2

pup

2

2

puppy

8

2

puppy's

1

31

pure

1

2

purr

purse

pushed

pushes

putting

quack

queen

quietly

quill

quite

1
8

4
1
1
4
1
4
4
8

8

racers

1

8

races

2

8

2

racing

2

2

2

rack

1

t

1

rails

1

Word

railing

rail

rainbow

raindrop

raindrops

raining

rainy

rains

raises

rake

raked

rakes

rank

ranks

rapped

raps

rare

rather

rats

raw

Ray

rays

reader

reading

reads

real

really

reaped

rear

reared

reason

reckon

redden

red-hot

reins

relish

remedy

remained

removed

rend

replied

resting

rested

rests

refresh

rice-bird

rich

riding "/

Rid i ng hood

Ri din* hood's

riddle

riddles

rills

rim

ringing

rings

ring-tag

rinsed

ripen

ripening

rise

rivers

river's

roars

roared

roaring

roadside

roast

roasted

Robert's

Rob's

Frequency Readers

2
8

2
2
2

2
2
2

142

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Word Frequency Readers

Word Frequency Readers

robe

1 1

Scotch

2 1

robin's

4 2

Scotchman

8 1

rocked

4 2

Scotland

8 1

rocker

2 1

Scotland's

1 1

rocking

8 2

Scott

2 1

rockmghorses

1 1

scour

Robinson

1 1

scoured

rode

4 • 1

scout

rogue
rolling

1 1

2 2

scouts
scraps

romp

8 1

scratched

romping

1 1

scream

rompe
rooting

2 1

screeched

1 1

seabird

ropes

2 1

seahorse

rosy

2 1

seals

roughly

1 1

search

rounded

2 1

searching

Rover

8 8

sea-song

rowboat

1 1

seashore

rowed

8 2

seashells

rowing

1 1

seated

Roy's

2 1

seats

rubies

1 1

sea-worms

rubbed

1 1

seedling

rubber

2 1

seeing

rude

1 1

see-ssw

rudely

1 1

selling

rush

2 2

sends

rushes

1 1

sense

rushing

4 2

September

Russel

1 1

servant

rustling

8 1

setter

Ruth's

1 1

settle

rhyme

1 1

several

seek

1 1

sewing

sscks

8 1

8 ha f to

safest

1 1

Shafto's

sago

sailboat

1 1

shakes

1 1

shaking

sailboats

1 1

shades

sailed

1 1

shallow

salad

1 1

shsm

Sally's

1 1

shams

salt

8 1

shape

salute

1 1

shaped

saint

1 1

0h 4fc

shapes

same

8 2

sheer

Sanders

2 1

shears

Sammy's

1 1

sheds

sank

1 1

shelter

sash

1 1

she'll

satins

1 1

sheep's

sauos

1 1

sheets

ssto

1 1

shepherd

saws

1 1

shepherds

sayings

1 1

shin

scale

1 1

shined

scamp

1 1

ships

scamper

1 1

shivering

scampered

1 1

shock

scampering

1 1

shod

scared

2 2

shoots

scat

8 1

shorn

scatter

2 2

shoulder

scattered

1 1

shoulders

scatters

1 1

shout

scent

2 1

shouted

scepter
scolded

2 1

shouts

1 1

show-case

scolds

1 1

phowors

4 8

score

1 1

showery

1 1

Word Frequency

showman

shows

shouldn't

shrill

shunted

shuts

sicken

sickness

sides

side- walk

sift

sifter

sigh

sighed

sighs

silky

sill

silly

simmering

Sim

8immons

simple

since

sink

sinking

•ip

sisters

sister's

sixty

skating

skies

skim

skimmed

skimmer

skin

skip

skipping

slap

slaps

slats

•1*T
soak

soaked

sob

sod

soldiers

solid

somebody's

someone

somewhere

sore

sorrowful

sold

sole

soundly

sour

sowed

sowing

spsce

Spain

Spanish

spark

sparks

speaking

speaks

spear

spears

sped

speed

spend

spends

spent

Read

1
8

2

VOCABULARIES OF TEN FIBST SSADSSB

143

Word Frequency Readers

■pica

t a

spiders

2 1

spied

1 1

spike

1 1

spilled

4 2

spills

1 1

spines

4 1

spinning

2 1

spirits

1 1

spit

2 1

splash

1 1

spoons

4 1

sport

8 1

spots

8 1

spout

8 2

spread

2 1

springs

2 2

springtime

1 1

springtimes

1 1

spruce

2 1

•P7

4 2

squaw

8 1

stable

1 1

staid

1 1

stalks

1 1

stall

8 2

stalls

1 1

stamped
standing

1 1
8 8

suit

2 1

started

1 1

state

4 2

states

2 1

station

8 1

staying

1 1

stays

8 8

steady

1 1

steal

2 1

steamers

2 1

steamships

1 1

steed

1 1

steel

2 1

steep

2 1

steeple

1 1

stepped

1 1

steps

1 1

sticking

1 1

stiff

8 1

stingy

1 1

sting
stitching

4 2
1 1

stock

2 1

stones

8 8

stoop

1 1

stopping

8 2

stops

8 8

stored

1 1

storekeeper

8 1

storm

1 1

strangest

1 1

stray

1 1

streams

1 1

stretched

1 1

strike

1 1

strings

4 2

stripe

1 1

stroU

1 1

stump

•tang

suddenly

1 1

suffer

1 1

suffered

1 1

Word Frequency Readers

Word Frequency Readers

sulkily

1

l

though

2 2

sum

1

l

thouaand

1 1

sun -beams

8

a

thumbs

2 1

Sunday

1

l

three-legged

1 1

sung

2

l

throat

1 1

sunlight

4

a

throwing

2 1

sunning

1

l

thrushes

1 1

sunny

4

2

thrust

1 1

surely

2

2

thunder

1 1

surprise

8

2

thundered

1 1

swam

2

2

thus

8 t

swarm

1

thumped

1 1

swsy

1

thy

8 a

swaying

1

thyme

1 1

sweet

4

ticked

1 1

sweeter

2

tickets

1 1

sweetly

2

2

ticks

8 a

swell

2

2

tide

a l

swept
swift

8

2

tied

i i

ttrhtly

l l

swiftly

tilt

l l

swims

Tim

2 1

swords

timid

2 1

Kbby

tinkling
ting

1 1

2 a

table-cloth

ting-ling-a-ling

1 1

tables

tins

8 1

tacks

tipped

1 1

tadpole

tiptoed

1 1

tag

tire

2 1

tailor

tires

1 1

tailors

'tis

8 1

taken

toad

2 1

tale

toe

1 1

tales

toiled

1 1

talked

toilers

2 1

tn'ks

toiling

1 1

taller

Tommy

2 1

tallow

Tom's

4 8

tsrae

tones

1 1

tanrle

tool

1 1

tapping

tore

2 1

task

toss

8 1

tame

toward

4 a

tattered

8

towel

1 1

tastes

2

toy

1 1

<n too

2

toys

4 2

taught

8

track

8 a

teaching

2

trail

2 1

teapot

1

trails

1 1

tears

1

trsy

1 1

t*n»e

8

treat

2 1

Teds

1

treats

1 1

telling

4

treasure

2 1

tend

2

tree-tops
tricked

2 a

tended

1

l l

tender

2

tricks

4 1

tends

2

tries

4 1

tent

1

trill

2 1

tents

1

trills

1 1

thank

1

trimmed

1 1

thanks

2

trims

1 1

thaw

8

trip

8 1

thaws

1

tripping
tropical

1 1

theater

1

2 1

their's

1

trotted

2 1

they'll

1

trots

8 a

they're

1

trousers

1 1

thimble

a

tug

2 1

thinty

8

tumbled

1 1

thirteen

a

tumblers

1 1

thistles

t

tumbling

1 1

144

TEE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Word Frequency Readers Word Frequ

tency E

teadc

Turkey

1 1 walla

4

8

turning

8 8 walnut

8

2

turnip

2 1

wander

1

twelve

1 1

wanders

2

twig

8 1

\ warmed

8

twill

1 1

warmer

2

twilling

1 1

warms

8

twin

1 1

L warmth

1

twine

1 1

L warp
L washes

1

twin*

2 1

1

twists

1 3

I waste

1

'twould

1 1

L watches

2

ugly
umbrella

1 3

L watching

8

2 1

L water-cresses

1

uncles

1 1

L watered

2

underneath

1 1

L waters

4

understand

1 1

L water-melon

1

unfairly

1 1

L watermill

1

un kindness

1 ]

[ water-pail

1

upper

2 2

\ waved

1

upset

2 1

L waving

1

upsetting

i 3

L wax

2

upsiairs

4 3

1 ways

2

upside

1 ]

L weak

2

upward

1 3

. weary

2

urchin

2 3

I weave

2

urchins

2 1

L web-feet

unto

1 1

L webs

useful

1 1

L we'd

uses

1 ]

i. weed

utensils

1 ]

L weeds

▼ain

1 1

L wee-haw

2

▼alley

1 ]

L week

8

▼an

2 ]

L weeks

8

▼ase

2 1

. welcome

2

vegetables
veins

8 1

L welcomed

1

2 ]

L wells

1

velvet

1 3

L wend

1

▼est

8 ]

L wept
L we're

4

▼iewed

1 ]

1

▼ines

1 1

L wetter

2

▼isited

1 ]

L wetting

1

visit*

2 2

1 wets

2

▼easel

1 3

L whatever

1

vessels

i :

L whats

8

wade

l :

L wheel

1

waded

8 2

1 wheelbarrow

2

wages

2 :

L wheels

2

wagging

i ]

L whenever

2

wagons

l ]

L wherever

1

waist

l ]

L where's

1

waited

8 I

\ whichever

8

waiter

4 ]

L whined

1

waits

2 :

L whipped

1

waked

i ;

L whisper

1

wakened

2 \

1 whispered

1

wakea

2

L whistled

1

walka

4 1

1

Word Frequency Readers

whittled

1 1

whiteness

2 1

whose

1 1

wick

1 1

wife

8 2

wigwam
wildly

8 1
1 1

wildwood

1 1

willing

4 8

willingly

1 1

willow

1 1

Wtlle

1 1

willy

1 1

windmill

8 1

window-pane

1 1

windy

2 2

Winkie

4 1

Winnie's

2 1

winters

2 2

wipe

8 1

wisest

1 1

witch

2 1

withdrew

1 1

wither

1 1

withered

1 1

within

1 1

woke

8 1

won

2 1

wonderful

8 2

wooden

4 2

woodland

1 1

woodman's

1 1

woodmen

8 1

woodmice

8 1

words

4 8

worker

8 1

working

4 8

works

4 4

worm

8 1

worms

2 1

worn

1 1

wreath

8 2

wound

2 1

wreea

1 1

wrecks

1 1

wren

1 1

wren's

1 1

wrestled

1 1

wrists

1 1

writing

1 1

written

2 1

wrong

1 1

yarn

8 1

you'll

2 2

yours

t 2

you've

2 2

seal

1 1

CHAPTER X

THE CONTENTS OF READERS

Daniel Starch
Harvard University

THE PROBLEM

The problem of this investigation was to determine, first, to what
extent current textbooks in reading agreed or differed (a) with
regard to the nature of the material included and (b) with regard
to specific pieces or selections; and second, to what extent there
are changes or differences in the nature of the material from the
first grade to the eighth grade. This problem is important in con-
nection with the larger problem of determining what the content
of readers should be. A considerable amount of work has been
done on similar problems in other fields, notably in spelling and
arithmetic. Little has been done in the field of reading. The prob-
lem also has an important bearing on the choice of readers for
schools.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

The present investigation 1 was carried out by making an analysis
of the contents of ten textbooks used in each of the eight grades.

In the following list of readers analyzed, the numbers in paren-
theses are the dates of publication, and the numbers following the
parentheses are the grades of which the texts were analyzed :

Aldine (1916), 1,2, 3.
American Literary, 8
Baldwin and Bender (1911), 1 to 8.
Blodgett (1910), 2 to 7.

*This work was carried out with the co-operation of Miss Elizabeth A.
Garrity, Miss Eatherine T. Larkin, Mr. H. A. Boyle, Miss Margarita E. Burns,
Miss Helen L. Button, Miss Anne Green, and Miss Faith D. Thayer, members
of the writer's course in the Psychology of School Subjects in the summer
session of Harvard University, 1920.

145

148 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Brooks (1906), 3 to 8.

Carroll and Brooks (1911), 2 to 8.

Child Life (1900), 1, 3.

Cyr (1904), 2.

Edson-Laing (1913), 1, 2.

Elson (1909, 1913), 1 to 8.

Golden Rule (1912), 4 to 8.

Golden Treasury (1909, 1912), 1, 2.

Graded Literature (1900), 3 to 8.

Halburton (1912), 8.

Heath (1903), 3, 6.

Holton-Curry (1912), Primer and First Reader.

Horace Mann (1915), 4, 5.

Jones (1904), 2 to 8.

Progressive Road (1913), 3.

Riverside (1911), 7, 8.

Standard Classics, 1.

Stepping Stones (1897), 4 to 8.

Wide Awake (1908), 2, 3.

These textbooks are not necessarily the most widely used nor
the best books. They were chosen because they were available for
the investigation and are probably fairly representative of current
and recent books.

The analysis was made by classifying all of the material in each
book into seventeen classes as indicated in the table. At the same
time, the number of pages devoted to each class of material and
the percentage of these pages to the total number of pages in each
book was calculated.

The classification of the content material here adopted is very
similar to that used by Woody' in his study of second-grade readers.
The chief difference consists in combining all material relating to
animals, such as pets, fowls, birds, and insects, into one class and in
adding some additional topics, such as classics, adventure, geography
and travel, which are either absent or very insignificant in second-
grade books but which occupy considerable space in upper-grade
books.

•Woody, C. "The Overlapping in the Content of Fifteen Second Head-
ers. Journal of Educational Research, II, 1920, 465-474.

CONTENTS OF BEADEBS

147

RESULTS

Table 1 gives a summary of the results of the classification of
the material. The content of each reader was analyzed and the
percentage of the number of pages devoted to each type of material
was computed. The numbers in the table are average percentages
of the ten readers used in each grade. Thus the table states that
the ten first-grade readers devote 28.8 percent of their pages to
" animals," 16.8 percent to "boys and girls," 15.4 percent to
4 'folklore," etc.

TABLE 1

Average Percentage of Each Class of Material nr

of Each Grade

THE

T«c READlBJ

1

Grade

Class of Content

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

28.8

10.8

15.4

3.4

5.8
2.4
1.9
1.9

07
0.6
0.3
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0
15.4
6.7

21.5

18.5

13.3

5.4

4.1

1.2

13.8

0.1

0.5
0.1
1.0
0.0

0.2
2.1
0.0
17.4
0.8

10.0

13.1

2.1

8.4

7.1

4.7

15.4

2.7

2.2

4.6

10.1

0.8

1.2
1.1
1.2
13.4
2.2

9.2

10.5

1.7

2.7

0.5

1.8

12.4

0.3

10.7
1.9
7.0
5.7

7.2
4.5
2.1
15.5
0.0

7.9
9.6
4.1
0.4

0.4
0.4
4.1
0.7

15.8
8.0

12.4
1.2

0.5
2.5
9.4
21.8
6.4

3.6
5.8
0.1
0.1

1.7
1.0
1.8
1.6

24.4
4.7

17.4
0.1

4.1
2.7
1.2
20.5
2.5

1.8
1.4
0.7
1.4

0.0
6.2
8.5
2.0

8.2

5.8

20.4

1.2

0.4

5.2

11.7

25.8

9.2

2.5

0.0

1.2

Fables

0.0

0.2

1.4

0.0

84.1

8 8

9 8

0.5

2.0

9.4

1.5

28.4

4.4

It is evident that the contents of the lower-grade readers are very
different from that of the upper-grade books. Aside from poetry,
the three leading classes in the first grade are "animals," "boys and
girls," and "folklore." These three groups, together with poetry,
constitute over three-fourths (76.4 percent) of all the material. On
the other hand, the four chief classes in the eighth grade are
"classics," "history and patriotism," "biography," and "poetry."
These four groups constitute over four-fifths (81.7 percent) of all
the material, aside from poetry.

The three leading classes in the first grade gradually drop off
from grade to grade to almost zero in the eighth grade. The lead-
ing classes in the eighth grade begin with practically no space in

148

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

the first grade and gradually increase to the maximum in the seventh
and eighth grades. Poetry begins as a large item in the first grade
and increases steadily up to the eighth grade to substantially double
its space in the first grade. These points become clearer in the
graphs of Fig. 1.

Two classes of material, namely "fables" and "fairy tales,"
occupy a slightly larger place in the intermediate grades than in

£0% -QCHfJ

#0%

z Aradzs

t— mII * ™..A Ue, ?r, 0,, • in !"• *»•«"*» *» the Readers of Various Grades, of the Three
la theliStTGrade, Fim Gr * d * * nd *** Pour Leadin * Olaasea of Ooatent

CONTENTS OF BEADEBS 149

either the lower or higher grades. "Adventure" has its largest
share in grades five to seven. All the other classes occupy very
small space in practically all grades.

The reliability of these figures obviously depends to some extent
upon the judgment of the persons analyzing the material. The
lines of division between the various classes cannot be clearly drawn
in every case. However, the fundamental facts are probably repre-
sented fairly accurately.

It is interesting to note, in the next place, the wide range of
difference in the proportion of the various classes of material in the
various readers for a given grade. The table for all readers in all
grades here analyzed would be too long to reproduce. The table
for the fourth grade, here reproduced as Table 2, is typical.

TABLE 2

PSBOHNTAOS OF EACH Ol*A88 OF MATERIAL XX EACH BOOK (FOUBTH GlAOl)

h» 0« PQ OtJ 0000 OP*

Animals 0.1 13.5 6.6 11.1 19.5 14.8 6.4 1.7 6.1 0.0 0.0 -19.5

Boy* and Girls 30.8 22.0 6.8 1.4 15.2 0.0 15.5 11.2 1.4 0.0 0.0-80.8

Folklore 2.2 8.6 0.0 0.0 3.4 0.0 7.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - 7.5

Fables 0.0 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.2 4.5 0.0 0.0 14.2 0.0 -14.2

Plants 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - 2.9

Elements 7.1 1.6 4.2 0.0 4.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - 7.1

Fairy Tales 7.4 7.1 13.9 8.1 14.2 0.0 18.6 27.8 19.9 14.1 0.0-27.8

Plays and Games 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - 1.8

Glassies 41.8 1.8 7.5 18.5 8.4 12.9 0.4 4.8 9.7 7.4 0.4 -41.8

Geography and Travel... 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.1 5.7 1.8 1.5 6.2 0.7 0.0 0.0 - 6.2

History and Patriotism.. 2.5 9.0 24.6 1.4 2.2 8.1 2.9 4.7 9.1 4.6 1.4 -24.6

Myths 1.8 0.0 0.0 4.1 8.9 6.5 10.6 7.2 6.6 12.6 0.0-12.6

Conduct 0.0 9.5 0.0 8.5 0.0 4.4 6.1 4.5 10.0 28.7 0.0 -28.7

Biography 1.5 2.9 8.4 7.7 8.2 7.7 5.3 11.0 2.2 0.0 0.0 -11.0

Adventure 00 0.0 8.8 8.3 0.0 9.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0- 9.7

Poetry 8.0 22.6 17.5 15.5 8.5 12.7 18.7 16.5 26.9 18.8 0.0 -26.9

Miscellaneous 0.0 8.6 5.5 15.9 9.4 8.5 5.1 4.5 7.1 5.0 0.0 -18.9

The range in amount of material of a given category is very
wide. In other words, there is little uniformity among the different
readers in the amount of space devoted to a given subject. For
example, "classics" varies from 0.4 percent in one text to 41.3

160 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

percent in another; "fairy tales" range from zero to 27.8 percent,
"history and patriotism' ' from 1.4 to 24.6 percent, etc.

The next problem was to determine the amount of specific ma-
terial common to the readers for a given grade. Here, again, the
complete table for all eight grades would be too long to reproduce
here. Table 3 shows the data for the sixth grade.

TABLE 8
8psoivxc Seubotions, Stobiib ob Poems Common to the Tin SixthGbads Rgsngia

| „ „ « ! j

Horatius at the Bridge x x x x x x 6

Chambered Nautilus x x x x 4

The Daffodils x x x x 4

Rip Van Winkle x x x S

Washington Irving x x x 3

The Flag x x x 3

To a Waterfowl.

3

Pied Piper of Hamelin x x x 3

Mr. Winkle on Skates x x S

Mia* Barker's Tea Party xx 2

A Voyage to Lilliput x x 3

Christmas at the Cratchots xx 2

Little Daffydawndilly x x 2

Ralph W. Emerson x x 2

James R. Lowell x x 2

Lexington x x 2

Hail Columbia x x 2

Arnold Winkleried x x 2

Sir Galahad.

2

Rime of the Ancient Mariner x x 2

Abou Ben Adhem x x 2

Dying in Harness x x2

Lochinvar x x 2

For A* That and A* That x x 2

xx 2

x x 2

The Humblebee.
The Rhodria.

This table is typical of the amount of overlapping of the various
readers. One poem was found in six of the ten readers. Two
selections were in four readers, five in three readers and eighteen in
two readers. All the other selections appeared in one reader only.

SUMMARY

1. Pour classes of material — "animals," "boys and girls,"
"folklore," and "poetry" — constitute three-fourths of the content
of lower-grade readers.

^n_

C0NTSNT8 OF BEADEBS 151

2. Likewise, four classes of material — "classics," "history and
patriotism," "biography," and "poetry"— institute four-fifths
of the content of upper-grade readers.

3. The differences in relative proportions of the various classes
of material in the readers for a given grade are very great. There
is no approximation to an accepted amount of material of a given
class which authors agree should be in a book. For example, the
division of "boys and girls," which constitutes one of the chief
items in the fourth grade, varies from no space in one reader to
over thirty percent of the space in another. If material of cer-
tain types is more interesting or appropriate or valuable than ma-
terial of other types, then there ought to be greater uniformity in
the proportions of the different classes of content.

4. The amount of specific content, such as selections, stories,
poems, etc., common to three or more of ten books for a given grade
is very smalL

SECTION 2

EXERCISES FOR DEVELOPING ABILITY IN

SILENT READING

It is the object in this section of the Yearbook on Silent Reading
to present a few only of the many interesting practical exercises
that have been actually employed in the classroom to develop skill
in reading.

The contribution from Miss Heller and Mr. Courtis recounts
efforts made at Detroit to train primary-grade pupils and embodies
also suggestions for a simple scale of reading ability.

The contributions from Denver, Cedar Rapids, Racine, and
Iowa City, being less elaborate, have been assembled in one group.

Readers who find the material of Section 2 of interest will get
further suggestions from the first report of the Society's Committee
on New Materials of Instruction, which was published as the Nine-
teenth Yearbook, Part J. Chapters I and II are particularly
pertinent.

±82

EXERCISES DEVELOPED AT DETROIT FOR MAKING

READING FUNCTION

Regixia R. Heller and S. A. Coubtis
Detroit Public Schools

THE PURPOSES OP PRIMARY READING

Reading is carried on primarily for the purpose of controlling
behavior. A citizen reads the campaign statements of the various
candidates in order to cast his vote intelligently, or the advertise-
ments in his daily paper to find out where to go to buy the articles
he desires. To be sure, in poetry and other forms of artistic expres-
sion, aesthetic appreciation seems at first sight far removed from
action ; but in the last analysis, all reading of whatever type or kind
modifies the behavior of the reader.

In attempting to train children to read, schoolmen have usually
made the mistake of beginning with the type of reading whose effect
is most difficult to trace ; namely, reading involving aesthetic appre-
ciation. The coming of exact measurement, however, has revealed
the inefficiency of past training and led to a desire for lesson ma-
terial which shall both emphasize the need for comprehension of
what is read and furnish the teacher a measure of the success or
failure of the child to comprehend.

The belief is steadily growing that a large part of children's
reading in the early grades should be reading for a more direct and
simple purpose than interest or appreciation; that, important as
these elements are, they themselves must be considered as the direct
products of comprehension of meaning, and that all meaning comes
from experience, action. The first reading a child does must, from
this point of view, serve in a direct and easily recognized way to
modify or guide the child's behavior. To read incorrectly must
be seen by the child to result in defective action. To know one has

153

X64 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

read correctly must give immediate satisfaction, and in case of
failure one must be able to tell for oneself whether or not the fault
lies in the reading. Self-directed, purposeful reading of directions
that call for action satisfies these requirements when a group of
children are able to compare the objective consequences of their
actions with objective standards and to determine themselves the
causes of their differences.

Of the various types of reactions employed to improve the
ability to comprehend what is read, drawing, cutting, and construc-
tion work were especially stressed for some months last year in the
primary grades of the Detroit schools.

The children '8 natural love for drawing and the desire to pro-
duce a picture, furnished a motive for careful reading. To take
advantage of this interest a series of exercises were planned, the
products of which gave the child and the teacher objective evidence
of the accuracy and efficiency with which the pupil read.

EXERCISES IN READING

At the outset types of exercises such as the following were used
with first-grade children. The selections were written on the board
and the teacher directed the children to read silently, then draw a
picture or make a cutting to illustrate what they had read.

Up in the tree
A little bird sings,
Under the tree
A little girl swings.

The Easter Bunny is sitting in the grass.
He has a new spring coat as white as snow.
He has beautiful pink eyes.
He is carrying a basket of Easter eggs
for the children.

For the second grade a variety of exercises were given in which
the directions to draw or cut were included as part of the reading.
A sufficient number of exercises were printed to supply each child
with a different selection. In this way the child remained uninflu-
enced by the work of his neighbor.

SZEECI8E8 IN SILBSI BBAD1N6

The examples listed below show eight different types of the
exercises used:

1. Directions for Illustrating Nursery Bhymea
(a) "There nu an old woman who lived in a shoe,

She had to many children the didn't know what to do."
Cut out a large shoe.
Put a little window in the shoe.
Color the shoe black.
Cat out six children.

Hake two of the children peeking over the top of the shoe.
Make three children pecking out of the window.
Make one pocking over the toe.

ILLUITUTIOX BY * S»OOHD-G»lB» PUPIL, Ann XlADIVS T

Ciaaonovi r* la.

156 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

(b) "Little Miss Muffett sat on a tuffet,
Eating her curds and whey,
Along came a spider and sat down beside her,
And frightened Miss Muffett away."

Make two pictures of this rhyme.

In the first, draw Miss Muffett sitting on a tuffet.

Draw her bowl of curds and whey.

Draw a spoon in her hand.

In the second picture, draw a big spider.

Make him black with yellow stripes.

Put six legs on him.

Draw Miss Muffett running away.

Draw her bowl fallen to the ground.

(e) "Hickory, dickory, dock,

The mouse ran up the clock,
The clock struck one,
The mouse ran down,
Hickory, dickory, dock."

Draw a big clock.

On the face put the numbers from one to twelve.

Draw the big hand at twelve.

Draw the little hand at one.

Draw a pendulum hanging down from the clock*

Draw the mouse running down the clock.

2. Directions for Illustrating Stories
Bead over the story —

(a) "The North Wind at Play."

in Elson One, page 100.

Draw the apple tree before the North Wind came.
Draw it after the North Wind had come.

Draw the corn field before the North Wind came.
Draw it after the North Wind had come.

Draw the little white lily before the North Wind came.
Draw it after the North Wind had come.

(b) "The Three Little Pigs."

Draw the pigs' house.

Draw the mother pig at the door.

Make the three little pigs going away.

Draw the first little pig when he met the man with some straw.

Draw the house of straw.

Make the pig looking out of the window.

Draw the wolf at the door.

Draw the second little pig when he met the man with the wood.

Draw the house of wood.

Make the pig looking out of the window.

Draw the wolf at the door.

EXERCISES IN SILENT BEADING 157

8. Directions for Constructing Toys

(a) "How to Make A-B-C Block*."

Fold your paper into sixteen squares.

Cut off one row of squares.

Make three cuts on ouch siue like this:

In square one, print a capital A.

In square three, print a small a.

In square two draw a picture of an apple.

In square four draw a picture of an acorn.

Fold like a box and paste.

(b) "How to Make a Bed-Riding-Rood DoU."

Cut out a little girl dolL
Paste it on cardboard.
Make a little red hood.
Paste it on your dolL
Make a little red cape.
Paste the cape on your doll, too.
Cut a basket and color it brown.
Put it on your doll's arm.

4. Directions for Illustrating Social Studies
(a) "Wash Day"

We shall hang out our washing today.

Draw a clothes line across the top of your brown paper.

Cut out a towel and paste it on the line.

Cut out a pair of stockings.

Hang them on the line, too.

Cut out a shirt and paste it on the line.

Cut out a little dress.

Paste it on the line.

(b) "Gardening Tool*"

Fold your paper into four squares.

Cut out a watering-can.

Paste it in the first square.

Cut out a rake.

Paste it in the third square.

Cut out a shovel.

Paste it in the second square.

Cut out a hoe.

Paste it in the fourth square.

(o) "Object* for an Indian Sand Table: an Indian Wigwam"

Get three sticks about six inches long. Tie them together at the top with
string. Spread them out at the bottom so they will stand. This will make the
framework of the wigwam.

Take a piece of brown paper nine by twelve inches. Cut a half circle
from it. Make it as large as you can. This is the skin covering for your
wigwam. Draw some Indian pictures on the skin. Fasten the skin covering
around the frame work. Fold back the flaps for a door.

158 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

(d) "An Indian Brave"

You will need a clothespin, some clay, some bright colored cloth and some
small feathers.

Make a ball of day over the head of the clothespin. Put in the eyes and
nose and mouth. Try to make it look like an Indian face. Put two feathers
in the top of the head. Make a square block of clay and press the bottom of
the clothespin in it so the Indian will stand. Make a blanket of the bright
colored cloth and sew it on your Indian. Whey dry, paint the Indian's face
reddish brown. Paint his eyes and hair black. Make an Indian squaw in
the same way, but do not put any feathers in her

5. Directions for Drawing, Picking out a Portion of the Text, and Writing

it in a Specified Place

(a) "The Three Little Kitten*"

1 ' The three little kittens washed their mittens,
And hung them out to dry.
'Oh! mother dear, look here, look here,
See! we have washed our mittens.' "

Draw two clothespoles and color them black.
Draw the clothes line between them.
Draw the three pairs of mittens on the line.
Draw the mother cat and the three little kittens standing near.
Under your picture write just what the little kittens are saying to their
mother.

(e) "The Bluebird"

(This exercise is complicated by requiring the children to search for an
appropriate selection in their readers.)

Draw a branch of an apple tree.

Draw some little pink blossoms and green leaves on it.

Draw a bluebird perched on the branch.

Make his cap deep blue.

Make his vest a reddish brown.

Make his coat and tail deep blue.

Make his bill and feet dark brown.

Make his eye black.

Look for a bluebird poem in your book.

Copy one stanza of it on your spelling paper.

Put your picture and your poem together to make a little book.

6. Type Demanding the Beading of a Short Description to Carry Out the

Directions

"The Goldfinch"

In the summer, father goldfinch wears a bright lemon-yellow suit. He has
a black cap, black wings, and a black tail. His little wife's dress is a dull
green or olive yellow.

Mr. and Mrs. Goldfinch build a tiny little nest shaped like a cup. It is

ff^w ^&**X*? d m088, -T he 7 m ver 7 fond ot ™rttoi and dandelion.

itl l7£ n *T ? eir 1 _ B f Bti ^^ **• fluff bo* theae little weeds. Then they
can eat the seeds for their dinner. ^^ J

EXERCISES IN SILENT BEADING 159

Draw a father goldfinch.

Make him perch on the branch of a little thorn bush.
Color his feathers to show the way he looks in the summer time.
In the crotch of the thorn bush, draw his nest.
Under the thorn bush, draw two weeds that he is very fond of.
Under your picture write a title for the drawing.

There are many possibilities of developing lessons of increasing difficulty
along these lines.

7. Type Based upon Geography for Fourth-Grade Children and Necessitating

Accurate Placing of the Drawing

Trace a map of the United States.

Put a star on the place where the greatest lake port in the world is located.

Color brown that part of Michigan in which copper is found.

Draw a ship at the greatest lake port in the west.

Draw a bale of cotton at the largest cotton port in the world.

Draw a mill in the greatest milling center of the world.

Draw some fish in the river from which we obtain great quantities of
salmon.

Color blue the longest river in the world.

Draw an automobile at the place in Michigan where most automobiles are
manufactured.

Draw a tree in the state in which the largest trees in the world are found.

8. Illustrating the Compositions of Other Children and a Sample Scale of

Beading Ability

Third-grade and fourth-grade children enjoyed illustrating each other's
compositions. Original riddles or stories were exchanged. The child receiving
the composition, after reading it thoughtfully, illustrated the ideas. The papers
were then returned to the writers, who, knowing the number of ideas they sought
to express, were able to check the efficiency of the other child's reading, as
shown by his illustration. Whether or no the reader gleaned all the ideas de-
pended upon his ability to get the thought, and the ability of the writer to
express his thought clearly. The following is typical:

"One day I was playing with another boy in some weeds. A
snake ran in front of me. We each took a club and killed it"

The examination of the results from each class disclosed very definitely the
number of ideas which were gleaned by the young readers. While some
readers represented every idea, there were others who could represent only a
few or perhaps just one of them. For example, in the directions, which are
given below, for making the pot of tulips, some drawings showed that the reader
had not understood how many tulips were to be drawn, that both buds and
flowers were to be shown, or that small leaves as well as large leaves were
to be made.

Cut out a flower pot.

Color it brown.

Cut out four tulips.

Make two look like buds.

Make two wide open.

Color them yellow.

Make some green leaves, big ones and little ones.

Paste them in the flower pot.

Put a back on the flower pot so that it will stand.

TEE TWENTIETH YEAEBOOE

A. SCALE OT READING ABILITY

A study of these results suggested the possibility of constructing
s scale to measure the development from the first through the fourth
grades of the ability to read silently and reproduce the ideas
through drawing. It was also expected that these results would
throw some light on problems in free-hand drawing.

The following scale was constructed and administered by the
primary supervisors throughout the first four grades in five repre-
sentative schools :

Draw a bird house

Hake it blue.

Put it In the top -of a little tree.

Make a bluebird flying over the bird house.

Make another bluebird standing on top of the bird house.

Put a little red worm in bis mouth.

The bird house is in » garden so draw a round flower bed near the bird
house.

Draw some yellow tulips in the middle of the bed and some red tulips
around the outside.

Draw some low bashes with red blossoms on them in the garden, too.

Now think of a name for tout picture and print it with black crayon at
the top of jour paper.

Draw a little square in the lower left-hand corner of jour paper.

In tho upper half of this square print the initial of your first name In

BXEBCI8E8 IN SILENT BEADING 161

The scale gradually increases in difficulty; the first directions
are simple enough in vocabulary, sentence structure, and thought
for first-grade children to understand. It was intended that the last
directions be difficult enough to tax the ability of fourth-grade chil-
dren. When administered, it was found that only 36 percent of
them were able to reproduce all of the forty-four ideas or items it
contains.

The benefits derived from exercises of the type indicated seemed
to be very marked, not only from the point of the development of
reading ability, but in terms of those other educational products of
even greater importance, self-direction, self-appraisal, self-control.
As the work was wholly experimental, no exact measurement of
results was attempted.

During the coming year, however, the experiment will be con-
tinued and an effort made to construct formal tests and scales which
may be used to furnish exact measures of the effect of this type of
training.

n

SILENT READING EXERCISES DEVELOPED AT DENVER,
CEDAR RAPIDS, RACINE, AND IOWA CITY

Comprehension is for the most part insured by the very nature
of the responses to such exercises as follow. The teacher must
guard, however, against mere formalized responses. Exercises
which require every child to respond each time a card is 'flashed 1
are superior from the standpoint of class administration. For
example, the entire class may react in concert to the card — "Point
to the north.' 9 The teacher can easily detect any pupil who does
not carry out such directions accurately.

I. THREE SILENT READING DEVICES FROM DENVER, COLORADO

(Reported by Helen R. Gumlick, Colfax School)

The questions or sentences are printed upon strips of heavy
manila paper, 4% inches wide and as long as necessary. The type
used makes the small letters 1 inch high and the capitals 1% inches
high. The ink is black. The words can easily be seen from any
part of the room.

The questions are flashed before the child. He does not say
what is on the card but gives an oral answer to what appears there.
The exercises have been used in 1A and 2B.

1. Silent Beading Exercise Based upon the Flag

Whose flag is thief Child's oral answer, "Ours."

For what country does it stand f Child's oral answer, "The United

States."

How many colors f Child's answer, "Three."

What is the blue forf

What is the red forf

What is the white forf

How many stripes f

How many red stripes f

How nmny white stripes f

What do tho stripes represent f

How many stars f

What do the stars represent f

162

Card

1.

Card

2.

Card

3.

Card

4.

Card

5.

Card

6.

Card

7.

Card

8.

Card

9.

Card 10.

Card

11.

Card 12.

EXERCISES IN SILENT READING 163

Card 13. Who made the first flag?

Card 14. Who asked her to make itf

Card 15. What is another name for our flag!

2. Silent Beading Device Based upon Local Directions

Point to the north.

Point to the south.

Show me the east.

Show me the west.

Stand in the northeast corner.

Go to the northwest corner.

Name something on the east wall.

What part of Denver is this!

What is the main street on this side of the city!

On what street is our school f

How many blocks is By era School from Broadway?

Name three streets east of Broadway.

Name throe streets west of Byers School.

Which direction from here do you live!

Which direction from Broadway do you live!

What direction do we go to get to town!

3. Silent Beading Device Based upon Table Etiquette

The plate belongs Child's oral answer, "Directly in front of

you. * *

The napkin belong!
The knife is placed-
The fork is placed-
The glass belongs —

The host sits

The hostess sits

Card

1.

Card

2.

Card

3.

Card

4.

Card

5.

Card

6.

Card

7.

Card

8.

Card

9.

Card

10.

Card

11.

Card

12.

Card

13.

Card

14.

Card

15.

Card 16.

Card

1.

Card

2.

Card

3.

Card

4.

Card

5.

Card

6.

Card

7.

Card

8.

Card

9.

Card

10.

Card

11.

Card

12.

Card

13.

Card

14.

Card

15.

Card 16.

Card

17.

Card 18.

The guest of honor sits

Elbows are not

Tho knife is not put

Lips must not

Chairs must not be left in-
Spoon must not be left in—

Serve people to the

Remove dishes from the—

If you wish something passed, say-

If asked to have more, say

If you wish to leave the table, say-

II. READING LESSONS BASED ON PROJECTS, FROM CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA

The following lessons were developed by various teachers under
the direction of Miss Grace Shields, Primary Supervisor, Cedar
Rapids, Iowa. Lack of space prevents the printing of other similar
exercises, which were uniformly excellent; the lessons given, how-
ever, are sufficiently representative. Other types of exercises based
on the same material may be readily constructed.

164 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

There are two great advantages in this type of work. First,
being based on actual experiences, they tend to guarantee more
adequate comprehension on the part of the child. Second, they are
based on factual material and accordingly may be caref uUy tested.

While these lessons may be regarded as primarily dealing with
the development of comprehension, they involve also organization
and remembrance. They could be made into speed exercises by hav-
ing the pupils work under time pressure.

1. ' ' Making Tallow Candles ' 9
(Reported by Ella Flynn, Grade II, Harrison School, Cedar Rapids, Iowa)

8ubject — The Pilgrim home in America.

Problem — How was the Pilgrim home lighted at night f

Project — To make a tallow candle.

Method of Approach

Interesting phases of our November work bronght about the discussion of
the Pilgrim home in America. The children were interested in the primitive
method of living, and especially in the process of candle making.

Method of Procedure

We procured a tin candle mold which would hold twelve candles. This
mold was ten inches high. We purchased one ball of candle wi eking and two
pounds of tallow. The wicking was twisted and put through the molds double,
being held in place at the top by a short stick. The tallow, sufficient for six
candles, was then melted, poured into the molds, and allowed to cool until the
next day. The mold was then immersed in warm water two or three times. The
children pulled upward on the stick at the top of the mold and the candles were
easily released.

The following day, one of these candles was placed in a candle stick and
it burned readily. The candles will be used for our Christmas party.

The following questions may be duplicated in order that each child may
have them before him, or they may be written on the blackboard or flashed on
cards. The child's comprehension is indicated by his answers to the questions.
Such exercises serve not only as lessons in reading, but also as an excellent type
of review work.

Questions to Be Used for Silent Beading

1. What did the Pilgrims use for light f

2. Where did they get candles f

3. What did we use in making candles?

4. Where do we get tallow t
6". Why do we use a wickf

6. How did you place the wick in the mold?

7. What did you do nextf

8. Of what use is the moldf

9. How long did you leave the candles in the moldf

10. How did we remove the candles from the moldf

11. How many candles did we make!

12. When are we going to use the candles f

EXERCISES IN SILENT BEADING 165

2. "Drying Corn"

(Reported by Miss Byrd Snyder, Grade I, Taylor School, Cedar Rapids, Iowa)

The first step in this exercise was a discussion of the preparation of food
for winter use. The second step was a project in drying corn. The project
served as a basis for Lesson 1, which was developed with the pupils. The ques-
tions in Lesson 2 were read silently from the blackboard, and answered orally
by the pupils.

Lesson 1

Miss Snyder brought some corn to school.

It was sweet corn.

We dried the sweet corn.

First we took the husks and silk off.

Sometimes thore was a worm on the corn.

We shook the worm in the waste basket.

Then we cut the bad places out of the corn.

We cut the corn from the cob.

We found milk in the corn.

We put the corn in the pans.

We put the pans in the oven.

It took two days to dry the corn.

The corn is brown and hard when it is dry.

We have put it into a bag until we have our Thanksgiving party.

Lesson $. Silent Reading

1. Why did we dry the corn!

2. Could we have kept it any other wayf

3. How did we get the corn ready for drying?

4. What did we sometimes find on the earsf

5. How did we dry this corn!

6. Could we dry it any other wayf

7. How long did it take to dry it in the ovenf

8. When shall we use itf

3. "Our Visit to the Fire Station"

(Reported by Miss Byrd Snyder, Grade I, Taylor 8chool, Cedar Rapids, Iowa)

After a story and talk about fires and how they can be prevented, the
following questions were given as a silent reading lesson.

1. What day is to-morrow f

2. Why do we have Fire Prevention Day!
8. Who helps us when we have a firef

4. Who pays the firemen?

5. How do the firemen know when we need themf

6. Why do we have a fire drill at school f

7. How can boys and girls help prevent firef

8. Tell some rules we should obey.

9. Would you like to visit a fire station to-morrow f

The following lesson was developed with the children as a summary of
their trip.

Our Visit to the Fire Station

On "Fire Prevention Day" we went to the fire station.
When we got there, the fireman invited us in.

100 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

We all went around on one aide of the truck.

We saw the tank of chemicals.

They use chemicals whenever they can, instead of water.

Water spoils the furniture.

In the back of the truck we saw a big hose.

Then the fireman showed us the engine.

Laurence turned the crank and we heard the siren.

Euby rang the bell.

These tell the people to get out of the way.

While we were still looking at the truck, there was a real fire.

After they had gone, we went outside a little while.

Then we went upstairs and saw their boots and the beds where

they sleep.
Soon the firemen came back.
The fire was out.
Then the firemen let Paul and Albert go down the pole.

The following questions were given as a silent reading lesson after the
visit to the fire station:

1. What did we see on the side of the truck?

2. Why do they use chemicals?

8. What did we see in the back of the truck?

4. Who turned the crank?

5. Who rang the bell?

6. Why did they have these?

7. What happened while we were looking at the engine?

8. Where do the firemen sleep?

9. Why do they stay at the station all night?

4. "The Making of a Johnny Cake"

(Beported by Carolyn Pangburn and Lucile Pogge, Grade 111,

Cedar Eapids, Iowa)

Problem and Project
Problem: How did the early settlers prepare corn and use it for food?

Discussion:

a. Where settlers first got the corn

b. Indian method of growing corn

c. Indians taught the settlers to plant corn

d. How corn was cultivated

e. Present day methods of milling

f . Uses of corn as food

Project:

a, Grinding or pounding corn into meal

b. Making of corn bread

Materials:

a. Mortar and pestle to pound corn into meal

b. Corn, either white or yellow
e. Materials for corn bread

Method of Procedure:

a. Pupils shell corn

b. Pupils place the corn in the mortar and, working in groups, pound

corn into meal

EXEBCI8E8 IN SILENT BEADING 167

e. Pupils arrange a table with materials and utensils for making
corn bread, using the following recipe:
1 pint of corn meal
% pint of flour

1 teaspoon of salt

2 tablespoons of molasses or sugar

1 scant teaspoon of soda dissolved in a little hot water

2 tablespoons of melted shortening
2 eggs

Sour milk enough to make a soft dough

d. Mix, turn into greased baking pan

e. Bake in moderate oven thirty minutes.

f . Pupils eat corn bread for lunch

Silent Beading

1. Did the early settlers know anything about corn before coming

to America f

2. Where did they first find corn!

3. Who taught them how to use corn for food?

4. How did the Indian plant corn!

5. Why did the Indian put fish in each hill of corn!

6. How did the Indian use green corn?

7. How was corn prepared for mealt

8. What things were needed to make corn mealt

9. Is corn meal made in the same way to-day f

10. Of what use is corn meal to usf

11. Why is the germ removed from corn in making corn meal to-day I

12. Why is our meal better?

13. What materials are needed to make corn bread f

14. What utenBils are needed f

15. How did the settlers bake their bread?

16. How long should corn bread be baked?

17. Why do we use less corn bread than the settlers did?

5. "Bird Observation' '

(Reported by Miss Ella Flyun, Grade II, Harrison School, Cedar Rapids, Iowa)

Subject: Bird observation.

Problem: To provide shelter and protection for a bird.

Project: Building a bird house.

Method of Approach

During the month of April we discussed the return of the birds from the
south. The children reported from time to time the arrival of different birds.
We became interested in the Junior Audubon Bird Club in which we might hold
membership by paying an annual fee of ten cents. The object of this club is to
attain a greater knowledge of our wild feathered friends and to protect them
from being wantonly killed.

The Audubon Society furnished leaflets describing ten of the best-knows
Iowa birds, together with information about food, nests, and eggs and a small
pocket guide for each child.

The children thought they could better observe and protect the birds by
building bird houses and having the birds live near their homes.

168 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

Suggestions Brought Out in Discussion

1. The roof must extend beyond back of house for drainage.

2. A small rest for the bird before entering house.

8. Sandpapering windows would prevent the birds 9 plumage from
being torn or lost.

4. The construction should be snug and secure, because it may serve

as a home for some winter bird.

5. Perches were suggested.

6. Dimensions:

Pieces Dimensions Use

1 6 x 10 Bottom

2 4x8 Bides
2 4%x 6 Ends
1 4 x 10 Boof
1 4%x 10 Boof

Procedure

After considering the bird houses from the standpoint of comfort, the
children constructed them. They were brought to school and the children told
which were most practical for the different birds. The houses were then
placed in trees or on posts near the homes of the children.

Excursion

One afternoon early in May we went to Ellis Park to observe the birds.
We took with us our Junior Audubon pocket guides and checked the different
birds observed. We also discovered a number of nests containing eggs.

Several phases of our bird work formed a language basis. Celia Thaxter's
poem, "The Robin," took on an added meaning after the pupib had actually
heard a robin singing during a spring shower.

Questions for a Silent Beading Lesson

1. What is the name of the bird club to which you belong?

2. What did you promise when you joined this clubf

3. How did you think you could help the birds near your hornet

4. What material did you use in your bird house?

5. How high and how long did you build itf

6. How many doors and windows has itf

7. What kind of roof does your bird house have?

8. Where did you place the house when finished f

9. What birds came to live in the home you built t

10. How do you think you have helped any bird this year?

11. How do you think the birds have helped usf

Reference: National Association of Audubon Societies, New York, N. T.
III. SILENT READING EXERCISES FROM RACINE, WISCONSIN

The following exercises were developed under the direction of
Miss Myrtle Farnham, Supervisor, Racine, Wisconsin. Special
credit for the pre-primer and first grade exercises is due to Miss
Jessie Jensen, Lincoln School; Miss Christie Mainland, Knapp

BXB&CISBS IN SILENT HEADING jgg

School; Miss Mayme Fdhey, Miss Catherine Fahey, Washington
School; Miss Alice Williams, Miss Vera Graham, Franklin School;
Miss Ruth Reid, Fratt School; Miss Ellen Murphy, Winslow
School.

The practicability of each exercise has been assured by haying
it taught by a large number of teachers.

A. The Kindergarten

Beginnings are made in the kindergarten which train the child to find out
for himself the meanings of the printed or written word and to use ideas given
in phrase, word, or sentence. Four illustrations are here presented.

1. Assignment* to 'Committees*

One problem centers about finding out who are to be the committees for the
day or week. . A card is illustrated by the teacher for the bulletin board which
indicates by name who will look after the tables, chairs, plants, blocks, etc.
Each child in the room is responsible for finding out whether he is on one of
these committees and who are his associates in the work. That part of the
bulletin board is a popular place, and much discussion over names and pictures
takes place, together with good planning by the committees. The assignments
are made by a card bearing pictures and the names of pupils, like this:

Table
(Picture of table)

David
Mary

Chair
(Picture of chair)

Charles
Harry

Sand table
(Picture of sand table)

Lueile
John

Cupboard
(Picture of cupboard)

Helen
Jennie

Floor
(Line for floor)

Jack
James

f . Phrase Cards in Drawing Work

Giving parts of a story or ideas suggested by a phrase or a group of
phrases in rapid drawing, we find, makes for concentration and quick interpre-
tation. The phrase cards are distributed about the room. A number of
children with their chairs, drawing boards, paper and pencil, move from one
to another, illustrating rapidly. The teacher observes, suggests, corrects. Such
phrases as The big bear's chair, The little bear's chair, The middle-sized bear '*
chair, The big bowl, The middle-sized bowl, The big bed, The little bed, The
middle-sized bed are used with the story of "The Three Bears." At first the
phrases are with the pictures, then they are taken away, one by one.

S. Phrase Cards in Dramatisation

In dramatization some stories lend themselves to the indications of char-
acters or articles necessary by means of word or phrase cards, thus: Garden,

170 THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

where the little red hen lived; -Santa Claus Land or A Christmas Stare, where
the labels read "A Walking Doll," "A Talking Doll," "A Singing Doll."
A Mother Goose Village carried many signs to be correctly interpreted in finding
places and assuming characters for the dramatisation; "Mary Contrary"
must find her watering can and the places in the room designated " Garden"
and ' ' Flowerbeds. ' ' Jack and Jill must get their pail and find the place desig-
nated "HilL"

4. Labels in Games and Plays

Games and plays lend themselves to attaching meanings to printed words
in one of the most natural and necessary forms: Goals are marked One, Two,
Three, etc., and are called in races; Captains' names are placed on the black-
board for score keeping; their companies' names are also placed there, and
each child is held responsible for knowing in that way where his place is in the
company.

B. Pre-Primer, Primer, and First Reader

Good silent reading habits were developed in connection with reading
units based on nature study. The special subject was "Birds in the spring"
(February to June). The problems in Nature study used as a basis were:
"What do birds do in the world!" and "How may we attract them!"

In this work the following were some of the phases of development:

1. Observation and personal acquaintance with the birds; asso-
ciated with near-by trees in gardens, yards, and fields.

2. Arrival and identification of a few for all of the class. This
is not to be limited for those children who can learn of more.

3. Watching, recording, reporting and solving problems con-
nected with the study of nesting and care of young.

4. Birds in picture, song, and story.

For pre-primer and primer classes words and phrases were quickly visual-
ised to increase span of recognition. There was also silent reading in the
class of individual record cards. The children read other cards than their own
and told results of the other pupil's observations.

Three cardboards, each 6 by 9 inches, and ruled to answer the two ques-
tions "What!" and "Whent " were given each child to take home the first
of March and to be kept until they had a record of one bird on each card, then
returned and used in silent reading in class work. At first, there were individual
reports; then all were fastened to tho bulletin board and grouped by the pupils
through silent reading of content. This was worked out by groups. Through
silent reading all of the reports on the robin were arranged together, all of those
on the bluebird together, and so on. A study of food calendars followed this
work. The home work, the class silent reading, the reproduction and the
bulletin grouping were carried out as with the charts of arrival.

The charts of arrival and the food calendars were developed like these
samples:

Chart of Arrival

What! When?

Robin March 8th

Woodpecker March 9th
Wren March 15th

EXEBCI8ES IN SILENT BEADING 171

Food Calendar

Food of Bobins

Worms
Food of Hairy Woodpecker

Cocoons

Eggs of Beetles

The foregoing represent beginnings which were added to during the term.

We also use in silent reading descriptive cards of the birds. These are
worked oat with the teacher in class composition. After they are finished, one
child holds the card for the class to read silently. Another child finds that
picture of the bird on the bulletin board which answers the card description.

Cards 12 by 14 inches, like the following, were used:

I make a nest in the trees.
I make it of sticks

mud

dry grass.
I live in a bird house.
It is in a tree.
It is small.

The same idea is carried out in individual records contributed by children
and written by the teacher on the blackboard. This is one illustration:

In the orchard there is a bird's nest.
It is a robin's nest.

Hectographed slips or printed slips, the content taken from primers and
library books, are mounted on cardboard and are read silently to get informa-
tion needed in carrying on the nature study work.

Two of the card lessons were derivod as follows:

a. How to help the wrens.

b. How to help the robins.

(From "Little Kingdom Primer," by
Sawyer. Publishers, Rand-McNalry Co.)

c Up to the sky.

(From "Character Building Series"
Part I, Book I, by Kenyon and Werner.
Publishers, Hinds, Noble, and Eldridge.)

IV. A LESSON TO TEST AND DEVELOP THE ABILITY TO COMPREHEND

CERTAIN WORDS AND PHRASES

(Submitted by Emma Watkins, First-Grade Teacher, University
Elementary School, State University of Iowa)

The calendar used for these exercises is of the ordinary sort distributed
as advertising by commercial houses. It was mounted on a large sheet of card*
board in order to give the required stiffness. The words, phrases, and sentences
were printed on pieces of cardboard, care being taken to print the entire phrase
or sentence in one line. After seating the pupils as close to the calendar as
convenient, the lesson is begun by telling the pupils that they are to be shown
flash cards upon which are printed words which will tell them what to point

172

THE TWENTIETH YEARBOOK

to on the calendar. Pupils are directed to stand as soon as they understand
the meaning of the first phrase which is flashed. The pupil who finishes first is
allowed to stand before the calendar and point to the appropriate place
indicated by the flash card. This pupil continues the exercise, reading addi-
tional cards, until he makes an error, when his place is taken by some other
pupil who can read that exercise. The lesson as described here is given under
time pressure. It presupposes that the words and phrases which are used
have boon already developed with the class. The class is an advanced first-
grade class.

1. Phrases

yesterday

today

tomorrow

next week

this week

the month

the year

the date

week after next

a week from tomorrow

two weeks from tomorrow

a week ago yesterday

day after tomorrow

day before yesterday

in two days

the first day of the month

the first day of the week

next Saturday

last Thursday, ete.

the last day of the month

the first quarter of the moon

new moon

full moon

last quarter of the moon

Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

the day before the last day

of the month
the sixteenth
the fifteenth, ete.
next Monday, ete.
next month
last Monday

2. Sentences

On what day do you go to Sunday-school f
What will be the last day of school this weekf
(Other similar sentences.)

Information Concerning the National Society for the

Study of Education

1. Purpose. The purpose of the National Society Is to promote the investigation
and discussion of educational questions. To this end It holds an annual meeting and
publishes a series of Yearbooks.

2. Eligibility to Membership. Any person who is Interested in receiving its
publications may become a member upon application to the Secretary and subsequent
approval by the Executive Committee. Membership may not be had by libraries or by
institutions.

8. Psbiod of Membership. Applicants for membership may not date their
entrance back of the current calendar year, and all memberships terminate automatically
on December 31st, unless the dues for the ensuing year are paid as indicated in Item 6.

4. Classes of Mbmbebs. Application may be made for either active or associate
membership. Active members pay two dollars dues annually, receive two copies of each
publication, are entitled to vote, to hold office and to participate in discussion. Associate
members pay one dollar dues annually, receive one copy of each publication, may attend
the meetings of the Society, but may not vote, hold office or participate in discussion. The
names of active members only sre printed In Part I of each Yearbook. There were in
1920 about 250 active and 800 associate members.

6. Election Fee. New active and new associate members are required the first
year to pay, in addition to the dues, an election fee of one dollar.

6. Payment of Dues. Statements of dues are rendered in October for the follow-
ing calendar year. By vote of the Society at the 1919 meeting, "any member so notified
whose dues remain unpaid on January 1st, thereby loses his membership and ean be rein-
stated only by paying the election fee of one dollar required of new members."

7. Distribution of Yearbooks to Members. The Yearbooks, ready each Febru-
ary, will be mailed only to members whose dues for that year have been paid. Members
who desire Yearbooks prior to the current year must purchase them directly from the
publishers (see Item 8).

8. Commercial Sales. The distribution of all Yearbooks prior to the current
sear and also of those of the current year not regularly mailed to members in exchange
for their dues is in the hands of the publishers, not of the secretary. For such commercial
sales, communicate directly with the Public School Publishing Company, Bloomlngton,
Illinois, who will gladly send a price list covering all the publications of this Society
and of its predecessor, the Kstional Herbert Society.

9. Yearbooks. The Yearbooks are Issued in parte (usually two) every February.
They comprise from 250 to 500 pages annually. Unusual effort has been made to make
them on the one hand of immediate practical value and on the other hand representative
of sound scholarship and scientific investigation. Many of them are the fruit of coopera-
tive work by committees of the 8ociety.

10. Meetings. The annua] meeting, at which the Yearbooks are discussed, is held
in February at the same time and place as the meeting of the Department of Superin-
tendence of the National Education Association.

Applications for membership will be handled promptly at any time on receipt of
name and address, together with check for the sppropriate amount ($8.00 for new active
membership, $2.00 for new associate membership).

GUY M. WHIPPLE, Secretary-Treasurer.

University of Michigan,

Ann Arbor, Michigan*

f

I

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'•I

1

! UKCI. 1812

IW AIM.)

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