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THE BRITISH EMPIRE

"The experiment must go forward. . . .
We cannot leave it unfinished if we would."

— Sir John Seeley.

Uniform with this Volume
MODERN INDIA

BY

J. D. REES, C.V.O., CLE., M.P.

CAPE COLONY

BY

RT. HON. JOHN XAVIER MERRIMAN

OF CAPE COLONY

YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY
IN CANADA

jjsi oeoRGe7ihLeii& sons

YESTERDAY & TO-DAY

IN CANADA

BY

THE DUKE OF ARGYLL

AUTHOR OF " IMPERIAL FEDERATION," ETC.

TORONTO

THE MUSSON BOOK COMPANY, LTD.

LONDON: GEORGE ALLEN & SONS

Scs4-

Published under the auspices of the
Uagut oj the Empire

Printed by Ballantynr, Hanson «!r> Co.
At the lUlantyne Press, Edinburgh

NOTE

11 The experiment must go forward. . . . We can-
not leave it unfinished if we would." It is nearly
thirty years since Professor Seeley spoke these
words of Empire in his great series of lectures
on the " Expansion of England." What was only
felt then in an emotional way by a comparatively
small band of enthusiasts has to-day come home
to at least some millions of our people. In Seeley's
day the Imperialist was the dreamer ; now he is
the practical and clear-seeing man of affairs. The
reproach that our politicians, our historians, still
think of England, not of Greater Britain, as their
country has lost much of its sting since those
lectures were read at Cambridge by Seeley.
No man of information or imagination really
supposes to-day that England could whistle off
the Colonies and " become again, with perfect
comfort to herself, the old, solitary island of Queen
Elizabeth's time — 'in a great pool a swan's nest.'"
That was the strange delusion which arose, as the
historian pointed out, not through imagination, but
through the want of it.

More every year it becomes the wish, as it is
the duty, of every thinking British citizen to be

viii YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

well informed, not only as to his own particular
land, but as to the British Empire as a whole.
What can they know of England who only
England know ? is truer to-day than ever it has
been. The Empire, with its tremendous problems
of government, defence, trade, and the handling
of the coloured races, is a theme of as great
and live value as any of the subjects studied at
school and college — the classics, English history
and geography, science, modern languages, mathe-
matics. We must learn "to think imperially,"
or perish completely as an empire. The subject
cannot any longer be left out of the scheme of
study at our schools and universities ; and it may
well be a subject of home training too.

The educated man of the future is sure to be
educated in the glorious subjects of India, Canada,
South Africa, Australasia ; he will be alive to the
true meaning and great import of our position
and interests in the Far East, the Mediterranean,
the Pacific.

The aim of this series of books, therefore, is
to give people, young and old, at home and
throughout Greater Britain, a trustworthy, abso-
lutely authentic description of British interests,
resources, and life all over the Empire. Each
volume will be written by an acknowledged
authority on the subject. No regard will be paid
to party politics. The questions of Liberalism and
Conservatism do not come within the scope of
these books : it is only a question of Imperialism.

NOTE ix

The idea is to describe the Colony, British
possession, or sphere of influence in its natural,
commercial, and social features ; and the authors
will give an account of its rise and growth.
"Yesterday and To-Day in Canada," by the Duke
of Argyll ; " Modern India," by Sir J. D. Rees,
M.P. ; and "South Africa," by the Right Hon.
John Xavier Merriman, of Cape Colony, will be
the opening books in the series.

THE EDITORS.

PREFACE

The object of this book is to bring together the
recent and most prominent statements and facts
regarding the progress Canada has made in the
political and industrial aspects of her existence, and
to exhibit her past and present relation to the
mother country. The contents of the publication
will show the salient matters it is important to
remember in view of present developments and
the possibilities of commercial concert. In speak-
ing of concert in trade, it is not the happy-go-lucky
and casual and accidental commerce which has been
the natural result of common home memories be-
tween old country and colonists, but the organised
co-operation in leading purchase and sale along lines
more favourable to mother and child, or, as we now
are beginning to say, between sister States, than
before. Science is henceforward, in Canada's view,
to back natural early affinity. When a colony grows
gradually as has Canada, into an independent State,
the proportion of her citizens attached by senti-
ment or race feeling must gradually lessen, in com-
parison with others of other stock who enter Canada,
and become also citizens of the ancient British

xii YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

colony. Gradually the time must come when it is
more by the similarity of institutions than by com-
munity in blood that the likeness between the sisters
in the old world and the new can remain. Geo-
graphical affinity has its influence, as well as political
or sentimental attraction. It is therefore very in-
teresting and instructive to observe to what extent
the attraction to the mother country exists, and how
it tells, decade after decade, among the descendants
of the early colonists and their comrades in citizen-
ship from other European lands. In the case of
the French Canadian one can observe how political
events and the sundering of commercial and national
ties produce a very complete severance of common
purpose, although a race sentiment remains which
leads to a tendency to a local patriotism rendered
stronger by the historic past, when their ancestors
were in arms against the fathers of their present
Canadian countrymen. Colonel Charette received
volunteers for his Papal Zouaves and a few for the
struggle of France against Germany, but volunteer-
ing was necessarily extremely limited, and France
could never count now on many men to assist her in
any conflict. The new France over the water has
been too long separated in ideas political and re-
ligious from the dominant party in old France,
whose children founded the colonies in Quebec. So
it might be with the English-speaking Canadians,
were a policy of neglect and carelessness, and
refusal of all co-operation in Canadian enterprise,

PREFACE xiii

political or commercial, to supersede the present
lively sympathy and constant financial aid given
by Britain to all Canadian industrial enterprises.
" Trade follows the flag," and commercial invest-
ments are attracted when men know that the laws,
traditions, and sentiment are alike in the country
which is the investor, and in the country where the
investments are placed. If France had been keen
to invest in Quebec, and if she had not been harsh
to the religion of Quebec, French sentiment would
now be more than a sentiment in the land mapped
by Perouse and conquered by Champlain. Yet there
is no doubt that French Canadians, much as they
disapprove of the present state of affairs in France
under the Tricolour, especially in relation to the
Government treatment of the religious orders,
would hail with gladness any commercial rapproche-
ment with France, and would infinitely prefer any
such commercial ties to any with other lands. The
white flag of the ancient monarchy with the fleurs-
de-lys is no more. It is the Tricolour that now
repfesents the " vieille patrie." Blood is thicker
than water. "Frenchmen will be Frenchmen."
But how long will it be before the sons of English-
men will cease to be Englishmen, if in two or three
more generations their children's blood is no longer
English, and there be nothing but the tie that
unites Americans to the old country, between
England and her Canadian "oversea sister
State " ? Why should they not make the alliances

xiv YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

most immediately profitable if the old country
thinks her interests consist in living on in solitary
economic glory, the one State in the whole world
which sacrifices itself to theory and is too old to
learn and too feeble-hearted to feel ?

ARGYLL.

CONTENTS

PAGK

Note . . . . • • vii

Preface ........ xi

CHAP.

I. Quebec . . i

II. Ontario 18

III. New Brunswick 35

IV. Nova Scotia . . . . . 44
V. British Columbia 54

VI. Manitoba 70

VII. Saskatchewan 81

VIII. Alberta 102

IX. Athabasca 120

X. Naval and Military Defence . . . .126

XI. National Highways of Canada . . .167

XII. The Conferences — What they meant . .228

XIII. What has been done 261

XIV. What may still be done 338

XV. Valuable Statistics 363

XVI. Sport 390

APPENDIX 405

INDEX 417

CANADA

No stranger's foot insulting

Shall tread our country's soil,
While stand her sons exulting

For her to live and toil.
She hath the victor's guerdon,

Hers are the conquering hours ;
No foeman's yoke shall burden

This Canada of ours.

Chorus.

Aye one with her whose thunder
Keeps world-watch with the hours,

Guard freedom's home and wonder,
"This Canada of ours.''

Our sires when times were sorest

Asked none but aid Divine,
And cleared the tangled forest

And wrought the buried mine.
They tracked the floods and fountains,

And won with master hand
Far more than gold in mountains —

The glorious prairie land.

Inheritors of glory,

O countrymen, we swear
To guard the flag whose story

Shall onward victory bear.
Where'er through earth's far regions

Its triple crosses fly
For God, for home, our legions

Shall win or, fighting, die.

YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY
IN CANADA

CHAPTER I

QUEBEC

u ' The land of old romance,

Where glitter helmet, sword, and lance,
And banners wave, and trumpets sound,'
And memories of the mighty throng —
Of men who came from royal France,
With loyalty and valour crowned —
Where still is heard the sound of song
Sung by the musketeers who strode
Where'er victorious Montcalm rode,
Victors from Beaufort to Champlain —
Until that dark September night
That saw the British frigates pour
Their crowded troops on Abraham's Height,
And Wolfe knew wounds were not in vain,
Ere Death from shock of battle bore
To where our wars are fought no more
Two warrior souls, each born to be
Contending nations' stars of victory."

No man has known what pleasure life can give
until he has ridden out of Quebec with a joyous
company to Lake Beauport, and has there fished for
trout and dined on fish caught by himself, and
thereafter has partaken of buckwheat cake with

A

2 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

maple-sugar, and finished his dinner with wild
strawberries and cream, and then seen the sunset
on water and forest and hill give signal for repose
in the hostelry until another morning takes him
back to the ancient capital. No man has realised
what the past of the New World means until he
has had the mental refreshment of speaking with
the men of Quebec, who are so loyal to the
memories of old France, and yet have known to
shape these sentiments into harmony with the
enterprise distinctive of the continental life. He
may have spoken of the history of the province with
Lemoine, its most vivid historian, or discussed poetry
and drama with Louis Frechette, the charming
poet of New France, or politics and forestry with
Sir Joli de Lobiniere, whose ancient seigneury
on the south side of the great St. Lawrence was
the birthplace of his sons, soldiers in the imperial
army, and may find that these notable men have left
successors as able and as loyal to the Empire as
they. Or if the visitor to the province of Quebec
desires to study affairs of State, he will find in her
sons who have taken Cabinet office in the Federal
Ministry men who can tell him how and why it is
that the French Canadian deems the British flag to
be his palladium of safety for the continuance in
America of his faith and freedom. Among the states-
men from whom he will learn the sentiments of the
descendants of the loyalists of the ancient monarchy
of France is the Hon. M. Lemieux, the able represen-
tative, of late commissioned by the Canadian and

QUEBEC 3

British Governments to negotiate with the Japanese
Government on the difficult and delicate question
of the immigration into Canada of Japanese — a
subject which has so greatly excited the Califor-
nians, and has much engrossed the people of British
Columbia also, for all the coast population have feared
the incoming of numbers of Asiatics able to outdo
them in cheapness of labour, length of hours of
toil, and ability to live on sustenance which men of
European stock regard as insufficient. This ques-
tion has for the present been solved by the Lemieux
proposal that all direct immigration be arrested,
and the indirect coming of Japanese from other
countries than Japan be watched and limited. And
now, finally, if the British inquirer in Quebec be in-
terested as a commercial man in railways, in mines,
or any stocks and shares, he will find in Montreal,
the commercial capital, so beautifully placed on its
Royal Mount, and near the vast Lachine Rapids
of the St. Lawrence River, the men who guide
the business interests of the Dominion. Here
lives Mr. Van Home, who recently spoke thus on
the present-day matters to a representative of the
Canadian Gazette, He said —

11 You ask me for my opinion as to the effect the
imposition of the United States maximum tariff
would have on Canadian industry. I do not think
it can do much harm, and for a very simple reason.
Under the Dingley tariff pretty well everything
that Canada produced was excluded from the
United States ; that is to say, the tariff was made

4 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

practically prohibitive, save as to few things —
lumber, pulp-wood, gold and silver ores, nickel
ore, and perhaps a few unimportant things besides.
These products are not taxed to the extent of ex-
clusion, because the United States wants them, and
must have them at almost any price, and if they put
a surtax on them their own people must pay it.
For this reason I do not myself think it will be
seriously attempted.

11 Nor do I think that the present situation as
regards Canada's trade with Great Britain would
be materially changed. It will not prevent the
United States from selling to Canada as freely as
now, unless Canada should meet the proposed surtax
by increasing her duties correspondingly against the
United States, which she would probably do. This
would, of course, increase the margin of preference
to Great Britain, and make it much easier for Britain
to sell in Canada against United States manufac-
turers. But even this will not eventually turn the
trade without work, and an ounce of work is worth
a pound of preference. In the face of the large
preference given by Canada to Great Britain, the
exports of the United States to Canada increased from
about $66,000,000 to something like $170,000,000
during the first nine years of preference. Canada
is the largest customer for the manufactures of
the United States — larger, I think, than all
South America together — and I doubt if the United
States will deliberately kick such an important cus-
tomer. Besides, there may be in Canada a sufficient

QUEBEC 5

sentiment in favour of reciprocity to put upon United
States goods a surtax equal to that now proposed
against her, and this would cost the United States
a good many dollars for one. No ; I don't believe
that the United States will do anything of the kind.
" There is newspaper talk of a tariff arrange-
ment between the States and Canada on a re-
ciprocal basis for coal, lumber, iron ore, wheat, and
so on. I see no need, as far as Canada is con-
cerned, of any reciprocal trade arrangement. Reci-
procity in coal might be convenient to both parties,
for Canada has coal at the east and the west, but
not in the middle, while the United States has it
in the middle, but not at the coast or the west. I
see no advantage to Canada in anything else.

" Canadian wheat is, of course, wanted to keep
the Minneapolis mills going ; it is also wanted by
the railways in that direction. But Canada has no
interest in providing for either of these wants, which
would only work to the disadvantage of her own
mills and her own carriers — not alone her inland
carriers, but her ocean carriers. Every dollar earned
by United States for the transportation of Canadian
wheat is a dollar absolutely lost to Canada. Re-
garding Canadian immigration restrictions, aside
from the exclusion of paupers and criminals, I am
opposed to any immigration restrictions. As to
the encouragement of British emigrants, it is per-
haps only necessary that they should know that, if
they are able and willing to work with their hands,
they can get on well in Canada, and soon become

6 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

independent. The right kind will easily find their
way out. It is easy to get there; but those who
are unaccustomed to work, or who do not know
how to do something in particular, might have a
hard time of it, and had better not go. As for the
British capitalist, there are many good things for
capital in Canada, and some bad things. Practi-
cally all of the leading railway and manufacturing
concerns are well and honestly conducted, and
practically all of them are growing with the country.
There are, of course, as in all countries, speculative
ventures concerning which one cannot be too care-
ful. The laws are much the same as in England ;
the courts are above reproach, and capital is well
safeguarded." Moreover, it is a country which it is
easy to go and see.

None has done more for Canada than has Sir
William Van Home, and his outlook on affairs from
the vantage-place of Montreal, Canada's chief com-
mercial city and the capital of old Quebec, is
contained in this well-weighed judgment on to-day's
prospects.

Two of the most notable of the men who stood
forth pre-eminently as representatives of Canada in
the last half of the nineteenth century — namely, Sir
Donald Smith and Mr. George Stephen, who both
lived much at Montreal and built fine houses there —
are now peers of Great Britain, and have returned
to the land of their birth. Lord Strathcona is the
official representative, as High Commissioner, of
the Dominion, and Lord Mount Stephen is ever

QUEBEC 7

ready also to assist his Canadian friends. The
educational and charitable institutions of Montreal
owe much to them, and Lord Strathcona is the
trustee of more than one. The city is, indeed, too
cosmopolitan to be considered as typical of the
province, as is the ancient capital. There the
aspect is much as it was in the days of the great
struggle for its possession between the British
and the French. The lines of the citadel buildings
are a trifle more formal, but they only crest the
big rock and plateau which looms over the river,
as it did when the white flag with the golden lilies
floated above it, and its batteries gave back shot
for shot in reply to the puffs of white smoke that
rose into the air from the discharge of the cannon
of Wolfe mounted on the opposite bank of the
river along the lower cliffs named after the French
governor Levis. The white, tin-covered roofs of
the town beneath the big rock cliff and crowding
the bank of the river St. Charles, which joins under
the guns of the fortress the vast St. Lawrence, and
the bridge over the small affluent, are much what
they were, though a century and a quarter has
passed since Wolfe almost despaired of winning his
way into the town. He had possession with his
fleet's assistance of the far-away island you see in
mid-stream of the watery expanse called the river,
but the left bank, where the cascade of Mont-
morency leaps a sheer 1 20 feet down the escarpment,
was in the hands of Montcalm. Wolfe had tried
an attack there in vain in the summer, and his three

8 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

ships and two battalions employed had received so
severe a mauling that they had retreated again to
the friendly shelter of the great island of Orleans.

Yes, despair had almost made the British
general sail away, when his resolution to try one
last chance in September gave him the prize and
death. It was at night that Levis and the isle of
Orleans saw the troops transferred to the ships
and his flotilla sail silently past the fortress upstream
and land two miles above the fortifications. The
plateau was occupied before Montcalm could get his
men over the longer land route from Beauport,
which the garrison of the citadel was not strong
enough to attack without him. When his regi-
ments formed line they were flurried by the
speed made in their exertions to arrive, and did
not stand the close heavy volleys with which the
old smooth-bore musket dealt such fearful slaughter
at near range. It was a marvel that at battles
like that of Malplaquet or Quebec any officers
survived. The carnage was infinitely greater in
proportion to the men engaged than it is in modern
engagements. Montcalm and Wolfe were both
victims and both victors, for their deaths gave free
institutions to Canada, and kept for Quebec the
faith of ancient France and the continuity she loves
in her pride of noble traditions and the preservation
of her people's place and privilege in the history of
the New World. Her navigator Perouse and her
soldier Champlain were the first to explore and
colonise. Louisbourg, on the Atlantic, was the first

QUEBEC 9

fortified town in New France, and though now
deserted is most interesting, for it shows the lines of
its old Vauban-style fortification, and it was here
that Wolfe first gave proof in the American cam-
paign of his great qualities, for when his boat was
dashing to the shore with the other boats of the five
ships, carrying the storming parties, the French fire
was so heavy that the admiral signalled the boats to
return ; but Wolfe stood up in his and cheered the
flotilla on to the landing, which was effected, and
a lodgment made near the beach, and the sub-
sequent surrender of the town was entirely owing
to his heroism. When one sees this place, and
thinks of the distant Quebec and of Lake Cham-
plain, and the battlefields in the United States, one
realises the immense area over which fighting was
carried on when there was only water carriage, and
the forest tracks were known only to the Indians.

If you desire to see triumphs of science in
mechanical arts, the greatest engineering works on
the continent may be seen in the Victoria tubular
bridge at Montreal, and in the bridge about to
span the St. Lawrence near Quebec. The canti-
lever span will be the longest in the world — 1800
feet — and the length of the whole bridge will be
3300 feet. The bridge way will be 150 feet above
the water, and the tower tops 400 feet. Two lines
of railway will be carried by it, two trolly lines, and
two sidewalks for persons on foot.

In railway construction the country gives plenty
of opportunity for the engineer to show his worth,

io YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

for rivers, lakes and ravines, and hills of the oldest
and hardest rocks will have all to be conquered;
and Quebec province can now show over 3500
miles of " track." The companies obtain land
grants from the Provincial Government, so that
they may assist in the settlement of agriculturists
in the country, and 1 3 J millions of acres have been
given for the encouragement of railway lines.

Among the people the Roman Church has by
far the greater number of followers — about ih
million — and most of these are of French descent ;
the English Church has over 80,000, and the
Presbyterian about 60,000.

A few Scotsmen can be met with everywhere
here, as throughout the rest of the world, and there
are many of Scots name, whose ancestors were in the
Frazer and other regiments, and settled down after
the wars under Wolfe were over, and married
French women, whose descendants speak French.
There is a Campbeltown at the head of the great
gulf called the Bay of Chaleurs, to the south of the
St. Lawrence Gulf, and near this little town are two
of the salmon rivers that give the best fishing in
Canada. These are the Metapedia and Casca-
pedia ; but there are hundreds of other streams
where the greediest sportsman may contentedly fill
his basket, or indeed his canoe, with magnificent fish.
The beauty of these little rivers coming down over
the agate-sprinkled gravels of the rocky watercourses
in the forests is indescribably charming. The wild
creatures of the woods are still in sufficient numbers

QUEBEC ii

to be met with by the sportsman as he is poled up
the stream by his two canoemen. On a slanting
cedar hanging over the water he may see a brown
bear climbing down, having apparently ascended
the tree for the pure love of looking down into a
lovely pool and seeing his own ugly brown face
reflected from the depths ; or perhaps the bear may
have gone up to take a view of where the salmon
were lying thickest, that he too might have the
chance of catching a fish.

And when the angler is tempted to stop the
canoe, that he may himself try his luck, he may soon
hook a fine fish, and, when playing it, may chance to
see a forest hare, smaller than the European, and
with more slender legs, but with a greater apprecia-
tion of sport, come out from the wood and sit upright
on the pebbles of the river shore to look on with
intelligent curiosity at the splashing fish making a
sturdy fight against the gradually conquering Boston-
made bamboo fishing-rod. And then far upstream
the canoemen will find the work easier, the cur-
rents less strong, as they pole up into the wider
stretches of water which open into lakes, where at
sunset the visitor may be suddenly aware of a
great moose standing reflected in the shallows of a
sandy bay. Let us hope, for the sake of the moose,
that the fisherman has forgotten his rifle, and that
the unwieldy-looking beast may turn to the wood
cover, and disappear, to live another season.
But there may be full comfort for the dis-
appointment in the possibility of getting cariboo

12 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

yet farther in the more barren uplands ; and the
loveliness of all except the mosquitoes and
black flies and Brule flies (like Scots midges,
only with more of the push belonging to a new
world), will soothe his soul, if not his skin. Of fish,
indeed, he will soon have enough, and will pray for
other food than salmon. The riches of river and
sea are indeed inexhaustible. If he tires of the
beauty of wooded promontories and sleepy lakes,
and silver shores, and antique woods of pine, birch,
and maple, he may yacht along the red shores
towards the Atlantic, and catch cod and eat lobsters,
and be free of mosquitoes, and see the strange
white porpoises divide the blue waters with their
ivory-like bodies, until he voyages on to the far
shores of Labrador, and sees there the outermost
flank of that thick arched belt of subarctic forest, a
zone of little thick-growing spruce and Banksian
fir, which girdles the whole continent. From ocean
to ocean stretches that dark belt, sheltering within
its recesses the flying squirrels, yellow and silver
foxes, and many animals precious for the fur they
bear, and numbering among them sometimes in the
central regions even the few surviving buffalo, and
occasionally in the far north the musk ox, as well
as the wandering cariboo, and other deer.

Fine and fruitful as are the shores of the Bay of
Chaleurs, if an Englishman wishes to see what
good settlements mean in the far north of the east
of Canada, let him go to the Lake St. John, the
great sheet of inland water north of the Saguenay,

QUEBEC 13

and he will be delighted with the homely but
successful husbandry to be seen there. Or in the
south, near the American frontier, let him go to
the eastern townships, where few but English
settlers could not long ago have been found, but
where the French Canadian is now perhaps fully
as much at home as were the British.

The eastern townships are a modern community,
but they are not a crowded community. There is
room for more, many more. The hard work of the
pioneer is over. The woodman's axe has done its
work. The primeval forests of a century ago have
given place to fertile, cultivated fields. The soil
has been tamed. The log cabin of the pioneer has
long since given place to comfortable homes.

The shires of old England and the townships of
young Canada have much in common. The former,
however, are crowded, while the latter send forth
an urgent call for more men and women to join
them in their splendid land, whose greatest need
is a larger population.

Agriculture. — Agriculture is often referred to
as the backbone of Canada's prosperity. This is
true, and essentially so when applied to the eastern
townships of Quebec, one of the finest agricultural
sections in old Canada.

Englishmen say that the character of the eastern
townships agriculture much resembles that of Eng-
land. Mixed farming is the order. Everything
that a good soil can produce is grown. In the
townships is no extensive acreage of wheat such as

14 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

prevails in the west, and no great fruit orchards such
as are seen in the Niagara peninsula, but the farmer
raises wheat for his family use, and grows as fine
apples as any in the world for himself and the local
market. But it is not to wheat and fruit he looks
for revenue.

The Typical Eastern Townships Farm. — The
typical eastern townships farm of, say, 250 acres is
divided into three sections — cultivated land, pastur-
age, and woodland. The three divisions are pro-
bably of about equal extent, and each is equally
necessary and profitable. The pastures sustain,
through the summer, the cattle and sheep, and such
horses as are turned out to graze. A farm such as
that referred to should have forty head of cattle and
perhaps fifty sheep. The woods furnish fuel for the
house fire, cordwood to sell at the village, and,
what is more important, the sap for the far-famed
maple sugar of the eastern townships. From the
cultivated portion of his farm, the farmer will take,
say, 80 tons of hay and a good supply of ensilage
corn, turnips, carrots, &c, for winter live-stock feed,
200 or 300 bushels of potatoes, a few hundred
bushels of oats and barley, a less quantity of wheat,
perhaps 50 bushels each of apples, squashes, pump-
kins, beets, &c. &c. Strawberry cultivation is
carried on by some farmers profitably, and grapes
are grown successfully in some sections, but not
generally.

These and many others are the products of the
eastern townships farms. Many are turned into

QUEBEC 15

ready cash at the local village or town market.
Potatoes command from 50 cents (2s.) to 75 cents
(3s.) per bushel, cereals are always saleable, though
they are generally fed out on the farm, eggs bring
from 15 cents (7jd.) to 40 cents (is. 8d.) per dozen.
Bee-keeping is found profitable by those who take it
up scientifically. All this emphasises the "mixed"
character of eastern townships agriculture.

Three Chief Agricultural Industries. — But,
amid all these various phases of farming in this
section of Canada, three branches stand out pro-
minently as representing the important revenue-
producing features of eastern townships farming.

They are dairying, live-stock raising, and maple-
sugar manufacture.

The Dairy Industries. — First and foremost is
dairying. It is the most important source of the
farmers' revenue. Its importance has grown im-
mensely within recent years, as Canadian dairy
products have won a firm place in the British
markets.

In fact, so important has this industry grown,
that farms are leased on the basis of the number
of cows they are able to maintain, the rental figure
being about $10 (£2) per cow. That is, a farm
with thirty cows would rent for about $300 (^60).

There is reason to believe that the dairy in-
dustry has not reached its greatest expansion and
success in the eastern townships, for the reason that
there is still at least some little room for improve-
ment in methods followed. Eastern townships

1 6 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

butter and cheese have won an enviable reputation
in the market, but a still greater care on the part
of both factorymen and farmers will, it is believed,
in the years to come, make dairying still more
profitable there than it is now.

Live-Stock Industry. — The live-stock and dairy
industries go hand in hand. The milk and cream
go to the factories, the skim milk goes to swine.

The bacon industry is in its infancy in the
eastern townships. For years the farmers have
been fattening hogs for the local or Montreal
markets, but only recently have they begun to turn
serious attention to the production of bacon for
export. The Department of Agriculture at Ottawa
has been endeavouring to educate the eastern town-
ships farmers in this connection. The possibilities
for the future are great. The fattening of cattle for
the market has perhaps not greatly increased in
recent years, but it is still a source of considerable
revenue. A visit to the fall agricultural fairs is
sufficient to impress one with the splendid class
of cattle bred in the eastern townships. The
thoroughbred herds of Ayrshire, Hereford, Hol-
stein, Durham, Jersey, Guernsey, Angus, Frisiane,
and Canadian cattle probably could not be excelled
anywhere.

The same may be said of horses. Many
splendid animals have been bred in the eastern
townships, and high prices have prevailed for
several years past.

The Maple-Sugar Industry. — Canada is the

QUEBEC 17

land of the maple, and the eastern townships a
favoured home for its sugar industry. While in
many other parts of the Dominion this magnificent
tree flourishes, climatic conditions do not every-
where combine to make it useful as well as orna-
mental. The latter quality it everywhere possesses,
tall, usually straight, and of splendid foliage. Special
weather conditions during the months of March and
April, however, are required for the production of
the maple sap, which by the boiling process is con-
verted into the far-famed maple sugar. A frost at
night and rising temperature of from 40 to 50
degrees during the day is the maple-sap require-
ment. This is the weather feature of the eastern
townships and adjoining counties during the latter
part of March and the first week or two of April.

The maple-sugar industry thus becomes an
important phase of eastern townships farming, and
profitable as well.

CHAPTER II

ONTARIO

The Maple Leaf of crimson fire,
Our country's life is sharing ;

It's carmine for our heart's desire —
Our glorious hopes, its summer green,
Our Empire's crown, it's golden sheen —
The Maple Leaf for ever !

It dies not with the frosts of Fall,
For Spring the soil preparing,

When all the streams rejoicing, call —

The azure shades on virgin snow

Are guardians of its sleep below —

The Maple Leaf for ever !

Canadians all, we cheer the Leaf,
Fair emblem we are wearing,

That after rest of Winter brief

Sends up the sap in honeyed wells :
Hark ! how each bird our chorus swells !
The Maple Leaf for ever !

The province of Ontario has about twice the
number of people possessed now by New Zealand,
the brave little dominion in the Southern Seas,
which has lately offered to make a present to
the mother country of a battleship of the class
of the Dreadnought. The last great development
in the prosperity and renown of this fine province
has been brought about by the discovery in one

ONTARIO 19

of its most northern counties of wonderfully rich
mines of silver and cobalt, and a county has
this beautiful azure mineral as a god-father. A
"cobalt combine" sounds like "a combination, till
all is blue " ; but even a blue cobalt mine does
not last for ever. We have the metal in Great
Britain in small quantities, mixed with German
silver or nickel ; but the silver to be found here
in lead mines, and the cobalts of Britain to be
found in her rare and thin deposits of nickel, are
as nothing compared with the marvellous stuff
which has come from Ontario. There you may
see pieces like a half brick cut clean out of the
vein of silver as solid as an ingot at the bank.

The entry into Ontario by the St. Lawrence
shows along the mighty river's northern bank many
instances of fortunate farming, but there is much
country along the old line of rail, that reached from
Prescott to Ottawa, which brings up visions of
lumbering and mining rather than of farming, for the
growth of the western cedar or thuya spreads itself
persistently under the ragged pine forest, and rock
and rough woodland succeed to the river-side fields
and pastures. Near where the rail strikes north-
wards was an old windmill, the scene of the last stand
made by the insurgents in 1838. An old friend
of mine used to tell me how he remembered the
fusilade he and his men had kept up on this
mill, which was at last stormed, the defenders
taking to their heels. A hot-tempered sergeant
pursued one of the rebels, and my friend saw

20 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

that it would soon be all up with the fugitive
were the sergeant to have his own way. The
officer was anxious that the rebel should be spared
and made to surrender, and he ran, panting, after the
sergeant, calling on him not to use his sword, but
it was too late ; the sword rose and flashed and
came down on the back of the fugitive's head,
making the hair fly, and the rebel fell, dying.
The troops were angry at the losses they had
suffered from the fire from the windmill, and were
in no mood for mercy. The place where this last
act of civil war occurred is not far from the
opening of the waters coming from the wide
surface of Lake Ontario, and the town of King-
ston, whose famous military academy has provided
so many fine officers for the service. The cadets
who cannot get posts in the militia have a chance
for the regular army in Great Britain, and the
majority enter civil professions in Canada. These
are men whose character has been ennobled by
discipline, and the study of the heroes of the cam-
paigns and glories which have given Canadians a
splendid heritage which, at Kingston, they learn
to defend.

The railway line takes one through very pretty
scenery along the northern part of the lake to
Toronto. It is worth while to stay a whole winter
at the capital of the province to see the winter
sports on the bay, where the ice-cutter yachts sail
at a pace that seems fearful to the persons unac-
customed to the real security of the amusement.

ONTARIO 21

With their sharp steel keels and cutting rudder
that can grip the ice so as to direct the course
of the flying craft with the utmost accuracy, these
white-sailed vessels speed along with more than
the swiftness of the sea-swallows, or terns, that
are so familiar to us on the European side of the
Atlantic. For an amusement that can be played
by gaslight, by electric light, as well as during
the wintry day, curling on the ice at Toronto,
and in many other towns, has become a fashion.
In the maritime provinces curlers use the usual
Scotch stones made of fine granite, and having
ample girth, but away from the sea air the frost
often tends to make these stones be chipped
by their impact against others, and iron is used
instead of stone. This certainly tends to make
the game a prettier game, for the iron, being
much heavier than stones, requires much less to
make up for weight, and the diameter of the
" stones " being smaller, there is less of a block
about the "tee," and a player can put his shot
through a narrower " port." Curling rinks are often
arranged in covered galleries, where, at each end,
a company of spectators can look through glass
screens, behind which they can sit in warmth and
comfort to look on at the game. Clubs whose
homes are twelve or fifteen hundred miles apart
often compete for the final at the Governor-
General's headquarters ; and Canadian curlers were
easy victors over their Scottish competitors when
a visit was made to the old country in 1909.

22 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

" Muddy little York," as Toronto was nick-
named in the last century, is now a charming
city, with its gardens and long lines of streets
stretching along the lake shore, and covering the
sloping country rising from the bay with good
houses and clean thoroughfares. Osgood Hall,
where the lawyers have their courts, was the
scene of a notable reception of the American
Secretary of State, Mr. Evarts, in the late
seventies, when Mr. Blake was the orator who
pronounced the oration of welcome, and the able
American statesman made a reply, and happily
expressed the abiding community of interests
between the two nations, which no local jealousies
should ever be allowed to disturb. Both have re-
formed institutions modelled on the ancient base
of freedom won by their ancestors. If one of the
two allows despotism of the " ticket," and the
other the dictatorship of party to set up analogies
to the authority our fathers gave the Crown in
the days of the Tudors and Stuarts, they both
make the same mistake in different ways ; but
they are both determined to let the wheel of
their national assemblies assert only a brief autho-
rity, for after a few years the Government has
again to appeal to the people for a mandate to
continue in office. Experience has shown that
the more northern of the two nations has managed
to keep its judiciary pure. Of the highest courts
in the United States this may also be asserted.
11 But there are local lapses," a man said who took

ONTARIO 23

the pledge against drinking alcohol, and then took
a refresher to enable him to keep his word and
his courage whenever he was tempted. Farther
west the visitor, who is sure to visit Niagara, will be
wise not only to see the gigantic mill-dam-like cas-
cades, but also the many and varied features of the
stream below the suspension bridge, where, through
a fine gorge, the waters rush and leap and rage to
get down to the calm of Lake Ontario. Along
both shores, near the outlet of the end of the
rapids, there are lovely orchards and pleasant
country places, one of which was the home of a
man who wrote a good historical novel, which he
named " The Golden Dog, or Chien d'Or." This
was Mr. Kirby, whose office work prevented him
from doing full justice to a marked literary ability.

The peninsula of Ontario — that is, the country
bordering on the Lakes Erie and Huron — is filled
with farms showing excellent agriculture. Men
unable to do more in the old country than just
"to hold on," or, unfortunately, unable to do any-
thing that can make both ends meet, may see
here their wiser cousins, who have emigrated,
enjoying on a Sunday the shade of a capacious
gallery around their house, where they sit and
watch the play of summer breezes on the waving
fields of wheat stretching around their homestead.
The older members of the family may still be
found speaking to each other in the Welsh or
Gaelic tongues, telling of their fathers' poverty,
and contrasting it with the gladsome sufficiency of

24 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

their present life. But very few of the children
will be found to have any tongue but the English.
It is most curious that even in such places as Phila-
delphia, where the Germans are very numerous,
the children all take to learning English, and in
the third generation it is rare to find any German
spoken at all. In so well settled a province, for
every form of the old country's life is illustrated
through the fresh vigour of her descendants, the
main point of difference seems to the observer
rather to lie in the proportionately great number
of country to townsfolk. As a rule, the towns
are small, and, except along the railway lines, the
rural life is to be preferred. There is one district
where Germans predominate, and they send a
German-speaking representative to Parliament ; in
another, named Glengary, the people pride them-
selves on being descended from a Highland
stock.

Ottawa, the Federal capital, lies on the extreme
edge of the province, being built on bluffs rising on
the right bank of the Ottawa River, while the left
bank belongs to Quebec. Its present name re-
placed its former title of Bye Town ; and when it
was suggested in England as a good place for the
Federal capital, I remember being told by my
father to try to find it on the map of Canada. The
search was wholly unavailing ; but it was a con-
venient site for the Government Departments as
accessible from both Toronto and Montreal, the
capitals of the two provinces which were the most

ONTARIO 25

important. The falls of the river over a ridge of
rock above the plateau on which the Chambers of
the Legislature meet are very fine, and the scenery
up the Gatinau River invites one to roam farther
into the wilderness, where trout-fishing and forest
partridge-shooting make weary clerks and members
of the Parliament forget the fatigue of Government.
The province is justly proud of her system of edu-
cation, and the names of Dr. Ryerson in her school
system, and of Principal Grant in her University
education, are gratefully remembered. Here are
some official statements : —

Area. — Ontario has a land and water area of
260,863 square miles — equal to two Englands, and
but little less then France or Germany.

The total land area of Ontario is 220,508 square
miles, or 140 million acres ; of this 46 millions are
surveyed and 94 millions unsurveyed.

Disposed of by the Crown by sales, locations,
&c, 24 million acres, leaving 116 million acres still
in the Crown.

Of this 116 million acres 90 million acres are
timber producing, of which 40 million acres are
virgin forest.

Population. — The population in 1907 (per Bureau
of Industries Report), was 2,200,363, or 34 per cent,
of Canada's total population of 6,940,304 (as per
estimate of Canadian Census Bureau on July 31,
1908).

Timber. — The forest area is estimated at 40
million acres.

26 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Total Government receipts from timber, 1867 to
end of 1908, $41,250,000.

Pine timber cut from 1867 to end of 1908, 24
billion feet ; average per year, 578 million feet.

Estimated quantity of pine still standing on
licensed lands, 7 billion feet, value Si 0,000,000.

Estimated quantity of pine still standing on un-
licensed Crown lands, 13,500,000,000 feet.

Estimated value of spruce logs, pulp-wood, tie
timber, &c, $225,000,000, or a grand total value of
$370,000,000.

Ontario has vast pulp-wood resources, estimated
at 300 million cords. There are 36 pulp and paper
mills in the province.

Mining. — Iron is found in large bodies of mag-
netite and hematite ; copper in sulphide and native
form ; gold, mostly in free milling quartz ; silver,
native and in other forms ; zinc blende, galena,
pyrite, mica, graphite, corundum, talc, marl, brick
clay, building stones of all kinds, and other useful
minerals have been found in many places and are
being worked.

In the famous Sudbury region Ontario pos-
sesses one of the two sources of the world's supply
of nickel, and the known deposits of this metal are
very large. The allied metal, cobalt, is also found
in Ontario in unsurpassed quantities.

In the older parts of the province, salt, petro-
leum, and natural gas are important products. The
cement and clay industries have a large output.

Ontario mineral production reached, in 1908, the

ONTARIO 27

large sum of $25,219,609 — viz. silver, $9,125,903;
pig iron, $4,390,839; nickel, $1,866,059; copper,
$1,071,140; iron ore, $537,379 ; cobalt, $110,166;
gold, $60,337.

Ontario now produces 1 1 per cent, of the world's
silver.

Cobalt has proved itself to be one of the most
important mineral fields discovered in America, or,
in fact, in the world, during the past forty years.
Its total silver output since discovery in 1903,
$19,495,332. Value in 1908 alone $8,200,000.

Crown Lands. — Of the 116 million acres of
land still in the Crown many millions are open
to settlers in the northern districts of Nipissing,
Algoma, Thunder Bay, and Rainy River, on com-
plying with certain conditions of occupation and
improvement.

There is a fertile 16 million acre clay belt in
New Ontario suitable for agriculture.

Ontario has 231 townships in which there are
free grant lands, and a large number in which lands
are for sale at 50 cents per acre on easy terms.

Manufacttires. — The province stands first of the
Canadian provinces in manufacturing. It had, in
1905, 7996 manufacturing establishments. Capital,
397 millions ; products, 367 millions ; employees,
189,370 ; wages, 82 millions.

Her manufactured products include almost every
article and class of goods known in the Canadian
market. Increase in manufacturing, 1900- 1905,
51 per cent.

28 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Ontario has 46 per cent, of the total manufac-
turing industries of Canada, representing 47 per
cent, of the total capital employed and 48 per cent,
of the wages paid.

Fish and Game. — The surface of the country is
dotted with innumerable lakes teeming with trout,
bass, pike, pickerel, and sturgeon. In its forests
big game abounds, including red deer, moose,
caribou, bear, &c.

Agricultural Conditions. — There is a great
variety of soils suited to the growing of pasture
grasses and all kinds of cereal crops. The land is
rolling and well watered with springs and flowing
streams. The atmosphere is clear and invigorating.
After 125 years of settlement in the southern parts,
which lie between the 42nd and 46th parallels of
latitude, agriculture has become more or less
specialised — fruit-growing, dairying, and live-stock
production having become developed in the differ-
ent sections as soil and climatic conditions have
favoured these lines of work. The British tenant
farmer who wishes to take up a home in Ontario
has a wide range of locations from which to select.

Farm Values. — If the British tenant farmer
wishes to start life as a pioneer he can buy a farm
in the newer sections at a very low amount ; a few
hundred dollars will give him a start. For a time
he will have to put up with some privations, but the
rapid extension of railroads and other means of
communication will, with his own efforts, soon give
him a valuable farm on which he can carry on his

ONTARIO 29

work with great success. If he wishes a cleared
farm with comfortable home and good out-buildings,
he can purchase an improved farm within a few
miles of market, school, and church at amounts
varying from $20 to $100 an acre, according to
location and farm equipment. The British tenant
farmer with $5000 cash can start life as an inde-
pendent citizen in Ontario. The Ontario Agent,
163 Strand, London, W.C., England, has a printed
list of farms available for distribution.

Social Conditions. — The owner of a good farm
in Ontario can give his family a comfortable home,
and bring up his children under most favourable
social conditions. Churches of all denominations
and first-class public schools are found everywhere
in Ontario, in country as well as in city and town.
The province has the reputation of being orderly
and remarkably free from crime. Education is
universal, since attendance at schools is compulsory.
Taxation is very low. There are no State taxes.
A farm of 100 acres within three or four miles of a
railroad station will be worth from $3000 to $5000,
and on such a farm the only annual tax will be
from $30.00 to $50.00, payable to the municipal
council, to be used mainly for schools, roads, and
local expenses. In Ontario practically every man
has a vote, based on residence and citizenship.

Education. — Ontario's educational system in-
cludes primary, secondary, and high schools and
Universities. The Provincial University of Ontario
has the largest enrolment of any University in the

30 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

British Empire. Affiliated with it is the Ontario
Agricultural College, which is the largest agricul-
tural college in the Empire. The College has
invested in land and buildings over one million
dollars, has a staff of over forty teachers, and in
1908 had a total attendance of over 1 100 students.
It is situated at Guelph, 50 miles west of Toronto, in
one of the best live-stock counties of the province.
Students from Britain must have had farm experi-
ence, or must spend one year on an Ontario farm,
before being admitted. In 1908 there were in the
general course 34 students from the British Isles,
51 students from Canada outside of Ontario, and
22 from the United States.

Products. — The eastern counties are largely in-
terested in dairying, the production of cheese and
butter ; the midland counties are noted for their
live stock ; the southern counties are unexcelled
for fruit-growing. The Britisher can make his
own choice. It will be his own fault if he does not
succeed. Canadian beef, Canadian cheese, Cana-
dian bacon, Canadian apples, are shipped in large
quantities to Great Britain. They are produced in
Ontario, on Ontario farms, and they are largely the
products of Britishers or of the sons of Britishers
who settled in Ontario only a few years ago. Among
the most prosperous farmers to-day are those who
came out from the British Isles a generation ago.
There is room for many more at the present time.

Live Stock. — The herds of Ontario have been
built up from British stock. In horses there are

ONTARIO 31

Clydes and Shires ; in cattle there are Shorthorns,
Ayrshires, Jerseys, and Aberdeen Angus ; in sheep
there are Shropshires, Southdowns, Leicesters, and
other British breeds ; in swine there are Yorkshires
and Berkshires. The Britisher with a love for live
stock will find ideal conditions for rearing stock,
and he will find his home stock right here in large
numbers.

The live-stock industry is growing. In 1896
the values of stock sold from the farms of the
province amounted to $29,750,000; in 1906 the
values had increased to $61,500,000.

Dairying. — The Britisher who desires to take
up dairying can locate near a city and take up the
work of producing milk for domestic consumption,
or he can locate near a cheese factory or creamery
and carry on a very profitable business.

The annual dairy output of Ontario is valued at
$35,000,000. There are 1,000,000 milch cows on
the farms of Ontario. The 1200 cheese factories
of the province produce annually over $15,000,000
worth of cheese.

Fruit-Growing. — Apples grow in abundance in
all the counties. If the Britisher, however, wishes
to make fruit-growing a specialty, he can grow small
fruits, pears, plums, cherries, and peaches. Peach
land unplanted will cost from $100 to $250 an acre
in the most favoured districts ; producing orchards
will cost from $250 to $500 an acre. A country
where peaches are grown in abundance in the open
air is worth inquiring about. Perhaps you have

32 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

heard or read that Canada is a country of snow and
winter. It may be in some parts. In Ontario,
however, the winter is a most delightful, healthful,
invigorating time of the year. In the southern
counties the large peach orchards and the extensive
vineyards, which are not covered in winter, are
proof positive of a mild climate.

Who are Wanted? — Thriftless, incompetent, and
easy-going people are not wanted in Ontario. They
will be disappointed. People without means have
to work in Ontario. There is abundance of work
for competent farm labourers at good wages. There
are fine opportunities for the British tenant farmer
who desires to own his own farm. There are
good cheap homes for the man of some means who
wishes to live comfortably in his own home, and to
bring up his family with good social and educational
advantages. If you desire to know more of such
opportunities, apply to the Ontario Agent, at 163
Strand, London, W.C., England.

When we leave this magnificent province to go
west we feel that we are leaving what has hitherto
been the centre of the life of the Canadian nation.
Eastern provinces are older, and western provinces
may in future exceed her in wealth, but she has
within her borders the best proof of what the Anglo-
Saxon race can accomplish in a new country. From
her have come many of the ablest men who have
led the public life of the Dominion — Sir John
Macdonald, who first made his country a nation, and
many another good and true man who believed in

ONTARIO 33

her future, and in moulding democratic institutions
under the old flag. The country that saw their
first years of political activity is now full of thriving
townships well knit together by railways. The
Georgian Bay Canal will in the future improve her
inland navigation. The province has preserved the
character first stamped on it as loyal of the loyal
to the heritage of Britain's sons in Canada.

Manufactures have been founded which give
employment to Canadians, and supply the whole
Dominion with goods formerly manufactured beyond
her limits. Hear the answer to the question, " What
are the relative prices of agricultural implements
now as compared with prices before 1878? Has
there been any appreciable rise in prices since the
adoption of the national policy of a tariff in 1878 ?"
The answer is that " All information indicates an
average reduction in the price of all such articles of
15 to 34 per cent, since the date mentioned " !

All this material wealth is guarded by her sons,
who have within their provincial borders the place
of training for the officers of the forces of the
Dominion, which have so signally distinguished
themselves in two of the wars of the Empire,
taking part in those wars as volunteers, and prov-
ing that the officers of the Kingston Military
College are second to none in thoroughly mastering
the practice of arms. One of the first of those who
gave an example in all keenness for efficiency,
namely, Colonel Denison, is still with us, and looks
as though military service gives to Canadians a

c

34 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

perpetual youth. For all that makes manhood, for
all that conquers or takes nature as an aid to
brave endeavour, we love to show Ontario to
the foreigner as a land which adds delight to
labour, and success to honourable effort. She has
been the keystone of the arch of our continental
achievement.

CHAPTER III

NEW BRUNSWICK
THE CANADIAN TRILLIUM

" The pearls of our green forest sea,
The star-white flowers of triple leaf,
Which love around the brooks to be
Within the birch and maple shade."

This is an "old country" in comparison with those
farther west. At one time the word " Brunswick"
was popular, and represented not only the land
which gave birth to the ancestors of the Guelph
family now on the throne, but had connection with
Great Britain through the marriage of George III.'s
eldest sister with Prince Ferdinand, the nephew of
Frederick the Great, who was so proud of the
youth's exploits in war against the French that
the warrior poet monarch of Prussia wrote verses
in his nephew's honour, esteeming him as one
who would follow him in the command of German
armies. Ferdinand was very popular in England,
for he had commanded British troops in the field
in the French campaigns, and was so much liked
that the people in the theatres gave him more
cheering than they gave to George III. and to
Queen Charlotte. His end was sad but glorious,
for he was severely wounded in the head after he

36 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

had succeeded to the duchy, and was leading
troops against the enemy near Jena ; and his death
gave place to his son, who was also killed in the
field at Quatre Bras, the day before Waterloo. So
New Brunswick had worthy godfathers, and the
province, old as it is, has not yet had full justice
done to it in the matter of settlement. It is famous
for sport, as it can show moose, and it can provide
any amount of fair salmon and trout fishing. It
was in New Brunswick that a fishing dispute arose
which decided that the rights to salmon fishing
within the confines of the province belong to its
local Government, and not to the Federal autho-
rity. The Ottawa Government had for many years
let the fisheries as belonging to them by the Act
of Union, but one fine morning a lessee of theirs,
fishing on a New Brunswick river, was stopped by
the owner of the river bank, who declared that
the Federal lessee was poaching on his fishings.
The dispute was taken to the Provincial Court of
Justice, and they gave it against the Federal autho-
rities. There was an appeal to the Canadian
Supreme Court, with the same result, so that now
it is necessary to hire fishing from the Frede-
rickton and not from the Ottawa Government.
Although some of the best rivers are taken for
fishing salmon by societies from the United States
and elsewhere, there are always plenty of streams
where trout may be had in abundance. When the
tide is coming in to the outlets of the rivers along
all the Atlantic coasts from Labrador to Nova

NEW BRUNSWICK 37

Scotia the fish take the fly well, and he must be
a glutton for sport who cannot be satisfied with the
waters that remain open and unlet. Moose can
be seen in many parts of the interior, for the Game
Laws are favourable to the survival of deer. As
the people of the whole province number little
over 350,000, although the lands they rule over
are two-thirds the size of England, there is
room to spare for wild animals. In St. John
vessels find a port free in winter from ice. At
Chatham there is another, which is as good as
any on the continent during all but the coldest
of the winter months, and these are respectively
675 and 500 miles nearer to Liverpool than is New
York. The harbour of St. Andrews is also open
all winter. Emigrants should make a trial of
New Brunswick, and they will not be disappointed.
The rush to the prairies and to the nearer west
have thrown into the market many a goodly farm
and old, solidly built farmhouse. Boys easily find
engagements with the farmers. An English lady
has of late begun to send girls to homes in the
province, where a good house can be had cheaply,
and a kindly matron is detailed to receive those
who may be sent, that they may be brought up to
feel that they belong to their adopted country, and
settle down in it when they have grown up. It is
proudly said that 94 per cent, of the people are
Canadian of the best races, largely Scottish. St.
John has 50,000 people, Frederickton about 9000,
Moncton about 12,000.

38 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

The late Mr. Duff Millar, as the agent for
New Brunswick, published an excellent account
of his province, from which we quote passages.

Emigration. — English tenant farmers, or young
men brought up to farming, and who have a few
hundred pounds available, could do worse than seek
a home in this country. They will find with little
trouble farms to suit their fancy and their fortune,
the owners being satisfied to accept a certain pro-
portion of cash and to leave the remainder of the
purchase money as a charge, if desired, extending
over several years. This applies to those who have
even ,£100 or ^200 up to ^2000.

These farms come into the market from a
variety of causes and reasons which it is not neces-
sary to enumerate here, but the chief cause is the
desire of the son of the old settler to better him-
self and to go farther west, where he hears of what
he thinks are better chances of improving his con-
dition, and, with his experience of rough life in the
backwoods, this is no doubt true ; but the English-
man or Scotchman from the old country will find it
quite as big a step to transfer his energies to the
— to him — equally novel surroundings of an old-
established colony like New Brunswick.

To him, however, who has not got the desir-
able two or three hundred pounds at his disposal,
I would say, leave the little he has at home in the
savings bank, and on arrival hire himself out to a
farmer, or take any work he can get for a year or
so ; he will certainly be able to earn a living, if not

NEW BRUNSWICK 39

to save something, and when he has gained some
experience of the country, take up a free grant
from the Government, or buy a farm partially
cleared. Large areas of the finest land, capable
of sustaining hundreds of thousands of farmers, are
still obtainable without encroaching much on the
large territories of forest, where the land is by no
means bad, but not of the best quality for profitable
farming.

Land is easily obtained, the conditions under
which a lot of 100 acres can be secured by actual
settlers are so easy as to be within the reach of any
man who has health and energy. He may pay £4
in cash to aid in the construction of the roads and
bridges in his locality, or he need pay no cash if he
is willing to perform work on roads and bridges for
three years to the value of £2 a year. Within two
years after obtaining permission to occupy the land,
he must build on it a house not less than 16 by
20 feet, and clear at least two acres.

The Government of New Brunswick a few years
ago followed the example set by the Government of
Ontario in encouraging farmers in different districts
to produce butter and cheese by giving grants in aid
of the erection of cheese and butter factories. There
are in New Brunswick now some fifty-five cheese
factories and fourteen butter factories in operation.
The production of cheese last year (1898) amounted
to nearly 850,000 lbs., valued at about ^14,000,
and the output of butter amounted to nearly ^4000
in value. The establishment of these factories is a

4o YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

very considerable boon to the farmers in country
districts, giving them a ready market for all the
milk that they can produce. There is still a large
field for increase in the production of butter, as not
more than one-half of the butter consumed in the
province is made there, the rest being imported
from Ontario and Quebec. With the contemplated
increase in cheese and butter factories during the
next few years, New Brunswick should produce all
the butter required, and largely increase its exporta-
tion of cheese.

Education. — Education is of the very best.
Schools are free and undenominational, and may
be primary, advanced, high, superior, or grammar
schools, according to the extent of the needs of the
district they are provided for. The keystone of the
system is the University of New Brunswick, founded
in 1828, to which a certain number of students
from each county are admitted without the usual
fees, and which has the power to grant University
degrees.

Shooting Season. — Moose, cariboo, and deer —
from 15th September till 31st December.

Beaver, mink, otter, or sable — from 15th October
till 31st March in succeeding year.

Wild geese, brant, or black duck — from 1st
September till 1st December.

Snipe, woodcock — from 1st September till 1st
December.

Partridge — from 15th September till 30th
November.

NEW BRUNSWICK 41

Bond fide residents can kill at all times geese
and brant for domestic use only.

Other game, including bear, lynx, wild-cat, fox,
and smaller animals, can be killed throughout the
year.

An authority states in The Field, 12th March
1898 : " Moose do not get clear of the velvet much
before the 5th September. Cariboo, as a rule,
fourteen days later, say 20th September." He also
states that he has not personally known moose to
come well to the call before 25th September.

A shooting licence is required, costing for
residents 2 dollars (8s.), and for non-residents
20 dollars (£4.) This forms a fund to assist in
the enforcement of the Game Laws. Every non-
resident applying for licences is required to give
a bond for 100 dollars, with two sureties.

No person is allowed (under penalty) to kill in
any one year or season more than two moose and
three cariboo, or two deer, and no number of persons
forming a hunting-party of three or more shall kill
in any one season more than one mouse, two cariboo,
or two deer, for each member of the hunting-party,
exclusive of guides. Penalty from 20 to 40 dollars
for each animal in excess of the lawful number.

The killing of female moose is absolutely pro-
hibited. Penalty 100 to 200 dollars.

Dogs are not allowed in the hunting of moose,
cariboo, or deer.

The open seasons for angling in New Bruns-
wick are: Salmon, 1st February to 15th August;

42 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

sea-trout, ist April to 30th September; land-locked
salmon, ist May to 15th September; brook trout,
lake trout, ist May to 30th September. Bass may
be taken by fly or bait (hook and line) all the year
round.

A most useful sportsman's guide to the principal
hunting-grounds of the province is issued by the
Crown Land Department under the direction of the
Hon. A. J. Dunn, the Surveyor-General, giving the
fullest information as to where moose, cariboo, and
deer, wild birds, salmon, and trout, are found, and
how the sportsman can easily reach them. Infor-
mation can be had on application to the Chief Game
Commissioner, Mr. L. B. Knight, at St. John, N.B.,
or from the Fishery Commissioner, Mr. D. G.
Smith, at Chatham, N.B., or by personal application
to the Agent-General of the province in London.

Land Fi'ee Grants. — By the Crown Lands
Settlement Act of 1899, the conditions on which
free grants are made have been greatly simplified
and improved, and the taking up of grants of 100
acres in the new districts where settlements are to
be made should be greatly encouraged thereby, as
will be seen by the following extracts from the new
law : —

The Surveyor-General shall cause surveys to be
made of the Crown Lands in the different counties
of the province suitable for settlement, and shall
cause public roads to be made through such lands,
and shall have the same laid off in 100-acre lots on
both sides of such roads.

NEW BRUNSWICK 43

Free grants for such lots may be made to such
persons as may become actual settlers.

Such person shall be of the age of eighteen
years or upwards.

(1) The allottee shall commence clearing and
improving within one month after publication of the
approval of his application, and shall within three
months after improve on his lot to the value of
20 dollars.

(2) And shall within one year build a house
thereon, fit for habitation, of not less dimensions
than 16 feet by 20 feet, and reside thereon.

(3) And shall chop down and cultivate not less
than 2 acres, by sowing or planting the same.

(4) Chop down, cultivate, and clear not less
than 10 acres within three years, and shall each
year actually and continuously cultivate all the land
chopped down during such three years.

(5) Shall reside actually and continuously upon
such land for the term of three years next succeeding
such publication, and thence up to the issue of the
grant, except that absence during the months of July,
August, January, February, and March in any year
shall not be held to be a cessation of such residence.

It is from the fishermen and dwellers on the
coast of New Brunswick and the other maritime
provinces that Canada can easily raise a large
number of men who might be paid to drill on war-
ships, or in sheds on model decks, and thus form
a most valuable aid to the imperial navy.

CHAPTER IV

NOVA SCOTIA

LEGEND OF THE ROBIN

(A Canadian thrush with red breast, called by the early settlers the robin)

Here a youthful savage, keeping

Long his cruel fast, had prayed,
All his soul in yearning steeping,

Not for glory, chase, or maid ;

But to sing in joy and wander,

Following the summer hours,
Drinking where the streams meander,

Feasting with the leaves and flowers.

When his people saw him painting
Red his sides, and red his breast ;

Said : " His soul for fight is fainting ;
War-paint suits our hero best."

Then he vanished. Searchers calling,
Found him not, but where he lay

Saw a Robin, whose enthralling
Carol seemed to them to say —

" I have left you ! I am going

Far from fast and winter pain,
When the laughing water's flowing,

Hither I will come again !"

Thus his ebon locks still wearing,
With the war-paint on his breast,

Still he comes our summer sharing,
And the lands he once possessed.

NOVA SCOTIA 45

Finding in the white man's regions
Foemen none, but friends whose heart

Loves the Robin's happy legions,
Mourns when, silent, they depart !

It has been said by Sir Wilfrid Laurier that
Canada has coal at both ends, east and west, and
that the United States has coal only in the middle
of the continent. The eastern end of the Dominion
possesses in Nova Scotia an endless amount of coal.
To be sure, it is of varying quality, and govern-
ments are too fond of taking the cheapest, and the
language used by unfortunate captains whose em-
ployers use the poor in preference to the good coal,
is so hot that it is enough to make melt a Nova
Scotia steel wire ! The seams in the great mines
of Sydney, Cape Breton, present in vast quantities
coal of every grade except the hard coal or anthra-
cite, which must be sought in the Rocky Mountains,
and not here. The harbour at Sydney is a splendid
one, with deep water close up to the wharves,
whence minerals and their products are shipped,
and to which come the great cargoes of iron ore got
from the iron mines of Wabana in Newfoundland,
only 400 miles away. It was at one time proposed
to bring the Spanish iron ore across the Atlantic,
but Newfoundland has proved itself able to supply
all the iron wanted. Thus King Coal has assembled
around him on his black throne, set over the waters
of Nova Scotia, his faithful subjects, smelting fur-
naces, iron and steel works of all kinds, and the
kindred industries of manufactures of tar, of
creosote, of light oils and naphtha and pitch. The

46 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

place where all these products of industry are to be
had in quantities enough for all demands is well
worth visiting, for the country has much beauty
along Bras d'Or Lake, and along the rocky and
indented coast-line. The coal mines have galleries
more like those of an Italian palace than the narrow
and low passages usually associated in men's minds
with the name of a coal gallery. No man need
stoop beneath the lofty roofs under which the coal
is hewn out. Tall pillars are left to support the
overlaying rock, and these pillars are like the
massive supports of some Norman church crypt in
height. Here the coal is wrought that feeds the
great furnaces above belonging to the Dominion
Steel and Iron Company, who forge the steel rails
for the national highways of Canada, and are ready
to export to all the world. And the by-products
are hardly less interesting than the first material
of which they are the results. The coal is seen
placed in the coke ovens, and the vapour passes
over, which when cooled is tar, the remainder being
coke ready to feed the furnaces for steel-making.
The United States is still the principal market at
present for creosote, as their engineers wisely see
the necessity of economising the timber which is too
lavishly used without any fortification of the fibre
against wear and tear on Canadian lines and on
fences. Creosote gives another fifteen years' life to
wood used for any purpose where it is exposed to
weather or decay from insects, frost, or heat, or
rain. Most of the pitch produced goes to Europe.

NOVA SCOTIA 47

Cape Breton Island.
The Steel Company is making a new record at
the blast furnaces and open hearths. Three blast
furnaces have turned out over 900 tons a day. The
open hearths produced nearly 14,000 tons in the
first half of one month. One furnace produced
recently in one day of twenty-four hours 450 tons.
All departments of the plant are running at high
pressure.

Nova Scotia for Britishers.

Encouraging Official Report. — Nova Scotia has
resources and opportunities which give that province
many advantages, of which British emigrants are
taking advantage. We read in the report of
Mr. Arthur S. Barnstead, the Secretary of Indus-
tries and Immigration, that during the past year
4919 persons settled in that country. Of this
number Great Britain furnished 1753. A large
number of the new-comers were accustomed to
farming, having been farmers, ploughmen, dairy-
men, or gardeners. Some of the men had had
experience in Ontario or the north-west. As to
capital, there were those who had little but their
muscle, while others could command sums that
ranged from ^1000 to ^"5000.

All through Nova Scotia there are for sale fruit
farms, dairy farms, sheep farms, and " general"
farms, partly tilled and needing more capital, or in
the hands of old people who wish to retire. Prices
range from ^200 to ^2000. Descriptions of these,

48 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

with the values attached, are kept on file in the
office of the Agent-General in London, 57A Pall
Mall, and in the office of the Secretary of In-
dustries and Immigration at Halifax, and copies
will be sent anywhere upon request. Two hand-
books describing the opportunities in farming, fruit-
growing, market-gardening, mining, fishing, and
manufacturing are receiving a wide circulation.

The best judges of a country are the intelligent
settlers who have been living therein for some time.
Several pages of Mr. Barnstead's report are devoted
to interviews with and letters from settlers in Nova
Scotia, who detail various methods by which success
has been achieved. The majority of the settlers
aver that their prospects equal, and in some cases
surpass, the hopes they entertained before going to
Nova Scotia. All unite in praising the climate, and
in advising new-comers to work for one or two
seasons with a practical farmer before purchasing a
property. The third-class fare from Liverpool to
Halifax is only £6, and the new-comer upon arriv-
ing at Halifax is, if a suitable person, placed in a
situation through the Employment Bureau estab-
lished in Mr. Barnstead's office.

The report of the Agent-General in London,
Mr. John Howard, deals principally with the fruit
exhibits from the province at the London shows.
Of the 29 medals awarded to Canada, Nova Scotia
captured 16, including the gold medal, the highest
award. Over 600,000 barrels of apples were ex-
ported from the province during 1908.

NOVA SCOTIA 49

The opportunities that exist in Nova Scotia for
the farmer with some capital are clearly manifest
from this report. One settler says: " In 1898 I
bought a farm at Waterville, King's County. It
was vacant for a year before we bought, and the
house had been burned down. The property com-
prised 280 acres of run-out land, and the buildings
were in great need of repair. We found many
conditions very different out here, but we did not
find it difficult to fall in line with these. My success
and prospects have equalled the hopes I had before
coming here. I have trebled the value of my farm
by constant work, and by raising colts and other
classes of live stock, nursery stock and small fruits
of all kinds, as well as beans and peas. I have
been successful in keeping bees and in developing
an orchard. The climate of this country is health-
ful. I would advise any farmer who has at least
^200 to come out here. There are many oppor-
tunities, the rates and taxes are lower, and the
capital required to rent a farm in England is about
enough to buy a farm in Nova Scotia."

A Sydney, Cape Breton, " mail item " states that
the Dominion Iron and Steel Company is executing
an order from the Great Northern Railway Company,
of England, for 5000 tons of steel rails. The rails
are of standard lengths and 85 lbs. weight. This
is the first order the company have received from
an English firm. New rolls have had to be made
to fill this order, as specifications for contract call
for bullhead rails, widely different from the ordinary

50 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

flange in use in Canada. The new rail is patterned
like an ordinary dumb-bell, so that when the top
becomes used up, the rail may be reversed on the
sleepers.

Steel Output in 1908. — According to unpublished
returns gathered by Hardware and Metal from the
six large producing corporations in Canada, the
total production of pig iron in Canada for 1908 was
556,044 tons, which compares very favourably, con-
sidering conditions, with the amount returned for
1907, which was 581,146, a decrease of about
25,000 tons. Of this total for last year basic com-
prised 155,734 tons, foundry 170,388, and Bessemer
155,734. Comparing the figures for the first and
second half of the year, the totals were 281,329
tons, against 274,715, a decrease for the latter term
of 6614 tons.

The returns from eight companies making steel
showed an output of ingots, &c., of 558,763, com-
pared with 706,982 in 1907, a decrease of 148,219.
The total output of finished steel, comprising rails,
bar steel, railroad spikes, rods, plates, &c, was
538,842 tons. The first half of the year produced
247,803 tons, and the second half 291,039, an
increase for the second term of 43,236 tons. The
total tonnage of rails amounted to 268,439 ; blooms
to I53»54I ; finished rolled iron and steel, 45,411 ;
and castings, 9,676 tons.

A newly issued Provincial Government report
says that coal is still the chief mineral production.
The output for the year ending September 30,

NOVA SCOTIA 51

1908, was 6,299,282 tons, an increase of 568,622
tons over 1907. Of the total the Dominion Coal
Company, employing 8808 men, mined no less than
3,816,958 tons. With the economic relations
of Canada and the United States so much under
discussion at present, it is interesting to note that
practically 500,000 tons were exported from Nova
Scotia to the United States. The province's
biggest customer was Quebec, with a consumption
of over 2,000,000 tons, the home consumption
amounting to slightly under the 2,000,000 mark.

Another interesting feature is the bonuses paid
to the Dominion Iron and Steel Company, Limited,
and to the smaller manufacturing firms. The
bonuses are granted on the coal consumed in the
manufacture of iron and steel, and the company
named received from October 26, 1907, to April 18,
1908, a total sum of $51,098. The Nova Scotia
Steel and Coal Company, Limited, received
$12,684. The coal-mining industry is responsible
for the employment of 18,460 men, nearly one-half
being connected with the large collieries of the
Dominion Coal Company. The royalty on coal
accruing to the Nova Scotian Government amounted
for the year to $616,933, a substantial addition to
the provincial revenue. Gold-mining is apparently
not in a flourishing condition in Nova Scotia at
present. In 1898 the production had risen to
31,104 ozs., which at $19 per ounce, amounted
in value to $570,976. In 1908 the production
had declined to 11,811 ozs., valued at $224,409.

52 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

The gold royalty amounted to $2319, an in-
finitesimal sum in comparison with that on coal.
The latter is obviously Nova Scotia's main source
of mineral wealth, and an extremely useful one it
is to a province ambitious of becoming a manu-
facturing centre.

The amount of the tonnage possessed by Nova
Scotia and the other maritime provinces of Canada
is most remarkable, the total amount being 670,000
tons ; but this estimate covers all floating vessels.
There is 230,000 tons in steamers, and over 25,000
tons in ships.

This gives the province a fine seaboard popula-
tion of excellent sailors, who would be glad to take
their part in imperial duties, and be trained to
heavy guns and men-of-war duties for some term in
every year. The harbour of Halifax is magnificent.
I have entered it at all times of the severest storm
and in hardest winter. It is never frozen, and has
no excessive tide, and is easily defended from the
land side. It may be that the attractions of all that
is new may take too many men and families away
to the west, but they who make up their minds to
settle in Nova Scotia will never regret it. In touch
at all times with Europe, they find themselves in
this delightful country with all the experience ot
long-settled communities to guide them in their
practice of farming and orcharding, so that their
calculations may be based on the surest experience.
The lands lying around the head of the Bay of
Fundy are singularly rich and beautiful. The

NOVA SCOTIA 53

apple orchards cannot be beaten for beauty, and
the red colour of the sands of Fundy show what the
land beneath the rich green meadows and orchards
is — how full of proved promise for the industrious
agriculturist. People on landing at Halifax are
inclined to rush along at once to see the unsettled
countries. But they would do well to pause and
see first what is under their eyes when they leave
the ship, and examine carefully for the benefit of
themselves and their friends at home, whom they
wish to instruct and help, the great opportunities
for happy enjoyment offered by an old farm in
Nova Scotia. Many parts of this country are not
like its old namesake in Europe, and are not " stern
and wild," but have already given inspiration to a
" poetic child " in having given Longfellow the
material for his lovely poem on the fate of the
French Acadian village at Grand Pre, M the great
meadow," as the French emigrants called the district
around Annapolis. To Annapolis I invite any
wanderer from the old country, for he will there
receive as pleasant an impression on entering the
Dominion as ever did the Roman treading on the
rich tessellated pavement that called out to him
" Salve " as he entered into the luxurious abodes of
Neapolis or of Rome.

CHAPTER V

BRITISH COLUMBIA

" Where the vine maple fringed the dark forest with flame,
Strewn o'er the sombre walls of green,
In saffron or in crimson sheen.
How lovely those gardens of autumn, where rolled
In smoke and in fire the red lava of old !
From the waters of azure, the wells of the floods,
From the rush ot great rivers through canyons and woods,
From the snows everlasting, to valleys asleep,
Under meadows and orchards, that lead to the Deep;
I came to the portals wide fronting the west,
Where Canada stands with her gems on her breast,
Her land of Delight and of Fable I found,
Where precious ores gleam above Islet and Sound,
And the toil of mankind is scarce heard in the breeze
That whispers in peace through the silence of seas."

There are rich assets in the arable and pastoral
lands ot British Columbia. The extent of the
fertile lands may be placed at 1,000,000 acres,
but this will be found far below the actual quan-
tity capable of cultivation when the country has
been thoroughly explored. West of the Coast
Range are tracts of rich, arable lands, notably the
lower Fraser Valley, Westminster District, Van-
couver Island, and adjacent islands in the Gulf
of Georgia. These are fairly well settled, but
much of the land is still wild and untilled. North
of the main line of the Canadian Pacific, on the

54

BRITISH COLUMBIA 55

Pacific slope, are 6J million acres of agricultural
and grazing lands. There is a splendid market
for every product of the farm and orchard.
Southern British Columbia is the finest fruit
country on the continent, producing fruit in
abundance and of superior quality. In 1891 the
total orchard area was 6431 acres; in 1901 it had
only increased to 7430 acres, but between that
and 1904 the total was raised to 13,430, and in
1905 to 29,000 acres.

British Columbia fruit exhibited in England
and Scotland carried off the Royal Horticultural
Society's gold medal in 1905, and again in 1906,
in addition to securing a gold medal at Edinburgh
and many prizes at provincial shows.

Lord Grey, Governor-General of Canada, says
of British Columbia : " Fruit-growing in your
province has acquired the distinction of being a
beautiful art as well as a most profitable industry.
After a maximum wait of five years, I understand
the settler may look forward with reasonable
certainty to a net income of from $100 to $150
per acre, after all expenses of cultivation have
been paid.

" Gentlemen, here is a state of things which
appears to offer the opportunity of living under
such ideal conditions as struggling humanity has
only succeeded in reaching in one or two of the
most favoured spots on earth. There are thousands
of families living in England to-day, families of
refinement, culture, and distinction, families such

56 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

as you would welcome among you with both arms,
who would be only too glad to come out and
occupy a log hut on five acres of pear or apple
orchard in full bearing, if they could do so at a
reasonable cost."

British Columbia is the greatest in size and the
most mountainous of all the provinces. It runs
760 miles from north to south, and 470 miles
from east to west. It contains 236,922,177 acres
of land, of which only 10,000,000 are arable. It
is estimated that fully 10 per cent, of the remainder
is suitable for cattle ranching and fruit-farming.
All kinds of crops are grown, but the backbone
of agriculture is dairying, particularly in the rich
delta lands, and fruit-growing among the moun-
tains of the interior.

Statistics may tell much if you have the
patience to read them, but no statistics can give
any idea of the grandeur, beauty, variety, and
charm of the land, more majestic than Switzer-
land, more fertile than Italy, more picturesque in
its island scenery than the Hebrides, more glorious
in its forests than any of the Old-World countries.
I used to say it was a mixture of Scotland and
heaven, and I have seen nothing since 1883 to
qualify the description.

Who that has seen the view from Victoria,
looking across the Straits of St. Juan de Fuca,
three leagues of calm water reflecting the 10,000
feet high mountains of the Olympian Range, and
the peerless Mount Baker, 11,000 feet in height,

BRITISH COLUMBIA 57

can forget the impression made on the mind by
the vastness of the distant prospect, enhanced
by the interest of the nearer islands floating
off a shore, tawny or green with fern or fir, and
sloping down to the clear waters of the Pacific
Ocean ?

Or who has threaded the marvellous archi-
pelagos along the mainland to the north, and seen
the rivers crammed with salmon, rising from
gorges beside which those of Norway are mere
gashes in rocky hills, but has been filled with
the joy that only comes when nature seems to
have gathered all she could of grandeur and ot
loveliness to place all at his service, with no man
to say him nay, if he wishes to shoot, or to fish,
or to paint, to explore or to purchase as his own
some charming promontory, or some forest glade
or natural meadow in secluded bay or tempting
islet ? And then, if he goes up country, and,
emerging from canyon and forest, finds open
prairies and fertile valleys, he can raise fruits he
is accustomed to at home, but here finds them
yielding far greater rewards for his industry,
and trees and bushes and plants heavy laden
with such fruit as he has only seen before in the
most favoured parts of southern England or of
France? Well may its Government say that its
promise in minerals, timber, and fertility of soil
is greater than that of any other country of like
area in the known world. Active development
of its great natural resources has only been in

58 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

progress for about ten years, but the results so far
obtained fully justify this statement, as all that
has been accomplished only seems to illustrate
the illimitable possibilities of the future. Gold,
silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, and coal are dis-
tributed through its length and breadth, magnificent
timber in great variety is found in every section,
the valleys produce the finest fruits, vegetables,
grains, and grasses, and its thousand hills afford
nutritious fodder for cattle, horses, and sheep.

The portions of Southern British Columbia in
which the most progress has been made (apart
from the old settled districts in the Fraser River
Valley and on Vancouver Island), and which are
attracting the widespread attention of home-seekers,
are Kootenay (east and west), Boundary and Oka-
nagan Districts.

The Kootenays.

East Kootenay forms the south-eastern portion
of British Columbia, and is famed for the immense
coal measures through which the Crow's Nest
Railway runs for many miles both in Alberta and
British Columbia. These mines are estimated to
be capable of yielding 10,000,000 tons of coal a
year for 7000 years. Several mining companies
are developing properties, and those that have
reached the producing stage are turning out close
to 1,000,000 tons annually. There are also exten-
sive deposits of petroleum.

BRITISH COLUMBIA 59

The Boundary.

West of the Kootenays lies the Boundary-
country, which forms the extreme southern part of
Yale District. It is about forty miles from east
to west, and extends for fifty miles north from the
international boundary. The character of the dis-
trict, while varied, is not very different from that of
other parts of the great interior plateau of British
Columbia, save that the highest elevations seldom
exceed 5000 feet. Most of the hills are wooded
to their summits, with open slopes, facing the south,
east, and west, plentifully carpeted with bunch grass,
a natural beef producer, while the valleys offer
excellent openings for farming and fruit-growing,
the higher benches requiring irrigation. The
climate is mild and healthful, presenting no ex-
tremes of heat or cold. The snowfall in the valleys
is light, and spring opens early. The" winter is con-
fined to eight to ten weeks of frosty weather, the
mercury occasionally falling below zero, but the
cold is not extreme nor protracted. The summers,
like those of the Kootenays, are warm without
being oppressive, and the nights are always cool.
The atmosphere is clear, the prevailing condition
being bright sunshine both winter and summer, and
the air is crisp, dry, and bracing. The average
rainfall is 10.8 inches, and snowfall 27 inches, which
would represent 7 to 12 inches on the level.

Between Lower Arrow Lake, its eastern boun-
dary, and the divide between the Kettle River

60 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Valley and Okanagan Lake, the Boundary possesses
many fertile valleys and wide stretches of rolling
prairie, all more or less wooded. The beautiful
Kettle River Valley includes from 40,000 to 50,000
acres of farming lands, a rich black loam averaging
18 inches, with a sandy clay subsoil.

Okanagan District.

As Okanagan Lake is approached the climate is
much milder and drier, and from Vernon southward
irrigation is necessary on all the bench lands. Here
luxuriant vegetation is wholly confined to the borders
of the lakes and watercourses, while the higher
benches and round-topped hills present the charac-
teristic semi-barren appearance of this class of
pasture land. Appearances are deceptive in this
case, however, for those bare hillsides and benches
are transformed into fruitful fields and orchards by
the application of irrigation. The country on the
west side of Okanagan Lake is generally hilly and
broken by ravines formed by watercourses from
the higher elevations in the background. These
watercourses will furnish sufficient water for irriga-
tion if a system of storing it is provided.

Vancouver Island

is separated from the British Columbia mainland by
the Gulf of Georgia and the Straits of Haro and
Juan de Fuca, and bears a close resemblance to
Great Britain in its geographical position as well as

BRITISH COLUMBIA 61

in climate and certain natural characteristics. The
climate, mild and moist as in England, is warmer
and brighter, with less average rainfall, the summers
being invariably dry, with continuous sunshine, while
the winters are much less foggy, with frequent spells
of crisp, bright weather. Holly, ivy, broom, gorse,
box, heather, privet, and other shrubs grow in per-
fection, and all the favourite English flowers are
seen in the fields and gardens. Wall-flowers, prim-
roses, and violets bloom the year round, and in the
early summer the whole country is transformed into
a vast rose garden, wild and cultivated varieties
flourishing everywhere. The climate and the flowers
are, however, far from being the most important
natural assets of this favoured region. Its timber
is the finest in the world and of great extent ; its
coal measures are practically inexhaustible ; the
deposits of other minerals — iron, copper, gold, and
silver — are vast and but slightly developed ; its
fisheries rival those of the Atlantic, and its soil is
of wonderful fertility, capable of producing every
grain, fruit, root, and vegetable grown in the tem-
perate zone.

The coast of Vancouver Island is deeply in-
dented with bays and arms of the sea, forming
numerous deep-water harbours, providing good ship-
ping facilities for the mines, lumber mills, and other
industries, and numerous streams and lakes afford
access to the interior. The country on the southern
and eastern coast is comparatively level, while the
interior is broken by mountains and heavily wooded

62 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

valleys. The greater part of the agricultural land
is covered with big trees and thick underbrush, but
the quality of the soil will well repay clearing, as
wherever the timber has been removed and the soil
cultivated, the results are highly satisfactory. Along
the eastern coast are several areas of open land
occupied by successful farmers, fruit growers, dairy-
men, and poultry raisers. Wheat is not generally
grown, as mixed farming is found to be more profit-
able. Apples, pears, plums, cherries, prunes, and
all kinds of small fruits grow luxuriantly, and
peaches, nectarines, apricots, grapes, almonds, fil-
berts, and other nuts are produced with a little
extra care and attention. Fig trees, found growing
wild near Nanaimo, encourage the belief that this
fruit can be successfully cultivated. Tomatoes,
melons, and other tender vegetables ripen well and
give big returns. Such is the fertility of the soil
that a small patch of from 10 to 20 acres well culti-
vated will produce a handsome profit after supplying
a comfortable living for an average-sized family.

Entering the province by the Crow's Nest
Pass Railway, which crosses the Rocky Mountains
through the Crow's Nest Pass, one descends into
the magnificent Kootenay Valley, watered by the
Kootenayand Elk Rivers and several smaller streams.
The scenery along this route and in the valley is
indescribably picturesque. Sheltered to the north
and east by the Rocky Mountains, and open to the
south and west, the climate is exceptionally mild and
healthful. The bottom lands will produce all kinds

BRITISH COLUMBIA 63

of crops in perfection, but the uplands require irriga-
tion, which is easily applied from the Elk River and
other streams. Fruit trees planted late in the fall
stand the winter and thrive (a severe test for nur-
sery stock) and wherever orchards have been estab-
lished they are doing well. Conditions vary some-
what with locality everywhere, more especially in a
mountainous country, but speaking generally of this
district, there is no fairer valley in British Columbia,
and none better fitted for general farming, fruit-
growing, dairying, and cattle-raising. From Koot-
enay Landing, on the west, to the Alberta boundary
on the east, the country is more or less all suited to
agriculture, portions of it are exceedingly fertile,
while the rest can be made equally rich by irriga-
tion. Much of the land is open and rolling, a
beautiful park-like region, ideal for stock-raising, a
profitable industry, as there is a good home market
for horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs.

Columbia Valley.

Going northward from the Crow's Nest branch
of the Canadian Pacific Railway, the Columbia
Valley is entered at Canal Flats. The scenic
beauties and fertility of this magnificent valley
baffle description. Dominated on the east by the
Rocky and on the west by the Selkirk Mountains,
the diversity and grandeur of scene from every
point of view is bewildering. Grains, vegetables,
and fruits flourish, and cattle and sheep thrive

64 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

on the nutritious bunch grass which covers the
benches and hillsides. The snowfall is so light
that the live stock winter out, and winter feeding is
the exception.

The lands in the Kootenay and Columbia
Valleys from Golden, south to Tobacco Plains, on
the border of the United States, are mostly in the
hands of the Government and the Canadian Pacific
Railway Company, and are nearly all open to
settlement by pre-emption or by purchase at low
prices, and on easy terms of payment.

A Land of Plenty. — As an illustration of the
fertility of the soil and mildness of climate, it may
be mentioned that strawberries, raspberries, currants,
and gooseberries are indigenous, growing in pro-
fusion in the hills and bench lands. Cultivated
strawberries, seven to the pound, are not uncommon
near Cranbrook, where this fruit retails at 25 cents
per pound. Apples, pears, plums, damsons, prunes,
cherries, and all the small fruits grow to perfection.

The primary object of the first settlers was gold,
and the fortunate ones succeeded in winning about
$30,000,000 in the period between 1858 and 1868,
but the needs of the miners encouraged ventures in
other industries, and in due course British Columbia's
timber and fisheries came to be regarded as nearly
equal in importance with her gold mines. During
the halcyon days of placer mining agriculture was
ignored — for who would waste energy in planting
potatoes in soil that produced crops of nuggets ? —
but when the golden harvests became lighter and

BRITISH COLUMBIA 65

the work of mining harder, many miners turned to
farming, some from necessity, others for congenial
employment. Cultivated fields and cattle ranches
slowly began to appear in the beautiful valleys, on
the lake fronts, and river banks. Few of these
early cultivators took their new occupation seriously
— to most of them it was a stop-gap to permit the
prosecution of their real work of prospecting, while
to others it was little else than a pastime. The
minority, practical farmers who were in earnest,
made money, and to-day their fine residences, em-
bowered in flowers and shrubberies, surrounded by
well-tilled fields and fruitful orchards, are the envy,
as well as the incentive, of every new settler. The
industry and intelligent efforts of these pioneer
farmers demonstrated the capabilities of the soil of
British Columbia for producing in perfection every
cereal, fruit, and vegetable which can be grown in
the temperate zone.

A. Bryan Williams (Provincial Game Warden).

Very few people actually realise what a splendid
game country British Columbia is, and that from
year's end to year's end either gun, rifle, or rod
can be used, so that a man who is fond of both
fishing and shooting can always find something to
tax his skill. Of course the amount of success
met with will, to a certain extent, depend on the
man himself; and even with the best of men there
will be blank days, but the average for the whole

E

66 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

year round will be found to compare favourably
with the best countries in the world. Where else
could you go and find such a variety of game for
both rifle and gun, combined with such trout and
salmon fishing? It would take a good-sized book
to describe each branch of the sport to be obtained,
and the best places to go to obtain it. I will,
however, give an idea of how an all-round sports-
man with a year to spare can occupy his time in
this country.

It does not matter at what time of the year you
come, but presuming you are going to start on big
game, it would be as well to be here early in
August. This would enable you to make your
preparations and get into the Cassiar country by
the Hudson Bay Company's boat, which generally
leaves Wrangel between the ioth and 25th of August.
Cassiar is undoubtedly the best game district that
is at all easy of access in the province. You will
not get any wapiti or deer there, but if you can do
a good day's walk, and are even a moderate shot,
I think you could hardly fail to get good specimens
of Stone's mountain sheep, goat, cariboo, and prob-
ably a moose. You could easily get black bear
and also grizzly if you hunted them, but I should
not advise your doing so at that season of the year,
as the skins are not in their prime, and you can
hunt bear in the spring, when there is no other kind
of big game in season.

With any sort of luck you should reach the
heart of the hunting-grounds almost as soon as the

BRITISH COLUMBIA 67

season opens. When you are there, go for the
sheep first of all ; you are allowed to kill three
animals, but I should advise your only killing two,
as you might have an opportunity later on of getting
a head of the ovis montana, or common big-horn.
Stick to the sheep till you have got all you want,
then go for the goats ; these animals are very
easily got, and should not take up much of your
time. Then move off to the cariboo grounds,
which, with reasonable luck, should be reached by
the end of the month at the latest. Cariboo and
moose have not entirely freed their horns of velvet,
and are in their prime. Unless you are very parti-
cular about getting very fine heads, you should
have got specimens of cariboo by the end of the
first week in October. Then put in a good ten
days after moose.

By this time it would be only reasonable to
expect that you would have bagged 2 sheep, 2 goats,
2 cariboo, and most probably a moose. The
chances are you would also have run across a
bear or two while travelling.

Parties aggregating twenty-one men hunted in
Cassiar in 1906, and killed: 17 moose, 63 sheep,
29 cariboo, 17 goats, 6 grizzly bears, 11 black
bears, and several foxes, including 1 black and
1 cross fox — an average of nearly 7 head of big
game to each gun.

In 1907 twenty-six men hunted in Cassiar.
Of these, two returned through ill-health, and the
heads of a third were not counted ; the remaining

68 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

twenty-four killed the following total head of
game : — Moose, 18 ; cariboo, 62 ; sheep, 55 ; goats,
35 ; grizzly bear, 6 ; and black bear, 6 — an average
of 7J head to each gun. This total includes a 65J-
inch moose, a 62j-inch moose, and a 55-inch moose,
the latter a perfect beauty. The best cariboo were
a 41-pointer, a 39-pointer, and a 37-pointer.

The beginning of November should find you
back at Wrangel, and you may, or may not, get
a moose. If you have not, and very much desire
one, you might go on farther north to Skagway,
and from there on to Atlin, where you would find
an excellent country to hunt in, and should get
your moose, and very likely a bear or two also.

If you do not go north after you get back to
Wrangel, take the first boat back to Victoria or
Vancouver, and from there go by way of the
Canadian Pacific Railway to Lytton ; thence take
the stage to Lillooet, and be off up Bridge River.
You will not have a great deal of time to spare, but
should manage to get in ten days' hunting, and in
that time you ought to have no difficulty in getting a
common big-horn and some good heads of mule deer.

These are the " merest bones of the body " of
what may be quoted in regard to the attractions
of British Columbia. It is the finest country now
accessible for pleasant living, and they who like
to have a hot winter have only to ship themselves
for San Francisco and the southern rest places in
California.

BRITISH COLUMBIA 69

Prince Edward Island.

For men who wish to have pleasant homesteads
among a pleasant people, who have largely Scottish
blood in their veins, this island offers many tempta-
tions for settlement. It is one of the coastal ports
of Canada, whose seamen desire to help the imperial
navy by serving on a warship for pay for a term.

It is said that the sheep industry in Canada is
showing its greatest advancement in the maritime
provinces. This is said to be true, not only in
numbers but in quality. Prince Edward Island,
though the numbers have gone down from 125,546
in 1 90 1 to 110,986 in 1907, still heads the other
provinces by having an average of 9J sheep per
100 acres of occupied land, while the annual ex-
hibition at Charlottetown holds the third place in
Canadian fairs for numbers and quality of sheep,
only Toronto and London in Ontario being con-
sidered superior.

A considerable number of lambs from the mari-
time provinces are exported to Boston or New
York, where they are held in high favour, and
bring prices sufficient to leave profit after paying
duty. On an average, about 5 to 5J cents per lb.
is got, live weight, home.

CHAPTER VI

MANITOBA

" Manitoba lay where the sunflowers blow.
And sang to the chime of the Red River's flow :
1 1 am child of the Spirit whom all men own ;
My prairie no longer is green and lone,
For the hosts of the settler have ringed me round,
And his Bride am I with the harvest crowned.' "

This account of a recent boys' review, given by
the Winnipeg Tribune, shows how the prairie pro-
vinces are educating their boys to defend their
country and keep their muscles in training : —

"Few, if any, more inspiring sights have been
witnessed in Winnipeg than the annual military
display last night by the boys of the public schools.
The citizen who could sit unmoved as the mass of
young humanity marched past, the tread of over
two thousand feet silenced by the plaudits and
huzzas of fifteen thousand spectators, might be said
to be sadly lacking in appreciation of the spirit of
Young Canada, and the advantages enjoyed to-day
by the modern generation over the youth of days
gone by.

11 Such displays are not inculcating in the boys a
love of war, no more than the cultivation of muscle

MANITOBA 71

in a gymnasium will train them to be a menace
to their fellows. Incidentally the boys are taught
military drill, and it is wholesome drill ; they are
taught to handle a rifle, and that is not useless.
The great thing to be emphasised is discipline,
respect for those in command, obedience without
hesitancy, and decent personal appearance.

" The idea of some people, that when a boy is
subjected to military training he at once imbibes
a desire to get out and kill some foreign foe, is
exaggerated, and is not founded on knowledge.
Canada is not going to breed fire-eating men. We
have nobody to fight within thousands of miles.
War with the United States is just about as im-
possible as war between Manitoba and Saskat-
chewan. Rulers might quarrel. The people on
either side would never fight. We may be called
on occasionally to give the Old Land a hand.
Heretofore that has been a volunteer service. It
will continue to be a volunteer service, and Britain
may always rely upon her sons and daughters over
the seas doing not only their share, but a surfeit
of their share, if the call should ever come.

" The crowd resembled one that you would see
at a big college football game. There were flags
and colours everywhere, and from all parts of the
field you could hear the class yells being chanted
to encourage the boys in their drill. It was a
magnificent sight, and as the thirteen hundred
cadets swung around the field headed by their
bands, the twenty thousand spectators arose en

72 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

masse and cheered continuously until the last com-
pany had passed by the reviewing point.

" Nor were the spectators the only ones that
were pleased. Colonel Steele, with the memories
of a dozen battles, was pleased, and voiced his ap-
preciation of the boys' work in no uncertain tones.
1 Splendid ! splendid ! ' he remarked, as the boys
swung past him in review.

" Colonel Steele was inspecting officer, his staff
consisting of Captain Ketchen, Captain Homer
Dixon, Captain Conger, Major Vaux, and Major
Macdonell. Sir Daniel and Lady McMillan were
present, occupying a post of honour in the grand
stand with the members of the School Board and
Mayor Evans.

"This means a great deal to the Empire.
Canada intends to have, and already has in a
great measure, a population which is being steadily
trained to know how to use a rifle, and this national
militia is led by officers who have received a scien-
tific training. This is not ' militarism ' in the sense
used by lovers of all men but their countrymen,
but the national determination to love their own
land and to keep it for themselves, because they
prize its freedom, and know how to use it for
peace and order.

" The review started with battalion work, the
entire force moving with the precision of one com-
pany. When the battalion formed into squares to
receive cavalry, the movement was exceedingly
fine, and the cheering lasted for several minutes.

MANITOBA 73

Then came company drill, and as the boy captains
put their men through the drills the big crowd
roared out its appreciation in a thunderous manner.
There was keen rivalry between the different com-
panies, each trying to outdo the other. The skir-
mishing was also very popular with the crowd,
and all the companies seemed to be well drilled
in this.

"March Past. — The review concluded with a
march past, the Kilties leading the way, playing
'Highland Laddie.'

" Colonel Steele's concluding comment on the
drill was : ' The city of Winnipeg should be proud
of her boy soldiers, and the excellent showing they
made is a credit to all concerned. I wish we had
more of them in the country ; if we had, we need
not be afraid of anything.'

" An Immense Crowd. — Winnipeg has perhaps
never witnessed a larger crowd than that which
gathered at Happyland last night, but despite its
size it was one of the most orderly crowds imagin-
able, and the police and soldiers had little or no
difficulty in keeping it in control. The people were
all around the field, and were packed almost solid
back to the fence. The fence was a good point
of vantage, and furnished accommodation for several
hundreds.

" There was hardly a person at the review that
did not have some members of their family in the
little army, and they were kept busy all night
pointing them out to their friends. One proud

74 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

father was heard to explain that he had 'four
Mulveys.'

"When the review concluded there was a wild
scramble for the gates, but there was no crowding,
and no accidents were reported.

" Almost every school child in the city was in the
throng last night, and as the different schools were
all together they were able to make themselves
heard. The different school colours were also
greatly in evidence, and there were some warm
battles on the side lines for possession of the
colours.

"It was a gala day for the little soldiers, and
they could be seen on the street all day and far into
the night. They were all proud of their uniforms,
and of the fact that they belonged to such a fine
regiment."

Prairie Provinces.

Mr. Obed Smith. — " Over ioo new town sites on
railway lines were put on the market last year.
These places appear as a speck on the bald prairie,
and with almost magical rapidity, some of them at
least, become centres of distribution and prosperous
villages, filling the needs of the settlers in the sur-
rounding districts. Railway construction is pro-
ceeding rapidly, but even iooo miles a year does
not keep pace with settlement. In the prairie
provinces free homesteads of 160 acres are given
by the Government to every male over eighteen
years of age, British or Canadian born, or

MANITOBA 75

an alien who, after three years' probation, swears
allegiance to the British Crown. During 1908
the homesteads and pre-emptions taken up, if
packed close together in a space 20 miles wide,
allowing only for intervening railway sections, like
squares on a chess-board, would make a strip of
1000 miles. I have suggested 20 miles in width,
so that no farmer would be more than 10 miles
from a railway running in the centre."

Boys {Manitoba).

"Morden, Man.
" Dear Mr. Owen, — Well, I must tell you all
about my situations. First, I worked for a bachelor
for a year, who taught me to cook. Then I went
to a neighbour and worked for him for four years,
and when my time was up I stayed another year for
$140. Then I went up west, where my chum,
Percy Gregg, is now. I did not like it there. I
returned back on the farm for another year for $185.
I like the country fine. It can't be beat. If you
can't find anything to do, boys, come to Canada.
You will find lots on the farm. I am working for
Mr. Thos. Ball, the same old boss. I came out in
1 90 1, and intend to stay in Canada. — Your sincere
friend, Sidney Rowe (20)."

" Fairhall, Man.
" Dear Mr. Owen, — Just a few lines to you,
hoping you are quite well, as it leaves me at present.

76 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

I think this is a nice country for those who want to
work. I think I have the best home in Manitoba.
They are just like father and mother to me. They
are good church members. I think, if I have luck,
I shall rent or take up a homestead next year. I
got a good job as soon as I arrived out here for
$2.50 a day. I shall stay here now. — Your ever-
loving friend, Fred Curtis (18)."

Happily the British investor has got far beyond
the stage of hopeless ignorance of Canadian condi-
tions which characterised Mr. Labouchere's journal
Truth in the eighties, when it declared that the
Canadian Pacific was "never likely to yield a single
red cent of interest on the money sunk in it " — the
railway whose shares now stand at over 170, and
whose traffic requires 45,418 freight cars, 18 19
passenger cars, and 141 2 locomotives. The Do-
minion, which Truth then declared to be " a fraud
all through," and "destined to bust up like any
other fraud," is now the symbol of political and
commercial advancement, and in no part of the
world will British money find more lucrative
employment. As yet the British investor has for
the most part confined his attention to federal,
provincial, municipal, and railway bonds. Mr.
Obed Smith begs his attention to other openings,
such as the purchase of unimproved prairie lands
for settlement purposes, which "have given the
American many million dollars of profit," loan com-
pany securities based on a safe cash value whether

MANITOBA 77

listed on the market here or not, and private invest-
ments in mortgages or real estate. He also names
many incipient Canadian industries awaiting further
development by capital. In water-powers and in-
dustrials alone something like 200 million dollars
of United States money is already invested, but
there are plenty of places left for the enterprising
Britisher who will take the pains to investigate for
himself. If he will apply in Canada something of
the caution he would exercise in any British invest-
ment he can reap an infinitely richer reward.

And as with money, so with men. Mr. Obed
Smith tells us that during the last seven years
920,220 persons left British shores for the United
States, while 519,845 left for Canada in the same
period. And if we turn to the last report of the
Canadian Minister of the Interior we find that of the
Canadian immigration of 1907, totalling 222,702, no
fewer than 119,736 were non- British people, while
in 1908 the non- British proportion was 142,287 out
of a total of 262,469. The homestead entries tell
the same tale of the preponderance of non-British
settlement in some of the best parts of the west.
Excellent settlers a large number of these non-
British immigrants undoubtedly are, especially the
60,000 entering Canada from the Western States in
each year; but they are non- British all the same,
and in the opinion of most Canadians the highest
national aims of the Dominion are only to be
attained by a preservation of the traditions which
set her apart from the rest of the North American

78 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

continent. Mr. George E. Foster was justified in
declaring recently in New York that he would
"rather undertake to find a needle in a haystack
than an annexationist in Canada," but none the less
must it be the desire of Canadian as of British
statesmen to replenish Canadian acres with men
and women of sound British stock.

The "staffof life" is the chief product of the Mani-
toban farm. Canadians are sometimes reproved for
boasting, and exaggeration is certainly always bad ;
but they have at any rate some excuse in the almost
incalculable wealth of their country's natural resources.
If anything could justify boasting, it would be the
fact that the great plains of Canada produce wheat
of the very finest quality yet known in the world, and
are capable of producing it in quantities compared
to which the present yield will seem a mere hand-
ful. According to Dr. Saunders, the head of the
Dominion Government's experimental farm system,
and an authority second to none, if only one-fourth
of the suitable land in Manitoba and the southern
parts of the two other prairie provinces were annu-
ally under wheat, the yield would be more than
812,000,000 bushels, reckoned at the Manitoba aver-
age of 19 bushels per acre. This, he points out,
would not only feed a population of 30,000,000 in
Canada itself (at present there are only about
7,000,000), but would "meet the present require-
ments of Great Britain three times over."

With Manitoba, the first of the prairie provinces,
begins the great central plain of the north-west,

MANITOBA 79

where to many, who in the last forty years have
gone in search of a good home and reasonable
affluence, there has not only been found the "land
of promise " but the land of reality. Wheat-grow-
ing is the branch of agriculture predominant in the
province, for which the rich alluvial loam found in
many parts, accompanied with a full share of sum-
mer sun, is specially adapted. Manitoba, however,
now exports cattle to the ranches in the west, and
across the line to the United States, and sends large
quantities of beef to the eastern markets. An
enumeration of the total cattle owned in 1908
showed an increase of about 52 per cent, in the
preceding seven years, probably due to the large
influx of new settlers, whose first wants would
include milk, butter, and cheese, and to a desire on
the part of many older settlers to enlarge the scope
of their operations, so as to include a certain amount
of stock-keeping. The dry, sunny summer, which
is so good for the grain-grower, is not altogether in
favour of the stock-raiser on the barer regions ; but
where a certain amount of shelter from the sun is
obtained, naturally or otherwise, and where water
can be procured, cattle-raising should be, and we
were informed was, quite a profitable adjunct to
the prevailing grain-growing. It would appear,
however, that it would, for a long time, probably
always, be in a secondary position. There are many
parts of the world with a greater, or at least a
more evenly divided, rainfall, and milder winters,
where cattle can be raised under more favourable

8o YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

conditions than on the plains of Manitoba. All the
same, till the unsettled lands are all under cultiva-
tion, there is room and keep at a low price for a
still further large increase in the number of cattle.
There are reported to be many good herds of pure
cattle scattered over the province. Some members
of the Commission were privileged to see two of
the more famous herds of high-class Shorthorns, one
near East Selkirk, and one near Carberry — both
well known to Shorthorn fanciers all over the world.
These figures show the development of wheat-
farming in Canada since 1871, and the export trade
since 1903 : —

Wheat Production.

Year.

Bushels.

Acres.

1871 ....
1881 ....
1891 ....
1901 ....

1907 ....

1908 ....

16,723,873
32,350,269
42,223,372
55,572,368
91,333,271
112,434,000

1,646,781

2,342,355
2,761,246
4,224,542
6,066,450
6,610,300

Export Trade.

Year.

To Britain.

To United States.

To all Countries.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Bush.

1

Bush.

1

Bush.

1

1903

30,726,947

22,999,745

892,904

536,264

32,985,745

24,566,703

1904

16,346,793

13,106,081 11,262

8,780

16,779,028

13465,351

1905

11,280,407

9,474,870 | 3,018,232

2.S77.S3I

14,700,315

12,386,743

1906

36,027,692

30,234,611 3,831,988

2,981,608

40,399.402

33.658.391

1907

24,432,786

19,566,017

804,937

630.349

25,480,127

20,379,629

1908

43,002,541

39,349,602

114,926

102,699

43,654,668

40,004,723

CHAPTER VII

SASKATCHEWAN

THE QU'APPELLE VALLEY

{near Regina, Saskatchewan Province)

" Morning, lighting all the prairies,

Once of old came, bright as now,
To the twin cliffs, sloping wooded

From the vast plain's even brow :
When the sunken valleys levels

With the winding willowed stream,
Cried, ' Depart, night's mists and shadows,

Open flowered we love to dream ! '

Then in his canoe a stranger,

Passing onward, heard a cry :
Thought it called his name and answered,

But the voice did not reply ;
Waited listening, while the glory

Rose to search each steep ravine,
Till the shadowed, terraced ridges

Like the level vale were green.

Strange, as when on space the voices

Of the stars' hosannahs fell,
To this wilderness of beauty

Seemed his call, ' Qu'appelle? Qu'appelle?1
For a day he tarried hearkening,

Wondering, as he went his way,
Whose the voice that gladly called him

With the merry tones of day.

F

82 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Was it God who gave dumb Nature

Words and voice to shout to one
Who, a pioneer, came, sun-like,

Down the pathways of the sun ?
Harbinger of thronging thousands,

Bringing plain, and vale, and wood,
Things His best and last created,

Human hearts and brotherhood !

Long the doubt and eager question,

Yet that valley's name shall tell,
For its farmers' laughing children

Gravely call it ■ The Qu'Appelle.' "

The Commission of British representative agricul-
turists which visited Canada last year have published
the official report, and respecting emigration the
Commissioners say —

" The men wanted in Canada are men with
some knowledge of agriculture. There are many
openings for such men, but they must be careful.
Canada is a new country, and its people are full of
hope. It is suffering from honest exaggeration. It
is suffering, too, from a worse evil — from a super-
abundance of real estate agents and speculators
in land. It is, however, so good a country that
exaggeration cannot harm it. It is a country of
boundless possibilities from an agricultural point of
view, but it is also a country of many climates, not
all equally good, and of great varieties of soil, not
all equally suitable for farming ; and while we are
satisfied that there are in Canada splendid oppor-
tunities for the right kind of emigrants, we are
equally satisfied that no man should farm in Canada

SASKATCHEWAN 83

until he knows the country and its climatic conci-
sions, and has learned by experience, as a hired
hand or otherwise, what Canadian farming means."

With respect to the west, the Commissioners
" particularly direct the attention of the intending
emigrant " to the prairies, which welcome a man if
he " has ambition and ability, if he is determined —
having as a ploughman placed his foot on the lowest
rung of the ladder — to reach the top as an occupy-
ing owner." " The west," they add, " also opens
up possibilities to those comparatively well-to-do
dairy farmers and market gardeners who are having
some difficulty in making much money at home."

As to the future of Canada the Commissioners
are optimistic. Russia and India are not to be
depended on for liberal and constant supplies, and
the day is not far distant when the United States
shall have ceased exporting wheat. " The reason,
of course, is obvious. The population of the United
States at the present time is 86,000,000. The yearly
production of wheat is over 735,000,000 bushels.
The population consumes, including seed, approxi-
mately, 7 bushels per head. At the present time
they are producing more than they are consuming.
In 191 5, when it is estimated that population will
have reached 106,000,000, they will have no sur-
plus wheat. With an increased rise in prices large
regions undrained and semi-arid in different parts
of the world would immediately come under the
plough. Without, however, pushing the margin of
cultivation farther back, Canada, on virgin soil,

84 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

will by-and-by be able to make up for more than
the deficiency of the United States, and produce
wheat at prices which, while tending upwards, will
not be exorbitant."

Regina was the name given by Princess Louise,
Duchess of Argyll, to the town which the Govern-
ment desired, in 1880, to build on the Canadian
Pacific Railway line near Qu'Appelle, a pretty, flat-
bottomed valley, where a river flows through poplars
in little groves growing in the sunken levels below
the endless prairie plateau, from which the valley
looks as though it had suddenly subsided, and the
abrupt " cut banks " of rich soil look down into
the bottom in miniature cliffs. The only name
by which the place occupied by Regina was known
was " Pile o' Bones," for there quantities of buffalo
bones had been collected, to be sent away as
fertilising stuff. A letter, dated May 1909, from
there says : " Regina advances and grows rapidly,
as the administrative capital of the North-West
Provinces should do. We, like Winnipeg, are
training our schoolboys. We cannot boast of so
many appearing on parade, but we too have a
corps, and in their khaki uniforms they look very
smart, and are very well up in their drill. Over
150 private residences are now under construc-
tion, and also numerous business blocks. A new
Collegiate Institute, to cost 8150,000, is now
being roofed in, and our new legislative buildings
are to have a frontage of 540 feet, and are being
rapidly finished, to be completed in 19 10. Crop

SASKATCHEWAN 85

prospects were never better. If this crop comes
off all right the country will go ahead like wildfire,
as grain men are offering $1.09 per bushel for
wheat for October delivery. I dined to-day at a
farmer's ten miles north, and driving out and back
I saw splendid crops My friend is one of our
successful farmers. He has 380 acres in wheat,
120 in oats, and 100 in barley. What would people
in Scotland think of a crop of this extent ? Of last
year's crop he sold 10,800 bushels, and got about
$1.02 per bushel on the average. This is going to
be a great country, and the Regina district is par
excellence the banner one, as the soil is so rich and
seems to be inexhaustible."

An Old Countryman's experience in Saskat-
chewan—

" I came to Canada in June 1903, and have now
been in this country for six years, but have never
had any sickness in the family. I am well satisfied
with my prospects, and I think farming in this
country is all right. I am now farming 640 acres,
and have had good success. I consider it just the
place for some good Yorkshire farmers, but would
advise them to come at once, as land keeps going
up every year ; but wheat keeps getting better in
price also." — Robert Shipley, Summerberry.

Saskatchewan has an area of about 155,000,000
acres, of which in 1906 less than 300,000 had been
brought under cultivation. With such an extent of
territory, so large a proportion of which is still

86 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

virgin prairie awaiting the hand of the settler, Sas-
katchewan offers remarkable opportunities to the
man who is land-hungry and determined to succeed.
A 160-acre farm is offered in this province by the
Dominion Government free on the performance of
certain settlement duties, and the fact that thousands
of settlers have taken advantage of this offer during
the past few years indicates the worth of the
province.

In the Saskatoon district the town itself has
risen miracle-like on the plains. One of the com-
missioners of the Scots party looked from the far
side of the Saskatchewan River to the town, and,
realising that it had all come into being in seven
years, he declared that it would have taken our
people at home all that time to draw the plans.
Five years ago there were only 100 inhabitants ;
now there are 5000. There is a telephone and
electric lighting system, a Municipal Council, and a
Board of Trade. If the streets are still rough and
unmade, a few years will work a revolution, and
Saskatoon, we doubt not, will be one of the great
prairie towns of Canada. Possibly it owes its
existence to the development of the prairie in the
neighbourhood. We had a fair opportunity of
examining it. It is bald-headed prairie, mainly
devoted to wheat-growing. The soil in some parts
is a black loam for a few inches, chocolate-coloured
below that, with a subsoil of marl. Seven or eight
years ago there was not a homestead between
Lumsden, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, and

SASKATCHEWAN 87

Saskatoon. We saw scores of them ourselves that
day, and there are hundreds which we did not see.
There is no district in Canada filling up more
rapidly than the district round Saskatoon.

The " far north " is getting yearly farther north.
As tests are made for wheat-growing, it is found
that practically all good soils south of the great
continent-arching sub-arctic forest of small pine,
which stretches all the way from Labrador on the
Atlantic to the Lower Saskatchewan and Peace
River districts near the Rockies, are good for hard
wheat. Edmonton will be a large city. All settlers
are pleased with their experience, and are looking
forward to good rail communication in the near
future.

QU'APPELLE.

The valley near the town of Regina, watered by
a pleasant stream, and fashioned by nature like a
great, long, sunken garden, was always a favourite
headquarter of the Red Indian. It is now the
headquarters of the military force of the palefaces
who came across the ocean of water to the ocean-
like expanse of plains covered with the green grasses
in summer, and with the dry, protecting mantle of
snow in the winter. Once the traveller descends
the little cliff and drops down to the lower level
floor of the valley which the waters have gouged
out of the plains, he finds himself sheltered from
winds, and on the sunken flat he treads, he is
among willows and low scrub, and near clear waters

88 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

beloved of wild-fowl, whose flocks in spring become
ever more numerous, and then again less in num-
ber, until autumn brings them in multitudes from
the far north land where they have gone for their
nesting, to return with their young, strong in flight
as their parents, on their way to the ever-open
summer and tropical waters of Central America.

Wherever there is quiet water, there was a
happy hunting-ground for the red man. The
tribes were seldom long absent from this fair
valley. Above its long trench-like windings, on
the prairies now crossed by the railway, were often
held the lacrosse tourneys, in which the whole
manhood of the tribe joined. Let us shut out for
a moment the sight of new buildings and the rail-
way track, and let us believe we are eighty years
younger and see no white men, no locomotives, no
red-uniformed and white-helmeted gallant mounted
police, no chimneys volleying forth coal smoke.
Only from the painted-hide tents, the "Moyas" of
the Blackfeet lodges, rise faint blue wreaths of
dried dung or wood smoke, hardly colouring the
clear air with tiny breathings. These little smoke
columns rise straight from the crossed poles which
show bare above the cone-shaped dwellings of
painted buffalo-skins. But against the background
of the painted figures on the tents there is now
a moving crowd clad in many colours. We can
distinguish the chiefs by the great rows of eagle
plumes that rise like spines from their heads and
bristle out all down the napes of their necks and

SASKATCHEWAN 89

down their backs to near the ground. Then
there are men with fancy head-dresses of buffalo
hair, and others who have only a few feathers
in their long black locks. The women are seen
specially busy and excited, and walking by the
side of bands of young braves who leave the camp
and ascend the slope of the bank, and reach with
active steps the prairie plateau. The foremost of
these bands carry with them four long sticks and
two short sticks, and these are quickly fixed as high
goal-posts with short cross-bars at the top, so that
the goal makes a narrow lofty space for a ball to
enter — for goal-posts these sticks are — and the
game for which they are placed is the ancient game
called by the French Canadians la crosse. This
is the name given to it because it is in a crossed
circle of netting or sinew placed at the side of the
end of each staff that the wooden ball is caught,
and it is from this circle, braced with sinews, that the
ball is thrown. The circle for catching the ball, and
from which it was launched, was, with the Blackfeet
Indians, small as compared with the much larger
surface given by the netting at the end of the staff
in vogue in later times. Once the goal-posts are
fixed, the tribesmen and women emerge quickly
from the lower valley level to the upper plain and
stream in many-hued raiment to take their places
round each of the goals. And now it will be noted
that there is no "eleven" or number of selected
players. All the men and boys of the tribe are
armed with the lacrosses, and all are expected to

9o YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

take their part on one side or the other as in an
important "general election" in politics in Britain!

And now with much shouting the women sepa-
rate from the men and line the sides of the square
of sod where the game is to be played, and the
men meet in the middle and toss up the round
ball of wood, and the players rush, leap, and strike,
each striving to catch the ball in his crosse and to
lling it as far as he can towards the opposite goal,
or to pass it to some other man of his own side
on the outskirts of the mass of struggling and
shouting combatants. The whole tribe seems to
take part, and as the men sometimes manage to get
a free swing for an instant after catching the ball,
and it flies through the air from end to end of the
field, it is not necessary or advisable for all the men
of either side to be ever in the centre, for to be
"with the ball" is a position that may completely
change at any moment, when a successful throw
sends it far away from those who are battling in
one part of the ground to others who have as yet
not even had " a look in," but who now may find
themselves for an instant in undisputed possession.
Yet this can only be for an instant, because the
opposing chiefs have their men everywhere, and if
the tussle be not in masses, it is at once com-
menced afresh by scattered contestants. It is a
beautiful game even in its ancient form of " universal
scrimmage," but a hard and severe game, causing
many a bleeding scalp or hand, as the staves come
down heavily on head or fingers of the man whose

SASKATCHEWAN 91

lacrosse holds the ball, and there is no quarter
given to the successful, any more than there is to
peers or wealthy folk in the throes of a modern
political strife "at home"! When a man gets a
blow, or, feeling fatigued, seeks to fall out from
the fighting lines for a moment, the squaws, ener-
getic suffragist ladies that they are, at once take a
vicarious part in the battle by belabouring him until
he thinks that he has fallen from the frying-pan into
the fire, and takes up his stick again to enter the
fray.

Now we will shut up this cinematograph, and
open a more modern slide, but still one that shows
scenes before the advent of rails, though their
coming is known to be only a question of months.

There is again an assembly of Indian " tepees,"
but among them are already some white canvas
tents, and the crowds of redskins are not all in the
full barbaric beauty of coloured leather and beads
and feathers, for some have modern jackets, and a
few have horribly ugly modern caps. Still the
majority make a brave show. Among them are
several of the uniformed cavalry of the Dominion
Government, "the riders of the plains," fine fellows
in long boots, yellow-striped dark trousers, red tunic,
and white helmets — men who could hold their own
with the best troopers of the best army in Europe,
tall, smart, soldierly, proud of their service and of
their country, and capable of keeping all these red-
skins, armed though these are with the best repeating
rifles, in a state of order, which is at once the result

92 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

of fair dealing and of inexorable discipline. The
presence of a few canvas tents among the buffalo-
hide tepees is to be accounted for because the
buffalo are already becoming very scarce. In the
" sixties " there were still many bands of them. In
the " seventies" they were almost all shot down.
Their bones were left in such numbers that in places
on the prairies one could everywhere see the grass
dotted with little white specks, which were bleaching
skulls and skeletons of the old American bison.
Near Qu'Appelle Valley these remains lay so thick
that the bones were gathered in vast quantities in
anticipation of the arrival of the Canadian Pacific
Railway, and the place was called " Pile o' Bones."
This was considered hardly a fit appellation for the
central point of western Government organisation,
and a message was sent to Ottawa asking for a new
name. The Government asked the Princess, who
was then with the Governor-General at Quebec, and
she suggested Regina, a title which has remained
with it ever since.

But our cinematograph view is taken a little be-
fore the new christening of " Pile o' Bones," and the
white heaps are conspicuous on the plateau. In the
Qu'Appelle Valley one can see nothing of bones, or
of death, but we are asked to look on at a scene of
torture — torture not inflicted by the police, but by
the redskins among themselves. There is a little
clump of canvas tents some way from the Indian
tepees, and this is the camp of the Governor-
General on a tour in the year 1 88 1, to " write up"

SASKATCHEWAN 93

the country by means of the able pens of the news-
paper correspondents and other gentlemen who have
consented to come with him, to make the west better
known to willing emigrants in the old country.
There is in that clump of tents the eloquent preacher,
Dr. James M'Gregor, of St. Cuthbert's Church at
Edinburgh; there is the able artist, Mr. Sydney Hall,
who draws and paints so admirably wild life, stately
pageants, or distinguished men, as may be seen in
his notable picture of Sir John Young in the 1909
Academy Exhibition ; there is Mr. Austen, of the
London Times, and several more, all deeply impressed
with the capacity of the Canadian central country to
absorb millions of the struggling populations of
Europe and the United States. The gentlemen
are told that they are to witness tortures, and refuse
to see anything of the kind. But the younger
members of the staff are all keen to be duly shocked,
and the chief of police does not think it advisable
or necessary to interfere with the Indians' peculiar
ideas of amusing themselves ; indeed, it is said to be
all very like something that might take place in a
neighbouring island to Great Britain, where politi-
cally and personally everybody is supposed to look
on injury to country or to person as a very good
joke, to be repeated as often as possible. It all
shows courage, says the Indian; and it's all very good
fun, says his merrier counterpart " at home." So
the younger members of the party at Qu'Appelle
say they will go and see this sun dance, for such is
the title of the ceremony that is to take place among

94 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the redskins. The elders among the white men
are content " to imagine the rest " after they have
seen the procession to the medicine tents, and heard
the shouts and sounds of the painful orgy within.
What did they see ? What is a sun dance ? Well,
it was a test of endurance of pain undergone by
young men who wished to be admitted to the full
honours of the tribe. Like their sisters in Europe,
the ladies had no objection to witness any excite-
ment, battle, bull fight, election row, or this de-
monstration held to prove that nothing can make
an Indian wince, no matter what you do to him.
The young man to be initiated stood up, and was
gazed at silently or only with the encouragement
of a few grunts by all those who were seated
around. Rings were dangling from a pole, and to
them were attached, as they hung down and just
reached the ground, sticks of wood, held by the
cord in the centre, and having one end sharpened.
Taking up the rope end armed with this sharpened
stick, the chief medicine man deliberately dug the
sharp point into the young man's breast, and then
sideways under the breast muscle — crunch, crunch,
crunch ! squew, squew ! — and it was brought out
after penetrating about six inches, the blood, of
course, streaming from the wound, and the Indian
pale, but trying to look as though he liked it.
Then on his other breast the same thing was
done with another strong, sharp stake, and the
noise began — one cannot call it music — for an
accompaniment to a sort of can-can dance, but

SASKATCHEWAN 95

instead of throwing up the feet, the knees were
alternately thrown up and the foot brought down
with a kind of " stamp and go" movement, the
howls of " How-how, how-how ! " accompanying the
dancer's movements, to encourage him. Round
and round he went for over a quarter of an hour,
and then, staggering outwards, one of the breast
muscles gave, and he fell, tearing the other, and
fainting. This was enough for the members of our
party. It was said there were others treated in the
same way, and that none uttered cry or made
grimace. It is doubtful if white men could have
inured their faces to show no signs, or avoided
calling out.

There is a story of a white United States trooper
who was made a prisoner by Indians, who resolved
to burn him alive. He knew the Indians' power of
self-control, and vowed to himself that he would give
no sign, and die like an Indian, silently. The trooper
was bound, the fire was kindled at his feet, and that
trooper yelled right out at once when the fire began
to burn his flesh, and kept on yelling at the top of
his voice until by good luck the burning bundles
were stamped out and scattered by his comrades,
who managed to charge upon the fiends who were
killing him, and rescued him in time to save his life,
but not his walking powers. White men, for some
reason, cannot endure as can a redskin. He seems
to be able to hypnotise himself.

The taste of the tribes in the matter of the
choice of colour in dress is very marked. The way

96 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

in which they arrange the yellows, blues, and crim-
son beads in their embroidery might with advantage
be imitated by more gaudy and garish decorators
among the white men. The interior of their
buffalo-hide lodges showed the perfection of neat-
ness as well as the sense of good colouring. With
compartments divided from each other by deer-
sinew lattices, the cubicles gave the perfection of
comfort. The central fire had robes (as skins with
their hair on are always called) laid as neatly round
the hearth as any Persian carpets. The pipes of
the chief, of red stone or of a black stone, were
carefully ranged so that the great man could reach
them in comfort. The red stone was often inlaid
with patterns in metal, and these pipe-heads, long
and thin in form, must have been articles of trade
among the tribes from a great distance. It would
be interesting to know how far to the north this
trade in pipe-heads existed. They are to be found
among all the tribes of note up to the Peace River
and the Saskatchewan. I never heard of them
farther north — for instance, along the Mackenzie
River. The smoking mixture was tobacco and
the inner bark of a willow, too bitter to be pleasant
to most people's taste.

The articles of commerce must have been few
among the hunting Indians. But iron and steel,
for knives and arrow-heads, and beads reached
them long ago, if this phrase be allowed to repre-
sent a time long past, relatively to our knowledge
of the continent, Stone arrow-heads are, of course,

SASKATCHEWAN 97

found all over the continent, as they are in Europe.
Their bows were not powerful weapons, and there
is no evidence that they knew the use of poison
to make their arrows more formidable. Their chief
men were chosen on account of their endurance and
courage, proved by individual prowess, preference
being accorded to men whose personal prowess
was enhanced in the respect of their tribesmen
by descent from well-known warriors. Some of
their chiefs inspired respect in the white men who
knew them or fought them. Thus Sitting Bull
among the Sioux, who defeated General Custer's
cavalry, was a man who could even inspire devo-
tion, through honesty and courage. Too often badly
treated by irresponsible men among the Americans,
he fought them with ability and courage, and he
kept his word to the Canadian Government when
allowed a refuge on Canadian soil, and made no
disturbance by any raids against our American
friends south of the border.

No one who saw Poundmaker or Crowfoot at
any of the meetings held by the Governor-General
in 1 88 1 with the Blackfeet Indians but knew that
in these chiefs the Indians had brave counsellors.
Poundmaker, indeed, was induced to "go wrong" for
a time in his politics, a lapse of which he sorrow-
fully repented. I have one of the clubs or coup-
sticks which he obtained for me. It is a handy
little weapon, the handle, about a yard in length,
made of what the rovers of the plains call "shagga-
nappy" — that is, buffalo hide compacted into a pliable

G

98 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

staff, holding with a belt of the leather, an oval-
shaped stone, forming an excellent battle-mace for
knocking out the brains of one's opposing strategist !
This handy and formidable weapon was decorated
with the scalps of those its owner had been success-
ful in killing. The scalps were little round patches
of skin about four inches in diameter, often painted
red on the inner surface, and having the long black
locks by which it was pulled off the head of the
dead man, flowing from it. This little war-mace
is the most original of the arms of the native
tribes. On the coast may sometimes be seen
another of exceptional character. This is a spear
at the end of which the iron or stone knife is
fastened by thongs of sealskin to the haft, and the
knife-hilt is in a hollow or socket, so that after
the thrust is eiven, and the steel has entered the
victim, the knife turns, held by the straps, and
cannot be easily withdrawn, as might be the case
were knife and haft to be firmly fixed together in
one plane.

Nothing could be more stately than the manner
in which the Sioux and Blackfeet opened their
councils, but it must be added that nothing could be
more tiresome than to wait till the spokesman con-
descended to speak, or more tedious than was
their language when interpreted sentence by sen-
tence by the interpreter, who was usually a half-
breed Indian, his father having been a French
Canadian and his mother a squaw. The whole
tribe would come across the prairie from their camp

SASKATCHEWAN 99

to that of the British party, their cayuses, as their
horses were called, carrying their head men, and
the ruck of the tribe following in an extended line
on foot, the warriors, armed with repeating rifles,
to the number of 100 or 150, walking in no special
order with the rest. The Governor and his small
squad of companions, with perhaps thirty of the
mounted police, would be seated in front of his
tents and waggons. Slowly the many-coloured
Indian line would approach, until finally they formed
a half-crescent in front of the white men, and there
squatted on the grass. The warriors had often little
clothing, and were painted blue, red, or yellow, accord-
ing to each man's taste. Silence reigned ; nothing
was said, and no one moved. At last, through the
interpreter or by the mouth of the Government in-
spector of the tribes, it was intimated to the leading
chief that the Governor or Father of the people
had come to hear the wants of his children. Once
or twice an irrelevant remark was slowly made by
the chief, when he was at last persuaded to say
something, to the effect that the Father of all
Canada looked very young. This compliment or
observation of doubtful tendency was usually the
means of "drawing" the Governor, who calmly
remarked that his children might now speak their
mind on other subjects. Then, perhaps, after more
doubt and waiting, the chief would grunt and rise.
He could, of course, never produce a sheaf of notes
for his oration as do the white parliamentary orators,
and therefore the flattering idea was laid to the

ioo YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

white men's souls that the speech would probably
be brief. Not a bit of it!

The speech was slow in coming, but much
slower in delivery, and still slower in ending.
There was no reason it should not go on for days,
like the speeches of some United States senators,
because it required much less mental effort than do
theirs. They have weighty arguments, but the
redskin oration always begins, and often continues,
with nothing that gives mental exertion. He
observes with much unction that the grass is green,
the sky blue, and that rivers flow on for ever, and
then gradually gets to mention other than terres-
trial glories, and "goes for" the sun, and makes
personal observations on the sun's appearance, all of
which ultimately leads to the observation that the
face of the white man, from whom he expects to
get tobacco and other goods, or more food, is to
the chief just like the face of the sun. There is
sometimes a dignified reference to his own stomach
and the appetites of his tribe as unsatisfied. Poor
folk — yes, the white man had killed all the buffalo —
and what was life without the buffalo ? — and now
even the fleet-footed little antelope were disappear-
ing, the antelope that made such nice dresses for
the squaws — and so on, and so on ; and then a few
promises would be carefully given, because it is the
good Canadian habit never to promise anything to
the redskin that is not to be fully redeemed, and
after a two or three hours' parley the council was
over, and each party went back to its own camp.

SASKATCHEWAN 101

The next morning several of the most showy-
dresses of chiefs and squaws had been exchanged
with the white men for dollars ; and one smiling
lady's heart was much rejoiced when she found
herself not only in possession of dollars, but of a
European lady's equipment — bonnet, shawl, and
M bugled " frock — in lieu of her own old dress of
antelope skin, the tails of two animals ornamenting
her neck, and no less than three rows of the rounded
milk-teeth of the great red deer — the "wapiti" —
decorating the upper part of the robe, front, back,
and shoulders.

Many of these Indians pined for the old free
life, and, although well fed, died before many years
on the reserve lands allotted to them. A few
joined the half-breeds in the little rising of 1885,
and the fate of the remainder is no doubt to
mix with the whites, for there is no sentiment
against redskin marriages. Mixture with the
negroes is condemned in America, but not so the
mixture with the Indians. They have traits of
character which have always raised them in the
white man's opinion far above the "darkie." Had
the Indians of the plains been like those of New
Mexico and lands farther to the south, dwellers in
fixed habitations, they would have survived ; but
they who do not build do not long survive any
change of habit.

CHAPTER VIII

ALBERTA

This province was called after the Princess Louise }
Duchess of Argyll ', one of whose Christian names is Alberta,
after her father, Prince Albert.

In token of the love which thou hast shown

For this wide land of freedom, I have named

A province vast, and for its beauty famed,

By thy dear name to be hereafter known —

Alberta shall it be ! Her fountains thrown

From Alps unto three oceans, to all men

Shall vaunt her loveliness e'en now ; and when

Each little hamlet, to a city grown,

And numberless as blades of prairie grass

Or the thick leaves in distant forest bower,

Great peoples hear the giant currents pass,

Still shall her waters, bringing wealth and power,

Speak the loved name— the land of silver springs —

Worthy the daughter of our English kings.

The scented breath of the plain is hers —
The odours sweet of the sage and firs ;
There the coal breaks forth on her rolling sod,
And the winters flee at the word of God.

Sunny Alberta is the most westerly of Canada's
prairie provinces. It is an immense tract 700 miles
north and south, with an average width of nearly
200 miles. Its winter climate is tempered by the
Chinook winds, and the long sunny days of summer

ALBERTA 103

are especially conducive to the rapid and vigorous
growth of many sorts of grains, grasses, and vege-
tables. The northern part of the province is being
devoted to the growth of spring wheat and other
cereals, and the southern part to the production of
the now famous " Alberta Red " winter wheat, the
cultivation of which was begun about 1903 and has
developed rapidly ; in 1908 over 100,000 acres were
sown, producing over 3,000,000 bushels.

Professor R. B. Greig, F.R.S.E., wrote the
following during a visit to Canada as a member of
the Scottish Agricultural Commission in 1908 : —

"In spite of the exceptional immigration of the
last few years, much land is still open for settlement
at some distance from the railways. In the pro-
vince of Alberta alone less than 10 per cent, of the
land is under cultivation, and for mixed farming and
dairying Alberta is a splendid country. Much of
the country is covered with poplar and willow scrub,
which provides shelter and firewood, and is easily
cleared. The soil is generally a good black loam,
capable of producing great crops of winter wheat,
oats, and Timothy hay. Crops of 80 to 100 bushels
per acre are comparatively common, and, unlike
the crops of eastern Canada, those Albertan oats
weigh 38 to 42 lbs. per bushel. All stock do well ;
even the delicate Jersey cow thrives and makes a
profit."

Mr. William Barber, also a member of the
Scottish Agricultural Commission, says : —

11 Altogether the Canada of the twentieth century

104 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

is a splendid country. Things are so hopeful, so
enterprising, and so free. Every one is valued for
what he is -not for what he has been or for what he
might be — just for what he is. No questions are
asked about his past. It is God's free country,
where a man is a man and nothing more. The
land is new, and the people's faces are towards
the front, and to the stranger they say in effect :
If you have an honourable, square, upright past,
so much the better ; if not, leave behind the
taint of artificial things, and start again on the
level."

Excellent cement is made in Alberta, as well as
near Ottawa, and Alberta and Quebec cement will
probably command a higher price in European
markets than does the Portland in England. In
Egypt, where vast quantities have lately been used
for the Nile dams, Canadian cement was inquired
for two years ago, with the result that answer was
made from Canada that the home market there
took every bag of cement made. But great as local
demands are, it will be possible to have shipments
for Europe when development of this wonderfully
durable material has made more progress. In
Alberta it is found that a great deal of house
erection will be made much easier through the
employment of cement for floors, door-posts, rafters,
and roofs ; and it is claimed that the stuff has
much greater strength than has the British and
European cement. Brick-making is also a pros-
perous industry around Calgary.

ALBERTA 105

Here are some boys' letters : —

"Vermilion, Alta.
" I am now twenty-two years of age, and I live
in Alberta, and am doing fine for the time I have
started for myself. I have done quite a little travel-
ling through Manitoba and Alberta, and have been
in Ontario, and now have a farm of my own in
Alberta. The first time I worked out I was fifteen
years old. I went from Glenella to Winnipegosis,
which was about a hundred miles away from my
home. I lived with my aunt there, and started to
work in a saw-mill. When I went to the foreman
I said, " Do you want a man?" and he said " Yes."
He asked me what I could do, and I said, " I can
do my best at anything you put me at." So he
put me at the trimmer. It was hard work at
first, but I got used to it. I then asked him what
he would pay me, and he said, "$15.00 a month."
I was glad I was getting as much as old hands, and
the next month I did not ask for my pay, and the
third month the job was done, and he raised my
pay $26 for the second month and $35 for the third
month, and told me to come in the spring, and I did.
He put me at firing on a steamboat. I was two
months at that job, and then he put me as second
engineer, and I was at that a month. He then put
me at running an engine in a saw-mill, and I stayed
until that was done, and I sent my money home
and went to Mafeking, Manitoba, and cooked there
for a while, and then went freighting on the Lakes

106 YESTERDAY AND TODAY IN CANADA

as a fisherman. I was at that for a while, and then
went with some half-breeds and Indians trapping
and hunting farther north, and I have been mostly
with them since. I came to Alberta, and have had
quite a time with them and experience. This
winter I am on my homestead, and I think there
is nothing like the north-west. Of course, every
country has its drawbacks in a way. There is
great profit in farming and ranching, but the trouble
is the people don't study the thing and don't work
at it steadily enough ; but I like the north-west.
The land is good, and the water is good spring
water, also good roads everywhere, lots of wood
too, and all kinds of bears and all kinds of game,
small and big. There is coal, and gold has been
found in Vermilion, Alta. All that is wanted is
people to settle the country. It is going ahead
fast. I don't believe I have seen any country going
ahead so fast, and the best grain I have ever seen
was in Alberta, and the best cattle and sweetest
beef I have ever seen and tasted. It is the best
country for rich and poor, as long as they are good
workers, like I am myself. — Yours truly,

"Joseph Flook (21)."

"Wetaskiwan, Alta.
M I was glad to receive your welcome letter, and
am writing to let you know how I am getting along
in the wild and woolly west. It was a long way
from civilisation twelve years ago, but it is a good
country now. I tell you things have changed a lot

ALBERTA 107

since then, and I have changed a lot too, for I have
grown much bigger. I bought some property this
summer, and am proud of it. I am working in the
Wetaskiwan Bottling Works, and have been here
since the 15th of December. The people I work
for are Germans. I always work for a German. I
like them. Some way or other they are good to
get along with. My brother, Willie, is not here
any more ; he is down in Montana, a cowboy, and
I haven't seen or heard from him except one post-
card. I will send the long letter after Christmas,
about my twelve years' experience. Wishing you
a happy New Year, I remain, one of Dr. Barnardo's
boys, Chas. H. Brown (21)."

Recent Letter from Settler in Alberta.

"We have now proved up on our homesteads, and
we can sell or do as we like with them. However,
we have no intention at present of parting with
them ; as a matter of fact we are on the look-out
for another, as Government offers any homestead
eligible to any one who has proved up on his first
homestead, on his paying three dollars per acre —
is. 3d. at date of entry and the balance in five
equal annual instalments, with interest at 5 per cent.
. . . Hay is getting scarcer every year, for as land
gets taken up one gets pretty much confined to one's
own section. The railway has not come our way
yet, and eighteen miles is just a little too far for
grain hauling, though there is good money in it

108 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

too. Last season was the best since I came to the
country, and has helped the people all round and
encouraged the cultivation of land. We expect to
get the telephone to our place from town this
summer. It will be a great convenience ; costs
twelve dollars per year. . . . What about your poli-
tical opinions now ? I trust you have had the sense
to remain Unionist and Tariff Reformer, and have
not been carried away by the windy and visionary
utterances of the party (or rather conglomeration of
parties) which calls itself Liberal. How the mischief
can they expect people to exist if they allow all
importation of foreign manufactured goods duty
free? How can they expect the factories in Britain
to remain open when such is allowed ? It is all very
well to say you get things cheaper, but what is
the use of that if it means a closing down of works
giving employment to thousands who will be forced
to turn their attention to something else or starve?
The outcry against a small tariff on wheat is only an
appeal to the ignorant and illiterate voter who is
ready to swallow anything if he is told the landed
interest will benefit."

It will not be long before the only difficulty in
the settlement of some of the lands in the south-
west part of Alberta is conquered. This difficulty
is the dryness of this corner. The riders on the
plain, when they see the little carpet cactus, like a
little thistle plant, growing on the prairie sward,
know that it is a si^n that there is not sufficient

ALBERTA 109

water there to make the soil rival Manitoba,
and that some of the aridity which discourages
settlement in the United States to the south of the
border to so great an extent, and has caused the
settlers there to " pull up stakes " and go north
into Canada, exists in a very minor degree near the
frontier. But this can easily be obviated by a little
engineering in damming up the abundant waters
that flow from the Rockies. The Bow and the
Belly Rivers are bright, swift streams, the parent
sources of the Missouri and the Mississippi, and to
dam them at convenient spots affords security of a
supply of any amount of water. The trout fishing
will be better than ever, and that is saying a great
deal, when the " barrages " make lakes ten or twenty
miles long in the foothills, and one company alone
is preparing to irrigate a quarter of a million of
acres. A godson of the novelist Gait, and a son
of the first High Commissioner of Canada to Great
Britain — Sir Alexander Gait — was one of the first
to devise plans and to bring in the best labourers
for irrigation. These were the men who had done
more of that kind of work than any others in
America — namely, the Mormons of Ogden and
Salt Lake City. When they came to Canada they
left behind them their " peculiar institutions," and
came to make happy homes and law-abiding, indus-
trious communities, skilled in the peculiar labour
which they had practised in the arid deserts of the
central plains of the continent. The results have
already been marvellous, and it is difficult to reach

no YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the limit to the application of this mountain water
to the more thirsty districts. Wherever the streams
have been brought, very heavy crops are raised.
Most of the country does not require irrigation.
Farmer and rancher find that the moisture in most
parts is sufficient, but the nearer they are to the
sure supply of the streams, the less chance there
is of any false calculation in regard to stock and
crop.

Spring Wheat. — But spring wheat is the great
stand-by of the prairie farmer. The best-known
variety is " Red Fife." It suits the conditions well,
and seems to hold the field in most districts against
all other varieties. Practical experience in Canada
has satisfied most men that a few standard varieties
of grain of proved utility are better than a lot of
new ones, and that the best results are obtained
through improving the reliable varieties by careful
selection. The labour bill per acre for the first
crop, in addition to the breaking and harrowing,
is as follows : —

Seeding $0.50

Harrowing twice ....... 0.35

Seed — 1 \ bushels @ say 90 cents per bushel . 1.35

Cutting, say, 19 bushels 0.40

Twine 0.30

Stooking 0.20

Board of men and hauling grain .... 0.05

Threshing— 19 bushels @ 7 cents per bushel . 1.33

Together . . . $4.48

The above figures have not only been carefully
verified, but they were obtained by the Commission

ALBERTA in

from a farm manager once in the employment of
one of them, who has been farming in Canada for
the past few years, and they may be accepted as
the maximum expenditure. It will be seen that the
expense of the first crop amounts to $10.43. The
expense of the subsequent crop will be $6.33,
because, instead of having to break up the prairie
at a cost of $5.95 per acre, the farmer has only to
break up his stubble at a cost of $1.85. The profit
depends a good deal on the price of wheat. We
shall take it at 80 cents. It has been much lower,
and it has been much higher, but as the tendency
for a considerable period of years is more likely to
be up than down, we think no objection will be
taken to the figure. The result is an apparent
profit of $4.77 per acre the first year, and $8.87
per acre the second year. It is, however, only
apparent, for we have not yet deducted interest on
the capital invested in land and stock and fencing,
nor the keep of men and horses during the period
of the year when their labour is not necessary for
the production of the wheat crop.

Cheese Factories and Creameries. — In connection
with the spread of these factories, it is impossible to
praise too highly the work of the Government. It
has been most conspicuous in the past in Prince
Edward Island, and is best seen to-day in operation
in Alberta. Space may be taken to give a con-
densed account of what is being done in that pro-
vince. Forty-three creameries and seven cheese
factories are at work, twenty-one of the former

ii2 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

being under Government supervision. These cream-
eries are set agoing in the following way. When a
desire arises among the farmers of a district to have
a creamery, those interested approach Mr. Marker,
the Dairy Commissioner for Alberta. He informs
them that he can help them if they fulfil the con-
ditions of the " Dairyman's Act." They must there-
fore guarantee the milk from at least 400 cows ; they
must consent to be registered — free of expense — as
a trading association ; they must subscribe funds
for the erection of a suitable building, and for other
purposes, and their committee must become re-
sponsible for the performance of certain duties,
including the haulage of cream from the farms.
The Government, on its side, is prepared to lend
money up to $1500 for equipment, at the low
interest of 3 per cent. ; to have that equipment
bought and erected by a skilled man ; and to
appoint a butterman to take charge. When butter
is made it is taken to the Government Cold Storage
at Calgary, and in due time is sold, still by Govern-
ment officials, to supply the needs of Vancouver,
the Yukon, or the Orient. The ordinary charge
made for the manufacture of butter, whether in
Government or other creameries, is 4 cents a pound.
The use of the Cold Store is granted without
charge, but the material used and the outlay in-
curred in refrigerating has to be paid for. Thus the
Government, at a very small outlay, encourages the
development of an industry that is suitable for the
country; it insures the establishment of creameries

ALBERTA 113

on sound and safe business lines ; and it provides
for the production of the best butter that the country
can make.

Of the wonderful change made in men's fortune
in a few years' time, one might recount endless
examples. I will cite only one as within my own
experience. At a certain place on the Hebridean
west coast, two brothers were fishermen, and
having nothing but their boat, their little house on
shore, and a potato patch, were hard put to make
their living. At very low tides they found the big
red crabs which make such good food. They had
lobster traps out, and visited them whenever the
weather permitted ; but often winds were strong and
fish were scarce. One of the brothers was helped
to go out and try his luck in Canada. It was some
time before I again visited the place, where the
other still remained, still engaged at his old occupa-
tion of fisherman. Asked what news he had of
the other, he replied, " Oh, he's yet in Canada."
"Where?" "He's at a place they call Calgary."
"That interests me much, for when I was at Cal-
gary we camped there for three days, fished for
trout, and caught many, but never caught sight of a
single man," I replied. " Oh, there's plenty of men
now. There's 30,000 of them, my brother tells
me." "And what is he doing?" "He's ranch-
ing." " Then he's a cowboy, I suppose ? " " 'Deed
no, he's cowboys of his own." "How's that?"
" Oh, he's got a ranch of his own, and about 200
head of cattle on it."

H

ii4 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

The Scottish Agricultural Commissioners of
1908 report good cattle were seen. In Alberta,
especially about MacLeod, Cardston, Red Deer,
Lacombe, Calgary, and Edmonton, some very good
herds of Shorthorns and Herefords were visited,
and some of the individual animals seen were not
only useful but very superior, indicating skill and
energy on the part of their owners in having pro-
duced in so young a country such good results.

Of the cattle trade of British Columbia very
little can be said, though cattle-raising was alleged
to have been at one time a chief industry in the
province. It was not a very prominent feature in
the parts of the province visited. Some good cattle
were seen on the Fraser River Valley and Delta.
But at present a large part of the beef supply
required for the province is imported from Alberta.
With a moist climate, suitable for the growth of
grass, fodder, and roots, and a mild winter, there is
no reason, as the province develops, why the cattle
industry should not attain very much larger pro-
portions.

Cattle Feeding. — The feeding and foods of the
cattle are naturally regulated by the climate, and as
it differs very much from the insular type we are
accustomed to, so also do the foods required and the
modes of feeding differ from ours. The moisture
and heat of spring and early summer induce a
greater growth in a shorter time than we are accus-
tomed to, and give abundance of grass for pasture
and abundance of growth for forage plants. The

ALBERTA 115

succeeding dry period allows of the making of these
forage plants into excellent hay. When the drought
is severe, there must be occasionally a temporary
scarcity of pasture, and it then becomes necessary
to have recourse to some of the deeper-rooting
plants such as lucerne, vetches, red clover, green
maize or green oats, and cabbages. Thousand-
headed kale do not seem to be extensively grown,
but might be useful at this season. On the com-
paratively rainless prairie, the grasses during this
dry period seem withered and dead, but even in
that state appear not only to be able to support life,
but to put both cattle and horses into prime con-
dition ; a considerable area, however, is required —
some of 20 or 30 acres for each animal — but " room "
is not a scarce commodity in some parts of Canada.
Where the rainfall is greater or more evenly dis-
tributed, turnips and mangolds can be very success-
fully grown, and when this is the case there is little
difficulty in seeing the stock safely through the
winter, with the help of the hay previously made
and some grain or other artificial food. Over a
large area, and especially in Western Ontario, the
place of roots is taken by silage, made of chopped
green maize, of which a great crop can be grown
per acre.

Both fall and spring wheat are grown on the
prairie. Fall wheat is for the most part confined to
the semi-arid region in southern Alberta, which was
once, and that not long ago, given up to the rancher,
because it was considered too dry for wheat-raising.

u6 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

It was found, however, that the moisture, if not
abundant, was, when properly conserved, sufficient,
and that the comparative mildness of the winter
made it possible to grow fall wheat. Little pro-
gress, however, was made, till the introduction a
few years ago of "Alberta Red." In 1902, 3444
acres were sown. In 1908, the area under fall
wheat in Alberta alone was 101,000 acres. Sowing
begins in July or August. The wheat grows to a
height of 6 or 8 inches in the autumn. It remains
in the ground for a whole year. Its longer life
enables the roots to penetrate farther into the soil
both in search of food and water, and it produces a
heavier and an earlier crop than spring wheat.

Alberta's advance in education may be judged
from Dr. Tory's account of the Alberta University,
of which he is principal. He expects the province
to develop as rapidly as did Ontario between the
years of 1850 and 1900, and says that if the
present influx of settlers continues, there will not
be a vacant homestead south of the Saskatchewan
River in four or five years. Speaking of the college
to which he went as principal after a considerable
period as professor of mathematics at McGill Uni-
versity, Dr. Tory said —

" The State University of Alberta commenced
work last fall with a freshman class of forty-five
students, most of whom are the sons of Ontario
farmers who have settled in Alberta. We are at pre-
sent working in rented quarters, but our first building,
which is being designed with an eye to future needs

ALBERTA 117

at a cost of $300,000, will be ready for occupation in a
few months. We began last year with faculties of
arts and science, and it is intended to give a course
in agriculture, and in four or five years expect to
have enrolled at least five hundred students."

As to emigration, Dr. Tory said that almost all
of the men who came in had been on the land
before, and in most cases were well off. English
and Scotch were especially welcome. "There is
also great activity in railway development," said
Dr. Tory. " Beside the Great Northern, the
Canadian Pacific Railway, and the Grand Trunk
Pacific, there is a recently chartered road, the Great
Waterway Railway, about to be constructed by an
independent company. The new road is expected
to carry communication 400 miles north from
Edmonton to Fort McMurray, where it will connect
with the great chain of river and lake navigation
and open up the great Peace River tract. Up
there are extensive forests and wheat tracts."

As an illustration he mentioned that the single
riding of Medicine Hat, in the western province of
Alberta, in Canada, had an area of fertile soil
sufficient to grow 200,000,000 bushels of wheat
annually. In Great Britain and Ireland we grew
50,000,000 bushels last year, and we imported
150,000,000 bushels more. Medicine Hat could
supply all the wheat we required. He was aware
that we also imported a certain quantity of flour,
but it was safe to say that two of their constituencies
could give Great Britain and Ireland all the bread

u8 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

they ate in a year. That would give them some
idea of the possibilities of the Dominion of Canada.
Of late we have heard much of the main-
tenance of British power as a vital necessity for
Canada as for the rest of the Empire. British
power is the safeguard of Canadian autonomy and
of the free British institutions that are Canada's
most cherished possession. Now, power is, after
all, a matter of men and money, and especially
men. Are Canadians satisfied that all is as it
should and might be, in this matter of the new men
who are bringing the new Canada of the west into
the national life? We turn to Mr. Oliver's last
report, and we find that during the past twelve
years the immigration of British origin was 487,720
souls, as against a non-British immigration of
732,022. The new homesteaders in the west are
preponderatingly non-British. About one-half of
this non-British immigration of the past twelve
years has come from the United States, and the
Deputy Minister speaks of it as "the most satis-
factory feature of the immigration," in view of
the "splendid character and quality" of these
newcomers from the United States. Out of
the 58,312 United States immigrants of last year,
no fewer than 48,000 took up free homesteads,
and most of the rest purchased land and went
into farming, while the actual cash they brought
into Canada in one year was about $52,000,000.
Every Canadian and every friend of Canada wel-
comes this sturdy addition to Canada's population,

ALBERTA 119

and believes that it must and will strengthen the
political stability and welfare of the country. But
it is not to be supposed that immigrants from the
Republic, however desirable, will have the same
regard for British institutions as those who are of
direct descent. In 1909 the estimate of the number
of the American immigrants is 80,000. Lord Grey
spoke of these men as only repaying part of the
debt the United States owes to Canada, a country
that sent 40,000 men to fight in the Northern
armies to maintain the union of the United States
against Southern secession. The spirit in which
these immigrants have taken their place among the
ranks of Canadian citizens warrants that they will
be true to the free institutions of the northland,
which welcomes them most cordially, and believes
that they will prove themselves to be bone of her
bone, and flesh of her flesh.

CHAPTER IX

ATHABASCA

The Resources of the Great Northlands1

" The great central division of Canada, called the
Empire of the North, in dealing with the north-
ward flight of scientific agriculture, is indeed a
country of strange potentialities, as well as a
region strangely misunderstood and largely mis-
represented. That this great empire of the north
has in itself untold wealth in its vast agricultural
resources one will admit ; that it possesses one
of the greatest systems of inland navigation, com-
prising a total length of over 3500 miles of river
and lake, is evident, but the statement that this
region is immensely rich in minerals, fisheries, and
timber may perhaps be questioned.

" While little is known yet of the extent of the
mineral wealth of this region, enough has been
discovered to predict enormous deposits of varied
character, and although no systematic examinations
have yet been made, and the extent not generally
known, we are certain that mineral wealth does
exist in large quantities. Gold is found in practi-
cally all of the mountain streams, and the upper

1 By Fredk. S. Lawrence, F.R.G.S.

ATHABASCA 121

Peace, known to be extremely rich in places, is
not worked owing to difficulty of access. Silver,
copper, and iron are found in quantities. Marl, for
manufacture of cement, brick clay, building stone,
and limestone are common. Valuable medicinal
springs are reported. Platinum, mercury, and mica
have been discovered. Sand suitable for the manu-
facture of the best grades of glass is plentiful.
Pure gypsum in veins of 15 feet in thickness is
exposed to view on the lower Peace River. Salt
is found in large quantities on the surface of the
ground near Fort Smith, Northern Alberta, in-
dicating a mountain of salt, out of which the streams
flow which deposit the salt on the plains below.
This salt is simply shovelled off the ground, and is
used without any refining process whatever, and
is not only fit for table use, but has been proved by
analysis to be equal to the best quality of standard
table salt used in Europe or America. About
250 miles south of this, rock salt 150 feet in thick-
ness was discovered at a depth of 830 feet below
the surface. Coal is found on practically all of the
streams from the Rockies to within 300 miles of
Hudson Bay, and from the international boundary
to the Arctic Ocean. These outcroppings are
found in seams varying from 6 inches to 28 feet
in thickness, and represent all grades — lignite, bitu-
minous, and anthracite coal ; the latest discoveries
being those of anthracite on the Peace River.

" Near Pincher Creek, in southern Alberta, last
year oil was struck in large quantities, which was

122 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

pronounced by the Standard Oil explorer to be the
finest quality known. Crude petroleum is found in
hundreds of places all through this vast northern
territory along the Athabasca, Peace, and Mackenzie
Rivers, and there is every evidence that we have in
western and north-western Canada the largest oil-
fields in the world. It will doubtless be some satis-
faction to some of our eastern capitalists to learn
that they no longer need to go to Texas to get
soaked in oil. Their money, being used to foster
home enterprises, instead of foreign, will ultimately
come back to their own pockets, instead of into the
pockets of the Texas promoters.

" What is said to be the largest gas well in the
world was struck at a depth of 860 feet eleven years
ago at the Pelican Rapids, on the Athabasca River,
by the Government, who were boring there for oil.
The tremendous flow of gas stopped their work,
and, thinking that it would exhaust itself, they waited
a year, then went back to resume drilling operations.
It was not only escaping then, but has been ever
since. It has been lighted, and the roar of flames
which shot up into the air from 60 to 80 feet could
be heard for a mile. No effort has as yet been
made to check this enormous waste, and it would
be difficult to estimate the tremendous loss that
this means to the country. I believe that it would
be money well spent to plug up this hole and
prevent further loss. Perhaps it is thought that
we have such a quantity of gas in our northern
country that we can afford to let it waste. About

ATHABASCA

123

400 miles distant from this gas well I boiled my
camp kettle over a gas spring which I found
bubbling out of the ground. One can scarcely
realise the immense economic value of these vast
deposits of fuel and energy, underlying as they do
thousands upon thousands of square miles of terri-
tory, as in these deposits alone Canada has in her
north-western possessions a heritage of priceless
value.

"Though it may not appear so at first sight,
one of the most interesting mineral deposits is the
immense asphalt field of the Athabasca district.
When we make the statement that it is without
question the largest deposit in the world, we do so
only after full knowledge and careful study of the
facts of the case. The deposit in question covers
an area of over 1000 square miles, and the amount
of pure bitumen in this territory is estimated by
geologists at the modest figure of 4,000,700,000,000
tons. Trinidad has supplied about 85 per cent, of
the bitumen used in the United States and Canada,
amounting approximately to 80,000 tons per annum.
Allowing that 80,000 tons have been used every
year for, say, thirty years, or 2,400,000 tons, Atha-
basca could have supplied the full amount, and
would still have left 4,676,000,000 tons. Consider
that during the past twenty years the United States
and Canada have expended over $125,000,000 in
asphalt paving alone, then imagine where our cold,
uninviting northland would have stood to-day had
it been used as the source from which this supply

1 24 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

was obtained. It has been claimed by some that
this deposit is not asphalt. It is asphalt, the simple,
crude material, being a hydro-carbon of an asphaltic
base, and which may be found from a liquid to
a solid state. Bituminous paving rarely contains
over 10 per cent, of bitumen, and the life of the
pavement has nothing to do with the particular
state of the native deposit. The life of the pave-
ment does depend upon the percentage of bitumen
used ; the proper proportioning of the ingredients
and the skill employed in, not only the manufacture,
but its application to the street. Many towns of
some importance are putting up with muddy streets,
and some of our larger cities are putting up with
muddy lanes and alleys, so we can but conclude
that the paving industry is just in its infancy. The
opening up of this vast source of paving material
right at our own doors, in our own country, is
bound to prove of incalculable benefit to this nation.
" But this part of Athabasca, though larger than
all of Manitoba, is not the only part of this northern
district in which asphalt is found. It is found
hundreds of miles to the westward, along the Peace
River, and hundreds of miles north on the Mac-
kenzie. It is found welling up in the woods, oozing
out through crevices in rocks, sluggishly flowing
over a river bank, or bubbling up in some muskeg.
The timber industry is destined to play an important
part in the opening up of this country. There is a
large amount of timber, large enough for the manu-
facture of lumber, found on all these streams flowing

ATHABASCA 125

eastward out of the Rocky Mountains, as well as on
the Pacific slope, and along all the lakes and rivers.
Spruce which measures 2 feet in diameter is found
even as far north as the delta of the Mackenzie
River. On the Peace and Athabasca River low-
lands, and on the islands, it is found up to 4 feet
4 inches in diameter, and to 140 feet in height.
On the highlands it seldom exceeds 2 feet in dia-
meter, but, like the poplar, it carries its size up well.
Cottonwoods are frequently found measuring 5 feet
in diameter, and poplar up to 2^ feet. There are
millions of cords of pulpwood. Poplar and birch
affect the higher land, and the spruce and hemlock
the valleys. Poplar can be largely used for com-
mercial purposes ; when sawed it makes excellent
flooring, and the smaller sizes make excellent pulp-
wood. The white poplar in the north is different
from the poplar in the east, being finer grained, and
a larger tree."

These are the words of a personal witness of
the resources he describes.

CHAPTER X

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE

OTTAWA^ January 6, 1910.
An important address was delivered by Sir Wilfrid
Laurier in Toronto on the occasion of the formal
opening of the Ontario Club, the new social
headquarters of the Liberal party in the pro-
vince.

In his speech the Premier dealt almost ex-
clusively with Canada's naval policy. He said
that many nations in the Old World had gone
war-mad. Canada's unexampled and splendid
position of being a nation under the British
Crown had founded new problems — the newest
problem being that of defence. The Parliament
of Canada had unanimously declared that the time
had come when Canada should bear a share of the
burden entailed by the defence of the Empire.
There were questions of the security of commerce,
the protection of Canada's coasts, and the warranty
which Canada's actions would give of trying to
secure the peace of the world, because all nations
knew that Canada did not desire any aggrandise-
ment, and did not seek any other object than the

126

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 127

defence of her own interests. This was what
Canada meant when Parliament unanimously re-
solved upon forming the nucleus of a Canadian
navy.

Germany and Great Britain.

Some Canadians wanted an immediate contribu-
tion to the British navy, the reason for their
urgency being that danger of invasion by Germany
was imminent. In 191 2 the British navy would
have a displacement of more than 2,000,000 tons,
and the German navy of about 1,000,000 tons.
This disparity was too great to justify the state-
ment that danger was imminent. He knew some-
thing about the position in Germany, but there
were some things which he did not know. He did
not know what might be at the back of the head of
the German Emperor. It might be that he was
preparing for war ; it might be that he was pre-
paring for an attack. But if the German Emperor
was true to his own words, if blood was thicker
than water, then he (Sir Wilfrid Laurier) doubted
very much whether it was the Emperor's intention
to attack the royal family from which he sprang.
He had no hesitation in saying that the German
people would not favour such an attack if it did
not accord with their traditions. He could well
conceive that the Germans had a score to wipe
out with France, because the armies of France had
overridden those of Germany time and again in
Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, and Austria.

128 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

The Position of Canada.

The Premier continued: "In all these wars
England was by the side of Germany, and when
Germany was humiliated by France, by Napoleon,
it was England's alliance with Germany that saved
her. I cannot believe that these things have been
forgotten, and if there be war I have only this to
say, that in Canada we maintain that the naval
supremacy of Great Britain is essential to the
security of commerce. It is a pledge to the world,
and if England is in danger — I cannot believe she is
in danger, but if she be strongly pressed — all I can
say is that there will be a wave of sentiment all over
Canada to go to the rescue of the Old Land. But,
however, we will not be stampeded by any words
of that kind. We must prepare our own navy. We
must do it in our own way. This is the position we
take, and I think it will be approved by the people
of Canada."

Naval Defence.

A few years have made a great difference in
the views held by our dominions on the subject
of naval defence. Formerly it was held as a
matter of course that all naval defence would be
undertaken by the mother country, the utmost
that might be expected of the Colonial Govern-
ments being that they might encourage enlistment
in the British navy of their fishermen and coast

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 129

people. The defence of the great lakes had long
ago been wisely left by international treaty to a
mere police force of small gunboats ; but in the
11 nineties " came a change. The old country
thought the time had come for Canada to take over
the garrison work at the ports of Halifax on
the Atlantic, and Esquimalt on the Pacific coast.
The regular garrisons were withdrawn, and these
ports became no longer the headquarters of ships
of war more or less attached to these harbours.
Before this change took place, and before the
regrets of the maritime provinces were sought
to be assuaged by the declaration that large
squadrons instead of single ships should visit often
the apparently deserted waters, any suggestion of
the inception of a Canadian navy was laughed
at. In 1 88 1 a suggestion had been made that
it would be a good thing to get a warship over
from England, and to station her at Halifax,
where she might serve as a training vessel for
gunnery and naval exercises for the dwellers
along the eastern coasts. Lord Northbrook, then
at the Admiralty, did send over the Chmybdis>
an old flush-deck corvette, for this purpose. At
once there was a cry of derision raised in the
papers of the eastern provinces against this
" commencement of Canada's infant navy." It
was at first difficult to surmise what this opposi-
tion meant. It turned out that the derision was
only an emphatic protest against a nightmare
which had frightened most of the schoolmasters,

130 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

and therefore many of the editors of the provincial
newspapers, causing them to believe that the
navigation classes, instituted in the schools for
the proper education of the mercantile marine,
were to be interfered with, by the institution of
a rival nautical academy on board the unfortunate
Charybdis. This was enough to raise the laugh
at the inefficiency of the vessel, which certainly
would have been useless in fight, but useful for
gunnery and other training. The Charybdis was
not sunk under the hail of gibes, but was igno-
miniously sent back to be broken up in the old
country. But now it became evident that as
Canada had become possessed of great trans-
continental railways, so she would also not be
content with her great tonnage in small vessels,
but would be expected to do something to guard
the waterways to Quebec and Sydney and Halifax
and St. John's, on the one side of her possessions,
and Vancouver, Esquimalt, and Nanaimo on the
other side of the continent. Fast cruisers to co-
operate with the British fleet in their heavy task of
guarding all ocean routes, and heavy armaments
for the defence of the base ports, from which
naval operations must be conducted, were seen to
be undertakings she owed to her own dignity and
her place as one of the rising world powers.

Nor was it only among the eastern or western
maritime populations that the interest in the
possession of powers of defence at sea arose.
The people in the central regions of the continent

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 131

knew that their markets depended on this great
factor of co-operation with the mother country.
They showed the keenest sympathy. Sir William
White, for so long chief constructor of the navy,
spoke at many meetings in 1909 on the subject,
and found audiences who listened eagerly. It was
a repetition of the experiences of France, many
of whose ablest naval officers came from provinces
that had no seaboard, and whose people had never
gazed on the ocean. Why ? Because La Perouse,
the famous navigator of over two centuries past,
had come from central France, and his name had
fired the imagination of his provincials. So men in
Canada, or who had come from the United States of
America into Canada to settle there, knew the tales of
the old deeds of their forefathers on the sea, and
knew also what is the fate of those who neglect to
train for its empire, and avowed themselves Cana-
dian navy men. Sir Wilfrid Laurier, ever foremost
to lead his countrymen in large ideas, has not hesi-
tated to show that in his opinion the young nation
he serves so admirably will not allow herself to be
backward in honourable endeavour. The country
recognises that great efforts may be necessary to
preserve intact her sea-borne trade, as well as
to guard her overland routes. The Press has
seriously concerned itself with discussions as to
the best manner of carrying out a policy of con-
cert for defence. The great navy of Britain must
necessarily act in heavy squadrons, and most of
the old country's striking force must be centred at

132 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the point of greatest importance, namely, in waters
where rival fleets are most formidable. While
a Council of Defence must also have its head-
quarters in London, the naval and military needs
of the oversea dominions can be fully represented
on the Council. The advice of the Defence
Council will be followed, giving full powers of
concerted command to colonial officers. The ships
will for a time be built in Britain, and paid for by
colonial treasuries, and will be officered by men who
have had the training, or the like training, of the
imperial navy. In time naval education will be
given in the Colonies. Meanwhile full advantage
can be taken of the colleges at Osborne and Dart-
mouth. If colonial officers are to be preferred for
colonial-paid ships, it will be as necessary to have
a Canadian naval college as it has been found ad-
visable to have a military college at Kingston, in
the province of Ontario. Each young nation is
naturally and laudably ambitious to have her troops
or seamen led by their own officers. Once such
colleges are at work, they educate not only for
Canadian or Australasian forces, but also for the
old country's service, just as even now Sir Percy
Girouard is a Kingston cadet, and the names of
MacDonald and others are known in the imperial
navy as sons of Canadian senators or public men.
Separate provision for adequate military or naval
training in peace time is in no way antagonistic to
undivided command in time of war. The Defence
Council, assisted by colonial experience, would

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 133

indicate the commander of a united force in the
man of the greatest and most generally accepted
professional reputation. The colonial ships, under
their own officers and manned by their own crews,
could always guard their trade ports and guard
communications at sea, and could take their
place in the battle line in any combined operation
for which they felt they were strong enough.
Much money and much time will be necessary to
make thoroughly efficient the necessary docks. At
present it is proposed to have one for summer use
at Quebec, and one for winter use at St. John's,
capable of taking in large vessels. There are other
sites which are tempting, such as Gaspe, near the
mouth of the Bay of Chaleurs, in the province of
Quebec, and Halifax, which latter harbour is always
open, and has not the tremendous tides of the Bay
of Fundy. But at Gaspe or at Sydney, in Nova
Scotia, there are in winter considerable accumu-
lations of ice-floes, and an ice-breaker steamer
would probably be required to be kept in constant
work during most winters. Halifax and St. John's
would require no ice-breaking craft. On the
Pacific, besides Esquimalt or Nanaimo, at which
last place are great coal-mines, harbours could be
made impregnable at several places along the sea,
which is never troubled with any ice. With the sea
and islands to the west and a sea of mountains
easily capable of fortification to the east, places of
strength far safer than Port Arthur could be made
into naval bases at comparatively short notice.

134 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Military Defence.

The Canadian means to be fully prepared to
defend, through land forces as well as naval forces,
the young nation which owns the most healthy
portion of the North American continent, and has
the best legal organisation for justice and the
freedom of the citizen, and best climate to assist
him in securing the country against the invasion of
an enemy. Napoleon's march to Moscow would
be repeated were an invasion to be attempted.
Communications could be destroyed, and the
invader left to the winter and starvation. In-
terior lines of traffic are constantly increasing in
number. Before long it is likely that there will be
the summer route to James Bay through Hudson
Straits. The wealth of the country in products,
men, and material is constantly increasing, making
the storage of food and other supplies more easy
at spots difficult for an invader to reach. But the
best defence of all is that no power at present
thinks of invasion. We are the best friends of
the Japanese and Chinese, whose countless hosts,
drilled on European models, and carried by in-
vincible fleets, are supposed to be able to carry
all before them. But Canada has now for more
than a generation held the ambition to be not
only self-sufficing against an invader, but also
to be able to send a contingent to fight for the
mother country if the old land be in peril, and

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 135

has resolved that her troops, whether kept for
home defence or also partly for co-operation
overseas, shall be troops worthy of her. It was
with the purpose of insuring that good leading
shall be given to stout hearts that Kingston
College was founded. At first there was some
grumbling, as must always be the case when any
new project is undertaken by the Government of
any free country. The newly appointed Minister
of Militia went to the Governor-General and said
he really could not propose to the House of
Commons the necessary vote of 60,000 dollars.
Why? Oh, it was unnecessary, and there were
no places for the cadets when they had passed
through the College, and no call in the country
for the institution. It was represented to this
gentleman, who must have been suffering for the
moment from the depressing consequences of over-
work at his election, that the United States of
America found no difficulty in an over-provision of
trained officers when they left West Point, and that
the cadets there found that their training was greatly
to their advantage in entering many professions in
civil life if they could not find places in the regular
army or among the State troops. Besides, what
would the old country think of the Canadians if they
took no steps to let their men "put in a proper
appearance " on great occasions ? The Minister was
one of the best of men, and he went back to his
colleagues, and the Cabinet fully sanctioned his
request for the vote. It was asked for in the

136 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

House of Commons, and there was not one dis-
sentient voice recorded against the continuation
of the support which had been originally voted
for the maintenance of this brain centre of the
Canadian army.

The one evil which is alleged against the
Canadian militia system is that the appointments
to command are made too often with reference to
politics. Failing a plan by which effective service
can be constantly measured impartially, this is an
inevitable fault, which will lessen as its consequences
are seen. Certainly the higher commands have been
well bestowed. The favour shown to local heroes of
the elections has been the cause of British officers'
remonstrances when regular officers from the old
country have been placed over the militia, being
the cause of offence. It is best that these ex-
posures of faults in rewarding political services with
military promotion should come from Canadian
military authorities, who will know when and
where any remonstrances will best tell. When
they only excite irritation, it is doubtful if the
service or the good feeling towards the regulars
is increased. There was too much in the old days
of the feeling among the British at home that their
training and stores also were necessarily better than
any. Thus when it was first proposed to start a
small-arms ammunition factory at Quebec, remon-
strances came from Woolwich and from the Horse
Guards Office in Pall Mall, saying it was nonsense
and unnecessary expense to begin the manufacture

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 137

of cartridges in Canada, which could much better
be supplied from home. It was forgotten that
stores might not be kept in great quantities for a
campaign, and that during some months of winter
it might be difficult to replenish them. Now both
rifles and ammunition are excellently made in
Canada, and it is possible to have large stores of
both in the country in suitable places, making the
Dominion's defence much stronger than if it relied
only on British supplies.

To those who have seen the Canadian militia
at work, those matters of tact and conduct will
seem small, for nothing can be better than the
appearance of the men, and nothing more strik-
ing than their willingness to do all that can be
demanded of man. With the number of officers now
available who have passed through the Kingston
mill, any laxities would be promptly detected and
corrected in times of emergency, when the troops
in the field would be the first to distinguish, and
make their Government distinguish, the good from
the poor metal in the matter of efficiency of the
officers. From the days of the little Fenian raids
at Ridgway near Niagara, of the half-breed risings
in 1870 at Winnipeg and 1885 at Batoche, to the
days of the African War and the last review
before the Prince of Wales at Quebec, there has
been a rapid improvement in all branches, and on
every occasion the militia have not only done well,
but have greatly distinguished themselves. Faults
there have been, but they are faults that the country

138 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

will fully provide against, and they do not wish to
rival in one respect the ancient repute of their
British comrades, who used in the old days to be
called an army of liars led by asses. The drilling
in schools and the celebration of Empire Day
keeps before the eyes of the boys the great world
Power of which they are citizens, and the value
and honour of the Empire they must guard. The
recognition in ordered ceremonial of the flag which
is the symbol of the mighty union of free nations
reminds them of the history of the heroes who
have given life and won immortal fame in placing
that flag wherever wave foams or land breezes
blow. It is no empty boast that they are the
youth of Freedom's vanguard. On them depends
the keeping of the most beneficent federation
history has known. Every lad in Canada learns
this, and every lad will do his duty to land and
Empire whenever the call may come.

Speech by Mr. Brodeur.

Mr. Brodeur, in reply to the toast " Our
Dominion," pointed out that the manufactured
goods of Canada had increased from $221,617,773
in 1 87 1 to $718,352,603 in 1906, the increase from
1 90 1 to 1906 being at the rate of 66 per cent. At
the same time exports of manufactured goods had
enormously increased, from $4,161,282 in 1888 to
$28,507,124 in 1908, more than doubling in the last
ten years.

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 139

With all this development of trade, Mr. Bordeur
argued that, with the present improved water routes,
the time was ripe for an increase in Canada's ship-
building trade, which had in the old wooden-ship
days been very important. That had dropped, but
with the increase in Canada's iron and steel in-
dustries the time had again come when the raw
material of shipbuilding for modern vessels was at
hand. A splendid opportunity for this develop-
ment was given by the coming establishment of the
Canadian Naval Service.

" It seems," said Mr. Brodeur, "that a Canadian
navy is to be built very soon — why should it not be
built in this country ? "

Sketching the history of the naval movement,
Mr. Brodeur showed it took three phases. First,
the creation of a Canadian naval service. Second,
that owing to our constitutional relations with the
Empire, periodical contributions to the navy could
not be permitted. But, thirdly, that in case of
emergency Canada would be ready to make any
sacrifice to maintain the honour and integrity of the
Empire.

" The defence of our territory and protection of
our trade are part of our national duties," said Mr.
Brodeur. " We must make all necessary provisions
for that defence and that protection, and the sugges-
tion that an election should take place on that naval
programme should be considered as a slur upon the
people — that they are not alive to the fulfilment of
those obligations. When we formulate the wish to

140 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

maintain the honour and integrity of the British
Empire, does that necessitate a formal mandate
from the people ? We are all happy to live under
the British flag, and to be a part of that mighty
Empire which has done so much for the civilisation
and peace of the world, and for the two great causes
of freedom and liberty. As a nation we control our
affairs the way we like. We negotiate our own
commercial treaties. No political treaty affecting
Canada is made without the consent of the Canadian
Government. We therefore have powers and privi-
leges. We have also obligations and responsibilities,
and these we are prepared to meet. We cannot
say that because Great Britain has defended us in
the past we should let her go on doing so — such a
position would not be worthy of the Canadian
name."

As to the talk of a burden imposed by the navy,
Mr. Brodeur showed that Chili had 1 1 battleships
and cruisers, Netherlands, 28 ; Norway, 10 ; Sweden,
19, and the Argentine, in an almost exactly similar
position to Canada, 17. All these countries were
either of less population and resources, or about
equal to Canada, and in view of what they were able
to do, it seemed reasonable that Canada should at
least have warships to defend her coasts and protect
her commerce.

"It has been said," proceeded Mr. Brodeur,
" that there is a part of Canada to whom this will
not appeal — and it is intimated that Quebec Pro-
vince is that part, and that we French-Canadians

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 141

would not be ready to take our share in the defence
of the Empire. As a French-Canadian I am glad
to declare that if such emergency should arise, the
French-Canadians would be the first to hasten to do
their duty to the Empire. No one realises better
than the French-Canadians what Canada owes to
the prestige of the British Crown, and that we could
not have developed as we have without its protec-
tion. We have been protected in our rights and pri-
vileges, and the institutions we attach importance to.
Could we have enjoyed these in similar measure under
such countries as Germany or the United States?

11 When we come to discuss this question before
the people of this province there will be one people
only, and one cry only, and that will be to do as I
am doing to-day, and to show that those who try to
rouse the prejudices of the French-Canadians, and
induce them against doing their duty to the British
Empire, are the worst enemies the French-Canadians
ever had. We must unite ourselves to the majority,
not only to upbuild this country, but to maintain for
ever the honour and integrity of the British Empire.
And I know that if ever that day should come, my
compatriots would be the first to devote their energy
and blood if needs be for the defence of the Empire
to which we French-Canadians owe so much. And
further, I would say it is our duty as Canadians to
participate in any wars in which the honour or
integrity of the Empire might be endangered, and I
know that the French-Canadians will be prepared
to do that."

142 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Ottawa, January 12.

It seemed like the irony of fate that after
months of study of the naval situation, Mr. Brodeur,
Minister of Marine, should be prevented by serious
illness from presenting the Government's proposals
to the House of Commons to-day on its reassem-
bling after the Christmas vacation. The duty, there-
fore, devolved upon the Premier. The Bill is
intituled "An Act respecting the Naval Service of
Canada."

Sir Wilfrid Laurier's observations were confined
strictly to an explanation of the provisions of the
measure, and he expressed the hope that Mr.
Brodeur would be able to give full explanations on
the second reading. The Bill provided for the
creation of a naval service with a naval force, to
consist of a permanent corps, a reserve force, and
a volunteer force on the same pattern as provided
by the Militia Act. The only variation from the
Militia Act was that naval service would be
voluntary, whereas under military law all males
between eighteen and sixty years of age were liable
to serve. The naval branch would be under the
control of the Department of Marine and Fisheries.
There would be a Director of the Naval Service, and
the Department would be assisted by a Naval
Board, which would advise on naval affairs. Active
service as applied to any person in the force
meant service or duty during an emergency, de-
fined as " war, invasion, or insurrection, real or

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 143

apprehended." The Premier said that there was an
important provision which stated that "in the case
of emergency the Governor in Council may place
at the disposal of his Majesty for general service in
the Royal Navy, the naval service, or any part
thereof." If such action were taken by the Govern-
ment at any time when Parliament was not sitting,
then Parliament was to be summoned to meet
within fifteen days. Pensions were to be granted
under the same conditions as in the militia. A
naval college was to be established on the same
lines as the Military College at Kingston.

Emergency and War.

Mr. Sproule, referring to the definition of an
emergency, inquired what was meant by war ?

The Premier replied that it meant war any-
where in which Great Britain was engaged. If
Great Britain was at war, Canada was at war, and
would be immediately liable to invasion.

Proceeding, Sir Wilfrid Laurier said that the
strength of the naval force would be limited only by
the number of ships. Referring to the discussion
at the Defence Conference in London, he said that
the Government proposed to create a fleet consist-
ing of four ships of the Bristol type, one of the
Boadicea type, and six destroyers, to be divided
between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. The cost
to Canada would be ,£2,338,000, and if the vessels

144 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

were constructed in the Dominion, this figure would
be increased 22 per cent. It was intended to begin
building in Canada as soon as possible.

Mr. Lake asked when it was expected that the
ships would be in commission. The Premier
replied that he could not answer the question,
and concluded by expressing the belief that the
Government's proposals would commend them-
selves to the country.

Mr. Borden's (Leader of the Opposition)
Reply to the Premier.

Mr. Borden, leader of the Opposition, after
expressing regret at the illness of Mr. Brodeur, re-
ferred to the resolution adopted unanimously by the
House of Commons of Canada on March 29 last.
He dwelt on the advantages to Canada of her
relations with the Empire, and twitted Sir Wilfrid
Laurier with still holding views in favour of
Canadian independence, as shown by his declaration
during this session that the proposed Canadian
navy would go to no war unless the Parliament of
Canada chose to send it. Could the rest of the
Empire, he asked, be at war with some great naval
Power and Canada be at peace ? The Premier's
declaration, he held, meant the complete severance
of every tie which now bound Canada to the
Empire. But before the flag was lowered on
Canadian soil there were some millions of Canadians
who would know the reason why. Mr. Borden

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 145

declared that he was no militarist, but he fully-
realised the necessity of provision for defence.
Canada could not be a hermit nation. Mr. Glad-
stone in 1878 said that the strength of England
would not be found in alliances with great military
Powers, but in the efficiency and supremacy of her
navy — "a navy as powerful as the navies of all
Europe."

The Action of the Dominions.

The resolution of last March provided for
definite action by Canada in the case of emergency
or peril. The Admiralty experts at the Defence
Conference had recommended the establishment of
fleet units by the great Dominions. Australia, with
a population of 2,000,000 less than Canada, had
unhesitatingly accepted this recommendation, while
New Zealand had undertaken to furnish one Dread-
nought. The proposals of the Canadian Govern-
ment were, in his opinion, altogether inadequate.
They were too much for experiment in the
organisation of the Canadian naval service, and
too little for immediate and effective aid. The
speediest organisation could not make the Canadian
navy effective in less than fifteen or twenty years.
A crisis would come within five — probably within
three — years. Great Britain, through her ablest
and wisest sons, had said within the past few
months that the hour of peril was fast approaching.
He (Mr. Borden) had a profound admiration for

146 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the German people, and considered that the con-
solidation and organisation of the German empire,
the predominance of her military power, and the
development of her commerce were the most
notable events of the past half-century. The
Germans were supreme on land, and now they
boldly challenged British supremacy on the ocean.
Britons had no right to resent the challenge, but
unless their blood flowed less red in their veins
they would meet it with hearts no less firm than
those with which their forefathers encountered the
shock of the Invincible Armada.

The British and German Navies.

Mr. Borden went on to compare German and
British expenditure on naval construction and
armaments during the past ten years, which in-
volved the construction within a few years of the
most powerful fleet the world had ever known. In
this connection he quoted from the speeches of
Mr McKenna, Mr. Asquith, and Sir Edward Grey
in the British House of Commons on March 16
last. The Opposition leader insisted that Ger-
many's programme was expressly directed against
Great Britain, citing in proof of his statement the
following extract from the German Naval Bill of
1900: — "Germany must possess a battle fleet so
strong that a war with her would, even for the
greatest naval Power, be accompanied with such
dangers as would render that Power's position

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 147

doubtful." 1 Germany, the dominant military Power
upon land beyond all challenge, would not be satis-
fied until she had successfully wrested the control
of the seas from Great Britain. That meant either
the dismemberment of the Empire or its relegation
to a condition of inferiority which would lead to its
early dissolution. The highest authority in Great
Britain had declared that ships of the Dreadnought
type would alone count at a very early date. No
one would pretend that the British Navy was
not supreme to-day, but the continuance of that
supremacy would cease within the next two or three
years at the most, unless extraordinary efforts were
made by the mother country and all the great
Dominions. Nothing could be more significant
than the observation of the Parliamentary Secre-
tary of the Admiralty in which he spoke of the
danger of a sudden raid. An official warning could
not be couched in more significant language. The
heart of the British Empire was in the British
Islands. The crisis was more immediate to-day
than it was eight months ago. Germany's policy
had not changed since then. On the contrary, she
had put forward the greatest naval Budget in her
history, and yet Sir Wilfrid Laurier dismissed the
danger with a wave of his hand and with eloquent
phrases. Would the dissolution of the Empire

:The actual words of the sentence to which Mr. Borden refers
in the preamble to the German Navy Law of 1900 are as follows : —
"Germany must have a fleet of such strength that, even for the
mightiest naval Power, a war with her would involve such risks as
to jeopardise its own supremacy."

148 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

signify nothing to Canada and her people? How
could any man receiving and accepting the protec-
tion of the British flag, the advantage of British
citizenship, the safeguarding of the Canadian coasts,
and the advantages of diplomatic and consular
services throughout the world, reconcile it with his
self-respect to have every dollar of cost paid by
the overburdened taxpayer of the British Islands?
Canada had the power to adopt that position if she
chose, because the liberties which Canadians had
as an act of right and grace were in this respect
absolute, but he could not conceive it to be a
worthy or honourable course.

A Question of Honour.

It was not so much a question of duties or
obligations to the mother country as of honour
and self-respect. He was the descendant of those
who had never lived under any other than the
British flag since it first streamed to the free winds
of heaven. He was profoundly and unalterably
attached to British institutions and connections, and
as ready to work, and if necessary to fight, for them
as any man in Canada. But if his country — one of
the richest in the world in proportion to its popu-
lation— accepted the humiliating, degrading, and
pauperising condition of receiving future protection
and safety at the hands and at the cost of British
taxpayers without contributing one dollar in aid or
assistance, he would say that the sooner the Empire

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 149

got rid of her the better. When the battle of
Armageddon came, when the Empire was fighting
for its existence, when the kinsmen of the other
great Dominions were in the forefront of the battle,
were Canadians to sulk silent and inactive in their
tents, contemplating with smug satisfaction their
increasing crops and products, or, pauper-like, to
seek fancied but delusive security in an appeal
to the charity of some indefinite and high-sounding
political doctrine of the great neighbouring nation ?
There would be no such outcome. If Canada were
true to herself she would not fail in the day of trial,
but would stand proud, powerful, and resolute in the
very forefront of the sister nations. Canada must
not be unprepared. Let the Government go on
with its naval service. Let them proceed cautiously
and surely ; let them lay the proposals before the
people and give them an opportunity of being
heard. But let them not forget that Canada was
confronted with an emergency which might rend
this Empire asunder before the proposed service
could be worthy of its name.

A Suggested Contribution.

In the face of such a situation he had no doubt
that immediate vigorous and earnest action was
necessary. Canada had no Dreadnought, no fleet
unit, but she could purchase one or could send the
equivalent in cash to be used under certain condi-
tions, as the Admiralty might determine. In taking

150 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

this course Canada would fulfil not only in the letter,
but in the spirit, the resolution of last March and,
what was infinitely more important, she would be
discharging a great patriotic duty.

Mr. Jameson (Conservative, Nova Scotia) sub-
mitted that the question should be put before the
electorate.

Mr. Monk (Conservative, Quebec) said that he
emphatically objected to the creation of any navy,
and reaffirmed the views expressed by him some
months ago. He declared that the Bill meant that
Canada would participate in all the wars of the
Empire, and that at the same time she would have
no voice or representation in the British Parliament.

The Bill was then read a first time.

If there be difficulty in getting fishermen and
others in the maritime provinces to drill during
the open-water season, the Dominion Government
knows where to go for a model of a naval drill
establishment on shore. They have only to copy
the arrangements made at Whale Island, near
Portsmouth, England. There men are exercised
at all heavy-gun practice from warship turrets
placed on shore. Nothing can be easier than to
have such practice carried out in winter in Canada
from the shelter of sheds. The sea off Halifax is
always open, as it is in the English Channel. Large
sheds would protect the men against cold when
standing about and listening to instruction given.

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 151

Military.

The value of the training of officers to com-
mand a national militia was amply provided for in
the American Civil War between the Northern
and the Southern States, when nearly every man
who distinguished himself as a leader on either side
had been trained at West Point. When in the
" seventies " a Canadian Government took this
lesson to heart, and founded the Military College at
Kingston, very many were inclined to think that
Canada was spending money in a way which could
not be justified by practical use. It was said Canada
would never make war ; her genius was for peaceful
development, her institutions were safe — who would
abate them ? The usual language of the lazy dog
was used : " Lie down, and let events tickle me —
that's all I want." But fortunately for her manhood
and self-respect, and for the keeping of the laws and
liberties and lands her founder had won, it was
seen that the hand God has given to man to hold
out in friendship and to clasp a neighbour's hand,
was also designed by the Almighty to form into a
fist for self-defence. It is a discovery all people
make in time ; but some are so lazy about making
it, that they have a lot of trouble before regaining
the freedom they have taken to be a privilege no
one can envy, and their goods to be advantages
no one can covet. Wisdom for power of defence
comes sometimes too late. When Canada found

152 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

that her laws and freedom and territories were
worth defending, she founded a training school for
men to lead her defensive forces. These men were
to take to any profession they chose, but at the
call of the Mother they were to come back to
defend home. And the defence they were ex-
pected to maintain was to be an intelligent defence,
and not a mere beating of the air and a making of
faces at an enemy, and the giving of a few warlike
howls, as was the Chinese custom in olden days.
This was an instinct in feeling arising from a respect
for themselves and what their fathers had won and
bequeathed to them. Then there was also another
thought, which came from independence and self-
respect — namely, that if Canada got into trouble, it
would not be a very dignified and independent line
of action to let the old country bear more than
her share of the fighting. On the contrary, most
Canadians were quite ready to let the younger
nation prove she was as good as the old by taking-
full share and share alike, if not more. There were
backward parties. Did anybody ever know any
commonwealth in which there were not, and are
not, backward parties ? When any fighting is going
on outside a city, it is marvellous how quiet and
unconcerned most of the people in the streets seem
to be, unless the shells are beginning to be heard
overhead. If the sounds of the artillery are only a
distant thunder, men and women gossip about street
corners, read lazily the latest notices placed about
the streets, eat, drink, and chatter and lounge much

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 153

as at other times. So in regard to preparation for
trouble, there are parties in all states who say
11 What is the use ? " or that they will be ready when
the time comes. It is easy to grow a muscle in five
minutes ! It takes so little time to teach a man
who has never handled a rifle to hit a mark ! It is
native to so many gallant fellows to believe that a
mere martial appearance will be enough to deter
the flashing bayonets after the fusillade ; and as to
artillery, a mere child can turn the handle of a quick-
firer, and. a good eye judge the range for the burst
of shrapnel ! The fool's paradise is always being
formed and tended and enjoyed until — something
happens. u The blind god Chance, central of cir-
cumstance," is worshipped, and it fails, and is cast
down when misery and humiliation has rewarded
the idolater. Canada with her own hands has built
up her paradise, and does not mean to leave its
maintenance to the blind god Chance. And thus
at Kingston her youths learn how to close the fist
of the Fatherland and go forth, after the instruction
is fully learned, to open the hand in commercial
friendship, which is all the stronger because it can
be defended. "The best friends have the best
fences." " Les meilleurs amis ont les meilleurs
haies," or " clotures," as the French Canadian
says.

But this language of delay and of impotency is
used by the same sort of people who, if they had
the Governments in their hands, would have pre-
vented any country from ever having a railroad, a

154 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

steamer, electricity, or the fruition of any invention
demanding money, courage, imagination, or any of
the qualities you can imagine as necessary to the pro-
gress of a nation. The ideas of these people in every
generation have to be politely stamped out. In Aus-
tralia we have seen a whole population insisting upon
its youth making themselves able to defend their
heritage, and, as in the case of New Zealand, de-
termined to contribute far more than their quota to
defend the Empire. In Canada every schoolboy is
to be trained, and last year saw 16,000 of the militia,
representing all races throughout her territories,
march past the Prince of Wales, led by officers
who had all received Canadian instruction, and
many of whom had fought for the Empire upon the
bloody battlefields of South Africa. We must not
imagine that national preparation against evil, an
insurance against military disaster, is not named
" militarism " among the fools who always find a
misapplied nickname for anything good or great of
which they have not .the spirit to partake. But the
practical citizens of these great countries know that
all danger of bullying of a military caste vanishes
when the armed forces of a people represent its
whole available manhood. They might just as
well speak against parliamentarism, which could be
harmful only if a small body of citizens assumed the
functions of a national parliament. It was said
at one time that there was no use in having a mili-
tary college, because of the small army. All the
pupils could not become officers. Experience of a

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 155

generation has proved that such military training is
the best help for a man to obtain a position in civil
life, where during peace time he can pursue his usual
calling, and yet, when called to the ranks at a time
of national emergency, he will be proved not to
have forgotten how to command, as well as to work
with his fellow-citizens. They who have seen the
passionate eagerness with which the members of the
Canadian militia flocked to their rallying-point at
the mere suggestion of danger and of invasion, as
was seen in 1866, at the time of the Fenian threats,
know that a serious call would bring out practically
every able-bodied man in the country. Successive
Ministers of Militia and Defence have been doing
their best to provide these men with good leader-
ship. It is true that sometimes a demon of politi-
cal favouritism, who loves to haunt all countries
governed by the party machine, has persuaded poli-
ticians that the power of the tongue or the power
of the purse constitute in themselves a splendid
military training. This is, however, an imaginative
weakness, which will be eradicated with time and
the spread of military knowledge. One must put
up with some blemishes, even in the greatest
works of art, and the imperfections which, in the
exercise of their duty, military officers sent from
Great Britain have detected and exposed with an
excusable indignation, are the blemishes in the
work of art which is being gradually perfected by
the Canadian people. That they are determined to
have a thoroughly national force under men trained

156 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

in their own national schools, in whatever war may
be waged by the mother country, is all to the
advantage of the parent State.

The first thing necessary is to have strong local
forces before you can talk of useful imperial co-oper-
ation. Old-fashioned men of a former time work-
ing at the London War Office were not always able
to see the advantage of cutting the leading-strings
and encouraging a colony to try to set up for her-
self. Thus, when it was proposed that a small-arms
and ammunition factory should be established in
Quebec, the remonstrances privately received asked
why such unnecessary expense should be incurred
when it was much best that the ammunition should
be got from England. It is true enough that such
ammunition was not likely always to be of the
same pattern as that made in London for British
rifles. Canada was likely to adopt another rifle.
The inconvenience in an army working together with
two systems of small-arms was a blemish, but the
work of art was to get two well-armed forces into
being, the British and Canadian, and if local causes
tended to produce the work of art, the blemish and
the possible inconvenience became a lesser trouble ;
besides, a home Government forgot that it was
unlikely that a colonial Treasury would vote for the
expense of much ammunition in stock, and in a
certain month in the year it might be difficult to
obtain ammunition from a larger store in England.
Again, it may have been imagined at Whitehall,
before the Canadian military youth had grown up

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 157

to manhood and experience of an actual campaign,
that it was a blemish that imperial officers were not,
as a matter of course, likely always to be selected
for the command of a Canadian militia ; but the
work of art of the military perspective demanded
the encouragement of local talent and the accept-
ance of Canadian service in wars undertaken by
the British Government as affording a certainty
of local excellence and to be rewarded by local
command.

Then in considering how best the Canadian
desire to assist in the strengthening of the navy
may be met by opportunities afforded for the grant-
ing of men and means, we can with satisfaction
remember the large number of sailors British North
America possesses. Canada has a tonnage which
stands very high among the total of the great
Powers of the world ; her mercantile marine consists
of men, most of whom have never had the luxury
of serving on well-appointed steamers, but are those
who have dared the dangers of the sea in coasting-
vessels and sailing-ships. The schools along the
coasts of her maritime provinces have given good
instruction in navigation, and the presence of these
schools are to be taken into account for anything
done to organise Canada's sea power. It was at one
time proposed to organise an instruction in naviga-
tion and training for the navy aboard the warships
to be stationed at Halifax. The Canadian Govern-
ment liked the idea, and a corvette was sent out
from Portsmouth to afford any boys sent for

158 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

training the necessary home and harbour. But the
schoolmasters believed that their classes for naviga-
tion would be injured, and set their faces against
the proposal, and the corvette was returned to the
British Government, having only been of use as
a warning to prevent similar mistakes being made
in the future. As the same thing might be tried
again, it is well to recall this experience. A pro-
vincial government in possession of the coast will
be able to advise the Federal Cabinet as to the best
way for utilising the present schools for the satis-
faction of a national- desire. It is possible that
many objections might be met if qualified seamen
were allowed by the Canadian Government to be
drafted at times on board a British battleship for
voluntary instruction in the complicated duties now
belonging to a fighting seaman's profession, and
especially in the knowledge so absolutely essential
of the armament and how best to use it in firing at
targets out at sea. This is instruction which no
local navigation schools could ever give, and the
schoolmasters will probably be the first to desire
that the able instruction they have imparted may
have its continuance to the benefit of their pupils,
as the use of heavy guns and machinery must con-
stitute for themselves their surest defence against
foreign aggression.

It may be worth considering if British officers
should not always have a spell of service with some
"sister State" force. Why not give them six
months -or a year in Canada — and insure that each

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 159

officer knows something of the Australian forces
and those of New Zealand as well ?

Officers of all the Empire should be inter-
changeable in their respective ranks.

Would it not be possible to reserve a certain
number of naval nominations at Osborne Naval
College for boys from the oversea dominions ?

Defence — Recent Utterances.

Mr. Balfour summed up the situation in his
speech at the luncheon given to the press delegates
at the Constitutional Club. He justly said that the
tone of the conference debates on this subject had
been such as to give a glow of pride and pleasure
to every man with imperial interests. One of the
delegates later observed to me that the essential
thing in this matter is that the dominions must
take their part in their own way, and that their own
way is undoubtedly a way which will not in any
degree affect the sense of nationhood which has
sprung up in Australia, in Canada, in South Africa.
The finding of this way is a matter of the highest
importance ; but in endeavouring to discover it we
should never lose sight of the great truth uttered
by Mr. Balfour in his speech at the conference — a
speech, by the way, which delighted our visitors by
its vigorous optimism. Mr. Balfour declared —

" The fate of Australia, the fate of New Zealand,
of Canada, South Africa, India — that is not going
to be decided in the Pacific ; it is not going to be

i6o YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

decided in the Indian Ocean ; it is going to be
decided here."

Lord Esher — It might sound a paradox, but
his earnest conviction was that they must — if they
wanted to contribute their share of naval defence —
first get clearly defined the rSle they had to play in
war and peace for a limited number of years ; then
get their naval personnel efficient, up to date, and
thoroughly trained, and the type of ship and the
number required would inevitably follow. Their
true guides would ultimately be not British experts,
not the British Board of Admiralty, but their own
experts, their own sea officers, who would have
learnt their naval lesson in the main battle fleet,
and who would be in close touch, not only with the
strategical plans of the British Admiralty, but with
their own sentiment and their own specific needs.

Military Questions.

Sound military organisation was much the same
all the world over. It could be summed up in three
words — a General Staff. That phrase in its im-
perial sense and rightly understood meant this —
that there should be absolute and complete touch
between the directing heads of such various military
forces as might be called upon to act together, that
military words should have the same meaning and
value, and, in short, that the personnel and material
of war should be standardised throughout the
Empire.

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 161

The Meaning of Wai' Organisation. — The navy
and the army, however, were not the beginning and
end of imperial defence. War organisation meant
in these days something more than the creation of
fleets and armies. It meant the organisation in
peace of all the resources, financial and personal, of
a people. He suggested that victory in the future
would lie with the nation that had organised every
element of her being, her population and wealth,
and had taken the fullest advantage of the dis-
coveries of modern science. He hopefully looked
forward to a time when the Committee of Imperial
Defence would be strengthened for the considera-
tion of the problems which they were met to discuss
by the addition of representatives of the dominions.
Every year it would be possible under the authority
of the Sovereign to summon to that Committee,
during a certain number of months, representatives
of his subjects oversea. And if that ideal could
be achieved they would have once more shown
fertility of political resource.

Lord C. Beresford — Possibly the right plan
would be for them to begin by having their own
fleets in their own ports, under their own manage-
ment, so long as there was standardisation of the
ships belonging to the five nations with those of the
mother nation. They should drill their officers and
men in the imperial fleet. If three cruisers were
sent from Australia to the Mediterranean, two from
Canada, one from the Cape, the British fleet could
send out other cruisers to occupy their places while

L

162 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

away training. They could be out there for three
or four months together, and then go back to their
own localities. He believed that that system of
training would bring them together, and that it
would have beneficial results. Let them imagine
the result of an ordinary drill day. Suppose a Cape
cruiser and a Canadian cruiser were the first and
second in the thirty cruisers of a fleet, would not
the British fleet be delighted, and would not the
dominions be proud ? That sounded very small,
but it would be a very big thing in bringing these
nations together. If they could do it in drill, how
splendidly they could do it in war. Whenever one of
the Dominion cruisers went to the British fleet, a
British cruiser should take her place. Why ? So
that they could be always ready on the spot to
protect the weakest point we had in our Empire
— the trade routes. With regard to training, they
might build what ships they liked ; they might have
the best boilers, the best engines, the best guns, the
best armour, the best speed — but it was the human
element that was going to win. An old fleet with
well-trained men and officers, always working to-
gether, understanding one another, knowing what
their admiral wanted, and the admiral having the
confidence which was so necessary in his officers
and men, would beat the best fleet that was ever
put on the water with untrained officers and
untrained men, no matter how good they might
be individually.

The Need for Repairing Stations. — But it was

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 163

no use their having cruisers unless they had repair-
ing stations ready. Owing to some extraordinarily
mad infatuation which he could not account for — we
having got and spent a large sum of money upon
repairing stations all over the world, suddenly dis-
mantled them. The result was that whatever we
sent out in the way of cruisers would have to come
home at some time for repair. He suggested to the
oversea nations the desirability of putting those re-
pairing stations in order, and helping the mother
country to regain the Power standard by protecting
the trade routes in the way he had suggested. By-
and-by they would no doubt get into the way of
having their own fleets in their own local waters.
But the one point they must insist on was that when
it came to war they must act under the great
strategic bureau which would be at the Admiralty,
but was not there now. We had got a great deal
of leeway to make up owing to what he had
described as our deferred liabilities. But we were
perfectly capable of getting our defences on a sound
footing if we made a deliberate and a sustained
effort, and looked at the question from an imperial
and a national standpoint. He asked them not to
let the small — might he say mean ? — but certainly
ungenerous question of party enter into the matter.
They had had all the prominent statesmen in this
country giving them grave warnings. They had
given the Empire those warnings because we
were unprepared. These statesmen were of one
accord. They were all different nations, it was

164 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

true, but they were all from the same stock, all had
the same ideas, all had the same wishes and pro-
grammes with regard to imperial defence. Then, if
that were the case, we could maintain our greatest
interests in peace, and we could positively prevent,
what he maintained the peoples of the world at
this moment loathed and hated — namely, war.

General Sir John French — In connection with
the navy there was one point which stood out
clearly before all others in his mind, a principle
which he believed must be at the root and founda-
tion of all imperial defence, and that was that there
should be such a thorough and complete mutual
understanding in peace times between the land and
sea forces as should insure the most cordial and
harmonious co-operation in war. The Imperial
Defence Committee had done very much to establish
this principle, but still he thought there was more
required in this direction than had been already
done. The point, however, which he wished par-
ticularly to raise also had reference to union and
co-operation. Whilst seeking for a closer union
with their own sister service, he thought they must
also insure the utmost measure of harmony and
co-operation among themselves — the great imperial
army. Discussion had been rife for some time as
to the advisability of making radical changes in our
present system of raising and maintaining the land
forces of the Empire. He was sure that such dis-
cussion had very great value in placing the whole
subject of imperial defence before the public in all

NAVAL AND MILITARY DEFENCE 165

its various aspects, and there was no doubt very
much to be said in favour of the view which
advocated universal national training. But he
ventured to think that before committing ourselves
to the adoption of drastic and far-reaching methods
which would react forcibly upon the whole of our
social system, we should first closely examine the
means now actually at our disposal for purposes of
imperial defence, and determine whether or not we
were turning such means to the best possible advant-
age. We constantly heard it said that the numbers
of our land forces compared very unfavourably with
those of foreign Powers, yet if we totalled up the
numbers of troops, including regular reserves,
throughout the Empire — he meant troops which
might be said throughout the year to appear on
parade as soldiers, who handled rifles and shot at
ranges — he was not referring to anything in the
nature of rifle clubs, but to regularly constituted
troops — the numbers of those reached a figure of
over 1,000,000. This great force was widely sepa-
rated and situated in all quarters of the globe ;
but they were linked together by our great fleet,
and modern science had provided the most perfect
means of communication between them. What was
lacking was the machinery to weld them together as
one great whole.

Need of an Imperial General Staff. — Such union
and accord as he had briefly sketched could only be
effected by the establishment of a great Imperial
General Staff. He could assure them that the

1 66 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

utmost efforts were now being made at the War
Office to forward this great work, and it was
earnestly hoped and believed that the Colonies
themselves would do all in their power to assist
in it.

These speeches have been summarised as
advocating —

i. Unity in supreme control of the naval forces
of the Empire for purposes of war.

2. Standardisation or identity of " material " and
"personnel."

3. Within the limits of these conditions, com-
plete autonomy of the several dominions in respect
of the local forces provided and maintained by them.

CHAPTER XI

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA

The Canadian Pacific Railway now controls over
14,500 miles of track in Canada and the United
States, and claims to be the largest railroad corpo-
ration in the world. By the recent acquisition of
the Wisconsin Central Railroad it obtained a direct
entry into Chicago, and added over 1000 miles to
its system at the same moment.

Construction Work. — It is building across the
Belly River at Lethbridge (Alberta) one of the
largest bridges in the world, 307 feet above water-
level, and 5327 feet long, the concrete foundations
going down 24 feet below water, 12,000 tons of
steel, 18,000 cubic yards of concrete, 20,000 barrels
of cement, and 15,041 piles are being used in the
work of construction ; and the bridge, when com-
plete, will be twice as high as the Forth Bridge and
longer than (though not so high as) the Victoria
Falls Bridge over the Zambesi River.

The new direct route from Winnipeg to Edmon-
ton, via Regina, Saskatoon, and Wetaskiwin, will
be open in September 1909, and passengers will be
able to go straight into Edmonton instead of, as at

present, changing at Calgary. A high-level bridge

167

168 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

is being built across the river at Edmonton at a
cost of about ,£300,000.

The lowering of the gradient between Hector
and Field, in the Rocky Mountains, is now com-
pleted by means of a system of spiral tunnels which
have been cut at a cost of £1,500,000. This lower
gradient enables two engines to do the work re-
quired of four before, and heavy freight trains may
now cross the Rockies at a rate of twenty miles an
hour.

Altogether some ,£6, 000,000 are being ex-
pended by the Canadian Pacific on extensions this
year, of which .£4,000,000 will be on western
lines. One extension from Langdon North to Alix
will intersect the 3,000,000-acre irrigation block
near Calgary, which is filling up very rapidly with
settlers from all over the world.

Irrigation and4 Fruit - Farming. — The Com-
pany's well-known irrigation project at Calgary has
grown in popularity, especially with British farmers,
of whom over 200 have gone out within the last
three months. To one party alone nearly 10,000
acres were sold. It is expected that the first of the
three million acres embraced within the scheme will
be fully settled this year. The Company are expect-
ing to finish 600 miles of extension canals on the
second million acres this summer, and by the time
the whole work is completed they will have over
3000 miles of canals.

The Company have had for some time a number
of men at work on Vancouver Island engaged in

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 169

clearing land for the purpose of planting fruit-trees.
This is the Company's own land, and, with the
extension of the railway line to Alberni, an immense
fertile district of virgin soil will be tapped.

Another district that will, by the extension of
the railway, be opened up is the fertile Columbia
Valley, lying between Golden and Vancouver, and
Cranbrook and Nelson. This is admirably adapted
for fruit-farming.

The Canadian Pacific Lands Department have
established an office at the headquarters of the
Canadian Pacific Railway at Charing Cross. Per-
sonally conducted tours are frequently leaving for
Canada, and when land is purchased on the irriga-
tion block to the extent of 320 acres, both steamer
and rail fares to Calgary from Liverpool are re-
funded, while rail fare is refunded to purchasers
of 160 acres.

Industrial. — Last year Mr. I. O. Armstrong was
appointed industrial agent for the Company, with
headquarters at Montreal, his raison d'etre being to
act as guide, philosopher, and friend to Canadian,
British, or American manufacturers who wish to
settle along the line or to open Canadian branches.
The success of this innovation has been pronounced.
A pamphlet issued by Mr. Armstrong, " Some
Resources and Openings," is in great demand
among British capitalists and business men. Mr.
F. W. Peters has established a similar office for the
Canadian Pacific Railway at Winnipeg.

Cheaper Grain. — Owing to the great increase of

170 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

grain crops coming from the West, there has been
some congestion of traffic caused by the increased
number of freight trains ; this will in future, so far
as the Canadian Pacific is concerned, be obviated
by sending a large part of the year's crop in Alberta
via Vancouver and the Tehuantepec Railway to
Europe. As the major part of this journey is thus
made by water, it will cost less to send grain from
Alberta to Liverpool by this Pacific Coast route
than (as hitherto) overland by Fort William, and
thence by the great lakes and an Atlantic port.

Hotels. — The Canadian Pacific Railway has
added to the number of its hotels a palatial build-
ing, the Empress Hotel at Victoria. The Chateau
Frontenac, the famous hotel on the edge of the
cliff at Quebec, and the Banff Springs Hotel in the
Rockies, are both being greatly enlarged to cope
with the ever-increasing rush of visitors.

The institution of summer camps in connection
with the Canadian Pacific mountain hotels has
proved a great success, and has attracted a very
large number of tourists to the Yoho Valley.

The flower gardens at the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way stations right across the continent have long
been a source of interest to travellers, adding as
they do to the pleasure of a lengthened journey.
The latest development of this floral work is the
acquisition of farms in different parts of the country,
at which the commissariat department intends to
grow the vegetables, fruits, and flowers required for
the hotels and railway dining-cars. Later on may

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 171

come the establishment of dairies and poultry pens.
The Company intend to secure a uniform high-
grade supply of fruits and vegetables by growing
their own.

Telegraphs. — The Canadian Pacific has now
about 65,000 miles of its own telegraph wires, and
touches in this way not only stations along the line,
but also conveys telegraphic messages to all parts of
Western Canada.

Telephone Despatching. — On certain sections of
its line, the Canadian Pacific has adopted with
success a system of despatching trains by telephone
instead of by telegraph, thus expediting its train
service.

Exhibitions. — The Canadian Pacific Railway
continues its very active propaganda abroad with
the object of attracting settlers to Canada. Thus
in the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition at Seattle
it has erected an attractive pavilion, while another
fine pavilion is to be erected next year at the
Brussels International Exhibition.

The Canadian Pacific Railway has more than
fulfilled the expectations of those who first thought
of this national undertaking. It is difficult to
realise that when the first Governor-General of
the Dominion was in office the question as to
whether such a line could be built, was the sub-
ject of discussion and opposition. Why incur this
enormous expense ? said the economical gentlemen
who could not see how their people could rally to
the effort. Is not a vast length of the distance to

172 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

be travelled made easy by water stretches? they
asked. Why blast through the rocks of an inhos-
pitable desert on the north shore of Lake Superior,
when steamers can traverse the length of the lake ?
The Americans to the south of the frontier land were
not obliged to carry their Pacific railway through
such difficult tracts. They forgot how the Americans
had wisely resolved to have no break in the trail
from ocean to ocean. It is true that easy passes
over the Rocky Mountains had been found in the
United States territory, whereas with us there was
no saying if a practical pass over the Selkirk Range
could be found at all ; but to shrink from the all-rail
route in Canada was to accept the fate of having the
country cut into two during the winter season, when
steamers could not traverse the great lakes. Yet
both at the eastern and western ends of the pro-
jected land route work had been begun, surveys
were undertaken, and the community, through the
enterprise of two leading men, was being educated
to believe that the nation must be bound together
by the iron road ; and, as is usual in British States,
individual citizens were determined to lead the way
by their own initiative, to compel the Government to
follow them.

From the Pacific side a track was begun up the
Fraser River, and the gigantic rocky buttresses of
the hills between which the river foamed were being
bored with tunnels, and light cobweb-like bridges
were being thrown across the lateral ravines ; yet
British Columbians shook their heads, and hardly

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 173

believed the good fortune that was to come to
them.

In 1882 the Governor-General told them that
he believed trains would reach the Pacific terminus
in 1887. As it proved, there was through traffic
two years before the assigned date.

What was the motive power, and who are the
chief men who, breaking down all opposition,
performed this miracle ?

In the Government, Sir Charles Tupper must
be named the first, for it was he who persuaded Sir
John Macdonald to take up the matter as one
now ready for the full support of all the ministers ;
but outside the Government there was a giant in
resource and ability in the person of Van Home,
who is no less remarkable as an artist and a man
of taste, as he was for the sledge-hammer force
with which he could drive through engineering and
financial projects. But other great citizens had
been shaping events to the same ends. Donald
Smith, now so long famous in the eyes of the
British public as a generous peer in the British
Parliament, and High Commissioner representing
Canada, was a companion of George Stephen, now
the Lord Stephen, and James Hill, who purchased
the St. Paul and Pacific Railway. Donald Smith
had been the leading representative of British in-
fluence when, as a Hudson Bay officer, he had
opposed the rebellious half-breed, Louis Riel, and,
gathering together the English and Scotch scattered
settlers, had successfully made head against the

174 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

rebellion, and received Sir Garnet Wolseley, the
future Field-Marshal, when that officer was sent
on what was known as the Red River expedition.
When afterwards he and George Stephen and their
friends led the financial world of Canada from
Montreal, they knew how to use their hard-earned
wealth to establish the power of Canada on a sound
basis of commercial strength and political loyalty.

In the "eighties" the task was being success-
fully pushed through ; still it was doubtful how the
formidable barrier between the great bend of the
Columbia River could be surmounted. It was to
Mr. Rogers, an American engineer, that we owed the
discovery of the pass, which broke down the last of
the great difficulties. The hardships he underwent
in assuring himself of the practical nature of this
route undermined his health, and was the cause of
his death. But soon dynamite was blasting the rocky
roadway all along the ore-seamed rocks of the North
Superior, and flinging afar into the waters of the
Lake of the Woods masses of stone, which splashed
the placid bays for miles along their forest-covered
promontories. On the prairie, as soon as the
traveller emerged from the beautiful sterile fast-
nesses of the Keewaytin, the labour was simple
enough. For hundreds of miles the sleepers could be
quickly laid over gradients which were hardly per-
ceptible until the rapid streams descending from the
Rocky Mountains were reached. Then came the hill
slopes, conquered by admirable engineering, and the
wooded eastern portals of the Pacific glens, where

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 175

the Columbia River had to be crossed twice more, and
Alpine climbing had to be undertaken until the train
rushed down to the fairy lakes, crossing at the Eagle
Narrows, and the more open country was reached
where the Thompson River, coming down from the
north, joins the Fraser to form one stream through
the canyons to the shores of the western ocean.

It is interesting to note the able manner in which
the undertaking to carry a railway across the country
was mapped out. Mr. Croal tells how four sections
from east to west were planned. The eastern had
a length of 650 miles from Lake Nipissing (a great
body of water lying to the north-west of the capital
Ottawa) as far as Lake Superior, and was a land
for which the Company received money from the
Government to the extent of 10,000,000 dollars, and
a payment in land of 6,250,000 acres. It will be
seen that land could then be given away cheaply,
and yet it was an asset of enormous value if the
anticipations regarding its attractions for settlers
could be realised. Then came a lake section ; this
was 406 miles in length, which the Canadian
Government was itself to build and make over as
a present to the Company. The major portion of
this was regarded as least favourable for emigrants.
The central section of the land included a tremendous
task of the passage of the mountains ; the length of
it was 1350 miles, and money to the extent of
15,000,000 dollars was granted. The land to be
given to the Company was to be 12,502 acres for
every mile constructed for the first 900 miles, and

176 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

16,666 acres for every mile of the remainder of this
part of the route. The most western portion was
215 miles from Kamloops, a junction of the Thomp-
son and Fraser Rivers, to Port Moody on the Pacific,
and all this was again a free gift to the Company. It
will be remembered that of all the vast area in land
through which the railway passed after leaving the
old Canadian provinces, one-twentieth part belonged
to the Hudson Bay Company, who were thus recom-
pensed for the inevitable destruction of fur-bearing
animals from which they had derived their income.
A change in the conditions of wild animal life, upon
the advance of civilisation, may be judged from one
incident alone, namely : —

In 1 88 1 the Governor-General rode and trekked
across the prairies from Winnipeg to Battleford on
the Saskatchewan River, and thence to Calgary, and
thence to Fort Shaw in Montana, and during the
whole distance met only one small herd of buffalo,
thirteen in number, although all the districts in the
east then were covered with the scattered bones of
the myriads which used to roam over them, with no
enemy to fear but the Red Indians.

What was the capital with which this great
national speculation was entered into ? Only
25,000,000 dollars ! The promoters were modest
in their estimate as to the time of completion, for
they only bargained to have the land finished in
1 89 1. They then expected that ten years would
be sufficient, and it is marvellous to remember how
their splendid organisation shortened the period.

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 177

They at once held out temptations for men to settle by
the railway side, offering land at 2-J dollars per acre.

In 1 88 1 the earnings were only 119,000 dollars,
fourteen years afterwards they had 4,800,000 dollars
to their credit.

A report of last year given below speaks for
itself. Few people were inclined to put faith in the
estimates made as regards the fertility of the lands
along the route ; to be sure, it was known that what
was called the Red River of the North and the whole
tract lying between Minneapolis and Lake Winni-
peg was exceedingly rich. Men could judge of this
by the luxuriance of the grass ; but farther westward
it was argued that heavy crops could not be raised.
In the United States there is much exceedingly arid
country as you approach the western mountains,
over the whole of which area irrigation is necessary.
But, on the other hand, travellers who had visited
the Hudson Bay posts and forts, placed at wide
intervals wherever skins could be profitably col-
lected, had noticed that the patch of corn-land
cultivated as a farm around the factor's residence
produced good crops. Occasionally there were
complaints made on the destruction of grain by the
severity of the early frost, but it was also seen
that the more land was cultivated the less formid-
able did the frost become. For a long time no
one divined the reason, but the cause of the frost
was evidently a moisture lying in many places upon
the prairie sward. The close-lying roots of the grass
held up the moisture almost as would a waterproof

M

178 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

sheet, preventing it from shrinking into the soil ;
but when the turf was cut by the ploughshare,
and line after line of seams were cut through the
envelope of verdure, the land no longer had a water-
proof covering, the moisture sank down into the
soil, and the mists and the frosts no longer brooded
to the same extent over the surface.

Experiments in cultivation were made, and it
was reported to headquarters at Montreal in 1883
that men had been sent to plough up a few acres at
every twenty miles along the road ; next spring the
seeds were sown, and rough as was the cultivation,
yet magnificent crops appeared to reward the trial.

For the tourist the journey over the Canadian
Pacific Railway can be made with the utmost luxury.
The cars are most comfortably fitted up, and the
traveller can break his journey at interesting points,
where excellent hotels await him.

If he likes to dwell upon old memories, he may
spend a fortnight at the Hotel Frontenac, and not
go on until he has thoroughly explored the bewitch-
ing country which was so eagerly contended for by
the armies of the French and the British monarchies
in the eighteenth century around Quebec. On the
banks of the Red River he will find himself again
luxuriously lodged, and overlooking a country of
fatness and fertility which puts Holland into the
shade. Again, in the Canadian Alps he will miss
no comforts he has been accustomed to in the
best hotels. There he can have a chance shot
at a bear, at the mountain sheep, or at the strange,

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 179

long white-haired goat of the Rocky Mountains.
He can take his rod, and in lakes showing all
the beautiful colour of Geneva's river he may be
sure of filling his basket with fine trout.

Before he takes steamer to go across the
Pacific, if he can make up his mind to say good-
bye to the attractions of Canada, he can delay his
departure at Victoria, and from a marine palace
watch one of the finest scenes in the world, where
beyond the foreground of bracken, fir trees, and
rocks on beautiful shores, he looks across the wide
straits of St. Juan to the mighty mountain peaks of
the Olympian range in Washington territory, a
range which sinks to the eastward only to rise again
in the dome of Mount Baker, ever white with snow,
and forming a feature as fine as Japan's Sacred
Mountain.

CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY COMPANY

Twenty- seventh Annual Report of the Directors of the Canadian
Pacific Railway Company for the year ended 30th June 1908.

To the Shareholders —

1. The accounts of the Company for the year
ended 30th June 1908 show the following results : —

Gross Earnings $715384,173.72

Working Expenses 49,591,807.70

Net Earnings $21,792,366.02

Net Earnings of Steamships in excess of amount in-
cluded in monthly reports 1,112,759.24

Carry forward, $22,905,125.26

180 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Brought forward, $22,905,125.26

Interest on deposits and loan . . $484,560.64

Interest from Minneapolis, St. Paul
and Sault Ste. Marie Ry., on bonds
held by the Company . . . 159,720.00

Interest from Mineral Range Railroad

Co., on bonds held by the Company 50,160.00

Interest from Montreal and Atlantic
Ry., and on other bonds held by
the Company 58,962.89

Dividend on St. John Bridge and
Railway Extension Company Stock 50,000.00

Dividends on Minneapolis, St. Paul
and Sault Ste. Marie Ry., Preferred
and Ordinary Stocks held by the
Company 738>47Q-5°

1,541,874-03

$24,446,999.29
Deduct Fixed Charges 8,770,07671

Surplus $15,676,922.58

Deduct amount transferred to Steam-
ship Replacement Account . . $800,000.00

Contribution to Pension Fund . . 80,000.00

From this there has been charged a
half-yearly dividend on Preference
Stock of 2 per cent., paid 1st April
1908 940,340.45

And a half-yearly dividend on Or-
dinary Stock of 3 per cent., paid 1st
April 1908 3,650,400.00

4,590,740-45
$10,206,182.13

From this there has been declared a
second half-yearly dividend on Pre-
ference Stock of 2 per cent.,
payable 1st October 1908 . . $976,066.65

And a second half-yearly dividend on
Ordinary Stock of 3 per cent.,
payable 1st October 1908 . . 3,650,400.00

4,626,466.65
Leaving Net Surplus for the year .... $5>579,7I5-48

In addition to the above dividends on Ordinary Stock, 1 per cent,
was declared from interest on Land Funds.

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 181

2. The working expenses for the year amounted
to 69.47 Per cent, of the gross earnings, and the
net earnings to 30.53 per cent., as compared with
64.96 and 35.04 per cent, respectively in 1907.

3. Four per cent. Consolidated Debenture Stock
to the amount of ,£1,975,000 was created and sold,
and of the proceeds the sum of ,£1,321,594 was
applied towards the construction of branch lines
in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and
British Columbia; £"175,152 towards the comple-
tion of two new lake steamers ; and the balance,
£"478,254, was used for acquiring the bonds of
other railway companies, whose lines constitute a
portion of your system, the interest on which had,
with your authority, been guaranteed by your
Company.

4. Preference Stock to the amount of £"1,000,000
was created and sold for the purpose of meeting
expenditures that you had sanctioned.

5. Your guarantee of interest was endorsed on
4 per cent. Consolidated Mortgage Bonds of the
Minneapolis, St. Paul and Saulte Ste. Marie
Railway Company to the amount of $1,680,000
issued and sold to meet the cost of constructing 84
miles of railway added to that Company's system.

6. There was a decided falling-off in the sales
of your agricultural lands, the total area disposed
of in the year being 164,450 acres, as against
994,840 acres in the previous year. The average
price realised, however, was much better, being
$9.54 per acre.

182 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

7. The contract with the Imperial Government
for the carriage of the mails between Liverpool
and Hong-Kong was renewed for a further period
of three years, but the rate of compensation per
annum was reduced by ,£15,000.

8. The Alberta Railway and Irrigation Com-
pany, owning 113 miles of railway in Southern
Alberta, as well as an important colliery, and about
425,000 acres of land, part of which is served by
irrigation ditches, was operated by its owners as a
close friendly connection of your Company, yielding
to your lines a large revenue from traffic inter-
changed, and furnishing the Company and settlers
along the railway a supply of coal. To insure
a continuance of this desirable connection, your
directors deem it prudent for the Company to
secure such an interest in the property as will
constitute a substantial control, and they have
arranged to do this at an approximate cost of
82,000,000. Apart from the traffic advantages
thereby safeguarded, the investment itself will
prove a profitable one.

9. The increase for the year in the item " Rail-
way and Equipment" was abnormal, being in round
figures $31,377,000, exclusive of an appropriation
from surplus earnings of $3,800,000. Of this ex-
penditure $7,500,000 was for new lines under con-
struction ; $10,400,000 for additional rolling stock,
shops and machinery ; $7,800,000 for double tracks
and reduction of grades; and $9,500,000 for ad-
ditional yards, buildings, sidings, and for general

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 183

improvements to your property. Notwithstanding
this outlay for improvements, and the falling-off in
traffic, the charges against the year's income for
the upkeep of the property were continued on a
liberal basis.

10. Pursuant to the authority given at the
special general meeting of the shareholders held
30th December 1907, the directors offered to the
shareholders at par $24,336,000 of the ordinary
capital stock of the Company. Practically the
whole amount was taken, and payments were made
in anticipation of the dates mentioned in the circular.
This leaves an amount of $3,984,000 still unissued,
but in order that you may be in a position to pro-
vide additional money from this source if and when
necessary, your directors thought it wise to ask the
consent of the Governor-General in Council to a
further increase in the ordinary capital stock from
$150,000,000 to $200,000,000. This consent has
been formally given, and you will be asked at the
special general meeting of the shareholders, to be
held Wednesday, 7th October, to sanction and
approve the increase in the authorised ordinary
capital stock, and to take such other measures as
will enable your directors to utilise it in such
amounts from time to time as may be desirable
in connection with the Company's capital require-
ments. While recommending this increase as a
precautionary measure, there is no immediate
necessity for issuing any portion of the additional
amount, as you have ample funds in hand, but

1 84 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

with your vast property in a growing country the
demands for works, and more particularly for rolling
stock, involving large outlay, are sure to continue,
and your directors should be in a position to meet
these promptly when they arise.

T. G. SHAUGHNESSY, President.

Montreal, %\st August 1908.

Lord Strathcona says that the child now lives
who will see the population of the Dominion equal
to that of the United Kingdom. When one con-
siders the enormous opportunities for development,
it will readily be admitted that the popular High
Commissioner for the Dominion in this country is
not one whit too sanguine. Before many years are
over we shall have, not one, as now, but three
transcontinental railways across - country to the
Pacific — the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Northern,
and the Canadian Pacific. These lines are open-
ing up enormous tracts of land, which will need
British capital and British labour for their develop-
ment. Prince Rupert, the terminus of the Grand
Trunk on the Pacific side, will become another
Vancouver, and possibly even a greater commercial
entrepot for trade between Canada, the East, and
Australia.

Sir Thomas Shaughnessy, the President of the
Canadian Pacific Railway, says : " While recognis-
ing the west, we must not, as we are apt to do,

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 185

forget the great progress made in Eastern Canada.
It used to be objected that the migration to the
west was no advantage to Canada, because it was
merely moving population from east to west, and
so depleting Ontario farms. But in the twenty
years from 1890 to 1909 the area of land under
cultivation in Ontario has increased 30 per cent.,
while the value of the field crops has increased 50
per cent., due to better prices and cultivation. It is
a striking fact that last year the money value of the
field crops of Ontario was 60 per cent, greater
than from all the field crops west of Lake Superior.
Coupling Ontario and Quebec, we find that last
year the money value of these two provinces was
100 per cent, more than that of all crops west of
Lake Superior."

Further, said Sir Thomas, the growth of
eastern cities was not paid enough attention to.
He considered that greater Montreal had increased
by 100,000 in the past seven years, while taking
the growth of the various Ontario and Quebec
cities, he thought it would about approximate the
entire growth of population of the west during the
same period.

British Emigrants' Share.

" Now, with regard to this all-important ques-
tion of the British emigrants' share, I would say
this : Thousands upon thousands of United States
farmers are pouring into our west, and doing

1 86 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

splendidly there. They make splendid Canadian
citizens. From their experience of similar con-
ditions to the southward, on inferior land which
costs five or six times as much, they find no diffi-
culty about the first pioneer work. They will live
in a tent or hut till their land is broken and sown.
That means saving in money and time when both
are most valuable. But the English emigrant,
however strong his land-hunger, is not good at
that. He has never done that sort of pioneering,
and is rather afraid of it, apparently ; though I
doubt if his forefathers were. We believe in deal-
ing with facts as we find them, and we do not
want the people of this country to lag behind or
lose the opportunities of claiming and playing their
full part in Canada's wonderful progress. I believe
that you had 35,000 applications for 1600 small
holdings in England. We can easily provide for
ten times and a hundred times the number of the
disappointed in Canada ; and the Canadian Pacific
Railway is now going to make an effort to pro-
vide even for their prejudices against the aspects
of early ' roughing it,' which I just mentioned.

Fine Chance for Settlers.

"What we propose to do is to provide farms
for suitable men in the west, fence them, and
plough and sow part of the land for them, and
put up houses and barns ; so that when the new
settler arrives he will simply step on to a ready-

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 187

made farm, awaiting only the routine of farm work.
In actual cost — the value, of course, would be higher
— this will represent, say, ^800, a prohibitive figure
for many a good emigrant. Yes, but we should
let him pay it over a period of ten years, and
a ten years' rental of £80 a year is not much to
pay for ownership of a freehold farm and farm-
house and buildings on the richest land in the
world. More than that, a good deal is paid for
much smaller farms in England, in the shape of
rent only, with no prospect of ownership. In the
wheat belt each of these farms would consist of
160 acres; in the Canadian Pacific Railway irri-
gated belt of Southern Alberta they would, of
course, be smaller. A man needs less of irrigated
land, because he gives it far closer culture. What
it means is that the farmer who arrives with even
^100 will be sure of success, if he has industry
and application. A 320-acre farm in the wheat belt
would not cost double the price of the 160-acre
farm. The irrigated belt is making a splendidly
successful showing, and we shall increase it by
another million acres. As you know, the climate of
that part of Southern Alberta it especially agreeable
and genial.

"As an example of what is being done now
in the west, I heard the other day of a man
in Southern Alberta who bought 2400 acres for
$33,000. The value of that man's crop this year
was exactly $66,000, or double the purchase price
of the land. That means high-grade farming,

1 88 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

and superlatively high-grade land. The land is
there in abundance ; it awaits only the industry
of the farmer. I have just returned from a tour
through the west, and was never so forcibly struck
by the wealth of opportunity which there awaits the
men with capital, the men with brains, and the men
with muscle and industry.

" With regard to the great question of Canada
and naval defence, I should say that what the great
bulk of our people feel about this is that they want
to furnish the kind of help which will be of the
most real and practical value to the Empire. As
is perfectly natural, the largest number probably
favour the idea of a Canadian navy. Life in Canada
makes men always favour things Canadian. My
own idea is that I should like Canada to get the
mother country to build a couple of Dreadnoughts
at the Dominion's expense. Canada could then
lease these to Britain at a peppercorn rent, and
so get over the vexed point of public money going
without representation. After all, Canada would
not allow the no-taxation-without-representation
plea to prevent her sending a sum of money — say
to Australia, to help in the mitigation of some
national calamity. We did that when San Fran-
cisco was burnt. In any case Canada is clearly
ready and anxious to face her due responsibilities
where naval defence is concerned, as in every
other direction. And so she should be, for there
is no more progressively prosperous country in the
world."

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 189

Sir Thomas claimed the right to qualify as a
manufacturer, since, through the Canadian Pacific
Railway connection with the Angus shops, he
supervised in a general way one of the largest
manufacturing concerns in Canada. The position
of the Canadian Pacific Railway in relation to the
Angus shops was, however, unique, since they were
not only the manufacturer, but also the consumer.

" We have no direct monetary advantage from
the tariff," proceeded Sir Thomas, " because if
there were no tariff we could import our engines
and cars, and save the investment we have found
necessary for the Angus shops. We could have
imported the 18,000 cars and 140 locomotives built
there during the past four years. These, at a cost
of some $20,000,000, would have been built else-
where, and that money would have been for all
time lost to the people of this country. More than
this, the 5000 or 6000 employees, representing a
population of 20,000 people, for whom that work
furnished employment, would not have been so
employed, and the country would have lost that
population of 20,000 people, while we should also
have lost the passenger and freight traffic resulting
from that population.

" When the Canadian Pacific Railway was opened
for traffic in 1886, we had about 3000 miles of
railway. This has now grown to about 10,000
miles in Canada, and the other railways of the
country have been progressing in about the same
degree. We have rather too many railways for

190 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

our population in Canada, because at present there
is not the requisite density of traffic. Notwith-
standing this I can truthfully say that the people
of Canada to-day are getting as low rates for
passenger and freight traffic as any country in the
world, while the men they employ are receiving
wages equal to those paid in the United States,
and from 50 to 100 per cent, more than in any
European country."

In such a country as Canada, a railway had
many functions to perform besides carrying pas-
sengers and freight, collecting revenues, and dividing
any profits as dividends. As an instance, he said
after the organisation of the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way it was found necessary to establish an immigra-
tion department, on which large sums were spent
to attract settlers to Canada. Then steamships
were added to the Pacific, to insure that traffic
between Great Britain and Japan, China, Australia,
and the Orient should go both ways through Canada.
Then hotels had to be built throughout the country
to furnish good accommodation to travellers, and
steamships established on the Great Lakes for
traffic and tourist trade, while, finally, it was found
necessary to attack the initial stage of the business
with a fleet on the Atlantic.

This was a great advantage to the manu-
facturers of Eastern Canada, said Sir Thomas.
Older nations had to go to the far corners of the
earth to find customers, often very poor. But in
Canada, owing to the development of the west,

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 191

the manufacturers found their customers in their
own country, their own people, and prosperous
citizens, amongst the best people to trade with
in the world.

But he pointed out that the time would come
when the west would do most of its own manu-
facturing, as had been the case in the States. He
could remember when it was thought that the
manufacturing interests of the States would always
be in New England and the eastern cities, but it
had since spread far west, and the movement was
still progressing, and this same progression was
bound to become manifest in Canada.

GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY

We have spoken of an accomplished fact,
namely, the line which takes you without any break
from Montreal to Vancouver, and we must now
consider for a moment another gigantic scheme,
which, although only an addition to the Grand
Trunk Railway already existing, will be an addi-
tion vastly overshadowing what has already been
accomplished under the name of the Grand Trunk.
Its elongation across the continent was proposed
some years before the date of 1893, when the
company was incorporated by Act of Parliament —
the construction and operation of a line wholly
within Canadian territory, 3600 miles long, with-
out counting many branch lines, the main one of
these branches being a line southerly 200 miles to

192 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Gravenhurst in Ontario. The object of these two
branch lines will be best understood when we trace
the direction of the main artery, which forces its
way west to north of Quebec, and, running afar to
the northwards of existing lines, will open for the
sportsman as well as for the settler opportunities
undreamt of except in recent years, and probably
to be realised in a brief period. There is much
fair land in the northern Quebec province which
hardy French Canadians will know how to use.

From a military point of view, another interior
line traversing the continent will be of the highest
value. The line on leaving Quebec province would
seem ambitious to reach Hudson Bay and James
Bay at once, but that plan is deferred until another
great branch may ultimately arrive at Port Churchill.
The main route sweeps away due westwards to the
north of Lake Nipigon, which, with the Lake of
the Woods, may be called the two small parents
of the great Lake Superior. Entering Winnipeg,
it runs parallel with the frontier as far as Brandon,
but the ambitious line rivalling the steamer service
on the Saskatchewan, leaps again to the northward,
making direct for Edmonton, there reaching the
centre of an admirable country full of names that
remind us of recent days, when the only people
were the redskins, except for the scattered posts
of the Scottish employees of the Hudson's Bay
Company. Lacombe, a place intermediate between
Calgary and Edmonton, commemorates the remark-
able career of a French Canadian missionary, who

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 193

has given us the most trustworthy information as
regards the wild tribes of the Crees, Blackfeet, and
the Sioux ; while the Indian names survive not
only in Saskatchewan, but in Athabaska, Assini-
boine, Webiskaw, Ponoka, Wetaskiwin, and many
others. About a multitude of lakes rises a forest
of pines, throwing their dark, long shadows over
waters ice-bound from November to April ; these
forests stretch in the shape of a bow across the
northern continent from east to west. It is a
forest mainly composed of spruce, not very tall,
but very dense, and there are also willows and
birch of several kinds. Into this northern timber
land some buffalo, who fled from their persecutors of
the plain, seem likely to survive and develop new
habits. Again starting westward, the Grand Trunk
takes its way through the Yellow Head Pass of
the Rocky Mountains, and, traversing branches
of the Fraser River by the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany's post called by its name, and Port George,
it daringly conquers more difficulties until it finds
a secure haven on the Pacific coast.

It is in contemplation also to have another
gigantic branch northward to the Yukon country,
reaching as far as Dawson — named after a dis-
tinguished man of science of that name, who for
long presided over the Geological Survey of
Canada. Needless to say, such an extension of
a track will lead to the gold-bearing country which
has become so famous in recent years.

The Report of the Company says the branches

194 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

of the Eastern Division are designed to make
connection between the territory along the St.
Lawrence River and the lakes with the main
trunk line of the National Trans-continental Rail-
way, and on the Western Division they are pro-
jected for the most part through desirable territory
to reach important competitive points.

This great undertaking, which surpasses in
magnitude and importance any plan of railway
construction hitherto conceived as a whole, has
been projected to meet the pressing demand for
transportation facilities in British North America,
caused by the large tide of immigration which is
now flowing into that country from Great Britain,
Northern Europe, and still more extensively from
the Western States of the United States, seeking
the rich lands which lie so abundantly in the pro-
vinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta.

The agreements between the Company and the
Government providing for this new Trans-conti-
nental Railway are of a twofold character, which,
when carried out, will combine a railway con-
structed at the expense of the Government with
the lines of a private corporation into one system,
under the entire control, management, and operation
of the Grand Trunk Pacific Company.

The authorised capital stock of the Company
is $45,000,000, of which $20,000,000 may be
issued as Preferred. The Grand Trunk Railway
Company of Canada is to acquire all of the
Common Stock (except shares held by directors) in

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 195

consideration for guarantees, &c, and must retain a
majority holding during the term of the agreements
with the Government.

The eastern terminus of the railway will be at
Moncton, New Brunswick, from which point the
seaport of Halifax will be reached over the Inter-
colonial Railway, a branch line being projected to
St. John. The distance to the first-named port is
183 miles, and to the latter 89 miles. The western
terminus will be at Prince Rupert, on the Pacific
coast, near the southern boundary of Alaska.

For the purposes of construction, the projected
line is divided into two great divisions, namely,
the Eastern Division and the Western Division,
the point of division being Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Eastern Division

Moncton to Winnipeg, 1800 Miles. — Commen-
cing at Moncton, the line will take the most direct
practicable route within the province of Quebec to
the city of Quebec. At Chaudiere Junction, five
miles above Quebec, the new line will cross the
St. Lawrence River by a bridge now under con-
struction by the Quebec Bridge and Railway Com-
pany, which will be the largest cantilever bridge in
the world. The elevation of the rail will be 150
feet above high water for a width of 1800 feet,
admitting of the free passage underneath of all
ocean steamers. The approaches from either end
to the centre span are 720 feet each, giving a total

196 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

length of bridge of 3240 feet. From Quebec a
direct route will be taken, passing in the vicinity
of Lake Abitibi, and to the north of Lake Nepigon,
to Winnipeg, an estimated distance of 1800 miles
from Moncton. The main line of this Division
will be built at the cost of the Canadian Govern-
ment and leased to the Company for a period of
fifty years, and the branch lines will be built by the
Company. Under the provisions of the Acts and
Agreements, the Government has appointed four
Commissioners, under the name of "The Commis-
sioners of the Trans-continental Railway," who will
have charge of the construction of this portion of
the main line on behalf of the Government under
the following conditions : —

The rental payable by the Company under the
terms of its lease of the Eastern Division will be as
follows : — .

For the first seven years of the said term the
Company shall operate the same, subject only to
payment of "working expenditure"; for the next
succeeding forty-three years the Company shall pay
annually to the Government, by way of rental, a
sum equal to 3 per cent, per annum upon the
cost of the construction of the said Division, pro-
vided that if, in any one or more of the first three
years of the said period of forty-three years, the
net earnings of the said Division, over and above
"working expenditure," shall not amount to 3 per
cent, of the cost of construction, the difference
between the net earnings and the rental shall not

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 197

be payable by the Company, but shall be capitalised
and form part of the cost of construction, upon the
whole amount of which rental is required to be paid
at the rate aforesaid after the first ten years of
the said lease, and during the remainder of the
said term.

At the expiration of the period of fifty years,
the Company has the privilege of an extension
of the lease for another period of fifty years, in
the event the Government then determines not to
undertake the operation of the said Division ; but
should the Government take over the operation of
this Division, the Company shall be entitled, for
a further period of fifty years, to such running
powers and haulage rights as may be necessary to
continuity of operation between the said Western
Division and other portions of the Company's system
and the Grand Trunk Railway system, on such terms
as may from time to time be agreed upon.

By the terms of the lease to the Company of
this portion of the railway it will also be seen that
the Company will practically have free use of it for
a period of seven years, and taking into account the
time allowed for construction, which is fixed at
seven years, no payments will require to be made
on account of rental until 19 19, and since it is to
pass through an entirely new and undeveloped
section of the country which is now known to be
rich in agricultural and mineral resources, as well as
timber, it is anticipated that long before the first
payment on account of rental becomes due, the

198 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Company will have reaped a rich harvest from the
traffic that will exist upon its completion. This
section of the line between Quebec and Winnipeg
will pass through what may appropriately be
termed the mineral belt of Eastern Canada, as in
this district, adjacent to the main line, are located
the now famous cobalt deposits, as well as nickel,
copper, iron, &c., which are only awaiting the
advent of the railway to be brought forth for
manufacture.

While, as stated in the foregoing, the main line
of the Eastern Division will be leased to the
Company, the branches of this Division will be
constructed and owned by the Company, and a
subsidy has been granted by the Provincial Govern-
ment of Ontario in aid of the construction of the
branch from the main line southerly to Fort William
and Port Arthur, which is known as the Lake
Superior Branch, of $2000 per mile cash and 6000
acres of land per mile.

The branch which is projected from the main
line of the Eastern Division to North Bay or
Gravenhurst, will also be an important one as
forming the connection between the new Trans-
continental Railway and the present Grand Trunk
Railway system. The same may also be said of
the projected branch from the main line of the
Eastern Division to Montreal. These lines will
traverse new country and provide transportation
facilities for the location of industries adjacent to the
extensive water-powers that abound in this section.

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 199

The country through which the Prairie Section
of the railway will pass contains land now known
to be well adapted for the growing of wheat, which
in extent is four times the wheat-growing area of
the United States, and is the great agricultural belt
of the North- West. This land, which is now being
rapidly taken up by settlers, produces rich crops the
first year of cultivation, and will furnish a large
traffic for the railway as rapidly as it can be ex-
tended, therefore amply warranting the Company in
assuming the payment of the interest charges on
the cost of construction, from the beginning. The
Mountain Section, however, passing through the
mineral deposits, will require a little longer time for
development, and, as stated, the Government has
therefore assumed the payment of the interest
charges under its guarantee of three-quarters of the
cost of construction, for the first seven years after
completion (waiving their rights of recourse on the
Company in the event of default, for an additional
three years), and allowing for the period of con-
struction, which is fixed at seven years, not until
1 9 19 will the Company be required to assume this
liability beyond the interest charges on the one-
quarter of the cost of construction under the
guarantee of the Grand Trunk Railway Company
of Canada. Considering the rapid settlement and
development of the country which will take place
from the commencement of the railway, and also in
view of what is already known of the great natural
wealth of Canada, in addition to the new revelations

200 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

in this respect which are being made from day to
day, and the large traffic which will result from
these conditions, default by the Company in the
discharge of its interest liabilities as they accrue
from time to time is so far removed as to be placed
almost beyond possibility.

One of the latest developments in connection
with the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway has been
the selection by the Company of the Yellowhead
Pass route through the Rocky Mountains to the
Pacific coast, which was approved by the Govern-
ment in November 1906. This question has been
a very important one as bearing upon the future
prospects of the Company in respect of the gradients
obtained, which enter so largely into the economical
or costly operation of the railway, according as they
are light or heavy. With the object, therefore, of
ascertaining the best route available, the Company
have had a large staff of engineers in the field
extending over a period of almost three years, who
made exhaustive explorations comprising the Peace
River Pass, the Pine River Pass, the Wapiti Pass,
and a number of intermediate passes, with the
result that the Yellowhead Pass route was adopted,
whereby a maximum gradient of only four-tenths
of one per cent., or a rise of 21 feet in the mile,
has been obtained against eastbound traffic for
the entire distance between Edmonton and the
coast, and but five-tenths of one per cent., or a
rise of 26 feet in the mile, has been obtained
against westbound traffic, which can perhaps be

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 201

better understood when it is borne in mind that this
is no greater than the extremely low grades which
have been obtained through the level country on
the Prairie Section. In crossing the Rocky Moun-
tains but one summit is encountered, the maximum
altitude of which is only 3712 feet. These remark-
able conditions exist in this northern locality on
account of the fact that the ranges of mountains
along the western portion of the American conti-
nent, which have their origin in Mexico, reach their
maximum altitude in the region of the 40th parallel
of latitude, from which they gradually recede to the
north. No better illustration of these physical con-
ditions could perhaps be given than a comparison
of the summits and gradients of the five existing
American trans-continental railways with the Grand
Trunk Pacific, which is shown on page 202.

From this comparison it will be observed, as
already stated, that in the case of the Grand Trunk
Pacific but one summit is encountered, having an
altitude of 3712 feet, with no greater gradient in
either direction than five-tenths of one per cent.,
or a rise of 26 feet to the mile, west of Winni-
peg, which is increased to six-tenths of one per
cent, east of Winnipeg, while in the case of the
Canadian Pacific two summits are surmounted with
a maximum altitude of 5299 feet and a maximum
gradient of four and one-half per cent., or 237 feet
to the mile ; the Great Northern has three summits
of a maximum altitude of 5202 feet and a maximum
gradient of two and two-tenths per cent., or 1 16 feet

202 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Comparison of Summit Elevations, Maximum Gradients and Total
Elevation ascended for Various Trans-continental Railways.

Max. Gradient

Total Ascent

Highest
Summits.

in feet per mile.

in feet overcome.

Name of Railway.

East-

West-

East-

West-

bound.

bound.

bound.

bound.

Grand Trunk

Pacific :

Western Div. ^j
Winnipeg to >

I Summit
3,712

I -

26

6,990

6,890

Pr. Rupert J

Eastern Div. "|

Winnipeg to ^

—

31

—

—

Moncton ...J

Canadian J
Pacific

r

2 Summits

5,299
4,3o8

3 Summits

1* 237
1

Il6

23,106

23,051

Great J
Northern ]

5,202
4,146

,*

Il6

15,987

15,305

I

r

3,375 .
3 Summits

J

Northern

Pacific |

5,569
5,532
2,849 .

In.

j

Il6

17,830

17,137

Union Pacific f

3 Summits

l

System : j
Omaha to San J

8,247
7,017

1 ,
)■ Il6

105

18,575

17,552

Francisco... 1

5,631

J

5 Summits
8,247

]

Omaha to

Portland )

1

6,953
3,537
3,936

I I06

Il6

18,171

17,171

I

4,204

j

6 Summits
7,5io

Santa Fe
System

7,453
6,987
7,132
2,575

- 175

185

34,003

34,506

'

3,8i9

-

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 203

to the mile ; the Northern Pacific three summits
having a maximum altitude of 5569 feet and a
maximum gradient of two and two-tenths per cent.,
or 1 16 feet to the mile ; the Union Pacific three sum-
mits having a maximum altitude of 8247 feet and a
maximum gradient of two and two-tenths per cent.,
or 116 feet to the mile, in reaching San Francisco,
and in reaching Portland, Oregon, five summits are
encountered with a maximum altitude of 8247 feet
and a maximum gradient of two and two-tenths
per cent., or 116 feet to the mile; the Atchison,
Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway six summits having
a maximum altitude of 7150 feet and a maximum
gradient of three and three- tenths per cent., or
175 feet to the mile.

Where the Grand Trunk Pacific will reap the
first benefit from these exceptional conditions will,
of course, be in the great economy and low cost of
operation which can be obtained from the very com-
mencement, when this item is of such vast import-
ance in the case of a newly-constructed railway at a
time when the traffic and the revenue therefrom
must of necessity be light, but with the gradual
evolution of the enterprise and from explorations
which are being made in all directions, it would
appear that the period of light traffic will be of
short duration.

Considering, therefore, the very low grades
which have been secured on the Mountain Section,
as shown in the foregoing, together with the
character of the country to be traversed, which

204 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

abounds in mineral and agricultural wealth, the
Company's prospects have indeed been promising
since its inception, and they are growing brighter
day by day.

Coincident with the selection of the route
through the Rocky Mountains has been the loca-
tion of the terminus on the Pacific coast, which, if
one feature can be considered more important than
another in collection with the development of the
Company's plans, this question may very properly
be so treated, in view of subsequent events which
will result therefrom. At the outset the subject
presented many difficulties, as the British Columbia
coast does not possess many favourable harbours,
and it therefore became necessary for the Com-
pany's harbour engineers to explore and examine
the coast with the object of ascertaining the loca-
tion best suited for the purpose. This work was
diligently prosecuted for about a year, embracing
all the available harbours within the limits of the
province, with the result that the point selected,
namely, Prince Rupert, is situated within fifty miles
of the southern extremity of Alaska, and is reached
from the Pacific Ocean via Dixon Entrance and
Brown Passage. Prince Rupert Harbour possesses
some of the greatest advantages to ocean shipping
that can be found along the entire Pacific coast.
It has a direct channel passage leading into it of
more than half a mile in width, and is sufficient in
extent to accommodate enormous shipping. Mr.
P. M. Bredt, Dominion Government Inspector of

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 205

Agencies, who made the trip up the British Colum-
bia coast by steamer from Victoria to Skagway,
Alaska, thus describes it in the Victoria Daily
Colonist of October 6, 1906 : " It is certainly the
most picturesque country one could imagine. We
were delighted and surprised at its grandeur ; it is
like several Norways in one wonderful panorama.
Among many other changes for the better that I
noticed was that of the improved conditions of
travel. The boat in which we made the trip was
commodious and comfortable, luxuriously fitted with
the latest improvements, with the additional recom-
mendation of good cuisine and attendance, a good
sea-boat, a genial commander, and pleasant and
capable officers. We enjoyed the trip immensely,
and were fortunate enough to have as fellow-pas-
senger, President Hays of the Grand Trunk Pacific
Railway. We had thus the chance to visit Prince
Rupert. In my opinion it is an ideal location for
the terminus, and the harbour is unsurpassed on
the coast. At present the hydrographic survey is
still incomplete, and mariners enter for the first
time with natural caution ; but once having made
the entrance, they say that they would have no fear
about entering at any time. While we were there
the weather was very stormy, with a nasty sea
running outside. Inside, however, it was perfectly
calm, the position being well protected from the
prevailing winds.

" Certainly," continued Mr. Bredt, " there is room
there for a great city, and Digly Island would make

2o6 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

an ideal suburb or summer resort. Communication
would have to be by ferry, I think, though the
dividing passage is narrow and the distance short —
not greater than between North Vancouver and
Vancouver City, if as far ; it would be practically
a part of the city.

11 There is plenty of activity in evidence at Prince
Rupert ; houses for the engineers are being rapidly
constructed, and gangs of men are busy clearing
land for the town site. Already there is a very
serviceable wharf which they intend to extend im-
mediately, and everything seems to point to quick
development."

The site is a picturesque one. The land slopes
back gently for distances ranging from half a mile
to two or three miles. Here and there the ground
rises abruptly, providing the necessary fall for drain-
age and sewerage ; while a shore line five or six
miles in extent sweeps around the front of the city.
The view from these elevated stations and from the
back is a charming one. On the opposite shore
mountains slope down to the water. To the north-
west, through a channel studded with islands, is
situated the famous Indian village of Metlakatla,
known on the coast as the M Holy City."

It is situated about 550 miles north of Van-
couver, and, on account of this northerly location,
it is estimated that the new Trans-continental Rail-
way will possess the shortest route from Liverpool
to Asiatic ports by at least two days' sail ; and this
saving in distance will also be realised between

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 207

American Atlantic ports and trans-Pacific points.
It lies in the centre of the salmon-fishing industry
of British Columbia, being in the immediate vicinity
of a large number of canneries which ship their
product throughout the world ; and here is also to
be found, off the banks of Queen Charlotte Islands,
the finest halibut fishing that is known to exist, tons
of which are being taken annually to supply eastern
markets, and this traffic will be greatly augmented
upon the completion of transportation facilities right
at hand. Indeed, it can hardly be otherwise than
that the enormous traffic which now awaits the
advent of the railway, and that which will result in
the future from the great development which has
recently been taking place in this northern country,
will take the railway at the nearest point, and thus
avail of the expeditious transportation thereby
afforded as against consuming many hours longer
by water route to southerly ports.

Of incalculable advantage and benefit to this
new enterprise is its relation to the Grand Trunk
Railway Company of Canada, with its 4800 miles
of railway, on which is situated all the cities and
the principal towns in eastern Canada, among the
former being Windsor, London, Hamilton, Toronto,
Montreal, and Quebec. Montreal, the first city of
the Dominion, situated at the head of ocean navi-
gation on the river St. Lawrence, must always
maintain her position as the metropolis of Canada,
with her splendid harbour and her unlimited re-
sources for industrial growth. The city of Quebec

208 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

also promises great development with the advent
of the new Trans-continental Railway ; and these
advantages will be largely augmented in conjunction
with the Grand Trunk Railway, occupying, as the
pioneer railway of the Dominion, the strongest
position in the way of terminal facilities and track
connections with eastern manufacturing plants and
for export shipping. Halifax and St. John, the
principal cities in the Maritime Provinces, with their
growing population and constituting the Canadian
seaports on the Atlantic, which will be reached by
the new railway, will be large and important con-
tributors to its traffic. Not alone are these advan-
tages confined to Canada, but situated on this great
railway system are also the large cities of Chicago,
Detroit, Toledo, Buffalo, and Portland, in the United
States. With this unrivalled position, which can
only be obtained by any transportation company
after years of labour and experience, the new Trans-
continental Railway will at once become an exclusive
partner, and from the beginning will be placed in
possession of an enormous general traffic already
created and originating on the Grand Trunk Rail-
way system, but hitherto being carried into the
North-West over other lines.

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 209

THE GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY COMPANY
OF CANADA

REPORT OF THE DIRECTORS

April 1909.

The Directors herewith submit to the Pro-
prietors the Accounts of the Company for the half-
year ended the 31st December 1908.

1. The following summary shows a comparison
of the half-year's Revenue Account with that of
the corresponding half-year, ended 31st December
1907 :—

31st December 1907.

31st December 1908

^3,763,246 Gross Receipts, as per Account No. 7 ,£3,382,841 10 o
Deduct —
2,710,934 Working Expenses, being at the rate
of 71.61 per cent., as compared
with 72.03 per cent, in 1907 . . 2,422,413 11 o

Net Traffic Receipts

,£1,052,312

Add—
16,013 Amount received from the Interna
tional Bridge Company
900 Interest on Toledo, Saginaw, and
Muskegon Bonds
6,507 Interest on Bonds of Central Ver
mont Railway
66,491 Interest on Securities of Controlled
Lines and on St. Clair Tunne
Bonds acquired by the issue of
Grand Trunk Four per Cent. De-
benture Stock ....
52,171 Balance of General Interest Account

,£1,194,394 Net Revenue Receipts .

,£960,427 19 o
16,012 16 7

6,506 14 3

68,739 7
42,625 17

£1,094,312 14 6

210 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

2. The following are the net revenue charges
for the half-year, compared with the corresponding
period, as per Account No. 8, viz. : —

31st December 1907. 31st December 1908.

^77,603 Rents (Leased Lines) . . . £77,603 o 9

492,279 Interest on Debenture Stocks and

Bonds of the Company . . 498,624 6 8

42,757 Interest on Debenture Stock and
Bonds of Lines consolidated with

60,365

,£673,004

5,785

the Grand Trunk Company .
Canada Atlantic Railway deficit

Deduct — Detroit, Grand Haven, and
Milwaukee Surplus

Leaving a surplus of . ,

36,394

43,378

££55,999

3J39

5

4

18

6

9
1 1

1
9

,£667,219

527,175

£1,194,394

,£652,860
441,452

£1,094,312

n
3

14

4

2

6

3. Adding the balance of £1625, 19s. 2d. at the
credit of Net Revenue Account on the 30th June
1908, to the above surplus for the past half-year of
£441,452, 3s. 2d., the total amount available for divi-
dend is £443,078, 2S. 4d., from which the Directors
recommend the payment of the following dividends,
viz. : —

Dividend for the half-year on the Four per Cent.

Guaranteed Stock ,£196,800 4 3

Dividend of Five per Cent, on the First Preference

Stock 170,841 10 o

Dividend of Two and one-half per Cent, on the

Second Preference Stock .... 63,210 o 4

£430,851 14 7

Leaving a balance of £12,226, 7s. 9d. to be carried
forward to next half-year's account.

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 211

Gross Receipts.

4. The following table exhibits a comparison
of the receipts for the half-years ending the 31st
December 1908 and 1907 : —

Description of Receipts.

1908.

1907.

Increase.

Decrease.

Passengers

Mails and Express . .
Freight and Live Stock .
Miscellaneous ....

£
1,072,408

169,302
2,046,367

94,764

3,382,841

£
1,162,593
174,604
2,347,182

78,867

1

15,897

£
90,185
5,302
300,815

3,763,246

380,405

5. Traffic Statistics.

1908.

1907.

Decrease.

Passengers carried .

6,017,560

6,291,396

273,836

Average fare per pas-

senger ....

42.77d.

44-35d.

I.58&

Tons of freight and

live stock . . .

8,086,716

8,881,347

794,631

Average rate per ton

60.73d.

63.43d.

2.7od.

Tons carried 1 mile .

',435,357,i8i

1,710,193,134

274,835,953

Earnings per train-

mile

82.9od.

8$.8ld.

2.9id.

The

average rate per ton per mile on
entire freight business was 0.69 of a cent
pared with 0.67 of a
half-yea r.

the
, corn-
cent in the corresponding

212 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Working Expenses.

6. The working expenses, excluding taxes,
amounted in the half-year to £2,350,067, or 69.47
per cent, of the gross receipts, as compared with
£2,646,670, or 70.32 per cent, in the corresponding
half-year ; a decrease in amount of £296,603, and
of 0.85 per cent, in the proportion of the gross
receipts.

7. The following table exhibits a comparison of
the revenue expenditure, including taxes, for the
half-years ended the 31st December 1908 and
1907:—

Description of Expenditure.

1908.

1907.

Increase.

Decrease.

Maintenance of Way and
Structures ....

Maintenance of Equip-
ment

Conducting Transporta-
tion

General Expenses. . .

Taxes

Total ....

£

568,395
414,450

1,286,819
80,404
72,346

£
583,457
538,968

1,445413
78,833
64,263

£

1,571
8,083

£

15,062

124,518

158,594

2.422.d.I4

2,710,934

72.03

61.82^/.

288,520
0.42

2.45^.

Percentage of Gross Re-
ceipts

Expenditure per train-
mile

7I.6l

59-37^

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 213

Train Mileage.

8. The train mileage of the half-year compares
with that for the half-year ending 31st December
1 907 as follows : —

Description of Mileage.

1908.

1907.

Increase.

Decrease.

Passenger

Freight

Mixed Trains ....

Total . . .

4,440,222

5,102,507

250,497

4,622,481

5,654,836

248,005

2,492

182,259
552,329

9,793,226

10,525,322

...

732,096

9. From the foregoing statements it will be
observed that the gross receipts for the half-year
show a decrease of £380,405, or 10. 11 per cent.;
the working expenses, including taxes, a decrease
of £288,520, or 10.64 per cent. ; and the train mile-
age a decrease of 732,096, or 6.96 per cent.

Capital Account.

10. The actual expenditure on Capital Account,
as detailed in Account No. 5, was as follows : —

£ s. d.

New Works 44,783 1 6

Double Track 58,576 6 5

Land Purchased .... 4,325 14 1
Grand Trunk Western Fractional

Certificates purchased . . 88 10 o

£io7,773 12 o

2i4 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

ii. This amount of £107,773, 12s. was reduced
by £1987, os. 5d., representing the premium on Four
per Cent. Debenture Stock sold and exchanged,
thus making the total charges to the Capital
Account for the half-year £105,786, us. 7d.

Rolling Stock.

12. The details of the stock of engines and cars
belonging to the Company are shown in Account
No. 6.

13. Two passenger, 30 freight, and 5 switch
engines were purchased, and 15 engines scrapped;
and 10 first-class cars, 3 mail cars, 1 derrick, and 2
caboose cars were built in the Company's shops
during the half-year, on Revenue Account.

14. The amount at the debit of the Engine
and Car Renewal Suspense Account at the 31st
December 1908 was £544,149, 10s. 9d., of which
£246,116, 16s. 8d. was in respect of engines, and
£298,032, 14s. id. in respect of cars.

15. The amount which has been expended on
account of these special renewals in advance is
£554,794 in respect of engines, and £826,963 in
respect of cars, or a total of £1,381,757, which
amount was to be charged to revenue over a
period of five years, commencing with 1906.
During the years 1906 and 1907 there was
credited to this account, by charges to revenue
and by credits for engines and cars sold, the
sum of £752,750, and during the year 1908

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 215

£84,858, leaving the above-mentioned balance of
£544,149, 1 os. 9<d. still to be charged.

Canada Atlantic Railway.

16. The gross receipts of the Canada Atlantic
Railway Company for the half-year amounted to
£207,662, against £244,147 in 1907, a decrease of
£36,485, and the working expenses were £187,939,
against £242,409, a decrease of £54,470, leaving a
net revenue balance of £19,723, against £1738, an
increase of £17,985, compared with the corre-
sponding period of 1907.

17. The net revenue charges for the half-year
were £63,101, against £62,103, so that there was a
net revenue deficiency of £43,378, compared with
£60,365 in 1907. This deficiency is debited in
Account No. 8.

18. The number of passengers carried during
the half-year was 275,871, against 280,844, a de-
crease of 4973, or 1.77 per cent. ; and the passenger
train receipts, including mails and express receipts,
were £49>°32> against £56,973> a decrease of £7941,
or :3-93 Per cent.

19. The quantity of freight moved was 1,192,452
tons, against 1,137,372 tons in 1907, an increase
of 55,080 tons, or 4.84 per cent. ; and the re-
ceipts from freight traffic were £153,141, against
£181,193, a decrease of £28,052, or 15.48 per
cent.

216 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Grand Trunk Western Railway.

20. The gross receipts of the Grand Trunk
Western Railway Company for the half-year
amounted to £587,541, against £683,757 in 1907,
a decrease of £96,216, and the working expenses
were £464,031, against £578,802, a decrease of
£114,771, leaving a net profit of £123,510, against
£104,955, an increase of £18,555, compared with
the corresponding period of 1907.

21. The net revenue charges for the half-year
were £99,187, against £88,970, so that there was, on
the 31st December, a net revenue credit of £24,323,
which amount is carried forward, as compared with
£15,985 for the corresponding half-year of 1907.

22. The number of passengers carried during
the half-year was 919,597, against 953,235, a de-
crease of 33,67,8, or 3.53 per cent. ; and the pas-
senger train receipts, including mails and express
receipts, were £2 1 7,762, against £230,649. a decrease
of £12,887, or 5-59 per cent.

23. The quantity of freight moved during the
half-year was 1,555,695 tons, against 1,842,873 tons,
a decrease of 287,178 tons, or 15.58 per cent, and
the receipts from this traffic were £368,162, against
£452,606, a decrease of £84,444, or 18.66 per cent.

Detroit, Grand Haven, and Milwaukee Railway.

24. The gross receipts of the Detroit, Grand
Haven, and Milwaukee Railway for the half-year

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 217

were £186,803, against £206,671 in 1907, a decrease
of £19,868 ; the working expenses were £145,831,
against £163, 156, a decrease of £17, 325; thus leaving
a balance of £40,972, against £43,5 15, a decrease in
net revenue of £2543, compared with the corre-
sponding half-year of 1907.

25. The net revenue charges for the half-year
were £2>7^2>h against £37,730 in 1907, so that there
was a net revenue surplus of £3139, as compared
with £5785 for the corresponding period of 1907.
The above surplus of £3139 is credited in Account
No. 8.

26. The number of passengers carried during
the half-year was 446,936, against 440,979, an in-
crease of 5957, or 1.35 per cent. ; and the passenger
receipts, including mails and express receipts, were
£70,300, against £73>77%> a decrease of £3478, or
4.71 per cent.

27. The quantity of freight moved was 925,289
tons, against 844,891 tons in 1907, an increase
of 80,398 tons, or 9.51 per cent. ; and the receipts
from freight traffic were £109,616, against £127,356
in 1907, a decrease of £17,740, or 13.93 Per cent

Grand Trunk Pacific Railway.

28. The erection of the important bridges at
Battle River and Clover Bar, near Edmonton,
having been completed, the laying of the remainder
of the track between Winnipeg and Edmonton is
being proceeded with, and will be finished during

218 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the present season. The Company has been in-
formed by the Dominion Government that it is
expected the line between Winnipeg and Lake
Superior Junction will be completed during the
summer, in which case — the Lake Superior Branch
being already completed — there will be a continuous
line from Fort William, on Lake Superior, to
Edmonton, of about 1250 miles, available for the
movement of this year's harvest.

29. Owing to the unprecedented increase in the
cost of labour and materials which took place in the
years 1906 and 1907, the expenditure on the Prairie
Section has exceeded the estimates by about
$10,000,000, and the Canadian Government, recog-
nising the causes of such increase as having been
beyond the power of the Company to control, and
upon the report of their engineer, have agreed to
ask Parliament to authorise them to advance the
above sum to the Grand Trunk Pacific Company
at 4 per cent, per annum for ten years, on the
security of bonds of the Grand Trunk Pacific Rail-
way guaranteed by the Grand Trunk Company.

On behalf of the Board,

C. RIVERS WILSON, President.

Dashwood House, London,
6th April 1909.

The gross receipts amounted to ,£2,919,192 and
£3,382,841 for the half-years ended 30th June

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 219

and 31st December 1908 respectively. The gross
receipts for the June half-year of 1909 amounted to
,£2,866,468, and the gross receipts as published
weekly for the December half-year of 1909 amounted
to £3,605,806.

Canadian ambition is not even limited to the
possession of world-visited harbours on the Atlantic
and Pacific — she desires also to have an outlet
through James and Hudson Bay to the ocean
above Labrador and south of Greenland, a great
mass of country lying nearest to the British Isles.
This was the dream of Prince Rupert, after whom
much territory in the far North-East was called.
The man who charged with such desperate bravery
upon the Cromwellian infantry with his cavalry at
Edgehill was equally ready, with much less potent
weapons than is on land the shock of charging
steeds, to attack the ice-floes of the Arctic, and he
had much reason to believe that access to the
American continent could be had by means of the
gigantic gulf which looks on the map as though
its farther extremity left a mere strip of land
between itself and the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Ever since Prince Rupert's day sailing-vessels
have in the summer-time made successful voyages
to what was afterwards called Fort Churchill. If
sailing-vessels could regularly perform this voyage,
and could with almost mathematical certainty, or
at all events with very few losses, execute their
errand and bring back a cargo of furs, it seems to

220 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

stand to reason that steamers can do more. To be
sure, a period during which it is safe to dare the
melting fields of ice and to find a free channel is
but brief, but steamers are not now dependent on
paddle-wheels, which can be easily crushed, or single
screws, whose blades may be broken. The steamers
fortified against the ice and possessing three screws,
as in the turbine system, should make the passage
safely and swiftly. They should be able to enter
through Hudson Straits in any convenient number.
It would not be necessary for them to remain long
at Churchill, or at the mouth of the Nelson River,
or at any place chosen as possessing the deepest
water. They could come away swiftly, and if the
percentage of loss among sailing-vessels using this
route for over two hundred years has been small,
why should we anticipate disasters to the infinitely
better equipped fleet? It is these considerations
which have made Canadians consider whether it
may not be possible to ship far more than furs from
such a port during a brief period of the year.

The enormous crops of wheat, it is urged, may
also be sent where only the skins of wild animals
formerly left the country, and surveys have been
made which show that it is no very difficult en-
gineering task to build a railway along the Nelson
River to this northern sea.

A gallant colonel in the Canadian militia, who
is, like many of his comrades, a very competent en-
gineer, recently made an interesting journey which
took him from the Saskatchewan to where the Little

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 221

Churchill River becomes practicable for canoes. He,
with a white comrade, got together some Indians
who had some acquaintance with the stream ; he
made a successful descent along the Little Churchill
to where it joins what is called the Big River of
the same name. At the junction of the streams
the Indians said they had heard that the water
was very difficult below, and that they could not
proceed further. It required much persuasion
before they would undertake to man the canoes for
his further progress, but the Colonel persevered,
and they embarked, only to find very soon that he
had undertaken a most difficult exploit. The stream
ran more and more swiftly, the rapids of the river
became more dangerous, yet to land on either bank
was impossible. The shore ice still fringed the edge
of the water, and the canoes, had they attempted
a landing, would have been in danger of being cut
to pieces. So on they flew, the Indians managing
the craft with marvellous skill. But sixty miles of
strong and broken water had to be passed before
they at length could cease from incessant watchful-
ness and strenuous labour. Then onward with far
less trouble they let the stream carry them, halting
at nights to make camp where in many places the
Colonel observed silver foxes among their brighter
coloured brethren. Arriving happily at Churchill,
the return journey was made up the Nelson River,
and the results of surveys duly communicated to the
Government at Ottawa.

A minor difficulty which can be easily overcome

222 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

is the shallowness of the water alon^ much of the
shore of James Bay. If grain be stored in the
quantities anticipated at any railway line, it will be
a question of detail what method will be the quickest
to transfer it to the ships, which must, in all proba-
bility, lie pretty far out until dredging or other
engineering operations can be undertaken to let the
ships come alongside the wharf. Indeed, this diffi
culty is evidence of a very curious fact — the whole
of the northern portion of the continent seems to
be rising from the sea with a quickness rare in
geological annals. Millions of years have probably
been occupied in raising or depressing many of the
land surfaces which have either been overflowed
by the ocean or have been raised therefrom. But
along the James Bay shores you will see bones of
whales and other marine animals lying considerably
above the present high-water mark of the tide.
Again, throughout the lake- and pond-pitted country
north and south of the Saskatchewan you will find
marshes and shallow pools and alkaline stretches
of surface water in every appearance and stage of
desiccation. The haunt in autumn of the white-
plumaged pelican, and swan, and geese — birds which
still make many of these lakelets look as though
they were sown with seed pearls, when they are
migrating south with their young families, reared
during the spring-time in the lonely arctic regions
— all these haunts are seemingly being raised to
become mere depressions in the great plains covered
with prairie grasses.

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 223

Canada now numbers between 7,000,000 and
8,000,000 people, and the citizens elect their own
governments, legislating in a Federal capital, repre-
senting a nation growing every day in strength and
self-confidence. She is as proud as ever of being
the leading nation outside of Britain in position, yet
one with her in blood, sentiment, and pride in the
Empire. The confidence the colony placed in early
times in asking Britain to undertake a representa-
tion of her interests in foreign countries is continued,
but now the mother country welcomes the direct
representation of Canada through one of her states-
men in associating him with the trained diplomatists
named by the British Government to support any
colonial contention.

We have elsewhere quoted an eminent Canadian
lawyer, Mr. Justice Longley, who has recently vin-
dicated the manner in which, even in the earlier
times, British ministers backed up in negotiation
the desires of Canada. He goes back to the pro-
ceedings after the War of Independence. The
American commissioner, Franklyn, proposed that
what is now Nova Scotia, on the Atlantic, should
be included in the United States. Part of the
country which was held to be Canadian under
the French treaty of 1763, by the Quebec Act
of 1774, including a territory as far north as
the Great Lakes, became American at a date
when no actual maps existed, and it was sup-
posed that the Lake of the Woods was the
mother of the Mississippi. But great as was the

224 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

concession to the revolted colonies of lands practi-
cally unknown, the British commissioners succeeded
in keeping for the united Empire and loyalists a
vast territory, much of which is turning out to be
as good as anything to the south of the boundary
land, and to be possessed of some advantages which
no part of the United States except the frontier
states can boast. The principal of these may be
held to be the freedom of Canada from the presence
of the black man. The negro imported from West
Africa for the sake of labour in the hot south and
in all the country up to a line drawn east and west
from Washington, has influenced for the worse all
lands where he may be found. His presence may
be a necessity in climates where white labour cannot
be easily employed ; but white men are far better
without him. The wholesome winter frost of
Canada's snow gives rest to the soil, and exiles the
negro. It may be affirmed that the British com-
missioners did more for their young colony than
would have been possible if their young communities
had been rich enough to have survey officers in
the Government at that time. The boundaries
fixed by the treaty of 1 783 were drawn at a time when
Maine was part of the province of Massachusetts,
and Nova Scotia included New Brunswick. The
northern boundaries of these states extended to
the St. Lawrence. The treaty of 1763 gave up
New France or Canada to Great Britain. In those
days tracks inland were chiefly along the rivers,
and it shows how important they were when it

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 225

became a principle to be followed as far as possible,
that each Government was to possess also the
sources of the rivers if they occupied the territories
through which they empty into the sea. Through
all the disputes for rectification of boundary we
see this river claim or height of land claim used
by one party against the other as emigrants
came ; and these local disputes were always
arising. In 1827 a war was threatened regard-
ing the land of St. Lawrence highlands, and the
King of the Netherlands was made the arbitrator.
Again in 1839 rival timber merchants came to blows,
and commissioners from London and Washington
settled the matter, and these disputes were again
laid aside by a treaty of 1842, and there is no
doubt that the British Government did their best
for the Canadian colonies in questions where neither
of the national Governments desired to see the
matter determined by war. War had indeed broken
out in 18 1 2-1 5, and thereafter a treaty in 1818
decided on the question of relative interest. The
United States renounced the right to take or cure
fish from anybody's water except from some parts
of the water of the coast of Newfoundland and
Labrador, and then the important question of the
boundary in the west was settled at the 49th parallel
north latitude. Geographical knowledge halted at
the Rockies. At that time the Mexican Govern-
ment was in possession of California, and Russia
and the Hudson's Bay Company were only be-
ginning to explore the countries which were to

p

226 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

them respectively Far East and Far West. They
called everything except California by the name
of Oregon.

The Americans at one time seemed to wish to
insist upon the 54th degree line, which would have
taken most of British Columbia, and the British on
their side wished for the mouth of the Columbia
River, and the commissioner again settled the
present boundary, and thus again the Britons did
their best to secure for Canada most valuable
ground. In 187 1 again the Colonies could certainly
not complain of any laxity on the part of Britain ;
the mother country was quite ready to back up with
arms the forces of Canada had they been drawn
into trouble through sympathy with the South, or
through the unpleasantness resulting from the
seizure under the British flaa- of the Southern com-
missioners, Messrs. Mason and Slidell, or, again,
through the escape from arrest in England of the
steamer Alabama. This last matter was indeed a
most difficult one. British law did not provide
for the arrest of any ship upon mere suspicion.
The Alabama got away before she had given
ground for any seizure. I remember another vessel,
called Pampero, which was also supposed to be fitting
out as a warship for the Confederacy, but there was
no evidence against her. She was narrowly watched ;
the ordinary operations of a vessel fitting for sea
could not give occasion for action against her. She
was preparing for sea at Bowling on the Clyde,
whence merchant vessels free under international

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS OF CANADA 227

laws were steaming every month across the
Atlantic to take their chance of capture in run-
ning the barricade of southern ports. What was
to distinguish the Pampero from any barricade
runner, supposing she were destined for that
lawful trade ? There was nothing. Still, up to the
moment of her sailing, the Government officials
watched her, and then suddenly one morning they
pounced upon her and arrested her. Why ? Because
they found that her decks had been strengthened by
extra timbers just below her ports. The decks
must have received their strengthening timbers in
order to support the weight of cannons ; had she
not put in those few extra planks she would have
escaped, but the addition of these finished her
chance. Upon such slender evidence was it neces-
sary for the Government to act? The wonder is,
not why one Alabama escaped to prey upon
American commerce, but why there were not a
dozen or more ships of her class upon the high seas.

CHAPTER XII

THE CONFERENCES— WHAT THEY MEANT

Face to face talk every four years up to 1909 — Great Britain remains
impassive under Cobden ideas — Colonies prove that their import
duties have benefited them, increased capital, kept up wages —
They continue to offer Great Britain Preference — And hope she
will join in moderate Import Duties against foreigners — Elec-
tions in 1908-1909 seem to show that Conferences are changing
British views in favour of Colonial desires.

The Conference which ended in the so-called
Liberal Governments ''banging the door' on any
arrangement involving a difference in Fiscal Treat-
ment between Britain and her Colonies, and Britain
and Foreigners.

The good done in having conferences every three
or four years, and thereby making clear to the
Empire the position of each member of it, regard-
ing common questions, has been shown by the ex-
perience of the first meetings. People in Britain
denied that the Colonies asked for preferential
treatment. They were confuted by representative
after representative of the leading Colonies. The
position of the present Government in Great Britain
was made equally clear. They would not face the
chance of any unpopularity at home for the sake of

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 229

the Colonies. They believed any distinction made
in fiscal matters to be wrong economically. They
thought with Cobden and Bastiat, and would not
believe that the experience of the Colonies applied
to home affairs. They were willing to consider help
to steamers and cheap mail services, but all must
depend on the feeling of the foreigner. If he were
hurt, or any of Cobden's doctrines violated, they
would never dream of such encouragement to
" sister States," never do anything that might
alienate the affections of foreigners, who have
always shown themselves wherever they are, to be
such real, dear, and true friends to us under all
circumstances, and would never, never offend them,
or take on themselves any of the fiscal risks the
Colonies take on themselves. The Colonies' posi-
tion was that they had benefited in their experience
of a tariff against foreigners, and that they had used
it to advantage, and given Great Britain a large
preference. They intimated that they would
give foreigners an intermediate advantage which
would not swamp Great Britain's advantage, when
foreigners desired to deal with them. They did
not want Great Britain to do anything to burden
her poor. But they denied from their own experi-
ence that any such result could flow from a moderate
import duty and preference to Colonies.

Hear what Sir Wilfrid Laurier said : Why was
not a universal preference given ? Because the
economic conditions are not the same. In Great
Britain you have an old country, wealthy, with nothing

23o YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

new to do. In the new countries we have to create.
We feel strong enough in Canada to give a preference
to the old country on all our manufactures. In
Australia and New Zealand, &c, they are not yet
strong enough. It is essential to leave to each
country the extent of the preference they may
give.

Speaking on behalf of Canada, Sir Wilfrid em-
phatically declared that it was Canada's desire to
give a preference to all other Colonies. It will be
seen he has no fear of inter-State arrangements of
this nature producing hate between them as im-
agined by some of our British Free Traders, to be
the effect of Britain and her Colonies pursuing this
policy.

We have, he said, "a tariff for general pur-
poses, and a preferential tariff. Between these we
have an intermediate tariff. The object of this is
to enter into arrangements with other Powers to
have trade arrangements with them. (This has
since been sought with several.) France, for in-
stance, would take our intermediate tariff, knowing
there was a lower differential tariff under all cir-
cumstances for the Mother Country and other British
dominions.

" The present preference in favour of Great
Britain is 33 £ per cent. If France or another
Power had the intermediate tariff, the preference
in Britain's favour would be reduced as compared
with France by 3 or 4 per cent., but never more
than 5 per cent. Instead of having a preference of

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 231

33I, Great Britain would have a preference of 28.
That would be the limit."

Mr. Deakin, head of the Australian Govern-
ment, said : It seems that the mere procedure
of the House of Commons is to be put against
the idea of tariff and preference. Surely the
House of Commons knows how to make nice
habits curtsey to great occasions. Why should no
preference be possible to Great Britain unless it
were scientifically perfect ? No tariff and no budget
in any country ever fulfils such conditions. We
must not shirk new departures because they will be
criticised. Life moves in contest and criticism.
Any fear of this means that our opponents condemn
our whole system of free Parliamentary Government.
Any objection that the right of criticism of taxation,
or, in other words, " grievances before supply,"
must be discussed in the House of Commons, is an
objection against any treaty with foreign Powers.
You must not do what the Colonies have done for
fear of making discriminations ! You must not ask
anywhere for most favoured nation treatment for
fear of bringing yourself and your relations with
them into the field of conflict ! What we have
in mind is a general agreement of a simple
character at first, which might be extended. Its
enlargement would be based on experience. I am
not aware that in Canada the resolutions passed,
though not reciprocated, produce hate against Great
Britain !

These are some of the disastrous consequences

232 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Mr. Churchill imagined. Any new course invites
challenge in the first instance. Then it abates : One
looks to experience when all these theories of fearful
consequences are paraded. What is our experience
after granting preference? In Canada, New Zea-
land, South Africa, we have eager politicians, yet
they don't " blackguard " each other because they
have to make arrangements in detail on tariffs
between each State ! In Australia we had all these
theories. Dear food for the people — intercolonial
hate, &c. &c. — all were alleged to be inevitable.
Experience, that great teacher, showed in time that
all these fears were baseless. We have been through
the precise experience imagined for this old country
by Mr. Churchill, and we have found nothing to
justify such morbid anticipations. It is unnecessary
to imagine that nothing done can be withdrawn.
No self-governing community would part with its
rights over its own taxation for more than a very
limited period. No preference is proposed in per-
petuity. Each of the countries in the Empire,
having entered into a treaty of reciprocity for a
limited period, would hold to it without undue ex-
acerbation on the part of its politicians or people.
We have tried it, and therefore know. Another
argument at present used by British Ministers is
that if you do something, you will have to do a
great deal more. Our experience does not warrant
that conclusion. We have gone back when we thought
we had made a mistake, and gone forward when
we thought wr had made a success.

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 233

Sir Wilfrid Laurier — Of late Canadian prefer-
ence to British trade has been $3^ per cent, and has
increased British trade with Canada from 29 millions
to 69 millions in 1907. Canada has a large free
list, which covers all raw materials. All canals and
railroads, as well as the tariff, are designed to
throw trade towards Mother Country. We have
done all we can. We have told the British there
is a way of doing more by preference in mutual
trade. In the Conference of 1902 our proposed
resolutions were : " That this Conference recognises
that the principle of preferential trade between the
United Kingdom and His Majesty's dominions
beyond seas would stimulate and facilitate mutual
commercial intercourse, and would, by promoting
the development of the resources and industries
of the several points strengthen the Empire."
There is a qualification in the next statement :
"That this Conference recognises that, in the
present circumstances of the Colonies, it is not
practicable to adopt a general system of free trade
as between the mother country and the British
Dominions beyond seas. That in view, however,
of promoting the increase of trade within the
Empire, it is desirable that the Colonies which
have not adopted such a policy should, so far as
their circumstances permit, give substantial pre-
ferential treatment to the products and manufac-
turers of the United Kingdom."

Canada does not desire that the British Govern-
ment should do anything contrary to British people's

234 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

interests. Each member of the Empire must judge
of its own interests. But when Canada passed the
resolution of 1902 Britain had put a duty on corn,
and Canada thought it would be good policy to give
a preference on such duty — that is, that Canadian
corn should come into England at less price than
foreign. But the British Parliament thought other-
wise, and removed the duties on corn instead of giving
Canada a preference. The next resolution was
" That the prime ministers present at the Conference
undertake to submit to their respective govern-
ments the principle of the resolution, and request
them to give effect to it." Another resolution was :
11 That, with a view of promoting increase of trade
within the Empire, all Colonies should give pre-
ference to the United Kingdom." Since then
almost all have shown desire to give preference to
Mother Country. Now let us see if Sir Wilfrid
Laurier and others who have had experience share
the fear that negotiations for preference must
engender hatred ! Sir Wilfrid continued by saying
that he endorsed Mr. Deakin's resolution : " That
it is desirable that the preferential treatment ac-
corded by the Colonies to the Mother Country
be also granted to the products of other self-
governing Colonies." Sir Wilfrid said : " I should
subscribe with both hands to this ; and on be-
half of the people of Canada I would be pre-
pared to enter into an absolute arrangement.
Any preference we give to the Mother Land we
give to you."

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 235

Sir William Lyne — British imports are decreas-
ing to our own sister States. This is so in Australia
enormously, as against foreign imports. Australia is
convinced that preference given by Australia would
do much to change this for Britain's good.

They want to have the chance given by England
of supplying England with most of what is now
supplied by foreigners.

If England puts on a slight duty, more wheat
would be grown in Colonies.

Now 55 per cent, of wheat she consumes is
supplied from within the Empire; 45 per cent, is
foreign. It would not be difficult to supply the 44
per cent, with a little encouragement, from Imperial
sources alone.

Foreign countries are too dependent on our trade
to desire to raise prohibitive imposts against us.

Each part of the Empire should help their
countrymen of the Empire as against foreigners.

" The true policy would treat the Colonists
as if they inhabited an English county, giving
them liberty to grow and manufacture what
they pleased. It would differ from the system
of the Free Traders, for, in place of disadvan-
tages, it would give them, in common with all
their fellow-subjects, an advantage in the Imperial
markets, and take in return a reciprocal advantage
in the Colonial markets, instead of being opened to
all, as now, without distinction, would give a pre-
ference to British subjects. It requires little fore-
sight to see how powerfully self-interest would

236 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

bind the Colonies to the Mother Country and the
Mother Country to the Colonies."

Sir William Lyne said that it was in his recol-
lection that Australian harbours used to see little
but the Union Jack on the ships that came. Now
the German and French flags were at every wharf.

Mr. Lloyd George was convinced that to tax the
food of the people is to put an undue burden on the
poorest in Great Britain for the sake of Imperial
co-operation ; but desired to assist in this by other
means.

British trade is good as compared with Pro-
tectionist countries. Twenty-five per cent, increase
in five years with Germany, United States, and
France in manufactured goods. There is not a
great market in the world in which we have not
more than held our own. Wages are better in Great
Britain, and go further in purchasing necessities.

Temptation to increase duties would be irresistible
if forced by France or Germany. It would tell on
poor. Unemployment is not on the increase. As
to good trade, take cotton. We have in Great
Britain increased our trade by 20 million pounds
in four years. In shipping we have four times as
much as she has with all her subsidies.

Great Britain is best customer Colonies have.

Appointment of consuls in Colonial countries
might be made to assist trade knowledge. In-
crease speed of vessels, and so shorten distance be-
tween Great Britain and the Colonies. Imperial
commercial travellers might be appointed. State

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 237

subsidies for shipping not so useful as organisation
of railway system for encouraging Colonial trade.
The German railway is a bonus on exports, and the
British railway is a bonus to the foreign exporter
to this country. Germany through- rate-system is
good — Railways there are the States', and through
co-operation of all lines can afford to make up loss
on some lines regarded as important.

It will be seen that Mr. Lloyd-George based
his objections on supposed rise of food prices with-
out more money to pay for them.

Mr. Winston Churchill objected to protection
or preference on political, parliamentary, and diplo-
matic grounds.

Parliament would discuss all items for preference
or protection, and breed hostility in Colonies by
criticising items which they desire.

Instead of .present family feeling, there would
arise a mere business partnership, or even partner-
ship would become unpopular. Every tax would
have to figure every year in British Budget. The
opposers of preference would point out that Britain
does not get proportional value. Balances would
be set up between Colonies and Mother Country.
Reciprocal preference would involve interference
with principle of self-government. Before voting
preference British Members of Parliament might
try to interfere with a Colonial government's action
which the British representative might have dis-
liked. This would be an inexhaustible cause of
friction. "Grievances before supply" would be

238 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

brought forward on both sides, British and Colonial.
Neither side would be any longer free, and the
"preferences " would become locked preferences.

Preference means enhancement of price. You
will breed hatred to Colonies if each thing is done
for them means dearer food.

It will be seen that Mr. Churchill's speech
shows : Belief that preference means protection ?
But why must we go too far? Why may not
moderate preference be sustained? Is not this like
saying we cannot try the temperature of water
without bathing altogether in it?

Colonies do not hate each other because they
bargain. The family would only always have most
favourable treatment — an expression and practice —
not destruction of diplomacy or good understanding.

Mr. Deakin — The special circumstances of this
country seem to us to offer a margin even in respect
of food-stuffs and raw material, in which both of
those could be dealt with, and effectively dealt with,
to our great gain, yet without altering the place
which the United Kingdom has to-day as the best
market for foreigners in the world. We deem it
necessary that each country does what is judged best
for itself. We study our own interests, and expect
Great Britain to do the same. If the result of
having duties and granting a preference is to
build up dominions beyond the seas, it should be
remembered that they were, are, and are likely
to be the best customers of this (old) country.
Consequently you have a direct trade interest in

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 239

multiplying their population and increasing their
consuming power by preferences.

We have no dogmas. Our method is to study
each industry and its needs, or each kind of pro-
duction, and to see how far it will pay to foster
it. I agree with Mr. Schultz, when he sees how
British trade with Colonies has been decreasing
as compared with their trade with foreigners : " We
give to our rivals great advantages. We give our
rivals a free market of 43 million British to add
to their own free market in their own country."

Preferential trade and retaliation against foreign
countries which penalise our trade, as in the case
of food to Germany, are among the several means
by which the Empire can recover its lost ground
in trading. "Where the treasure is, there will the
heart be also." We should place our treasure within
the Empire. Australia asks if it can retain its
present trade without preference in British market.
It cannot. Denmark, for instance, gets railway
preference, cutting out our butter by the action
of railway companies. Australia is by far Eng-
land's best customer, so encourage our trade with
you !

By British trade with foreigners you build up
their mercantile marine. The want of unity of
the different parts of our Empire enables foreign
countries to adopt various courses inimical to
British interests.

The power possessed by the British by the
possession of a great market is little realised.

2 4o YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

United, it is enormous. It is a case of all for
each, and each for all. See how Germany retired
from its position of antagonism to Canada, which
Germany assumed when Canada granted preference
to the British manufacturer. We do not plead (in
asking for preferences in trade) for something
which is to involve sacrifices to any member of
the Empire, but for a co-operation which is to be
mutually beneficial.

Mr. Joseph Ward (New Zealand) — New
Zealand has honest desire to place her position
before the British Government. If homeland sees
proper to reciprocate the preferences we have given,
New Zealand would be only too glad to extend
the system upon a mutual basis. I believe that
if a rise in the price of food to the British people
were to be proposed, they should not accept any
such proposal. It is because I do not believe that
any rise in food prices would come from a pre-
ference on certain articles that I am in favour of
preference : goods pay double duty with us if they
are of foreign extraction. If you give the Colonies
a chance, the competition between them for the
British market will give you an article at as low
a price as you would get it from foreigners. It
is because I believe this that I desire a line to be
drawn between protection and preference on certain
articles as against the same articles from foreign
countries.

I am glad that trade correspondents have been
appointed by Great Britain to the Colonies. Could

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 241

British and French ships not have preference in
rates in passing the Suez Canal ? We want
Australia and New Zealand brought within twenty
days of London — by steamers on Pacific (twelve
days), rail across Canada (four days), steamers
across Atlantic (four days). It can be done.

Dr. Jameson — Mr. Rhodes made the proposal
of preference to the Old Country in 1890. We
(Africa) ask for preference. We wish the principle
established ; however small it is, we will be thank-
ful. England was built up by protection ; after
sixty years of so-called free trade she is finding
herself handicapped. Other nations are catching
her up. Our idea is that having preference within
the Empire might lead to free trade within the
Empire, and that again would compel fiscal im-
provement among outside nations, and practically
compel free trade throughout the world.

The Hon. F. R. Moor (Natal)— Wants pre-
ference and lowering of passenger rates, through
Government help, on steamers to Colonies.

Sir James Mackay (India) declared himself
against the Colonial proposals. Speaking of what
he thought were the interests of India, which
country does well under existing conditions, any
change might bring retaliation against India on
the part of foreign countries.

If she remained outside any Imperial combine,
she would still be subjected to this danger. Any
measure which disturbs the natural course of her
trade must reflect unfavourably, not on Indian trade

Q

242 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

alone, but on that of the whole of the British
Empire.

General Botha wished the resolution of 1892
to remain unaltered. Each country must judge
for itself. England at last election pronounced
against preference.

Sir Robert Bond said ditto to Sir Wilfrid
Laurier.

Mr. Asquith — We are all agreed that each
country must judge for itself. At present we all
are well affected to each other. We have found
free trade good, but we do not press it on any
member of the Empire. We do not complain if
duties are imposed against British goods. The
vital necessity of free trade for Great Britain is
more proved than sixty years ago, in Cobden's time.
How otherwise could we maintain our good position
against competition of all the world ? We do the
carrying trade of more than half the world. By
free trade we have been able to have cheap food.
Curtail that and raw materials, and we damage our
people.

We have the " most favoured nation clause "
with all our chief rivals. We stand better in the
foreign protected markets than do foreigners.
Lately our trade has been growing still greater
in those markets. No tariff rule can exclude good
British articles. {Note. — If this be so, could small
preference to Colonies have any bad effect?)

Colonial preferences amount to very little. Yet,
in return for them, Great Britain is asked to give

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 243

up free trade, which you call a fetish, and we think
must remain our principle.

Sir William Lyne — The food of the working
classes would not be dearer to them in Great
Britain. Over half of the wheat you use comes
now from British possessions. It is ridiculous to
think that 2s. per quarter charge on foreign
wheat would raise prices. Give us your market,
and you will see it would not. It would cheapen
the cost of production to us. More land would come
under wheat.

In estimating relative positions of Great Britain
and foreign States, you must look only at the propor-
tion Great Britain still enjoys of our trade. The
foreigners are catching you up. Their proportion
of trade with your Colonies is always increasing as
compared with your proportion. Your so-called
free trade is restricting your trade within the
Empire.

In regard to foreign reprisals (if you gave pre-
ference and put a duty all round), each nation claims
its own rights, and all fully understand that each
must protect its own people's industry.

Great Britain and the Colonies are now help-
ing to build up huge foreign navies, because, by
refusing preference, you divert employment to
Germany.

Adam Smith says : " Retaliatory duties are a
matter for deliberation when a foreign nation re-
strains by high tariffs."

Give us money to quicken communication. With

244 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

better steam communication, emigration to Australia
would increase.

Dr. Smart (Cape) pointed out how, generation
after generation, there was a less proportion of those
who knew British ties, and who would therefore not
regret making commercial ties with others. All
the Colonies want a low tariff and preference here.
In India, I think the majority of Anglo-Indians
want this also — perhaps a majority of educated
Indians. Sir James Mackay, who had objected in
India's interest, asked for lower duties on tobacco,
and hoped that if Great Britain gave preference to
Colonies she would give it to India also. Then
you are going to give preference to Ireland in
growing tobacco. Why not do more ?

Australia gives preference to South African
alcohol. Give us preference now on tobacco and
wine and corn. Although Russia puts a tax on
Indian tea, there is more sent to Russia than ever.
This shows that such necessities do not feel a
small tax. It is true, as stated, that, relatively to
foreigners, Great Britain is not keeping her old
place. Our wine trade was great in Cobden's day.
His French treaty half ruined it. Sixty years ago
we sent 800,000 gallons ; now there is not more
than ^6000 worth where there would have been a
gigantic trade. (It is easy to mix the African wines
as the French do.)

Mr. Asquith — You would persuade our people
that free trade is a fetish. A penal duty on grain
and foreign produce is wholly alien to British

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 245

ideas, and, once introduced, the change will pro-
duce antagonism that must produce either total
free trade or total protection. There is no com-
parison possible between the two. {Note. — And
this is said with prosperous Holland, with mild
tariff, in view — a tariff much milder than before !)
Britain would not give any preference which
shall be even-handed, doing justice to each Colony
as compared with others, unless you include raw
materials. It can only be done by taxing food
and raw materials — that is, shortening the supply
of food and materials for manufacture. I know you
dispute that. {Note. — They all did.) But that is
what we believe. But though I will not tolerate
preference, I agree that foreign steamship subsidies,
and railway rates, and commercial intelligence, and
more full communication between different parts
of the Empire, the cheapening of the Suez Canal
charges, are good, and we are most anxious to con-
sider how to assist in all these matters.

Sir Willam Lyne thought Mr. Asquith's speech
unfavourable to Colonial wishes. We cannot, any
of us, allow our labour to be paid as is Asiatic
labour. India, therefore, cannot be put on the
same plane.

The position has advanced since 1902. We
have put the matter before our country, and the
result is a House unanimous for preference.

Australia's offer is not small. It amounts now
to ,£1,200,000 of preference. Twenty million colo-
nists ask Great Britain to consider this question.

246 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

As to extra cost of living, it would not tell. We
have areas large enough to supply Great Britain
with wheat-flour. If we get the home market we
will put enough land under crops. I do not
think there is the slightest danger so far as the
British consumer is concerned. Australia exports
70,000,000 bushels, and imports about 46,000,000.
This trade is being sucked away by foreigners to
foreign ports. Foreigners are sucking away the em-
ployment and the life-blood of the Mother Country.
The younger generation are getting callous. To
prevent this, our young men should know more
of Great Britain, and she of us. Unless closer
commercial relations are encouraged, unity will be
undermined. We warn you of dangers attacking
the whole Empire. Our harbours were full of
British ships. It is not so now. Foreigners are
largely there. The foreigners have now a tonnage
in Australian waters equal to Great Britain. Trade
returns show great relative losses for Great Britain.
Australian Governments have tried to encourage
British trade by giving contracts to British in pre-
ference to foreigners, but the foreign tide of success
rises steadily. Where we can supply raw material,
why not give us preference ? You have in Great
Britain a margin of importation which comes mainly
from the foreigners, and that we seek emphatically
to be given an opportunity over the foreigner to
supply to you, and at no greater price. A slight
preference in our favour would not make British
people one penny the poorer. I may say that in

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 247

New South Wales the effect of a protective tariff,
small as it is, averagely low as it is, has given
that country a revenue, through the customs, which
has allowed it to pay ^600,000 a year in pensions
to the poor. We give them 10s., or, if married,
£1 per week.

Dr. Jameson (fourth day) reminded the Con-
ference that when he was speaking here the most
able statesman in South Africa was speaking there,
saying that reciprocity was an absolute necessity if
the existing preference in South Africa, at all events,
was likely to be continued.

Mr. Lloyd George — We are not in a position
to tax food-stuff and raw materials here. We agree
with all you say on co-operation except as to ways
and means. We wish to make sacrifices ; but to
tax food would be to put this sacrifice on the
poorest and helpless, and to tax raw material would
fetter us in fighting our rivals in trade. Our trade is
good with foreign Powers, actually and proportion-
ately. We must calculate by both these standards.
In machinery, for instance, although we have only
40 millions of people to Germany's and the United
States' 140 millions, we export as great a value as
both of these countries. Our men are paid higher
wages than Germany gives her workmen. In cot-
tons also we do well, and pay workmen better than
in Germany. Cheap labour for the cheaper pro-
ducts, and dearer labour for the dearer products, is
Mr. Deakin's rendering of our position as stated by
me. Mr. Chamberlain was right in pointing out

248 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

that foreign tariffs had made our trade ^o down in
1903. Since then there has been a turn, and there
has been a great rise in exports to protected
countries. Excluding ships, this has changed from
71 \ millions in 1902 to 90 millions in 1906. Trade
with the Colonies in the same years has gone up
from 94 millions to 107 millions. All this does not
include our coal exports. There is not a great
market in the world in which we have not more than
held our own in the last few years. As to wages, a
report made under a Conservative Government said
Germany's wages are two-thirds of ours, and France
gives three-fourths only what we give labourers. . . .
That was said in 1902. We have more than held
our own under Free Trade. We are told that 2s. a
quarter on wheat would make no difference. See
what happened when in Germany this duty was only
2s. 2d. She went on to 6s. and 10s., then dropped
to 7s. She was pushed on to higher prices. That
is what we are afraid of here. But when Germany
had only 2s. on as duty, the price of wheat in Ger-
many was in excess of our price by 2s. Of course
preference to Colonies would affect the result with
us, and not with Germany, who has no wheat-grow-
ing Colonies ; but you in the Colonies could not
give us enough — no, not by millions of bushels of
wheat — nor by tens of millions of bushels.

Dr. Jameson here said no Colony dreamt of
hurting the poor Britisher. Preference, not Protec-
tion, was what was wanted. In reply to Mr. Lloyd
George asking how long it would be before the 150

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 249

million bushels could be provided necessary to the
Britisher, it was declared that 100 million was
produced now. Sir Wilfrid Laurier said Canada
anticipated raising 600,000, but could give no
specified date, saying it was contingent. Mr. Lloyd
George said we can't make the poor man's bread
contingent. He proceeded to say he would be
glad if emigration could be encouraged to Colonies.
Our fluctuations in numbers of unemployed are less
than in protected countries. In shipping we have
four times what Germany has of mercantile marine
tonnage. British shipping with the Colonies amounts
to 20.V million tons. The foreign tonnage is only one-
sixth or one-seventh of ours. Foreigners begin to
trade direct with you, without the British middle-
man employed by them before. The moment they
buy from you, that creates trade. You colonists
start buying back. As long as we were the pur-
chasers we British got all the advantage ; as soon as
they bought they got some advantage. That is our
Free Trade argument. The fact that we trade
freely with the whole world makes them buy from
us. Let us go from this question, which the last
elections have settled for the present, to other
matters you desire. Cheaper cable communication
is desired ; commercial agents are wanted ; better
communications for passenger traffic and transport.
All this we desire also.

Mr. Winston Churchill objected to Preference
from political and diplomatic points of view. De-
bates on duties would embitter Parliament against

250 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the Colonies, and would create hostility and retalia-
tion against Britain in foreign countries.

Sir Wilfrid Laurier said a week had passed
in debate, and he intended to move again the
resolution of 1902. He rejected the idea of agree-
ment on Zollverein lines. In Germany commercial
unity preceded political unity. It is the reverse
with us.

The Colonies must have duties to encourage
manufactures. Great Britain at present wants only
u Free Trade." We have given you 33^ per cent.
(Arote. — Remember that Sir Wilfrid Laurier, speak-
ing for a tariff, shows that the national policy, ex-
cluding as far as possible foreign manufactures— a
policy bitterly fought against by his party in 1877 —
receives now his and his party's entire assent,
proving how beneficial all parties in Canada acknow-
ledge a tariff to have been proved to be to that
country.) Each country must "Go as you please."
Our preference is on goods liable to excise duty —
tobacco, spirits, &c.

The following resolutions were carried : —

1. That this Conference recognises that the prin-
ciple of preferential trade between the United Kingdom
and His Majesty's Dominions beyond the seas would
stimulate and facilitate mutual commercial intercourse,
and would, by promoting the development of the
resources and industries of the several parts, strengthen
the Empire.

2. That this Conference recognises that, in the

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 251

present circumstances of the Colonies, it is not prac-
ticable to adopt a general system of Free Trade as
between the Mother Country and the British Dominions
beyond the seas.

3. That with a view, however, to promoting the
increase of trade within the Empire, it is desirable that
those Colonies which have not already adopted such a
policy should, as far as their circumstances permit,
give substantial preferential treatment to the products
and manufactures of the United Kingdom.

4. That the Prime Ministers of the Colonies respect-
fully urge on His Majesty's Government the expediency
of granting in the United Kingdom preferential treat-
ment to the products and manufactures of the Colonies,
either by exemption from or reduction of duties now or
hereafter imposed.

5. That the Prime Ministers present at the Con-
ference undertake to submit to their respective Govern-
ments, at the earliest opportunity, the principle of the
resolution, and to request them to take such measures
as may be necessary to give effect to it.

Commercial Relations.

That, without prejudice to the Resolutions already
accepted or the reservation of His Majesty's Govern-
ment, this Conference, recognising the importance of
promoting greater freedom and fuller development of
commercial intercourse within the Empire, believes
that these objects may be best secured by leaving to
each part of the Empire liberty of action in selecting
the most suitable means for attaining them, having
regard to its own special conditions and requirements,
and that every effort should be made to bring about
co-operation in matters of mutual interest.

252 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Conime7'cial Relations and British Shipping.

That it is advisable, in the interests both of the
United Kingdom and His Majesty's Dominions beyond
the seas, that efforts in favour of British manufactured
goods and British shipping should be supported as far
as is practicable.

This terminated the last Conference.

The Arguments used on each Side —

This is what zuas said, briefly summarised.

Sir Wilfrid Laurier and Mr. Deakin both re-
peated the former conference's results — namely, the
request by the Colonies, the refusal by the home
Government of acceptance of resolutions binding
the old country to change her ways ; and Lord
Salisbury was quoted as saying in 1887, when con-
ferences were first commenced : "I fear that we
must, for the present, put in the distant and
shadowy portion of our task, and not in the practical
part of it, any hope of establishing a Customs
Union among the various parts of the Empire. I
do not think that in the nature of things it is
impossible ; I do not think that the mere fact that
we are separated by the sea renders it impossible.
In fact, the case of Ireland, which has a Customs
Union with England, shows that it is not impossible.
But the resolutions that were come to in respect to
our fiscal policy forty years ago (this was said in
1887) set any such possibility entirely aside, and

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 253

it cannot be now resumed until on one side or the
other very different notions with regard to fiscal
policy prevail from those which prevail at the pre-
sent moment."

Then, as now, the old country was " free trad-
ing," the Colonies protectionist. The first confer-
ence took up the question of preferential trade in
the proposal of Sir Samuel Griffin : " The govern-
ing bodies of the Empire should see that their own
subjects have a preference over foreign subjects in
the matter of trade." He continued : " If any
member of the Empire thinks fit to impose cus-
toms charges, it should be recognised that goods
coming from British possessions should be subject
to a lighter duty than those coming from foreign
countries." Sir Samuel represented Queensland.
Mr. Service for Victoria, Australasia, also said : " I
am not a Free Trader who believes in Free Trade as
a fetish, or hold that circumstances may never arise
which might demand a revision of our policy on the
subject of Free Trade." Mr. Deakin in 1887 also
said : " It is not for the Colonies to urge this pro-
posal as one which would be of benefit to them. It
is an imperial matter, and until the head and the
heart of the Empire have become convinced, our
voices must be futile."

There was another conference at Ottawa in
1894 which recommended the cancelling of any
treaties hindering the Colonies from making their
own tariff arrangements — and also resolved that
the governments confer on preference for the

254 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

United Kingdom. The Cape representative, Mr.
Hofmeyr, proposed a slight tax on all foreign
goods, the proceeds to be given to common naval
defence. He thought any small tax on food in the
United Kingdom would have but little effect, and
that for a short time only, in any rise of price. In
1897, when we next met, Preference was still a live
question. At every conference this issue of a
general tax, and Preference to those within the
Empire, has been raised. The resolution of 1892
Sir W. Laurier desires to have reaffirmed now in
1907. Lately many members of Parliament sent
to Australia a message remonstrating against Aus-
tralian parliamentary candidates advocating a tax
on food in Britain on account of her many poor.
The Australians only repeated with emphasis their
request. We only ask what we believe will be a
benefit to both parties. But each party must be
the judge if there be benefit. Great Britain is the
best market in the world. If it becomes slightly
less so to the foreigner, this would not check his
dealing with Great Britain.

What is the impression left on the mind of the
reader of these speeches ? Is it not that the spokes-
men of the old country are afraid to move, while
the representatives of the young States are not
only not afraid, but, having experienced the benefits
they desire to make general, are full of confidence ?
Great Britain declares that she has so many poor,
so many helpless, that she cannot provide food for
them if they be likely to lose anything of the pittance

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 255

that supports life within them at the present time.
She fears any change from her presentposition, which
is one, she says, that has made her an opulent country.
But this opulence does not make her enterprising in
her policy. There are too many among the opulent
who hunger. She is afraid to move — afraid of her
own people who, she imagines, will, when poor,
suffer yet more, and will, when rich, compel her
Government to raise even higher that tariff wall
which she thinks will hurt her poor, and should
therefore not be built at all. It seems a strange
state of nervousness for statesmen to display ! On
the other hand, the young States and statesmen say :
"Our people were poor, and have become rich by
preserving for themselves their own market. We
were a mere dumping-ground for the manufac-
tures of others beyond our borders — foreigners
who desired to keep us mere purchasers of their
manufactures, wishing that in return we should only
send them raw materials and food supplies from agri-
cultural lands. Now, we can supply them both
with these things, and we can supply them also
with manufactured goods because fiscal arrange-
ments have been made to give our people a chance,
which they have used, to manufacture all things
wanted by our people. Ever since we began this
system of mild Protection we have prospered.
Capital has been attracted to our lands. Cities
have increased. Men and women have come in
ever greater numbers to share our prosperity ; and
the old land has watched and been elad of her

256 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

children's success, but is afraid to follow their ways,
because she fears that her own people will push
their own Government too far, and make what may
be wisdom into foolishness." Is it not a strange
fear ? Will not the very pressure, if there be in-
creased poverty, prevent people from going too far ?
But the young States say: "You need not go
one inch further than you find for your benefit.
We don't press you. We only say that our parties
who fought against a tariff now declare for it. No
voice is against it, though there was as much fear
as you now show. Preference for friends while you
keep up a tariff for your people cannot hurt you —
for it will encourage you and us. It will make our
friends over seas more numerous. It will give
capital to us who are your friends. It will give
more employment to your poor at home, and pro-
vide them with more chances when your people
come to us. It is not necessary to do much at
once. States on the continent of Europe have low
tariffs. They and we have made abatements when
we saw it to be advisable. Five per cent, against
the foreigner is not much, and not likely to cause
disturbance to any extent if you keep a preference
for our goods — a preference that will help us and
you. But 5 per cent, can be tried at first. No
one desires you to make your poor still poorer.
Try what has succeeded with us — at first try it on a
small scale. It can be altered if it does not pay.
We are always altering our tariffs according to con-
venience and experience, but we desire always to

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 257

give the old country the best terms. We may be
tempted to give nearly as good terms abroad, but
we do not wish to do this. We want to deal with
our kith and kin at home. Our people have known
how to prevent unduly high tariffs being put on.
Why should the old country be less able to do this
than are her children? See how many firms of
foreigners are now putting capital into our country
by putting up factories. So does capital flow in.
Look how in Canada there are now industries where
thirty years ago there were none. Look at our
agricultural implements, our furniture, even sew-
ing-machines (as at Montreal and Belleville), where
we manufactured none before. There was no use
formerly in placing our money in these factories.
As soon as we did so the country was artificially
flooded with cheaper goods of the kind we wanted
to make ourselves, and our enterprise collapsed.
Then up went the artificially and temporarily
lowered prices. Now how different ! We manu-
facture, and we tempt others to employ our people
by spending money on erecting factories to employ
our people and manufacture what we want at home.
We have not feared to face fears and hostile
theories. We have dared, and daring, have suc-
ceeded. The voice of the theoretic Free Trader is
silenced in our lands, and with his disappearance
has come prosperity. What is there to be afraid of?"
" Ah, but," say the timid ones, " tell us exactly
what you mean to do. On what scale do you mean
to act ? "

R

258 YESTERDAY AXD TO-DAY IX CANADA

The reply is, we must act as circumstances in
each case direct. A low general tariff is necessary.
How much must depend on circumstances, and
beyond that each article must be judged separately.
You may as well stop a crowd at the entrance of
Bond Street, and say " Ladies and gentlemen, before
you are allowed to shop in this street, you must tell
the world exactly what it is you wish to buy, and
the price you mean to go to for each thing." The
examination would be impossible, for there would be
hundreds of wants, and no one would promise that
the article would please before examination. The
outside that any one could promise would be, " Well,
I'll spend more than twenty shillings in Bond Street.
Beyond that anything may be spent, according to
wants." A tariff is made by experience. The
want of a tariff is made by fears, nightmares, and
philosophic theories.

I close with words written in 1890, which still
hold good : " If England is always to defend the
Colonies, as I hope she always will, the equivalent
hope may be expressed that to the best of their
power the Colonial Governments will assist her in
her need in the same way. It is in this direction
that in the future some understanding will be
arrived at. It is the first and longest step in the
consummation of a real federation. But the desire
for these matters must be felt by the colonists, the
need recognised, before England can properly urge
more than discussion and consultation. If Australia

WHAT THE CONFERENCES MEANT 259

manages to do that which the statesmen of America
and Canada were able to do, and for which her
statesmen should be equal, and found a Union, then
another stumbling-block in the way of federation
will be removed, for we shall have a representative
of the Dominion of Australia, as we have a High
Commissioner representing Canada. The High
Commissioner has since the creation of the office
been a statesman in the closest touch with the
Federal Government. His value as a representa-
tive, placed on equal terms with the British Pleni-
potentiary when foreign treaties have to be adjusted,
has been amply proved, and the united Australian
States or Provinces will find that such a representa-
tive is necessary. His appointment would make
the formation of an Imperial Council more easy.
But in saying this, I speak only words I have heard
from Australians competent to judge. There is no
doubt that some participation in Imperial Council
must be arranged for in the near future. The Con-
ference summoned two years ago was of great
service, and it may be repeated with advantage.
It would, however, be well not to repeat it too
often. Perhaps once in every three or four years
it might be arranged that such a Conference should
take place, and that questions and desires which
had in the meantime become prominent should be
talked over. There is but little doubt that the
range of items on which we at present in Great
Britain levy some slight duty could be extended to
the advantage of our Colonies. Articles of common

26o YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

use and manufacture do not rise in price under a
small duty. It is the more elaborate articles, re-
quiring costly machinery for their make and trans-
port for a distance before they are consumed, that
are raised in price by a tariff. It may be possible
for the Labour Unions in the several countries to
name those common articles which could be sup-
plied within the Empire, and for which we need
not be dependent on the foreigner. New South
Wales might join Britain in this, but it is to be
remembered that foreign retaliation in the exclusion
of goods must also be borne in mind, and any list
of articles asked for as dutiable should be con-
sidered with the greatest care, and conjointly by
the delegates appointed to their Conferences. Let
us back to the utmost of our power the desires
they may express, believing that any little sacrifice
will be repaid a hundredfold in the continued close
alliance of our strong brothers across the sea."

CHAPTER XIII

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE

Support of Colony in Treaties

It has often been said that the interests of
Canada have been sacrificed by Britain's faulty
diplomacy. I would like the reader to peruse part,
if not the whole, of an address delivered by Mr.
Justice Longley at Halifax in April 1909.

Has Britain Sacrificed Canada's Interests ?

Address delivered by Mr. Justice Longley, before the Canadian
Club at Halifax, April 6, 1909

For many years there has been a constant and
reiterated assertion in Canada that important in-
terests have been sacrificed by the Imperial Govern-
ment, either from incompetence or subservience to
the United States. On public occasions we are
accustomed to hear patriotic Canadians deplore the
humiliating losses to which this country has been
subjected by the stupidity of British diplomatists.
For many years we have heard from all quarters
the declaration that, through imperial weakness,
we were robbed of our just rights on the Alaska
boundary arbitration. And very recently at a dinner
in Montreal, at which Mr. James Bryce, the British

262 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

ambassador at Washington, was a guest, an en-
thusiastic Canadian took advantage of the occasion
to declare that, while Canada has great territories,
he wanted Mr. Bryce to understand that she had
none to give away. This was received with deafen-
ing applause, designed to impress the imperial
representative with the fact that Canada was going
to submit to no more imperial complacency.

Wholly Unjicst and without Foundation, — Such
a charge is a serious one under any circumstances,
and now that Canada is becoming a large, import-
ant, and almost entirely self-governing country,
claiming the right to make, or take part in the
making of our own treaties and bargains, the
question is one of moment, and ought to be carefully
looked into. The object of this paper is to show
that the charge is wholly unjust and without any
substantial foundation.

I propose to briefly review the incidents con-
nected with each of the important treaties and
arbitrations in which Canadian interests have been
involved, and attempt to demonstrate that in none
of them has incompetence been displayed by the
Imperial Government, nor is there a trace of a
disposition to make Canadian interests subservient
to the United States or any country whatsoever.

Discussion of Treaty of 1783. — It can scarcely
be claimed that Canada was directly concerned in
the treaty of peace and independence between Great
Britain and the United States concluded in 1783.
Outside of the thirteen revolted states there were

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 263

settlements in Acadia and along the St. Lawrence
River, mostly French. The latter was designated
" Canada," and had been acquired by conquest in
1759. The boundaries of French Canada were
extensive, and reached as far as the Mississippi
and Ohio Rivers. The war of suppression had been
carried on for years, under pressure from the King,
and repeated disasters were making it unpopular
with the English people. The great Lord Chatham
was denouncing it amid the plaudits of the nation.
The surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown had given
the coup de grace to Lord North's administration,
and another was formed under the Marquis of
Rockingham, with such advanced Liberals as
Charles Fox and Lord Shelburne as ministers.
Popular opinion demanded, and the new ministers
were anxious for, peace, and the Foreign Secretary
took steps to negotiate at Paris to this end. Lord
Shelburne selected as the British negotiator a Mr.
Oswald, who was a successful Scotch merchant,
whose wife had large estates in America and the
West Indies, and who, it was believed, would be
agreeable to Mr. Franklyn. As the American
Congress sent John Adams and John Jay, two very
able men, to co-operate with Mr. Franklyn in the
negotiation, it is scarcely deniable that he was
over-matched. Mr. Fox did not approve of Os-
wald, and had Thomas Grenville as his agent in
Paris. These negotiations are a long story.

The Story of the Negotiations. — Franklyn sug-
gested that Canada and Acadia should be handed

264 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

over to the new Commonwealth, and Oswald was
quite complacent about it ; but in the end the British
Government rejected this proposition. Mr. Henry
Strachey was sent to complete negotiations, and it
only remained to accept the independence of the
thirteen states and to fix the boundaries. The
boundaries agreed upon in the Treaty of Paris,
1783, were not strictly the boundaries between the
British possessions and the United States. France
was really a party to the treaty, as it was negotiated
under the eye and with the full knowledge of the
French Government. It was contemporaneous with
the treaty of peace signed between Great Britain
and France at Versailles the same day. The
boundaries fixed in that treaty were the boundaries
of the United States, and represented the area
to which that nation was to be confined. The
eastern and northern boundaries represented the
demarcation between the United States and British
territory. France and Spain held large areas
on the west and south of the original thirteen
states, and Great Britain could not have under-
taken to fix the limitations of the United States in
these directions. The boundaries of the United
States were, therefore, made in such a form as
not to interfere with territory held by France and
Spain.

Adjusted so that Territory was Affected. — But
they were adjusted in such a way that part of what
was Canadian territory under the treaty with France
in 1763, and by the Quebec Act of 1774, was added

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 265

to the territory of the original thirteen states. It
was urged by the American negotiators that to have
confined the United States to the actual boundaries
of the thirteen states would have left them without
room for growth and expansion, and, therefore,
concessions of western territory were granted as
far north as the lakes. But it must be borne in
mind that this land was entirely unsettled, and its
potential value could not then be realised as fully
as events have since demonstrated. The St. Croix
River was the extreme eastern boundary, thence
from its head-waters to run due north to the height
of land dividing the waters of the Atlantic from
those of the St. Lawrence ; thence along the high-
land extended to the Connecticut River at forty-five
degrees north latitude ; thence to run due west to
the St. Lawrence River ; thence the St. Lawrence
River and the Great Lakes were the boundaries.
From Lake Superior the line was to run west to
the Lake of the Woods; thence west to the Mis-
sissippi River, the head-waters of which were then
supposed to reach a point north of this line. Sub-
sequently it was discovered that the head-waters of
the Mississippi did not extend as far north as the
Lake of the Woods, and by subsequent treaty the
boundary was to extend westerly on the forty-ninth
parallel to the Rocky Mountains.

That Part which Extended to the Ohio. — Com-
plaint has always been made that the British
Government did not insist upon holding that part
of New France which extended to the Ohio and

266 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Mississippi Rivers. If this had been insisted upon,
the present great states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota would
have belonged to Canada. It seems to me very-
useless to revert to these old matters. The United
States negotiators would not agree to these boun-
daries. They urged that in parting from the old
country, it was in every way desirable that they
should separate on good terms.

They pointed out that this western territory
was essential to their growth and expansion. They
could scarcely hope to develop international pro-
portions if their boundaries were confined to the
strip of states along the Atlantic Ocean. British
commissioners, perhaps too complacently, conceded
a boundary which extended to the Great Lakes.
But it was done a hundred and twenty-five years
ago, and to moan over it is idle. The largest and
possibly the best part of the continent was left.
Canada has a territory nearly as large as Europe,
and ample for all the growth and expansion she
can achieve in a cycle of ages, and we can very
well afford to let the past rest. Let us develop
what we have and look to the future.

The Ashburton Treaty of 1842. — This is the
treaty concerning which the feeling is almost uni-
versal, that Canada's interests were sacrificed by
the ineffectiveness of British diplomacy, and there-
fore it will with difficulty be believed that a careful
study of the whole question will demonstrate that
it was the United States that suffered, and Canada

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 267

which gained. Yet, in spite of the long-cherished
convictions which have been held on this point, I
shall venture to present the other idea.

The difficulties concerning the eastern and
north-eastern boundaries of the United States
arose from the interpretation of the treaty of 1783.
In this is found the following clause : —

" ARTICLE 2. And that all disputes which might
arise in future on the subject of the boundaries of the
said United States may be prevented, it is hereby
agreed and declared that the following shall be their
boundaries, viz. : From the north-west angle of Nova
Scotia, namely, that angle which is formed by a line
drawn due north from the source of the St. Croix River
to the highlands ; along the said highlands which
divide those rivers which empty themselves into the
river St. Lawrence from those wThich fall into the
Atlantic Ocean to the north-westernmost head of Con-
necticut River ; thence east by a line which is to be
drawn along the middle of the river St. Croix from
its mouth in the Bay of Fundy, and from its source
directly north to the aforesaid highlands, which divide
the rivers which fall into the Atlantic Ocean from those
which fall into the river St. Lawrence."

Let it be borne in mind that the boundaries
fixed by this treaty were not new, but were in the
exact phraseology which had been already fixed by
imperial act at a time when all the sections con-
cerned were colonies of Great Britain. Maine was
then a part of the province of Massachusetts,
and Nova Scotia included New Brunswick. The
Quebec Act of 1774 fixed the southern boundaries

268 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

of Quebec as follows : " On the south by a line
from the Bay of Chaleur along the highlands which
divide the rivers that empty themselves into the
river St. Lawrence from those which fall into the
sea," &c.

In the charter of Nova Scotia to Sir William
Alexander in 1621 the western boundary of the
province was the St. Croix River to its source, and
a line thence northerly to the nearest water falling
into the St. Lawrence.

Extended to St. Lawrence at the First. — Origin-
ally, the northern boundary of Massachusetts and
Nova Scotia extended to the river St. Lawrence.
Their limits were therefore restricted by the pro-
clamation of 1763, made after the treaty with France
which ceded New France, or Canada, to Great
Britain, and the Quebec Act of 1774, which gave that
province a strip of territory south of the St. Lawrence,
extending to the highlands, or watershed, separat-
ing the streams flowing into the St. Lawrence from
those flowing into the sea.

The Words before and after Identical. — In the
treaty of 1783, therefore, the words used in describ-
ing the boundaries of the United States were exactly
the words which described the boundaries of these
provinces before the revolutionary war. The first
difficulty arose over the identity of the St. Croix
River. Another smaller river had come to be called
the St. Croix ; the present St. Croix River was called
the Scoodic. The Americans claimed to the St.
John River, the British to the Penobscot. To settle

1

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 269

this difficulty, a commission was appointed, consist-
ing of Thomas Barclay, of Annapolis, representing
the British Government, and David Howell, of
Rhode Island, representing the United States.
These selected Egbert Benson, of New York, as
umpire. Ward Chipman, senr., was counsel for
Great Britain, and James Sullivan for the United
States. Investigation revealed that the St. Croix
Island, on which De Monts spent the winter of
1604-5, was at tne mouth of the then Scoodic River.
The Scoodic, now the St. Croix, River was adopted.
The American commissioners acted absolutely fairly,
and the award was unanimous. Ward Chipman
was the most notable figure in the early life of New
Brunswick, its ablest advocate, and its strongest
man. He made a special study of this boundary
question, and he and his son, Ward Chipman, junr.,
afterwards Chief Justice of New Brunswick, con-
tinued to act as counsel for the British side in
further disputes. The St. Croix River was traced
to its source, and a monument erected, which was
ever afterwards recognised by all parties. Subse-
quent disputes were in respect of the line north of
this monument.

The Map used at Paris in 1783. — It is reason-
ably certain that the negotiators at Paris in 1783
used Mitchell's map of this section in their negotia-
tions, and the only highlands shown on this map
are those near the St. Lawrence River, not far from
the Little Metis River. Unquestionably, this was
the place where the parties thought the original line

270 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

was to run. It must be borne in mind that the
boundary of New France was exactly the same
between that province and Nova Scotia and that
province and Massachusetts. If Nova Scotia ran
to the highlands near the St. Lawrence, Massa-
chusetts went there. If Nova Scotia's boundary
was much farther south, then Massachusetts' would
be correspondingly south, for precisely the same line
— "the highlands separating the waters flowing into
the St. Lawrence from those flowing into the sea"
— the southern boundary of Quebec, applied both to
Nova Scotia and Massachusetts alike.

Much Difficulty might have been Avoided. — No
doubt existed at the early stages that in seeking the
north-west angle of Nova Scotia it was necessary to
cross the St. John River, and seek a point very much
farther north. If this due north line had crossed
the St. John River west of the Madawaska River, it
is likely that much subsequent difficulty would have
been avoided. It was never a question simply of
a few miles more or less of land, but there was
a most serious question involved in crossing the
St. John River east of the Madawaska. The only
means of communication between Canada and Nova
Scotia at that time was up the St. John River to the
Madawaska, thence by the Madawaska to the Temis-
couata Lake, thence by an easy road following an
Indian trail to the St. Lawrence. It was by this
route that parties went back and forth between the
two provinces from Halifax to Quebec. It was
down the Madawaska that settlers came that

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 271

founded the Madawaska colony, of which Edmund-
ston is now the centre, and which was about the
only settlement in the disputed territory. This
Madawaska route was not only the shortest and
most direct from Nova Scotia to Quebec, but it was
the only possible route in winter when the naviga-
tion of the St. Lawrence was closed. It was the
only route in winter from Quebec to England
through British territory. Mails were sometimes
sent to England, by courtesy, through American
ports, but war or misunderstanding might stop this
at any time, and as a military measure the Mada-
waska route must be kept open at all hazards.

A Man of Foresight and Intelligent Zeal. — The
first man to realise the seriousness of this feature of
the boundary was Sir Guy Carleton, at that time
Governor-General of Canada. The more this
remarkable man is studied, the more one is im-
pressed with his foresight and intelligent zeal. He
saw the difficulty as early as 1785, and took steps
to prevent this all-important route from falling into
the control of the United States if it could be
avoided. That the north-west angle of Nova
Scotia would cross the St. John River was not then
seriously disputed by any. Ward Chipman, the
best-informed man on the boundary, and the per-
sistent advocate of British claims, made this state-
ment before the St. Croix commissioners in 1797:
" A line due north from the source of the western
or main branch of the Scoodic or St. Croix will
fully secure this effect (to keep sources of rivers in

272 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

territory through which they empty) to the United
States in every instance, and also to Great Britain
in all instances except in that of the river St. John,
where it becomes impossible, by reason that the
source of this river is to the westward, not only of
the western boundary line of Nova Scotia, but of
the sources of the Penobscot, and even of the
Kenebec, so that this north line must of necessity
cross the river St. John."

His Object to keep open Commtmication. — In
1787 Lord Dorchester wrote to his brother, Thomas
Carleton, the Governor of New Brunswick, request-
ing him to appoint a surveyor-general to meet a
similar officer in Quebec, to determine the boundary
between the two provinces. His object was, as
expressed in his letter, to keep open the communi-
cation. While the dispute with the United States as
to the boundary was still outstanding, he made an
appeal to his brother, the Governor of New Bruns-
wick, to settle the boundary between New Bruns-
wick and Quebec in such a way as would be averse
to the American claim that the boundaries of Maine
went so far north. His foreseeing judgment recog-
nised that the case against the United States could
not be successfully resisted if New Brunswick per-
sisted in claiming a northern boundary so near the
St. Lawrence, because the northern boundary of
New Brunswick and Massachusetts was the same.
The New Brunswick Government absolutely refused
to yield a foot of their claim north at the very
moment that they were using every effort to curtail

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 273

the northern boundaries of Maine, which were
identical with their own.

United States Claim to St. Lawrence High-
lands.— When it became essential to contest the
claim of Massachusetts to the boundaries which the
terms of the treaty manifestly gave her, in order to
preserve the Madawaska route, every form of
ingenuity was resorted to to escape the full claim to
the highlands near the St. Lawrence. New Bruns-
wick surveyors professed to discover a few hills
forty miles north of the monument at the head of
the St. Croix River, and these hills were seriously
contended for by Mr. Ward Chipman as the high-
lands of the treaty, although in no sense did they
divide the waters flowing into the St. Lawrence
from those flowing into the sea, and notwithstand-
ing his previous statement that the line must
inevitably cross St. John River and run north of it.
All sorts of surveys were made, and various pro-
positions were propounded, but the United States
would accept none of them, and stoutly maintained
its claim to the highlands near the St. Lawrence.

Settleme?it formed on Disputed Territory. — In
time the inevitable happened. Settlements were
formed on or near the disputed territory, and these
ultimately came in conflict in 1827, and war was
threatened. To avert hostilities, a convention was
agreed upon, submitting the points in dispute to the
King of the Netherlands. After hearing all that
could be said and submitted on both sides, he made
an award, which gave to the United States nearly

s

274 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

all they claimed, but fixed a compromise line which
gave to New Brunswick and Quebec the Mada-
waska River and the St. John River down to where
the line due north from the head of the St. Croix
strikes that river just beyond Grand Falls — much
more indeed than the United States got under the
arbitration treaty — yet this decision was accepted
by Great Britain, New Brunswick, and Canada,
because it gave them the coveted route of com-
munication for which they had always contended,
but the United States declined to accept this award,
favourable as it was, giving them nearly all the
territory they had contended for.

In 1839 this disputed territory led to further
trouble. A collision occurred between rival lumber-
men, and armed men were sent to the scene by the
Governor of Maine and Governor of New Bruns-
wick. Fortunately, by the influence of the Wash-
ington Government, moderation prevented actual
hostilities. Once more the matter was referred by
mutual consent to a joint commission. Mr. Daniel
Webster represented the United States, and Mr.
Alexander Baring, Lord Ashburton, represented
Great Britain.

Canadians overestimate the Alleged Loss. — It
has been repeatedly asserted that Baring was a weak
man, and that Webster got the better of him. Mr.
Baring, though an able business man, and head of
the great Baring House, was, perhaps, not an
experienced negotiator. But Canadians prepos-
terously overestimate the importance of the matter

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 275

in dispute and the alleged loss that accrued. The
general impression is that the result of this conven-
tion was the projection of the State of Maine into
Canadian territory, and that but for this treaty, a
short line of railway from St. John to Montreal
could have been built on Canadian soil. A careful
examination into the matter will demonstrate that
this is a cherished illusion. The disputed territory
in the Aroostook valley amounted to twelve thousand
square miles of land, and if every foot of it had been
given to New Brunswick, the State of Maine
would still have projected to almost as large extent
as at present. The result of the convention was a
compromise, by which the United States got seven
thousand square miles and New Brunswick five
thousand.

The Dispute came to head after Treaty. — The
dispute between Quebec and New Brunswick as to
the boundaries between them, which had been
active for years before the treaty, came to a head
after the treaty. As it was impossible for the two
provinces to reach an amicable adjustment, it was
taken up by the Colonial Office under Mr. Glad-
stone. Two commissioners, Major Robinson and
Captain Henderson, were sent out to examine care-
fully into the boundaries between the two pro-
vinces, and these made their report, which, after
some further adjudication, was confirmed by the
Imperial Parliament. The boundary fixed was a
compromise. The commissioners had the assistance
and advice of Hon. J. W. Johnstone, at that time

276 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Attorney-General of Nova Scotia, and their report
is an extremely able, logical, and lucid statement,
doubtless the work of that great Nova Scotian.
One of the most remarkable features of this
report is that the commissioners hold that New
Brunswick is in the right in her claim for the St.
Lawrence watershed as her northern boundary. If
this be so, why was Maine not equally entitled ?
They also declare that New Brunswick has no
claim to any territory west of the due north line
and south of the highlands, and that Quebec has no
claim to any territory south of the northern water-
shed. Consequently the territory west of the due
north line does not belong to either. Then, pray,
to whom did it belong, if not to Maine? But the
commissioners declare that as by the treaty of 1842
this territory is British, they are called upon to
divide it as fairly and conveniently as possible
between the two provinces. This area amounts to
something like 5000 square miles, and it is appor-
tioned to these two provinces, to which neither have
a just claim ; and this is the way that Canada was
sacrificed by the Ashburton treaty.

Might have got Assent of Senate. — No con-
vention giving Canada the whole of this area could
have possibly obtained the assent of the United
States Senate. It was with difficulty that that
body was induced to approve of the treaty actually
made ; if nothing had been conceded by Mr. Baring,
there would have been no convention. The diffi-
culty would have grown acute, and certainly ended

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 277

in war. Was it worth while to go to war over
7000 square miles of timber land ? If New Bruns-
wick had obtained every acre she was seeking, so
far as I can make out from a careful examination of
the map, every foot of the present short line, from
Montreal to St. John, would still have been laid on
American soil, and many miles from any Canadian
territory.

Much has been said in respect to the use of a
map by Mr. Webster with a red line, said to have
been marked by Benjamin Franklin, which sup-
ported the British contention. A thorough investi-
gation into the matter disposes of any significance to
be attached to this incident. Mr. Webster had a
map, obtained from the archives at Paris, with a red
line, indicating a boundary favourable to British
claims, and he did make good use of it with the
United States Senate. But that this map was
marked by Franklin there is not a particle of proof.
Mr. Webster was Secretary of State, and naturally
anxious that his arrangement of the matter should
be ratified, and a troublesome and dangerous matter
of dispute be disposed of. His treaty encountered
the almost invariable fate of all treaties made by the
American executive, and signs were not wanting
that this treaty would fail of ratification. Mr.
Webster went before a committee of the Senate to
use his efforts to secure its assent, and one of the in-
genious and effective means employed by him was the
theatrical exhibition of this map, which so alarmed
the senators that the treaty was promptly ratified.

278 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

The Map sent to the King by Oswald. — But
history has made a further discovery in respect of
maps. At the very moment Ashburton was nego-
tiating with Mr. Webster there was in His Majesty's
archives in London a map sent to the King by Mr.
Oswald, showing the boundary line agreed upon
between Great Britain and the United States at
Paris, and this map placed the line exactly as the
United States claimed it. Whether this map was
brought to the notice of Lord Ashburton, or whether
he " concealed it " in his negotiations, is not known,
but scarcely any one would believe he would be such
a fool as to exhibit it, if he had it with him when
negotiating, and I fail to see why Mr. Webster
should be accused of moral delinquency for not ex-
hibiting his Paris map to Ashburton, even if it had
possessed any real validity.

The Oregon Treaty of 1 846. — At the conclusion
of the war of 1812-15, between Great Britain and
the United States, it became necessary to adjust
matters between the two countries by a treaty, which
was concluded in 181 8.

It will scarcely be claimed that in this treaty
Canadian interests were sacrificed. Under its
provisions, the United States was compelled to re-
nounce for ever the right to take or cure fish, from
any British water, except some parts of the coast
around Newfoundland and Labrador. Another
provision of this treaty was the adjustment of the
boundary between the United States and British
America in the west, where settlement was already

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 279

beginning. This was fixed at the forty-ninth
parallel N. latitude to the summit of the Rocky-
Mountains. Beyond that, little was known. Cali-
fornia was in possession of Mexico, Russia had
some fur-trading stations on the islands south of
Alaska, and the Hudson's Bay Company was pushing
its trading posts to the shores of the Pacific. All
north of California and south of Russian holdings
was known as Oregon. The arrangement, under
the treaty of 1818, was that this region should be
jointly occupied by the two countries for ten years.
In 1827 this was renewed by convention indefinitely.
In 1824 the United States made a treaty with
Russia, acknowledging her rights on the coast, as
far as 54 deg. 40 min. north latitude. In 1825,
Great Britain, by treaty, similarly acknowledged
Russian coast rights to 54 deg. 40 min. There-
fore Oregon included the strip west of the Rocky
Mountains between California and 54 deg. 40 min.

A Changed Attitude after Election. — The usual
result of joint occupation ensued. The American
fur traders, under Jacob Astor, were pushing their
posts on the Pacific, as likewise the Hudson's Bay
Company. Clarke and Lewis made their famous
expedition in 1806, and the reports of this sent
hordes of settlers from the western states across the
Rockies. The occupation was then joint, and the
authority equal ; but men cannot obtain grants of
land under a joint authority. The question grew
acute. The President, Mr. Tyler, was disposed to
have the differences referred to arbitration ; but this

28o YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

did not suit the political exigencies of the Demo-
cratic party on the eve of a presidential campaign.
They said, in effect : We are owners of North
America — the whole belongs to us. There is noth-
ing to settle. We will hold to 54 deg. 40 min. or
fight. With this tocsin they went to the country
and won — Mr. Polk, the Democratic candidate,
being elected. But, charged with the responsibility
of office, he did not choose to fight Great Britain,
and agreed to a reference to a joint commission.
The administration in this case took unusual pre-
cautions to secure a ratification of their proposed
action. All treaties and conventions, by the con-
stitution of the United States, are subject to ratifica-
tion by the Senate. Treaties have failed to secure
such ratification, chiefly on account of political con-
siderations ; but in this case, the wily Secretary of
State, Buchanan, secured the adoption in advance of
a resolution in the Senate, favouring a settlement on
the lines he was proposing to follow.

Foolish and Hot-headed on Both Sides. — Foolish
and hot-headed persons wanted the United States
to insist upon the 54 deg. 40 min. line, which would
have taken nearly all the valuable part of British
Columbia, including Vancouver Island. Equally
foolish people, mostly those interested in the fur
trade, wished the British Government to insist upon
the mouth of the Columbia River as a boundary.
Either proposition was preposterous, and would
never have been accepted by the other party. The
commissioners did the only rational thing that could

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 281

have been done — extended the boundary from the
Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, on the
forty-ninth parallel. Yet for generations we have
heard that Canadian territorial rights were sacrificed
by Great Britain, and even a professed judicial
writer of history of such respectability as Mr.
Thomas Hodgins, K.C., in an article in the Cana-
dian " Encyclopedia," finds occasion to refer to
this treaty in these terms : —

"In 1846, during the honeymoon of the timid
islanders and anti-colonial politicians, the diplo-
matic lever of the United States prised Great Britain
and Canada out of several millions of acres in the
Oregon territory, together with their British settlers
and traders, and a sea-coast of about six degrees of
latitude on the Pacific Ocean, with good harbour for
naval stations." Such statements are a travesty
upon history, and a libel upon British policy. Van-
couver Island extended south of the forty-ninth
parallel, but it was stipulated in the convention that
the whole island should belong to Great Britain.

The Treaty of Washington of 1 87 1 . — For some
years after the War of the Secession, a grave diffi-
culty had arisen between the United States and
Great Britain in respect to the piratical cruisers,
Alabama, Florida, and Shanandoah, which were
built in British ports for the Southern Confederacy.
Strictly speaking, a breach of neutrality occurred —
at all events, in respect of the Alabama. The
American ambassador brought to the attention of
the British Government the evidence of the vessel's

282 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

character and her destination. The matter was
submitted to the law adviser of the Crown, who
happened to be ill. This delayed his report to the
point of culpability. An order was at length ob-
tained to detain her. While it was on its way to
Liverpool, the vessel escaped under pretence of a
trial trip. She was not then fitted for service or
armed, and took her armament on board at the
Azores ; but the fact remained that there had been
culpable delay, and a breach of the neutrality laws
had been made. The Alabama had extensively
preyed upon American commerce, and after the
rebellion was repressed, demands were made upon
the Imperial Government for compensation. If
these had been reasonable, it is not unlikely the
British Government would have adjusted them, but
the American claim grew to absurd proportions.

To make England responsible for Cost. — It was
sought to make Great Britain, in effect, responsible
for the cost of the war. After much correspondence
in 1869, a convention was agreed to between Lord
Clarendon, Foreign Secretary, and Mr. Reverdy
Johnson, American minister at London, whereby
all claims of the subjects and citizens of the two
countries arising out of the war should be deter-
mined by independent arbitration. Before this
could be ratified by the Senate, Andrew Johnston
had gone out of office, and General Grant became
President, with another Cabinet. The Republican
Senate was under the lead of Charles Sumner, Chair-
man of the Committee on Foreign Relations, and it

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 283

suited the purpose of Mr. Sumner that this fair
arrangement should not be ratified, and it was
accordingly rejected.

The Claims pressed afresh. — After Mr. Fish
became Secretary of State, under Grant, the claims
were pressed afresh, and, under the inspiration of
Sumner, Motley, the American minister, revived a
claim based on Great Britain's proclamation of June
1 86 1, recognising the contestants as belligerents,
and proclaiming neutrality. Many unpleasant inci-
dents occurred in connection with this protracted
correspondence. A proposition was made that all
differences should be settled on the basis of handing
over Canada to the United States. The London
Times, by implication, favoured this. A sense of
national obligation, however, prevented any serious
consideration of this amiable proposition. Concur-
rently with these unpleasant negotiations, another
occasion for friction had arisen. The reciprocity
treaty with Canada had been terminated summarily
by the United States in 1871. This necessitated
the protection of Canadian fishing grounds, inviting
occasional seizures of American fishing vessels.
The Canadian people, also, were clamouring for
renewed trade relations.

In time, both these questions, and some others
of less acute character, were by arrangement re-
ferred to a joint high commission — composed of
representatives appointed by both Governments —
Sir John Macdonald being one of the British com-
missioners, chosen especially to represent Canadian

284 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

interests. This treaty provided that any claim
for losses on the part of American citizens from
the Alabama depredations should be referred
to a judicial tribunal to meet at Geneva. This
was a happy disposition of these vexed claims,
which had been a source of great trouble to the
Imperial Government, because they felt that tech-
nically they had been in the wrong.

Wanted a Measure of Reciprocity. — The fishery
question was disposed of on the basis of giving
American fishermen full rights in our waters, in
return for free fish and oils in the American market,
plus any monetary consideration which a tribunal
therein created should award. Sir John Macdonald
did not feel satisfied with this arrangement ; he
wanted a measure of reciprocity to satisfy the
Canadian people, and this the American commis-
sioners flatly refused to give. He hesitated about
signing the treaty, and it was then pointed out
to him by his associate commissioners that his
failure to sign the treaty might lead to the belief
that it would not be ratified by the Canadian
Parliament, jeopardise its acceptance by the Senate,
and thus leave open the ugly and distressing
question of the A/abama claims. Acting in an
imperial spirit, he sacrificed his own convictions
of Canada's interests, and signed the treaty. But
can it be fairly said that Canada's interests were
sacrificed? Sir John Macdonald was a politician —
head of a Government dependent upon popular
support for its existence. He naturally feared the

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 285

political consequences of yielding the fishing rights
on the terms of free fish and monetary compensa-
tion, but who will say that, looking at it broadly,
Canada had no obligations to uphold Imperial
policy ? Besides, as the event showed, he had the
support of the Canadian people in the treaty. It
was ratified by an immense majority in the House
of Commons. Nearly all the members from Nova
Scotia, most interested in the fishery clauses, voted
for the treaty. Mr. P. Power, representing one
of the great fishing counties of the province, for-
sook his party to give it his approval. At an
election, held soon after, Nova Scotia sent only
one straight opponent of the Government, and
New Brunswick a great majority of supporters.
For twenty years longer, Sir John stood in the
limelight of public notice in Canada, and had
many charges made against his character and
policy — never did I hear the statement made that,
among his faults, was to be placed the sacrifice
of Canadian interests at Washington. He did
what any honourable and patriotic Canadian would
have done, and to have jeopardised the settlement
of grave outstanding difficulties between the two
great nations for the matter of a little more or
little less reciprocity between the United States
and Canada, would have been a policy, narrow,
provincial, and unworthy of a statesman.

Other Matters under this Treaty. — Some other
matters were disposed of by this treaty, which
must be briefly noticed.

286 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

When defining the boundary between the United
States and Canada, on the Pacific, Vancouver Island
had been given to Great Britain. There was
an island, San Juan, near it, the possession of
which, under the terms of the treaty, was open
to doubt. It depended upon which was the
channel. The island was becoming inhabited, and
its jurisdiction must be settled. It was decided
to leave it to the arbitration of the Emperor
of Germany. This certainly was fair. All the
evidence was submitted to his consideration, and
he acted under the advice of his most eminent
jurists. He gave the island to the United States.
But where is the basis for any charge that any-
thing was done by the British Government deroga-
tory to Canadian rights? On the contrary, the
full assistance of every department of the Im-
perial Government was placed absolutely at the
disposal of the Canadian authorities, and no effort
to present and enforce Canadian claims was
spared.

The Fisheries Arbitration of 1877. — In 1877
the arbitration to determine the value of the rights
given to Americans in our waters over the value
of those which had been granted Canadians in
American waters, met at Halifax. Canada's arbi-
trator was appointed entirely on the nomination
of the Canadian Government, Sir A. T. Gait.
The umpire, M. Delfosse, was agreed to by the
Canadian Government. The Canadian Govern-
ment appointed all the counsel engaged in the

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 287

case — indeed was given practical control of the
proceedings, the Imperial Government being for-
mally represented by F. C. Ford. The award was
for $5,500,000, and no Canadian of intelligence will
say that the sum was not sufficient and handsome.
In this case, therefore, no ground is afforded for
the charge that Canada's interests were sacrificed
by imperial complacency.

Regarding the Treaty 0/1888. — Another treaty
with the United States was concluded in 1888 at
Washington. Canada was represented by Sir
Charles Tupper. He cordially concurred in the
treaty, which was satisfactory to the Canadian
people, as far as it went. It was rejected by the
American Senate. It was approved by the
Imperial Government, and would undoubtedly
have been ratified by the Dominion Parliament
if it had been approved by the Senate. A modus
vivendi was arranged for conducting fishery affairs
between the two countries for two years. The
Dominion Parliament placed in the hands of the
Governor in Council the power of extending the
operation of this modus vivendi from year to
year. Voluntarily, this has been done ever since,
and to-day this same modus vivendi is in operation,
by the free action of the Canadian Government.
No American fishermen are permitted to fish
within the three-mile limit, but they can, by pay-
ing a licence fee, obtain bait and supplies in our
ports, and while transhipment of cargoes in
Canadian ports is purely optional on the part of

288 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the Canadian Customs department, I am informed
this privilege, when applied for, is rarely denied.

Clearly Canada's interests were not sacrificed
in the convention of 1888.

The Behring Sea Arbitration of 1893. — ^ *s
not necessary to make more than a passing refer-
ence to this matter. The American Govern-
ment, which acquired Alaska from Russia in 1867,
made extravagant claims as to their exclusive
rights to use the waters of Behring Sea, which,
if acknowledged, would have shut Canadian sealers
out of all opportunity of participating in the catch.
In August 1886 the United States Government
seized Canadian vessels in Behring Sea, sixty
miles from land. The Imperial Government took
up the matter, at the instance of the Canadian
Government, and so pressed the matter as to
induce the United States to release the vessels,
the officers and crews ; but this was done, to use
the language of Mr. Bayard, Secretary of State,
" without conclusion of any questions which may
be found to be involved in these cases of
seizure."

In 1889 five more British ships were seized and
condemned. The Imperial Government again took
up the matter, and Mr. Blaine, Secretary of State,
was driven to put forward a claim that Russia had
exclusive jurisdiction within coastal waters, extend-
ine 100 miles from land, which, after the sale of
Alaska, had become vested in the United States.
This claim was distinctly repudiated by the Imperial

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 289

Government, and the negotiation terminated. In
1 89 1, to prevent an outbreak of hostilities, Great
Britain arranged a modus vivendi with the United
States, which Canada agreed to, but very reluct-
antly, and so persistently pressed her views that
a treaty of arbitration was entered into between
Great Britain and the United States on April 18,
1892.

A Complete Victory for Canadian Contentions.
— Under the terms of this treaty, a tribunal was
appointed to determine the matters at issue, to
consist of two jurists to be appointed by the United
States, two by Great Britain, and one each by
France, Italy, and Norway and Sweden. In select-
ing the British arbitrators, the Canadian Govern-
ment was given a free hand. Lord Hannan, an
eminent English judge, and Sir John Thompson
were chosen. In all previous arbitrations, while
Canada had been left free in the conduct of the
case, an imperial representative had always been
on the ground. In this case the British Govern-
ment appointed C. H. Tupper as its official repre-
sentative. He chose his own counsel, and the
Attorney- and Solicitor-General of England ac-
cepted briefs with Canadian counsel. The result
was a complete victory for Canadian contentions
as to the unfounded character of American claims
to exclusive jurisdiction, and the embodiment of a
series of regulations of common value in preserving
the seal for the joint benefit of United States and
Canadian sealers.

290 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

No foundation can here be found for the charge
of sacrificing Canadian interests.

The Alaska Boundary. — But we now come to
the consideration of the last important arbitration,
and the one on which most of the claim of sacrifice
has been based — the Alaska boundary. To pro-
perly place this matter in a just light, an exhaustive
investigation of all the antecedent facts is necessary,
and this can only be pursued here to a very limited
extent. The literature on the topic would make
a respectable library, and the inaccessible character
of the region in question adds difficulty and mystery
to the subject.

In the latter part of the eighteenth century,
when there was scarcely an inhabitant on the Pacific
coast, except in California, the Russian traders were
seeking to found a fur enterprise on the Pacific
coast north of latitude 55 — chiefly among the islands
which, in honour of the Czar, were named Alex-
ander Archipelago. These efforts were not very
successful, but they had the patronage and support
of the Emperor, and in 1799, in their behalf he
issued a ukase, giving one company — the United
Trading Company — exclusive right to trade with
the Indians and deal in furs. A port was erected
on one of the islands, called then New Archangel
(since called Sitka), and a Russian governor located
there, with authority. But in the course of time
American vessels from the Pacific coast began
to visit these waters, and to interfere with the
trade. These traders conveyed their cargoes of

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 291

furs to Canton, and disposed of them at large
profits. This conduct greatly impaired the value
of the Russian company's monopoly.

Making Use of Trading Vessels. — Presently
the Russian company was compelled to make use
of the American trading vessels to send their furs
to China for sale ; but in time the governor found
that the American traders were bringing liquor,
firearms, and ammunition, and disposing of them
to the Indians, which constituted a menace to the
peace and security of the Russian colonies. The
Russian Government protested against this practice
to the United States Government, but no real
satisfaction was obtained from this source. In 181 1
the Russian Government entered into an aeree-
ment with J. J. Astor, the chief of the American
traders, whereby he was to furnish the Russian
colony with supplies at fixed prices, transmit the
company's furs to China, and dispose of them on
commission, and prevent smuggling and the sale
of intoxicants and firearms.

But the war of 1812 broke out at that time
between Great Britain and the United States, and
prevented this agreement from being put into
operation.

At last, in 1821, the Emperor Alexander issued
a ukase, granting exclusive rights of commerce,
whale-fishing, and fur-trading to Russian subjects,
and forbidding all foreign vessels from approaching
within 100 Italian miles of any land under Russian
jurisdiction.

292 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

This proposition was in violation of recognised
international marine law, and was at once resisted
by the United States and Great Britain, whose
Hudson Bay fur-traders had extended their opera-
tions to the Pacific Ocean. When the attention of
the Russian Foreign Office was directed to the
invalidity of the ukase, an intimation was given to
both these countries that the prohibition of ioo
miles would not be insisted upon, but the Emperor
did not wish the matter specially and officially dealt
with ; and it was ultimately agreed that a treaty
should be made between Russia, on the one side,
and Great Britain and the United States on the
other, which would settle all matters in difference,
and include provisions which would amount to an
abandoning of the prohibition of access by ships of
commerce to the waters of the Behring Sea.

Preferring Claims to New Territorial Rights.
— But as the negotiations progressed, it was found
that the United States was preferring claims to terri-
torial rights along the coast up to the 6ist parallel
north latitude, which Great Britain did not recognise,
nor Russia either. So the British ambassador, Sir
Charles Bagot, withdrew from joint negotiations,
and the Americans concluded a treaty with Russia
in 1824 by which they secured the rights of navi-
gation involved, the right to trade in Russian ports
for ten years, and they abandoned all territorial rights
on the coast north of 54 deg. 40 min. N. latitude.
This treaty does not concern the matter now under
consideration.

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 293

The next year, however, a treaty was concluded
between Great Britain and Russia, in which the
same maritime rights were secured, and the right
of trading in Russian ports on the Pacific coast for
ten years. But another and very grave question
arose between these two countries. The United
States had no territorial possessions on the coast
north of the Columbia River, latitude 46 degrees or
47 degrees. Whereas, the Hudson's Bay Company,
under the British flag and jurisdiction, were extend-
ing their posts to the coast as far north as the
Mackenzie River. The Russian traders were carry-
ing on their business on the islands forming the
Alexander Archipelago, and their trading towns,
of which New Archangel was chief, were all on the
islands. They were not really desirous of estab-
lishing posts on the mainland, but what concerned
them most of all was that between 54 deg. 40 min.
and Alaska proper no Hudson Bay trading-posts
should be formed upon the coast adjoining these
islands, and they therefore insisted that the treaty
should give them a lisiere (strip of land) along the
coast, in order that they might be safe from com-
peting British trading-posts opposite their island
posts.

Conceived it a Great Menace. — The monopoly
of the Russian Fur Company was of value only
so long as there were no trading establishments
located on the bordering coast, over which their
exclusive rights extended. The company would
have been glad to escape the annoyance of the

294 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

coasting traders by water, but this could not be
avoided. What they conceived as a greater menace
was a single trading - post on the shore. The
British negotiator, in his reply to this demand of a
lisiere, mentioned as an objection that "it deprived
his Britannic Majesty of sovereignty over all the
inlets and small bays lying between latitude
56 deg. and 54 deg. 40 min." This should be
carefully noted as bearing on the subsequent con-
tention of Canada in respect to the Lynn Canal.
Sir Charles Bagot then intimated that Great
Britain would accept a line on the north of Prince
of Wales Island, and " thence extending on the
mainland to a point ten marine leagues from the
coast, the line would run from this point toward
the north and north-west parallel to the sinuosities
of the coast, and always at the distance of ten
marine leagues from the shore, as far as the 140
degrees of longitude, thence to the Polar Sea."

The Line that was ultimately Agreed upon. —
Except that the south line was ultimately placed
at the south of Prince of Wales Island, latitude 54
deg. 40 min., this is the line that was ultimately
agreed upon : —

Article 3 of the treaty is as follows : —
"(3) The line of demarcation between the pos-
sessions of the high contracting parties, upon the
coast of the continent, and the islands of America
to the north-west, shall be drawn in the following
manner : —

"Commencing from the southernmost point

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 295

of the island called Prince of Wales Island, which
point lies in the parallel of 54.40 N. latitude and
between 131 and 133 degrees of west longitude
(meridian of Greenwich), the said line shall ascend
to the north along the channel called the Portland
Channel as far as the point of the continent where
it strikes the 56th degree of N. latitude, from this
last-mentioned point, the line of demarcation shall
follow the summit of the mountains situated parallel
to the coast, as far as the point of intersection of
the 141st degree of west longitude (of the same
meridian), and finally, from the said point of inter-
section the said meridian line of the 141st degree
in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean,
shall form the limit between Russian and British
possessions on the continent of America to the
north-west."

The Line of Demarcation. — "(4) With reference
to the line of demarcation laid down in the preced-
ing article, it is understood : —

11 First. — That the island called Prince of Wales
Island shall belong wholly to Russia.

" Second. — That whenever the summit of the
mountains which extend in a direction parallel to the
coast, from the 56th degree of north latitude to the
point of intersection of the 141st degree of west
longitude shall prove to be at the distance of more
than ten marine leagues from the ocean, the limit
between the British possessions and the line of
coast, which shall belong to Russia, as above men-
tioned, shall be formed by a line parallel to the

296 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

windings of the coast, and which shall never exceed
the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom.

" (5) It is moreover agreed that no establishment
shall be formed by either of the two parties within
the limits assigned by the two preceding articles to
the possessions of the other ; consequently British
subjects shall not form any establishment, either
upon the coast or upon the border of the continent,
comprised within the limit of the Russian posses-
sions as designated in the two preceding articles ;
and in like manner no establishment shall be formed
by Russian subjects beyond the said limits."

This is the treaty whose interpretation was the
subject-matter of the Alaska Boundary award.

The Purchase of Alaska from Russia. — In 1867
the United States purchased Alaska from Russia
for $7,000,000, and acquired whatever territorial
rights in North-West America Russia possessed, and
became the inheritors of the rights acquired under
this treaty.

For nearly fifty years no question arose under
this treaty. The maps that were published after-
wards in Russia, in the United States, in Great
Britain, and in British North America, represented
the strip of land ceded to Russia under the treaty
of 1825 substantially as they now are, as a result of
the arbitration. As the country was wild and un-
inhabited, no person had any concern in the matter.
It was rarely visited.

The strip of land was simply a sea of mountains,
wild and desolate, except wheref penetrated in two

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 297

or three places by rivers which emptied into the
Pacific.

After British Columbia became Canadian. — The
first time any question of boundary was raised, so
far as can be ascertained, was after British Columbia
had been admitted to the Dominion, and it occurred
to the Federal Government that it would be advis-
able to have the boundary between the province and
Alaska, including the islands and strip of land,
defined ; and application was made to the British
minister at Washington to approach the United
States Government with a view of having a joint
commission appointed by the two countries for the
purpose of defining the boundary. The United
States authorities consulted with those persons em-
ployed in their service in this region most fitted to
advise in the matter, and these experts said that it
would require an expenditure of $1,500,000, and at
least nine years' time, to accomplish such a purpose,
owing to the character of the country — barren, in-
hospitable mountains. Congress was not disposed to
make such a large appropriation for a purpose which
then seemed of small importance, and the matter re-
mained undisposed of. The suggestion was made
by the American experts that a survey of the rivers
piercing the mountains — the Stikine, the Taku,
and the Chilcat, emptying into the Lynn Canal,
would suffice for all practical purposes, as the line
between these defined parts could be easily recog-
nised by imaginary projections from the known
points. Even this proposition did not appeal to

298 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Congress, and nothing was done until 1876, when a
very delicate question arose.

People draw7i by Finds of Gold. — Gold had been
discovered in the Cassiar district in British Columbia,
not very far from the Stikine River, and people had
flocked there by the usual lure of gold discoveries.
A man named Peter Martin had committed some
crime, and the British Columbia court at Cassiar
had tried him, found him guilty, and sentenced him
to a term of imprisonment. But there was no suit-
able jail in the Cassiar district, and it had accord-
ingly been arranged that he should be taken to
Victoria and imprisoned there. But there was no
practicable means of conveying him to Victoria,
except via the Stikine River, which ran through a
strip of land belonging to the United States. Now
the treaty had secured to Great Britain the right of
navigating this and the other rivers for the purpose of
commerce. The supplies to the Cassiar mines went
by this river, the judge went that way to hold his
court, and the only way to get this man to Victoria
was to; send him down the river, and ship him from
Wrangel to Victoria. He was accordingly sent in
charge of a constable, and several persons were in
the boat. On the way down the river the constable
landed to make a fire and cook provisions. After
the meal, Martin, who was in chains, managed to
get hold of a gun, assaulted the constable, and
made a dash for liberty. He was, however, over-
powered and taken on to Victoria, where he was
tried for his assault upon a police officer. He was

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 299

not defended, but the question as to whether the
assault was made on American or British soil was
considered, and the judge charged the jury that
there was no evidence which securely fixed the
jurisdiction. He therefore told them that they
were at liberty to find him guilty if they were satis-
fied he had committed the offence. He was con-
victed and sentenced to one year and nine months'
imprisonment.

u The Court had no Jurisdiction. — Meanwhile the
matter had been brought to the notice of the United
States Government, and the Secretary of State
wrote to the British minister, claiming that Martin
had been convicted in a British court of an offence
committed on United States soil, and therefore the
court had no jurisdiction. It also claimed that
while the subjects of Great Britain had the right
of navigating the Stikine River, they had no power
to convey a prisoner by this river through American
territory, and the moment he touched their land he
became free, subject to extradition. The matter
was referred to the Canadian Government, and Mr.
Edward Blake, the Minister of Justice, made an
elaborate report upon it. He was not disposed to
admit that the crime was committed on American
soil, but he properly held that the burden of prov-
ing jurisdiction was upon the Crown, and it had not
been clearly established that the crime was com-
mitted on British soil, therefore Martin could not
be held. A survey made at this time at the instance
of the Dominion Government by Mr. Joseph

300 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Hunter, of the Stikine River, revealed the fact that
the boundary, as he conceived it, under the treaty,
was east of the spot where the crime was com-
mitted. In the end the Canadian Government
ordered Martin's release, but in order not to com-
mit themselves on the matter of the boundary, they
did this on the ground that a prisoner could not be
conveyed in custody through the territory of another
country — which was a breach of territorial rights.

The Discovery of Gold in Yukon. — What brought
the matter to an issue was the discovery of gold in
the Yukon, and the rush of multitudes there in 1896
and the following years. The natural means of
access was through the White Pass of the Rockies,
some distance above the head of Lynn Canal. On
this canal, near its head, the United States Govern-
ment had established towns and a customs house at
Dyea and Skagway, and all persons and all goods
going into the Yukon had to report at the customs
house at Skagway. Canada felt the need of a port
on the Lynn Canal, and then arose the agitation for
a settlement of the boundary question, in such a
way, if possible, as to get a port in some of these
navigable inlets. Consequently, in the joint high
commission which had been arranged between
Canada and the United States to discuss and
settle, if possible, all questions then outstanding,
the boundary was made one of the subjects of
prime importance.

Confronted by Usages of Generations. — The
task before the Canadians was a very difficult one.

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 301

They were confronted by the usages of generations
— by a uniform series of maps recognised by all the
countries concerned. As late as 1884 an official
map of British Columbia had been prepared under
the direction of the Provincial Government, and
this gave the boundaries between that province and
the United States almost precisely in accordance
with the line ultimately established. The treaty said,
"Commencing from the southernmost point of the
island called Prince of Wales, the line shall ascend
north, along the channel called the Portland Channel,
till it strikes the 56th degree of latitude." It seemed
enormously difficult to get the line defined to suit,
by using that channel, so the Canadians prepared
a map showing the line running up the Clarence
Strait. It was conceded on all sides that the nego-
tiators of the treaty of 1825 had before them the
maps and narrative of Vancouver, the only person
who had made a careful survey of this region, and
his maps contained the names of all the islands and
inlets in that vicinity. Portland Channel is plainly
marked in his maps, and his narrative makes clear
what he meant by it. The Americans, of course,
declined to recognise a line entirely different from
that clearly defined by the treaty, and ultimately it
was found impossible to reach any agreement on
the subject by the joint commissioners.

Not Open to Discussion. — The American
negotiators felt that the line was clear, and not
open to either discussion or arbitration. Most
great nations refuse to arbitrate respecting territory,

302 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the right to which is reasonably clear ; and it
was with considerable difficulty that, by persistent
pressure, the Canadian Government, acting through
the Imperial Foreign Office, at last obtained a treaty
with the United States, agreeing to refer the matter
of the boundary to a tribunal consisting of " six
impartial jurists of repute, who shall consider judi-
cially the question submitted to them, each of whom
shall first subscribe an oath that he will impartially
consider the arguments and evidence presented to
the tribunal, and will decide thereupon according to
his true judgment."

This treaty was ratified by his Majesty, and also
the United States Senate. Then came the appoint-
ment of the jurists. The President appointed Mr.
Elihu Root, Secretary of War, and Senators Lodge
and Turner. In the strict sense of the word these
men could hardly be called impartial jurists. They
were all eminent lawyers, and quite fitted, by train-
ing and character, to fill any judicial office in the
United States. But they were not then judges,
and they were all actively engaged in political life.
They were not the men whom the President, if he
had been free, would probably have chosen ; but it
is an open secret that he was not free. The Senate
was not very favourable to submitting a question
which they thought was not open to doubt to arbi-
tration, but they agreed to confirm the treaty on
being assured that the President would appoint men
acceptable to them, and it was only upon this assur-
ance that the treaty was ratified.

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 303

Britain in no way Disregarded our Interests.
— Of course the Canadian Government protested,
and I am going to deal fully with this protest, for
the purpose of demonstrating in the clearest manner
that in this matter the Imperial Government in no
way disregarded Canadian interests, but on the
other hand, put the determination of the whole
course to be pursued in the hands of the Canadian
Government. When Lord Minto, on behalf of the
Canadian Government, cabled their protest to the
Colonial Secretary, that gentleman sent immediately
the following answer : —

" London, February 27, 1903.

" With reference to your telegram dated the 19th
and 2 1 st of February, the selection of American
members of tribunal has been the source of as much
surprise to his Majesty's Government as to your
ministers. Situation is full of difficulty, and his
Majesty's Government earnestly desire to have con-
currence of your ministers in dealing with it.

11 It seems certain to his Majesty's Government
that it would be useless to press the United States
Government to withdraw names put forward, and
arguments relative to the fitness of the three
American representatives, however convincing, can
have no practical results.

" His Majesty's Government have, therefore, to
choose between breaking off negotiations altogether
or accepting American nominations, and appointing
as their colleagues representatives who will meet

304 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the altered circumstances of the case. They would
regard the first alternative as a grave misfortune to
the interests of Canada, and would prefer that the
inquiry should proceed, in confident hope that Cana-
dian or British interests would not be prejudiced
thereby, as, even in the event of failure, much im-
portant information upon controverted points would
be collected and placed before the public, and
reasonable settlement at some future time thereby
facilitated.

"His Majesty's Government earnestly hope that
these considerations may be carefully weighed by
your ministers, and that they will favour his Majesty's
Government, if they agree with the opinion stated
above, with an expression of their views as to the
most advantageous composition of the British side
of the tribunal. Onslow."

The Reply sent by Lord M into. — Lord Minto, on
behalf of his ministers, on March 6 replied in the
following terms : —

" Ottawa, March 6, 1903.

11 My ministers have observed from the public
press, and have also been officially informed, that
while the matter is still under consideration, the
treaty has been confirmed by his Majesty's Govern-
ment, and an exchange of ratifications has already
taken place at Washington. It is presumed that
this fact precludes further discussion, and my mini-
sters will, therefore, proceed to do whatever is neces-
sary on their part to make good the engagements of

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 305

his Majesty's Government ; but they must reserve
the right to submit to the Canadian Parliament the
whole correspondence, or such statement of the case
as will fully explain the whole matter, and especially
the manner in which the assent of Canada was
obtained.

" My ministers do not agree with the suggestion
that the altered circumstances justify a departure on
the British side from the disposition previously mani-
fested respecting the composition of the tribunal.
If members of the tribunal are to be appointed by
his Majesty's Government, my ministers are of the
opinion that only judges of the higher courts, who,
in the best sense of the word, would be impartial
jurists of repute, should be chosen."

From this it will be observed that the Imperial
Government offered even to break off negotiations,
if Canada insisted upon it, which would have been
a grave and unjustifiable step, as they also gave the
Canadian Government the right to appoint, as their
representatives on the commission, men who will
meet the altered circumstances of the case ; in other
words, if the Americans appointed three interested
men as their jurists, the Canadians should appoint
three jurists of the same type on their side. Surely,
here was no indication of a disposition to sacrifice
Canada in any way. The Canadian Government,
to their credit be it said, declined this alternative,
but when the appointments came to be made, two
of their appointees were, in some respects, of a type
corresponding to the American appointees. The

u

306 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

original arbitrators named by Canada were the
Lord Chief Justice, Lord Alverstone, Judge Armour,
of the Supreme Court of Canada, and Sir Louis Jette,
Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec. Judge Armour
having died before the commission assembled, his
place was taken by Mr. A. B. Aylesworth, an
eminent Canadian barrister. All the arbitrators
were required to take an oath to determine the
matter impartially according to the evidence, which
was as binding upon them as the oath taken by a
judge of the higher court.

An Examination in Detail. — Examine the status
of these arbitrators a little in detail. Mr. Ayles-
worth was an eminent and high-minded Canadian
barrister — not more so than Mr. Root. Mr. Root
was in public life and had political ambitions — so,
indeed, had Mr. Aylesworth. He was not then in
Parliament, but was an active supporter of the
Government ; his name had been mentioned as a
possible minister, and very soon after the award he
was actually sworn in a minister in Sir Wilfrid's
Government. Sir Louis Jette was a high-minded
gentleman who had been on the bench, but was
now Lieutenant-Governor. He was a staunch
friend of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, a sturdy Canadian,
and naturally inclined to uphold Canadian rights
as fully as was Mr. Root or either of his colleagues,
who were all men of high repute and unblemished
character. The only member of the commission,
therefore, who was actually under judicial respon-
sibility was Lord Alverstone, and the only one who

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 307

could fulfil the literal conditions of the treaty — an
impartial jurist of repute. He had no political
interests to serve ; as an Englishman, his sym-
pathies would naturally be with a great British
commonwealth, but, occupying the great position
of Lord Chief Justice, he could be relied upon to
be influenced by nothing except the essential rights
of the case. To all intents, it seems to me, the case
might have been left to his single arbitration, as in
the end it proved to be.

The Arbitrators meet in London. — The arbi-
trators met in London in the summer of 1903.
Great Britain was represented again by a Canadian,
Mr. Clifford Sifton. Eminent counsel were engaged
— English and Canadian. Elaborate cases and
arguments, accompanied by a multitude of maps
and charts, were presented on both sides. This
body of literature would make a fair library. Nothing
was omitted which could throw the faintest light on
the subject. There were seven questions submitted
for the determination of the tribunal, and it is most
convenient to deal with these in detail.

(1) What is intended as the point of commence-
ment of the line ?

The answer to this was unanimous — Cape Muzon.

(2) What channel is the Portland Channel ?
The point of issue here was, which of the two

channels called on the maps Portland Channel
should be followed ? The largest of the two inlets
was the southern one, which, if fixed, would have
left the two large islands of Pearse and Wales in

308 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

United States territory ; but all the commissioners
agreed — the three Americans concurring in this,
though the United States counsel had strenuously
resisted it — that, according to Vancouver's chart
and narrative, it was the narrower inlet to the
north, called in recent American maps Pearse's
Inlet, which Vancouver had called in honour of the
Duke of Portland, and the larger channel had been
named by him Observatory Inlet. This decision
was favourable to Canada's contention, and the
action of the American commissioners and their
reasons for it were eminently judicial in spirit. Un-
fortunately a difference occurred as to the outlet of
the Portland Channel. By a straight line this canal
runs to the ocean north of two small islands named
Sitklan and Kannaghunut, but the channel north
of these islands is narrow, and in places shallow and
incapable of navigation by large craft, whereas be-
tween Wales and Sitklan Islands there is a broad
and deep channel which forms the natural outlet
of the canal. The Americans decided that the
outlet should be the broad and navigable one called
Tongas Straits, between Wales and Sitklan Islands.
Sir Louis Jette and Mr. Aylesworth decided it
should be the narrow strait north of Sitklan and
Kannaghunut Islands. Lord Alverstone, in a
carefully reasoned judgment, weighing with abso-
lute fairness the pros and cons, decided that the
Tongas Strait, between Wales and Sitklan Islands,
was the route taken by Vancouver, and was the
most natural outlet of Portland Channel.

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 309

The Point round which Controversy Rages. — It
was upon this point that most of the subsequent
controversy has taken place. Sir Louis Jette and
Mr. Aylesworth dwell upon the fact that, at the
session of the arbitrators at which the question of
whether the north or south inlet was Portland
Channel was under consideration, the decision was
that the north inlet was the true Portland Channel,
and that this involved taking the straight and
narrow line to the coast. The decision was in
favour of the north inlet, but this did not necessarily
involve that its outlet should be the narrow and
non-navigable line, when near its south-western
extremity there was a broad and deep channel,
which Vancouver himself had chosen, on his voyage
down the channel, as his means of reaching the sea.
The most casual glance at the map will indicate to
any one whose mind is not blinded by prejudice that
this Tongas Strait is the natural outlet. It corre-
sponds also with the object of the convention of
1825 — Russia was to have to 54 deg. 40 min. The
line from Cape Muzon at 54 deg. 40 min. strikes
the coast islands at Tongas Strait at just about
54 deg. 40 min., whereas, if it entered at the narrow
strait north of Kannagbunut Island, it would be
above 55 N. latitude.

Alverstones Decision Reasonable. — Lord Alver-
stone may have been wrong — all human beings
are fallible. Giving the matter my best considera-
tion, I think his decision was reasonable and fair.
But who will say that it was not honestly and

310 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

impartially given according to his best knowledge
and ability ? What motive could he have had in
deciding adversely to Canada in a matter purely
judicial ? Some persons have been absurd enough
to charge that this was done at the instance of
the Imperial Government, who were interested in
getting the matter disposed of. No rational man
who stops to reflect can ever give such a proposition
a moment's thought. No Cabinet Minister in the
Imperial Government would ever think of venturing
to approach a British judge and seek to influence
his decision. Even in Canada, where some think
our ideals are not as high as those in England, no
Cabinet Minister would approach a Canadian judge
and propose that he should violate his judicial oath
for political or national reasons, and, if it were
attempted, it would be instantly and properly re-
sented. Lord Alverstone stands on the highest
plane among British jurists. As Sir Richard
Webster he was twice Attorney-General of England
— one of the most eminent men at the bar in his
time ; and, when he was elevated to one of the
greatest judicial posts in the nation or the world,
what being could imagine him prostituting a spotless
name and reputation by entering into a low intrigue
with politicians to colour his judgment according to
political needs ? These unjustifiable insinuations,
which were scattered broadcast over Canada for
years by persons who had probably never spent
two hours in careful study of the points at issue,
were an unmerited aspersion on British honour, and

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 311

were and are as baseless and unfounded as the
fables of ALsop or the fantastic imaginings of the
Baron Munchausen.

Are the Barren Islands a Source of Danger? —
One other absurdity in this connection must be
noted. It has been persistently alleged that pos-
session of these two barren islands of a few acres
is a danger to us, as they can be made a base for
military and naval operations by the United States.
If they were handed over to Canada to-morrow, the
United States, within five miles of these islands,
could erect all the military posts and naval stations
she required on her own adjoining territory. This
is another instance of the folly which is born of
zeal without intelligence and reflection. The pos-
session of the islands or want of them is of such
infinitesimal importance to Canada that discussion
of them is fruitless. Under the award Canada did
add to her territory two large islands which had
long been claimed by the United States, and for
this let us be duly thankful ; but it is at the same
time idle to regard this acquisition as of any great
value or importance to Canada.

Canada s Object to Ob tarn a Port. — The disposal
of the rest of the line does not require lengthy
consideration. It was ultimately established on
practically the lines that had been adopted in all the
maps which had been made and used by Russia, the
United States, Great Britain, Canada, and British
Columbia from the date of the treaty of 1825 until
the discovery of gold on the Yukon, when Canada

312 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

prepared a map for use in negotiating with the
Americans at the meeting of the joint high commis-
sioners in 1897. That map made the line beginning
on the coast at 54 deg. 40 min. to run up the
Clarence Strait ; but as the language of the treaty
so expressly stated the Portland Channel, this was
abandoned in presenting their case to the tribunal
in 1903, and the southern line ran up the Portland
Channel until it met the 56th parallel. The object
of Canada was to obtain a port, and the line urged
by Canada consequently ran along the coast in such
a way as to cross the Lynn Canal before its head
waters were reached. If this had been adopted, the
two American towns or posts of Dyea and Skag-
way would have been in Canadian territory, and the
Stars and Stripes would have been pulled down,
and the Union Jack put up. This would have been
a very pleasant and desirable event for Canada; but
it could scarcely have been done consistently with
the plainly declared objects of the negotiators of the
treaty of 1825. The Russian negotiators made a
very explicit declaration of their reasons for insist-
ing upon a strip of land on the coast of the main-
land. It was that the Hudson's Bay Company, or
any other fur-trading company, should not be able to
interfere with their posts on the islands of Alexander
Archipelago, by an adjoining port on the coast.
Reverting again to the reports of the negotiations,
let us note the words of the Russian plenipotenti-
aries, Count Nesselrode and M. de Poletica. Sir
Charles Bagot, the British plenipotentiary, had, in

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 313

reply to the demand for this lisiere, or strip of land
on the mainland, made the following representa-
tions : "A line of demarcation drawn from the
southern extremity of Prince of Wales Island to the
mouth of Portland Channel, thence up the middle of
the channel until it touches the mainland, thence to
the mountains bordering the coast, and thence along
the mountains as far as 139 longitude, would deprive
his Britannic Majesty of sovereignty over all the
inlets and small bays lying between latitude 56 and
54.40, whereof several (as there is every reason to
believe) communicate directly with the establish-
ments of the Hudson's Bay Company, and are conse-
quently of essential importance to its commerce."

The Reply of the Russians. — To this the Russian
plenipotentiaries replied that those proposals had
been examined by the Emperor, who had charged
them to repeat to the British plenipotentiaries " that
the possession of Prince of Wales Island without a
slice of territory upon the coast situated in front of
that island could be of no utility to Russia. That
any establishment formed upon said island, or upon
the surrounding islands, would find itself, as it were,
flanked by the English establishments on the main-
land, and completely at the mercy of these latter."
This was the basis of negotiations insisted upon by
Russia to the end. Sir Charles Bagot broke off
negotiations for a time, but his place was taken
later by Sir Stratford Canning, who, under instruc-
tions, consented to this lisiere, or strip, on the terms
demanded by Russia. It is perfectly clear that if

314 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the Hudson's Bay Company could have created
a port under this treaty, on the Lynn Canal, that
everything which the Russian Government had
insisted upon avoiding would have been done, and,
therefore, in making maps of the strip of land as it
ran north to Mount St. Elias, it was drawn, as the
treaty requires, parallel to the sinuosities of the
coast, and curved about the head of Lynn Canal,
as in respect to all the other sinuosities of the
coast.

Canada s Fight was a Good One. — Canada made
a good fight for a line that would suit her interests,
and give her a port on Lynn Canal. In brief,
her point was that the boundary fixed by the treaty
was " a line of demarcation following the crest of the
mountains situated parallel to the coast," subject to
the condition that " if such a line should anywhere
exceed the distance of ten marine leagues from the
ocean, then the boundary between the British and
Russian territory should be formed by a line parallel
to the sinuosities and distant therefrom not more
than ten marine leagues." This method of fixing
the boundaries was derived from Vancouver's maps
and charts ; these are preserved, and he has traced
upon them a regular line of mountains situate near
the coast. This, as a matter of fact, was purely
imaginary. As he sailed near the coast, the shore
presented the appearance of a continuous mountain
range ; but in the efforts of both Governments to
obtain a range of sufficient regularity to constitute
a natural boundary within ten leagues of the coast,

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 315

the chief thing discovered by explorers was that no
such regular range exists. Most of those who have
endeavoured to survey this wild and in places almost
inaccessible region report that there is a sea of
mountains along the coast with no range of regular
form which could be adopted.

A Range near the Coast. — Dr. George M. Daw-
son, the Canadian explorer, intimates that something
like a range could be obtained near the coast, the
summit of which would be from five to seven or eight
miles from the shore. It was the Canadian conten-
tion before the tribunal that a range of mountains
near the coast could be obtained, and that as the
treaty only mentioned ten leagues as the maximum
distance from the shore, where a regular mountain
range could not be obtained, the line ought to be
fixed near the shore, according to the general con-
tour of the mountains near the coast. Conceding
the fact that a regular range near this exists, which
was stoutly denied upon accumulated authority by
the United States consul, and granted the tribunal
had fixed the line accordingly, this would have been
of little, if any, advantage to Canada. It was not a
mile or two more or less of worthless mountain
territory they were seeking — it was a port on the
Lynn or Taku inlets that was sought. It was not a
question of the width of the lisiere, or strip, but the
direction it ran. If it wound around the inlets so as
to make it impossible to have a seaport on them,
it did not matter whether it was ten marine leagues
or five marine leagues.

316 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Parallel to the Sinuosities of Coast, — The Ameri-
can arbitrators, of course, decided that the line ran
parallel to the sinuosities of the coast, and therefore
around the heads of the inlets. The Canadian arbi-
trators decided that Taku inlet and Lynn Canal
were not coast or ocean, and the line, therefore, in
following the nearest range, crossed these inlets.
The determination, therefore, was with Lord Alver-
stone. If he had concurred in the conclusions of the
Canadians there would have been no result ; but in
a carefully reasoned judgment, in which all material
points are weighed with exact impartiality, he de-
cided " that the treaty called for a line parallel with
the sinuosities of the coast, and that there should re-
main with Russia a continuous fringe or strip of coast
on the mainland, not exceeding ten marine miles in
width, separating the British possessions from the
bays, ports, inlets, havens, and waters of the ocean."

Is he Amenable to Attack and Aspersions? —
After giving the fullest investigation of the whole
question, this is exactly the conclusion I have
reached, and this is the judgment I would have
been compelled to give under oath. But all mortals
are fallible ; Lord Alverstone may have been wrong,
and my impressions may be erroneous. But is he
amenable to attack, and to be exposed to all sorts of
imputations upon his integrity and honour because
he reached this conclusion ? Read all the facts — all
the arguments presented — and then read his calm,
judicial reasoning, and no reasonable man will say
his judgment is not worthy a high-minded British

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 317

judge. He gave his decision and his reasons for it.
These reasons may not be infallible, but they are
clearly judicial, and supported by an array of facts
which make it impossible to say that the conclusion
was not impartial and honestly made. There exists
no basis for any imputations whatever upon the fair-
ness and honour of the Lord Chief Justice, and
history will so declare.

How was Imperial Government responsible f
— But assuming, for a moment, that Lord Alver-
stone forgot his oath, and ignored his judicial obli-
gations, pray how was the Imperial Government
responsible for this ? They appointed him with the
assent of Canada. They had offered to allow
Canada to appoint three men who would meet the
three United States jurists on even ground. Canada
had declined this, and agreed to Lord Alverstone.
If he decided against them, even wrongly, upon
what ground can it be alleged that Canada was
sacrificed by British complacency ? The tribunal
that decided the question was a tribunal that Canada
accepted without protest, so far as her appointees
were concerned ; the suggestion that members of
the Imperial Government " approached " the Lord
Chief Justice and " induced " him to decide against
Canada is too monstrous for consideration.

Fighting for Canada from Beginning to End. —
The British Attorney-General was fighting for
Canada from the beginning to the end of the con-
test, and after the decision was given his eminent
services were fittingly acknowledged publicly and

318 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

formally by Hon. Mr. Sifton, the British-Canadian
representative. Once again it must be distinctly
stated that the British judges do not permit Cabinet
ministers to attempt to influence them in their judicial
decisions, and it does not seem to be going very far
to say that imperial ministers are not in the habit
of attempting to plot with judges to get decisions to
suit their political interests. The whole suggestion
is too absurd for serious consideration, and is re-
ferred to because there has been in this country an
unending chorus from press and people in Canada
on this question, which could have no meaning at
all unless it was based on a dishonourable intrigue
between an imperial minister and a British judge.
If the Imperial Government were really so pusillani-
mous as to be seeking a means of sacrificing the
interests of their greatest dependency to curry
favour with their most powerful rival, would Lord
Onslow have written to Lord Minto, suggesting to
the Canadian Government the "appointing as their
colleagues representatives who will meet the altered
circumstances of the case " ?

Not one Incident proving Sacrifice. — The only
additional observation I make is, that there is not
one incident in connection with this Alaska boundary
award from beginning to end that justifies any
charge that Great Britain sacrificed Canadian in-
terests. The whole weight and influence of her
diplomacy was freely used to secure Canadian ends.
The full conduct and control of the matter was un-
reservedly placed in Canadian hands, and if the

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 319

results were unsatisfactory no blame can be attached
to any department in the Imperial Cabinet. I think
it was decided rightly. I am satisfied that Canada
went into the contest with the weaker case, but if I
am wrong upon this point, still responsibility for
failure in no sense rests with the Imperial Govern-
ment.

A Canadian rather than Imperialist. — Few will
charge me with being an Imperialist. I am a
Canadian, and love my country, am proud of its
present development, and look forward with high
hopes of its future greatness. Canada is large and
rich enough to claim a right to a voice in all matters
concerning her relations to the rest of the world.
As long as we are a part of the Empire, all treaties
with foreign countries must be negotiated and con-
cluded in the name of the sovereign. While this
is technically true, as a matter of fact, since con-
federation, Great Britain has taken no step in any
matter relating to our interests without giving
Canada a commanding voice in its determination.

Nothing at all in the Charge. — She gave Canada
a powerful representation in the Treaty of Washing-
ton, she gave her authority to George Brown to
negotiate in the name of the sovereign a reciprocity
treaty in 1874, to Sir Charles Tupper to make a
trade treaty with France in 1893, and recently to
Messrs. Fielding and Brodeur to make another with
the same country. These gentlemen were handi-
capped by no official meddling. They had the use
of the King's name and their own sweet will. The

320 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Behring Sea matter was settled by Canadians to
suit themselves; the Washington treaty of 1888
was negotiated with Sir Charles Tupper represent-
ing Canada, and in the joint high commission of
1897-98 to adjust matters between the United
States and Canada, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Sir Richard
Cartwright, Sir Louis Davies, and John Charlton
represented Canada, and Lord Herschell was the
only Englishman on it, and he was there by Canadian
request. Where, pray, is there an instance which
justifies even a suspicion that Great Britain since
confederation has in the smallest degree sacrificed
Canadian interests by design or by imbecile com-
placency ? Yet this is the reiterated charge.

Cease pleading the Baby Act. — As Canada grows
and becomes more important, she will exercise a
larger influence and assume a fuller responsibility in
the disposal of matters touching her interests in
foreign countries. The time may come when she
will assume full responsibility. But while we should
be always ready to uphold our rights firmly and
tenaciously, it is not manly, when we lose, to seek
to shift the responsibility upon the imperial authori-
ties. It is not a very manly thing to do if there
was some justification for it. It is never heroic for
a man or a nation to throw blame on others ; it is
especially ignoble to do so without any justification
whatever. Let us grow and develop and fulfil to
the highest degree our national aims and aspirations,
but, in the name of Canadian manhood, let us have
done with pleading the baby act, and meanly seeking

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 321

to assuage our national disappointments by un-
founded imputations upon the intelligence and good
faith of the Imperial Government.

Lord Dufferin was the last governor in whose
instructions or commission from home there was
any mention formally indicated regarding reserva-
tion for the home Government's consideration of the
action advised by Canadian ministers. In 1879
the dismissal of a French Canadian Lieutenant-
Governor was reserved for the Colonial Minister's
approval, but only on the proposal of a Canadian
Prime Minister for a Federal Government. This
Government was informed by the Secretary of State
that the Canadian Government must take all re-
sponsibility. In further evidence that it was desired
to meet the colonial wishes, the Envoy from
Canada to London was given the title of High
Commissioner, and was consulted on all Canadian
matters. The importance of this official has steadily
increased. Sir Charles Tupper made the period of
his representation of Canadian interests notable in
many ways, and he has never ceased to illustrate in
a convincing manner the advantage to both countries
of having a leading Canadian statesman resident
amongst us. Of the magnificent services performed
both for Canada and for Great Britain by the pre-
sent High Commissioner, Lord Strathcona, it is
hardly necessary to speak, for his praise is in the
mouths of all men on both sides of the Atlantic.
It has been found to be an immense benefit for

x

322 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Canada to have one representative able to give utter-
ance to the desires of the whole country ; nor has a
jealousy often shown against an individual named
by the Government of a democracy as its repre-
sentative, followed the appointment of these most
distinguished gentlemen.

Again, when it has seemed advisable to have
a consultation before the adoption of any step
involving concurrence on the part of the daughter
States, Britain has asked the leading men in
power to assemble in London in conference, with
the happiest results. These gentlemen have not
only had the opportunity of speaking to their
fellow envoys or ministers at the conference table,
but have been able to accept invitations to public
meetings at which they have had opportunity to
interest their audiences in the views they have
supported. How complete has been the accept-
ance of the verdict of the constituencies in the
Colonies has been shown when not a word of
advice, much less a remonstrance, has been uttered
against the tariffs adopted on imports in pursuit
of a policy which to the old-fashioned British
politicians of both parties was anathema. The
treaties with Belgium and Germany, which up to the
" seventies" hampered Canada in making whatever
tariff arrangement she chose, were cancelled at the
desire of the Government whose wishes Sir Alex-
ander Gait was the first of Canadian envoys to
express. In the numerous negotiations which the
adoption of a tariff necessitates, the Canadian

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 323

minister sent over to France, or any other country
interested, has had the uniform support and coun-
tenance of the British ambassador accredited to
the nation concerned. It has been the same in
regard to the diplomatic effort which has been
happily crowned with success, in what we call the
Far East, and the Canadians call the Far West —
namely, in Japan — where the troublesome immigra-
tion question had been most ably discussed by Mr.
Lemieux, supported by the British ambassador to
Japan.

Sir Charles Tupper said : " I have met from the
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, and from
other gentlemen connected with the Foreign Office,
the same hearty and generous responses to every
proposal I have felt it my duty to submit. I may
go further, and say that, so far as our foreign com-
merce is concerned, they have at once in the most
generous spirit responded to the desire of Canada
that her representative should be charged as pleni-
potentiary with the duty and responsibility of
negotiating treaties in regard to foreign powers,
and they did me the higher honour of at once
placing me on equal terms with Sir Robert Morier,
the British ambassador, in a negotiation of a treaty
with Spain. You will at once see that nothing has
been wanting on the part of her Majesty's Govern-
ment to give me aid and co-operation. It is said,
But why not seek independence for yourselves ?
Gentlemen, I say at once, that I regard the pro-
posal for independence as the most fatal delusion, so

324 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

far as Canada is concerned, that could be presented
for our consideration. At this moment, living under
the aegis of this great Empire, we possess an
amount of power and influence which Canada could
not possibly obtain otherwise. I am not speaking
mere sentiment, but I know, after spending twenty-
nine years of my life consecutively in the Parlia-
ment of my own country, no man would stand the
slightest chance of securing an election in any one
of the Canadian constituencies from Prince Edward's
Island to British Columbia were he to advocate the
disintegration of the Empire."

Emigration

Twenty-one thousand boys and girls have been
sent out by Dr. Barnardds agency alone in twenty
years.

I append in reference to emigration letters from
boys and girls sent by Dr. Barnardo's agency from
the East of London alone. A similar agency has
sent many thousands from Scotland. The success
of this system of sending boys and girls under
organised supervision and careful selection and in
concert with the Provincial Governments may be
held now to be proved. Would it not be well and
in the interest of Great Britain that her Govern-
ment should send from all towns and congested
districts? It would be a certain way of diminish-
ing the poverty which shows itself as inevitable

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 325

through the flocking into the cities from the
country districts ; and the cry goes up winter after
winter from almost all British towns complaining of
want of employment. It would not tell at once, but
it would tell heavily in a few years. Again assist-
ance from home for approved and selected institutes
for the reception of women would help both the old
country and the new. This, however, must be
undertaken on a much smaller and more carefully
guarded scale than such a plan as that favoured
by Stepney in London, and Glasgow in Scotland,
where all are received who may apply.

Listen to the boys' evidence in Ontario : —

" Walkerville, Ont.
" Dear Sir, — I will tell you about the farm I am
on. Although it is a small one, we have two milk-
ing cows, a calf, and a heifer out at pasture, two
horses, Prince and George, both very quiet, and
fifteen ducks. We had 300 chickens, but a rat
comes every night and takes one or two, and we
cannot catch him, so we haven't got as many as 300
now. We had a nice lot of cherries this year
altogether. I picked twelve bushels of them. I
have been pulling weeds and hoeing tomatoes and
other things in the garden. I feed and water the
horses, herd the cows and water them, feed the pigs,
and do a few chores besides. We have twenty-one
acres of oats and barley, and they will be ready to
cultivate this week.

11 Sidney Wm. Osborne (12.)"

326 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

" Panmure, Ont.
" I guess you would like to know how I have got
along the last few years. I have done fine. I go
to the shanty every fall. I went the ist of October
last year, and I stayed till the ist April. I have
over $400 in the bank now, and I am thinking of
taking a trip out west this fall, to see the country,
and if I like it I will take up land out there ; but I
am doing well in Ontario, and maybe I can do
better in the west. William Shepperd (20)."

" Carlingford, Ont.
" Dear Mr. Owen, — You will be surprised to
hear from me. We have our hay, wheat, and
barley cut. I loaded nearly all the wheat. We
were drawing manure to-day. We have about
twenty-five head of cattle, thirteen cows, two pigs,
seven horses, and one colt. Tom Mason (13)."

" Hickson, Ont.
" Another year has passed, and I am now sending
in my account. It is not as much as I expected it
would be, but, nevertheless, it is better than nothing.
I am sending $32, of which please accept $2 as my
subscription to our honourable institutions.

"Robert E. Watson (18)."

" Little Britain.
"Just a few lines to let you know that I have
struck the best place in Mariposa — just the place

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 327

I have been looking for. I am getting $190 per
year. I think I shall make it my home for a few
years. I am two farms west of Arthur Nash. I
shall go over and help Cowperthwaite's boy as
much as I can. I liked that place first-rate. My
sister is working at the same place as Fred.

"Fred Mawson (14)."

Girls {Ontario).

"North Gower, Ont., July 3, 1908.
" I do not have such a lot of work to do. I have
most of the afternoon picking berries. I am really
trying to do my best, because I know that it would
please you and everybody else. They often laugh
at the way I speak because I talk English, but I do
not mind that as long as I have a good home, as I
am pretty sure I have. Mr. Good and all the boys
think as much about me as if I was one of the family.
We had a school picnic, and I went to it and run.
I can milk cows, and sometimes when I want to
milk more than my share, they are so kind they tell
me not to. When I came here I weighed 69 lbs.,
and when Johnny weighed me to-night I weighed
72 lbs., so you may know I have plenty of food
and a warm bed to lie in. Mrs. Good just made
me a cool dress yesterday, so that I would not be
hot when I would be picking berries. She also
made me a nice dress for Sunday, one for the
house, another for school, besides fixing my English
dresses just like the Canadians. She got me a hat,

328 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

as well as giving me money and providing me with
stamps."

" Paris, Ont.
" Just a few lines to let you know how I am
getting on. I like my home in Paris very much,
and hope to stay a good long time. Every one
around here is good and kind to me. I think I was
very fortunate to get into such a good place. It is
so pretty up this way. We have lots of flowers and
fruit trees. We have had quite a bit of rain lately,
but it has done quite a lot of good, as we were
badly in need of rain. We are having some lovely
weather, not too hot, but just nice. The grass is so
nice and green. We have two lawns to keep nice,
and we believe ours is kept the nicest of any around
here. There is hardly any one that passes here,
but what they don't say how pretty our place always
looks, and we know it does, too. I hear from my
friends in Eneland."

Boys and Girls {Ontario).

We need not go beyond the confines of our own
fair Ontario to see how little waifs, through the
good providence of God and the Christian bene-
volence of the Barnardo Homes, may become men
and women gifted and respected in various walks
of life. A gentleman who has occasion to visit
homes in Eastern Ontario as a Sunday school
official, often meets with very striking cases of the
advance of Barnardo boys and girls to the front

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 329

ranks in Canadian society. Not many miles from
historic Kingston, he met with a minister of a
large and prosperous church, beloved by his people
and respected by all the country side, who was
once a little rescued waif. He also knows a rich
farmer, with his broad acres and cattle worth
$10,000, who was a Barnardo boy.

Boys (Saskatchetvaii).

" Moosomin, Sask.

" I now take the great pleasure of writing you
these few lines, hoping you are in as good health
as it leaves me at the present. I wish the Homes
every success. I have been out since 1901. I am
doing well, and I am with a good farmer now, but
I could go back to the place where I have worked
before. I am getting to be quite a farmer, though
I am a carpenter by trade. This is a fine country,
and I always give it a good name. There have
been lots around who do not like it, and give it a
bad name. I tell them if they don't like it to pack
their duds and get right out of it. I thank the dear
old Homes for bringing me to such a good country
and helping me to lead such a good life. I thank
the Homes again and again a thousand times.

" Philip Parkes (20)."

Joseph Cowley is only nineteen, and his brother,
Edward, is three years older. They say they are
lucky in having railway accommodation brought to

330 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

their very door. One can hardly deny their luck,
but when we consider the enterprise of Canadian
railways we can hardly say that it is exceptional.

"ASQUITH, SASK.

"I will start from the first. We left England
on September 22, 1897, for Canada, and I am glad
I did. We sailed on the good ship Labrador, which
I see has been wrecked since. We had a very
pleasant voyage across the ocean, a little over nine
days' sailing. We landed at Quebec and jumped
on the train for Winnipeg, where I stayed for two
weeks. Then I was moved on west. Everybody
was saying, " Go west, young man, go west."
Well, I went west as far as Osier, where I found
my place of abode for a little while with Mr. Joseph
Caswell. I stayed at Osier three years, and then
we moved to Saskatoon, and I stayed with Mr.
Caswell for two years more. Then I went ' hoeing
my own row,' which was not an easy one by any
means, but I am getting along not too bad now. I
was working around Saskatoon for some time, and
then I moved thirty-five miles west again, so you
see I have been going west all right. In 1903 my
brother came up here, and we took up a homestead
each, right beside each other, so we have 320 acres
between us, but the only drawback was no railroad.
Thirty-five miles from a railroad is not very nice,
but we have got plenty of them now. The C.P.R.
runs right by my brother's quarter, and we have a
siding 1 \ miles from us, and then we have the

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 331

G.T.P. one mile from us, so you see we struck it
very lucky. We have rented our farms for two
years now, and we have been working out trying to
make money ; but money is a hard thing to get hold
of, but very easy to spend, as the old saying is. If
ever I get hold of a dollar again, I am going to
hold on to it. It's your only friend when you are
all in, down and out. That is just what I think,
and I believe there are a good many more like me.
We have got our homesteads improved now, and
we consider that they are worth 4000 dollars, so
that isn't too bad, is it ? Well, I would advise every
young man to come west if there is any push in
him. He can make a nice living and put a little in
the bank every year — lay it away for a rainy day.
He must keep away from the bar-room though, or
he never will have anything, only a bad name, and
that you can get if you aren't careful. I think I
will draw this to a close now, or some one will
think I am preaching a sermon instead of writing a
letter, so this is all this time. Yours very truly,

11 Joseph Cowley (19)."

Albert E. Stubbington sends the following en-
couraging letter. He has been through the mill
himself, and now is anxious to have a little Bar-
nardo boy to live within the light and presence of
his good example : —

" MOOSOMIN, SASK.

" Since I came to this country life has had its
ups and downs ; but I can say, on the whole, that

332 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the North-West is the place for a boy to become a
well-to-do independent farmer, or whatever he cares
to be. I have started to farm for myself, and am
doing first-rate. I have got horses and implements
and everything to work a quarter-section of land,
also sixteen head of cattle, sixteen pigs, and fifty
hens. My first crop was 300 bushels of wheat, 650
of oats, and a fair crop of potatoes, and everything
is my own ; so you see a boy can get along who
has a good mind and tries hard to do what is right.
Since I wrote to you last I am happy to say I am
married, and I have had no chance, so far, to regret
doing so. I am sorry to say that I cannot oblige
you with any picture of myself or my surroundings,
but hope to be able to send you same in the future.
I most heartily thank Dr. Barnardo for sending me
out here to such a glorious country as Canada, and
it is needless to say that if at any time I can help
along his good work, I will most gladly do so.
Wishing the Homes a merry Christmas and a
happy and prosperous New Year, I remain, yours
truly, Albert E. Stubbington (20)."

" Wawota, Sask:.
" The first thing I will talk about is when I came
to the North-West, which was in 1896. I came to
my first employer, Mr. Wm. M'Pherson, of Wawota,
Sask., where I served four years, and it was four
years of experience and hard work ; but that is
what we all should have, according to the old
saying, ' Earn your bread by the sweat of your

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 333

brow.' It is true I earned it, and all my friends
can prove it, and I am better off to-day. I will tell
any of our boys and girls, if you go through some
hard experiences at first, it leads you to be able to
go through harder ones easier in the future. When
I first came to Mr. M'Pherson I had a twenty-five
mile drive, and when I came to the house I thought
it was some Indian shack ; but I soon found out
that the North- West was full of sod-roofed houses
at that time, which is some twelve years ago. It
is different now, with the great crops, which have
been giving the farmers good frame houses and
barns. A good, comfortable home is something to
be proud of, and all this has come to them from
good crops and the cattle. We must not forget the
cattle, for of late years (the last two years), unfor-
tunately, the crops have been frozen, and the cattle
in most cases have taken their place. I have had
some experience with cattle — have bought two lots,
and made money both times. I say once more
that, if you have a home in the West, you have
something to be proud of, because you can raise
your crops and raise your cattle and horses and
anything else in the animal line. Come to the
West. The West is the place for a good-living
young man and woman. Don't be afraid to come.
With God's help you will get along. I have tried
it now for twelve years, and I am satisfied with it ;
but, as you know, some of us are not as strong as
others, and it came to me that I am not strong. I
was told by the doctor I would have to try something

334 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

easier than farming, but I like farming, and have
been working out all the time. I should have
had a farm of my own, but, as I always got steady
work, I did not bother taking up one. There is a
lot of land for home-steading farther west, so, if
my health keeps good, I have a chance yet. Come
along ; you have a chance as well as I have. The
crops this year, as far as I know, in the wheat
averaged twelve bushels to the acre, and oats forty
bushels to the acre. The potato crop was good in
most places, and the hay crop splendid. I think
the more of Dr. Barnardo's boys who come out to
take up land in the West, the more money they will
have for themselves. We must keep the late Dr.
Barnardo's great work in mind, and think what he
has done for us, sending us out to this great land
of wealth. When I first came out to Wawota,
Sask., there were not many places taken up in the
settlement, but the people keep coming in more and
more all the time, and now what have we? We
have a town at Wawota, which was started three
years ago, and it is steadily growing. It was the
great work of the Canadian Pacific Railway in
bringing the railway through, which means good
times for the country, and saves all those twenty-
five mile drives, which I know were very hard on
horses. It is the iron horse that does the hard
pulling now. I am sorry I have not a photograph
of myself. I had my photo taken two years ago,
but they went as fast as I got them ; but as soon
as I get it taken again I will send you one. I will

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 335

tell you one thing more. I went down to Muskoka
last winter to see Mr. and Mrs. Morgan, the people
to whom I went when I first came to Canada. One
thing, I had a happy home there — a home that I
will never forget. I wish all of the late Dr. Bar-
nardo's boys and girls a good home in the West,
and may God bless you all and be with you till we
meet again. One of your boys,

"John James Smith (22)."

Boys {British Columbia).

The West has other attractions besides farm-
ing. There is the lumber camp, and Albert A.
Solomon throws some light on that side of western
life—

"Deer Park, B.C.

" A small account of my life in British Columbia.
It is not on the prairie, but in the great moun-
tains of British Columbia. Having enough of the
cold West, I thought I would try the mountains
of British Columbia, and there is no better place
than British Columbia for the young man. I am
not more than a year here yet, but one can tell
some pretty good stories in a short time. At
present I am working in the bush here, and getting
from $2.50 to $3.00 a day. It is contract work, but
my partner and I are cutting from 5000 to 6000
feet a day, and we get a dollar a 1000. Any
young man that knows what a saw is can do that.
For example, I will send a photo which we had

336 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

taken cutting down a 3-foot tree. We have had
a little snow here, but it is all gone again, and all
going fine. We have the finest boating that there
is on any lake. It is all newly settled here, and
there are no towns yet, but there are two steamers
daily, and for the sportsman there is no better
country. Our neighbour came home to-day, and
brought a fine-looking mountain lion. I am tired
this evening, so think I will close."

"Vancouver, British Columbia.
" I take pleasure in writing you a few lines to let
you know how I got along in Canada. I came out
in April 1898, and was given a situation on a farm
at Red Deer, Alberta, where I stayed four years,
which was the agreement made by Mr. Owen. At
the end of the fourth year I left and worked for
several different farmers around there, and got
along first-rate with all of them. I was in Alberta
about eight years, and I must say before I go any
further that, altogether, I enjoyed the best of health
during the eight years I was there. I don't think
I ever stopped work a day for sickness, and I think
that's going some. I took a great interest in
farming and looking after stock. I always liked
working among cattle. I had six head of my own,
and I also had a fine saddle pony. Everybody
advised me to take up a homestead and settle down,
but I thought I would rather go farther west, where
it wasn't quite so cold in the winter, and where I
could take up a fruit farm if I wished, so I started

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE 337

out. I worked in the woods one winter, and the
next spring I came on to Vancouver. I have not
got the fruit farm yet, but I have been here two
years. I like the coast first-rate. We have lovely
summers here, but the winters being wet are against
it for me. I think I would rather have the cold
winters of Alberta rather than the rain. I have
a good inside job, and so I am not out in the rain
much. I am getting on fine."

CHAPTER XIV

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE

"Be not weary of well-doing"

THE NEW LAND

They left the old land sadly

When first they came away,
The women and men leaving Strath and Ben

To find where their fortunes lay.
They sing those songs more gladly

Now, in the new land here —
The words are the same, but the song is aflame,

Heart-stirred by the new land's cheer.

We've gold for many miners,

Two oceans guard our coal,
The silver breaks our giant lakes.

So fill the flowing bowl
And drink — Quebec ! Ontario !

Our central prairie home !
Our forests so vast in the east and the west,

Our rivers' jewelled foam !

There's nothing like our country,

Land of the freeman true,
God gave us the best of the east and the west,

From Pole to the far Peru !
So here's to the maple leaf !

We'll drink to the Plain and Pine !
To " Canada first ! " Thank God He has nursed

This land that is thine and mine !

An Emigrants Information office has been

established. Each post office has the notice of

338

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 339

where labour is most wanted. The statements of
the various Governments are quoted in brief — what
is there more to do ? Thus the handbooks giving
fuller information are said in the notices to be
obtained by writing to London, and at the expense
of a penny. But this is a roundabout fashion of
putting knowledge into a man or woman's head
when he or she applies at the post office for the
emigrant's notice. Why not have the handbooks
on sale for a penny or a halfpenny at the post office,
so that all town or country folk can buy them over
the post office counter whenever they go to buy
a stamp or post a letter.

The Penny Postage to the sister States has
been established. It is a great gain. Mr.
Henniker Heaton deserves gratitude for the
persistence with which he has fought for
this boon, and M. Lemieux and Mr. Sydney
Buxton respectively, Canadian and British Post-
masters, have earned the gratitude of all of us.
It would be difficult to apportion the praise, as was
boldly done by a bold Canadian, who said that
Lemieux of the two men was the best, as his
French name asserts, and that Mr. Sydney Buxton
was S.B., or second best! This is not a perfect
description, for Mr. Henniker Heaton is as good
as both, or, at all events, has double aspirations !
What more is wanted ? Strangely, perhaps, a little
editorship of important news. When an important
Government statement is made on either side, it is
curious how frequently the point is missed by the

340 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

telegraph agencies. Whenever there is a judicial
decision affecting international relations, such as
the Alaska boundary, whenever there is a Govern-
ment statement in the Commons or Lords, or in
the Colonial Houses of Parliament, an official tele-
gram should be sent to the Government concerned,
giving the real words, and, if possible, a very brief
statement of the case, that no mistake be made,
no misunderstanding arise, and no ignorance
prevail.

Preference is accorded to member States of the
Empire in the case of bonds to bearer, and in the
case of other securities transferable by delivery,
the rise in taxation on foreign transactions is not to
extend to colonial transactions in the heavier stamp
exaction on financial sub-investments. It would
be well if securities issued by provinces and muni-
cipalities, and, with strict qualification, by railways
and manufactory companies, could have similar
preference. The more we can encourage our
British capital to find safe investment in the Empire
as compared with foreign countries, the more will
imperial interests be bound together. Trustees
should have greater freedom in placing money
in colonial first-class securities.

Emigration Aided by the State. — Mr. R. Arthur
of New South Wales is the last to enforce the plea
for State aid for the emigration of the young from
cities.

"It is almost impossible to expect adults who
have been accustomed to occupations such as these

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 341

to become farm labourers. They may accept work
on a farm temporarily, but the city is calling them
all the time, and on the slightest provocation they
desert the country to compete in the town labour
market.

" And along with them go a certain proportion
of the unemployable, whom any community is glad
to get rid of, and ship off under the faint belief that
a transformation of character may be effected under
other skies. It is the fear of these possibilities
which impels organised labour in the various
colonies to take up a hostile attitude to all im-
migration, and makes the politicians in power far
more cautious in their immigration policies than they
otherwise would be.

" It might seem, then, that an impasse had been
reached, and that any negotiations between the
Home and Colonial Governments must inevitably
be futile.

" But I am positive that some solution of the
difficulty can be arrived at. I have for long been
convinced that one of the best immigrants that a
country can receive is the lad from the age of fifteen
to twenty-one years.

" I was led to this belief in this way.

" Some years ago I came to realise that there
were many lads in Sydney, New South Wales,
where I live, who, if given the opportunity, would
prefer a country life rather than some town occupa-
tion. A scheme was evolved by which lads could
be sent either direct to the bush or given a three

342 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

months* preliminary training free at a Govern-
ment farm, where they learnt to milk, plough, ride,
drive, and feed stock, going thence to situations
with farmers.

"The scheme has proved a distinct success.
Not only lads straight from school, but others who
have given up their places in factories, shops, banks,
Government and private offices, have settled down
to a contented and promising life on the land.
Some have already taken up selections with money
saved out of their wages, as the youngest lad begins
with i os. a week and his keep, and can rise in a
year or two to 15s. and £1. Those who obtain
employment on sheep stations, where they can
acquire in the course of time a knowledge of sheep-
shearing, can earn from 10s. to £2 a day during
the shearing season.

" The demand in Australia for the services of
these lads is so great that each one of them can
have the pick of twenty or thirty places.

"In consequence of this, my thoughts turned
naturally to the thousands of young fellows in
Great Britain who, it seemed to me, might be glad
to follow this example. I sent a letter describing
the opportunities offered, but dwelling also on the
monotony and hardships of the life, to a paper
which has a large circulation among English boys,
and by a few return mails the organisation of which
I have the honour to be President, the Immigration
League of Australasia, received over 500 letters
from writers of all classes, and ages ranging from

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 343

fourteen to twenty-one years, who declared emphati-
cally that they were anxious to come to Australia and
adopt a country life. Most of these lads were living
in large cities, and many of them expressed their
disgust at being cribbed and confined in an office
or a factory. Many, again, were either out of work
or only in casual employment. The only thing
which prevented most of them from starting at
once was the lack of money to pay the passage
fare. Some had saved a few pounds, but the £16
necessary to get to Australia was entirely beyond
them. A few, however, have been able to raise
the amount, and are now doing well on Australian
farms.

"Now I maintain that here is the basis of a
scheme with regard to which the Home and
Colonial Governments could meet on common
ground, and which could be of immense benefit
to the communities concerned.

"If for the next ten years 100,000 British lads
were kept annually from entering the already over-
stocked labour market, it would give those who
did so a better chance, and would check to some
extent the displacement of adult by boy labour
which is so common. It would also lessen the
ranks of the casual employed. And the lads
themselves would gain opportunities for advance-
ment which would be denied to most of them in
the Old Country.

"On the other hand, the Colonies would receive
them with open arms. The consistent success of

344 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the 12,000 Barnardo boys who have gone to
Canada, and the way they are sought after by
farmers, are conclusive proofs of this. And I
make bold to say that Australasia would accept
gladly at least 50,000 a year.

" The merits of the lad as immigrant are self-
evident. He is plastic, learns easily, and is
quickly moulded to new conditions. Not being
master of a trade, he is under no temptation to
leave the country for the city. Nor has he
acquired objectionable habits, such as drinking
and gambling, nor been exposed to the deteriorat-
ing influences of casual employment.

"In nineteen cases out of twenty he would do
well and give satisfaction, ending often by becom-
ing a prosperous landowner.

" But the feminine side of the question must not
be overlooked, and here again much could be done.

"In the United Kingdom there are at least a
million more females than males. Most of these
are doomed to enforced celibacy instead of being
the mothers of sons of the Empire. Transfer some
of them to the daughter States, where the shortage
of women is even more striking than the super-
fluity in the Motherland, and the great majority
would be granted the opportunity of following
woman's natural destiny, that of wife and mother.
This in itself would put up the birth-rate consider-
ably in the Colonies.

11 It may be urged that it would be undesirable
to take lads and young women away from their

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 345

homes at so early an age, but the objection has
little weight. Lads join the mercantile marine at
fifteen or sixteen years of age, and are thrown
practically on their own resources. And the young
women who go to domestic service in the United
Kingdom are exposed to the same temptations
and dangers that they would have to face in the
Colonies.

" Moreover, a rigorous supervision of the young
immigrants could be insisted upon. Strict con-
ditions could be laid down regarding the treatment
of lads by the farmers who employed them, and
visiting inspectors could ascertain if these were
being complied with. Again, it would be easy
to form a committee of ladies in each colony to
take an interest in the young women and keep
in touch with them.

11 Let it also not be forgotten that many of
these young immigrants would save money and
send for their parents in course of time.

"One other suggestion I would make which
seems to me of practical value, at least so far
as Australia and New Zealand are concerned.

" Every year some thousand men complete their
period of active service in India and return to
England to join the Reserve. As a rule these
men have considerable difficulty in finding employ-
ment, because they have enlisted at an age before
which they could master some skilled trade. On
the other hand, they are young, active, accustomed
to roughing it, and in many cases can handle

346 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

horses. They are therefore the very men who
would be of value on the Australian sheep stations
as boundary riders and stockmen, &c. And I
know from hundreds of letters received from such
men that they would gladly come to Australia if
they were allowed to do so. I understand that
permission has been given to a number of reser-
vists to leave the United Kingdom. Why, then,
should the reservists in India be compelled to
return home? Why should they not go straight
to the country wanting them ? "

The observations of Mr. Richard Arthur, those
spoken by him as embodying ideas from New
South Wales, are equally applicable to Canada.

Look again at the question of profitable money
grants — profitable for mother country and daughter
States. The good derived by Germany from State
support of shipping lines has become so evident to
her people that very considerable subsidies are
given by her Government to steamship companies
whose vessels tend to strengthen national commerce.
This she does although she has two colonies — and it
may be said that none of her colonies at present
pay their expenses; yet Germany's mercantile marine
is preferred to the British in many parts of the
world for the conveyance of cargo and passengers.
We, on the other hand, have many colonies, some of
which have now practically the standing of separate
nations, so numerous is their population and so great
is the amount of the tonnage they employ, yet the
effort made to retain the trade for our own ships

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 347

has been feeble. A money grant for the carriage of
the mails on the most economic principles is usually-
all that is given, yet the growing sympathy for the
proposal to have an all-red route round the world,
connecting each British-bred country, by magnifi-
cent steamers, with the others, has been met with
considerable sympathy. Sir Wilfrid Laurier has
spoken in its favour, and there have been voices
from among the ministers of the Liberal party here
approving of the line taken in this matter by the
Liberal party in Canada.

Already the Canadian Pacific Company possess
steamers second to none, and affording comfort to
the poorest traveller across the Atlantic. In regard
to further representation of the Empire in London,
I repeat proposals and comments I have quoted
before.

At the Colonial Institute in 1884 a suggestion
was formally made by the Canadian Governor-
General that a council in which such envoys might
sit should form part of the regular Imperial Govern-
ment. It is noteworthy that Lord Grey approved
of such a scheme, and in 1885 he spoke on the
subject as follows : —

" The difficulty of devising any mode of enabling
the Colonies to exercise any real influence in the
Imperial Government is very great, and I must
confess myself quite unable to propose one which
would be altogether satisfactory. But, in the
absence of any better arrangement, I am still of
opinion that a suggestion I threw out in an article I

348 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

contributed to the Nineteenth Century of April
1879 might be adopted with advantage. What I
proposed was that we should revert to what was the
practice up to the middle of the last century, of mak-
ing large use of a Committee of the Privy Council in
the management of colonial affairs. The Board of
Trade, under the name of the Committee of Privy
Council for Trade and Plantations, took an effective
part with the Secretary of State in colonial adminis-
tration. This practice has long fallen into disuse,
and the amount of other business now assigned to
the Board of Trade makes it undesirable that it
should be revived ; but I think advantage would be
derived from giving the Colonial Secretary the
assistance of another Committee appointed for that
purpose, which might also be made the means of
enabling the most important Colonies to exercise
the influence they ought to have in directing the
policy of the Government in all matters affecting the
common interests of the whole Empire. With this
view the Queen might be advised to appoint to be
members of her Privy Council such of the agents
of the principal Colonies as might receive from the
Legislatures they represent sufficient salaries to
enable them to reside in this country and perform
the duties assigned to them.

11 To a Committee composed of these colonists,
with such other members of the Privy Council as
her Majesty may from time to time direct to be
summoned to it, the Colonial Secretary might be
empowered to refer such questions as he should

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 349

think proper for their advice. The reports of this
Committee would, of course, have no legal authority
until confirmed by the Queen, on the advice of her
ministers, whose responsibility for all the acts of
the Government would thus remain unaltered. But
the colonial agents representing the several Legis-
latures would exercise a powerful influence in guid-
ing the policy of the Government. Questions arise
which more immediately affect the Colonies, but on
which peace or war for the Empire may eventually
turn — such as those relating to the maintenance of
British rights of fishery. These would naturally be
referred to such a Committee ; and if a quarrel with
some foreign State should arise from the course
taken by our Government, it would have far more
hearty support from the Colonies if they had,
through their representatives, been consulted on
the steps that had led to it. There are very many
other matters on which the wishes and opinions of
the Colonies ought to have weight in deciding on
the measures of the Government, and on all these
the proposed Committee would enable them to
make themselves heard. The Imperial Govern-
ment would not rightly resist what might be found
from the proceedings of the Committee to be the
general wish of the Colonies ; and, on the other
hand, it would derive from it valuable support in
resisting unreasonable wishes sometimes put forward
by the Colonies. That unreasonable wishes and
demands are sometimes urged by the Colonies is
very clear. Nothing, for instance, can, I think, be

350 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

more unreasonable than the demand which seems
now to be made by the Australian Colonies that
England should set up a claim to dominion over
the whole Pacific, with a right to exclude all other
nations from islands which neither she nor her
colonists are able to occupy and administer. If
this demand were gravely put forward in the
Colonial Committee which I have suggested, the
Secretary of State would almost certainly find him-
self supported in opposing so preposterous a demand
by representatives of all the Colonies not immedi-
ately concerned. At the same time, the claim of
the Cape Colonists that no foreign Power should be
allowed to occupy Zululand would probably be sup-
ported by the whole Committee. In short, the
English at home would be able to secure support
for their opposition to manifestly unreasonable
colonial propositions among the reasonable colonial
representatives, but when the English beyond the
sea were unanimous in opposing home policy, there
would be a free presumption that we were in the
wrong. Such at least seems a reasonable and a
practical suggestion, which only needs to be worked
with prudence and common sense in order to
arrest the tendencies working in favour of dis-
integration and to operate directly in favour of the
restoration and the maintenance of the unity of the
Empire."

Some objections expressed to this plan may be
given in the form of double columns, giving in one
the objection and in the other the answer.

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE

35'

Such a council would lead to
delay.

Indian Council has been proved
an unnecessary adjunct to the
machinery of the India Office.

Envoys would not understand
Crown Colony questions so
well as Colonial Office clerks.

In nine cases out of ten, ques-
tions discussed would concern
one colony only, or at most
two. Envoys of those not
affected would have no busi-
ness.

" Log rolling," or agreement be-
tween Colonies to tax British
Treasury, would arise. New-
foundland might say to Queens-
land, you get John Bull to
protect my fisheries, and I'll
get him to annex New Guinea.
John Bull to protect us both
against consequences.

Agents - General might thwart
English Government.

English Cabinet should alone be
consulted.

What use? when Canada declares
herself against a war, how could
Council proceed ?

Colonial envoys, being at hand,
can be consulted as soon as a
Cabinet or foreign ambassa-
dors. Telegraphs make neces-
sary communication with the
Colonies instantaneous.

This may be granted without
affecting question of Colonial
Council. In Indian Council
voices only of old ex-officials
are heard, and no serious result
is possible from neglect or
over - ruling of their advice.
Envoys' voices are the respon-
sible voices of living nations,
whose goodwill or hostility
must influence decisions.

Granted, and they would not
interfere in them.

Where envoys are interested they
would say so. Where not, they
would let transactions, as now,
be concluded by Colonial
Secretary and agent of colony
affected. That some may listen
without interfering is not an
objection except against all
councils.

Common sense is more likely to
be exercised by Council of
Representatives than by two
working together to influence
Colonial Secretary. This last
procedure could take place
now, if it be possible or likely
to take place at all.

Impossible consistently with the
Colonies wishing to be repre-
sented. Colonial air removes
English party hate, and even
eradicates Irish hostility.

This theory gives up hope of
keeping any but our own island
and fortified posts in Empire.

The British Government would
probably have to acquiesce in
any general dissent to a war.

352 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

They have not asked for a

Council.
Would be instituted to influence

Colonies for Free Trade.

Would be instituted to get

Protection introduced into

England.
"A proposal to restore Down-
ing Street rule."

Political and commercial egotism
make it impossible.

Put relatives into same house,
and they will quarrel.

If dissent came from one great
Colony alone, that Colony's
antagonism would not be
stronger, but modified, if she
were consulted about danger,
instead of, as now, having the
chance of being thrust into it
without warning.

True — and don't have it consti-
tuted till they do.

Moral of such objections : Each
part of Empire must take its
own way in commercial policy.

On the contrary, gives surest
means of counteracting any
tendency to such a nightmare.

Trade of each on its own lines
can be protected by power of
all. Imperial machine can
push interest of each. Witness
Canadian envoy and British
ambassador working as coad-
jutors to get Canadian Treaty
of Commerce with Spain.
Different trade treaties for
different parts of Empire can
be negotiated by combined
imperial machinery.

Council would not put them into
same house, but add a storey
(for increasing family) to house
of each ; insure common
drainage provisions to prevent
sewer gases ; and engage a
policeman, paid by each house-
holder, to protect property of
all.

Of the "pros" and "cons" above enumerated,
the most important is the question, "Who wants
this Council ? " There may be a great deal of good
in the proposal, but the good must first be seen by
the Colonies, and they must express their desire to
be thus consulted before any Council be constituted.

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 353

On one great subject there has of late years been
no doubt of the desire of the younger members of
our Empire. They themselves in various degrees
have adopted a tariff taxing imports from abroad.
They do not wish us to do so if on examination of
their own experience we still believe that a British
tariff would hurt British citizens, but they them-
selves have proved that they derive great benefits
from the adoption of this policy. So much has this
been the case in Canada that the Liberal party,
which most strenuously opposed, has been con-
verted, and during the last election there was no
question of reverting to Free Trade, or to a mere
revenue tariff. They naturally think that what has
proved good for themselves cannot be evil for the
mother country. They point to the experience also of
the United States as an even stronger case, for the
Americans had long-established industries which are
not threatened to any great extent by foreign im-
portation, yet at the last presidential election in the
United States there was no word uttered in favour
of going back to Free Trade. They point also to
the experience of Australia. They show that New
South Wales, always " Free Trade " up to a recent
date, now favours a tariff. It is declared that their
wages have increased for the working men as the
capital attracted to the country has founded many
manufactories, and since the so-called national
policy was adopted after the election of 1878, which
brought Sir John Macdonald into power, there has
been an immense advance in all national prosperity.

z

354 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

The argument used by those in England who fear
any fiscal change, that any protection once adopted
will inevitably be driven too far, has been proved
vain imagination. In all countries of any extent
the difference of habitation and geographical variety
causes opposition to any extreme protection unless
it can be clearly proved to be the overmastering
interest of all. Lord Kimberley, when Colonial
Secretary, wrote to me, exclaiming, " What (blank)
your ministers must be to put taxes, for instance, on
American ploughs, when they must know that
making them at home will only give them an
inferior article at a higher price ! " I took special
pains to find out what the effect was of the exclu-
sion of American ploughs. For a little while
Canadian ploughs were considered in the prairie
country to be inferior, but in a short while, when the
Canadian manufactories were got into thorough
working order, the quality was as good and the
price was as reasonable as before the imposition of
a tariff. Now the price is less by 15 to 25 per
cent, than it was before 1878 for all agricultural
implements !

Bankers are not usually men who welcome " wild
experiments," or who speak well of them when
made. Every "Liberal" in Canada in 1877 de-
clared that Bastiat and Cobden had proved Free
Trade to be necessary for a country's salvation.
But elections proved that the people desired the
wild experiment of making goods for themselves.
In every constituency the question was fought out.

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 355

The result is that, after twenty-five years' trial, the
Bankers' Report is to the following effect : —

" The cost of living in Canada has doubtless
increased during the past twenty to twenty-five
years, but work is far more plentiful now, while
wages are proportionately higher, and in every way
money more easily made. In natural sequence, the
country, and the citizens thereof, are vastly more
prosperous now than during the period under com-
parison, and there is very little poverty in the land.
The only individuals who may suffer are the com-
paratively few whose sole income is derived from
money invested in high-class securities."

In Canada free traders are so few and far
between in both political parties that Free Trade
is as dead an issue as annexation to the United
States. I speak from personal knowledge, for I
have annually visited every town of importance
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, naturally meeting
most of the important people in the social and
business world.

There are many conditions which are unlike in
Great Britain and in Canada. One has limited
advantages from a limited amount of coal, precious
metals, sunshine, and rich soil. The other has
quantities of all of these, though less coal in the
central regions has been discovered for the present.
But in the conditions that make for a tariff, with
preference for commercial allies, both countries have
similar conditions, for both desire to give their kith
and kin all advantage compatible with their own

356 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

welfare; and both know that welfare is dependent
on manufacturing themselves all that they require,
so that no hostile victory may at any time wholly
cut off their supplies, and that they may be, as far
as possible, able to pay their workers good wages,
thereby enabling workmen to buy food in a good
market at more even prices than is the case where
hostile combinations may be able to conspire against
their interests and effect great alterations of price.

And so it has been proved over and over again that
a tariff does not at once jump up to abnormal height
and remain there ; it is constantly to be adjusted and
changed to suit the varying needs as time goes on ;
but in one thing it is stable — it prevents dumping ;
that is to say, it prevents an organised ring of
foreign manufacturers from smashing the chances of
a native industry arising. This was done over and
over again in the districts where such factory was
growing, by the temporary sale below price of the
articles it was to produce. Down went the infant
enterprise, and up went the prices which had only
temporary and artificial decline, brought about by
the autocratic power of the foreign ring. The
foreign manufacturers' desire was not to give cheap
goods to the Canadians, but to compel Canadians to
take their goods at the prices thought best for the
foreigners' profit. So far from a tariff being immut-
able, taxes upon articles are constantly lowered as
well as raised. Not only the example of Canada,
but the example of a country very near to Great
Britain, namely, the little kingdom of Holland, with

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 357

its colonial empire, proves that even a general
tariff can be lowered as it suits the interests of a
nation to do so. Canada, with an average tariff of
32, per cent., gives Britain a preference of 17 per
cent. It will be much to the advantage of British
manufacturers to establish their firms in Canada.
The Americans have taken largely to do so. It is
said that this year there were between 140 and 150
United States firms, with an aggregate capital of
140 million dollars, " started " in Canada. Many are
found in Ontario and Montreal, but the United
States firms are especially active now in investing in
elevators and other agencies for the handling of the
Canadian wheat crop of the west. The lumbering,
fishing, and mining industries are also attracting
many enterprising men with money from the
Republic. In Canadian lumbering alone some 25
millions of United States money is invested ; and as
for mining, an authority tells the Toronto Globe that
" United States capitalists are to-day just as closely
in touch with what is going on in the Cobalt and
Gowganda districts as are Canadians." At least six
of the largest producing silver mines of Cobalt are
controlled by United States money. The bond field
is, however, left almost entirely to the Englishman.
What has been conclusively proved during the
last twenty-five years is a truth of the maxim first
enunciated by Mr. Foster, " that trade follows the
flag." That the Canadians desire that this should
continue has been proved by a very large preference
they give to British imports ; sometimes one hears

358 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

talk on the European side which displays the most
extraordinary ignorance of the main conditions of
colonial well-being. These wiseacres speak as though
it were wrong on the part of the younger States
to put any taxes at all on anything coming from
the old country. If they only take the trouble
to correspond through the penny post with their
sons, nephews, or cousins in Canada, they will
find that personal consideration and patriotism of
the eminently human kind which desires that one's
own pocket, and the pocket of one's village, city, or
county may be benefited, prevails also amongst their
relatives. They desire to be producers just as the
old countryman desires to be a producer. When
once they have mastered this main fact in human
nature, they will see that it is necessary to cherish
some amount of sympathy in trying to place them-
selves in one's friend's shoes, and to look at things
also from his point of view. The old countryman
may ultimately be made to understand that this is
for his advantage as well as for his offspring's ;
for, unless the company of John Bull & Sons desire
to have all management placed in the hands of
John Bull, and none in those of his sons, he may
be pretty sure that his business will not long sur-
vive. You must have strong sons or friends for a
strong company, and the stronger the sons can make
their own action on their own initiative the better
it will be for the firm. They who imagine that
nothing but a one-sided Free Trade can benefit
Britain must try to remember that their relatives

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 359

across the water were formerly possessed of exactly
the same theories. What was cheap could never
be nasty, and could never lead to want of employ-
ment or prevent factories from arising ! The wealth
of the people could never be affected by depend-
ence on the productions of others! It was only
seen slowly, as wages did not rise, and as
capital did not come into the country, that though
all nature might be fair, man could not be content
to stick in the mud ; and they gave up following
a theory which, however sound upon paper, had
been proved to be purposeless for the advance in
commerce and production, and for the aims they
had at heart, namely, the independence and pro-
gress of a rising nation. The more independent
Canada becomes, the more she can supply her
own needs for defence ; maintaining herself on
her own food, and supplying even her luxuries
from native sources, the stronger will be the arm
she can hold out to help John Bull in time of
need. Therefore, for John Bull to take a pride in
huddling himself in his own mantle — a philosophic
theory — and to reject almost as an unheard-of
folly colonial requests that we should examine
whether we may not meet the rest of the
Empire in their wishes regarding fiscal collabora-
tion, is hardly a sign of statesmanship. The
argument against making experiments because we
cannot retrace any steps taken after a tariff has
been declared, shows a caution which even the
most cautious Scotsman in Canada will tell the

360 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

old countryman is misplaced. Changes are con-
stantly being made ; each article on the tariff list
had to have its separate case considered at inter-
vals over and over again, and the idea that the
people will be driven too far shows a strange
want of confidence in our countrymen. You might
as well prevent people from going through Oxford
Street on the plea that they must ruin themselves
by shopping ; nobody on these principles ought
to attend a racecourse for fear they should be
ruined by betting. It is very difficult for any
class of interest to run away with the leadership
in an educated country ; there are too many other
classes jealous or hostile through their leadership,
and the falsehood of extremes is rarely seen
except where the people are volatile and ignorant.
Mutual interests are the real safeguards against
disunion, and that these can best be strengthened by
helping local interests, is, in brief, the prime element
of success in keeping our Empire one and indi-
visible. We must recognise the necessity for the
full growth of each country comprised in the great
union, in accordance with each country's own idea
of what is best. Where the experience of the
United States of America and of Canada can be
quoted, our British local interests will be helped.

It must be remembered that though Canada
is represented by a peer, and probably will always
be represented by a distinguished politician, or, at
all events, a man thoroughly in touch with the
Cabinet of the day, Australia and the Cape and

WHAT MAY STILL BE DONE 361

other States have not yet sent men to whom the
same place is marked out as for the Canadian ;
it is therefore well to bear in mind that more
organisation will be necessary in future, when men
in the position of envoys may be sent here.

Each may form in his own mind an idea how
this scheme might have worked out during the
last twenty years. Take, for instance, the existence
of such a committee of envoys before the Boer War
— a question may be put in what measure each
colony would have backed up the policy which
resulted in the war, in which their own troops
assisted with such signal success. Each man may
estimate for himself what would have been the
reception of the proposal to hand over all power
to the various African communities four years after
that campaign. They will be able to judge whether
the Canadian example of giving free institutions
to the French Canadians was on a par with the
African case. He would remember that in Canada
it is manifest that the French Canadian province
would be almost surrounded in the future by
English-speaking colonies, and he would also see
that in Africa the only colony where the English-
speaking people were in the majority was Natal,
which was almost surrounded by the Dutch-speaking
population. The truth is, that a wider stand-
point must at all events be taken in the African
case, for there, to a greater extent than in the
Canadian example, it is the outside, and what
may almost be called sea-borne, influence which

362 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

must be relied upon to maintain the constitutional
forms of parliamentary freedom which are asso-
ciated with the British name, and which have
been successful as yet only amongst white popu-
lations accustomed to exercise self-government,
and possessing education, not only of the schools,
but also from the consciousness of being descended
from men who have through centuries been able
to make their own history.

The Colonies desire improved cable communi-
cation, mail communication, and the frequent
diffusion of commercial intelligence, the multiply-
ing of commercial agencies in the country, as all
parts of our system.

Preferential trade, in their eyes, means all
these things, as well as promoting our dealing
with each other's commodities.

All, or any of them, will be welcomed.

CHAPTER XV

VALUABLE STATISTICS

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368 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Destination of Mine Products during the Fiscal Year
I 905-1906.

Exports.

Destination.

United States . .
Great Britain . .
Newfoundland . .
Germany ....

China

Belgium ....

Japan

Bermuda ....
France ....
St. Pierre Miquelon

Italy

British Africa . .
Cuba

Value.

32,** 69,004

1,475.839

468,383

124,257

114,270

91,885

81,185

71,609

56,447

26,985

24,907

18,452

12,253

Destination. Value.

Mexico . . . .
British West Indies
Australia . . .
Austria Hungary
Cent. Am. States
Holland . . .
Norway . . .
New Zealand
Hong Kong . .
British Guiana .

Total

I

1 ',235

7,394

5,927

4,950

2,000

1,506

450

398

2 80

'5

! 35,469,631

As would naturally be expected, these statistics
show that the metallic ores constitute the bulk of
the exports, and that over 92 per cent, of the
total exports went to the United States, and only
4 per cent, to Great Britain.

There is but one metal refinery in Canada,
viz. at Trail, British Columbia, at which fine gold,
fine silver, and pig-lead are produced ; but the
great bulk of the products of the metallurgical
furnaces in this province are shipped to the United
States for refining. In Ontario, also, practically
all the metallic ore production, comprising chiefly
the nickel copper ores of Sudbury district, and
the rich silver ores of Cobalt, though partially

VALUABLE STATISTICS

369

reduced in Canada, are ultimately exported to the
United States or Great Britain for refining. So
also many of the non-metallic minerals, asbestos,
gypsum, mica, corundum, are largely exported.

Statistics of imports of minerals and mineral
products during the fiscal year ending June 30,
1906, compiled from the same source, are shown
in the last table.

Since we export practically all our metallic
ores, it naturally follows that we are compelled
to import a large value in metals and their
manufactures. Thus we find that in 1905-6, out
of a total importation of minerals and mineral
products of $89,389,504, iron and steel and their
manufactures make up over 43 millions, while coal
and coke account for another 20 millions. Copper,
gold, lead, brass, tin, zinc, and their manufactures,
make up nearly 10 millions more.

Mineral and Mineral Products for Fiscal Year 1905- 1906.
Imports.

Products.

Value.

Products. Value.

I

194,083

51,914
192,044
42,517
i3,78o
19,169

137,974
172,641

%

Alum and aluminous

Bismuth . . .
Blast furnace slags
Borax ....
Bricks and tiles
fire . .

! 949

i 19,005

78,277

1 460,410

539,962

2,661

Aluminium . .
Antimony . .

,, salts .

Asbestos and mfrs. of
Asphalt um ....

Carry forward

; 2,034,515

2 A

370 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

Imports (continued)

Products.

Value.

Carry forward . .

Cement

Chalk, prepared . .

Clays

Coal

,, tar pitch . . .

Coke

Copper and mfrs. of .

Cryolite

Crucibles, clay or plum-
bago

Chloride of lime . .
Earthenware. . . .
Electric carbons . .

Emery

Eeldspar, quartz, flint,

&c

Fullers' earth . . .

Fossils

Gold and silver and

mfrs. of ....

Graphite and mfrs. of

Gypsum, plaster of

Paris, &c

Iron and steel —

Pigs, scraps, blooms,

&c

Rolled bars, plates,
&C, including
chrome steel , .
Ferro-silicon, ferro-
manganese, &c. .
Manufactures of —
machinery, hard
ware, &c. . . .

Kainite

Lead and mfrs. of . .

Lime

Litharge

Lithographic stone
Manganese, oxide of .

Magnesia

Marble and mfrs. of .
Mercury

2,034,515

995J3I

32,906

220,504

19.153.832
154,628

i.3".375
3.102,157

22,793

32,95o

59.315

1,692,359

118,757

63,861

30,801

4,644

15

555,7oi
55.756

^7.549

2,451,416

12,342,364
462,739

27,978,941

3.4i 1

412,197

93.630

39,836

6,772

5,5o8

8,727

189,589

69,505

Products.

Metallic alloys —
Babbitt metal
Brass and mfrs. of
Britannia metal .
German silver
Type metal . .

Mineral and bitu
minous substances
N.O.P. ....

Mineralogical speci
mens ....

Mineral and metallic
pigments, paints, and
colours ....

Mineral water, includ
ing aerated water

Nickel

Ores of metals, WIS

Paraffin wax . . .
,, ,, candles

Petroleum and pro
ducts of . . .

Phosphate (fertiliser)

Platinum, mfrs. of .

Precious stones . .

Pumice ....

Salt

Saltpetre ....

Sand and gravel

Slate and mfrs. of .

Stone and mfrs. of.

Sulphate of copper
„ iron .

Sulphur ....

Sulphuric acid . .

Tufa calcareous . .

Tin and manufactures
of ... .

Whiting . . .

Zinc and mfrs. of

Total .

Value.

59,662

1,785,005

40,462

84,295

8,675

77,694
726

1,237,796

178,639

15,976

2,270,036

9,721

15,804

2,575,350
20,497
54,494

1,601,545

9,o53
412,019
109,005

173,727
112,941
370,190
95,049
2,493
436,827

8,558
30

3,336,948

44,876

466,627

89,389,504

VALUABLE STATISTICS 371

Value of Cable Communication

(As Expressed lately by Press Representatives).

Mr. Brierly {Montreal Herald} said they had
been told that owing to the tremendous business
done by the cable companies with the United
States they could not expect any reduction in the
Canadian rates, because it would affect rates to the
United States. In view of this dependence upon
a foreign country, they need not therefore pay
too much respect to the demand of the cable com-
panies for compensation in the event of State-
owned lines of communication. It was hardly
tolerable for Canada to pay 10 cents a Press
word across the Atlantic when Australia paid only
5 cents over the much greater distance across the
Pacific.

Mr. Dafoe ( Winnipeg Free Press) heartily sup-
ported the resolution. They wanted a 5 cents
rate across the Atlantic. If they could get it by
wireless telegraphy, well and good ; if not, let them
get it by cable. He did not, however, believe
in State -owned concerns cutting the throats of
privately owned lines. He did not suppose there
was any intention of buying out the privately owned
cables, and he did not suppose there was any inten-
tion of operating State-owned lines at less than
cost. But while they were careful of vested rights,

372 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

let them not forget the rights of the public. The
condition that should fix the price of any public
utility was the cost to-day of supplying the need.
If they could build a cable to-day between England
and Canada which, as a legitimate business proposi-
tion, could carry cablegrams at half the present
rates, it was a perfectly proper thing to build that
line and put the reduced rate into effect irrespective
of its business consequences.

Dr. J. A. Macdonald (Toronto Globe) said as
Canadian newspaper men they knew that they
paid for everything they got in Canada from the
Canadian Pacific Railway, and they paid for some
things they did not get. If the despatches did not
suit the corporation they did not get them. He
hoped and believed that the Marconi system would
be in operation long before the Governments of this
country and Canada got actively on the job. He
was not afraid of the Empire going to pieces
because they had no State-owned system. The
Empire was all right.

Emigration and British Sentiment.

At the conclusion of the discussion on cables,
the Conference adopted ncm. con. a resolution,
moved by Sir Hugh Graham, proprietor of the
Montreal Star, urging the Press of Great Britain
and the Colonies to act in concert in the wise
direction of the surplus population of the mother
country to those Colonies which stand in need of

VALUABLE STATISTICS 373

additional population. " Canada," he said, " is the
keystone to the imperial arch. If the keystone
were to fall the arch would be in peril." The
steadfastness of Canada in this position, added
Sir Hugh, depended upon the sentiment of the
majority of her people. To-day that majority was
overwhelmingly British. The United Empire
loyalist feeling persisted in the older provinces,
and French Canada was contentedly British ; but
the immigration of foreigners was threatening that
majority. From the reports of the Minister of the
Interior the Canadian immigration figures were :
For 1907 — British, 103,966; non-British, 119,736.
For 1908 — British, 120,182; non-British, 142,287.
The foreigner could not be expected to bring
British sentiment with him, and it was much to
hope that he would not bring anti-British senti-
ment. Many British emigrants went to foreign
countries ignorant of the fact that the Colonies
had immensely superior attractions for settlers, as
evidenced by the rush of emigrants to Canada from
the very country where most British emigrants
went. To quote from Government returns again :
During the past ten years 920,220 left British
shores for the United States, while 519,845 left
for Canada in the same period. If British sub-
jects at home were going to emigrate, surely it
was better for the Empire that they should go to
a land where they would still be under the flag,
and where their children would be available for
the protection of the Empire, than to one where

374 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

their children at all events were very certain to
forswear their allegiance, and to become possible
enemies of the home of their fathers. There was
no better service that Britons could perform for
the Empire than to keep the natural increase of
British population within its "far flung" boundary
line. Canada was the richest prize offering in
the market of the world to-day. The keen Ameri-
cans, having spied out the land, were coming
by trainloads. People from all parts of Europe
were coming by shiploads, and the country was
filling up fast ; but vast numbers of the newcomers
knew little of the British Empire, and cared less.
The handful of Canadians, though in the majority
now, could be regarded as no more than a small
garrison holding the fort in an immense country.
They had held it for a century and a half, but the
attacks had been few and half-hearted. They were
thought to be guarding a few acres of snow ; now
it was known they were guarding a Klondyke, a
Cobalt, the most valuable forest reserve in the
world, the greatest wheat fields, fabulous mineral
deposits — in a word, most of what was left of the
natural resources of the rich North American con-
tinent. The siege would now begin in earnest.
The result would depend upon succour from the
British Isles. They wanted good people from all
lands, but they wanted more from Britain. In
this connection he was authorised to say that
a serious effort would be made to commemorate
that Conference by organising an association in

VALUABLE STATISTICS 375

Canada embracing leading journalists and public-
spirited citizens, not to supersede, but to aid,
strengthen, and stimulate existing organisations of
all kinds to the end that desirable immigrants should
receive the utmost encouragement. This was more
an imperial than a colonial matter, and it was
hoped the Press of Great Britain would at least
give to the movement all the moral support that
its importance demanded.

Ready-made Homes in Canada for
Britishers.

Mr. Peterson says: " Individual effort must
be stimulated and a keen sense of responsibility in-
culcated. It may, therefore, be taken for granted
that the class of colonists the railway company will
endeavour to interest in its project is one that gives
reasonable promise of being successful and inde-
pendent. The conditions and restrictions surround-
ing the scheme will be designed with that end in
view. The company believes in the small farm.
For that reason the holdings will be limited to from
80 to 100 acres of irrigable land, or 160 acres of
non-irrigated lands situated in the more humid belt
of the west.

" It is the intention of the company to erect all
absolutely necessary buildings in advance of the
arrival of the colonist. These buildings will be
designed to house the settler and his live stock for

376 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

the first few years, and until such time as he is able
to provide more commodious structures himself,
when the original buildings may be utilised by him
for other necessary purposes. These structures will
be of the class generally erected by the newcomer.
Placing contracts for these buildings in a wholesale
way will, it is reasonable to suppose, enable the
company to obtain the closest possible prices for
work and material, of which, of course, the individual
colonist reaps the benefit.

" The initial period is generally the critical one.
Colonists often become discouraged, after settling
on the virgin prairie, during the time which elapses
before a cash revenue begins to come in. Through
inexperience many settlers over-estimate the effec-
tiveness of their capital, and a promising career is
at times brought to a sudden termination owing
to such miscalculation. To make the colonist
almost immediately revenue-producing, it will be
the aim of the company to break up a portion of
each holding, probably from 40 to 60 acres, the
year prior to his going into occupation, so that
there may be a crop available in a few months after
he has taken possession. This crop ought to
provide a cash income during the first season,
varying from ^100 to ,£250, according to the
season and the state of the grain market.

" The total cost of putting up the necessary
buildings, preparing the crop, providing domestic
water supply, and enclosing the holding with a
suitable fence, will be added to the regular list price

VALUABLE STATISTICS 377

of the land, and the settler will be given the op-
portunity of repaying the amount in ten equal,
annual instalments, with the usual rate of interest
on the unpaid balance.

"It would be the company's intention to settle
the colonists in units up to sixteen families. Friends
or relatives might in this way arrange to settle close
together. This would give a sufficient population
to have school facilities provided at once in each
settlement. A main road would be graded through
the settlement, and a site arranged for school and
church at the most central point. In fact, every
effort would be made to provide adequate social and
educational facilities. The company does not
believe in unwieldy colony settlements ; besides,
the small-colony unit would provide for a more
extensive distribution of British settlers throughout
Western Canada, and would thus be more in line
with the company's desires.

" Considerable detail has yet to be worked out
by the company's officials before it is possible to
deal definitely with the financial phase of the
scheme. Indeed, it may be expected that the
preliminary programme will be considerably amended
after we commence active operations on the new
plan, and have an opportunity of studying the class
of colonists we shall be dealing with. It is at
present expected that the holdings will vary in
area from 80 to 160 acres. In some cases they may
be slightly larger. The prices at which the com-
pany's lands are at present disposed of vary from

378 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

£>3 to £% Per acre- ^ would perhaps be safe to
estimate the land value of the average holding
at from ,£600 to ^750. It is estimated that the
cost of erecting the necessary buildings, placing
other improvements on the land, breaking, seed
&c, will amount to about ^300. To this extent
the company proposes to bear the entire financial
burden on a ten-year repayment plan.

"The settler's own capital might advantageously
be expended as follows : For the purchase of the
necessary live stock, ^100 ; for furniture, house-
hold expenses, and horse feed, about ,£25 ; one-
half the total cost of implements (the balance being
repayable to the dealer at a future date), another
^50; transportation to Canada, about ,£25 — or
a total of ^200. The colonist with ^200, or
over, would, according to the above estimate, be
starting under the most favourable auspices. If
a settler had grown-up children who could assist in
the farm work and were willing to work out for
wages part of the time during the first year or two,
a somewhat smaller capital would suffice. Six
months after going into occupation a crop would
be available out of which the settler would be
expected to partly fulfil his obligations to the
railway company."

Recent Immigration into the West.

There are often among the 160,000 who now
for some time to come may be expected annually,

VALUABLE STATISTICS 379

families who have themselves quitted the old
country in their youth, and can only be called
Americans in that they have become naturalised in
the United States of America as farmers or farm
hands, or in occupations in some one of the many
rising towns. The country which was "the back
of beyond " has been settled by them, and they have
done well ; but they think, from the accounts they
hear of the northland, that they can do still better.
Of such a class was a gentleman whose acquaintance
I made in Nebraska. In a fertile, flat part of that
State, where patches of wood often showed behind
prosperous-looking farms and the neat farmhouses,
we stopped the train for the night to enable the
ladies of the party to have a quiet evening. A
dwelling about a mile away had a track leading to
it from the railway line. We walked to the place.
I was in advance of the others, and greeted the
farmer, who at once returned my good wishes with
the words "Come ben." Then I knew I had
a Scots countryman before me, and probably
a friend. We entered together a neat parlour,
and on the wall was a print of the (then) Prince
of Wales. I said that the sister of that man,
pointing at the print, was making a picture of the
house as he might see from the window. He
thought I was a madman, and told me that I was
ill, and might sit down. But soon he found I was
all right, and I got him to come out and speak to
the artist, and to believe that I was clothed in my
right mind. Now this man has gone north, and

380 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

has pitched on another place, and has cultivated it,
and probably may move on again, for activity in one
place does not suit our folk there so much as energy
shown in many. So the Irishman displays his energy,
not in asking or buying land he may so easily call his
own in the New World, but in going from city to
city, seeking where best he may get gold, but stay-
ing seldom all his days in any one place. For many
years to come there will be newcomers buying up
those who have settled before them, and there will
be consequent movements, lessened when there is
scope for a town to arise, when, as if by magic,
a short decade may see various races represented in
a community which will gladly practise British law,
although many of its community may have had no
experience of any system nearly so productive of
security and success. Among the Americans who
have recently been induced to come north are
members of the Mormon settlement about the Great
Salt Lake. These men have left their peculiar
institutions behind them, and, cultivating the virtues
of the usual family life, are greatly valued as good
workers, excellent citizens, and most ingenious in
their ability to conduct systems of irrigation in dry
lands requiring the leading and spreading of water
to make them fertile. There are not many such
tracts in Canada, but there are a few, and the ex-
perience gained in the deserts around Ogden and
Salt Lake City have stood these men in good stead
in making them to be much sought for as skilled
irrigators.

VALUABLE STATISTICS 381

Fifty-nine thousand from the United States, with
$220 apiece, is the calculation made in regard to the
increase of population and wealth in one season from
one source alone ! There was double that number of
men and dollars if the influx during 1909 from all
sources be counted. Is not this a marvellous result
for a territory the old French philosopher of the
eighteenth century called " a few acres of snow " ?
And what is the character of the men and women
who have gone northwards over the frontier line,
the imaginary physical line that separates the
Federal States from the constitutional common-
wealth of Canada? They are mostly men of the
hardiest European nationalities and races — Danes,
Norwegians, Scots, English, some Germans, Dutch,
and many Swedes. They have gone north because
they have heard that the prairies there are better
nourished in moisture and soil than where they first
settled. This report has been confirmed to them
by those of their friends who in previous years
made a move, and wrote that their movement had
been wise. Each family has brought with them the
household goods they possessed in the States, or
has turned them into dollars to buy afresh from the
Canadian manufactories, which are ready to supply
them with all goods and agricultural implements at
less cost than they could obtain them for in their
first homes. They are all cheerful and eager to take
up the duties of Canadian citizenship. But there
is another class other than they who mean to
depend on the soil. These are the men of money

382 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

who find that the Canadian country is filling up with
those who will constitute a fine market, which they
mean to keep for Canadians. These capitalists do
not mean to be deprived of their market, and so
they invest their capital in Canada, employing
Canadians in building great factories, whence they
can put out their manufactures, and sell without
paying the duty exacted on manufactures made in
the south. This has brought enormous sums to be
employed in paying Canadian labour.

In the year 1894 ^le Dominion Government
withdrew from sale and homestead entry a tract of
land containing some millions of acres located east
of the city of Calgary, along the main line of the
Canadian Pacific Railway. The object of that
reservation was to provide for the construction,
ultimately, of an irrigation scheme to cover the
fertile Bow River Valley. The Canadian Pacific
Railway Company undertook to construct the
gigantic irrigation system in question, and selected
as part of its land grant a block comprising three
million acres of the best agricultural lands. It had
now been opened for colonisation, and this project
— the greatest of the kind on the American conti-
nent— was being pushed to its completion. The
tract had an average width of 40 miles from north
to south, and extended eastwards from Calgary
150 miles.

VALUABLE STATISTICS 383

Small Holdings in Canada.

Having in mind the potentialities of the soil
under irrigation and the paramount importance of
encouraging British emigrants, Sir Thomas Shaugh-
nessy formulated the broad lines of an agricultural
holdings scheme whereby ready-made farms would
be provided for them. The large number of appli-
cations for land in England under the Small Hold-
ings Act proved the desire of many persons to
return to the land, and to secure thereby a brighter
future for themselves and their families than they
could otherwise have hoped for. In encouraging
such persons to emigrate to Canada and take up
those small farms, on strictly business lines, much
would, it was felt, be done to foster imperial senti-
ment. Holdings would be limited to 80 or 100
acres of irrigable land, or 160 acres of non-irrigated
land, in the more humid belt of the west. Houses
and buildings sufficient for the first few years' use
would be erected in advance of the immigrants'
arrival. The cost of preparing the crop, fencing,
and domestic water supply would be added to the
cost of land, and be repayable in ten annual instal-
ments. Settlements would be formed in units up
to sixteen families, and a main through road, with
church and school sites, would be laid out. The
Canadian Pacific Railway Company's policy in
regard to settlers was somewhat paternal, and its
interest in them did not, like an ordinary de-

384 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

velopment company, cease when the last instal-
ment had been paid.

The colonists would be carefully selected, and
preference would be given to married men with
families, and they would be practically partners
with the company in Canadian development.
Settlement of British lands by British immi-
grants was an imperial duty, yet in the last fiscal
year of Canada only 6900 British settlers made
homestead entries, against 10,500 Americans and
3350 Austro- Hungarians. He relied upon British
imperial instincts to aid in building up a "greater
Empire than has been."

Sir Thomas Shaughnessy said that the popula-
tion of Canada had been increasing by leaps and
bounds, and it would not be a matter of surprise if
the population had increased to 12 J millions before
1920, a large proportion of which would come from
the United States and the continent of Europe.
Those people were, from the Canadian economic
standpoint, useful citizens, but it was eminently
desirable that they should introduce a very con-
siderable number of those who had been raised
under the British flag. At one time the Canadian
Pacific Railway Company might have been accused
of endeavouring to utilise British sentiment for
the purpose of getting British money if it had
advocated that. Those days were past, and no one
would suspect them now of having a selfish motive
at the back of that proposition. The great diffi-
culty in dealing with the British settler was that he

VALUABLE STATISTICS 385

had had no experience of the conditions in a new
country like Canada ; it was otherwise with the
American farmer who migrated into Canada. The
British settler had not been accustomed to hardship,
arid he (the speaker) did not know why he should
want to become accustomed to it. The company
were proposing to meet his necessities by the scheme
outlined in the paper, so that they would not have
to submit to privation at all, but simply move in
their furniture and harvest a crop in the autumn
after they took possession. It had been said that
they would deplete the agricultural population of
Great Britain too much by such a scheme. Well,
it was transferring people from one part of the
British Empire to another part. He was satisfied
that, as had happened in Ontario, the places of
those who left for the north-west would be filled,
and, in England, by the young men who at present
drifted into the cities. If they took 100,000 a year
of the population to Canada, he had no doubt that
their places on the land here would speedily be filled.
During the past year two new towns had been
established every week in Western Canada, and
a new school-house had been put up for every day
in the year.

City of Edmonton.

Applications are being received by Messrs.
Glyn, Mills, Currie & Co. for ,£187,300 4^ per cent.

2 B

386 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

sterling debentures of the City of Edmonton. The
issue price is io2|- per cent., payable as to 10 per
cent, on application, 30 per cent, on allotment, 30
per cent, on August 20, and 32 J per cent, on
September 20. The interest dates are June 1
and December 1, and the principal is repayable, at
the option of the holder, in Toronto or Montreal as
to ,£4600 on June 1, 1917, ,£149,500 on June 1,
1929, and ,£33,200 on June 1, 1949. The de-
bentures constitute a general obligation of the city,
and the proceeds are required to carry out works
already sanctioned in connection with the develop-
ment of the city.

Edmonton is the capital and seat of the Legis-
lature of the Province of Alberta ; it is the terminus
of an important branch of the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way, on the main line of the Canadian Northern
Railway, and the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway,
when completed, is also to pass through the city.
The province has an area of 253,540 square miles,
and the city has grown rapidly in the last few years,
the population being now estimated at 20,000. The
net assessment for 1908 amounted to ,£4,507,042,
and the total debenture debt, including the present
issue, is .£835,319, and the income from all sources
for 1908 was ,£106,976, while the borrowing powers
of the city (exclusive of loans for public works and
local improvements) on the present assessable value
is £901,408.

VALUABLE STATISTICS 387

Low Taxes in the West.

No country or section has lower taxes than
Western Canada. In this connection it may be
cited that there is no poll tax and no personal
property tax. There are taxes for two pur-
poses, namely, local improvements and school
maintenance.

The 1908 assessment on unimproved wheat
lands of finest quality amounted to 5J cents per
acre or $8.80 on a farm of 160 acres. The
average taxes on a highly improved farm, well
located, and in one of the best districts, are $38, or
1 2 cents per acre. All farm land taxes are payable
in December of each year — after the farmer has
sold his crop.

Calgary.

American agriculturists who purchased land in
the Bow Valley last spring and returned to the
States to take off the crop on their farms south of
the line, have now safely marketed their crops, sold
their American holdings, and are bringing the pro-
ceeds of the sales into this district. Quite recently
a special train of thirty cars arrived here full of
American settlers. One hundred people occupied
the coaches, and three hundred head of stock and
$100,000 worth of settlers' effects filled the freight
cars. The twenty families which composed the

388 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

party had purchased 20,000 acres of land north
of Strathmore. It is estimated that each family
will invest from $ 10,000 upwards.

According to an estimate prepared by the
Canadian Census Bureau, the population of the
prairie provinces, which was only 800,000 in
1906, has increased to 1,100,000 within the past
three years.

The estimate is as follows : —

Census.

Estimates.

June, 1906.

May 1, 1909.

Manitoba .

• 365,688

484,5 IQ

Saskatchewan

. 257,762

349,645

Alberta

. 185,412

273,412

Total . . . 808,862 1,107,576

Of the increase at least 150,000 is estimated
to have come from the United States, as only
148,700 of the overseas immigrants have gone
west, 233,000 of them having settled in the older
provinces.

An immigrant becomes a ward of the Govern-
ment for one year. Once a new-comer enters the
immigration area — that is, Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
and Alberta — we care for him in sickness or distress,
pay his doctor's bills, nurse him, rebuild his house
if it burns, and otherwise are responsible for his
welfare.

Why do we do it? It pays. We have found
that the nearer the Government comes to the
immigrant, the nearer the immigrant comes to the

VALUABLE STATISTICS 389

Government. It makes him a better citizen. He
feels that he has something better to depend on than
even neighbours and friends. And from that feel-
ing springs a regard for his adopted country that
can be only likened to a man who adopts religion ;
he believes in it.

CHAPTER XVI

SPORT

It is recorded that long before the invention of
motor cars, and when even a good horse in a cab
was rare, a London sportsman arrived at New York
by steamer and told a hotel messenger to take his
things to the nearest good inn, and to have a cab
ready to drive him to the buffalo grounds. Alas !
there are no more buffalo grounds far or near.
The few of the ancient race that survive are
State prisoners in " reserves," where they lead
an uninteresting existence, and buffalo meat and
buffalo " robes " or skins are no longer the
cheapest and best cover against the cold of an
American winter. Nor can the famous grizzly
bear, the next of the lar^e rame beasts of the con-
tinent, be found, as in the old days, on the banks of
the Saskatchewan, or, indeed, anywhere nearer than
the Rocky Mountains to the eastward, and of late
there have been but very few near the great shallow
river that flows from the mountains to the Lake
Winnipeg, whence it issues forth under the alias of
the name of Nelson, to pour into James Bay, the
great inlet of the Atlantic. The present Duke of
Richmond once had the luck to kill a grizzly at Fort

SPORT 391

Carleton, and he can say what none, or only one or
two more can say, namely, that he killed his grizzly
with one shot from the saddle. The bear came out
of a clump of willows, and Lord March was riding
one of the horses belonging to the Hudson's Bay
Company at this post, then in charge of Mr. Clark,
the companion in remarkable marches of the author
of u The Great Lone Land."

To pass to the most imposing form of all
among the brutes of the wilderness, the moose
can never be called graceful. Indeed, the inclina-
tion to "high shoulders," held to be ugly in
man, seems doubly ugly in the beasts ; and
the Canadian buffalo, moose, and white woolly
mountain goat are all clumsily and hugely shoulder
"humped." The force of the blow of the great
"deer's" fore-feet is tremendous, and the safest
time to hunt him is in the deep snow that pre-
vents him from leaving the " yards " or trampled
snow coverts he prepares for himself and com-
pany during the winter. One was tamed to run
in harness at Frederickton, New Brunswick, and
I had two little fellows, captured on the banks
of the Ottawa River, brought to Government
House stables, and fairly well educated to run in
a light trap. The experiment was, however, not
popular with the two moose, or with the stablemen,
or with the horses meeting the strange " equipage "
or " moose-page " on the road. The horses shied
desperately. The moose also shied, and the driver
was found lamenting the new fashion of progression,

392 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

having picked himself up more or less successfully
after "spills" on the wayside — the young moose
generally on its legs, but philosophically quiet, and
not inclined to seek further adventure. Mr. Cumber-
land, the thought-reader, who thought he could
divine much, failed in divining one of these pets ;
for when the eldest of them was brought into a
dark room, and the diviner had rushed along the
passage holding the hand of the man who had been
told to think fixedly of something, and the door of the
room had been opened and the diviner's hand laid
on the shaggy coat of the astonished and silent
moose, the blindfolded Mr. Cumberland cried out
" A donkey," but no answering yee-haw of asinine
approbation greeted his too hasty guess at identi-
fication. They grew very quickly, and were finally
thought to be too large for a light carriage and too
ungainly for a heavy one, and that, in the political
language of the country, the expression used when
an official is dismissed, " your usefulness is gone,"
had to be employed, and they were dismissed from
the easy life of stall and manger. Of course much
the finest of the whole deer tribe is the great red
deer of Canada, the wapiti, which existed all over
the country at one time, and has his brethren or first
cousins in Asia, showing that the sea-sound of
Behring Straits is a thing of yesterday, geologically
speaking, and that there was no break of land
between America and Asia.

The wapiti seems to be the big brother of the
red deer. It is difficult to find any distinction

SPORT 393

except that of size between the two ; yet the one
animal is always big and the other always smaller.
It is one of those differences which are perpetuated,
just as the big negro on the West Coast is a man
like the pigmy negro, who has always remained a
small man, while the other blacks have remained
big. Can mere feeding account for this difference, or
can we doubt that food, or other cause combined with
food, stunted one deer's or one man's descendants,
while others, having much the same opportunities
of getting food, remained or became big? The
stature of Adam and Eve has never been measured
by any of their successors, and we do not know
their measurements. Would Eve have looked with
much astonishment at an African pigmy moulded as
we know he has been moulded — as a small man with
a wide nose — ever since the days of Herodotus ?
Did Eve herself have a nice nose ? Who knows ?
Was Adam reddish, or yellowish, or brownish, or
even black ? Was his hair quite straight ? Was
Eve more prehensile in climbing trees and stealing
apples than she ought to have been according to
modern ideas, and why did not she make Adam
climb for her? Could he not manage it on account
of not being grasping enough in character or manual
dexterity ? Why do small differences go on per-
petuating themselves from generation to genera-
tion ? There are two blackbirds in North America,
and each kind is so like the other that it is very
difficult to distinguish them, especially as they herd
together, as chaffinches and bramble finches do in

394 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

winter here. Yet the two kinds are distinct, and
one kind is fond of building the nest over water
and the other is not. Why ? They have almost
identical bills and building materials, but one kind
has one fashion and the other has another idea of
picturesque surroundings, but only at breeding time.
So wapiti prefer to remain bigger than red deer,
though so alike, and have done so. No red deer
yet found alive, or fossil or semi-fossil, is quite so
large as a wapiti. But I have seen red deer antlers
dug out of the ground at the mouth of a Scots river
which must have been (for there was only a large
fragment by which to judge) very nearly as large as
a small wapiti horn. That the red deer were larger
in Europe when they had ample feeding and range
can be seen from the specimens handed down to us
from the Middle Ages in German museums and
castles. The reindeer are always called cariboo,
and with them there are slight differences — the
species which live in the Muskeg swampy country
in the far north having feet of greater spread,
apparently to assist them in getting safely over the
bogs. The natives have never domesticated them,
and have made no use of them except as game for
food, and have only used their hides for clothing.

Of the great cats there are only the puma or
panther and the lynx remaining in Canada. The
so-called panther is a handsome, tawny-coloured
animal, about the size of a leopard, and the lynx is
a finely marked variety still tolerably common.

On the plains there used to be seen frequently

SPORT 395

the very pretty little antelope the huntsmen called
the Furcifer antelope, the only species known in
modern times, and now, alas, exterminated with its
friend the buffalo. The dresses of the women of
the redskins were usually made of the fine and
excellent leather of this graceful creature, which was
much cleverer in keeping out of harm's way than
were many of the dwellers on the prairie. But it were
irony, when we think of sport, to speak of the game
the hunters have so easily wiped out as they have
" the American bison " and the antelope ! There are,
however, still plenty of bear — grizzly, and the gaunt
and more formidable tawny bear — besides the white
wild goat and the graceful big-horn sheep in the
Rockies ; plenty of moose in Old Canada, and
plenty of cariboo in the far north. There, too, in
the utmost region of human habitation, in the
country of the Esquimaux, and a little farther to
the south, are still plenty of the strange, thick-
pelted Arctic ''cattle," the musk ox, with the queer
light patch in the long dark-brown coarse hair in
the middle of his back, and the wide-spreading
hoofs, formed to support his weight as he passes
over the snow. A fierce little bull will give much
sport, and, what is more, much good food in places
where life is not too easily sustained. Indeed, it is
curious how easy it is to starve in many parts of
the great North American continent.

The bird life in the woods is not easy to use
for food except at certain seasons — indeed, the
silence of the great forests has something awful in

396 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

it, and one must have one's beans and bacon if
wishing to be certain that hunger will not become
your only companion. Of water there will probably
be no lack in stream and lake, but of flesh there will
be little, unless good luck and good hunting give
you large game. Among the creatures which have
disappeared are the passenger pigeons, which used
to be seen in millions. Wilson, the Scots bird
lover, who wrote in the eighteenth century, describes
the flocks of these birds as darkening the daylight.
I passed five years on the North American conti-
nent, and visited twenty-three states and territories
of the Union, and most of the Canadian districts, and
only once saw a single bird of this beautiful species,
and that bird was flying along the Assiniboine
River near its junction with the Red River of the
north, not far from Winnipeg. There is a little dove
called the " mourning dove " which may be politely
grieving for the "passenger" cousin it seems to
be displacing, but it never appears in the gigantic
flocks of its predecessor. There are no pigeons
like the British stock dove or wood pigeon. But
Canada has in her woods several varieties of grouse,
or, as the birds are called there, " partridges."
None have the excellent taste of the prairie
"chicken," which are always excellent if they have
round tails or sharp tails, but the forest kinds are
very welcome for the camp pot, and are better than
the Norwegian reiper. But what a varied "menu"
the grouse of Canada provide ! There are the Alaska
spruce species, the Canadian ruffed, the Canadian

SPORT 397

spruce, the Columbian sharp-tailed, the dusky, the
Franklin, the gray ruffed, the Hudsonian spruce,
the northern sharp-tailed, the Oregon ruffed, the
vinnated, the prairie sharp-tailed, the Richardson
(named after the naturalist who wrote so charm-
ingly of the natural history of the Mackenzie River
valley), the ruffed, and then finally the sooty and
the sage — the last a big bird, bigger than the
capercailzie, and about as inferior to the other grouse
as the big Norwegian is to the black game and red
grouse of Scotland. Then there are a few ptarmi-
gan in British Columbia, where pheasants have
become acclimatised, and bid fair to be a most valu-
able addition to the game all along the Pacific coast.
What one regrets in the fate of the large wild birds
is the almost extinction of the native turkey, once
quite common in Eastern Canada, and now rarely
seen. But the shooting of this bird must have been
so easy that it can hardly be called "sport." Duck
murder is, however, always accounted as sport, how-
ever easy it may be, probably because only one
kind has been tamed to any great extent by man ;
and one can shoot nine or ten different kinds of
wild duck in one day, with two or three different
kinds of geese in the rivers, later in the autumn.
What is difficult to explain is why several of these
ducks are found all round the northern world, and
others of the same powers of flight and fond of the
same food are so exclusively American. Thus
the dusky duck, in appearance like the female
mallard, prefers America, and so do the cinnamon

398 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

teal and the red-head, the close friend and com-
panion of the canvas-back. These two think the
wild rice so good that Europe is hardly worth
visiting. Then there is the lovely wood duck,
breeding in trees and refusing to quack, but pos-
sessing a pleasant unduck-like note.

British Columbia's hunting grounds comprise an
area of 400 by 700 miles, teeming with wild life.
Black and grizzly bears, panthers, lynx, mountain
sheep and goats, wildcats, wolves, wolverines, moose,
cariboo and other species of deer are included in the
game list.

As there are usually ten men anxious to have
some fishing to one able to afford to make a shoot-
ing expedition, it is worth mentioning that good
trout fishing can be had in all the streams descend-
ing from the Rocky Mountains. In the east there
are beautiful clear streams like the Bow River, now
well known ; and for men who can afford a lengthy
journey there is the wonderful fishing in the Upper
Mackenzie, while the splendid grayling with the
enormous back fin starred with cerulean blue spots
gives excellent sport. Away from the hills and
swift streams the mysterious universal nature law,
which makes trout give place to other fish, of course
has its way, and to get them in the low country you
must go to the seaside, and there on the Atlantic,
from the sub-polar rivers to the American border,
along thousands of miles of indented coast, the fly
fisherman may find sport. The best rivers near the
States are usually leased to American syndicates,

SPORT 399

but salmon and trout are to be had all along the
shores wherever a stream issues from the low spruce
woods to seek its way through the boulder stones
thickly spread by the spring ice on the shores, to
the salt water. On the Labrador side of the St.
Lawrence, for instance, you can take your stand,
rod in hand, when the tide is coming in, on one of
the rock boulders, or, shifting from one boulder to
another by the help of the boat, and so get fresh
casts and any number of trout. To hire a little
sailing-boat at one of the seaports — a vessel big
enough for you to make it a temporary home — and
then to sail it in summer along the coast, is a
delightful way of obtaining sport. But within
reach of the railways there are always lakes where
modest baskets may be made with every comfort.
Only one more word of advice. Take mosquito-
nets, face-guards, and gloves with you, turpentine
or other oil, if you desire to remain philosophical
and happy. One great argument for coasting along
the seaside is that mosquitoes do not admire the
salt breezes, and a sea breeze renders it unnecessary
to "make a smudge" of smoke, or to wear veils
which are not consistent with " free fooders* "
desire that your hand reach your mouth with the
foreigner mosquito trying to step in also !

Were one creature to grow forth gradually by
natural selection and descent from another, we
might suppose the shrew mouse, with its tiny trunk
nose, to grow into the huge trunked elephant, or the
tiny wren to "develop" in ages into some gigantic

400 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

bird greater than the vulture. Whether from ex-
ternal resemblances or from structural analogies,
namely, those of skeletons, ideas be drawn of
gradual development and differentiation of species,
nothing in such theories can account for the differ-
ence between man and worm, or reptile and bird, un-
less, indeed, it be assumed that because some reptiles
were winged, therefore bird and reptile, feathered or
unfeathered, might come from one source. These
imaginations do violence to common sense, and seek
to shirk belief in the Creator's power of separate
"life installation." From geological evidence we
may be sure that were climate again to change, and
the bare regions of northern and Arctic Europe,
Asia, and America to turn again to be lands under
tropic heat, there would again be created for them a
series of fresh forms of life such as those that
peopled these tracts and have left their bones to
certify to their existence. It is not long ago in
geological time that the forests of Greenland were
sweet with flowering magnolias, and the ice-floes of
the polar north and south will again be teeming
with fervid heat. Do we assume with the philoso-
phers of development of new forms by long descent
that the creatures which will then crowd sea and
swamp and land will be the descendants of anything
we see now, as living with man on the earth of to-
day? Why should we, when in man, under most
favourable conditions of past life, no tails have been
developed, and man's craft and longing has not
been able to manufacture one feather to help him

SPORT 401

to rival the birds ? But enough of such ponderous
ponderings. Let us descend to earth or its neigh-
bourhood, and see on the plains in autumn the
countless birds which have gone to the far north for
what the Scots house advertisers call " retirement
with amenity," wing their way south from the icy
breeding-grounds, and pausing to amuse themselves
with company and chatter on the lakes of the
prairies. These lakes you may see any day in
September and early October white with wild-fowl.
The most striking among these are the white peli-
cans, swans, and cranes, and then the masses of
duck of so many kinds that it is easy for a gunner
to bag nine or ten different species in a few hours.
Pelicans and cranes are not to be highly recom-
mended, but the swans and the geese are all good,
and so are most of the ducks.

These ever differing but so closely allied kinds
of grouse or partridges, all belonging to one type,
repeat the ever-recurring question no theory pro-
pounded by the school of those represented in Eng-
land by Darwin or Huxley will ever settle. That
school of evolution — that is, of belief that all varieties
came practically from one ancestral type, modified
by climate, food, and circumstances — gets no nearer
the question how these dissimilarities in similarity,
continued as long as we can trace the different
genera, arose, and are preserved to keep species ever
alike, ever apart. Why should one of the starling
tribe burst out into gold and crimson patches on his
shoulders ? Why should an old crow in England go

2 c

402 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

to the southern seas and have the pleasure of seeing
his children come out of the nest as birds of para-
dise, which are in skeleton, voice, and much else
crows, gorgeous crows, and nothing more ? To find
bones of monkey-like men, and to find skeletons of
hare-like horses, is no solution of the question.
The question is, How does creative power answer to
the local need or special opportunity? How does
this all-pervading element of life become a living
embodiment in flesh and bone, fur and feather and
hair-covered, when none existed before those of
whose existence we find evidence in rocks ? Some
are visible to the eye, some are so large that human
eye has never seen the like except in the great
whales. There are countless millions which are
not, and never were, visible to the eye. Are we
to look to some of these viewless, tiny atoms as
able to come together and be promoted in the
scale of creation as builders themselves of higher
organisations ? Does creative power build up anew
and anew the perishing forms of the higher life
from the unseen myriads of microbes which are ever
warring on each other or on dead matter ? Whence
is the invisible life fed ? We may ask and ask in
vain. All we know is that we are a mass of
microbes, and that all we see is full of life unseen.
Must we be limited in our conception of the origin of
life to this Earth, or may pulsing molecules come to
recruit even the unseen microbes from other planets ?
Who can tell ? All we can know is that by the
testimony of the rocks, hewn, melted, or mixed

SPORT 403

before man was known, there was life in greater,
as well as in the minute forms on this speck in
space, on this world, which seems so big and is
so small in comparison with the whirling universe
around it. We know, too, that life has always
bred kindred forms, but apparently never by
direct descent, but by heat, cold, water, salt, or
conditions of plain and hill, acting on infusorial
or whatever we may call the invisible minute
organisms which are everywhere endowed with
vital power.

These are some of the mysteries many sports-
men will have puzzled themselves in observing,
whether they were shooting or fishing, or amusing
themselves by picking up the fossils from rock
or bed of clay. The best sportsmen are often
the best naturalists, now that they have the micro-
scope to help them. Among no creatures are
there more curious differences in similitude than
among the salmonidae, and nowhere can these be
studied better than in Canada.

Miss Agnes Deans Cameron, in her admirable
new book, " The New North," which should be
read by all who either doubt or believe in the un-
developed resources of the far north-west, quotes
a resident at Lesser Slave Lake, who said, " No
need to starve here. The trout run up to forty
lbs. each. There are white fish and grayling,
and berries all the year round. In summer there
are the red and white currants, raspberries, saska-
toons, blueberries, gooseberries, and strawberries,

4o4 YESTERDAY AND TO-DAY IN CANADA

and all winter long there are both high bush
and low bush cranberries." Edmonton, from which
this lake is easily reached, is the capital of
Alberta Province, and is a great centre for sports-
men.

APPENDIX

THE CANADIAN NORTHERN RAILWAY

The Canadian Northern Railway is the most distinctive
exhibit of the expansion of Canada during the twentieth
century. Unlike other great enterprises in the Dominion,
it began without long-prepared co-operation of political
and financial interests. The western prairies were able
to produce from themselves a railway which should ex-
tend to the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and with the
possibility came the men with insight, courage, capacity,
and experience, who could create an organisation such as
had been thought to be impossible aforetime.

The Canadian Northern began in December 1896 as
the Lake Manitoba Railway and Canal Company, with
100 miles of line, beginning at Gladstone, a village 83
miles north-west of Winnipeg, and finding its first ter-
minus at a spot on the prairie called Dauphin. Under
several charters, and with the acquisition in June 190 1
of 350 miles of the Northern Pacific in Southern Mani-
toba, the senior prairie province was given its first
Canadian competitive service to the head of navigation in
January 1902, with the completion of a line from
Winnipeg to Port Arthur, then a town of about 2500
inhabitants.

The Canadian Northern has steadily expanded —
its growth from the beginning has averaged more than
a mile a day — until there are now in operation west of
Lake Superior 3215 miles, with about 800 miles under

406 APPENDIX

construction, of which about 400 will shortly be ready
for operation ; and in Eastern Ontario, Quebec, and
Nova Scotia there are, as separate companies, but with
sympathetic operation, in anticipation of the linking-up
that will make of the Canadian Northern a transcon-
tinental system, railways of 1 200 miles of track, with 100
miles more under actual construction.

The Canadian Northern proper reached Edmonton
with its main line in November 1905. Edmonton is
1265 miles from Port Arthur. From the eastern bound-
ary of Manitoba the railway traverses the west sections
of the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta,
and follows for the greater part of its route the line which
was first selected by the Government for the Canadian
Pacific Railway, and which was described, after abundant
exploration of the whole of the north-west territories, as
" The Fertile Belt," another name for the valley of the
Saskatchewan.

But the main line is served by feeders nearly twice
as long as itself. The heads of the enterprise have been
intimately acquainted with Western Canada for many
years, and have chosen the best sections of country for
their branches. The annual reports of the Company
show that from the beginning there has been not only a
rapid increase in the total amount of gross and net earn-
ings, but also in the gross and net earnings per mile —
the new branch lines have not been even temporarily a
drag on the whole.

For example, from the line that is being built from
Saskatoon to Calgary, of which only 76 miles was in
operation after the 1909 harvest, over 2,000,000 bushels
of grain have been hauled over the almost 1000 miles
between Saskatoon and Port Arthur. The centre of the
19 10 immigration into the great Saskatchewan plains is
Kindersley, 60 miles beyond the present operating ter-

APPENDIX 407

minus of this branch at Rosetown, to which the Con-
struction Department, over rails laid before the freeze-up
of 1909, were carrying during this spring forty car-loads
of settlers' effects daily, while at the town which has
sprung up a great business is being done with immigrants
who buy stock, lumber, or implements on the spot.

The successful management of the railway, which has
not only paid its fixed charges, but has earned a surplus
in each year of its existence, has created widespread
demands for its extension, in response to which the pro-
vincial Governments of Saskatchewan and Alberta, during
the legislative sessions of 1 909, guaranteed the bonds
for branch lines that will give to many new districts their
first service, and to others a competitive service. It is
worthy of note that these guarantees, in response to
public opinion, were given after the close of a shipping
season (when every farmer wishes quick despatch of his
crop to the head of navigation), during which not a single
complaint was made to the Railway Commission of
shortage of cars at Canadian Northern points.

The policy of guaranteeing bonds enables capital to
be cheaply obtained, especially as the Canadian Northern
Railway has not called upon any Government to imple-
ment any guarantee that has been given. The past
winter has furnished a striking example of the confidence
engendered in Canada by this record. The province of
British Columbia, desirous of obtaining direct connection
with the prairie provinces through a railway that has
established large earnings over a vast extent of rapidly
developing territory, appealed to the country on a pro-
posal to guarantee the bonds of 600 miles of the
Canadian Northern from the Yellowhead Pass to Van-
couver, and from Victoria to Barkley Sound, on the west
coast of Vancouver Island, at the rate of $3 5,000 per
mile. The elections returned only four opponents of the

408 APPENDIX

Government in a House of forty, and an Act has since
been passed completing the guarantees, and providing for
the building of the road within four years, and construc-
tion is now under way.

East of Port Arthur there are two gaps to be bridged
by the Canadian Northern Ontario Railway in order to
connect the west with St. Lawrence tidewater — from
Port Arthur to Goroconda Junction, about 470 miles,
and join Toronto to Ottawa. The survey of the former
line is being completed, and Ontario legislation provides
for a land grant of 2,000,000 acres. The first 100 miles
between Toronto and Ottawa, now in hand, will be
finished in 19 10. Arrangements are being made for
connecting also with Buffalo, to handle American business.
The line between Toronto and Goroconda Junction, 320
miles, serves, besides the Nenskotta Lakes, a large farm-
ing, lumbering, and mineral district, a branch line to the
ore docks at Key Harbour, on Georgian Bay, having been
constructed to handle the output of the Moose Mountain
iron mines. The Canadian Northern Ontario has also
been constructed from Ottawa to Hawkesbury, where by
connection with the Canadian Northern Quebec the
Dominion capital has a new railway service to Montreal
and Quebec.

The Canadian Northern Railway also has the closest
relations with steamship lines on the great lakes, and
therefore handles its freight during the summer from
Montreal to Edmonton. The year 19 10 is notable for
the inauguration of the fast fortnightly service of the
Canadian Northern steamships, the Royal Edward and
the Royal George, between Bristol, Quebec, and Montreal,
beginning on May 12. Immigrants will therefore be
taken from Bristol to Edmonton by the Canadian
Northern, except for the distance between Ottawa and
Port Arthur.

APPENDIX 409

As an enterprise not vital to the ocean-to-ocean de-
velopment, but giving to Nova Scotia a much-desired rail-
way service, the Halifax and South-Western Railway,
serving the south shore, the centre of the province, and
part of the Annapolis Valley, is controlled by the Canadian
Northern, as is also an important coal-carrying line in
Cape Breton Island, which has created the town of Inver-
ness, and given large business to the ice-free port of Port
Hastings, on the straits of Canso, the length of both Nova
Scotia lines being 431 miles.

CANADIAN NORTHERN RAILWAY COMPANY

SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE DIRECTORS

Submitted to the Shareholders of the Company at the Annual
General Meeting held at the Company's Offices in Toronto
on Saturday \ the Thirtieth day of October 1909.

To the Shareholders —

The results of the Company's operations for the fiscal

year ended 30th June 1909 are as follows : —

Gross Earnings—

From Passenger Traffic $1,928,686.35

From Freight Traffic 7,481,325.94

From Express, Mail, Telegraph, Dining and
Sleeping Cars, Interest and Profits from
Elevators and other Subsidiary Companies . 1,171,755.64

$10,581,767.93
Working Expenses (including Taxes, &c.) . . 7,015,405.76

Net Earnings $3,566,362.17

Fixed Charges (as per statement, page 16) . . 2,919,617.13

Surplus for the year $646,745.04

The average mileage operated during the year ended
30th June 1909 was 3013 miles, compared with 2866
miles for the preceding year.

410 APPENDIX

The gross earnings show an increase of $872,305.22,
or 8.98 per cent., and a gain in net earnings of
S5 33*675.28, or 17.60 per cent., over the preceding
year.

The working expenses were 72.55 per cent, of the
gross earnings of the railway proper, and 66.30 per cent,
of the gross earnings from all sources, compared with
74.10 per cent, and 68.77 per cent, respectively last year.

The increase in gross earnings, while comparing
favourably with the increased mileage operated, is not
as large as your Directors hoped. This is explained in
part by the unusually quiet conditions of business generally
throughout the Dominion, which was reflected in a sub-
stantial decrease in the movement of westbound com-
modity traffic, a standard of traffic which earns for all
railways the highest rates. Since the close of the fiscal
year, however, there has been a very gratifying increase
in the four months' business to 31st October over the
corresponding period of last year of $561,300, and to
this increase the westbound traffic has contributed largely ;
indeed, the volume of business received from the manu-
facturing sections of Eastern Canada and from Great
Britain is quite as large as in the buoyant years of
1905 and 1906.

Your Directors are confident that a proportionate in-
crease over last year's figures will continue, for the grain
crop of 1909 is one of the best for several years, and
grades uniformly higher than any previous year. This
opinion is fully sustained by the larger milling interests
and the elevator companies operating in Western Canada.
While the increase in yield and quality extends over the
entire territory served by your Railway, the outstanding
fact of the year is the leading position gained by the
Province of Saskatchewan in the production of wheat and
other grains.

APPENDIX 411

The following figures are taken from the last estimates
of the Minister of Agriculture for the Province of Sas-
katchewan, published on October 2, 1909 : —

Bushels.
Wheat .... 84,000,000

Oats ..... 102,800,000
Barley .... 8,000,000

Flax ..... 3,800,000

The rapid rise of the Province of Saskatchewan to
pre-eminence is especially gratifying to your Directors,
because it is chiefly in that Province that they have
extended the mileage of your Railway during the last
four years. It has been their aim to acquire the advan-
tages of first construction in the best districts of all
sections of the Province; and their efforts to pre-empt,
as it were, the most advantageous positions for the Com-
pany have been co-existent with the desires of the farming
population, expressed through their representatives in the
Legislatures, to be served by your Railway. The case of
the extension of the railway from Saskatoon towards Cal-
gary admirably illustrates this aspect of the policy of your
Directors. During the year sixty miles of the line were
opened for traffic, and it is estimated will furnish your
Railway with two million bushels of grain for shipment
to Port Arthur, one thousand miles distant. The line has
recently been extended an additional sixty miles to the
new town of Kindersley, and the grading has been com-
pleted for a further sixty miles. The railway traverses
the most fertile section of the Great Saskatchewan Plains,
in which your Company has heavy holdings of land in the
vicinity of the homesteads and pre-emptions which consti-
tute the greatest remaining block of surveyed unoccupied
wheat lands of this continent. The extension of your

412 APPENDIX

lines in the Province of Saskatchewan is the logical out-
come of the methods adopted in Manitoba, which have
proved so satisfactory in every way.

In the Province of Alberta, following a demand to
connect Edmonton with Calgary and the southern portion
of the Province, the construction of a line has been rapidly
pushed forward ; steps are also being taken towards
reaching the coal fields of the Brazeau River, in which
are most extensive deposits of easily mined high-grade
coal. It is expected that your Railway will reach Calgary
from the north and the east next year, and that Southern
Alberta will be served in the following year. These
extensions in territory, which afford a large and ex-
panding market for British Columbia, have already pro-
duced a widespread demand for the speedy continuation
of your Railway to the Pacific Coast.

Your Directors are glad to note the further justifica-
tion of their policy of selling lands to the homeseeker as
against the speculator that is seen in the substantial
increase in the areas under cultivation in all the districts
tributary to your newer branch lines. Adjacent to the
line between Saskatoon and Calgary, now completed, your
Directors have sold large quantities of land, on which the
increase in cultivated areas, since the railway was built, is
phenomenal. At Rosetown, to take one example, which
has only since the close of the present fiscal year been
placed under the Operating Department, three elevators
have already been built to receive the grain now being
threshed.

The land sales during the past year were 116,662
acres, and realised $1,091,722.37 — an average of $9.36
per acre. Whilst the acreage sold was less than that
of the previous year, the average price realised has
been increased by $1.04 per acre. Very satisfactory
land sales have been made since the close of the fiscal

APPENDIX 413

year at still higher prices, and negotiations are now
going forward for numerous sales at further enhanced
values.

The increase in facilities for the production of grain,
cattle, and other farm product has the double advantage
of increasing the demand for lumber and other building
materials, the manufacture of which, at various points on
your Railway, becomes each year a more important traffic
factor. At Fort Frances large pulpwood and paper mill
industries are being established in connection with the
development of the water-power at that point ; but a
notable feature of the recent expansion of the Western
Canadian Provinces is the multiplication of general manu-
facturing plants, chiefly in the City of Winnipeg, where
there are now 1 44 operating factories of all kinds.

During the last five years certain allied companies
have been amalgamated with your Company, in addition to
which a large amount of new mileage has been added to
the system in respect of all which an adjustment of the
capital stock has been made during the year.

During the year, by the direction of the shareholders,
£1,027,400 Four Per Cent. Land Grant Bonds were
issued on the security of 1,250,000 acres of selected
lands, the proceeds of which have been applied to the
general purposes of the Company. Your Directors have
exercised their authority under the Mortgage to redeem
part of the issue, and from payments received on land
sales have retired £40,000 of the Bonds, so that the
liability is now £987,400 or $4,805,346.66, as it appears
in the general balance sheet.

Additional Car Trust obligations were incurred amount-
ing to $2,500,000.00, to provide the necessary equip-
ment of all kinds to meet the requirements of traffic.
Obligations incurred for the same purpose in previous
years were repaid to the extent of $2,350,000.00 during

4i4 APPENDIX

the year, so that the liability on this account has been
increased by only $150,000.00.

In pursuance with your Directors' policy of keeping
pace in every way with the development of each section of
country served by your Railway, it has been necessary to
incur further large expenditures in maintaining and im-
proving the physical conditions of your property as a
whole. At Port Arthur additional docks and sheds for
the accommodation of both passengers and freight traffic
carried over the Great Lakes have been constructed.
Interests closely allied with your Railway are building a
palatial hotel in close proximity to your station at Port
Arthur, which will be ready for next summer's tourist
business. Industrially the city continues to make satis-
factory progress. The Atikokan Iron Company's furnaces
are continuing to produce an excellent quality of pig iron,
the ore for which is hauled by your Railway. The con-
struction of an extensive shipbuilding plant within the
city's limits has been started ; and other enterprises
requiring large quantities of iron for the Western market
will be commenced shortly. In Winnipeg the completed
Fort Rouge shops have proved of great value in the
economical maintenance of equipment. The Fort Garry
Station, in which the Dominion Government and Grand
Trunk Pacific Railway will be your tenants, is nearing
completion, and will, it is expected, be in full use next
spring.

The connection of your Railway at Fort Frances with
the Duluth, Rainy Lake, and Winnipeg Railway has in-
duced a satisfactory traffic from the Middle Western
States through the important port of Duluth. This
connection gives to your Railway a much longer haul
than heretofore from the growing passenger and freight
business originating in the United States.

The lines under construction in Alberta will furnish

APPENDIX

415

abundant traffic immediately they are opened ; for in the
Central and Southern parts of that Province the need for
additional railways has been strongly represented to your
Directors. To the north of Edmonton and in the exten-
sive Peace River district there is already the nucleus of
prosperous agricultural settlement ; and a general trade
throughout a territory five times as large as the United
Kingdom, at present without railway service.

WM. MACKENZIE,
President.

From the latest available information we find that
the following figures represent the number of immi-
grants who are known to have entered Canada during
1910 : —

January 6,638

February

March

April

May

10,162
33,065
48,182
47,5^9

From 1st March to 1st August the emigration from
the British Isles to Canada reached a total of 41,452,
a figure which is 20,000 more than that for the same
time last year.

Regarding the number of acres taken up last year
and in the present year, it is stated that for the year
ended 31st March 1909 the number of homesteads
(160 acres) reported was 39,081. The figures for the
current year (1910), so far as they are available, are
as follows : —

Jan.

Feb.

March.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Manitoba ....

152

161

202

324

281

354

307

Saskatchewan . . .

976

1069

2688

4240

3745

3440

2576

Alberta

ISS8

1007

1901

2620

2328

1985

1356

British Columbia . .

12

17

28

25

20

23

21

^

INDEX

Acadia, 263

Adams, John, 263

Agricultural implements, prices,

32
Alabama, 226, 227, 281
Alaska boundary arbitration,

261, 290 seq.
Purchased by United States,

288, 296
Alberta, 102 seq., 406, 412

Cattle traffic and feeding,

114

Cement, 104

Cheese factories and cream-
eries, in

Chinook winds, 102

Dryness, 108

Education, 116

Emigration and immigrants,

117,118,388,389

Medicine Hat wheat, 117

Railway and Irrigation Com-
pany, 182

Settlers' letters, 105, 106,

107

Southern farms, 187

University, 116

Wheat and cereals, 103, 1 10,

115, 117
Alexander Archipelago, 290, 293,

312
Alexander, Emperor, ukase, 291
Alexander, Sir William, charter

of Nova Scotia, 268
Alverstone, Lord, 306, 308, 309,

310, 316, 317
Annapolis, 53, 409

Antelope, 395

Disappearing, 100

Apples, 31

Orchards at Fundy, 53

Armour, Judge, 306

Armstrong, I. O., " Some Re-
sources and Openings," 169

Aroostook Valley, 275

Arthur, R., on emigration of
youths, 340 seq.

Asphalt field, 123

Asquith, Rt. Hon. H. H., on free
trade, 242, 244

Astor, Jacob, 279, 291

Athabasca, 120 seq., 193

Asphalt field, 123, 124

Bitumen, 123, 124

Gas well, 122

Mineral wealth, 120

North land's resources, 120

seq.

Oil fields, 122

Poplars and other woods,

125

Timber industry, 124

Atikokan Iron Company, 414

Austen, Mr., 93

Australia, attitude towards pre-
ference, 230, 231, 234, 235, 238,
239, 244, 245, 253, 254

Demand for immigrants,

342

Aylesworth, A. B., 306, 308, 309

B

Bagot, Sir Charles, 292, 294, 312,
313

417 2 D

418

INDEX

Baker, Mount, 56, 179

Balfour, Rt. Hon. A. J., speech

on Imperial naval policy, 159
Bankers' report on cost of living

in Canada, 355
Barber, William, on Alberta, 103
Barclay, Thomas, 269
Baring, Alexander, Lord Ashbur-

ton, 274, 276
Barnardo boys in Canada, 325

seg., 344
Barnstead, Arthur S., 47, 48
Bastiat's doctrines, 229, 354
Bayard, Secretary of State, 288
Bear, grizzly, 390, 395
Bear-hunting, 66
Beaufort, Lake, 1
Belly River, 109, 167
Benson, Egbert, 269
Beresford, Lord Charles, on im-
perial naval policy, 161
Bison, 92

Blackbirds, two kinds, 393
Blaine, Secretary of State, 288
Blake, Edward, 22, 299
Board of Trade as Committee of

Privy Council for Trade, &c,

348
Bond, Sir Robert, on preference,

242
Borden, Mr., on Canadian naval

policy, 143 seg.
Botha, General, on preference,

242
Bow River, 109, 398
Bow River Valley, irrigation

scheme, 382
Brazeau River coal fields, 412
Bredt, P. M., on Prince Rupert,

205
Brierly, on cable communication,

37i
Bristol, 408
British and German navies, 146

seg.
British Columbia, 54 seg., 228,

280, 407, 412

boundaries, 59, 60, 297

Coal mines, 58

British Columbia Valley. See
that title

Dairying, 56

Fertile lands, 54

Fruit-growing, 55, 56

Game, 65 seg.

Gold in, 298

Hunting-grounds, 298

Kettle River Valley, 59, 60

Kootenays coal mines, 58

Letters from emigrants,

335

Minerals, 58

Official map, 301

Prince Edward Island.

See that title

Products and scenery, 58

Size, 56, 57

Vancouver Island, 60 seg.

See that title

Brodeur, on Canadian manu-
factures and navy, 138 seg.,

319
Brown, Chas. H., 107
Brown, George, 319
Bryce, James, in Montreal, 261
Buchanan, Secretary of State,

280
Buffalo, 12, 408

Bones at Regina, 84

Scarce, 92, 100, 176, 390

Buxton, Sydney, 339

Cable communication, value of,
371 seg.

Calgary, 113, 167, 387, 406, 411,
412

Brick-making, 104

Irrigation scheme, 168, 382

California, 225, 279

Cameron, Agnes Deans, " The
New North," 403

Campbeltown, 10

Canada, 265

Agricultural belt of north-
west, 199

INDEX

419

Canada, Attitude towards prefer-
ence, 3, 189, 230, 233, 250, 353,

355, 357
Barnardo boys in, 325 seq.,

344

Boundaries, 225 seq., 263

seq., 274 seq.

Cost of living in, 355

Desires outlet on Arctic, 219

seq.

Eastern, mineral belt, 198

Progress in, 185

Foreign firms in, 357

Immigration, 194, 373, 375

Into west, 378 seq.

Settlers' capital, 378

Industry, Van Home on, 3

seq.
Larger influence and respon-
sibility, 320, 359

Lumber industry, 357

Manufactures, 138

Military defence, 134 seq.,

151 seq., 160
Militia, 72, 134, 135, 136,

154,155

National highways, 167 seq.

Naval policy, 126, 128 seq.,

139 seq., 157, 161 seq., 188

Population, 223, 364

Port on Lynn Canal, 311,

314, 315

Position of, 128

Ready-made homes for Brit-
ishers, 375

Small holdings in, 383

Sport, 390 seq.

Statistics, 364 seq.

Expenditure and Debt,

365

Imports, 366, 367

Mine products — ex-
ports, 368

Mineral products — im-
ports, 369

Population, 364

Revenue, 364

Treaties concerning. See

Treaties

Canada, Western, low taxes, 387
Canadian Northern Railway, 184,

405 seq.

Branches, 406

Car Trust, 413

Dauphin, 405

Duluth, Rainy Lake, and

Winnipeg Railway, 414

Fort Garry Station, 414

Growth, 405, 406

Halifax and South-Western

Railway, 409
Lake Manitoba Railway and

Canal Company, 405

Land sales, 412

Linking-up, 406

Management, 407

Northern Pacific Railway,

405

Ontario Railway, 408

Organisation, 405

Quebec, 408

Report, October 1909, 409

seq.

Steamships, 408

Canadian Pacific Railway Com-
pany, 167 seq., 406

Angus shops, 189

British emigrants, 185

Capital, 176

Cars, 178

Cheaper grain, 169

Construction work, 167, 174,

181

Exhibitions, 171

Farms, 168, 186, 375 seq.

Fertility of lands along route,

177, 178
Flower-gardens at stations,

170

Functions, 190

Hotels, 170, 178, 190

Immigration scheme, 190,

375 seq., 3?3 seq.

Industrial, 169

Irrigation and fruit-farming,

168, 382

Lands Department, 169

Lethbridge, 167

420

INDEX

Canadian Pacific Railway, Manu-
facturers' customers, 190

Report, June 1908, 177, 179

scq.

Sections, four, 175

Settlers, fine chance for, 186

Steamships, 190, 347

Summer camps, 170

Telegraphs and telephones,

171

Through traffic, 172, 173

Wages, 190

Wisconsin Central Railroad,

167
Canning, Sir Stratford, 313
Cape Breton Island, 409

Steel Company, 47, 49

Sydney coal mines, 45

Cariboo (reindeer), 11, 12, 40, 41,

66, 67, 68, 394, 395, 398
Carleton, Sir Guy, 271
Carleton, Thomas, 272
Carpet cactus, 108
Cartwright, Sir R., 320
Cascapedia River, 10
Cassiar game district, 66, 67

Gold mines, 298

Cattle in Alberta, 114
Cattle in Manitoba, 79, 80
Cavalry, " riders of the plains,"

Cedar or thuya, 19

Cement, 104

Chaleurs, Bay of, 10, 12, 268

Champlain, Canadian soldier, 8

Champlain, Lake, 9

Charlottetown sheep exhibition,
69

Charlton, John, 320

Charybdis, 129

Chatham, Lord, 263

Chatham, New Brunswick, 37

Chilcat River, 297

Chipman, Ward, senr. and junr.,
269,271, 273

Churchill Rivers, 223

Churchill, Winston, on prefer-
ence, 239, 251

Clarence Strait, 312

Clarendon, Lord, 282

Clarke and Lewis, expedition,

1806, 279
Climatic changes, 400
Coal mines, 45, 46, 121
Cobalt and silver, 19, 26, 27, 198,

368
Cobden's doctrines, 229 scq.,

354.

Colonies and Imperial Govern-
ment, 347 scq.

" Pros " and " Cons," 35 1

Colonies, attitude towards pre-
ference, 228 scq., 250, 252, 256,
353 se<7-> 362- See Australia,
Canada, &c.

Columbia River, 174, 175, 280,

293

Columbia Valley, 63 scq., 64

Farms, 65

Fisheries, 64

Fruits, 64, 169

Gold mining, 64

Conferences, 259

Fiscal, 228 scq., 253, 322

Arguments, 252 scq.

Colonies' position, 229

Commercial relations,

251

Free markets, 239

Resolutions, 250

Tariffs, 230 scq.

Imperial defence, 143, 144,

159 seq.

Results, 322

Conger, Captain, 72

Connecticut River, 265

Cornwallis, surrender at York-
town, 263

Cranes, 401

Creosote, 45, 46

Croal, on sections of Canadian
Pacific Railway, 175

Crow's Nest Pass Railway, 62

Cumberland, thought-reader, and
moose, 392

Curling, 21

Curtis, Fred, 76

Custer, General, 97

INDEX

421

D

Dafoe, on cable communication,
37i

Davis, Sir Louis, 320

Dawson, 193

Dawson, George M., 315

De Monts, 269

Deakin, Hon. A., on preference,
231,234,238,252, 253

Deer, 12, 40, 66

Deer, red, 392, 394

Delfosse, M., 286

Denison, Colonel, 33

Denmark, railway preference, 239

Dixon, Captain Homer, 72

Dominion Steel and Iron Com-
pany, 46, 47, 49, 5 »

Dorchester, Lord, 272

Dove, " mourning," 396

Duck-shooting, 397

Dufferin, Lord, 321

Duluth Port, 414

Dunn, Hon. A. J., 42

Dyea, 300, 312

Eagle Narrows, 175
Edmonton, capital of Alberta,
87, 192, 218, 385, 406, 408, 412,

415

Bridge, 269

Centre for sportsmen, 403

City debentures, 385

Elk River, 62

Emigration, 82, 338 seq.

British sentiment and, 5,

372, 373, 375, 385

Information office, 338

Letters from Dr. Barnardo's

boys and girls, 107, 325 seq.
State-aided,34o^. See also

Immigration
Empire Day celebrations, 138
Esher, Lord, on naval defence,

160
Esquimalt, 129, 130

Evans, Major, 72

Evarts, American Secretary of

State, 22
Evolution, 401

Federation, 125
Ferdinand, Prince, 35
Fish, Secretary of State, 283
Fishery, British rights of, 349
Fishery question, 278, 284, 286,

287
Flies, black and Brule', 12
Flook, Joseph, 106
Florida, 281
Fly-fishing, 398
Ford, F. C, 287
Forests, silence of, 395
Fort Churchill, 219
Fort Frances, 413, 414
Fort William, 198, 218
Foster, George E., 78
Foster on " Trade follows the

flag," 357
Fox, Charles, 263
Foxes, yellow and silver, 12, 221
Franklin, Benjamin, 277
Franklyn, negotiated Treaty of

Paris, 1783, 263
Fraser River, 172, 175
Frechette, Louis, 2
Frederick the Great, 35
Frederickton, 37
French Canadian attitude towards

British flag, 2
French, General Sir John, on

Imperial Defence Committee,

164
Fundy, Bay of, 133, 267

Lands round, 52

Fur animals, 12

Fur traders, 279, 290 seq. See

Russian and Hudson's Bay Co.

Gait, Sir Alexander, 286, 322
Irrigation works, 109

422

INDEX

Game, 390 scq.

Gas well, 122

Gaspd, on Bay of Chaleurs, 133

Gatinau River, 25

Geese, 222, 397,401

George, Rt. Hon. D. Lloyd-, on

preference, 236, 247, 248
Georgia, Gulf of, 60
Georgian Bay Canal, 33
German Naval Bill, 1900, 146

and //.
Germany and Great Britain, 127
Emperor of, as arbitrator,

286
State support of shipping

lines, 346
Girls as emigrants, 344
Girouard, Sir Percy, 132
Gladstone, W. E., on strength of

England, 145
Gladstone Village, 405
Goat-hunting, 67

White wild, 395

Gold in Athabasca, 120

In British Columbia, 298

In Yukon, 300

Goroconda Junction, 408
Graham, Sir Hugh, on emigra-
tion, 372
Grand Trunk Railway Company,

186, 191 scq.

Canada Atlantic Report, 2 1 5

Detroit, Grand Haven, and

Milwaukee Report, 216

Pacific, 191 scq.

Agreements with Go-
vernment, 194, 196

Branch lines, 191 scq.

Bridges, 217

Capital, 194

Course, 192, 200

Divisions, 195 scq.

Gradients, summits,

202, 203

Lake Superior Branch,

198

Prairie section, 199,

218
Prospects, 204

Grand Trunk Pacific Termini,

195, 204

Yellowhead Pass route,

200

Prospects, 208

Receipts, 218

Report, Ap. 1909, 209 scq.

Western Report, 216

Grant, General, 282

Grayling, 398

Great Britain —

Attitude towards Canada,

223, 225, 226, 261 scq., 303 scq.,

318 scq.
Attitude towards preference,

254.SY7, 258, 355
Difficulties with United

States, 1 87 1, 281 scq.

Germany and, 127

Trade with, 4

Treaty of Paris with United

States, 1783, 262 scq.

Wine trade, 246

Greenland forests, 400

Greig, Professor R. B., on Alberta,

103
Grenville, Thomas, 263
Grey, Earl, on British Columbia,

55

On Colonies and Imperial

Government, 347 scq.

On Immigration, 119

Griffon, Sir Samuel, on prefer-
ence, 253
Grouse (" partridges "), 396, 401
Gypsum on Peace River, 121

II

Halibut-fishing, 207

Halifax and South-Western Rail-
way, 409

Halifax, Port, 52, 129, 130, 133,
150, 157, 195,208

Hall, Sydney, 93

Hannan, Lord, 289

Hare, forest, 1 1

Haro Straits, 60

INDEX

423

Hawkesbury, 408

Hay scarce in Alberta, 107, 115

Hays, President, 205

Heaton, Henniker, 339

Henderson, Captain, 275

Herschell, Lord, 320

Hill, James, 173

Hodgins, Thomas, on Great

Britain and Canada, 281
Hofmeyer, on preference, 254
Howard, John, 48
Howell, David, 269
Hudson's Bay Company, 225

Recompensed, 176

Trading posts, 177, 192, 279,

293.313
Hunter, Joseph, 300

I

Ice-cutting yachts, 20

Illinois, 266

Immigration, 3, 5, 77. See also
Emigration

Immigration League of Austral-
asia, 342

Imperial Conferences. See Con-
ferences.

Imperial Government and colo-
nies, 347 seq.

Council, 259

" Pros " and " cons," 35 1

India, preference affecting, 241,
244

Indiana, 266

Indians —

Articles of commerce, 96

Blackfeet, 88, 89, 193

Councils, 98

Poundmaker,Crowfoot,

97
Buffalo-hide tepees, 88, 92,

96
Councils and speeches, 98,

100

Crees, 193

Names, 193

Power of endurance, 94, 95,

97

Indians, Red, heaquarters, 87, 88

Reserve lands, 101

Sioux, 193

Chief, Sitting Bull,

97

Councils, 98

Sun dance, 93

Taste in dress, 95

Weapons, 97, 98

Inverness, 409

Investments in Canada, 76, 77
Iron mines at Wabana, 45
Irrigation, 109

J

James' Bay shores, 222
Jameson, Dr., on preference, 241,

247, 248
Jameson, Mr., 150
Japanese question of immigration

into Canada, 3, 323
Jay, John, 263

Jette, Sir Louis, 306, 308, 309
Johnson, Reverdy, 282
Johnstone, Hon. J. W., 275

K

Kamloops, 176

Kannaghunut Island, 308, 309

Kenebec River, 272

Ketchen, Captain, 72

Kettle River Valley, 60

Key Harbour, 408

Kimberley, Lord, 354

Kindersley, 406, 411

Kingston, Military College, 20,

33, 132, 135, 143, 152, 153
Kirby, " The Golden Dog," 23
Knight, L. B., 42
Kootenay River, 62
Kootenays, coal mines, 58

La Crosse, 88 seq.
Labrador, 12

4*4

INDEX

Lachine Rapids, 3

Lacombe, 192

Lake, Mr., 144

Lake of the Woods, 174, 192, 223,
265

Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, 45, 320, 347

Address in Toronto, 126

seq.

On Naval Service of Canada,

142, 143

On Preference, 230, 233, 249,

250,252,254

Lawrence, Fredk. S., on " Re-
sources of the Great North-
lands," 120 scq.

Lemieux, Hon. M., 2, 323, 339

Levis, French governor, 7, 8

Little Metis River, 269

Lobiniere, Sir Jolli de, 2

Lodge, Senator, 302

Longley, Justice, 223

On relations between Great

Britain and Canada, 261 scq.

Louisbourg, fortifications, 9

Lower Arrow Lake, 59

Lumsden, 86

Lyne, Sir William, on fiscal
policy, 235, 243, 245

Lynn Canal, 294, 297, 300, 314,
3i6

Lynx, 394, 398

M

Macdonald, Dr. J. A., on cable

communication, 372
Sir John, 32, 173, 283, 284,

285, 353
Macdonell, Major, 72
M'Gregor, Dr. James, 93
Mackay, Sir James, on prefer-
ence, 241, 244
Mackenzie River, Upper, 398
M'Millan, Sir Daniel and Lady,

72
Madawaska Colony and River,

270, 271, 273, 274
Maine, 267

Manitoba, 70 scq., 406, 412

Boys' review, 70 seq.

Cattle, 79

Immigrants, 388, 389

Natural resources, 78

Prairie provinces, 74, 76

Wheat production, 78-80

Maple tree and sugar, 16, 17

March, Lord, 391

Marker, Dairy Commissioner,

112
Martin, Peter, 298
Mason and Slidell, 226
Massachusetts, 267, 268, 270
Metapedia River, 10
Methakatla, " Holy City," 206
Michigan, 266
Millar, Duff, on New Brunswick,

38 seq.
Minerals in Ontario, 26
Minneapolis mills, 5
Minnesota, 266
Minto, Earl, protests to Colonial

Secretary, 303, 304
Mississippi River, 265

Source, 109

Missouri River, source, 109
Monk, Mr., 150
Monkton, ^y, 195, 196
Montcalm, Marquis, 7, 8
Montreal, capital of old Quebec,

6, 198, 408

Growth of, 185

Position, 3, 207

Victoria tubular bridge, 9

Moor, Hon. F. R., on preference,

241
Moose, 11, 36, 37, 40, 41, 66, 67,

68, 395, 398

In harness, 391

Moose Mountain iron mines,

408
Morier, Sir Robert, 323
Mormon emigrants, 380
Mormons, irrigation works, 109
Mosquitoes, 12, 399
Moxley, American minister, 283
Musk ox, 12, 395
Muzon, Cape, 307, 309

INDEX

425

N

Nanaimo, 130, 133

Natal, 361

Attitude towards preference,

241
National highways, 167 seq. Sec

titles of railways
Nebraska, 379

Negroes in United States, 224
Nelson River, 220, 221
Nenskotta Lakes, 408
Nesselrode, Count, 312
Netherlands, King of the, award,

273
New Archangel (Sitka), 290, 293
New Brunswick, 35 seq., 267
Boundary dispute with Que-
bec, 275
Cheese and butter factories,

39

Connection with Great Bri-
tain, 35

Crown Lands Settlement

Act, 42

Education, 40

Emigration, 37, 38

Famous for sport, 36

Farms, 37, 38

Fishing dispute, 36

Fishing regulations, 41

Land grants, 39, 42

Shooting season, 40

Sportsman's guide, 42

University, 40

New France. See Canada

New South Wales, attitude to-
wards preference, 353

New Zealand, attitude towards
preference, 240

Dreadnought, 145, 154

Newfoundland and Labrador
fishing, 278

Newfoundland iron mines, 45

Niagara Falls, 23

Nickel, 19, 26, 27, 198

Nipigon, Lake, 192

Nipissing, Lake, 175

Nova Scotia, 44 seq., 267, 270, 406

Nova Scotia, Annapolis, 53

Boundaries, 270

British emigrants, 47

Charter, 268

Coal, 45, 50

Farms for sale, 47

Fruit exhibits, 48

Gold mining, 51

Manufactures, 45, 50

Official report on, 47

Railway service, 409

Steel output, 1908, 50

Tonnage, 52

Ogden, 380

Ohio, 265, 266

Oilfields, 122

Okanagan Lake, 60

Oliver, report on Alberta immi-
gration, 118

Olympian Mountains, 56, 179

Onslow, Earl, reply to Lord
Minto, 303, 318

Ontario, 18 seq., 406

Agricultural conditions, 28

Area, 25

Crown lands, 27

Dairying, 31

Education, 25, 29

Farm values, 28

Fish and game, 28

Fruit-growing, 31

Growth of, 185

Letters from emigrants, 325

seq.

Live stock, 30

Manufactures, 27, 33

Military service, 33

Mining, 26

Peninsular farms, 23

Population, 25

Products, 30

Rural life in, 24

Social conditions, 29

Timber, 25

Winter in, 32

426

INDEX

Ontario, work for competent

labourers, 32
Ontario, Lake, 20, 23
Oregon, 226, 279
Orleans, island, 7, 8
Oswald, Mr., 263, 264, 278
Ottawa (Bye Town), 19, 24, 408

Conference at, 253

Fisheries, 36

Pampero, 226, 227

Panther (puma), 394, 398

Peace River, 415

Peaches, 31

Pearse Island, 307

Pelicans, 222, 401

Penny postage to sister states,

339
Penobscot River, 268, 272
Perouse, La, 8, 131
Peters, F. W., 169
Peterson, on colonists, 375
Pheasants, 397
Pigeons, passenger, 396
Pine forest, 193
Pipe-heads, 96
Pitch, 45, 46
Ploughs, 354
Poletica, M. de, 312
Polk, Mr., 280
Porpoises, 12
Port Arthur, 133, 198, 405, 406,

408,411,414
Port Churchill, 192
Port George, 193
Port Hastings, 409
Port Moody, 176
Portland Channel, 301, 307, 308,

309, 312, 313
Power, P., 285
Prescott, 19
Prince Edward Island —

Cheese factories, 1 1 1

Sheep industry, 69

Prince of Wales Island, 294, 295,

301, 307, 308, 313

Prince Rupert, 184, 195, 205

Harbour, 204

Site, 206

territory named after, 219

Ptarmigan, 397

Qu'Appelle Valley, 81, 87 seq.

Sun dance, 93

Quebec, 1 seq., 207, 406, 408

Agriculture, 13

Chief industries, 15

Battle, 7, 8

Boundary dispute with New

Brunswick, 275

Coal consumption, 51

Dairy industry, 1 5

Eastern townships, 13

Typical, 14

Growth of, 185

Live-stock industry, 16

Maple-sugar industry, 16

Railway bridge, 195

Religion, 10

Situation, 7

Small-arms and ammunition

factory, 136, 156
Quebec Act, 1774, 264, 267, 268
Queen Charlotte Islands, 207

R

Railways —

Construction, 9

Exports and, 237

Gradients and summits, 201,

202. See Names of lines
Red Indian headquarters, 87, 88
Red River expedition, 174
Regina, 84, 87
Reservists, opening for, 345
Rhodes, Cecil, proposed prefer-
ence, 241
Richmond, Duke of, 391
Riel, Louis, 173
Rivers as boundaries, 224, 265

INDEX

427

Robin, legend of, 44

Robinson, Major, 275

Rockingham, Marquis of, 263

Rocky Mountains, 62, 281

Passes, 172

White Pass, 300

Yellow Head Pass, 193, 200,

407

Rogers, discovers pass for Cana-
dian Pacific Railway, 174

Root, Elihu, 302, 306

Rosetown, 407, 412

Rowe, Sidney, 75

Russia —

Demands, 312, 313

Fur-trading stations, 279,

290,293,312

Taxes Indian tea, 244

Russian Fur Company, 293

Ryerson, Dr., 25

St. Andrews, harbour, 37

St. Charles River, 7

St. Croix Island, 269

St. Croix River, 265, 267, 268,
269, 273

St. Elias, Mount, 314

St. John, 37, 208

St. John, Lake, settlements, 12

St. John River, 268, 270, 271,
274

St. Juan de Fuca Straits, 56, 60

St. Lawrence River, 2, 19, 265,
268

Highlands, settlements on,

225, 273

Salisbury, Marquis of, on Cus-
toms' Union, 252

Salmon fishing, 10 seq., 36, 57,

399
Salt in Athabasca, 121
Salt Lake City, 380
San Francisco burnt, 188
San Juan Island, 286
Saskatchewan, 81 seq., 406
■ Area, 85

Saskatchewan, immigrants, 388,

389, 406
Letters from, 329 seq.

Indians, 87 seq. See also

Indians

Qu'Appelle, Si, 87 seq.

Regina, 84, 87

Wheat and grain produc-

tion, 410, 411
Saskatchewan River, journey to

Churchill, 220
Saskatoon, 86, 406, 411
Saunders, Dr., 78
Schultz, on free markets, 239
Scoodic River, 268, 269
Scotsmen, 10
Selkirk Range, pass, 172
Service, on iree trade, 253
ShanandoaJi, 281
Shaughnessy, Sir Thomas G. —

Agricultural holdings

scheme, 383

On Canadian Pacific Rail-

way, 189

On progress in Eastern Ca-
nada, 185

On settlers, 384

Sheep, hunting, 67

Industry, 69

Shelburne, Lord, 263

Shipley, Robert, experience in

Saskatchewan, 85

Sifton, Hon. Clifford, 307, 318

Sitklan Island, 308

Sitting Bull, Sioux chief, 97

Skagway, 300, 312

Smart, Dr., on preference, 244

Smith, D. G., 42

Sir Donald. See Strathcona,

Lord

Obed., 74, 76, 77

South Africa, British policy in,
361

Species, development and differ-
entiation, 400

Sproule, on emergency and war,

143
Squirrels, flying, 12
Statistics, 364 seq.

428

INDEX

i

Steamship companies — all - red

route, 346, 347
Steele, Colonel, 72, 73
Stephen, George (Lord Mount

Stephen), 6, 173
Stikine River, 297, 298, 299
Strachey, Henry, 264
Strathcona, Lord, 6, 173

As High Commissioner, 321

On population of Canada,

184
Sullivan, James, 269
Sumner, Charles, 282
Sun dance, 93
Superior, Lake, 265, 405
Swans, 222, 401
Sydney, Nova Scotia, 133

Taku Inlet, 315, 316

Taku River, 297

Tar, 45. 4°

Tariffs — general, preferential,

and intermediate, 230
Thompson, Sir John, 289
Thompson River, 175
Tongas Straits, 308, 309
Toronto, 408
American Secretary of State

at, 22

Ontario Club opened, 126

Winter sports, 20

Tory, Dr., on Alberta University,

116
Trade correspondents to colonies,

240
Trade prospects, 3 seq.
Treaties and arbitrations involv-
ing Canadian interests, 262 scq.
Alaska boundary arbitrators,

261, 290 scq., 302 seq.

Ashburton, 1842, 266 seq.

Maps, 269, 277, 278

Behring Sea, 1893, 288 scq.,

320

Fisheries, 1877, 286 seq.

Oregon, 1846, 278 scq.

Paris, 1783, 262 scq.

Treaties, Paris, map used, 269

Washington, 1 871, 281 scq.,

319; 1888,287,320

Trinidad bitumen, 123

Trout-fishing, 36, 109, 179, 398,
399

Truth, on Canadian Pacific Rail-
way, 76

Tupper, Sir Charles, 173, 287,
289, 319, 320, 321, 323

Turkey, native, 397

Turner, Senator, 302

Tyler, President, 279

U

United States —

Attitude towards preference,

353

Boundaries, 223 scq., 264

seq., 274 scq., 293
Claim to St. Lawrence High-
lands, 273

Emigrants into Canada, 380

Export of wheat, 83

Firms in Canada, 357

Purchase Alaska, 288, 296

Reciprocity treaty with

Canada, 283
Tariff and Canadian in-
dustry, 3 seq.
United Trading Company, 290

Van Home, Sir William —
Engineering and financial

projects, 173

On Canadian industry, 3 seq.

Vancouver Island, 54, 60 jr^.,280,

281, 286, 407
Climate, flowers, and timber,

61

Fruit, 62, 63, 169

Vancouver's charts, 301, 308, 309,

314
Vaux, Major, 72

INDEX

429

Versailles, treaty of, 264
Victoria, 179, 407

View from, 56

Victoria Falls Bridge, 167

W

Wabana iron mines, 45

Wapiti, 392, 394

War organisation, 161

Ward, Joseph, on preference, 240

Webster, Daniel, 274, 277

Webster, Sir Richard. See Alver-

stone, Lord
Whale Island, naval drill at, 150
Wheat, 5

Area, 199

Export of, fromUnitedStates,

83
White, Sir William, 131
Wild duck, 401
Wild-fowl, 88, 401
Williams, A. Bryan, on game in

British Columbia, 65 seq.

Wilson, C. Rivers, 218

Wilson, on passenger pigeons, 396

Winnipeg, 195, 405, 413

Boy soldiers, 73

Fort Rouge shops, 414

Wisconsin, 266
Wolfe, 8

Difficulty in taking Quebec,7

Heroism at Louisbourg, 9

Wolseley, Sir Garnet (Field-Mar-
shal Lord), 174
Wolves, 398

Woods of pine, birch, maple, 12
Wrangel, 66, 68, 298

Yellow Head Pass, 193, 200, 407
Yukon, discovery of gold in, 300,
3ii

Zululand, 350

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