V
YORKl'S
maiim gramviaii
inVISED AND AjjAPTEl!
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c ^OUTfiERN SCHOOLS
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DUKE
UNIVERSITY
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GIFT OF
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Historical Society
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YORK'S
^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
REVISED AND ADAPTED
TO
SOUTHERN SCHOOLS
BY
t
REY. BRANTI.EY YORK.
THIRD EDITION.
EALEIGII, K C:
BRANSON, FARRAR& CO.,
FAYKTTEVLLLE STREFTF.
/
1864.
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PREFACE.
At what age should the study of Grammar be commenced? This
and similar quc^stioos have frequently been asked the author. But no
age, perhaps, can be specified ; some are as well, or bettor prepared to
commence the study at eight or nine, than others are at ten or eleven,
or even, perhaps, at twelve or thirteen. The author is of the opinion
that, with a suitable text-book aiwi instruction, the study should be
commenced as soon as the pupils can read intelligibly. This study
should be commenced early, for the following reasons :
1. — In order to prevent the formation of erroneous habits of speak-
ing and writing; for every one must be aware of the great difficulty
of breaking up erroneous habits, once formed and deeply seated.
2. — Because Grammar, well understood, tends directly to focilitate
any or all other studies. As the knowledge of any subject must be
acquired through the medium of language, whether written or oral ;
it follows, therefore, of necessity, that the better this medium is un-
derstood, other things being equal, the more thorough and rapid will
be the progress in acquiring a knowledge of tlic vju-ious subjects, em-
bracing the educational course.
8. — If this sul)jcct be not mastered before the pupils enter College^
their knowledge of it is likely to be defective through life, since but
Ibttle attention is generally paid to the study of English Grammar after
they commence tlic Collegiate course.
One of the leading features in the art of teaching, is, the adaptation
of the subject to the various capacities of the pupils. Much time and ^
money have been lost, and, perhaps, pupils injured by entering upon -
21527
XV PREFACE.
the study of puljccts which arc above and beyond tlic uinio-t rcuch
of their faculties. Led by tliis, and similar views, the author has
attempted the publication of a (Irammar adapted to the capacities of
the juvenile mind — which Grammar he denominates "An Introduction
to the Ilhistrative and Constructive Grammar." The plan of teaxrhincr,
as unfolded in the latter, is precisely simiLir to that of the former ;
l:encc it will be fotmd to l>e a convenient and ca.«y introduction to the
more voluminous and elaborate treatise embraced in the former work.
The object of the author, in the publication of this, as well as the
; liner work, is to make the study of English Granunar more attractive
by making it more thorough and practical. 11' success should crown
his efforts in this respect, he will rest satisfied that he has done a goo<l
work — a work that will tell for good upon the present and subsccjuent
gc'iK rations. With these few prefatory remarks, this little work i^^
submitted to the examination of a candid and discerning public.
THE AUTHOR.
York Collegiate In.stitutc, N. C, October, I80O.
21527
coisrTEisrTS,
PAIIT I,
PAaB.
LESSON I.
A Sentence, 1
Subject, 1
Predicate, 1
Eserciees. 1
LESSON n.
Sentences, 1
Simple, i
Co-ordinate Connective, 2
Complex, 2
Compound, 2
Exercises, 2
LESSON in.
Claoses,
Leading Clanee,
Co-ordinate "
Subordinate "
Exercises,
LESSON IV.
Kinds of sentences.
Affirmative,
Subfinnative,
Interrogative,
Exclamative,
Imperative,
Petitionative,
Excrcisca,
LESSON V.
LESSON VIL
Oenstruction of Subject
and Predicate, 4
Exercises, 5
LESSON VL
BlemcntB of Sentences, 5
How many Klementt*, 5
Subtantivc elements, 5
Noun, 5
Prononn. 6
Verbal elementa, 5
Verb, 5
Elementa continued, 6
Adjective elements, 6
A^ective, 6
Article, 6
Participle, 6
Adverbial elements, 6
Adverb, 6
Connective elements, 7
Conjunction, 1
Preposition, T
Model for Elements, 7
Exercises, 8
LESSON VIIL
Elements of the Tirt^t^
second, and tbird daee-
e», 9
Phrase, 9
Model, 9
Exercises, 10
LESSON IX.
Principal and Subordinate
Elements, 10
Modification of Subject
or predicate Indirect-
ly/ 11
Model, 11
Exercises, 11
LESSON X.
The Subject— Simple,
Compound, and Com-
plex, or Logical, 13
Exercises, 12
LESSON XL
The Predicate, Simple,
Compound, and Com-
plex, 12, 18
Copula, 15
Exercises, 13
LESSON XIL
PosseHsive and Objeo-
tivc elementa, 14
Pagb. Pa<JE.
fExcTClses, 14
LESSON XIIL
;
Construction of ele-
ments, 14
Promiscuoas Exerciser, 15
LESSON XIV.
Monologic Analysis, 16
Characters used, 15
Connectives, 16
Such as give Clausea, 16
do Phrases, 16
Co-ordinate, 16
Subordinate, 17
Exercises, 17
LESSON XV.
Dendrology or Constmc-
tion of Sentences, 17
The Trunk, or leading
clause, 18
The Branch, or Subor-
dinate members, 18
LESSON XVL /
Dendrology continued, IS
Order, 18
Notation, 18
Integrity, 19
Rank, 19
LESSON XVII.
Dendrology contimiod, 20
Position 20
Hub aud Super Mem-
bers, 20
Illustrntion by Diagram, 21
Exercises, _ 2?
LESSON XVIII.
Alligation,
Diagram,
Exercise*,
94
vin
CONTENTS.
PART II.
LESSON I.
Lao^age,
Page. Page.
LESSON xin.
25 Modes of the Verb, 89
Diagram, 40
LESSON IL
Gra-mmar, ^'i
Letters, 2<)
Division of Letters, 20
Table of Elementary
Sounds, 27
LESSON in.
English Grammar,
28
LESSON IV.
The Divisions of Gram-
mar, 28, 29
Orthography, Etymolo-
gy, byntax, and Proso-
dy, 29
LESSON V.
Parts of Speech or Clas-
sification of Words, 29
Primary and Secondary
Words, 29
Definition of the Parts
of Speech, 30
Exercises, 31
LESSON VL
Nouns,
LESSON vn.
Gender and Person,
LESSON VIIL
Nnmt>er,
LESSON IX.
Caec,
LESSON X.
Parsing,
Model^
Exercises,
31
32
33
^
LESSON XL
The Verb, 36
Division of the Ver>, 37
Transitive and Intran-
sitive, 37
Voice, 37
LESSON XIL
The Verb Continued, 38
Regular, 38
Irregular, 38
Auxiliary, 38
Defective, 38
I LESSON XIV.
Tenses of the Verb, 41
Diagram, 43
LESSON XV.
Nnmber and Person of
the Verb, 44
Personal or Verbal ter-
minations, 45
Familiar and Solemn
Style, 45
LESSON XVL
Conjugation, 46
Conjugation of the verb
To Be, 56
LESSON XVIL
Conjugation of the verb
Love, 50
Passive Voice, how
formed, 53
LESSON XVIIL
Formation of Tenses, 54
LESSON XIX.
List of Irregular Verbs, 55
Model for Parsing the
Verb, 59
Exercises, 60
LESSON XX.
Participle, 60
Imperfect, 61
Perfect, 61
Pluperfect, 61
Model, .61
Exercises, 62
LESSON XXL
Pronouns or Substi-
tutes, 03
Two Classes— Personal
and Relative, 62
LESSON XXIL
Declension, 63
Diagram of Declension
of Pronouns, 64
Model, 65
Exercises, 65
LESSON XXIIL
Relative, or Connective
Pronouns, 66
Pagb,
LESSON XXIV.
Of Whoever, Whichev-
er, What, 67
Models, 67
Exercises, 68
LESSON XXV.
Article, 69
Model and Exercises, 70
LESSON XXVL
Adjectives or Attri-
butes, 71
Qualifying Adjectives, 71
LESSON XXVIL
Formation of the De-
grees of Comparison, 72
Illustrated by Diagram, T3
Model and Exercises, 73
LESSON XXVIIL
Specifying or Limiting
Adjectives, 75
Model and Exercises, 75
LESSON XXIX.
Adverbs or Modifiers, 75
Four Classes, 76
Model and Exercises, 77
LESSON XXX.
Prenositions, 77
Model and Exercises, 78
LESSON XXXL
Conjunctions or Con-
nectives, 79
Models and Exercises, 79
LESSON XXXIL
Interjections or Excla-
mations, 80
Model and Exercises, 80
LESSON XXXIIL
Cases Independent, Ab-
solute, and Apposi-
tion, 81
Models and Exercises, 82
Promiscuous Exercises 82
LESSON XXXIV.
Syntax, 84
Government, 84
Concord, 84
Position, 84
CONTENTS.
IX
Page.
LESSON XXXV
Ilu-lcw of Syiitiix,
Page.
85
LESSON XXXVI.
Rules of Syntax Avith
Notes ; awd Sentences
to be corrected, 88
Exercises, 88
LESSON xxxvir.
Rules. Notes, and False
Syntax cor, tinned, 88
Model and Exercises, 8!)
LESSON XXXV 111.
Fal^e Syntax continued, 89
Model and Exercises, 90
LESSON XXXLX.
F.'Use Syntax contin'd, JK)
Mode! and Exercises, 91
LESSON XL.
False Syntax continued, 91
Model niKi Exercises, 92
LESSON XLTIL
The same continued,
LESSON XLIV.
Same continued,
LESSON XLV.
Same continued,
LESSON XLVL
Same cmitinued,
LESSON XLVII,
Same continued.
To bo con-ected by the
I)ia;^ram of Tinie,
Model and Exercises,
LESSON NET.
Yaho Sviit;ix eontiu"d. 93
I\[od.-i a.Kl EvcrcIsLis, 'M
LESSON XLTL
PV-lse Svr.tnx contiu'd. Or^
Models and Exercises. \>5
98
98
I Rules and Remarks,
nc I Period,
■ The Dash,
The Parenthesis,
Interrogation Point,
Exclannition Point,
Brackets,
(Quotation Marks,
The Caret,
The Hyphen,
The Ellipsis,
The Index,
Accent,
The Apostrophe,
The Asterisk,
Marginal Points,
99
100
100
LESSON XLVTTI
False Syntax Promiscu-
ously Arranged,
LESSON XLLX.
Colloquial Inaccura-
cies,
LESSON LX.
Punctuation or Gnomo
nology,
Comma,
Rules and I{emark^
Semicolon.
Itulw and Rcir.ark>
Colon,
101
Page.
Ill
112
112
113
118
113
113
113
113
113
114
114
11^
114
115
115
LESSON LT.
Capitals,
LESSON LTL
Versification,
Measure,
Verse,
Stanza,
Common Meter,
101 'Short Meter,
jLong Meter,
j Blank Verso,
I Rhyme,
'Scanning,
105 Eight kinds of Feet,
105! Iambic Verse,
100 'Alexandrine,
110 j Trochaic Verse,
110 Anapiestic Verse,
111 I Dactylic Verse.
115
110
116
116
IIG
IIH
116
117
117
117
117
117
117
118
118
119
120
^
INTKODUCTfON
TO THE
Illustrative and Constrnetive Grammar.
PART FIRST.
LESSON I. — OF SENTENCES.
What is a Sentence!
A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as asserts a
fact ; as, The sun shines.
What elements are necessary to assert a £aot ?
The Subject and Predicate.
What is the Subject of a Sentence?
It is that of which something is said.
What is the Predicate;
It is that which is said of the subject.
Which is the subject in the foregoing sentence^ " the sun ehines ?
Sun.
Why?
Because something is said of it.
What is said of it?
Shines. "V
What then is eJiine4?
It is the Predicate.
Why?
Because it is said or affirmed of the subject, »un,
EXERCISES.
[Point oat the Subjects and Predieates in tho following sentences :]
Boys play. John reads. Mary studies. Birds sing^
Flowers bloom. Trees grow. Fishes swim in the sea.
LESSON II.
OP SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES.
What is a Simple Sentence ?
A Simple sentence has but one subject and predicate,
asserting one fact only ; as. Rivers flow.
1 York's illustrative and
What is a Compocnd sentence ?
A Compound sentence consists of t^vo or more simple
sentences, united by a coordinate connective; :is, Wheat
gro^s, and men reap it.
What do you understand by a co-ordinate connective?
A co-ordinate connective unites two clauses or elements
of equal rank in construction.
What is a Complex sentence ?
A Complex sentence must contain at least one lea din :x
clause, and one subordinate, or modif^'in;:; one ; as, The
boy tvho studies, will improve.
Which is the leading clause in this sentence ?
The boy will improve.
Which is the Subordinate or modifying clause/
Who studies.
Why is this called the subordinate or modifying chiuse .'
Because it is not only incapable of making sense of
itself, but it also modifies the subject of the leading clause.
EXERCISES.
[Point out the Simple, Compound, and Complex sentences.]
The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones.
Flowers grow in the gardens. The bird which sung so
sweetly, has flown. John has a new book. >Vhen he
comes, we shall hear \'ie news. John reads; and Jam.es
writes.
LESSON in.
or CLAUSES.
What is a Clause?
A clause is a subdivision of a sentence, containing a sub-
ject and predicate.
IIow maLy kinds of clauses are there ?
There are three kinds, viz: the leading, the co-ordinate,
and the subordinate, or modifying.
"What is the leading clause ?
The leading clause generally stands first in the sentcn. "•
and contains the principal subject and predicate.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 3
What is the co-ordinate clause ?
The co-ordinate clause is equal in rank to the leading
clause, and can make sense independent of it.
What is the subordinate, or modifying clause ?
The subordinate is inferior in rank to the leading clause,
and incapable of making sense without it. The following
sentence contains a clause of each kind ; " The scrip-
tures CONTAIN THE REVEALED WILL OF GoD ; tlie^ were
written at different periods^ hy holy men who wrote as they
were moved by the Holy Ghost."
You will perceive that the leading clause is in small
capitals, the co-ordinate, in italics, and the subordinate, in
roman letters.
EXERCISES.
[Point out the different kinds of clauses in the following sentences.]
Henry works ; and John plays. Eliza will improve, if
she study. We shall hear the news when the messenger
arrives. James is a good boy, and he learns well. The
boy who does not study, will not improve.
LESSON IV.
OF AFFIRMATIVE, SUBFIRMATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, EXCLAM-
ATIVE, IMPERATIVE, AND PETITIONATIVE SENTENCES.
What is an Affirmative sentence?
An Affirmative sentence expresses the highest degree of
affirmation or verbal force; as. Snow is white.
What is a Subfirmative sentence f
A Subfirmative sentence expresses a less degree of ver-
bal force than the affirmative ; as, The reporter may have
been mistaken. If Mary study, she will improve.
What is an Interrogative sentence ?
An Interrogative sentence contains a question', as. Is
Henry at home ? Who wrote that ?
How many kincs of Interrogative sentences are there ?
Two, viz : Direct and Indirect.
When is a question Direct i*
When the question is asked with a verb, the answer beiog
ycB or no \ as, la he at home ? No,
4 YOEK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AKD
When is it Indirect .'
When the question is asked with an adverb or Interrog*
alive pronoun ; as, Where is thy home ? Who art thou ?
What is an Exclamatire sentence ?
An Exclamative sentence expresses some feeling or
emotion together with the affirmation ; as, How cold and
feeble is my love ! 0 that I had a hiding place !
What is an Imperatire sentence ?
An Imperative sentence contains a command ; as, " Go
ye into all the world."
What is a Petitionative sentence ?
A Petitionative sentence contains a petition ; as, " For-
give us our debts."
EXERCISES.
[Point oat the different kinds of sentences in the following :]
May I go ? May the Lord prosper your ways ! Boys,
attend to your studies. He is at home. Whither shall I
fly ? If he study, he will improve. I may have said it.
Who can abide his coming. Washington was a patriot.
LESSON V.
CONSTRUCTION OP THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
How ia the Subject oonstraed in affirmative and Sub'firmative eentenoes 7
It is generally construed before the predicate ; oi, Flott-
ers bloom. The hiubandman is happy, if he knows his ad-
vantages.
How is the Subject oonstraed in Interrogative sentences ?
It is generally construed after the predicate, or between
its parts ; as. Is Mart/ at home ? Does he Jcnow me ?
How ia it construed in Exclamative sentences ?
Generally after the predicate ; as, liow short is life !
How is the Subject construed in Imperative and Petitionative sentences?
It is construed after the predicate ; as, Go thou* For-
give thou us our trespasses.
Rem. The subject is generally understood in such sen-
tences as the last.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 5
EXERCISES.
[Point out the construction of the Subject in the following sentences.]
Wolves howl in the woods. Dogs bark. If the boys
study, they will improve. Has John lost his pencil ? Is
Mary studious ? Obey my precepts. Pity thou me. How
poor is gold ! How swiftly time glides !
LESSON VI.
OP THE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES.
An Element is a constituent part of a sentence.
How many Elements are there ?
There are five, classified according to the office they
perform in the sentence.
What an they called ?
Substantive, Verbal, Adjective, Adverbial, and Connec-
tive.
How would you define a Substantive element ?
Substantive elements are the names of things, or their
substitutes, or whatever can be made the subject of affir-
mation.
What do Substantive elements embrace ?
All nouns and pronouns.
What do you mean by a noun ?
A Noun is the name of anything ; as, Man, Raleigh.
What by a Pronoun ?
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, he,
she, it.
What are Verbal elements ?
Verbal elements are such as affirm or express action.
What do they embrace?
All verbs and their variations.
What is a verb ?
A Verb asserts or affirms ; as. The hixdi flies.
2
York's illustrative and
LESSON VII.
ELEMENTS CONTINUED.
What are adjective elementfl?
Adjective elements limit substantive elements ; as, Fair
ladies ; men of business.
What do Adjective elements embrace ?
They embrace all adjectives, articles, and participles.
What ie an adjective?
An Adjective is a word added to a noun, to express its
quality, or limit its meaning ; as, a studious boy ; that
book.
What is an Article ?
An Article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit their
signification ; as, A man; the men.
Remark. — It will be perceived by the pupils that the
.'irticle differs but little from the specifying adjective ; some
authors have, therefore, classified it with the adjective.
What is a Participle ?
A particle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes
of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective ; as, I
.see a man ivalking.
Rem. — Such phrases and clauses as limit substantive
elements, are also included in Adjective elements.
What are Adverbial elements?
Adverbial elements limit the Predicate or some other
verbal element.
What do they embrace ?
They embrace all adverbs, phrases, and clauses used
adverbially.
What is an Adverb ?
An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, participle,
adjective, or adverb ; as, a very good ptn writes extremely
well. The bird was singing siveetly.
Wh«.t Afe Cooneciive elements ?
They are suah ias uaito otLgr elem-eats in ctin'€»t dis-
course-
What do diey «mbrac« ?
Thej emibra<3e conjunctions^ prepositions, relative pr-^-
aouiis, and connective adverbs^
What is a Conjunction ?
A Conjunetioa i-s a word used to<3<s>nEect words or clauses
of sentences ; SbS, James and John are at home-
What is a i^reposition?
A Preposition is used to eonsect words, and show thf
relation between them ; as, Henrj went znto the country.
MODEL-
^' The iowering clouds move slowly/*
This is a simple sentence; because it coutaing «. eingi^
flubjeet and predicate-
The is s^u adje<;tive .element of the first kin^d, and limits
the element clouds by pointing it out definitely.
Lowering is an adjective element of the first kind, and
limits clouds by pointing out what elouds are meant.
Clouds is a substantive element, and is the subject of thi*-
proposition ; because something is said of it.
Move is a verbal element, and is the predicate of thig
sentence; be^jause it is said of the subject, action being
predicated.
'Slowly \s. an adverbial element of the first kind, and
modifies the predicate move by pointing out the manner of
its aetion.
What part of speech is the f
It is the Definite Article,
Why?
JJecause it limits the noun cloudi to ^ particular collec-
tion of clouds.
'i York's illustrative and
What part of ppeech is lovering, ?
It is an Adjective.
Why?
Because it is added to the noun clouds, to express it?'
quality.
What kind cf an adjective is it?
It is a qualifying adjective.
Why?
Because it expresses quality.
What part of speech is clovd^f
It is a nouD.
Why?
Because it is a namco
What sort of a noun is it?
It is a Common Noun,
Whf?
Because it is a name common to a whole class of things,
RTiat is m^ve T
A verb. •
Why?
Because it asserts or affirms-..
What is dowly ?
It is an Adverb.
Why?
Because it is added to the verb iiyiove^ to modify its
meaning.
EXERCISES.
[Aoalyie the following sentenoes, and point otit the parts of speecli as
9-xhibited in the above Model ]
Those tall trees wave gracefully. Good men sometimes
suffer adversity. Careless boys learn their lessons badly.
John sees a man walking slowly. Those mountain tor-
CONSTRUCTIVB GRAMMAR. 9
r-ents run rapidly. Those little birds sin^ sweetly. Th«
trumpet souuds loudly.
LESSON VIIL
•Of Elements of the First, Second, and Third Classes,
What is an element of the First Class ?
An element of tli^e First class is a ^ingl£> word, used as
a. constituent part of a sentence.
What is an element of the Second Class ?
It is a Phrase, used as an clement of the sentence^
What is a Phrase?
A Phrase -consists -of two or more words closely united
and modifying some <3ther element, but it contains no ai-
ifirmation.
What is an element of the Third Class ?
It is a suhordmate clause^ used as an element of the &en-
wcnce.
MODEL.
That nohie General who had gained so many victories.
viied at last, in prison.
That is an Adjective element of the First Class, and
Hmits General by pointing it out definitely.
Noble is an Adjective element of the First Class, and
Hmits G«eneral by expressing its qiuality.
General is a Substantive element, and i.^ the Subject -.f
this proposition ; because something is said of it.
Who had gained so mauij victories^ is an Adjective -ele-
ment of the Third Class, and limits General by pointin^t'
out what General is meant.
Died is a Verbal element, and is the Predicate of this
10 York's illustrati\'e anjo
.sentence ; because it h affirmed of the sal)j ect, aetion be-
ing predicated.
At last, is an Adverbial element of the* Second Class^
and modifies the Predicate die^ hj px^inting out tlie time
of the ei/ent.
In p-idon, is an Adverbial element of the Second Class^
and modifies the Predicate died bj pointing out the »eene'
of its action.
EXERCISES.
.[Analyye the followng ssmtences, and point oat the parta^ of spiJecli aa in
The foregoing Lessons ]
Mar J walked in^o tie countrj. A beam c^f tra:aquilit j
often plays aro-utid the heart of a truly pious man. The
studen^t "who studies his- lessons closely, will improve rap-
idly. A %Yinding stream mnrmured through the grove. — -
The sun shines upon the fl oor; Henry Clay was a dis-
tinguished orator. Paul was eminent for his zeal. Chil-
drei^ pl^-y upon the green grass.
LESSO-N m.
OF PRINCIPAL AND" SUBORDINATE- ELEMES-ITJ^,
W'bat are Principal Elements ?
The- Subject and Predicate.
Because no sentersce cau exist without them^
What are Subordinate Elememts ?
They are &uch as limit the subject or predicate, either
directly or indirectly.
Why are they called Subordinate ?
Because they are not absolutely necessary to the exist-
ence of a sentence ; but are of subordinate use, being eu-i-
ployed to express- some circiimstance of a fa®t.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 11
What is meant by modifying the subject or predici-te indirectly f
When an element modifies either the subject or the pre-
dicate througli the medium of some other elemen% it is said
to modify it indirectly.
Can you givo an example to illustrate this ?
"A very cold day is very unpleasant,"
Very^ in this example, modifies unpleasant directly^ and
day indirectly ; since unpleasant limits day^ and very the
adjective unpleasant.
To what part of speech, then, does very belong ?
In such constructions, it is generally called an Adverb ;
but, more properly speaking, it is a Secondary Adje(?tive.
MODEL.
" My gold pen writes extremely well."
Pen and ivrites are Principal elements ; because they
are essential to the existence of the sentence ; all the oth-
ers are Subordinate. The element extremely limits the
predicate writes indirectly through the medium of the ele-
ment ivell ; it may, therefore, be called a Secondary Ad-
verb.
EXERCISES.
[Tou may novr dieoriminate between Principal and Subordinate elements,
and point out such eleiaents as limit the Principal ones indirectly, as exhib-
ited in the above Model.]
A wise man is very useful. Eliza is very handsome. —
John is tenacious of his opinions. The sun shines very
pleasantly. Mary walks very gracefully. A very good
pen writes extremely well. Peter has too much confi-
dence.
12 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
LESSON X.
ON THE SUBJECT, — SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX.
Yoar attention was called to the subject in Losson 1st; now can you tell
me what the subject is ?
The Subject is that of which something is said, and ap-
pears to be a kind o^ foundation word.
Now tell me what you understand by a simple subject?
The subject is Simple when it consists of a single word;
as, John writes.
When is the subject Compound ?
When it consists of one or norc elements co-ordinately
united ; as, Henry and William obey their teacher.
When is it Complex ?
It is Complex when it is limited by an element of the
second or third class ; as, The day of vengeance is at hand.
Rem. — The Complex subject is generally called the Log-
ical subject.
EXERCISES.
[Point out the Subjecta, and tell whether they are Simple, Compound, or
Complex.]
Birds fly in the air. John of Boston has returned. —
James and Joseph reside in New York. The boy who
studies, will improve. Eliza is handsome. Mary and
Martha wxnt to the grave.
LESSON XL
OF THE PREDICATE — SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX.
As the Predicate is a very important element, we will
call your attention to it again.
Can you tell me what the Predicate is ?
The Predicate is that which is affirmed or denied of the
>\ibject.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 13
Then is anything the Predicate, that can be said of the Subject ?
It is.
A Verb, Adjective, Noun, or Pronoun, can be said of the Subject; can all
these parts of speech be Predicate ?
Certainly ; for, of the subject, may be predicated Ac-
tion, Quality, or Identity; as, Peter ivalks, (Action);
Solomon was wise, (Quality) ; John is a student, (Identity.)
Rem. — The verb ^^ to he," in Logic, is called the Copula,
but, in Grammar, it is generally regarded as a part of the
Predicate.
When is the predicate simple ?
^ It is simple when it consists of one element; as, the
bird files.
Rem. — The verb, in such examples, is said to include
both the Copula and Predicate, and is equivalent to " th-c
bird isfii/ing.'''
When is the predicate Compound?
It is compound when it is composed of two or more
elements, united by a co-ordinate connective ; as, King-
doms rise amdfalL
When is it Complex ?
It is complex when limited by an element of the second
or third class ; as, Isaac walked into the field.
EXERCISES.
^ [Point out the Predicates, and tell whether they are Simple, Compound, or
Complex, also whether Action, Quality, or Identity is predicated]
The rivers flow. Flowers bloom in the spring. Susan
walks and talks. She is wise. Washington was prudent.
Henry is a student. James walks through the fields. The
girls walk into the garden. David was pious and brave.
We shall hear the news when he comes.
14 York's illustratr'k and
LESSON XII.
OF rOSSESSIVE AND OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS.
What is the Posaessive element ?
When one substantive element limits another by deno-
ting Possession, it maj be called the Possessive clement ;
ai<, John 8 book.
Rem. — Since Johns limits book by pointing out the
thing possessed, it might, properly enough, be called an
Adjective element ; but, as in parsing, we call Johtis a
Noun in the Possessive case, it is better, perhaps, to call
it the Possessive element.
What i« an Objective elament?
When a substantive element limits the predicate or
verbal clement, it is called the Objective element; as,
Peter struck Thomas.
When the Ohjective element limits the predicate or verbal element, what
dye3 it point out ?
It points out the object of its action. Thomas, for in-
stance, in the foregoing sentence, points out the object of
the action^ expressed by the verbal element struck. *
EXERCISES.
[Point out the Pofaossive and Objective elements in the following sec-
teuces.j
Peter's dog bit John's finger. Mary tore Eliza's book.
James hid Susan's bonnet. The boy lost the girl's gloves.
Henry wants Sylvester's dog. Peter has lost bis book.
Jane left her shawl.
LESSON XIII.
OP THE CONBTRUCTION OP ELEMENT?.
What do joii understand bj the eonetruction of Elements?
The order in which elements are arranged in a sentence,
is called Construction.
CONSTRUCIIVE GRAMMAR. 16
With what aro Adjective elements construed?
With subtantive elements.
When Adjective elements of the first class aro assumed of their supers,
"SThere are they construed?
They are generally construed before them ; as, a tvm
man, A beautiful lady. A studious boy.
When such elements are predicated, how are they conatrncd ?
They are generally construed after the predicate ;
as, she is handsome. James is tall.
Where are adjective elements of the second or third class construed?
They are generally construed after the substantive ele-
ment ; as, a lady of prudence. The boy ivlio studies.
With what are Adrerbial elements construed ?
They are construed with verbal elements.
Can any precipe rule be given for the construction of Adrerbial elements
of i)x% first class 1
No. They should, however, be so consti-ued as will
best promote the euphony and perspicuity of the sentence.
How are Adverbial elements of the second and third classes construed?
They are generally construed after the predicate^ or be-
tivecn its parts ; as, happiness or misery is, m a great
measure, placed in our own hands. Isaac walked into
the field*
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
[You may now analyze the following sentences as directed in precedlfl^
icodels.J
Henry resides in New York. The young ladies who
-study their lessons, improve rapidly Mary i? handsome.
A wise man is useful. The lowerini: clouds arc movin;:
slowly. She walks in the garden. A man of studious
habits grows in knowledge. The sun shines through the
window.
16 York's illustrated and
LESSON XIV.
OP MONOLOGIC ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
What do you understand by Monologic Analysis of eontenccs?
It is resolving sentences into clauses and phrases.
What is each eleinent called ?
It is called a member, or mono as denominated by Mr.
James Brown of Philadelphia.
What characters are used in this Analysis?
The loading clause is inclosed in brackets, and all others
in parentheses, as exhibited in the following example:
[Elijah smote the water] (of Jordan] (with his mantle.)
What can you say of the words of which each member is cocaposed ?
They have an inseparable, constructive relation to each
other, and, in parsing, they must be disposed of in their
own members respectively.
What are such words as give members, called ?
They are called member-givers.
What are they called in grammar, generally ?
They are generally called Conjunctions; Connective
Adverbs, Relative Pronouns, and Prepositions ; but they
might all be included in one general term, Connectives.
How may these connectives or memher-givcra bo divided?
They may be divided, first, into such as give clauses and
phrases.
Which of them give clauses ?
Conjunctions, Connective Adverbs, and Relative Pro-
nouns.
Which phrases ? 1
Prepositions.
In what other respects may they bo divided?
They may be divided, secondly, into Co ordinate and
subordinate.
How would you deQne the co-ordinate connectives ?
The Co-ordinate connectives are sucl: as unite clauses
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAK. 17
or members of equal rank in construction. They are and^
but, or, nor, and yet.
How would you define the Subordinatee ?
The subordinate connectives are such as join on mem-
bers of subordinate rank in construction.
What do they include?
They include Relative Pronouns, Connective Adverbs,
Prepositions, and some Conjunctions, such as, if, for^
though, &c.
Rem. — Connectives should always be included in the
members which they give ; but, as they are connectives,
they will, of course, bear some relation to some other
members.
EXERCISES.
[Analyze the following sentences as exhibited m the above example?
The sun shines through the window, upon the floor. The
day of the Lord is at hand. We shall hear the news when
the messenger arrives. The patient had died before the
doctor arrived. The young lady who instructs me in
grammar, labors faithfully. John has gone into the coun-
try. Jesus went unto the mount of Olives. Dagon fell
upon his face before the ark of the living God.
Rem. — In exercising the class, these or similar sentences
should be written upon the black-board or slates.
LESSON XV.
DENDROLOGY, OR CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.
What is the literal meaning of Dendrology ?
A discourse upon trees.
In what sense is it here employed ?
It is here employed in an accommodated sense, to point
18 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
out the constructive relation which the members of a sen-
tence bear to each other, as illustrated by the frame-work
of a tree.
What part of a sentence is compared to the Trunk of a tree?
The leading clause, or that part, which, like the Trunk
of a tree, can stand alone, or make sense of itself.
What elements must the Trunk or leading clause contain?
It must contain the subject and predicate, and all ele-
ments of the first kind which modify them, if any are
used.
To what are the subordinate members compared?
They are compared to the Branches of a tree.
Why?
Because as the Branches of a Tree depend upon, or are
supported by the Trun* ; so* the Subordinate members
depend upon the leading clause, either directly or indi-
rectly in construction, as illustrated in Diagram. (See
Lesson XVII.)
LESSON XVI.
DENDROLOGY, OR CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES CONTINUED*
How many Orders of members are there ?
There are two, viz : Trunk and Branch.
What is meant by Notation ?
By Notation, is meant the actual expression of all or
only a part of the words of members.
How many Notations are there ?
Two, viz : Plenary and Implenary.
When is a member of the Plenary Notation ? •
It is Plenary when all the words belonging to it, arc
expressed ; as, [Henry went] (into the field.)
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 19
When is a member of the Implenary Notation ?
It is Implenary when part of the words belonging to
it, are not expressed ; as, [He gave (me) an apple.] That
is. He gave an apple to me.
What is meant by the Integrity of a member ?
Integrity respects its entireness or unbroken state.
How many integrities are there ?
There are two, viz: Perfect and Imperfect.
What is meant by the Perfect Integrity?
The Perfect Integrity of a member is the entireness
produced by the juxta-position of all its words ; as, [He
gave an apple] [to me.)
When is a member of the Imperfect Integrity?
It is of the Imperfect Integrity when it is broken by
the intervention of some other member ; as, The law (of
the Lord) is perfect.
What is meant by the Rank of a member?
The Rank of a member respects the frame-work grade
which the sub-members derive from their supers.
What can you say of the number of Ranks ?
The number is indefinite — some sentences having more,
and some less.
When is a member of the firet rank ?
It is of the first rank when construed with the Trunk
member or leading clause.
When of the second, third, ic.?j
It is of the second when construed with one of the first ;
of the third when construed with one of the second, and
CO on.
How should the Ranks bo distinguished ?
By figures written over the members; as, 1, 2, o, &c.
20 York's illustrative and
LESSON XVII.
DENDROLOGY OR CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES
CONTINUED.
What does the Position of members respect?
The position of a member respects the place it occupies
with respect to its super-member or members.
How many Positions have members ?
Three, viz : Juxta, Disjuxta, and BinaL
When is a member of the Juxta-position *
It is of the Juxta-position "when construed next to its
super-member ; as, [Martha went] (to the grave,)
When of the Dhjuxta.poeition ?
It is of the Disjuxta-position when it is separated from
its super-member ; as, [Martha went] (with Mary) {to the
garve.)
Rem. — The learner will observe that the member, to the
grave, is construed with the leading clause, Martha loent,
but it is separated from it, by the interposition of the
member, with Mary.
When is a member of the Binal-position ?
It is of the Binal-position when it includes both the
juxta and disjuxta positions ; as, [Martha was the sister]
(of Mary) ; [hut she ivas not the sister) (of Elizabeth.)
R^M. — The learner will observe that the member, but she
tvas not the sister, is construed with both the members that
precede it, and is juxta with respect to one, and disjuxta
with respect to the other ; hence it is said to include both.
What is meant by a axiper'-mcmber ?
A super-member, in rank, is directly above that mem-
ber which is annexed to it.
What is a tuh-memher f
A sub-member, in rank, is directly below the member to
which it is annexed.
The principles unfolded in the preceding lessons, on
Dendrology or Construction, in which the verbal frame-
work of a sentence is compared to the frame-work of a
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR.
21
Tree, may be illustrated by the following sentence and Di-
agram.
11 2 3
[A certain Eoaiieror (of China), (on his accession) (to the throne) (of his
1 3
ancesters), commanded a general release] (of all those) (who had oeen iin-
3
prisoned) (for debt.]
A certain Emperor com-
manded a ffcneral release^ is a
member of the Trunk order,
Plenary notation, Imperfect
integrity, and of the Affirma-
tive kind, because it expresses
the hightcst degree of verbal
force.
Of China^ is a member of
the Branch order, Plenary
notation. Perfect integrity,
first rank, juxta-position, and
reads with the Trunk for its
super ; thus, A certain Emperor of China commanded a
general release.
On his accession, is a member of the Branch order. Ple-
nary notation. Perfect integrity, first rank, disjuxta-posi-
tion, and reads with the Trunk for its super. A certain
Emperor commanded a general release on his accession.
To the throne, is a member of the Branch or'^er. Plena-
ry notation, Perfect integrity, second rank, juxta-position,
and reads vv'ith a member of the first rank for its super. —
On his accession to the throne.
Of his ancesters, is a member of the Branch order. Ple-
nary notation, Perfect integrity, third rank, and juxta-po-
sition, and reads with the second rank for its super. To
the throne of his ancestors.
Of all those jyersons, is a member of ihe Branch order, Tm-
plenary notation. Perfect integrity, first rank, juxta-posi-
tion, and reads with the Trunk for its super. A certain
Emperor commanded a general release of all those persons.
Who had been imprisoned, is a member of the Branch or-
der. Plenary notation. Perfect integrity, 8eco7id rimk, ^\ix-
3
22 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
ta-position, and reads with a member of the first rank for
its super. Of all those ^vho had been imprisoned.
For debt, is a member of the Branch order, Plenary no-
tation, Perfect integrity, third rank, and juxta-position,
and reads with the second rank for its sxi.per. Who had
been imprisoned /or debt.
By inspecting the Diagram, the learner will perceive that
branches No. 1 depend directly upon the Trunk or leading
clause, that branches No. 2 depend directly upon No*. 1,
and that those of No. 3 depend directly upon No. 2, .but
that all depend directly or indirectly upon the Trunk or
leading member.
Which ia the Trunk or leading clause in the foregoing sentence?
A certain Emperor commanded a general release.
Why ?
Because, like the Trunk of a Tree, it can stand alone, or
make sense of itself.
Why is it of the Plenary notation ?
Because each word belonging to it, is expressed.
Why of the Imperfect Integrity ?
Because its entireness is broken by the member, of
China.
Why of the affirmative kind /
Because it expresses the highest degree of verbal force.
Why is on hia accession of the Branch order?
Because it depends upon the Trunk, and cannot make
sense of itself.
Why of the first rank ?
Because it depends directly upon the Trunk or leading
member for its super.
Why of the dwjwarta-position ?
Because it is separated from its super, or the? member
with which it has a constructive relation.
Why is the member, to the throne, of the second rank ?
Because it depends upon the first for its super.
•CONSTRiUCTiyE GRAMMAR. 28
Why is thQmemhQT, of hie ancestors, of the thii-d rank/
Because it depends upon the second rank for its super.
Kem. To Teachers. The Teacher may ask similar
■questions until the young learners become familiar with all
the terms used in this nomenclature.
EXERCISES,
[Analyze and Construe the following sentences as exhibited in the forego-
'ing Models.]
^ . . 1
[A beam (of tranquility) often plays] (around the heart)
2 1 ^
(of the truly pious man). [Martha went] (with Mary), (to
2 2
the grave) (of Lazarus). [There was a marriage] (in Cana)
2 1 1
(of Galilee). [Dagon fell] (upon his face) (before the ark)
2 1 ^
(of the living God). [^The young lady (who instructs me)
2 12
(in Grammar), lives'] (in the city) (of New York). [Lot
fled] (with his two daughters), (to the mountains). [Mary
1 1 2
remained] (in the house) (with the Jews) (who had visited
11 2
her). [Time slept] (on flowers,) (and lent his glasses) (to
hope). (On that night,) [sleep departed] (from the king.)
{The Lord, (into his garden,) comes ;]
(The spices yield a rich perfume ;)
(The lillies grow and thrive.)
Rem. — After the class has been fully practiced on the
above exercises, sentences should be written upon the black-
board or slate without the analysis.
LESSON XVIII.
OF ALLIGATION OF SENTENCES.
What is Alligation ?
It is the art of combining the words of a sentence, by
24 York's illustrative and
lines Trliich indicate the ffovcrniyient, relatiorby and connec-
tion of the several parts.
How are linos which indicate govc-nment drawn ?
They are drawn over.
How are all others drawn ?
They are drawn under, as shown in the following Dia-
gram :
Line 1 shows Henry governs went, and reads with it —
Henry went. Line 2 shows with connects ivent and me,
and reads with them — went with me. Line 3 shows that
with governs me, and reads with it — with me. Line 4
shows that to connects went and shij}, and reads with
them — went to ship. Line 5 shows to governs sliip, and
reads with it — to ship. Line t) shows that the helongs to
iiJiip, and reads with it — the ship.
The object of this exercise is not only to give an occu-
lar illustration of the various grammatical connections and
relations which words ])ear to each otlier in a sentence,
hut also to show that words which are grammatically rela-
ted to each other, make sense when read together.
EXERCISES.
[Write the following and similar sentences on slates or the Black-board,
and give the alligation as exhibited in the above Diagram.]
The old fox heard the hunter's horn sounding. Foxes
kill Avonien's geese. I see a man walking through the
fields. The day elides swectlv o'er our heads. That old
man hibors in the field. Jolin walked with his sisters to
church. ISIary studies her lessons well. The moon shines
through ])rokcn clouds. The lowering clouds are moving
glowly. Elizabeth went into the hill-country.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR^ *25
PART SECOND.
LESSON L
OF LANGUAGE,
What is language ?
Language is the medium through which mind travels to
mind, and thereby communicates thoughts, feelin^3, de-
sires, and affections.
Po brutes, in any sense, possess the power of language ?
In some sense, thej do ; since, hj various inarticulate
sounds, thev make known their wants and sufferinjis.
Hov many kic'ds of language are there?
Two, namely, spoken and written.
What are the elements of spoken language ?
They are simple sounds, uttered by the human voice.
What are the elements of written language ?
They are letters or characters, invented to represent
simple sounds.
May not Jesticulation be regarded as a kind of language ?
It may ; since men, who are barbarians to each other,
can understand each other by means of signs or jesturoe.
Since language is the medium of comm«nicating thought:?, is it not im-
portant that it should be understood/
It is; and, hence, arises the necessity of studyino- tho-
roughly the Grammar of the language which we employ
for such medium of communication of thought.
LESSON II.
OF GRAMMAR.
What is grnmraar?
Grammar is the science of language, or, more litorallv.
the science of letters, or the science of sounds.
26 YORK'S ILLUSTllATIVE AND
What do letters represent ?
They represent simple sounds.
How many simple sounds are there in th* English language f
Thirtj-eiglit.
How many letters or signs are there to represent these sounds ?
There are but ttetjusix in the English Alphabet.
What necessarily follows from there being more sounds than letters f
Some letters must represent more sounds than one.
What must necessarily arise from this .'
Much obscurity and many provincialisms.
How many letters should there be in a perfect language f
As many as there are simple sounds.
How are the letters of the English Alphabet generally divided t
Into Vowels and Consonants,
How are the Consonants sub-divided/
Into Mutes and Semi-vowels,
Is this division founded in philosophic truth .'
No ; for every sound may be uttered in it's own, indi-
vidual, and elementary character ; yet, it is said, the Mutes
cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel.
What would bo a more philosophic and truthful division of the letters of
the Alphabet?
A more truthful division would be into three classes,
viz: Vowels or Tonics, Sub-vowels or Sub-tonics, and
Atonies or Aspirates, as exhibited in the following Table
in which are displayed the thirty-eight elementary sounds,
and the manner of representing them :
-#»^
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR.
27
THIRTY-
EIGHT
SIMPLE
SOUNDS.
15 Vowels.
14 Sub-vowels.
9
Aspirates.
a
in
ale
b
in bow
P
in pin
a
arm
d
" duty
t
" tin
a
all
g
" gay
sh
" shade
a
an
1
" love
•
k
" kite
e
eve
trn
" man
s
" sin
e
end
'n
" no
f
" fume
i
ile
ng
" song
th
" thin
1
in
r
'' roll
h
" hat
0
old
th
" thou
wh
" what
• •
0
lose
4
" vow
• ••
b
on
w
" wo
u
tube
y
" yoke
u
np
z
^' zone
u
full
s
" azure
oil
our
Rem. — rt will be observed that /, x^ and ch are not
found in the above table ; the reason of this is, they do
not represent simple sounds, but compound ones. J rep-
resents the sound of d in dar^ and of z in azure ; as, Job,
John, &c.
Rem. to Teachers. — It is not intended that the table of
elementary sounds should be committed to memory by the
pupils ; but the Teacher should utter the sounds accurately
in their elementary character, the pupils uttering them
after him.
28 York's illustrative and
(For further information concerning the simple sounds
of the English Language and the Analysis of words, the
learner is referred to the Illustrative and Constructive
Grammar, Part Second.)
LESSON IIL
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
What is English Grammar?
It is the science of the Enclisfe Lano;uage.
"What does it comprise/
It comprises both a Science and an Art.
H hat does it teach as an Art ?
As an Art, it teaches how the English Language should
he written and spoken.
What as a Science /
As a Science, it teaches why one form of speech should
he used rather than another.
What, then, is the difference between Science and Art?
Science tells why a thing is done ; Art how it is done.
What, then, Tvill English Grammar, well understood both as a Science and
an Art, enable one to do ?
It will enable one to speak and write the English Lan-
guage correctly.
LESSON IV.
THE DIVISION OP GRAMMAR,
Into how many parts, is Grammar divided ?
Into four, viz : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax ano
Prosody.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 29
What does Orthography teach .'
The name and power of letters, and the art of spelling.
Where must this art bo chiefly acquired ?
Prom the Spelling-book and Dictionary.
Of what does Etymology treat ?
Of the different parts of speech, their various inflections,
a-nd the derivation of words.
What does Syntax tea h ?
It teaches the correct construction and arrangement of
sentences.
Of what does Prosody treat ?
It treats of the just pronunciation of sentences, and the
rules of versification.
LESSON V.
PARTS OP SPEECH OR CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
Into how many Classes, are words naturally divided?
Into two, namely, Primary and Secondary.
What are Primary words ?
Those that are essential to the language of men, to which
all others bear a subordinate relation.
What parts of speech are they ?
The Noun and Verb.
Why are they Primary f
Because, of these, a complete proposition may be con-
structed ; as, God is. Time flies.
What are Secondary words ?
Xhey are of subordinate use in language, sustaining a
branch relation to the Primary.
How many sorts of words or Parts of Speech are there ?
There are ten, viz : the Noun, Verb, Participle, Pronoun,
30 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
Article, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and
Interjection or Exclamation.
Rem. Grammarians generally name nine Parts of Speech,
excluding the Participle ; but we see no sufficient reason for
this.
What is a ^'oun ?
It is the name of anything ; as, Man, virtue.
TThatisa Verb?
A Verb is a word which asserts or affirms, or expresses
action ; as. The boy reads. The QhM plays.
TThat is a participle ?
A Participle is a word, derived from a verb, and partakes
of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective ; but'Se-
pends upon a noun or pronoun in construction ; as, I see
a hivdi flying.
What is a Pronoun t
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and gener-
ally to avoid its repetition ; as, James reads, and he will
soon read well.
What is an Article f
An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit the extent
of their signification ; as, A man. The boys.
What is an Adjective?
An adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit its
meaning, or express its quality ; as, A beautiful lady. That
river.
What is an Adverb 1
An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of verbs,
participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, Mary writes
very well.
What is a Preposition /
A Preposition is a word generally placed before some
noun or pronoun which it governs ; it, also, shows the re-
lation which this word bears to some other word which
precedes it in construction : as, Henry went with me.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 81
"What is a Conjunction .'
A Conjunction is a word which joins together parts of a
sentence, or parts of a discourse in a regular construction ;
as, John goes to school, and learns well.
What is an Interjection or Exclamation .'
An Exclamation generally expresses some emotion of
the speaker, but has no dependent construction ; as, " Alas !
and did my Saviour bleed?"
EXERCISES.
[Point out the different parts of Speech in the following sentences.]
The river flows slowly. The sun shines by day, and the
moon gives light by night. Henry lost his hat. Alas !
that man has made a fatal mistake. I see a man walking.
John went ; but Peter stayed.
LESSON VI,
OF NOUNS.
What is a Noun f
A Noun is the name of any thing ; as, Man, Virtue.
How many kinds ef nouns are there?
There are two, viz : Proper and Common.
What is a Proper noun ?
A Proper noun is the name of an individual person or
thing ; as, Mary, Delaware.
What is a Common noun ?
A Common noun is a name common to a whole class of
persons or things ; as Man, river.
What is a Common noun, comprising several persons or things in one cqL
fectivc hoiiy, called *
A Collective noun, or Noun of multitute ; as. Commit^
♦tee, army.
3:^ York's illustrative and
What belong to Noun? ?
To nouns belong Gender, Person, Number, and Case.
LESSON VII.
OF GENDER AND PERSON.
What is Gender ?
Gender is the distinction of sex,
IIow many sexes are there ?
Two, viz: Male and Female.
How many Genders are there?
Since there are but two sexes, strictly speaking, there
are but two genders.
How many Genders are thought, by some grammarians, to bo convenient
in parsing ?
Four, viz : Masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Com-
mon.
What does the Masculine Gender denote .'
The Masculine Gender includes all males; as, Man,
horse.
What does the Feminine denote ?
The Feminine includes 2X\ females; as, woman, hen.
What does the Neuter include?
The Neuter includes such as have no sex ; as, Chjiir,
river.
Bow may the Common Gender be defined ?
Nouns which are equally applied to both sexes, are
called Common Gender ; as. Friend, child.
RexM. — The application of the Neuter and Common
Genders in parsing, is of little or no practical utility ;
since it adds nothing to the sense.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 33
What is Person in grammar f
Person distinguishes the relation of a noun to the
speaker.
JIow man}- Persons bave nouns?
Thr^e, viz : the First, Second, and Third.
What does the First Person denote ?
It denotes the speaker ; as 7, John, saw him.
What the Second Person 1
The Second Person denotes the person or thing spoken to,
or addressed ; as, James, I desire you to study.
What the Third Person ?
The Third Person denote^ the person spoken of, or
ahout ; as, Peter wept bitterly.
LESSON YIII.
OF NUMBER.
Whatia Number /
Number is the distinction o^ unity ^indi plurality.
How many numbers have nouns?
Two, viz ; the "Singular and Plural.
What does the Singular number imply?
It implies unity, or but one ; as, A hook.
What does the Plural number denote ?
It denotes 2^lurality, or more than one; as, Books.
How is the Plural of nouns formed?
The Plural is generally formed by annexing s or C9
to the singular.
When is • only iinncxcd ?
When it will coalesce in sound with the other letters ; at^.
Table, tables.
M York's illustrated and
When is ea annexec ?
When swill not coalesce in sound with the preceding let-
ters; as, Branch, ^rawc/^es.
I8 the Plural of nouns formed in any other way 1
Yes, in various ways.
Mention a few of them.
1. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, form their
plurals by changing y into ^, and annexing es ; as, Fly,/ies.
Spy, spies. ,
2. Fifteen nouns in f or fe, viz: beef, calf, elf, half,
leaf, loaf, self, shea^f, shelf, thief, wharf, wolf, life,
knife, and wife, form their plurals by changing / into v,
and annexing es or s; as, Beef, beeves. Wife, wives ;
other nouns, in / or, fe, form their plurals in the regu-
lar way; as, Dwarf, dwarfs. Handkerchief, handker-
chiefs.
3. Some nouns arc very irregular in the formation
of their plurals ; as, Man, men. Child, children, &c.
Do Proper nouns admit of a plural ?
They do not ; for, in such case, they would become Com-
mon; as, The twelve Ccesars. The Plates oHhe Sige.
LESSON IX.
OF CASE.
What is meant by Case .'
Case, as applied in Grammar, distinguishes the rela-
tion of a noun or pronoun to a verb, participle, prepo-
sition, or another noun.
llow many cases have nouns and pronouns .'
Three, viz : the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective.
Trhat relation does the Nominative Case bear to the verb ?
It bears the relation of subject; as, John walks ; it
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 35
is, also, said to be in the Nominative when predicated
of the subject ; as John is a student. It is 1.
What relatloQ does the Possessive Case show /
It shows the relation oi possession or ownership; as, Pe-
ter's ivifes mother. Henry s horse.
Rem. Some nouns, having the Possessive /(?rm, do not
imply ownership , they are. strictly speaking, Specifying
Adjectives ; as, Harriet makes ladies' bonnets. Johnson
sells bot/s' hats.
Wh&t relation doec the Objective case show ?
The Objective case shows the relation of an object, and
is either the object of an action, or of a relation ; as
Charles struck John on the head.
When is the Objective ease the object of an action ?
It is the object of an action Avhen it is governed by a
verb or participle.
When the object of a relation ?
It is the object of a relation when governed by a prepo-
sition.
LESSON X.
OP PARSING.
What is Parsing 1
In Parsing a word, I first name the part of speech or
class of words to which it belongs.
What next?
I next mention the properties or accidents belonging to
the word.
What else ?
I then state its agreement or government, as the case
may be, and quote the rule.
I will now present you with a Model for Paising.
86 York's illustrative and
MODEL.
James loves Marj's sister.
James is a Proper Doun, Masculine gender, third per-
son, singular number, and nominative case to the verb
loves, according to Rule 1. (Repeat Rule.)
Loves is a regular, Transitive verb. Active voice. Indi-
cative mode, Present tense, and of the third person, sin-
gular number, agreeing with its nominative John, accord-
in g: to rule (3.
CD
Marifs is a proper noun, feminine gender, third per-
son, singular number, and in the possessive case, governed
by sister, according to Rule 4.
Sister is a common noun, of the feminine gender, third
person, singular number, and in the objective case, gov-
erned by the verb loves, according to Rule 19.
EXERCISES.
Peter's dog bit John's finger. Foxes kill women's geese.
El za's cat caught a rat. James lost Henry's ball. Rivers
flow. Birds fly. Arthur's dog killed Henry's cat. Rab-
bits eat people's peas. Thomas hm*t Robert's finger. Boys
love play. ^
LESSON XL
OF VERBS.
What :s! a Verb?
A Verb is a word which asserts or affirms, or expresses
action ; as, The river /ows. He ivent to join the army.
Rem. — Perhaps no single definition can fully unfold the
varied import of the verb; but, in some sense, it may bo
said, under all circumstances, to express something of the
nature of an affirmation.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 37
How may the Verb be divided ?
It may be divided into Transitive and Intransitive, Re-
gular and Irregular, Auxiliary and Defective.
When is a, ^erb Transitive ?
When it has the power to affect an object ; as, Jane
writes letters.
Must the object of a Transitive verb always be expressed .?
No ; if the object is obvious, it need not always be ex-
pressed ; as, The boy reads, L e. he reads hooks or some-
thing else.
How are Transitive verbs distinguished ?
By voice.
What is meant by Voice ?
Voice has been defined to be the particular mode of in-
flecting or conjugating the verb, or it may be said to ex-
press the condition of its subject as active or passive.
Mow many Voices have verbs ?
Two, viz : Active and Passive.
When is a verb in the Active Voice f
It is in the Active voice, when the nominative performs
the action ; as, Urutus slew Caesar. Here Brutus the sub-
ject, performs the action.
When is a verb in the Passive Voice?
It is in the Passive Voice when the subject receives the
action ; as, Caesar wag slain by Brutus.
Rem. — In this example, Caesar is the subject of the verb,
was slain , but is still the object of the action expressed
by the verb.
When is a verb Intransitive ?
It is Intransitive when it has no power to affect an ob-
ject ; ag, The bird flies.
Do Intransitive verbs have voice ?
They do not ; though a few of them admit of the form
CI the Passive voice ; as, He is gone.
38 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
LESSON XII.
OF VERBS CONTINUED.
When is a verb Regular ?
When it forms its Past tense and Perfect participle by
annexing d or ed to the root or simplest form of the verb,
it is Regular ; as, Love, loved, loved. Walk, walked, tvalked.
Rem. 1. — It will readily be seen, that, if the root of the
verb ends in e, d only is annexed ; but, if it ends in any
other letter, ed is annexed.
Rem. 2. — Such verbs may be said to be Regular ; be-
cause their Past tense and Perfect participle, are formed
according to rule.
Rem. 3. — Some verbs appear to be Regular when they
are not ; such, for instance, as those whose root ends in
some other letter besides e, yet having their parts formed
by annexing d only ; as. Hear, heard, heard.
When aro verba Irregular ?
They are Irregular when the Past tense and Perfect
participle are formed by varying the root, or when they
are monotonous, admitting of no variation ; as, see, saiv,
seen. Set, set, set.
Rem. — In the first example, the root of the verb see is
varied, i. e, the other parts assume a form diflferent from
the root ; but, in the last example, the root is not varied,
the parts all having the same form.
What is aa Auxiliary verb ?
Such verbs as are used to assist other verbs in forming
the modes and tenses, are called Auxiliaries ; as. May,
can, must, might, could, should, &ic.
Whtki is a Defective verb ?
Such a verb as can only be used in so77ie of the modes
and tenses ; as, Ought, can, &c.
Rem. — The learner should bear in mind, though we have
mentioned several classes of verbs, yet all verbs whether
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. ^^9
Regular or Irregular, Auxib'arj or Defective, are either
Transitive or Intransitive.
What belong to verbs ?
Mode and Tense, Number and Person.
LESSON XEII.
OF MODES.
What is the Mods of a verb ?
Mode is the 7nanner of representing affirmation.
How many Modes are there ?
Five, viz : Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Imperative,
and Infinitive.
How does the Indicative mode represent nffinnation ?
Positively and without limitation ; as. She loves.
How does the Subjunctive represent affirmation?
The Subjunctive mode affirms a thing, su]>jcct to some
condition ; as, If Eli^a study, she will improve.
How does the Potential represent affirmation ?
The Potential mode affirms possibility, liberty, power,
will, obligation, or necessity ; as, It maif rain. lie may
go. He can go. He zvould go. Ho should go. lio vuist go.
For what is tbe Imperative mode used?
It is^ used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or
permitting ; as, Obey my precepts. Go in peace.
How does the Infinitive represent affirmation ?
It does not limit it to any particular subject; as, Mar-
tba went to meet Jesus.
From what, does the Mode of verbs arise ?
From the various ways in which affirmation is mado
40
YORK S ILLUSTRATED AND
'Oncerning the subject, as illustrated in the following
Diagram :
a Siibjurtctiye
■
5 Potential
Indicative.
Impercitiye,
The perpendicular column represents the subject of aflBir-
mation.
Figure 1 represents what is affirmed indicativclv ; as
••he figure is in juxta-position with the subject, it shows
that whatever is indicatively predicated, belongs absolutely
TO the subject ; as, The bird flies. Job was patient.
Figure 2 illustrates the Subjunctive Mode, or what is
predicated with some limitation ; as but one of the parallel ^
lines of wliich the figure is composed, is in juxta-position
with the subject, it shows that what is affirmed of the sub-
ject, may or may not belong to it ; as, If tesar was a
tyrant, he deserved death.
Figure 3 illustrates the Potential Mode, or -svhat is
affirmed potentially ; as the figure is not in juxta-position
with the subject, it shows that whatever is affirmed poten-
tially, does not belong absolutely to the subject, but that
only the probability, power, liberty, necessity, <ifec., of ac-
tion or quality, is predicated ; as, Tlie bird can jly. John
ill ay he good.
Figure 4 illustrates ilie Imperative Mode, or what is
affirmed imperatively. In this Mode, the subject is com-
manded to act, or to possess a quality; it is clear that at
the time of command, the action or ({uality required, does
not exist in the subject ; but, ns it is presumed that the
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAK, 41
speaker has povv'er to enforce obedience, there is a very strong-
probability, that Avhat is commanded will be performed;
the figure, therefore, though not in juxta-position •\vith the
subject, is made to npproacli very near it : n?, Oheij my
precepts.
Figure 5 illustrates the Infinitive Mode ; #3 the figure
is not connected witli the subject, but with the part of the
Diagram which represents the predicate, it shows that the
Infinitive never makes a direct alfirmation concerniui: th(,-
subject, but depends upon some otlier element in construc-
tion; as, He loeiit to juin the iirmy.
Questions.
What does the perpendicular column '.f the Diaf;r:nn rtproj^ont ? What
r)o the other parts represent? The Proijicatt,;. Vy hat' doe.-* tig. lit rejr.rc'-r.-nt '
What fig. 2d, fig. 3d, Ac. ?
LESSON XIY.
OF TEXvSE.
What is Tense ?
Tense means time.
Hon many Tenses have verbs ?
Six, viz : Present, Past, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future,
and Future-Perfect.
What does the I'resent tenso denote ?
Present time ; as, I write, I am writing now.
What d'los the Past ten&e denote?
Simply ^ast time ; as, I ivrote yesterday.
What does the Perfect denote ?
The Perfect tense represents an event which is ^;asf, but
the period of time in which it occurred, is connected with
the present ; as, I have ivritten to-day.
What does the Pluperfect represent?
It represents time which is not simply past, but pi'ior to
42
YORK S ILLUSTKATIVE AND
some other time -which is also past; as, I had ivrittcn the
letter before the mail arrived.
What does the Future tense denote ?
^im^ly future time ; as, I shall write to-morrow.
What does the Future-Perrect tense represent ?
It represents an event that will be past at or before
some other future time specified ; as, I shall have written
by the appointed time.
You may now examine the following Diagram Avhich
illustrates the six Tenses of the verb.
Fasit;
Future
Eerie ex.
Fiiture yi
Time isj^ura.iit)n
^ measured;^ ^
• ^withdui^
The space included by the vertical lines (1), represents
}iiesent time.
Tl)e space on the left of the vertical lines, represents
past time, and that on the right of the vertic;il linos, rep-
resents future time.
Figure 2, which consists of but one line, having no con-
nection with the Present, illustrates the Pasjt tense of the
verb.
This tense is properly used in speaking and writing,
when both the event and the period of time in which it
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 43
occurred, are past ; as, Philosophers made great discove-
ries last century.
" Figure 3, which consists of two parallel lines, illus-
trates the Perfect Tense. This tense embraces a period
of time which is not only connected with the present, but
frequently extends into the future, as shown by the first
line in the figure. This period, as a whole, consists of
three component parts ; — the Event part marked E, is
past, the Speaking part, marked S, which is present, is the
time occupied in uttering the sentence, and the Post speak-
ing part, marked P, which is future, denotes that portion of
the period of time subsequent to the uttering of the sen-
tence. But the period embraced by this Tense of the verb,
sometimes only approaches the Present, as shown by the
second parallel line ; this is the case when the speaker
refers to all the past part of his life ; as, '' Ihave never seen
trees so tall."
This tense is correctly used in speaking and writing,
when the period of time in which the event occurred, is
connected with the Present ; as, I have studied hard this
week,.
Fisrure 4, which consists of two lines connected, illus-
trates the Pluperfect tense.
When two past events are connected in sense, the Plu-
perfect is correctly employed in the prior past of the two ;
as. The thief had escaped before the goods were missed.
That these two are connected in sense, is obvious ; for,
when i\iQ former is uttered, the mind is so much under the
influence of the expectation of the latter, that it is disap-
pointed, if it is withheld. The thief had escaped, — and
what else ? before the goods were missed.
Figure 5, which consists of a single line, illustrates the
Future tense.
This shows that this tense of the Verh denotes future
iime simply, having no connection with any other event or
44 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
time. Thi8 tense is correctly used when future time is
simplj indicated.
Figure G, which consists of two lines connected, illus-
trates the Future-Perfect tense.
When two future events are connected in construction,
this tense is correctly used in the prior future of these
two ; as, John will have completed his task by the appointed
time.
This tense is called Future-Perfect, because the action
or event will be completed at or before the post future
event with which it is connected.
QUESTIONS.
What does the space inclnded by the ▼ertical lines, represent? What time
does the space on the left of the -vertical lines, represent? What does that;
on the right represent? What doea figure 2d represent ?
When is the Past tense correctly nsed ?
What is meant by the event?
The actual occurrence of the action, as expressed by
the word 7nade in the example.
What by psriod of time f
By period of time, is meant that portion of time in which
the event occurs; as, " Za«^ century'' in the example re-
ferred to.
Rem. — The Teacher may ask similar questions on the
rest of the Diagram.
LESSON XV.
OF NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS*
Are Nnmber and Person dependent or independent properties of the verb ?
They are dependent.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 45
Why?
Because the verb depends upon its nominative for these
properties.
In order, then, to know the number and person of the verb, to what must
you look ?
To its nominative.
In what tense, do the variations of the verb principally take place?
In the Present.
What are these terminations called ?
They arc called personal or verbal.
What terminations does a nominative of the second person, singular,
folcmn stylo, require the verb to assume ?
T", st, or est ; as, Thou ar^, thou lovcs^, thou walkesf.
Does the nominative you of the second person, singular, familiar style,
reqnire the verb to assume the same terminntions?
It does not ; for the verb generally assumes the root or
plural form ; as, John, where are you ?
Does the verb ever assume the singular form in such instances ?
Yes ; some good writers use a verb of the singular form,
in the Past tense with such a nominative; as, "Witness,
where was you standing during the transaction."
What terminations does a nominative of the tliird person, singular, famil-
iar style, require the verb to assume ?
*S^ or «;8 ; as, He walk«. She goes.
What terminations does the same nominative, solemn style, require ?
Th or eth ; as, *' The Lord lovef/i the gates of Zion."
'' He walkc^A through dry places."
What does a 2)lural nominative of any person require ?
It requires the verb to assume the root or 2?^w?'«? form ;
as. We love; you love; they love.
What effect does a nominative of the first person singular have?
It generally requires the verb to assume a similar form :
as, I love.
Rem. 1. — When an Auxiliary verb is employed, it is
always varied instead of the principal verb; as Thou canst
do It.
46 ^>- York's illuswi^itive and
/ Kem. 2. — A nominative of the^econd person, singular,
solemn style, requires a verb in ike past tense to vary ;
y* as, Thou walkedst, *
Rem, 3.— The solemn style is the style used in the Bible,
and the familiar style is that used in common conversation.
LESSON XVI.
OF CONJ\^GATION.
V/hat is meant by the Conjugation of a verb?
It is, literally speaking, yoking the verb with its nomi-
native throughout all its Modes, Tenses, and Voices.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.
Root. Be,
Principal Parts.
Present, vVm or be ; Past, AVas ; Perf. Participle, Been.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PliESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1st Person, I am. 1st Person, We are.
2d Person, jThouart, or 2d Person, i^eare.or
' I You are. ' ( You arc.
3d Person, He, she,_orit is. 3d Person, They are.
Past Tense.
Ist Person, I was. 1st Person, We were.
2(j t( j Thou wast, or <,^ ^ { Ye were, or
( You were. '^ ( You were.
3d " He was. 3d " They were.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 47
Perfect Tense. #/
1 I have been. 1 -Wc have been
2 \ Thou hast been, or o J Ye have been, or
I You have been. ^ \ You have been. '
3 He has or hath been. 3 They have been.
Pluperfect Tense.
i I had been, 1 We had been,
2 I Thou hadst been, or ^ (Ye had been, or
/You had been. ^ "j You had been.
3 lie had been. 3. They had been.
Future Tense.
1 I shall or will he, l We shall or will l.>e,
2 j Thou Shalt or wilt be, or „ j Ye shall or will be, or
^ I You shall or will bo. " ] You shall or will be,
o He shall or will be. 3 They shall or will be.
Futuke-Pekfect Tensf. t
- ^ shall or will have been, 1 We shall or will have been,
Clhoushalt or wilt have been, ^ j Ye shall or will have been, or
- -^ or You shall or will have -" ] You shall or will have been.
( been
3 He shall or will have been. 3 They shall or will have been.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Tensf.
IiuUeatlve or Common Form.'^^
SiN<a;i.AK. Plukal.
1 If 1 am. J If wc arc.
2 \^^ ^^^0^1 art, or ^^ j If ye are, or
/I^ you arc. - "/If you are.
0 It He is. 3 If they are.
Conjunctive Form or Elliptical Future.
i ^f ^ be. I If we be.
o Uf thou be, or ^ Uf ye be, or
( If you be. " ) If you be.
3 If he be. 3 If they be.
48 York's illustrative and
Past Tense.
Common Form. \
1 If I was. 1 If we were.
4^ ^If thou wast, or o ^ ^f je were, or
)lf you were. " ) If you were.
3 If he wa8. 8 If they were.
Hypothetical Form.
1 Were I, or if I were. 1 Were Ave, or if we wei'c.
2 ^Wert thou, or if thou wert, ^ pVere yo, or if ye were, or
/or Were you, or if you were. "^ ] Were you, or if you wore.
3 Were he, or if he were. 3 Were they, or if they were.
Perfect Tense.
1 If I have been. 1 If we have been.
c) 5 If thou hast been, or 2 ^ ^^ 3^ h^^Q been, or
/ If you have been. ) If you have been.
•3 If he hath or has been. ,, 3 If they have been.
Pluperfect Tense.
1 Ifl had been. 1 If we had been.
2 ^ If thou hadst been, or 9 5^^ J^ ^^^ been, or
) If you had been. *" } If you had been.
3 If he h?.d been. 3 If they had been.
Future Tense.
1 If I shall or will be. 1 If wc shall or will be.
0 ^If thou sh;dt or wilt be, or ^ ^If ye shall or will be, or
\ If you shall or will bt. " \ If you shall or will be.
3 If he shall or will be. 3 If they shall or will be.
Future-Perfect Tense.
1 If I shall or will have been. 1 If we shall or will have beer.
Clf thou shalt or wilt have Clf ye shall or will have been,
2 \ been, or 2 < or
( If you shall or will have been. ( If you shall or will have been
3 If he shall or will have been. 3 If they shall or will have bee'i.
• . CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 4i)
POTENTIAL MODE.
Indefinite Tense.— [Present.]
Singular. Plural.
1 T may, can, or must be. 1 We ma3\ can, or must be.
(Thou mayst, canst, or must cy j Ye may, can or must be, or
*2 < be, or ~' \ You may, can, or must be.
(You may, can, or must be. 3 They may, can, or must be,
3 lie may, can, or must be.
Indefinite Tense. — [Past.]
i I might, coulii, would, or should 1 We might, could, would, or
be. should be.
( Thoumightst, couldst, wouldst, f Ye might, could, would, or
^1 or shouldst be, or c) \ should be, or
J You might, could, would, or "^ You might, could, would, or
[^ should be. 1 should be.
o He might, could, would, or 3 They might, could, would, or
should be. should be.
Perfect Tense.
I I may, can, or must have been. 1 We may, can, or must liaw
'^ ''^ been.
{ Thou mayst, canst, or must
cy J have been, or <^
' Ye may, can, or must have
been, or
You may, can, or must, have "^ 1 You may, can, or must have
i been, I been.
.'} He ma}'-, can, or must have been. 3 They may, can, or must have
been.
J Pluperfect Tense.* — [Past Tense.]
! I might,^ould, would, or should 1 We might, could, would, or
have been. '^ /\ should have been.
' Thoumightst, couldst, wouldst T Ye might, could, would, 'tr
^ ♦ or shouldst have been, or ,^ | should have been, or
1 You might, could, would, or " ) You might, could, would, or
should have been. I should have been.
o lie might, could, would or should 3 They might, could, would, or
have been. should have been.
* This tense expresses nothing nioic than simply y>mt time; con-
^<;M]uently it is not embraced in the definition given of the Pluperfect
'.cnse. As things ought to be calle<l by their proper names, I wouM
f-uggef^t the proprietj' of calling this tense Fa^t.
50 York's illustrative and
«
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present* Tense. — [Futuuh.]
Singular. Plural.
^ , p j Be, or be thou, or ^y \ Be, or be ye or you, or
-d Fers. -j j)^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ -^ Y)o ye or you be.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present Tense, To be. Perfect Tense, To have been.
Pauiiciplbs.
Imperfect, Being. Perfect, Been.
Pluperfect, Having been.
LESSON XVII.
The Conjugation of the Regular, Transitive Verb,
To Love — in the Active Voice.
Root, Lox>e.
Principal Parts, Love, loved, loved.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular.
Ist Peraon. I love.
2d " Thou lovest, or you love.
3d " He loveth or loves.
* This tense is generally called Present, though, strictly speaixing,
it is Future; since, if the event were actually occurring at the tune
of command, it would supersede the necessity of it.
constructive grammar, 51
Past Tense.
1st Person
2d *'
3d
I loved.
Thou lovedst or you loved.
He loved.
Perfect Tense.
1st
2d
3d
I have loved.
Thou hast loved, or you have loved,
He hath or has loved.
Pluperfect Tense.
1st
2d
3d
a
a
I had loved.
Thou hadst loved, or you had loved
He had loved.
Future Tense.
1st
2d
3d
u
a
a
I shall or will love.
Thou shalt or wilt love, or you shall
love.
He shall or will love.
Future-Perfect.
Ist " I shall or will have loved.
2d " Thou shalt or wilt have loved, or you
shall or will have loved.
3d " He shall or will have loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Comm<m or Indicative Form.
Singular.
1st " If I love.
2d " If thou lovest, or you love.
3d • " If he loveth or loves.
02
york s illustrative and
Past Tense.
1st Ferson If I loved.
2d ** ! If thou lovedst or you loved.
3d *' If lie loved.
Perfect Tense.
1st " If I have loved.
2dJ " [If thou hast loved, or you have loved.
3dj " If he hath or has loved.
Pluperfect Tense.
If I had loved.
If thou hadst loved, or you had loved.
If he had loved.
Future Tense.
If I shall or will love.
If thou shalt or wilt love, or if you will love.
If he shall or will love.
Future-Perfect Tense. ]
If I shall or will have loved.
If thou shalt or wilt have loved, or you shall
or will have loved.
3d " If he shall or will have loved.
POTENTIAL MODE.
Indefinite Tense.. — [Present.]
Singular.
1 I may, can, or must love.
cy j Thou mayst, canst, or must love, or
( You may, can, or must love.
3 Tie may, can, or must love.
1st
a
2d
:(
3d
i:
1st
a
2d
u
3d
u
1st
u
2d
a
constructive grammar. ^ ^\
Indefinite Tense, — [Past.] •
1 I might, couid, would or should love.
2 f Thou mightst, couldst, wouMst, or shou'dat love, or
\ You might, could, would, or should love.
3 He might, could, would, or should love.
Perfect Tense.
1 1 may, can, or must have loved.
a ( Thou mayst, canst, ar must have loved, or
\ Yo-u may, can, or must have loved.
S He may, can, or must have loved.
Pluperfect Tense.
1 I might, could, would, or should have loved.
2 f Thou mightst, couldst, wouKLst, or shouldst have loved.
\ You might, could, would, or should have lo/ed.
3 He might, could, would, or should have loved.
IMPERITIVE MODE.
Present Tense. — [Future.]]
2 r Love or love thou or you, or
^ \ Do thou or you love.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present Tense, To love. Perfect Tense, To have loved.
Participles.
Imperfect, Loving. Perfect, Loved.
Pluperfect, Having loved.
Rem. 1. — Since the verb undergoes no variation to agret
with a nominative in the plural, the plural number haK
been omitted in the above conjugation.
Rem. 2. — The Passive voice is formed throughout »)l
S4 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
iho Modes and Tenses, by prefixing the variations of the
verb To Be to the Perfect Parfieiple of a Transitive verb ;
&s, 1 love, Active ; I am loved. Passive Voice.
LESSON XVIII.
Formation of the Tenses.
Tlic Root of the verb, as found in the Infinitive Present,
M its simplest form,
Hov? ia the Past Tease of Regular verbs in the Indicative and Subjunctive
Modes, form od ."
By annexing d or eti to the root ; as, Love, loved.
How is the Past of Irregular verbs formed ?
By varying the form of the root ; as, See, aatr.
How is the Perfect Tense formed ?
By prefixing hat/e or its variations to the Perfect Parti-
mplc ; as, Have loved, hadst loved, hath or has loved.
How ie the Pluperfect Tense formed /
By prefixing had to the Perfect Parti d pic ; us, Haii
love .
How is the Future farmed?
By prefixing shall oi- /'/A' u' th. root of tlie verb; as.
Shall or will love. SlVtill or will see.
How is tbt; Future- Perfect lormed? .nfiM o'i
By prefixing ^hall or v/ill hmr to the Perfect l*artici~
pic ; as, Shall or will have loved. Shall or will havt-
j»een. ,
Uuw is tho so called Present Potential [indefinite}, forinod ."
By prefixing ma^j van, or ^/iuat to the root of the verb :
as, in;iy, caii, or must love.
How is the Potential Past [Indefinite], as it is called, formed ?
By prefixing mighty could, loould, or should to the root ;
H<*, Mightj could, would, or should love.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR.
55
Rem. — Both of these tenses should be called Indefinite.
How is the Potential Perfect formed /
By prefixing may, can, or must have to the Perfect
Participle ; as, May, can, or must have loved.
How is the Potential Pluperfect [Past] formed t
Bj prefixing might, could^ would, or should have to the
Perfect Participle ; as Might, could, would, or should have
loved.
How is the Present InfiQitive formed f
By prefixing to to the Root ; as. To love.
How is the Perfect Ininitive formed f
By prefixing to have to the Perfect Participle ; as To
have loved.
LESSON XIX.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
Present.
Past.
Perfect Participle.
Abide
abode
abode
Am or Be
was
been
Awake
awoke, R,*
awaked
Bear, (to bring forth,)
bore
born
Bear, (to carry,)
bore
borne
Beat
beat
beaten, beat
Begin
began
begun
Bend
bent, R,
bent
Bereave
bereft, R,
bereff. li.
Beseech
besought
besought
Bid
bid, bade,
bidden, bid
Bind
bound
bound
Bite
bit
bitten, bit
Bleed
bled
bled
Blow
blew
blew
* Those verbs whose
Past tense and Perfect Parti.iple are followed
by li, have also a regul
lar form; as. Awake
or
awaked.
.56
YOEK .S ILLUSTRATIVE AHD
Pkesent.
Break
Breed
Brine
Build
Burn
Burst
Buy
Cast
Catch
Chide
Choose
Cleave, (to adhere,)
Cleave, (to split,)
Cling
Clothe
Come
Cost
Creep
Crow
Cut
Dare
Deal
Dig
Do
Draw
Dream
Drink
DriTe
Dwell
Eat
Fall
Feed
Feel
Fight
Fmd
Flee
Fling
Fly
Forsake
Freeze
Freight
Get
Gild
Gird
Give
Go
Grave
Grind
Grow
Past
broken
bred
brought
built, R,
burnt, R,
burst
bought
cast
caught, R,
chid
chose
cleaved
clove, cleft,
clung
clad, R,
came
cost
crept
crew, R,
cut
durst
dealt, R,
dug, R,
did
drew
dreamt, R,
drank
drove
dwelt
ate, eat,
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
fled
flung
flew
forsook
froze
freighted
got
gilt, R,
girt, R,
gave
went
graved
ground
grew ,
Pbrfect Particii'i.k.
broken
bred
brought
built
burnt, R,
burst
bought
cast
caught, R,
chidden, chid,
chosen
cleaved
cloven
clung
clad, Rf
come
cost
crept
crowed
cut
dared
dealt, R,
dug, R,
done
drawn
dreamt, R,
drunk, drank,
driven
dwelt
eaten
fallen
led
felt
fought
found
fled
flung
flown
forsaken
frozen
fraught, R,
got, gotten
gilt, R,
girt, R,
given
gone
graven, R,
ground
grown
Present.
Hang
Have
Hear
Hea^«e
Hew
Hide
Hit
Hold
Hurt
Keep
Kneel
Knit
Know
Lade
Lay •
Lead
Loave
Lend
Let
Lie, (to recline,)
Light
Load
Lose
Make
Mean
Met^t
Mow
Pay
Pen, (to enclose,)
Put
Qdit
Read
Rend
Rid
Ride
Ring
Rise
Rive
Run
Saw
Say
See
Seek
Seethe
Sell
Send
Set
Sit
Shake
Shape
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR.
Past.
Pkrfet Partici
hung
hung
had
had
heard
heard
hove, R,
hoven, R,
hewed
hewn
hid
hidden, hid,
hit
hit
held
held
hurt
hurt
kept
kept
knelt, R,
knelt, R,
knit, R,
knit, R,
knew
known
laded
laden
laid
kid
led
led
left
left
lent
lent
let
let
lay
lain
lit, R,
lit, R,
loaded
laden, R,
lost
lost
made
made
meant
meant
met
met
mowed
mown
paid
paid
pent, R,
pent, R,
put
put
quit, R,
quit, R,
read
read
rent
rent
rid
rid
rode
ridden
rang, rung,
rung
rose
risen
rived
riven
ran
run
sawed
sawn, R,
said
said
saw
seen
sought
soug 't
sod R,
sodden
sold
sold
sent
sent
set
set
sat
sat
shook
shaken
shaped
shapen, R,
67
(>8
TORK S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
Present.
Past.
Perfect PARTrciPLE^
Shave
shaded
shaven
Shear
she red
shorn
Shed
shed
shed
Shine
Rhone
shone
Shoe
shod
shod
Shoot
shot
shot
Show
showed
shown
Shred
shred
shred
Shrink
shrank,
shrunk,
shrunk
Shut
shut
shut
Sing
sang, stir g,
sung
Sink
sank, auiik.
sunk
Slay
slow,
slain
Sleep
slept
slept
Slide
slid
/slidden, slid
Sling
slung
slung
.Slink
slunk
slunk
Slit
slit
slit, R,
Smite
Rmote
smitten
Sow, (to scaSter,)
sowed
sown, R,
Speak
spoke
spokeh
Speed
sped
sped
Spell
spelt, R,
spelt, R,
Spenl
spent
spent
Spill
spilt, R,
spilt, R,
Spin
spun
spun
Spit
spit
spit
Spread
spread,
spread
Spring
sprang
sprung,
sprung
Stand
stood
stood
Steal
stole
stolen
Stick
stuck
stuck
String
strnnp^
strung
Stride
strode, si
trrd,
striudcn
Strike
struck
struei:, stricken,
Strive
stro"ye
striven
Strow, or strew,
strowed (
or strewed
strown, or s rewn
Swear
swore
sworn
Sweat
sweat
sweat
Sweep
swept
swept
Swell
swelled
swollen, R,
Swim
swam, swum.
swum
S^ing
swung
swung
Take
took
taken
Teach
taught
taught
Tell
told
told
Think
thought
thought
Tiirive
thr.ive
thriven
Thrust
thrust
thrusc
Ttirow
threw
thrown
CONSTRUCTIVE GKAMMAR,
5f»
Present*
Tread
Wax
Wear
Weave
Weep
Wet
Whet
Win
Wind
Work
Wring
Write
Past,
trod
waxed
wore
wove
wept
Wet, R,
whet, R,
won
wound
wrought, R,
wrung
wrote
Perfect Participle.
trodden, trod,
waxen, R,
worn
woven
wept
wet, R,
whet, R,
won
wound
wrought, R^
wrung
written.
MODEL.
"Jesus w«nt anto the Mottnt of 0 ives."
Went is an Irregubir Intransitive verb, of tlic Indicu-
tive Mode, Past tense, and of the third person, s'n^ular
aumbcr^ agreeing with its nominative tTesuHj according td
rule 6.
Why is tc€ut a terb ?
Because it asserts or affirms.
Why Irregular?
Because it forms its Past ^ense and Perfect Par*! iple,
by varying the form of the root.
Why Ititr..Dsitive?
Bccauvse it has no power to affect ah object.
Why in the Indicative Mode.'
Because it affirms positively and without limitation.
Why ia the Past Tonfe .'
Because the period of time in which the event oceUiTed,
is wholly past.
Why of tlio third f.ersT, singulnr.'
Because its nominailvo ^hsus is of tlie third p(MSOb,
singular.
<iO yoke's illustrative and
EXERCISES.
The sun shines upon the floor. Joseph went with hts
brother. Thomas has returned. James had lost his book-
before he left school. Those ladies will return soon. H«
will have completed his task by the time appointed. If
fienrj study, he will improve. If thou hadst been here,
he would not have gone. He may go, if he will return
to-morrow. I may have said it. The work might hav«
1)een done better. He would n-ot go. He went into tK«
field, to seek treasure. He ought to have ffone sooner. —
Obey my precepts, if you wish to learn. Take heed to
your ways. Walk not in the way of bad men. Keep your
heart with all diligence. Tarry not at the wine. He has
uo time to lose. Have they returned ? Can Mary attend
the wedding ? It is I ; be not afraid.
LESSON XX.
OF PARTICIPLE.
What is a Participle f
A participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes
*f the nature of a verb, and also, of an adjective, but de-
pends upon a noun or pronoun in construction.
How Jo I'lirticiples partake of the mature of tho verb?
Tlu , ]ii<e verbs, express action ; as, I see a man walk-
ing.
In V ,; .'■■ ."i^ecr, do tbey partake of the nature of adjectives ?
In ■'jnlting the noun or pronoun on which they depend.
Kor -fjince, in the sentence, "I see a man walking,"
waller :ff noi only expresses tlie action of man, but, also,
liuiit^3 inan like :in adjective.
Hovi- TJiany Participles have verbs?
Three, viz : Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect,
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 61
How ia the Imperfect Participle formed?
By annexing ing to the Root of the verb ; as, Love,
loving.
Hem. — when the verb ends in e, on receiving the suffix
ing, the e is dropped. (See Illustrative and Constructive
grammar, Rules for Spelling.)
Hhy is tbo Participle ending in ivg, called Imperfect?
'Because the action which it expresses, is unfinished.
How is the Perfect Participle formed ?
When derived from a regular verb, it is formed by an-
u-exing d or ed to the Root; as, Love, loved ; but, when
derived from an Irregular verb, it is formed by varying
the form of the Root ; as. See, ^een.
Why is this Participle called Perfect?
Because it denotes a, finished state of the action or ver-
bal denotement.
How 18 the Plupeifect Participle formed?
By prefixing having to the Perfect Participle ; as, seen,
having seen.
Why i- it called Pluperfect.
Because it denotes more than the Perfect.
Rem. — The Pluperfect Participle not only denotes a
finish'vi st.ito of the actiorj o;- verbal denotrmen , but,
also, :t6 completed before the time indicated by the princi-
pal veil) of the sentence, wiiii which it is as80ciat<d ; as,
■He haviny wrlUen a letter, tn.-Ml' d it. (For a full display
of the Particlp! ', see lllustra! c and Constructive Gram-
mar.)
MODEL.
The old fox lunrd the hunrer's horn sounding.
Soimdifuj is an Imperfect Participle, derived from the
verb to sound, and refers to horn, a<;cordiiig to Rule 18.
Why i- s'tHiiditig h Pirticiple?
B; ( :'Jise it is derivetl from a verb, and partakes of the
naturo of a verb aiid an adjcccive.
62 York's lllustrative ai^d
Wby is it Imperfect?
Because the action which it expresses, is uiA.Hnishcd, still
goin^ on.
Why is it said to refer to horn ?
Because it depends upon it in constiiiction.
EXERCISES.
I see an eagle flving. The hnntert, hc.ii^ young
dog biirking. James has coraplfited the task give^-« him.
The young ladies, having written the letter. dis)iatchcd it.
The stranger saw the desert thistle bending there its lonely
head. The General having completed the conquest, re-
turned in triumph. Jesus seeing the multitude, v.ent up
into a mountain. The house, erected on yonder rising
ground, drew mc from the road. I see a man beating \u^
horse.
LESSON XXL
PRONOUNS OR SUBSTITti
Whp,» ji H (*r>ir aifi ?
A Pr')?ioiHi is p, 'vord \yry\ instend .,. gene-
rally to avoid it.i rnpetj i .u ; as^ Hen.^ ^ . - 1 r ient,
and he learns very last.
Re' . — You perceive that //^, In this sentence, : ' jidsfor
the noun or name Jlcnry^ and, also, avoids its k pc lition,
thereby making language more concise and elegant.
How may Primouns be divided?
Into tv.a classes, viz: Personal and Relative, or Con'
nective.
How ar'. Personal jt nituns distinguished from the Relaliv© ?
Pers'Mial pronouns have a form to ohow their v,\\n per^
eon ; i.tclatives Lave not.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. GS
How many Personal pronouns are there ?
There are five, viz : /, tliou, or you^ he sJte^ ar]^ ?f, and
their plurals, We^ ye or you^ and they*
What belong to Pronoun8?
As Pronouns stand for nouns, they must have the camc
properties, viz: Gender, Person, Number, and Car-e.
Which of the Pronouns are varied to express Gend r?
Those of the third person, singular, viz: lie. mascu-
line ; She^ feminine, and It^ neuter.
Why are not Pronounn of the first and second persona, varie.i o cxpre.oH
Gander?
Because the speaker and person addressed, are supposed
to be present; constq lently their (leruler known ; i'ut, af»
tlie third portion may be absent or unknown to tii(: person
addressed, it is varied to express gender.
II')W many Persons hnvo prontuns?
Three; first, second, and third; J and we a t per-
son, thoxi or you. and ye or you are sccon I, and hc.^ S/w^ it,
and they^ third.
Whi.t does the person (<f Pro'PUTis i'f»pres«>nt; or denote ?
The first person denotes the speaker, the sec^'-d, the
person or thing spoken to or addrer>ed, aiv' ^he -id, the
persons or things spoken of or about.
LESSON.
OF I)i:CLi:NteION.
Do Pronouns have a f>rin fo rimw tl'cir cate ?
Most of them have.
Wr ii' if thi« Vitriiiti !. n ♦o<- \'.i show case, CAUrt) 7
It is called Declenaion.
What d>»-t< DerlenMon lunr ?
It means to bend from, i r., ilic I'o.-^c- .s. .«.. .)l»jec
tlvc cases jicne.-aliv li.ivc h/nn.i ditTcreiit !/.»!ii tin- ii.'iulua-
tive, as illustrated iu tin; i(»ii.)\Miig Uiagr.iDi ;
H4
TORK's ILLUSTRATIVE AND
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.
FIRST PERSON.
Possessive.
MY or MINE-
our-
NOMlNATIVE.
Singula?*.
1
Plural.
— "Nve —
Objective.
—ME,
-US.
SECOND
YOUR-
your —
SECOND
I
[thy or THINE—
lyour
PERSON, Famili
Singular.
YOU
Plural.
AK Style.
YOU
you
PERSON, Solemn
Singular.
'i'HOU
Plural.
— ye —
Style.
-you.
THIRD
HIS-
PEU80N — Masc
Singular.
— HE
uline.
Their-
HEU-
Their-
Phiral.
._Tli(.v—
THIRD PERSON — Femi
Singular.
SHE
-THEE,
-you.
-HIM,
THIRD
ITS
PIvral.
-Tlu.j-
Tliom.
NINE.
HER,
Them.
PERSON Neu'teh.
Singular.
:iT
iTheir-
Plural.
-They-
■IT,
— Tlicm.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 6o
By examining; the Diagram, it will be perceived that tb«
Nominative is written in the middle c >lumn, the Posses-
sive on the left, and the Objective on th ^ right. The Pos-
sessive and Objective cases are written it the ends of lines,
forming right angles with the middle co umn, showing that-
the most of them have a form, and all of them a meaning
different from the Nominative.
In declining, as exhibited in the Diagram, the pupils
will take it up in the following order : Nominative 1 ; Pa.s-
sive my or mine; Objective me, &c.
MODEL.
" Henry is a good student, and he learns very fast/*
He is a Personal Pronoun, Mascul ne Gender, third
person, singular, agreeing with its antecedent Henry,
according to rule 12, (repeat) ; and in the nominative cas/j
to the verb learns according to Rule 1. (Repeat Rule.)
Whj is he a Pronoua ?
Because it is used instead of a noun.
Why a Personal prcBoun?
Because it has a form to show its person.
Why of th© Masculine gender, third person, singular?
Because its antecedent Henry is.
Why in the Nominative case ?
Because it is the subject of the verb in its own member,
EXERCISES.
Mary walked with her sister. I saw a man walkiivg
with his brother. My friends visit me very often. Charles
has lost his knife. Thou liast seen my friend. Blot out
all mine ini((uitics. We leave your forests of beasts. You
are happy ; because you are good. I will fear no evil :
for tliou art with nie.
^6 York's illustrated and
LESSON XXIII.
OF RELATIVE OR CONXECTIVE PRONOUNS.
Wh-'t are Relative Pronouns 1
Thoj relate lo some word or phrase going before, called
the aiitecedent; as, The'boy who studies, will improve.
Do not many of the Personal pronouns, also, relate to antecedents 1
They do.
Then, in wiiat respect, do Relative prod^ns differ from Personal ?
They have no form to show their person, and they con-
nect clauses like connective adverbs ; and this is the rea-
son they are sometimes called Connective pronouns.
What vvords are used as Relatives f
Who, whiehy and that.
To what is toTio applied %
Who is applied to persons and rational beings ; as, The
boy who studies, will improve.
To what is which applied?
Wliich is now applied to brutes and things ; as, The bird
which sung so sweetly, has flown.
To what is that applied f
That is applied to any thing whether rational or irra-
tional, animate or inanimate; as, They that sow in tears,
shall reap in -joy. The things that 1 hate, ye do.
WLic'' of the Relatives are declinable f
Who and what, are sometimes called its compounds,
whoever^ whosoever, &c. ; as, Nominative Who, Possessive
Whose, Objective Whom.
Are w\ich and that declinable /
1. " are not, except whose is sometimes used as the
posbtosive case of which instead of the phrase " of which ;"
as, '' ^xiiQ fruit of that forbidden tree, tvhose mortal taste
brought death, &c," i. e., the mortal taste of which brought
death >
OONSTRU-CTIVE GRAMMAR. 67
LESSON XXIV.
OF WHOEVER, WHICHEVER, WHAT.
What :re sucli words as whoever, lohichever, and what generally called f
They are generally called Compound Relative Pro-
nouns.
Is this an appropriate name *
We think not ; since wJioever and whosoever refer, like
other Ilclatives, to some antecedent expressed or under-
stood, but generally understood, since their antecedents
are very indefinite ; as, *' whosoever will be a friend of the
world, is an enemy of God," i. e-, lie is an enemy of God,
whosoever will bo a friend of the world. And, as to ivhaty
2vhatev Tj and tvhiehever, they are specifying adjectives, or
substi- lues, belonging to some noun expressed or under-
stood ; as. I like what you dislike, i. e.y I like what thing
you dislike. Whatever is, is right, i. e, \_Whatever thing
(whicJi is), is right.] Eliza may take whichever pattern
pleases her best, i. e., [Eliza may take whichever pattern]
(which pleases her best), which being understood.
What ;\re those pronouns, used in asking questions, called?
The ' are generally Called Interrogative pronouns ; they
are Wi >, tvhat, and which,
Re'^ — Of these, who only is properly an Interrogative
pronoun ; since which and what belong to some noun, ex-
pressen or" understood ; as, lohich tvay shall I fly ? What
is that 't- i. e., what person or thing is that ? What book
iiave yoa?
Rje:/- i — Since Relative pronouns have no form to show
their ^<»ndcr,. person, and number, you must look to their
antpcc kats, in order to know these properties.
Rett. "2 — Tntorrogativcs are said to agree in case with
their yiusequent ; as. Who wrote that? John.
MODEL I.
The cy who studies his lessons, will improve.
6% York's illustrative and
Who is a Relative pronoun, of the masculine f^ender,
third person, singular, agreeing vith its antecedent 60^,
according to Rule 12, and nominative case to 8tudi:3y ac-
cording to Rule 1.
Why ia who a Pronoun ?
Because it is used instead of a noun.
Why tt Relative?
Because it not only relates to an anccdcnt, but It has no
form to show its Gender, Person, or Number.
EXERCISES.
The young lady who instructs me, labors faithfully. —
This is the tree which produces no fruit. T le^ that sow
in tears, shall reap in joy. The boy whom I ton-^h, learns
well. The hat which Henry lost, has been found.
MODEL 2.
I heard what was said.
What is a specifying adjective, and belongs t^ thiTig
"noeton" [understood]; or thus, lohat is b, suhstit te for
what thing y and in the objective case, governed by heard,
according to Rule 19.
Reji. — Which, in this and all similar constructions, ifi
noeton [understood]. The sentence, rendered plenary,^
will read thus, [1 heard what thing] {which was said.)
EXERCISES.
Henry took what he wanted. Mary took what Eliza
left. I heard what was alleged on both sides. Whatever
purifies the heart, also fortifies it. George may purstke
whatever science suits his taste. Whatever is true in sei »
once, is useful in the arts.
MODEL 3.
Who ai-t thou ? The minkter.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 69
Who is an Interrogative pronoun, agreeing in gender,
person, and number with its subsequent minister^ and is in
the nominative case, predicated of the subject thou^ accord-
ing to Rule 2.
Rem. — If the subsequent is not expressed, or the an-
swer to the question not given, the gender, person, and
number of the Interrogative cannot be determined.
EXERCISES.
Who hid John's hat ? With whom did you walk ? Who
wrote that ? Which route did he take ? What book have
you ? A Poem. What have I done .? What think ye of
Christ?
LESSON XXV,
OF THE ARTICLE.
What is an Arkicle '
An Article is a word prefixed to nouns, to limit the e%^
tent of their signification ; as, Thou art the man.
How many Articlos are there ?
Two, A or an and The,
What ifl The called ?
It is called the Definite article, and belongs to nouns of
'both numbers.
What is A or An called f
A or An is called the Indefinite urtlcle, and belongs to
nouns of the lingular number.
When fihould an he used ?
It should be used before words commencing with a vowel
^oiind, and, also, before words commencing with A, when the
accent is on the second syllable ; as, An acorn; an hour:
tan historic account,
6
70 York's illustrative and
Rem. — Though h is used in the -word liour^ yet it has^
no sound ; consequently the first sound is a vowel sound.
When should A be used .'
It should be used before all words commencing Tvith a
consonant sound, except those commencing with /*, accented:
on the second syllable ; as, A man. A useful book.
Rem. — Though the word useful commences with the
Towel w, yet the first sound heard, is that of the conso--
nant y.
Since the Article belongs to nouns, might it aot bd called a Specifying
Adjective ?
It might be so called ; and those who prefer parsing it
ai such, are sustained by good authority.
Do Articles belong to any other words besides nouns?
In some peculiar constructions, the definite article is
said to belong to adverbs and adjectives in the compara-.
tive and superlative degrees ; as, The more I examine it,
the better \Yi\lq it. The deeioer the well, the colder^ the
water.
Rem.— ^jT^e, in such constructions,. is not, philosophi-
cally speaking, an article, but an adverb or secondary adr-
jective. (3ce Illustrative and Constructive Grammar.) .
MOOTL.
Solomon was a wise man.
A is the liidefiJiite Article, and belongs to the noun^
man^ according to Bale 13.
^liy ifl a an Article ?
Because it limits a noun..
Why is it the Indefinite Article ?^
Because it limits the noun with respect to number, or
points it out indefinitely.
Why is a used in this example, instead of an ?
Because it is placed before a word commenoiiig with &i
ctnsonant sound.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. Tl
EXERCISES.
Washington was a man of prudence. The boy learns
well. The girl has a useful book. That book is a Poem.
He is fond of an English author. The day glides sweetly.
She is a beautiful lady.
LESSON XXVI,
OF ADJECTIVBS OR ATTRIBUTES.
What is an Adjective/
An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, to-
express its quality, or limit its meaning ; as, A good man.
That book.
Into how many classes, then, may Adjectives be divided /
They may be divided intatwo^ viz : Qualifying and Spec-
ifying.
What are Qualifying Adjectives?'
Qualifying Adjectives expijess the quality of the nouna
o<r pronouns to which they a.re joined ; as. Young.; ladies.
Tali trees.
Do Qualifying Adjectives limit the meaning of noans as well as express
ftheir quality ?
They do ; fof yjomig aad tall^ in the above examples,
limit ladu^ and trees to a less number than simply ladies.
and trees / since all ladies are not youngs nor are all trees
tall. (See Illustrative and Constructive Grammar.)
Are Adjectives varied?
They are varied only to express the degrees of compar-
ison.
How manj ]Qteg^rej8 of Comparison m9 tb- re ?
Adjectives generally have three Degrees of Comparison^
Yiz : Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
What does the Positive degree exprwi ?
It expresses an indirect comparison ; as, when we say
72 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
"that man is tall," we can only know this by comparing
him with the general height of men, and finding that he
exceeds it. ^
"What does tbe Comparative degree express?
It expresses a direct comparison between ttvo objects or
classes of objects ; as, James is taller than Henry. Eve
-^^^ fairer than any of her daughters.
What does the Superlative express 1
It expresses a direct comparison of several objects ; asj
That is the tallest tree in the forest.
LESSON XXVII.
PORMATION OP THE DEGREES.
How are the Comparative and Superlative degrees of Monosyllabic ad.,
jwtives generally formed ?
They are formed by annexing r or er to the Positive, to
form the Comparative, and st or est to the Positive, to
form the Superlative ; as, Positive, wise : Com. wiser ;
Sup. wisest,
I>» any other adjectires admit «f these terminations ?
Yes, such dissyllahio adjectives as end in y or ?<?, and,
also, such as have the accent on the second syllable, admit
similar terminations; as, Holy, holier, hoYiest, Abl6,
abler, ablest. Polite, polii^r, polite^.
How are other adjectives generally compared ?
By prefixing more and most^ less and least to the Posi-
tive ; as, Beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. Beau-
tiful, lest beautiful, and least beautiful.
Do adjectives ever admit of more than three degrees of comparison?
Such adjectives as are expressive of color and taste,
generally admit of four degrees ; viz : Imperfect^ Positive,
Comparative^ and Superlative \ as. Imperfect, Brozvnish,
brown, browner, brownest.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 73
Rem. — The Imperfect degree expresses a degree of
quality inferior to the Positive.
The Degrees of Comparison are illustrated by the fol-
lowing Diagram.
Figure 1 illustrates the increase of the Positive, or Com-
parison ascending ; as, Positive, Wise ; Comparative, wiser ;
Superlative, wisest.
Figure 2 illustrates diminution of the Positive, or Com-
parison descending ; as, P. Wise ; C. less wise ; S. least
wise^
Figure 3 illustrates the comparison of such adjectives
m have four degrees ; as Imperfect, Greenish ; P. green ;
C. greener ; S. greenest.
It will be perceived by inspecting the Diagram, that the
Superlative expresses the highest or lowest degree of
quality ; the lines S**** S, in Figures 1 and 2, make
these extremes.
Rem. 1 — Some adjectives are Secondare/ or Helping^
and qualify other adjectives ; as. Pale red lining. A very
old man.
Rem. 2 — Some adjectives are irregular in forming the
degrees of comparison ; as, Good, better^ best.
MODEL.
A prudent man foresee th the evil.
Prudent is a Qualifying Adjective, in the Positire de-
74 tork's illustrative aiicd
gree, and belongs to man, according to Rule 15. Com-
pared, Positive prudent, Com. mote prudent, Sup. most
prudent
Why is prucUnt an Adjective ?
Because it is a-dded to a noisti,
Vihj Qualifying?
Because it expresses the quaUty of the noun man to
"which it is attached.
"Wby in the Positive degree?
Because it expresstjs an indirect comparison.
EXERCISES^
[You Doay now pfterse and compare all the adjectives hx the following sen*-
teBCf, 88 exhibited in the above Model.]
Washington Tivas a prudent man. A good man is a great
man. Solomon "was the wiset man. 0\d age should be
respected. Martha is more beautiful than her sister. Pe-
ter is taller thati James. He bought a piece of dark brown
^loth. A very industrious man acquires property, A
very good pon writes well.
• c
LESSON XXVIII.
«P1^IFYING OR LIMITING ADJECTIVES.
How do Specifying Adjectives point out nouns ?
They poitit out notm-s by some distinct specification, but
do not express quality-; as, Etery man. Some womeo-
Do Specifying Adjectives ever belong to nouns ?
They do-, though not frequently-; as, "A good undor-
standing have alH they that fear the Lord."
Are Specifying Adjectives ever used as Substi-tiates •?
They are frequently so used ; as, Ho oame unto his own,
but his own received him not, L e. he came unto his oiun
nation, &c.
CONStRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 76
Into how many classes may Specifying Adjectives be divided.'
Into seven ; viz :
1st. Distributive ; as, Each^ every ^ either^ neither*
•2d. Demonstrative ; as, This^ that, these, those, yonder,
3d. Indefinite ; as, All, such, some,
'4th. Interrogative ; as, What, ivhich,
5th. Numeral; as, One, two, twenty, &c.
■6th. Ordinal; as, First,^^econd, third, ke,
7th. Circumstantial ; as. An Arabian horse. A desert
'whistle, &c. (See Illustrative and Constructive Grammar.)
MODEL.
'^''&ery man helps a little."
Every is a Specifying AiijettivOp and belongs to man,
^according to Rule 15.
Why is every an Adjective ?
Because it is addeh] to a noun.
"Why Specifjritig or limiting ?
Because it limits the meaning of the "noun without ex-
'.pressing quality.
EXERCISES.
Some men are not wise. All men are mortal. Each
individual fills a space in creation. Three ladies walked
into the garden. Adam was the first man. Those young
ladies are handsome. This man is unhappy. That day
was hot. All great 'men are Jiot wise. Some men labor,
others do not. AllWe, like sheep, have gone astray. He
has an Arabian horse. Demosthenes was an AtheniaCft
^Orator. Jefferson was an Amerioan citizen.
iLESSON XXIX.
AD^fiRBS 'OR MODIFIERS,
'^ititis dn Aiivefb, or Modifier .?
An adverb is a 'Syor^ ^9e^ to modify the meaning of
T^ YORK'S ILLDTSTliATIVE AND
verbs, participles, adjectives or other adverbs ; as, She
walks gracefully/. I see a cloud moving slowly. A very
good pen writes extremely tvell.
Rem. — It would be better, perhaps, to call those Ad-
verbs which modify Adjectives, Secoyidary or Helping Ad-
jectives ; since they limits nouns or pronouns indirectly
through the medium of the Adjectives which they limit
directly. We would,^also, suggest the propriety of call-
ing such Adverbs as modify other Adverbs, Secondary or
Helping Adverbs,
Into how many classes, may Adrerbs be divided ?
Though Adverbs express a great variety of meaning and
shades of meaning, yet the principal Adverbs may be in-
cluded in four classes ; viz : Time, place, cawse^ and' man-
ner.
To what questions, do Adverbs of placs answer ?
To the questions where, wJiither, whence; as^ Where,
there, above, &c.
To what questions, do Adverbs of time answer ?
To the questions when, how long, how often ; as. Then,
yesterday, often, &c.
To what questions, do Adverbs of cause answer?
They answer to the questions why, wherefore ; as, W%,
ivheref^re, therefore, kc.
To what question, do Adverbs of manner answer?
They answer to the question hoiv ; as, Elegantly, faith^
fully, fairly, &c.
MODEL.
The day glides sweetly.
Sweetly is an Adverb, and modifies the verb glides, ac-
cording to Kule 25.
Why is Sweetly an adverb ?
Because it modifies the meaning of the verb glides.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 77
la modifying the moaning of the verb glides, what does it point out ?
It points out the manner of its action.
To what class, then, does it belong ?
It belongs to the class of Manner,
EXERCISES.
The river flows rapidly. The bird flies swiftly. He is
thei*«. Where is Thomas ? Why do you delay ? ^ The
lowering clouds move slowly. We shall get the mail to-
morrow. When shall I hear from you? He is not at
home. The weather is very cold. She writes exceedingly
well. Surely he will return soon..
LESSON XXX. AAA,
OP PREPOSITIONS.
"What is a Preposition ?
A Prejjositwn is a word used to connect words, and
show the relation between them; as, He went to New
York.
Rem. — To, in this sentence, connects tvent and Neio
York, and it, also, shows the relation which Neiv York
bears to tvent. The connective quality will readily be per-
ceived by omitting the preposition ; thus, He went New
York. Here the total want of connection is obvious.
Since Prepositions connect words, and ahow the relation between them,
how many terms must every Preposition have ?
Two, viz : Antecedent and Subsequent,
How would >ou define the A^Uecedent term ?
The Antecedent tQYm is so called, because \i precedes the
Preposition in the natural order of construction.
What ia the SuheeqHcnt term ?
The subsequent term folknvs the Preposition in the nata-
rftl order of construction.
*1% York's iLLusTRAirv^E and
Wbaf parts of speech may b© used as the Antecedent term?
A noun or pronoun, verb, participle, adjective, and erea
an adverb.
What may be used as the Subeequent ?
A noun, pronoun, participle, cr -^art of a sentcMCe.
Rem. — When a Participle is tised as a Subsequent term
of a Preposition, it partakes of the meaning of a noun,
and is frequently called by .grammarians a Participial
jioun ; as. He earns a livelihood by tvriting.
In what case, is the Subsequent term of every Preposition?
It is in the objective case, and governed by the Preposi-
tion.
In order to ascertain what words are connected bv Pre-
positions, you must make the sense your guide, — guided
\j this, you will generally be able to determine what words
are Prepositions, and what they connect, without tlie aid
■of a List of Prepositions.
MODEL.
Lot fled with his two daughters, /rom Sodom to ih^
•^nountains.
-From is a Preposition, and coik'nects .jied and Sodom^
and shows the relation between them, according to Rule
XXX.
Rem. — wall and <to, in the above example, are, also,
^^repositions, having the same Antecedent i^rm^fled ; hence
it will be perceived 'that several ^^repositions may have tb^
tjame Antecedent term.
Why is from a Preposition?
Because it connects "words, and shoiys the relatioia be-
tween them.
iEXERCISES.
There -was a marriage in Cana of '(jralilee. The sun
•chines through the window upon the floor. Birds fly in
the air, A green, nan'olv vak a,p,peared 'before us ; its
CO!sSl?RUCTIVJS GRAMMAR, T?^
nrinSing stream murmured through the grcvc ; the darlc
"hosts of Rothmar stood on its banks, with their glittering
■spears. She sits at the window. Her ways are ways of
pleass;iitness.
LESSON XXXL
OlF CONJUNCTrONS O'E CONNECTIVES.
What is a Conjunction, or Connective ?
A Con^Undtion is a word, I'scd to connect phrases and
'clauses of sentences, and, also, words of the same con-
struction, thereby enabling the speaker or writer to con-
tinue discourse at pleasure ; as, Wheat grows in the field,
'and men reap it. Martha and Mary were sisters.
Are Conjunctions ever used after a fall point, or period?
They are sometimes ; therel^y manifesting some relation
between sentences in the general tenor of discourse.
IIow are Cocjunctions generally divided?
They are generally divided into "Ccpulative and Disjunc-
tive.
Is this division important ?
It is not ; but -is, perhaps, worse than useless. (Sec
Illustrative and Oo'nstructive Grammar; also, Dr. Web-
ster's Improved Grammar.)
Name the principal Conjunctions, used in connecting discourse?
They are ani^ hut, or^ nor, yet, than, if, though, Ust, im-
'less, &c.
(For the classification of Connectives, see Elements of
sentences, P«-rt First.)
MODEL.
'Ood creaJted the heavens aiid the earth.
And is a Conjunction, and connects heavens and earthy
•a^ccording to Rulo 22,
80 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
Rem. — In parsing Conjunctions which connect phrases
and clauses, no rule need be applied.
EXERCISES.
Claj and Webster were distinguished Senators. Time
slept on flowers, and lent his glasses to hope. The wicked
is driven away in his wickedness ; but the righteous hath
hope in his death. Mary and Eliza play. James will im-
prove, if he study. Obey my precepts, unless you wish
to injure yourselves. Ignorance or negligence has caused
this mistake.
LESSON XXXI.
OF INTERJECTIONS OR EXCLAMATIONS.
Whan is an Exclamation [Interjection] ?
An JExclamation is any sudden expression of joy, grief,
disgust, calling, &c.; as, 0 joyful sound of gospel grace!
Alas ! I fear for life ! Turn from your evil ways, 0 houw
of Israel! &c.
Rem. 1 — Considering the etymological import of the
term Interjection, it will, perhaps, be conceded by all that
the name is inappropriate ; since but comparatively few of
the words called Interjections, are thrown between the parts
of a sentence ; the terra Exclamation is, therefore, to be
preferred. This is recommended by Dr. Webster and other
able philologists.
Rem. 2 — Since Exclamations have no dependent con-
struction, they can have no government, nor scarcely can
they be said to belong to written language.
MODEL.
Ala8 I and did my Saviour bleed ?
Alas is an Exclamation [Interjection] ; it is an expres-
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 81
sion of grief; it has no dependent construction in the sen-
tence, according to Rule XXXI.
EXERCISES.
Oh ! what a fall was there. Lo ! from their seats, the
mountains leap. Alas ! I fear for life. Ah ! whither shall
I fly ? What ! take my money, and my life too ! Eie !
how angry he is.
LESSON XXXIIL
OF THE CASES INDEPENDENT, ABSOLUTE, AND APPOSITION.
When is a noun or prononn said t» be in tho Nominative case Inde-
pendent ?
It is said to be in the Case Independent when directly
addressed ; as, James, I desire you to study.
When Is a noun or pronoun said to be in the Nominative Case Absolute f
When a noun or pronoun is placed before a participle,
having no verb to agree with it, it is in the nominative
case Absolut© ; as, The sun having risen, we pursued our
journey.
When is a noun or pronoun said to be in Apposition !
When a noun or pronoun is appended to another noun
or pronoun for explanation or emphasis, it is said to be in
Apposition with it ; as, Paul, the great Apostle, was emi-
nent for his Christian zeal.
Rem. — As the case in Apposition must always agree in
case with the principal word, it must be construed in the
same member ; as, [Daniel Webster, the distinguished
Statesman and Orator, now reposes] (in the silent grave.)
MODEL I.
iBof/Sf study your lessons.
82* YORK'S I&iiUSTRAIlJffE AND
Boy% is a common noun, masculisue gender, second per*
son, plural, and is in the Nominaitive case Indiependent,,
according to Rule 27.
MODEL 2..
J being in great haste, he consentedl
J is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular,
and in the nominative case Absolute,. according to Rulo 28.
MODEL 3.
John, the beloved Disciple, -was banished.
Disciple is a common noun, of the masculine gendie^y.
third person, singular, and is in the nominative case^ put
by Apposition with J^hn, according to Rule 3.
EXERCISES.
Young man, you;ha,ve ruined yourself,, anji injured your-
friend. Horace, thou., learnest many lessons.. The Gene-
ral being slain, the army was routed. G]lie moon having,
risen, we resumed our march. The Butterfly, child of the-
summer, flutters in the sun. She descending, the ladder
fell. Make not my Father's house, a house of merchan-
dise. Ye fields of light, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely
fair^ proclaim your Maker's wondrous power.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES..
[You may now Apalyse, Construe, and Parae tho following sentenceu
^hich contain alL the Parts of speech; you may, also, assign the reason for
th« punctuation, and quote tho rules.]
Eliza went with Mary to the well for water. The AU
wise Creator bestowed, the power of speech upon nmn for
the best purpose. Pale Cyn^thia declining clips the hori-
zon. Man beholds the t;^vinkling stars adorning, night's,
blue a-rclu Rothmiar sunk benea;tih my sword. Thou who
GONSTRUCTIYE: ORAMMAK,. 8^
hast been a witijiess of the fact,, canst state- it. The raia
having ceased^ th^ dark clouds rolled away. Bjeneath the^
pale beams of the moon, the Indian lover sat, and, in
piteous tones, bewailed her sadi condition. If youth be
trifled away without improvement, manhood will be con-
temptible, and old age, miserable. The sun shines upon
all men who willl receive his rays which he sends, from the
heavens. John the Baptist came, preaching in the- wilder-
ness of Judea. Jesus depa^t'cd, and went into the garts ofT
Galilee.
Thero I shall bathe my weary soul
In seas of heavenly rest,
And not a wave of trouble roll
Across my peaceful breast.
We had heard the news before the messenger arrived. The
^ork might have been finished sooner. Susan may visit
her sister who lives in the country ; but Lucinda must re-
ma^n at home with her mother. Go ye into all the world,.
ai>d preach my Gospel to every creature.
Alas ! the jcys that fortune brings,
Are trifling, and decay;
And those who mind the paltry things,
More trifling still than they.
The value of the Christian faith, may be estimated from
the consolations which iitr affords. He leadeth me in the
paths of righteousness,. f-Or his name's sake. The eyes of"
a fool are in the ends of the earth. The good taste of the
present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation
of the English language. True cheerfulness makes a man
happy in himself, and promo4>e^ the happiness of all who
are around him..
Charles, you, by your diligence, have made easy work
of the task which was given you by your preceptor. Bo-
naparte being banished, peace was restored to Europe,
Boys, study your lessons closely, if you wish to. succeed.
Pavil, the great Apostle of the Gentles, suffered martyr
dom at Rome. Why seek ye the living among the dead ?
Canst thou expect, thou betrayer of innocence,, to- escape
tlic hand of vengeance ?
She makes the heavy heart to sing.
And cheers the wintry gloom.
Floats on the ppicy galea of spring,
A^d.makes all Nature blpoct.
84 York's illustrative and
Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of
heath ? The law was given by Moses ; but grace and trutJ
came by Jesus Christ. John, the Apostle, was banishet*
to the isle of Patmos.
Your friends may ^i«, and haste awaj
To that blest world of rest ;
But Marj's part, with you, will staj,
And ever make you blest.
LESSON XXXIV.
OF SYNTAX.
Of what <io«8 Syntax treat?
It treats of the construction of sentencea.
Do you remember what a sentence is ?
A sentence is such an assemblage of words as asserts a
fact.
What elements are necessary to asflsrt a fact/
' The Subject and Predicate ; as, The sun shines.
Upon what principles, are most of the rules of Syntax based ?
They are mostly based upon three principles, viz : Gov-
ernment, Agreement, or Concord, and Position.
In what does Government oonsiet?
Government is that power which one word has in direct-
ing the Mode, Tense, or Case of another word.
What is Agreement or Concord f
Concord is the agreement of one word with another in
^nder, person^ number^ and ease,
Wkat is Position ?
Position is the place which a word occupies in a sent-
ience.
CtiNSTRlQCTIVK GIUMMAR. §;">
LESSON XXXV,
RULES OF SYNTAX.
RULE I— The subject ^f the verb must he in the Domi-
uative case ; as, John writes,
_ RULE II— A noun cr pronoun, predicat-ed <^f die sub-
ject, must be m the nominative case: as, Tliou art Jie.—
Law IS a rule of action.
RULE III— A noiEn or pron^jum, used to identify another
noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the same case •
as, ^.olomon, the scm of David, wrote many proverbs.
^ RULE IV— A noun or pronoun in the possessive case,
IS governed by the word which it limits; as, John's book!
Jits beiyig aioay from Jwme, was the cause of great disan-
pomtment. - '
RULE V— The infinitive mode is governed by the word
which It limits ; as, They went to see him. She is earp^r
TO LEARN. I heard him say it.
RULE VI — The verb must agree with its nominritive in
number and person ; as, Thou seest. He ^fces, I see. Wo
see, &c.
RULE VII — Two or more nominatives in the singular,
connected by and, must liave verbs agreeinn witK them lu
the plural ; as, Cato and Plato zvere wise.
RULE Vni — Two or more nominatives in the siniTular,
connected by or or nor, must huve verbs agreeing with
them in the singular ; as John or James 2vas iH.
RULE IX— When a verb agrees with the Infinitive
mode or part of a sentence for its subject, it must be in
trie third person singular; as, To die for one's country, is
glorious. To study is profitable.
RULE X — A collective noun conveying idea of unity,
generally has a verb and pronoun agreeing with-it in tho
singular : as, The nation tvas once powerful, but now if is
feeble.
RULE XL — A collective noun conveying idea of plu-
86 York's illustrative and
rality^ generally has a verb and pronoun in the plural ; a?.
The committee were divided in their sentiments.
RULE XII— Pronouns agree witli their antecedents in
gender, number, and person ; as, John lost his knife. He
'vho studies, ^Yill improve.
RULE XTII — The indefinite article belongs to nouns in
the singular number ; as, A man. An hour.
RULE XIV. "^ — -The definite article belongs to nouns of
both numbers ; as, The man. The men.
RULE XV — Adjectives belong to nouns and pronouns:
as, A good man. She is lianchome.
RL LE XVI— Adjectives sometimes belong to the infin-
itive mode, part of a sentence, or a whole sentence ; as,
To see is pleasant. Agreeable to this, ivc read of nam f^
■ being blotted out of God's book.
Quality may be predicated of action ; hence
RULE X.VII — Adjectives are used to qualify the action
of verbs, and to express the qualities of things in connec-
tion ^vith the action by which they are produced ; as, Open
thine hand ivide. The eggs boil ha?\L The tree looks
green.
RULE XVIII— Participles refer to nouns and pro-
nouns ; as, Mary having written her letter, mailed it, I
see him walking.
RULE XIX — The object of a transitive verb in the
active voice, is put in the objective case; as, 1 saw IIIM
ivhom you met.
RULE XX — The object of a transitive participle is put
in the objective case; as, I saw a man beating his horse,
RULE XXI — The object of a preposition is put in the
objective case ; as, Henry went with me.
RULE XXII — Conjunctions connect words of the same
sort ; as, Johi and James. Good and bad, etc.
* This \s not important, since there is no possibility of violating it.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 87
RULE XXIII — A Conjunction connects nouns and pro-
nouns of the same case ; as, Ifenry and WilUam obey
their teacher,
RULE XXIV— 'Conjunctions generally connect verbs
^)f like modes and tenses; as. Kingdoms rine ^xidfall.
RULE XXV — Adverbs modify verbs, participles, ad-
jectives, and other adverbs : as, He writes hadly.
RULE XXVI — Euphony re<][uires that the sign to of
the infinitive should be omitted when construed with the
following verbs, viz : hid^ dare, fe-el, make^ let, hear, help,
.see, need, and their participles; as, Ke bid me t'ome. We
felt the earth tremble. I heard him speak, etc,
RULE XXVII — When an address is made, the name
of the person or thing addressed, is put mt]\Q. nominative'^''
case independent', as, rfames, I desire you to study.
RLTLE XXVIII — A noun or pronoun, placed before a
participle, and having no verb to agree with it, nor word
on which to depend, is put in the nominative ease ahsoluP' :
as, The sun having risen, we pursued our journey.
RULE XXIX — Some verbs in the imperative mode
have no nominative specified; as, ''God £aid, let there be
light, and there was light,
RULE XXX — Prepositions point out the relation be-
tween their antecedent and subsequent terms ; as, Henry
'Went to the eiti/ of N'ew York.
RULE XXXI. — Exclamations [Interjections] have no
dependent construction.
Rem. — The last throe rules mny be used in parsing, or they may
h^ omitted—just as it may suit the taste of teachers.
* It would be better, perhaps, to drop the word nominatire, aod aimply
fay " The case jMrfc^wWo/C."
88 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
LESSOR XXXYl,
vOB^RUL||, Oi: SYNTAX WITH NOTES ; AND SENTENCES TO BE
eORRECTEI?.
RULE I.— The subject of the verb must be in the nomi-
native case; aSy ^'- John writes."
Note 1. — The infinitive mode, or part of a sentence, or a whole
sentence, may be the subject of a verb; as, " To see\ is pleasant." —
'' To die for one^» coamtry^ is glorious." ,
Note 2. — When a pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must take
the subjective form ; as, "/, tliou, lie^ sJie^ ice, tliey, etc,
FALSE SYNTAX,
" Them told it.'^
Is this sentence correct f
It is not.
Why?
Them is used as the subject of the verb^ but has not the
subjective form. It should be, " They told it," according
to Rule 1.
EXERCISEB.
; [Correct the sentences under each rule, and parse the wordff corrected.]
Him Struck first. Her was not to blame. Them were
in fault. Who said it ? Me said it. Him is in the field.
Her is at home.
LESSON XXXVIL
RULES AND CGRKECTIONS CONTINUED.
IIULE II'- A noun or pronoun, predicated of the sub-
ject, must be in the nominative ease; as, '* Thou art he.'''
FALSE SYNTAX,
" John is him,'*
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 89
Is this sentence corract /
It is not.
Whjl
Hwi is predicated of the siibject Jolin^ but is not in the
r.ominative case, or has not the subjective form. It shouhl
be, ''John is 7^," according to rule 2.
EXERCISES. \
Is it f,^? I thought it >vas Mm, Mary was not her.
That boy is him. She said it was them. It was her that
told it. Ib it him with whom he is angry ?
RULE HI.— A noun or pronoun, used to ideni'^''
Another noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the "
<3ase ; as, " Cicero, the Orator,"'
FALSE SYNTAX.
''He took it to be ir
Is this sentence correct?
It is not.
State the reaaon.
/ is used to identify it., but is not in the eame case. It
■sho.uld be, ^' He took it to be me."
EXERCISES.
I believe it to be ^he. She mistook me to be he. We
adore the Divine Beings He who sustains all things. It
%vas John, him who preached repentance- I saw Mary, she
•:hat vou visited.
LESSON XXXVIIL
RULE IV.— A noun or pronoun in the possessive case,
is governe<l by the word which it limits ; as, " Johntf
book."
90 York's illustrative ani>
Note 1. — The possessire case of nouns should always be distin-
guished by an apostrophe.
Note 2. — Nouns, plurahzed by s, retain the apostrophe, rejecting
the additional »; as^ Those hoys^ books.
Note 3. — Any noun ending in a hissing sound, foliowed by another
commencing with a hissing sour.d, retains the apostrophe only ; a»
" Eighteoume^i sake."
FALSE SYNTAX.
" That girh book is on the table."
Is thiB sentence cwrect ?
It is not.
Point out what is frrongy aad correct.
Girh is in the possessive case, but not distinguished hj
the apostrophe. The apostrophe should be inserted be-
tween the I and s ; thus, That girVs book.
EXERCISES.
Those hoys books are cleaner than that ffirls book. The
boys hat is under the bed. Peters dog bit Johns finger.
The Lords day should be kept holy. He does it for con-
science sake.
RULE V. — The infinitive mode is governed by the word
which it limits ; as, "They went to see him."
LESSON XXXIX,
RULE VI. — A verb must agree with its nominative vh
number and person ; as, "Thou «e^8f." ''He «e^«." "I
see,'' " A'e see.'*
FALSE SYNTAX.
''llovethr
la thia sentence correct*
It is not ; for the verb lovetli has the termination of the
Ill
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 91^
third person singular, solemn style. It should be love to
agree with its nominanve I of the first person, singular
according to Rule VI. -^"guiar,
e.5:ercises.
He are at home. I is not well. Thou has come at last
ihe girls has returned. He hast three books. You has
a fine dress. The last week were very hot. She take
snun. 1 just shuts my eyes, and goes it.
RULE yiL— Two or more nominatives in tho singular
connected by and, must have verbs agreeing with them '
the plural; as, ^'Cato and Plato were wise."
FALSE SYNTAX.
" Henry and William has returned."
Is this sentence correct/
It is not ?
Why .?
The verb, has returned, has the singular form, but it h
two nominatives in the singular connected by and; it should
thcTefore be Henry and William h-^^ve returned, according
to Rule VIL ^
EXERCISES.
Martha and Mary was sisters. John and Peter loves
play. DayiJ and Jonathan was strongly attached to each
other. Eliza and her sister has gone into the country.
as
LESSON XL,
RULE VIII.— Two or more nominatives in the singular
connected by or or nor, must have verbs agreeing with
thcra m the singular ; as, " Jo^n or James ivas ill."
92 tork's illustkative awi>
FALSE SYN'TAX.
""^ James ©r Thomas have done thit* mischief."
How do you correct this sentence ?
It should he, James or Thomas has- done this mischiefs
Why ;
Because the verb mi^^st he singular to agree with it&
nominatives ia the singular, connected by or, according to
Eule YIII,
EXERCISES.
Either he &r she are to hlarii-e. Neither Henry nor Tho-
mas tver» m fault. Ignorance or bigotry were the cause of
this cruelty. Neither the miser nor the spendthrift are
happy,
HULE IX — -rWhen a ver!) agrees with the infinitive?
mode or part of a sentence for its subject, it must be of
the third person, singular; as, "To see^ is pleasant.'"
" To die f&r ones conntry^ ig g^wious."
FALSE SYNTAX.
^' To seek God, are wisdom.""
Is this sentence correct %
It is not.
State the reason.
The Terb ha& the plural form, whereas- it has pa^t of »
sentence for its subject ; it is, therefore, incorrect. It
should be. To seek God, is wisdom, according to Rule IX.
EXERCISES.
That the earth rs a sphere, are easily proved. To see
our friends, are pleasant. To publish slanderous words^
are wrong. To seek our own happiness by violating the
rights oi others, are contrary to the Golden Rule. To
learn, are pleasant.
COXSTIIUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 9o
RULE X---A collective noun conveying idea of unity,
generally has a verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the
singular ; as, '' That nation loas once powerful ; but now
it is feeble."
FALSE SYNTAX.
*' The council were unanimous."
Is this sentence correct?
It is not.
State the reason why it is not correct?
The nominative is a collective noun, conveying idea of
unity ; the verb, therefore, should be singular; thus, The
council ivas unanimous.
EXERCISES.
The society meet annually. The meeting ivere large.
The army were routed. Congress have adjourned.
RULE XI— A collective noun conveying idea of plu-
rality, generally has a verb and pronoun agreeing witli it
in the plural; as, "The council ivere divided in their sen-
timents."
FALSE SYNTAX.
'^ The committee was divided in its sentiments.'"
Say the committee were divided in tJteir sentiments.
Why should the verb and pronoun, in this sentence, be plural/
Because the noun committee conveys the idea of plu-
rality.
EXERCISES.
The people was divided in its sentiments, some adhering
to one taction, and some to another. The multitude pur-
sues pleasure as its chief good.
LESSON XLI.
RULE X//.— Pronouns agree with their antecedents in
94 York's illustrative and
gender, number, and person; as, "John lost his knife."
'' He ivho studies, will improve."
Note 1. — When the relative relates to antecedents of different per-
sons, it may agree with either ; but, when the agreement has been
determined, it must be continued throughout the sentence; as, " Thou
art the Lord, icJio didst choose Abraham, and didst bring him forth
out of Ur of the Chaldees."
Note 2. — When a pronoun relates to two or more antecedents in
the singular, connected by and,, it must be in the plural ; but, if its
antecedents are connected by or or 7ioi\ it must be in the singular.
FALSE SYNTAX.
" Every one must take care of tJiemselves,''
Say every one must take care of himself.
Why sboaid it be Idmselff
Because the antecedent one is singular, the pronoun
mu3t, also, be singular, according Rule XII.
EJCERCISES.
Every body is accountable for their own conduct. Every
tree bears fruit, according to his own kind. Speak to the
men, and say to him. The wheel killed another man who
is the sixth that has lost their life by this means. ,
RULE XfII-.-7-The indefinite article belongs to nouns
in the singular niilnber ; as, A man. An hour.
Note. — A should be used before words commencing with a conso-
nant sound, and An should be used before words commencing with
vowel sounds ; as, A book. An apple.
Rem. — It is more euphonious to use An before words commencing
with h when the accent is on the second syllable ; as, An historic
account.
EXERCISES.
The children have been playing a hour. I saw an man
walking. She is an beautiful lady. An horse is a noble
animal. A century is an hundred years. A honest man
is an great man.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 9-
LESSON XLII.
-RULE XIV — The definite article belongs to nouns of
both numbers; as, '' The man." *' The men."
HL^LE XV — Adjectives belong to nouns and pronouns ;
as, " A (food man." " She is heautifuV
Note 1. — Such specifying adjectives as are varied to express num-
ber, must agree in number with the nouns to which they belong ; as,
This, that, these, those.
'' These sort of goods is not fashionable. Say, This sort of goods
is not fashionable.
EXERCISES.
Those sort of favors does real injury. Those kind of
fruit is not good. Jam not pleased with these sort of ex-
pressions.
Note 2. — Specifying adjectives of the numeral kind, require nouns
to agree in number; as, One man. Ten men.
'' The wall is ihvGQfoot high." Say, The wall is ihTe^feet high.
EXERCISES.
llie pole is Usawty foot long. The sound is thirty mile
wide, and three fathom deep. The Ohio is one thousand
miles long. The room is thirty /oo^ long and twenty wide.
Note 3.— Double comparatives and superlatives should not be used ;
as, ''More better." ''Most extremest."
*♦ The most Higlicst hath created us for His own glory." Say. The
most II\gh hath created, &c.
EXERCISES.
I will show you a more better way. That is the most
tallest man /ever saw. He is worser than he was. That
is the most weakest argument I have ever heard.
NoTK 4. — When two objects are compared, the comparative decree
should be used ; and, when three or more, the superlative; as, Mary is
taller than her sister. Th?t is the taliest tree in the forest!
96 York's illustrative and
.^^incs is the tallest of the two. Say, James is the taller of the
EXERCISES.
He is the iviser of the three. This is the best of the
two ways. Henry is the strongest of the two. She is the
better of her class.
LESSON XLIII.
RULE XVL--Adjectives sometimes belong to the infini-
tive mode, part of a sentence, or a whole sentence ; as,
'^ To see, is pleasant." ^'Agreeable to this, we read of
names being blotted out of God's book."
Quality may be predicated of action ; as,
RULE XVII — Adjectives are used to qualify the ac-
tion ;of verbs, and to express the qualities of things in
connection with the action by which they are produced ;
as, " Open thine hand wide" "The trees look green."
— '^fS^ " FALSE SYNTAX.
"Still water runs deeply." .
la this sentence correct.^
It is not. It should be, still water runs deep, according
to Rule XVII.
EXERCISES.
The fields look^reshly and gayly. She looks coldly.
The clay burns w^hitely. The rose smells sweetly. Apples
boil softly.
RULE XVIII — Participles refer to nouns and pro-
nouns ; as, "/see him walking ." " Mary having tvritten
the letter, mailed it."
CONSTRUCTIVE CxRAMiVIAR. 97
LESSON XLIV.
RULE XIX— -The object of a transitive verb in the
active voice, is put in the objective case; as, " I saw Jdm
tvhom you met."
FALSE SYNTxVX.
" Who seost thou ?
li this sentence correct/
It is not.
St<ate the reason.
Who is the object oF the transitive verb seest m the
active voice; but has not the objective iovm) it is, there-
fore, incorrect, and should be, Whom seest thou '^ t
EXERCISES.
He and tkey we know. They who will not study, you
must correct. He that is studious, you should encourjio-e.
bhe that is negligent, reprove sharply. Whp does he revile.
He declare I unto you.
RULE XX~The object of a transitive$articiple, must
be m the objective case; as, ''I saw a man beating his
horsey
RULE XXI — The object of a preposition is put in the
objective case; as, " Henry went ivith me:'
FALSE SYNTAX.
" Who did you walk with?" *
Is this sentence correct?
It is not. ^
StAte the reason, and correct it.
Who is the object of the preposition with ; but has not
the objective form. It should be, With zvhom did you
walk ? according to rule XXI.
08 "YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE A XI)
ES
EXERCISES.
lie gave the fruit to /. Between /and you, there is a
jrrcat disparity of years. The teacher spoke to he and I.
With who, does he trifle ?
LESSON XLV.
,"" RULE XXII— Conjunctions connect words of the same
r sort; as, " Jo/m and James>'' (root^ and had.'' ^'- Grace-
fully and ra]pidly.''
I REM.----This rule should onl}^ be applied when conjunctions connect
^words.
RULE XXIII — Conjunctions connect nouns and pro-
nouns in the sa.me case ; as, " Henry and William obey
their teacher." "They assisted Mm and me. '' ' '^David's and
Jonathan s friendship."
FALSE SYNTAX.
Eim and I went. Say, Re and I went.
EXERCISES.
He and them have no dealings. He sent it to her and
I. She and me are cousins- Him and they are brothers.
He went with her and L Who will go ? lie and me.
RULE XXIV — Conjunctions generally connect verbs
of like modes and .tenses; as, " Kingdoms I'ise and fall.''
LESSON XLVL
RULE XXV — Adverbs modify verbs, participles, ad-
jectives, and other adverbs ; as, *' He writes welV
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMAL4JI. ,t^9
Note. — When manner is expressed, an adcerh should be etnployeri,
ftnd^not an adjective ; as, The birds sing sweetly She dances grace-
faiy Say, She dunces gracefully*
EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION.
Clouds are moving slow. That youiog ladj sings sweet.
The bell rings merry. Time flies, rapid. She cannot hear
good. Ho writes bad. That boy walks awkward.
Note 2.— Unnecessary negatives should be avoided; as, I f/(?/i'^
know nothing about it. Say, I know nothing about it, or .1 do not
know any thing about it.
FOR CORRECTION.
Ho never says nothing. He liairit <rot no more. He
don't do nothing. In our neighborhood, no body never
take no newspapers.
RULE XXVI — Euphony requires that the sign to of
the infinitive should be omitted v.'hen construed with the
following verbs, viz . hid, dare, feel, liclp, make, let, Jiear,
see, need, and their participles; as, ''He bid me come."
^' We felt the earth trevihle,'" etc.
Note. — When these verbs are used in the Passive voice, the sif n
is used; as, "He was often heard to say.''"'
FALSE SYNTAX.
Let him to go* Say, Let him go.
EXERCISES.
Bid him to depart. I felt the earth to shake. 1 heard
her to say. Help him to work. He need not to attend.
I saw the child to walk. He dare not to do it. Make th<>
man to work. fum--^
LESSON XLVII.
RULE XXVII — When an address is made, the h^.^\:
loo YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
of the person or thing addressed, is put in the nominative
case i7ide])endent ', as, ''James, I desire you to study."
RULE XXVIII — A noun or pronoun, placed before a
participle, and having no verb to agree with it, is put in
tlie nominative case absolute ; as " The sun havins: risen,
we pursued our journey.
FALSE SYNTAX.
Me being in great haste, he consented. Say, / being
in great haste, he consented.
EXERCISES.
Her descending, the ladder fell. It was said to me, him
being in company. It was said of them, him being present.
Her being in distress, the necessary aid was sent.
RULE XXIX — Some verbs in the imperative mode,
have no nominative specified ; as, " God said, let there be
li^ht, and there was lio-ht.''
RULE XXX — Prepositions point out the relations be-
tween their antecedent and subsequent terms ; as, " He
■went to the city of New York.'''
RULE XXXI — Interjections have no dependent con-
struction.
Rem. — The last three rules may be used in parsing, or they may be
omitted — -just as it may suit the taste of teachers.
TO BE CORRECTED BY THE "DIAGRAM OF TIME."
MODEL — "I finished my letter before the mail ar-
rived."
The verb finished is in the past tense, whereas it is used
in thes^zor of two 'past events ; the verb, therefore, is in-
correct ; it should be had finished in the pluperfect, accord-
ing to Figure 4 of the *' Diagram of Time."
EXERCISES.
We have studied our lessons yesterday. I never drank
bettor water. We came here to-day. Philosophers have
^OWfiTR'D'CTIVE Q'RATtt!flX1U 101
okade gr^at diso® verses last century. After I IhaTC <\uoted
the text, 5^o«. will see its a|*p feast i^a. After I visited Eu-
rope, I iiKtttTne<i to AraericiL. The thief escaped befoie
the g<&o(i« were missed. John wilil e^rapfkte his t«,sk hj
die uppciEte^. tieae. The W'©rld *vLll Ixa^i'a heen de&troyed
hy £re^
LE&SON XLVIJL
False Syntax PRO-AfTStruousLT Akrai^tgeb.
1 John Avritcs beautifuL I shall never do &o no moTC,
This is him wh© 1 ga*ve the "feo^k t©. Eliza always appears
amiafelj. That house is sixty foot lorsg. Wa-s yoti present
as the preeessiea ^aeeed. Re who they seel: is in the
SiousGo Her mother and her were aft th« celebration^ The
master i^(^uested him and I to ivead owr ©impositions more
distititetly.
2 Th«se sort of !^(^0ks are %ea«LtifaL Wh^t "does you
think of him row ? Thoit, Thomae, ehaU see these animals
of which yotE speak- Wih© went witk Mary Ub church ?
Me. Let es to pro^eeed. T<^ love God with all tliy h^eart
are a divide €<?niiniLaiiid. ifeither man Bor woffiLaa were
present.
S High hopes amd amfcitieus views is «, i^r^at enemy to
tranquility. Has you been well since I seen you last? I
iias- A too great variety of studies weakeci a^tid dissipate
the imind. He has went to town. He might have com-
pleted tke task sooner, but li« could not do it liettez'-
LESSON XLIX. •^
Of Colloquial Inaccuracies.
As Colloquial Inaccuracies are too numerous and varied
to be comprehended by any syntactical rules, however
8
102
YOKE S ILLUSTRATIVE ^ND
copious, we have thrown together some of the maceuracies^
and arranged the correct and incorrect expressions in par-
allel columns. Though these colloquial inaccurgpcies may
vary not only in different States, but, also, in different
sections of the same State, yet they may nearly all be
traced to three leading sources, viz : 1 Unwarrantable
Contraction 8. 2 Redundant words or Pleonastic expres-
sions^ and S Words hadly chomn to convey the sense in-
tended*
CLASS L
Unwarrantable Contractions.
Though some contractions are admissible in familiar
style, yet they should be carefully avoided in all grave or
solemn discourse.
Incokiiect, ■
1 aVrit well,
I JicuD^nt been out,
AVe wefrot there,
She'd heard of it,
I iis\l to know itj
Ih^e seen Vr,
I \'^po{ie ^tv:ill,
Lay ^eni on the table,
Gim me some bread,
A good'cel too short,
He Jiaint none,
You do'itt know 'zV;?,
JoliTbS got enough,
Caiit she 0:0?
COKRECT,
I am not well,
I have not been out,
We were >>ot there.
She had )irard of it,
I used to know,
I have seen her,
T suppose it will,
Lay them on the table,
Give me some V)read,
Very much too short,
He has none,
You do not knny/ him,
John has enough,
Can she not go ?
CLASS IL
Redundant Words, or Pleonastic Expkessioks.
Incof.kect. Cokkect.
I could not get to go,
^^ The. speaker rose w^;,
>, *. i H ^.J"el r'(!?oio u,
V^ IJ\? aoove, s
''•' Up over,
Down under,
He mentioned it over again,
I will repeat it again,
I couM not go,
The speaker rose.
He fell.
Above,
Over,
Under,
He mentioned it again,
I will repeat it,
iP
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR.
103
Incorrect.
They both met,
He cannot iaW for why.
Return hack imnjcdiately,
He went, but will soon come
Where shall I go fo?
He was in here,
We entered ihto-the case,
I am a going,
He is a walking, ^
Can you go ? 7o he sure,
Uye see that thar man ?
I\e done said it.
But 1x6 8 done done it,
How do you do ?
He has got enough,
Mary she went,
John lie said it,
Susan lier bonnet,
George his book.
Bring me them there quills,
This here book,
That there book,
Lool-y there,
Correct.
They met.
He cannot tell wh}^
Return immediately.
He went, but will soon return.
Where shall I go?
He was here.
Wo entered the cave,
I am going,
He is walking,
Can you go ? Surely,
Do you see that man ?
I have said it.
But he has done *',
How are you ?
He has enough,
Mary went,
John said it,
Susan's bonnet,
George's book.
Bring me those quills,
Thi« book.
That book,
Look there.
CLASS in.
Words Badly Chosen.
Incorrect.
I am dry.
Put out the candle,
Give me them books,
I reckon it will rain,
I guess it is enough,
I calculate to return,
You read right well.
She cannot hear good,
lam monstrous glad to see you.
He has a heap of money,
I want it hadly,
A greaV^ territory.
The Erricson is a big'^ ship,
Webster's large* mind,
Correct.
I am thirsty.
Extinguish the light.
Give me those books,
I think it will ram,
I think it is enough,
I intend (or purpose) to return.
You read very well.
She cannot hear well,
I am glad to see you,
He has much money,
I want it much,
A large territory,
The Erricson is a 1 rge ship,
Webster's great mind.
* Great is applicable to menial measurement, large to the measure-
ment of solid bodies, and hig to some unnatural increase or swelling.
'1P4
Y0RK*8 tLLUSTRATIVE AND
Incorkect.
He is to the store,
My mother learned me the let-
ters,
I want it right had,
It rains hardy
A hard battle,
A little hit a sentence,
I got up at 7 oclock,
I'll do as well as I lin,
yojCones ought to go,
Are yotts all well ?
You unzes can stay,
I I'noic'd it was him,
He is gwine home,
I 8€€ii her,
I hear 11 her,
I taken it to be him,
You had hetter go,
They,;?^ half an hour,
I allowed he had come,
He alloiced to me,
I admire at you,
3Ie and you think alike,
OucJi ! how it burns,
The storm hegun to subside,
YL^fotched it,
I 8ot out on my journey,
Let us walk out, and take the
fresh ar,
They air at home,
Crockett was a great har hun-
ter,
Thar he stands,
He chaws his own tobacco,
I can't mind it,
I will take some of those mo-
lasses,*
I am sceared of robbers,
I see him last Monday,
"Why did you not bring the
plow ? Because she was not
repaired.
Let the Sicertery record the
names.
COKRECT.
He is at the store,
My mother taught me the let-
ters,
I want it very much,
It rains fast,
A fierce battle,
A small sentence,
I rose at 7 oclock,
ril do as well as I can.
You ought to go.
Are you all well?
You can stay,
I knew it was he,
He is going home,
I saw her,
I heard her,
I took it to be him,
You would do better ^o go,
They fought half an hour,
I supposed he had come.
He suggested (or said) to me.
I wonder at you.
You and I think alike.
Oh ! how it burns.
The storm began to subside.
He brought it,
I set out on my journey,
Let us walk out and take the
fresh air,
They are at home,
Crockett was a great bear hun-
ter.
There he stands,
He chews his own tobacco,
I cannot recollect it,
I will take some of the (or that)
Molasses,
I am afraid of robbers,
I saw him last Monday,
Why did you not bring the
plow ? Because it was not
repaired.
Let the Secretary record the
names,
•Molasses is strictly singular, being the syrup which drains from
jscovado sugar while cooling.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 105^
Incorrect. Corkect.
T a.m puitfj nigh frozen, I am nearly frozen,
Pach the wheat off to mill, Take (or send) the wheat t^
mill,
Pack her off to church, Take (or conduct) her to
church.
LESSON L.
PUNCTUATION OR GNOMONOLOGY.
What is punctuation f
Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composi-
tion into sentences, clauses, and phrases, in order to make
the stops which the sense of the sentiment, its grammatical
construction, and an accurate pronunciation require.
What aro tho principal stops used to denote these pauses ?
They are the comma [,], the semicolon [;], the colon [:],
the period, or full full stop [.], the interrogation [?], the
exclamation [!], the parenthesis [()], and the dash [ — ].
• Into how many classes, may these gnomons, idices, or points be divided !
They may be divided into two classes, viz : such as sepa-
rate parts of a sentence, and those which separate entire
sentences. The former are the comma, semicolon, colon,
dash, and parenthesis. The latter are the period, the in-
terrogation, and exclamation points.
As the characters, used in punctuation, commonly called
stops, are mere grammatical, they are intended to point
out the sense of the construction, rather than to indicate
the length of time the reader or speaker should pause at
each point.
The Comma (,).
The comma is used to indicate the shortest pause ; it is,
also, used to denote the ellipsis of some words.
The principal uses of the comma are exhibited in the
following rules and remarks.
^^|t^
106 York's illusteatia^e and
RULE I — When the construction of a simple sentence
is interrupted by an adjunct, loosely thro-wn between its
parts, it must be separated by a comma before and after
it ; as, '• Law, in its most cotifincd sense, is a rule of human
action/' " Charity, like the sun, brightens every object
around it."
RL^LE II — When the grammatical subject of a propo-
sition is modified by a subordinate clause, or by an adjunct
considerably extended, the logical subject should be sepa-
rated from the predicate by a comma ; as, " The hail wJiiaJi
fell last 2veek, hii.d]j mjured the standing crops." "The
intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise
some of the noblest virtues of the human soul."
Rem. — If the modifying element is short, the comma may be
omitted; as, '"The end of all things is at hand."
RULE III — When, by transposition, the siih or inferior
member occupies the place of its super, it may be separa-
ted by a comma; as, ^' By doing good to others^ we secure
the approbation of our own conscience." ''''From one, they
flee."
RULE IV — The nominative case independent, and sever-
al of the interjections, are separated by commas, since
they are not elements of a sentence, — consequently not
closely connected; as, ^^ My son, give me thy heart." "iV
ymi will assist me, James, 1 will accompany you." "io,
from their seats, the mountains leap."
Rem. 1. — 'When the case independent is modified by an adjunct,
the comma shoultt' be phiced after it ; as, John of likhmoml^ como
forth.
Rem. 2. — When a pronoun is joined with a noun in making an ad"
dress, it should not be separated from the noun ; as, " Ye scenes di-
vineli/ fair, proclaim your Maker's wondrous power."
Rem. 8. — Those interjections which express a very stiong emotion
or feeling, are generally followed by an exclamation point; as, '''Ah f
whither shall I fly ?"
Rem. 4 — AVhen a conjunction introduces an eiCrtWjj/Z<?, or is separated
by some intervening words or phrases, from the member to which,
it belongs, it should be separated by a comma; as, Prepositions gov-
ern the objective case; as, "With him, I went." ''For, for this cause,
pay ye tribute also.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAxMMAR. 107
Rem, 5. — An adverb, or perhaps any other word, throu-n off from
the member to which it belongs, shouid be separated by a comma;
as,
" Stoirn ^orne on Time's most r;tp\<l v>'ing,
Sf(«li De&th eotnmand you to his b..r."
RE^f, Ci. — V\'o-rds of others rcpeat'C<l, but not as v^ notations, and also
words and phrases repeated for emphasis, should be separated by a
•comma or commas; as, "Thus shalt thouf,ay to the children of Israel,
'i AM katlitciit me nnto you.'''' *' J/appi/, lidf^pjiy^ h^PPVi pair/'
RULE V — The case abs<5liite with words (lcpendm<i; on
it, }3articiples and adjectives v-vith v/ords depending on them,
should be separate<l from the rest of th<e sentence by com*
mas; as, '''' EonaparU^ being banished, peace was restored
.to Europe." His talents, fanned for gr-cat enterprises,
•could not fjiil to render him conspicuous,
" J.v'?us, let fill t?jy lovers shine,
Illustrious as the hun,
And, hnc;ht tr'-'th. torrowed my diviitc^
Their glorious circuit ruE,"
Rex 1 — When st paTrticiple immediatcl}' ioUoviS thts v\-ord on which
9t depends, taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should be omitted
h^fore the participle;; as, " lie Icmrj ridkukd, left the mstitution."
Re:.^. 2 — When a participle, without an afl^nnct, is scparxtett from
the word on which it depends in construction, a comma is i:;encrally
uisertwJ before a n<i after it: ?ts, "And, v.'he« he was come near, he
beheld the city, an;.' wept over it, s>i'.}}iKr/, if thou hadst known, ct<'."
RULE yi — When the rcljitive is s<5 closclr connected
^,vith its antecedent^ that it v/ill not admit of transposition,
5t should not be separated from it by «, coujma ; as, '* Henry
n'^aw hats wkich he wanted."
Rem. 1 — The relative n<ay bo fcptrated by a comma, v.hen its ante-
cedent is used in a general sense ; jk. " Man v^h-' is bcr« of woman
!S of f«w days, and full of trouble."
Rf:3r. 2 — A comi«a should be placed before the relative when a word
■or phrase intervenes between it and its antecedent; as, "lie gave mc
thcp?Vc<? of ar. apple, trhich he (ound.""
Rem. ^ — When the relative dausc ts l>r<4;cn by the introduction ol
a sub-member, the relati»*c may be separated from its antec^^-dcnt by
?i comma; as, "An old clock, wnirn, /"'• t'n,; ni^np-, had stood in a
farmer's kitchen, suddenly stopped."
Rem. -i— When Uac relative cJanse is involved, and rca«Jily admits of
transposition^ the rel»ti79 may be separatect from its a-atecedcai: Ir »
eomraa; a», '^'"Tbe hSy^. w%9si heme 'mfe ^xcyjyy, beato'jrs many char-
ities."
Ke3». B—lr>^7xrh exan/phs as- the- l&sl,. ths- ctvwi'Sto- ^s fre.Tjuently
otnitited 5>efojre the relative^ n«r does the constyuetion really dcjMand
that the rjlatrre s&onld be wpayated from \t» aMeeecfent many case^
except as noticed in Hemscrln 2.
RULU yil — ^WfeeTY a ^7ijunctio?i rs mi^erstfj&i in con-
5iecting words in tkc sam^ e^ng'troetiQny hs plaet shcuU
he supj^lieci bj a ccfnn^a, sftd^. ako^. wbea the verb of 3
simple member ia ^7Kl*rstofl^d ;. as^. " He is a flain, honest
man." From 1-sia¥, arises scciarity ;. fjr^ia ^eeuritij, curiosity;;
from cvmontyy kno-wlealge^^'^ «tc,
RULE VIII— Three or mere -^sr^ls ©«c^rrii»g ia the
s-am.e ceostr taction, "with th«ir GSvivjuiiGtion. expyessed orinw
der&low'^, s^ouIjI all be separated bj co^masy except the-
)ast y as,. " Darid was a tra^e't, wwf^ fhyib9^ aia'd generous
man,""
OBSJSRTiSTlON-— Th«' yeasfcrm why -fehe last word is not?
separatedy is^ beeaus-e it >s ©ithei' is jmxta-p^siti*)?! with it&
super^ &r «l©s«s a &«Bteii«e^
RsM. 3— H tfc«T aye ii>€«i*inat3ve3-, vpri3e7» g®??e?»I3j separate th«3
5ast ailso*;. as, The hefsdr the /i«a-?'t^aB^t>b^3 Af«:*!??y^sH»«hlb« sonstantly
empioyed >» doing good*"
liB». 2- — Wbe» YfOT(h arc w^isiect^ :» p»3rs,^ ^he paiTS cwly should
be separated :, aa, '"' Int^rsst and a'i»t>l>ltiatiy, A<??wv and sharme^ friend-
ftJlip and gnmity,. gratitwii aiad yitm^ps, ay« th« pr3me snovers fii
public tranaacticina,"'
Rem. 3 — Words orphans, p!5»ce«la3>tith»ti€a>ly, sbo'oM be separate* 1
by Gona^snas -J, asj. "TFwD^gh d3e's>', ^t dear :, ih&@^h g-s-^tls, yet no i
dull:'
Rem. 4— When the conjunction ^r joi:<JS oa a -nord wh^^h expresst'
an akernatne e€ wo?d«, aad- nst oS kieas, jt sfeoukl b« fjcjkararted by ,
comma ;, ae-,. '* Be saw a krge l^r <^' 5^^^'."
Rem. 5 — When phrases are COTinected bj ronjuncli'^Bis,. they aro
yegulated by t!he saiae falsa »s si^igl? wordsi-^
RULE IX— Wh^T^ a^y ten-se of the verb " To Be" i
followed by a verb in the infinitive mode, which,, by tran^
position, may be m«id® the aomiaative case to-it, the former
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAiMMAR. 109
is generally separated from the latter verb by a comma ;
as, *' The best preservative of health is, to he temperate."
Rem, 1 — The infinitive mode absolute with words depending on it,
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma ; as,
" I'o correct the spirit of discontent^ let us consider how little we
deserve."
Rem. 2 — When the infinitive mode or a part of a sentence is used
as the subject of the verb, it is generally separated from it by a com-
ma; as, *' To die for one's country^ is glorious."
Rem. 3 — When a verb in the infinitive mode, is separated from the
word on which it depends in construction, a comma is generally placed
before it; as,
0, for a glance of heavenly day,
To TAKE this stubborn heart away.
»/
RULE X — Modifying words and phrases, as, however,
nay, lience, therefore, besides, in short, finally, formerly,
etc., are usually separated by commas ; as, " It is, however,
the task of criticism to establish principles."
RULE XI — The members of a compound sentence,
whether successive or involved, should be separated by
commas ; as, " The boy wounded the old bird, and stole
the young ones." ** Providence has, I think, displayed a
tenderness for mankind."
Rem. 1— Those modifying clauses which are joined on by j^uch
subordinate connectives as do not limit the verb in the preceding
clause, should be punctuated as co-ordinate clauses; as, " The hus-
bandman is happy, if he Jchows his advintagesy
Rem. 2 — In comparative sentences whose members are short, the
comma should not be used ; as, '* Wisdom is better t/um gold.^^
RULE XII — The case in apposition with its adjunct,
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by com-
mas; as, *' Paul, the great APOSTLE of the Gentiles, was
eminent for his Christian zeal."
Rem. — If the case in apposition is unaccompanied by any modify ii*
word or phrase, no comma should be use<l; as, "The patriarch Joscpt^
w»8 an illustrious example of true piety.''
110 York's xllustrativl: and
THE SEMICOLON,
The semicolon ( ; ) requires a longer pause than the com-
ma ; the proportion being as one to two.
The semicolon is placed between the clauses of a period
which are ]cs«^ closely connected than such as are separa-
ted by commas.
RULE I — When the first division completes a proposi-
tion, so IIS to have no dependence on what follows, but the
following clause has a dependence on the preceding, the
two parts are separated by a semicolon; aS;, "The one has
all that perfection requires, and more, but the excess may
be easily retrenched ; the other wants tlie qualities requisite
to excellence."
Hi:m. — In general, then, the semicolon se]);ijntes the divisions of a
Konlence, when the hitter division has « deitendencc on the former,
whether the former has a dependence on the latter or not.
RL'LE II — When several members of a sentence have
a dependence on each other, by means of a substitute tor
the same principal word, and the clauses, in other respects,
constitute direct propositions, the semicolon may be used ;
as, "Wisdom hath buiided her house; .s//e hath hew'n out
her seven pillars ; she hath killed her beasts ; ^he hath
mingled her wine ; she hath also furnished her table." — Pro-
verbs ix.
RLTLE III — A semicolon is generally used to separate
premises and conclusions ; as, ^' Man is mortal ; therefore
he must die." " Ccvsar deserved death ; /or he was a
tyrant."
RULE IV — The semicolon is generally used to separate
an example, introduced to illustrate a rule or proposition ;
as, The subject of a verb must be in the nominative case;
aSy WcLshington was President.''
Rem. — The above, with some variation, are the rules generally given
by punctuists, to direct the learner to a proper use of the semicolon.
tt vvill be seen, however, that the principles, on which the proper
application ol this point is based, arc found in the perception of a re-
scmdlance and contrast.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. Ill
When a new subject is introduced in the sub-mcinber, of which
something similar is predicated, to that of the super-member, the idea
is that of resemblance ; and the semicolon should be used to separate
the members ; as, *' As wood is to fire ; so is a contentious man to the
production of strife."
But, when a new subject is introduced in the sub-member, and of
which soiMcthin,!:;:; antitlietical is affirmed, to what is affirmed in the
super-member, the idea is tiuit of antithesis or contrast ; consequently
the members should be separated by a semicolon ; as, "The^fwe shall
inherit glory ; J>ut shame shall be the promotion oi' fools.''^ Hence
the following rule will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct the learner
to a proper application of this gnomon, or point.
RULE Y — When t'esemblance or contrast is affirmed in
the sub-i"nembor, the members should bo separated by a
semicolon ; as, "' Heaven is the region of gentleness and
friendship; but hell of fierceness and animosity." "The
wicked flee when no man pursucth ; hut the righteous arc
as bokl as a lion." '* Eliza is bcaiitilul ; and so is Marif.''
THE COLON.
The time generally given to tlic colon (: ) is double that
of tlie semicolon.
RL^LE I — When the things affirmed in the latter, or
sub-member, are adapted to the condition of tlie things
mentioned in the former, or super-member, tlie colon may
boused to separate the members; as, " JZ/.z/i is a great
sinner : Christ is a great Saviour/'
RULE 11 — When that which is affirmed in the latter,
or sub-member, is illustrative or confirmatorv of what is
affirmed in the former, or super member, the colon may be
used; as, *'Man cannot arrive at a point here, which he
cannot pass: he is to advance in the next fvorld/' '* Mr.
Gray Avas folloAVcd by Mr. Erskine vho spake thus : I
rise to second the motion of my honorable friend."
Rj.:3f. 1— When the colo'. i-^ n.,,1 f1... rnv,u,',\\\-r \< t»«'ncra]ly
otnittcd.
Rem. 2— Our best writers have Ircqucnlly confounded ibc colon
112 York's illustrative aisd
and semicolon. The truth is, the colon is nearly obsolete ; conse-
quently but sparingly used b}^ the best writers of the present age. —
{See i>, WehsUr^s Improtcd Grammar j Page 154.)
Rem. — The practice of writers is far from being uniform, with re-
gar.d to the point to be used in introducing direct tjuotations. Some
use the colon, some the semicolon, and otherg, the comma.
THE FERIOD.
The period, or full point ( . ), marks a completion of the
sense, a cadence of tiie voice, and the longest pause used
between sentences. It closes a discourse, also, or marks)
the completion of a subject or section.
Uem, — And it is also used in abreviating words, and is placed after
initials when used alone; as, " Rev. Preat. Craven, D. i>." " C. K
Deems, I>. D." ''Bon. David X. Swain, L.L. X>."
THE DASH AND PARENTHESIS.
The Daeh (— -) is used where there is a significant pause,
an unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sen-
tence is left unfinished ; as, " If thou art he — but 0, how
fallen I"
The Dash is now frequently used instead of the Paren-
thesis ; as, ** The Colonists — such is human nature — de-
sired to burn the town in which they had been so wretched."
The Parenthesis {) is used to enclose a part of a sentence
not necessary to the construction, but, in some way, ex-
planatory of the meaning of the sentence ; as, "Consider
(and may the consideration sink deep in your hearts) the
fatal consequences of a wicked life."
INTERROGATION POINT,
The Interrogation point (?) is used when a question is
asked ; as. Do brutes reason ?
Rem.— When two interrogative members are closely connected, the
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 113
comma is generally used after the first, and the interrogation point
at the close of the last member ; as,
" When ghall I reach that happy jilnce,
And be foF'CTer llcst f"
EXCLAMATION" POINT.
The exclamation point (!) is used after an exclamative
sentence ; as, " How vain are all things here below !" It
is also used after phrases expressive of emotion; as, " 0,
happiness! oar being's end and aim !"
BRACKETS.
Brackets (] ) are used when a word or phrase is intro-
duced for explanation ; as, *' He [the Professor! explained
it." ^
QUOTATION MARKS.
Quotation Marks ( " " ) are used to include a passage
laken verbatim from some other author ; as, He said, " /
relinquish my claim.''
THE CARET.
The Caret ( A ) is used in writing to show that some let-
lies
ter, word, or plirasc, has been omitted ; as, ''The book upon.
A
THE HYPHEN.
The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate tlic parts of a com-
pound word ; as, Bouk-bindcr. Wlicn placed at the end
114 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
of aline, it sllO^YS that a word is divided, the remaining part
being carried to next line.
THE ELLIPSIS.
The Ellipsis ( ) is used to denote the omission of
certain letters or words; as, Y k, K g.
THE INDEX.
The Index (H^*) points to some remarkable passage.
ACCENT.
The accent is a character used to point out the accented
sylablc of a word, whether long or short. Our ancestors
borrowed three of these characters from the Greek lan-
Lniniio, viz: the acute (/), the grave (\), an<l the circum-
ilex^(A). The acute points out the rise of voice ; the gnive,
the fall ; and the circumflex unites both of these in one,
and makes an undulation of the voice. The breve (^ is
placed over an unaccented syllable in poetry ; and the
(lash ( — ) is used over the accented syllables ; as,
"With rav
The mdn
ished ears, "
arch hears."
THE APOSTROPHE.
The apostrophe (') is used as a sign of the possessive case,
and also to mark the omission of a letter in the syncopa-
tion of words; as, ''This is JoAn's book." " ^'e?^ now
where Alpine solitudes ascend."
CONSTKUCTIVE GRAMMAK. 115
THE ASTERISK.
Three asterisks (=i=^=*) show that some in<]elic:ito expres-
sion has been omitted, or that there is some dcfVct in the
manuscript.
The asterisk (*), the obelisk (f), the double- da fjger (J),
and parallels (||), are only used as foot notes, or references
to the mar<T;in.
LESSON LI.
*.v
OF CAPITALS.
The following words should begin with capir letters •
1 The first word of every distinct sentence.
2 Proper names and titles of office or nor; as,
^' G-corge Waslimgton^ General Lee, Judqe ovv, Si?'
Walter Scott, the ^Ohio, Main Street:'
3 The name of an object personified, may 1 .;c<l as a
proper name, and should then begin with a i;:; .tal ; as,
*' Gentle Spring:'
4 Adjectives derived from proper names; a-, *' Ameri-
caiiy English^ Roman:'
5 The appellations of the Deity; as, '• '!vd^ the
Almighty:' " The Supreme Being."
G The first word of every line of poetry.
7 The first word of a direct quotation, wIk ; ilic quota-
tion is a complete sentence of itself; as, '' < ' ist aays,
*" Mg yoke is easy.' "
8 Every noun and principal word in the ti'd' f books ;
as, '* Pope 8 Eisay on Man:'
^ 9 The pronoun 1 and interjection 0 arc wr :, i in capi-
10 Any word, when of particular importan* .• may be-»
gin with a capital.
116 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND
LESSON LII.
OF VERSIFICATION.
Poetry is metrical composition, or it is the language of
passion, or of enlivened imagination.
Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of
syllables, according to particular rules, so as to produce
melody.
Meter, in English, consists in the regular return of the
accent at regular intervals. Accent^ then, is essential to
verse ; but Rhyme is not, since there may be a regular
return of accent, or syllables similarly affected, without
the similarity of sound which produces rhyme.
Two-**or more syllables, grouped together by accent,
constitute afoot, or measure. It is called a measure, be-
cause, by its aid, the voice steps along, as it were, through
the verse in a measured pace. When two syllables are
thus grouped together, it is called dissyllabic measure ; as,
•■' With rav | ished ears,
The mon | arch hears."
But, when three syllables are thus grouped together, it
13 trissyllahic measure ; as, <
" I am mon | arch of all | I survey."
Several measures, or feet, properly arranged, form a
line, or verse. A verse, then, is a certain number of con-
nected feet forming one line.
A Stanza is a combination o2 several verses, varying
in number, according to the poet's fancy, and constituting
a regular division of a poem or song.
When the first and third lines of a stanza contain four
Iambic feet each, and the second and fourth lines, three
feet each, it is Common Meter.
When the first, second, and fourth lijnes of a stanza con-
tain three Iambic feet each, and the third line four, it is
Short Metre.
CONSTRUCTIVE TxRAMMAR. 117
When all the lines of a stanza contain four Iambic feet
each, the metre is Long.
Blank verse is metrical composition without rhyme ; as,
'•Now came still evening on, and twilight r/r»;/
Jiad, in her sober livery, all things dad."
h}ofTr<^' a similarity of smmrl between th^ last sylla^
i)les of different lines, as m the following,
" How do thy mercies close mo rounfi'
Forever be thy name adored I '
I blush, in all things, to ahonnd;
The servant ia above his lord."
SCANNIISrG..
Scanning a verso is dividing it into its component feet,
and properly placing the accent. •
All the feet used in poetry arc reducible to eight kinds-
four of two syllables, and four of three, as folfows :
DISSYLLABLE. TRISSYLLABLE.
An Iambus ^ — ; A Dactyl _ . ^
A Trochee - ^ ; An Amphibrach ^ - ^ :'
A Spondee ; A Tribrach ^ ^ ^l
A Pyrrhic ^ ^ ; An Anapaest ^ ^ _ !
The Iambus, Trochee, Anapaest, and Dactyl, may be
denominated prtn^cpal feet as pieces of poetry are chiefly
and may be wholly formed of them. The others may be
termed secondary feet, because their object is to diversify
the numbers, and to improve the verse."
IAMBIC VERSE.
In Iambic verse, the second syllable of every foot is ac-
cented, and the first unaccented.
1. lamhie of one foot, or Monometer ;
From mc,
They flee.
2. Iambic of two feci, or Dimeter ;
To mc I the rose
No longer glows.
118
3. Iambic of three feet^ or Trimeter ',
In pla I ces far | or near,
Or famous, or obscure.
4. Iambic of four feet^ or Tetrameter ;
How sleep | tlic brave | wbo sink | to rest,
With all their country's honors blest.
5. Iambic of five feet, or Pentameter ;
On rif I ted rocks, | the drag | on's late | abodes,
The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods.
6. Iambic of six feet^ or Hexameter ;
For thou I art but | of dust ; | be hum | ble and | be wise.
Note. — The Iambic Pentameter is called the Heroic. The Iambic
Hexameter is called the Alexandrine.
The Alexandrine is sometimes admitted into heroic
rhyme, and, when used sparingly and with judgment, occa-
sions an agreeable variety ;
The seas | shall waste, | the skies | in smoke | decay.
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ;
But fixed his word, his saving power remains ;
Thy realm \ forev \ er lasts, \ thy oivii \ Messi \ ah reigns^
7. Iambic of seven feet, or Heptameter;
The lof I ty hill | the hum ] ble lawn | with count | less
beau I tics shine ;
The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power
divine.
Each line is commonly divided into two ; thus.
The lofty hill, the humble lawn,
With countless beauties shine ;
The silent grove, the solemn shade,
Proclaim thy power divine.
TROCHAIC VERSE.
1. Trochaic Monometer ;
Changing,
Ranging.
119
li. Trochaic Dimefcr ;
Fancy | viewing.
Joys ensuing.
3. Trochaic Trimeter ;
Go where | glory | waits thee, |
But whore fame elates thee.
4. Trochaic Tetrameter ;
Round a | holy | calm dif | fusing,
Love of peace, and lonely musing.
5. Trochaic Pentameter",
All that I walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots,
All that dwell in palaces or garrets.
G. Trochaic Hexameter ;
On a I mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow,
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow.
In Trochaic verse, tiie accent is placed upon the odd
syllable ; in Iambic verse, upon the even.
The Iambic verse admits of an additional short sylla-
A Chieftain to the Highlands bound,
Cries boat | man do | not tar | ry.
The Trochaic admits of an additional long syllable ;
Where the | wood is | waving | green and ( high^
Fawns and j Dryads | watch the | starry | slcy,
ANAIVESTIC AVERSE.
1. Ajiapa'stic Monometer ;
On the land,
Now I stand :
From the son,
N"'*^' I'm frpc.
li. Anapa »tic Diwefxr .
< )n a plain, | as he strode.
By the bermit'*^ abode.
S^L^}
1. Anapaestic Trl:
oil ye woods, | spread.. your biMii
To your inmost rcceses T lly ;
I would liide with tho })er\pts!*or <]<(« iia.so ;
\ Nvuuld vanish from cvci v cv,-.
4. Anajja'stia Teiramefer ;
At tli(? close j of thc<lay | when the ham | kih Rtlll:
And mortiils the sv/cets of for!^ctfalness prove.
In Anapaestic verse, tlio accent falls on every third syi-
lable. The first foot of Anapa.'stic verse may 'be rin lam-
fuis :
All'} mor I tals tlie sweets | of forL-et j Inlnen- ] roye.
DACr: .....; YEKPE.
1. Dad 'die JyTirnometcr \
Oil eer f fill V,
Tcfirfilllv'.
2. Daciylic IHmeter ;
Free from rjix | iety.
Care and -r>'\{ | iety.
3. DactiUc Trimeter:
Wearing a | wny in Iii.s | youthfulness.
Loveliness, jjoaulv, .•)?-!< I trp.t]:ruin(\ss. '
4. DactlUc Tetrameter :
Boys will an | tieipatc f Invish nnd j dissipnte.
All tl::-- - - V I.usy pate'hq.s. honrded with care.
/
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